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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 2
+       "Chicago, University of" to "Chiton"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 20, 2010 [EBook #31329]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like a2 or were originally
+      printed in subscript.
+
+(2) Side-notes were moved as titles to their respective paragraphs.
+
+(3) Chinese characters were denoted as [Ch].
+
+(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(5) Letters topped by Breve are represented as [)x].
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Page 159: "a detailed account of the period (Santiago, 1875); the
+      same author's," 'Santiago' amended from 'Sanitago'.
+
+    Page 183: "The more important are those that follow:--," amended
+      from 'folllow'.
+
+    Page 183: "The three provinces adjoining the metropolitan province
+      of Chih-li--Shan-tung, Shan-si and Ho-nan--have no viceroys over
+      them," 'Ho-nan' amended from 'Hon-an'.
+
+    Page 242: "The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in
+      genera (to say nothing of species) that only some of the more
+      important types can be mentioned).)," superfluous parenthesis
+      removed.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME VI, SLICE II
+
+       Chicago, University of to Chiton
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF                      CHILPERIC
+  CHICANE                                     CHILTERN HILLS
+  CHICHELEY, HENRY                            CHILTERN HUNDREDS
+  CHICHEN-ITZA                                CHILWA
+  CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER    CHIMAERA
+  CHICHESTER                                  CHIMAY
+  CHICKAMAUGA CREEK                           CHIME
+  CHICKASAWS                                  CHIMERE
+  CHICKASHA                                   CHIMESYAN
+  CHICKEN-POX                                 CHIMKENT
+  CHICLANA                                    CHIMNEY
+  CHICOPEE                                    CHIMNEYPIECE
+  CHICORY                                     CHIMPANZEE
+  CHIDAMBARAM                                 CHINA (country)
+  CHIEF                                       CHINA (porcelain)
+  CHIEMSEE                                    CHINANDEGA
+  CHIENG MAI                                  CHI-NAN FU
+  CHIERI                                      CHINCHA ISLANDS
+  CHIETI                                      CHINCHEW
+  CHI-FU                                      CHINCHILLA
+  CHIGI-ALBANI                                CHINDE
+  CHIGWELL                                    CHINDWIN
+  CHIH-LI                                     CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER
+  CHIHUAHUA (state of Mexico)                 CHINESE PAVILLON
+  CHIHUAHUA (city of Mexico)                  CHINGFORD
+  CHILAS                                      CHINGLEPUT
+  CHILBLAINS                                  CHIN HILLS
+  CHILD, SIR FRANCIS                          CHINKIANG
+  CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES                        CHINO-JAPANESE WAR
+  CHILD, SIR JOHN                             CHINON
+  CHILD, SIR JOSIAH                           CHINOOK
+  CHILD, LYDIA MARIA                          CHINSURA
+  CHILD                                       CHINTZ
+  CHILDEBERT                                  CHIOGGIA
+  CHILDERIC                                   CHIOS
+  CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY              CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS
+  CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR                     CHIPPENHAM
+  CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO                   CHIPPEWA
+  CHILDRENITE                                 CHIPPING CAMPDEN
+  CHILDREN'S COURTS                           CHIPPING NORTON
+  CHILDREN'S GAMES                            CHIQUITOS
+  CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM                      CHIROMANCY
+  CHILE                                       CHIRON
+  CHILEAN CIVIL WAR                           CHIROPODIST
+  CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR                          CHIROPTERA
+  CHILIASM                                    CHIRU
+  CHILLÁN                                     CHIRURGEON
+  CHILLIANWALLA                               CHISEL
+  CHILLICOTHE (city in Missouri, U.S.A.)      CHISLEHURST
+  CHILLICOTHE (city in Ohio, U.S.A.)          CHISWICK
+  CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM                      CHITA
+  CHILOÉ                                      CHITALDRUG
+  CHILON                                      CHITON
+
+
+
+
+CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the great educational institutions of the
+United States, established under Baptist auspices in the city of
+Chicago, and opened in 1892.[1] Though the president and two-thirds of
+the trustees are always Baptists, the university is non-sectarian except
+as regards its divinity school. An immense ambition and the
+extraordinary organizing ability shown by its first president, William
+R. Harper, determined and characterized the remarkable growth of the
+university's first decade of activity. The grounds include about 140
+acres. Of these about 60 acres--given in part by Marshall Field and laid
+out by Frederick Law Olmsted--border the Midway Plaisance, connecting
+Washington and Jackson parks. On these grounds the main part of the
+university stands. The buildings are mostly of grey limestone, in Gothic
+style, and grouped in quadrangles. The Mitchell tower is a shortened
+reproduction of Magdalen tower, Oxford, and the University Commons,
+Hutchinson Hall, is a duplicate of Christ Church hall, Oxford.
+Dormitories accommodate about a fifth of the students. The quadrangles
+include clubs, dining halls, dormitories, gymnasiums, assembly halls,
+recitation halls, laboratories and libraries. In the first college year,
+1892-1893, there were 698 students; in that of 1907-1908 there were
+5038,[2] of whom 2186 were women. There are faculties of arts,
+literature, science, divinity,[3] medicine (organized in 1901), law
+(1902), education, and commerce and administration. The astronomical
+department, the Yerkes Observatory, is located on William's Bay, Lake
+Geneva, Wisconsin, about 65 m. from Chicago. It has the largest
+refracting telescope in the world (clear aperture 40 in., focal length
+about 61 ft.). The Chicago Institute, founded and endowed by Mrs Anita
+McCormick Blaine as an independent normal school, became a part of the
+university in 1901. The school of education, as a whole, brings under
+university influence hundreds of children from kindergarten age upwards
+to young manhood and womanhood, apart from the university classes
+proper. Chicago was the second university of the country to give its
+pedagogical department such scope in the union of theory and practice.
+The nucleus of the library (450,000 volumes in 1908) was purchased in
+Berlin soon after the university's organization, in one great collection
+of 175,000 volumes. Scholarly research has been fostered in every
+possible way, and the university press has been active in the
+publication of various departmental series and the following
+periodicals:--_Biblical World_, _American Journal of Theology, American
+Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, American Journal of
+Sociology, Journal of Political Economy, Modern Philology, Classical
+Philology, Classical Journal, Journal of Geology, Astrophysical Journal,
+Botanical Gazette, Elementary School Teacher and School Review._ The
+courses in the College of Commerce and Administration link the
+university closely with practical life. In extension work the university
+has been active from the beginning, instruction being given not only by
+lectures but by correspondence (a novel and unique feature among
+American universities); in the decade 1892-1902, 1715 persons were
+prepared by the latter method for matriculation in the university (11.6%
+of the total number of matriculants in the decade). Extension lectures
+were given in twenty-two states. At Chicago the work of the university
+is continuous throughout the year: the "summer quarter" is not as in
+other American schools a supplement to the teaching year, but an
+integral part; and it attracts the teachers of the middle western states
+and of the south. In the work of the first two years, known together as
+the Junior College, men and women are in the main given separate
+instruction; but in the Senior College years unrestricted co-education
+prevails. Students are mainly controlled by self-government in small
+groups ("the house system"). Relations with "affiliated" (private)
+colleges and academies and "co-operating" (public) high-schools also
+present interesting features.
+
+The value of the property of the university in 1908 was about
+$25,578,000. Up to the 30th of June 1908 it had received from gifts
+actually paid $29,651,849, of which $22,712,631 were given by John D.
+Rockefeller.[4] The value of buildings in 1908 was $4,508,202, of
+grounds $4,406,191, and of productive funds $14,186,235. Upon the death
+of President Harper, Harry Pratt Judson (b. 1849), then head professor
+of political science and dean of the faculties of arts, became acting
+president, and on the 20th of January 1907 he was elected president.
+
+  See the _Decennial Publications_ of the University (since 1903),
+  especially vol. i. for details of history and administration.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] A small Baptist college of the same name---established in 1855
+    on land given by S.A. Douglas--went out of existence in 1886.
+
+  [2] If, however, the total is reckoned on the basis of nine months
+    of residence the figure for 1907-1908 would be 3202.
+
+  [3] The Divinity School has a graduate department and three
+    under-graduate departments, doing work in English, in Danish and
+    Norwegian, and in Swedish. Allied with the Divinity School of the
+    University is the "Disciples' Divinity House" (1894), a theological
+    school of the Disciples of Christ.
+
+  [4] The words "founded by John D. Rockefeller" follow the title of
+    the university on all its letterheads and official documents. Mr
+    Rockefeller would not allow his name to be a part of the title, nor
+    has he permitted the designation of any building by his name.
+    President Harper was selected by him to organize the university, and
+    it was his will that the president and two-thirds of the trustees
+    should be "always" Baptists. President Harper more than once stated
+    most categorically that contrary to prevalent beliefs no donor of
+    funds to the university "has ever (1902) by a single word or act
+    indicated his dissatisfaction with the instruction given to students
+    in the university, or with the public expression of opinion made by
+    any officer of the university"; and certainly so far as the public
+    press reveals, no other university of the country has had so many
+    professors who have in various lines, including economics, expressed
+    radical views in public.
+
+
+
+
+CHICANE, the pettifogging subterfuge and delay of sharp
+law-practitioners, also any deliberate attempt to gain unfair advantage
+by petty tricks. A more common English form of the word is "chicanery."
+"Chicane" is technically used also as a term in the game of bridge for
+the points a player may score if he holds no trumps. The word is French,
+derived either from _chaug[=a]n_, Persian for the stick used in the game
+of "polo," still played on foot and called _chicane_ in Languedoc (the
+military use of _chicaner_, to take advantage of slight variations in
+ground, suits this derivation), or from _chic_, meaning little or petty,
+from the Spanish _chico_, small, which appears in the phrase "_chic à
+chic_," little by little.
+
+
+
+
+CHICHELEY, HENRY (1364-1443), English archbishop, founder of All Souls
+College, Oxford, was born at Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire, in 1363
+or 1364. Chicheley told the pope in 1443, in asking leave to retire from
+the archbishopric, that he was in his eightieth year. He was the third
+and youngest son of Thomas Chicheley, who appears in 1368 in still
+extant town records of Higham Ferrers as a suitor in the mayor's court,
+and in 1381-1382, and again in 1384-1385, was mayor: in fact, for a
+dozen years he and Henry Barton, school master of Higham Ferrers grammar
+school, and one Richard Brabazon, filled the mayoralty in turns. His
+occupation does not appear; but his eldest son, William, is on the
+earliest extant list (1373) of the Grocers' Company, London. On the 9th
+of June 1405 Chicheley was admitted, in succession to his father, to a
+burgage in Higham Ferrers. His mother, Agnes Pincheon, is said to have
+been of gentle birth. There is therefore no foundation in fact for the
+silly story (copied into the _Diet. Nat. Biog._ from a local historian,
+J. Cole, Wellingborough, 1838) that Henry Chicheley was picked up by
+William of Wykeham when he was a poor ploughboy "eating his scanty meal
+off his mother's lap," whatever that means. The story was unknown to
+Arthur Duck, fellow of All Souls, who wrote Chicheley's life in 1617. It
+is only the usual attempt, as in the cases of Whittington, Wolsey and
+Gresham, to exaggerate the rise of a successful man. The first recorded
+appearance of Henry Chicheley himself is at New College, Oxford, as
+Checheley, eighth among the undergraduate fellows, in July 1387, in the
+earliest extant hall-book, which contains weekly lists of those dining
+in Hall. It is clear from Chicheley's position in the list, with eleven
+fellows and eight scholars, or probationer-fellows, below him, that this
+entry does not mark his first appearance in the college, which had been
+going on since 1375 at least, and was chartered in 1379. He must have
+come from Winchester College in one of the earliest batches of scholars
+from that college, the sole feeder of New College, not from St John
+Baptist College, Winchester, as guessed by Dr William Hunt in the _Dict.
+Nat. Biog._ (and repeated in Mr Grant Robertson's _History of All Souls
+College_) to cover the mistaken supposition that St Mary's College was
+not founded till 1393. St Mary's College was in fact formally founded in
+1382, and the school had been going on since 1373 (A.F. Leach, _History
+of Winchester College_), while no such college as St John's College at
+Winchester ever existed.
+
+Chicheley appears in the Hall-books of New College up to the year
+1392/93, when he was a B.A. and was absent for ten weeks from about the
+6th of December to the 6th of March, presumably for the purpose of his
+ordination as a sub-deacon, which was performed by the bishop of Derry,
+acting as suffragan to the bishop of London. He was then already
+beneficed, receiving a royal ratification of his estate as parson of
+Llanvarchell in the diocese of St Asaph on the 20th of March 1391/92
+(_Cal. Pat. Rolls_). In the Hall-book, marked 1393/94, but really for
+1394/95, Chicheley's name does not appear. He had then left Oxford and
+gone up to London to practise as an advocate in the principal
+ecclesiastical court, the court of arches. His rise was rapid. Already
+on the 8th of February 1395/96 he was on a commission with several
+knights and clerks to hear an appeal in a case of _John Molton, Esquire
+v. John Shawe, citizen of London_, from Sir John Cheyne, kt., sitting
+for the constable of England in a court of chivalry. Like other
+ecclesiastical lawyers and civil servants of the day; he was paid with
+ecclesiastical preferments. On the 13th of April 1396 he obtained
+ratification of the parsonage of St Stephen's, Walbrook, presented on
+the 30th of March by the abbot of Colchester, no doubt through his
+brother Robert, who restored the church and increased its endowment. In
+1397 he was made archdeacon of Dorset by Richard Mitford, bishop of
+Salisbury, but litigation was still going on about it in the papal court
+till the 27th of June 1399, when the pope extinguished the suit,
+imposing perpetual silence on Nicholas Bubwith, master of the rolls, his
+opponent. In the first year of Henry IV. Chicheley was parson of
+Sherston, Wiltshire, and prebendary of Nantgwyly in the college of
+Abergwilly, North Wales; on the 23rd of February 1401/2, now called
+doctor of laws, he was pardoned for bringing in, and allowed to use, a
+bull of the pope "providing" him to the chancellorship of Salisbury
+cathedral, and canonries in the nuns' churches of Shaftesbury and Wilton
+in that diocese; and on the 9th of January 1402/3 he was archdeacon of
+Salisbury. This year his brother Robert was senior sheriff of London. On
+the 7th of May 1404, Pope Boniface IX. provided him to a prebend at
+Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held prebends at Salisbury,
+Lichfield, St Martin's-le-Grand and Abergwyly, and the living of
+Brington. On the 9th of January 1405 he found time to attend a court at
+Higham Ferrers and be admitted to a burgage there. In July 1405
+Chicheley began a diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman pope
+Innocent VII., who was professing his desire to end the schism in the
+papacy by resignation, if his French rival at Avignon would do likewise.
+Next year, on the 5th of October 1406, he was sent with Sir John Cheyne
+to Paris to arrange a lasting peace and the marriage of Prince Henry
+with the French princess Marie, which was frustrated by her becoming a
+nun at Poissy next year. In 1406 renewed efforts were made to stop the
+schism, and Chicheley was one of the envoys sent to the new pope Gregory
+XII. Here he utilized his opportunities. On the 31st of August 1407 Guy
+Mone (he is always so spelt and not Mohun, and was probably from one of
+the Hampshire Meons; there was a John Mone of Havant admitted a
+Winchester scholar in 1397), bishop of St David's, died, and on the 12th
+of October 1407 Chicheley was by the pope provided to the bishopric of
+St David's. Another bull the same day gave him the right to hold all his
+benefices with the bishopric.
+
+At Siena in July 1408 he and Sir John Cheyne, as English envoys, were
+received by Gregory XII. with special honour, and Bishop Repingdon of
+Lincoln, ex-Wycliffite, was one of the new batch of cardinals created on
+the 18th of September 1408, most of Gregory's cardinals having deserted
+him. These, together with Benedict's revolting cardinals, summoned a
+general council at Pisa. In November 1408 Chicheley was back at
+Westminster, when Henry IV. received the cardinal archbishop of Bordeaux
+and determined to support the cardinals at Pisa against both popes. In
+January 1409 Chicheley was named with Bishop Hallum of Salisbury and the
+prior of Canterbury to represent the Southern Convocation at the
+council, which opened on the 25th of March 1409, arriving on the 24th of
+April. Obedience was withdrawn from both the existing popes, and on the
+26th of June a new pope elected instead of them. Chicheley and the other
+envoys were received on their return as saviours of the world; though
+the result was summed up by a contemporary as trischism instead of
+schism, and the Church as giving three husbands instead of two.
+Chicheley now became the subject of a leading case, the court of king's
+bench deciding, after arguments reheard in three successive terms, that
+he could not hold his previous benefices with the bishopric, and that,
+spite of the maxim _Papa potest omnia_, a papal bull could not supersede
+the law of the land (_Year-book_ ii. H. iv. 37, 59, 79). Accordingly he
+had to resign livings and canonries wholesale (April 28, 1410). As,
+however, he had obtained a bull (August 20, 1409) enabling him to
+appoint his successors to the vacated preferments, including his nephew
+William, though still an undergraduate and not in orders, to the
+chancellorship of Salisbury, and a prebend at Lichfield, he did not go
+empty away. In May 1410 he went again on an embassy to France; on the
+11th of September 1411 he headed a mission to discuss Henry V.'s
+marriage with a daughter of the duke of Burgundy; and he was again there
+in November. In the interval Chicheley found time to visit his diocese
+for the first time and be enthroned at St David's on the 11th of May
+1411. He was with the English force under the earl of Arundel which
+accompanied the duke of Burgundy to Paris in October 1411 and there
+defeated the Armagnacs, an exploit which revealed to England the
+weakness of the French. On the 30th of November 1411 Chicheley, with two
+other bishops and three earls and the prince of Wales, knelt to the king
+to receive public thanks for their administration. That he was in high
+favour with Henry V. is shown by his being sent with the earl of Warwick
+to France in July 1413 to conclude peace. Immediately after the death of
+archbishop Arundel he was nominated by the king to the archbishopric,
+elected on the 4th of March, translated by papal bull on the 28th of
+April, and received the pall without going to Rome for it on the 24th of
+July.
+
+These dates are important as they help to save Chicheley from the
+charge, versified by Shakespeare (_Henry V._ act i. sc. 2) from Hall's
+_Chronicle_, of having tempted Henry V. into the conquest of France for
+the sake of diverting parliament from the disendowment of the Church.
+There is no contemporary authority for the charge, which seems to appear
+first in Redman's rhetorical history of Henry V., written in 1540 with
+an eye to the political situation at that time. As a matter of fact, the
+parliament at Leicester, in which the speeches were supposed to have
+been made, began on the 30th of April 1414 before Chicheley was
+archbishop. The rolls of parliament show that he was not present in the
+parliament at all. Moreover parliament was so far from pressing
+disendowment that on the petition of the Commons it passed a savage act
+against the heresies "commonly called Lollardry" which "aimed at the
+destruction of the king and all temporal estates," making Lollards
+felons and ordering every justice of the peace to hunt down their
+schools, conventicles, congregations and confederacies.
+
+In his capacity of archbishop, Chicheley remained what he had always
+been chiefly, the lawyer and diplomatist. He was present at the siege of
+Rouen, and the king committed to him personally the negotiations for the
+surrender of the city in January 1419 and for the marriage of Katherine.
+He crowned Katherine at Westminster (20th February 1421), and on the 6th
+of December baptized her child Henry VI. He was of course a persecutor
+of heretics. No one could have attained or kept the position of
+archbishop at the time without being so. So he presided at the trial of
+John Claydon, Skinner and citizen of London, who after five years'
+imprisonment at various times had made public abjuration before the late
+archbishop, Arundel, but now was found in possession of a book in
+English called _The Lanterne of Light_, which contained the heinous
+heresy that the principal cause of the persecution of Christians was the
+illegal retention by priests of the goods of this world, and that
+archbishops and bishops were the special seats of antichrist. As a
+relapsed heretic, he was "left to the secular arm" by Chicheley. On the
+1st of July 1416 Chicheley directed a half-yearly inquisition by
+archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On the 12th of February 1420
+proceedings were begun before him against William Taylor, priest, who
+had been for fourteen years excommunicated for heresy, and was now
+degraded and burnt for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to
+saints, but only to God. A striking contrast was exhibited in October
+1424, when a Stamford friar, John Russell, who had preached that any
+religious _potest concumbere cum muliere_ and not mortally sin, was
+sentenced only to retract his doctrine. Further persecutions of a whole
+batch of Lollards took place in 1428. The records of convocation in
+Chicheley's time are a curious mixture of persecutions for heresy, which
+largely consisted in attacks on clerical endowments, with negotiations
+with the ministers of the crown for the object of cutting down to the
+lowest level the clerical contributions to the public revenues in
+respect of their endowments. Chicheley was tenacious of the privileges
+of his see, and this involved him in a constant struggle with Henry
+Beaufort, bishop of Winchester. In 1418, while Henry V. was alive, he
+successfully protested against Beaufort's being made a cardinal and
+legate _a latere_ to supersede the legatine jurisdiction of Canterbury.
+But during the regency, after Henry VI.'s accession, Beaufort was
+successful, and in 1426 became cardinal and legate. This brought
+Chicheley into collision with Martin V. The struggle between them has
+been represented as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the
+encroachments of the papacy on the Church of England. In point of fact
+it was almost wholly personal, and was rather an incident in the rivalry
+between the duke of Gloucester and his half-brother, Cardinal Beaufort,
+than one involving any principle. Chicheley, by appointing a jubilee to
+be held at Canterbury in 1420, "after the manner of the Jubilee ordained
+by the Popes," threatened to divert the profits from pilgrims from Rome
+to Canterbury. A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on
+the 19th of March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated "to
+ensnare simple souls and extort from them a profane reward, thereby
+setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff,
+to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted by God" (_Cal. Pap.
+Reg._ vii. 12). Chicheley also incurred the papal wrath by opposing the
+system of papal provision which diverted patronage from English to
+Italian hands, but the immediate occasion was to prevent the
+introduction of the bulls making Beaufort a cardinal. Chicheley had been
+careful enough to obtain "Papal provisions" for himself, his
+pluralities, his bishopric and archbishopric.
+
+But, after all, it is not as archbishop or statesman, persecutor,
+papalist or antipapalist that Chicheley is remembered, but for his
+educational foundations. He endowed a hutch, i.e. chest or loan-fund for
+poor scholars at New College, and another for the university of Oxford
+at large. He founded no less than three colleges, two at Oxford, one at
+Higham Ferrers, while there is reason to believe that he suggested and
+inspired the foundation of Eton and of King's College. His first college
+at Oxford, in perishing, gave birth to St John's College, which now
+holds its site. This was St Bernard's College, founded by Chicheley
+under licence in mortmain in 1437 for Cistercian monks, on the model of
+Gloucester Hall and Durham College for the southern and northern
+Benedictines. Nothing more than a site and building was required by way
+of endowment, as the young monks, who were sent there to study under a
+provisor, were supported by the houses of the order to which they
+belonged. The site was five acres, and the building is described in the
+letters patent "as a fitting and noble college mansion in honour of the
+most glorious Virgin Mary and St Bernard in Northgates Street outside
+the Northgate of Oxford." It was suppressed with the Cistercian abbeys
+in 1539, and granted on the 11th of December 1546 to Christ Church,
+Oxford, who sold it to Sir Thomas Pope in 1553 for St John's College.
+
+The college at Higham Ferrers was a much earlier design. On the 2nd of
+May 1422 Henry V., in right of the duchy of Lancaster, "hearing that
+Chicheley inflamed by the pious fervour of devotion intended to enlarge
+divine service and other works of piety at Higham Ferrers, in
+consideration of his fruitful services, often crossing the seas,
+yielding to no toils, dangers or expenses ... especially in the
+conclusion of the present final peace with our dearest father the king
+of France," granted for 300 marks (£200) licence to found, on three
+acres at Higham Ferrers, a perpetual college of eight chaplains and four
+clerks, of whom one was to teach grammar and the other song ... "and six
+choristers to pray for himself and wife and for Henry IV. and his wife
+Mary ... and to acquire the alien priory of Merseye in Essex late
+belonging to St Ouen's, Rouen," as endowment. A papal bull having also
+been obtained, on the 28th of August 1425, the archbishop, in the course
+of a visitation of Lincoln diocese, executed his letters patent founding
+the college, dedicating it to the Virgin, St Thomas à Becket and St
+Edward the Confessor, and handed over the buildings to its members, the
+vicar of Higham Ferrers being made the first master or warden. He
+further endowed it in 1434 with lands in Bedfordshire and
+Huntingdonshire, and his brothers, William and Robert, gave some houses
+in London in 1427 and 1438. The foundation was closely modelled on
+Winchester College, with its warden and fellows, its grammar and song
+schoolmasters, but a step in advance was made by the masters being made
+fellows and so members of the governing body. Attached was also a bede
+or almshouse for twelve poor men. Both school and almshouse had existed
+before, and this was merely an additional endowment. The whole endowment
+was in 1535 worth some £200 a year, about a fifth of that of Winchester
+College. Unfortunately, All Souls being a later foundation, the college
+at Higham Ferrers was not affiliated to it, and so fell with other
+colleges not part of the universities. On the 18th of July 1542 it was
+surrendered to Henry VIII., and its possessions granted to Robert Dacres
+on condition of maintaining the grammar school and paying the master £10
+a year, the same salary as the headmasters of Winchester and Eton, and
+maintaining the almshouse. Both still exist, but the school has been
+deprived of its house, and the Fitzwilliam family, who now own the
+lands, still continue to pay only £10 a year.
+
+All Souls College was considerably later. The patent for it, dated 20th
+of May 1438, is for a warden and 20 scholars, to be called "the Warden
+and College of the souls of all the faithful departed," to study and
+pray "for the soul of King Henry VI. and the souls of Henry V., Thomas,
+duke of Clarence, and all the dukes, earls, barons, knights, squires and
+other nobles and subjects of our father who during the time and in the
+service of our father and ourselves ended their lives in the wars of the
+kingdom of France, and for the souls of all the faithful departed." For
+this, the king granted Berford's Hall, formerly Charleston's Inn, which
+Chicheley's trustees had granted to him so as to obtain a royal grant
+and indefeasible title. Richard Andrews, the king's secretary, like
+Chicheley himself a scholar of Winchester and fellow of New College, was
+named as first warden. A papal bull for the college was obtained on the
+21st of June 1439; and further patents for endowments from the 11th of
+May 1441 to the 28th of January 1443, when a general confirmation
+charter was obtained, for which £1000 (£30,000 at least of our money)
+was paid. It is commonly represented that the endowment was wholly
+derived from alien priories bought by Chicheley from the crown. In
+truth, not so large a proportion of the endowment of All Souls was
+derived from this source as was that of New College. The only alien
+priories granted were Abberbury in Oxfordshire, Wedon Pinkney in
+Northamptonshire, Romney in Kent, and St Clare and Llangenith in Wales,
+all very small affairs, single manors and rectories, and these did not
+form a quarter of the whole endowment. The rest, particularly the manor
+of Edgware, which made the fortune of the college, was bought from
+private owners. Early in 1443 the college was opened by Chicheley with
+four bishops in state. The statutes, not drawn up until the end of April
+1443, raised the number of the college to forty. Like the college
+buildings, they are almost an exact copy of those of New College,
+_mutatis mutandis_. The college is sometimes described as being
+different from other colleges in being merely a large chantry to pray
+for the souls of the dead warriors. But it was no more a chantry than
+the other colleges, all of which, like the monasteries and collegiate
+churches, were to pray for their founders' and other specified souls.
+Indeed, All Souls was more of a lay foundation than its model. For while
+at New College only twenty out of seventy fellows were to study law
+instead of arts, philosophy and theology, at All Souls College sixteen
+were to be "jurists" and only twenty-four "artists"; and while at New
+College there were ten chaplains and three clerks necessarily, at All
+Souls the number was not defined but left optional; so that there are
+now only one chaplain and four bible clerks.
+
+Ten days after he sealed the statutes, on the 12th of April 1443,
+Chicheley died and was buried in Canterbury cathedral on the north side
+of the choir, under a fine effigy of himself erected in his lifetime.
+There is what looks like an excellent contemporary portrait in one of
+the windows of All Souls College, which is figured in the _Victoria
+County History_ for Hampshire, ii. 262.      (A. F. L.)
+
+
+
+
+CHICHEN-ITZA, or CHICHEN, an ancient ruined city of Yucatan, Mexico,
+situated 22 m. W. of Valladolid. The name is derived from that of the
+Itza, a tribe of the great Mayan stock, which formerly inhabited the
+city, and _chichen_, having reference probably to two wells or pools
+which doubtless originally supplied the inhabitants with water and are
+still in existence. The history of the city is unknown, though it is
+regarded as probable that it preserved its independence long after the
+Spaniards had taken possession of the rest of the district. The area
+covered by the ruins is approximately 1 sq. m., and other remains are
+found in the neighbouring forest. (See CENTRAL AMERICA: _Archaeology_.)
+
+
+
+
+CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER, BARON (1563-1625), lord-deputy
+of Ireland, second son of Sir John Chichester of Raleigh, Devonshire, by
+Gertrude, daughter of Sir William Courtenay of Powderham, was born at
+Raleigh in May 1563, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. He
+commanded a ship against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and is said to have
+served under Drake in his expedition of 1595. Having seen further
+service abroad, he was sent to Ireland at the end of 1598, and was
+appointed by the earl of Essex to the governorship of Carrickfergus.
+When Essex returned to England, Chichester rendered valuable service
+under Mountjoy in the war against the rebellious earl of Tyrone, and in
+1601 Mountjoy recommended him to Cecil in terms of the highest praise as
+the fittest person to be entrusted with the government of Ulster. On the
+15th of October 1604 Chichester was appointed lord-deputy of Ireland. He
+announced his policy in a proclamation wherein he abolished the
+semi-feudal rights of the native Irish chieftains, substituting for them
+fixed dues, while their tenants were to become dependent "wholly and
+immediately upon his majesty." Tyrone and other Irish clan chieftains
+resented this summary interference with their ancient social
+organization, and their resistance was strengthened by the ill-advised
+measures against the Roman Catholics which Chichester was compelled to
+take by the orders of the English ministers. He himself was moderate and
+enlightened in his views on this matter, and it was through his
+influence that the harshness of the anti-Catholic policy was relaxed in
+1607. Meantime his difficulties with the Irish tribal leaders remained
+unsolved. But in 1607, by "the flight of the Earls" (see O'NEILL), he
+was relieved of the presence of the two formidable Ulster chieftains,
+the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell. Chichester's policy for dealing with
+the situation thus created was to divide the lands of the fugitive earls
+among Irishmen of standing and character; but the plantation of Ulster
+as actually carried out was much less favourable and just to the native
+population than the lord-deputy desired. In 1613 Chichester was raised
+to the peerage as Baron Chichester of Belfast, and in the following year
+he went to England to give an account of the state of Ireland. On his
+return to Ireland he again attempted to moderate the persecuting policy
+against the Irish Catholics which he was instructed to enforce; and
+although he was to some extent successful, it was probably owing to his
+opposition to this policy that he was recalled in November 1614. The
+king, however, told him "You may rest assured that you do leave that
+place with our very good grace and acceptation of your services"; and he
+was given the post of lord-treasurer of Ireland. After living in
+retirement for some years, Chichester was employed abroad in 1622; in
+the following year he became a member of the privy council. He died on
+the 19th of February 1625 and was buried at Carrickfergus.
+
+Lord Chichester married Lettice, daughter of Sir John Perrot and widow
+of Walter Vaughan of Golden Grove. He had no children, and his title
+became extinct at his death. The heir to his estates was his brother Sir
+Edward Chichester (d. 1648), governor of Carrickfergus, who in 1625 was
+created Baron Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of
+Carrickfergus. This nobleman's eldest son Arthur (1606-1675), who
+distinguished himself as Colonel Chichester in the suppression of the
+rebellion of 1641, was created earl of Donegall in 1647, and was
+succeeded in his titles by his nephew, whose great-grandson, Arthur, 5th
+earl of Donegall, was created Baron Fisherwick in the peerage of Great
+Britain (the other family titles being in the peerage of Ireland) in
+1790, and earl of Belfast and marquess of Donegall in the peerage of
+Ireland in 1791. The present marquess of Donegall is his descendant.
+
+  See S.R. Gardiner in _Dict. Nat. Biog_. and _History of England,
+  1603-1642_ (London, 1883); Fynes Moryson, _History of Ireland,
+  1599-1603_ (Dublin, 1735).    (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+CHICHESTER, a city and municipal borough in the Chichester parliamentary
+division of Sussex, England, 69 m. S.S.W. from London by the London,
+Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 12,224. It lies in a plain
+at the foot of a spur of the South Downs, a mile from the head of
+Chichester Harbour, an inlet of the English Channel. The cathedral
+church of the Holy Trinity was founded towards the close of the 11th
+century, after the see had been removed to Chichester from Selsey in
+1075. The first church was consecrated in 1108, but fires in 1114 and
+1187 caused building to continue steadily until the close of the 13th
+century. Bishop Ralph Luffa (1091-1123) was the first great builder, and
+was followed by Seffrid II. (1180-1204). Norman work appears in the nave
+(arcade and triforium), choir (arcade) and elsewhere; but there is much
+very beautiful Early English work, the choir above the arcade and the
+eastern part being especially fine. The nave is remarkable in having
+double aisles on each side, the outer pair being of the 13th century.
+The church is also unique among English cathedrals in the possession of
+a detached campanile, a massive and beautiful Perpendicular structure
+with the top storey octagonal. The principal modern restorations are the
+upper part of the north-west tower, which copies the Early English work
+of that on the south-west; and the fine central tower and spire, which
+had been erected at different periods in the 14th century, but
+collapsed, doing little damage to the fabric, in 1861. Under the
+direction of Sir Gilbert Scott and others they were reconstructed with
+scrupulous care in preserving the original plan. The Lady chapel at the
+east end is in the main early Decorated, but greatly restored; the
+library is a fine late Norman vaulted room; the cloisters are
+Perpendicular and well restored; and the bishop's palace retains an
+Early English chapel. The cathedral is 393 ft. long within, 131 ft.
+across the transepts, and 90 ft. across the nave with its double aisles.
+The height of the spire is 277 ft.
+
+At the junction of the four main streets of the town stands the market
+cross, an exquisite octagonal structure in ornate Perpendicular style,
+built by Bishop Story, c. 1500, perhaps the finest of its kind in the
+United Kingdom. The hospital of St Mary was founded in the 12th century,
+but the existing buildings are in a style transitional from Early
+English to Decorated. Its use as an almshouse is maintained. Other
+ancient buildings are the churches of St Olave, in the construction of
+which Roman materials were used; and of St Andrew, where is the tomb of
+the poet William Collins, whose memorial with others by the sculptor
+Flaxman is in the cathedral; the Guildhall, formerly a Grey Friars'
+chapel, of the 13th century; the Canon Gate leading into the cathedral
+close; and the Vicars College. The city retains a great part of its
+ancient walls, which have a circuit of about a mile and a half, and, at
+least in part, follow the line of Roman fortifications. The principal
+modern buildings, besides churches and chapels, are the council house,
+corn exchange, market house, and museum of the Chichester Literary
+Society. The grammar school was founded in 1497 by Bishop Story. There
+is a large cattle market, and the town has a considerable agricultural
+trade, with breweries and tanneries. A canal connects with Chichester
+Harbour. The diocese includes the whole county of Sussex except a few
+parishes, with very small portions of Kent and Surrey. The municipal
+borough is under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area,
+1538 acres.
+
+The Romano-British town on this site was perhaps Regnum or Regni. Many
+inscriptions, pottery, coins, &c., have been found, and part of the
+medieval walls contain a Roman cave. An interesting inscription from
+this site is preserved at Goodwood. Situated on one Roman road in direct
+connexion with London and another leading from east to west, Chichester
+(_Cissaceaster_, _Cicestre_) remained of considerable importance under
+the South Saxon kings. In 967 King Edgar established a mint here. Though
+Domesday Book speaks of one hundred and forty-two burgages in Chichester
+and a charter of Henry I. mentions the borough, the earliest extant
+charter is that granted by Stephen, confirming to the burgesses their
+customs and rights of the borough and gild merchant as they had them in
+the time of his grandfather. This was confirmed by Henry II. Under Henry
+III. the fee farm rent was £38: 10s., but this was reduced by a charter
+of 10 Edward II. to £36, the customs of wool, hides and skins being
+reserved to the king. Edward III. directed that the Sussex county court
+should be held at Chichester, and this was confirmed in the following
+year. Confirmations of the previous charters were also granted by Edward
+III., Richard II., Henry VI., Edward IV., and Henry VII, who gave the
+mayor and citizens cognizance of all kinds of pleas of assize touching
+lands and hereditaments of freehold tenure. A court leet, court of
+record and bailiffs' court of liberties still exist. The charters were
+also confirmed by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Philip and Mary, and
+Elizabeth. In 1604 the city was incorporated under a mayor and aldermen.
+Since 1295, when it first returned a member, Chichester has been
+regularly represented in parliament. Throughout the middle ages
+Chichester was a place of great commercial importance, Edward III.
+establishing a wool staple here in 1348. Fairs were granted by Henry I.
+and Henry VII, Fuller mentions the Wednesday market as being famous for
+corn, while Camden speaks of that on Saturday as the greatest for fish
+in the county. The markets and a fair on the 20th of October are still
+held.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Sussex_; Alexander Hay, _History of
+  Chichester_ (Chichester, 1804).
+
+
+
+
+CHICKAMAUGA CREEK, a small tributary of the Tennessee river, which it
+joins near Chattanooga, Tennessee, U.S.A. It gives its name to the great
+battle of Chickamauga in the American Civil War, fought on the 19-20th
+of September 1863, between the Federal army of the Cumberland under
+Major-General W.S. Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General
+Braxton Bragg. For the general operations of Rosecrans' army in 1863 see
+AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. A successful war of manoeuvre had brought the army
+of the Cumberland from Murfreesboro to Decherd, Tenn., and Bragg's army
+lay on the Tennessee at and above Chattanooga. Rosecrans was expected by
+the enemy to manoeuvre so as to gain touch with the Union forces in
+the upper Tennessee valley, but he formed an entirely different plan of
+operations. One part of the army demonstrated in front of Chattanooga,
+and the main body secretly crossed the river about Stevenson and
+Bridgeport (September 4th). The country was mountainous, the roads few
+and poor, and the Federals had to take full supplies of food, forage and
+ammunition with them, but Rosecrans was an able commander, his troops
+were in good hands, and he accepted the risks involved. These were
+intensified by the want of good maps, and, in the event, at one moment
+the army was placed in a position of great danger. A corps under A. McD.
+McCook moved south-eastward across the ridges to Alpine, another under
+Thomas marched via Trenton on McLemore's Cove. The presence of Federal
+masses in Lookout Valley caused Bragg to abandon Chattanooga at once,
+and the object of the manoeuvre was thus accomplished; but owing to
+the want of good maps the Union army was at the same time exposed to
+great danger. The head of Thomas's column was engaged at Dug Gap, on the
+11th, against the flank guard of Bragg's army, and at the time McCook
+was far away to the south, and Crittenden's corps, which had occupied
+Chattanooga on the 9th, was also at a distance. Thomas was isolated, but
+Rosecrans, like every other commander under whom he served, placed
+unbounded confidence in his tenacity, and if Bragg was wrong in
+neglecting to attack him on the 14th, subsequent events went far to
+disarm criticism. By the 18th of September Rosecrans had at last
+collected his army on Chickamauga Creek covering Chattanooga. But Bragg
+had now received heavy reinforcements, and lay, concentrated for battle,
+on the other side of the Creek.
+
+[Illustration: CHICKAMAUGA]
+
+The terrain of the battle of Chickamauga (19th-20th of September) had
+little influence on its course. Both armies lay in the plain, the two
+lines roughly parallel. Bragg's intention was to force his attack home
+on Rosecrans' left wing, thus cutting him off from Chattanooga and
+throwing him back into the mountain country whence he had come. On the
+19th a serious action took place between the Confederate right and
+Rosecrans' left under Thomas. On the 20th the real battle began. The
+Confederates, in accordance with Bragg's plans, pressed hard upon
+Thomas, to whom Rosecrans sent reinforcements. One of the divisions
+detached from the centre for this purpose was by inadvertence taken out
+of the first line, and before the gap could be filled the Confederate
+central attack, led by Longstreet and Hood, the fighting generals of
+Lee's army, and carried out by veteran troops from the Virginian
+battlefields, cut the Federal army in two. McCook's army corps, isolated
+on the Federal right, was speedily routed, and the centre shared its
+fate. Rosecrans himself was swept off the field in the rout of half of
+his army. But Thomas was unshaken. He re-formed the left wing in a
+semicircle, and aided by a few fresh brigades from Rossville, resisted
+for six hours the efforts of the whole Confederate army. Rosecrans in
+the meantime was rallying the fugitives far to the rear near Chattanooga
+itself. The fury of Bragg's assault spent itself uselessly on the heroic
+divisions under Thomas, who remained on the field till night and then
+withdrew in good order to Rossville. Here he remained on the 21st,
+imposing respect upon the victors. On the 22nd Rosecrans had
+re-established order, and Thomas fell back quietly to Chattanooga,
+whither Bragg slowly pursued. For the subsequent events of the campaign
+see CHATTANOOGA. The losses in the battle bear witness to a severity in
+the fighting unusual even in the American Civil War. Of 70,000
+Confederates engaged at least 18,000 were killed and wounded, and the
+Federals lost 16,000 out of about 57,000. The battlefield has been
+converted into a national park, and was used during the Spanish American
+War (1898) as a place of mobilization for the U.S. volunteers.
+
+
+
+
+CHICKASAWS, a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean stock, now
+settled in the western part of Oklahoma. Their former range was northern
+Mississippi and portions of Tennessee. According to their own tradition
+and the evidence of philology, they are closely connected with the
+Creeks and Choctaws; and they believe that they emigrated with these
+tribes from the west, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the
+district that now forms the north-east part of the state of that name.
+Here they were visited by De Soto in 1540. From the first they were
+hostile to the French colonists. With the English, on the other hand,
+their relations were more satisfactory. In 1786 they made a treaty with
+the United States; and in 1793 they assisted the whites in their
+operations against the Creeks. In the early years of the 19th century
+part of their territory was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion
+of the tribe migrated to Arkansas; and in 1832-1834, the remainder,
+amounting to about 3600, surrendered to the United States the 6,442,400
+acres of which they were still possessed, and entered into a treaty with
+the Choctaws for incorporation with that tribe. In 1855, however, they
+effected a separation of this union, with which they had soon grown
+dissatisfied, and by payment to the Choctaws of $150,000 obtained a
+complete right to their present territory. In the Civil War they joined
+the Confederates and suffered in consequence; but their rights were
+restored by the treaty of 1865. In 1866 they surrendered 7,000,000
+acres; and in 1873 they adopted their former slaves. They had an
+independent government consisting of a governor, a senate, and a house
+of representatives; but tribal government virtually ceased in 1906. The
+Chickasaws of pure or mixed blood numbered 4826 in 1900, and with the
+fully admitted "citizens," i.e. the freed slaves and adopted whites, the
+whole nation amounted to some 10,000.
+
+  See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CHICKASHA, a city and the county-seat of Grady county, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
+near the Washita river, about 45 m. S.S.W. of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1900)
+3209; (1907) 7862, including 1643 negroes; (1910) 10,320. Chickasha is
+served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Chicago, Rock Island &
+Pacific and the Oklahoma Central railways. It is the trade centre of a
+very fertile section of the Washita Valley, whose principal products are
+Indian corn, cotton, fruits and vegetables and live-stock. The city has
+various manufactures, including flour, cotton-seed oil, lumber,
+furniture and farm implements. Chickasha was founded in 1892 and was
+chartered as a city in 1899.
+
+
+
+
+CHICKEN-POX (Syn. _varicella_, a Low Latin diminutive of _variola_), a
+specific contagious disease characterized by an eruption of vesicles in
+the skin. The disease usually occurs in epidemics, and is one of
+childhood, the patients being generally between two and six years old.
+The incubation period is from ten to fifteen days; there are practically
+no prodromal symptoms, the only indication being a slight amount of
+fever for some twenty-four hours, after which the eruption makes its
+appearance. A number of raised red papules appear on the trunk, either
+on the back or chest; in from twelve to twenty-four hours these develop
+into tense vesicles filled with a clear fluid, which in another
+thirty-six hours or so becomes opalescent. During the fourth day these
+vesicles dry and shrivel up, and the scabs fall off, leaving as a rule
+no scar. Fresh spots appear during the first three days, so that at the
+end of that time they can be seen in all stages of growth and decay. The
+eruption is most marked on the chest, but it also occurs on the face and
+limbs, and on the mucous membrane of the mouth and palate. The
+temperature begins to fall after the appearance of the rash, but a
+certain slight amount may persist after the disappearance of all
+symptoms. It rarely rises above 102 F. The disease runs a very
+favourable course in the majority of cases, and after effects are rare.
+One attack does not confer immunity, and in numerous cases one
+individual has had three attacks. The diet should be light, and the
+patient should be prevented from scratching the spots, which would lead
+to ulceration and scarring. After the first few days there is no
+necessity to confine the patient to bed. In the large majority of cases,
+it is easy to distinguish the disease from smallpox, but in certain
+patients it is very difficult. The chief points in the differential
+diagnosis are as follows. (1) In chicken-pox the rash is distributed
+chiefly on the trunk, and less on the limbs. (2) Some of the vesicles
+are oval, whereas in smallpox they are always hemispherical. They are
+also more superficial, and have not at the outset the hard shotty
+feeling of the more virulent disease. (3) The vesicles attain their full
+growth within twelve to twenty-four hours. (4) The pustules are usually
+monocular. (5) There is no prodromal period.
+
+
+
+
+CHICLANA, or CHICLANA DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern Spain, in the
+province of Cadiz, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Cadiz. Pop. (1900) 10,868.
+Chiclana occupies a fertile valley, watered by the river Lirio, and
+sheltered, on the north and south, by low hills covered with vines and
+plantations. It faces the gulf of Cadiz, 3 m. W., and, from its mild
+climate and pleasant surroundings, is the favourite summer residence of
+the richer Cadiz merchants; its hot mineral springs also attract many
+visitors. In the neighbourhood are the Roman ruins of Chiclana la Vieja,
+the town of Medina Sidonia (q.v.), and, about 5 m. S., the battlefield
+of Barrosa, where the British under Sir Thomas Graham (Lord Lynedoch)
+defeated the French under Marshal Victor, on the 5th of March 1811.
+
+
+
+
+CHICOPEE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on
+the E. side of the Connecticut river, at the mouth of the Chicopee
+river, immediately N. of Springfield. Pop. (1890) 14,050; (1900) 19,167,
+of whom 8139 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,401. Chicopee is
+served by the Boston & Maine railway. The city, which has an area of
+about 25 sq. m., contains five villages. Chicopee Center, Chicopee
+Falls, Willimansett, Fairview and Aldenville. Chicopee Falls lies on
+both sides of the Chicopee river, which falls some 70 ft. in less than 3
+m. and furnishes valuable power for manufactories. The most important
+products are cotton goods (two large factories having, together, about
+200,000 spindles), fire-arms (especially the Stevens rifles), tools,
+rubber and elastic goods, sporting goods, swords, automobiles and
+agricultural implements. Here, too, is a bronze statuary foundry, in
+which some of the finest monuments, bronze doors, &c., in the country
+have been cast, including the doors of the Capitol at Washington. The
+bronze casting industry here was founded by Nathan Peabody Ames
+(1803-1847), who was first a sword-maker and in 1836 began the
+manufacture of cannon and church bells. The total value of the city's
+factory product in 1905 was $7,715,653, an increase of 43.2% in five
+years. There is a public library. The municipality owns and operates the
+water-works system and the electric lighting plant. Chicopee was settled
+about 1638, was set off from Springfield as an independent township in
+1848, and was chartered as a city in 1890. Chicopee Falls was the home
+of Edward Bellamy. The name of the city is an Indian word meaning
+"cedar-tree" or "birch-bark place."
+
+
+
+
+CHICORY. The chicory or succory plant, _Cichorium Intybus_ (natural
+order, Compositae), in its wild state is a native of Great Britain,
+occurring most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by road-sides. It has
+a long fleshy tap-root, a rigid branching hairy stem rising to a height
+of 2 or 3 ft.--the leaves around the base being lobed and toothed, not
+unlike those of the dandelion. The flower heads are of a bright blue
+colour, few in number, and measure nearly an inch and a half across.
+Chicory is cultivated much more extensively on the continent of
+Europe--in Holland, Belgium, France and Germany--than in Great Britain;
+and as a cultivated plant it has three distinct applications. Its roots
+roasted and ground are used as a substitute for, adulterant of, or
+addition to coffee; both roots and leaves are employed as salads; and
+the plant is grown as a fodder or herbage crop which is greedily
+consumed by cattle. In Great Britain it is chiefly in its first
+capacity, in connexion with coffee, that chicory is employed. A large
+proportion of the chicory root used for this purpose is obtained from
+Belgium and other neighbouring continental countries; but a considerable
+quantity is cultivated in England, chiefly in Yorkshire. For the
+preparation of chicory the older stout white roots are selected, and
+after washing they are sliced up into small pieces and kiln-dried. In
+this condition the material is sold to the chicory roaster, by whom it
+is roasted till it assumes a deep brown colour; afterwards when ground
+it is in external characteristics very like coffee, but is destitute of
+its pleasing aromatic odour. Neither does the roasted chicory possess
+any trace of the alkaloid caffeine which gives their peculiar virtues to
+coffee and tea. The fact, however, that for over a hundred years it has
+been successfully used as a substitute for or recognized addition to
+coffee, while in the meantime innumerable other substances have been
+tried for the same purpose and abandoned, indicates that it is agreeable
+and harmless. It gives the coffee additional colour, bitterness and
+body. It is at least in very extensive and general use; and in Belgium
+especially its infusion is largely drunk as an independent beverage.
+
+The blanched leaves are much esteemed by the French as a winter salad
+known by the name of _Barbe de capucin_. When intended for winter use,
+chicory is sown in May or June, commonly in drills, and the plants are
+thinned out to 4 in. apart. If at first the leaves grow very strong,
+they are cut off, perhaps in the middle of August, about an inch from
+the ground, so as to promote the production of new leaves, and check the
+formation of flower-stems. About the beginning of October the plants are
+raised from the border, and all the large leaves cut off; the roots are
+also shortened, and they are then planted pretty closely together in
+boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when needful. When frost
+comes on, the boxes are protected by any kind of litter and haulm. As
+the salad is wanted, they are removed into some place having a
+moderately increased temperature, and where there is no light. Each box
+affords two crops of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for
+cutting when about 6 in. long. Another mode of obtaining the young
+leaves of this plant in winter is to sow seeds in a bed of light rich
+mould, or in boxes in a heat of from 55° to 60°, giving a gentle
+watering as required. The leaves will be fit to be cut in a fortnight
+after sowing, and the plants will afford a second crop.
+
+In Belgium a variety of chicory called _Witloef_ is much preferred as a
+salad to the French _Barbe de capucin_. The seeds are sown and the
+plants thinned out like those of the ordinary sort. They are eventually
+planted in light soil, in succession, from the end of October to
+February, at the bottom of trenches a foot or more in depth, and covered
+over with from 2 to 3 ft. of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks,
+according to the heat applied, the heads are fit for use and should be
+cut before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced in
+frames on a mild hot-bed, or in a mushroom-house, in the same way as
+sea-kale. In Belgium the fresh roots are boiled and eaten with butter,
+and throughout the Continent the roots are stored for use as salads
+during winter.
+
+  See also ENDIVE (_Cichorium endivia_).
+
+
+
+
+CHIDAMBARAM, or CHEDUMBRUM, a town of British India, in the South Arcot
+district of Madras, 7 m. from the coast and 151 m. S. of Madras by rail.
+Pop. (1901) 19,909. The pagodas at Chidambaram are the oldest in the
+south of India, and portions of them are gems of art. Here is supposed
+to have been the northern frontier of the ancient Chola kingdom, the
+successive capitals of which were Uriyur on the Cauvery, Combaconum and
+Tanjore. The principal temple is sacred to Siva, and is said to have
+been rebuilt or enlarged by a leper emperor, who came south on a
+pilgrimage and was cured by bathing in the temple tank; upwards of
+60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every December. It contains a "hall of
+a thousand pillars," one of numerous such halls in India, the exact
+number of pillars in this case being 984; each is a block of solid
+granite, and the roof of the principal temple is of copper-gilt. Three
+hundred of the highest-caste Brahmins live with their families within
+the temple enclosure.
+
+
+
+
+CHIEF (from Fr. _chef_, head, Lat. _caput_), the head or upper part of
+anything, and so, in heraldry, the upper part of the escutcheon,
+occupying one-third of the whole. When applied to a leading personage, a
+head man or one having the highest authority, the term chief or
+chieftain (Med. Lat. _capitanus_, O. Fr. _chevetaine_) is principally
+confined to the leader of a clan or tribe. The phrase "in chief" (Med.
+Lat. _in capite_) is used in feudal law of the tenant who holds his fief
+direct from the lord paramount (see FEUDALISM).
+
+
+
+
+CHIEMSEE, also called BAYRISCHES MEER, the largest lake in Bavaria,
+lying on a high plateau 1600 ft. above the sea, between the rivers Inn
+(to which it drains through the Alz) and Salzach. With a length of 6 and
+a breadth of 9 m., it has an area of about 33 sq. m., and contains three
+islands, Herrenwörth, Frauenwörth and Krautinsel. The first, which has a
+circumference of 6½ m. and is beautifully wooded, is remarkable for the
+romantic castle which Louis II. of Bavaria erected here. It was the seat
+of a bishop from 1215 to 1805, and until 1803 contained a Benedictine
+monastery. The shores of the lake are flat on the north and south sides,
+but its other banks are flanked by undulating hills, which command
+beautiful and extensive views. The waters are clear and it is well
+stocked with trout and carp; but the fishing rights are strictly
+preserved. Steamers ply on the lake, and the railway from Rosenheim to
+Salzburg skirts the southern shores.
+
+
+
+
+CHIENG MAI, the capital of the Lao state of the same name and of the
+provincial division of Siam called Bayap, situated in 99° 0' E., 18° 46'
+N. The town, enclosed by massive but decaying walls, lies on the right
+bank of the river Me Ping, one of the branches of the Me Nam, in a plain
+800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by high, wooded mountains. It has
+streets intersecting at right angles, and an enceinte within which is
+the palace of the Chao, or hereditary chief. The east and west banks of
+the river are connected by a fine teak bridge. The American Presbyterian
+Mission, established here in 1867, has a large number of converts and
+has done much good educational work. Chieng Mai, which the Burmese have
+corrupted into Zimmé, by which name it is known to many Europeans, has
+long been an important trade centre, resorted to by Chinese merchants
+from the north and east, and by Burmese, Shans and Siamese from the west
+and south. It is, moreover, the centre of the teak trade of Siam, in
+which many Burmese and several Chinese and European firms are engaged.
+The total value of the import and export trade of the Bayap division
+amounts to about £2,500,000 a year. The Siamese high commissioner of
+Bayap division has his headquarters in Chieng Mai, and though the
+hereditary chief continues as the nominal ruler, as is also the case in
+the other Lao states of Nan, Prè, Lampun, Napawn Lampang and Tern, which
+make up the division, the government is entirely in the hands of that
+official and his staff. The government forest department, founded in
+1896, has done good work in the division, and the conservator of forests
+has his headquarters in Chieng Mai. The headquarters of an army division
+are also situated here. A British consul resides at Chieng Mai, where,
+in addition to the ordinary law courts, there is an international court
+having jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties.
+The population, about 20,000, consists mainly of Laos, with many Shans,
+a few Burmese, Chinese and Siamese and some fifty Europeans. Hill tribes
+(Ka) inhabit the neighbouring mountains in large numbers.
+
+Chieng Mai was formerly the capital of a united Lao kingdom, which, at
+one time independent, afterwards subject to Burma and then to Siam, and
+later broken up into a number of states, has finally become a provincial
+division of Siam. In 1902 a rising of discontented Shans took place in
+Bayap which at one time seemed serious, several towns being attacked and
+Chieng Mai itself threatened. The disturbance was quelled and the
+malcontents eventually hunted out, but not without losses which included
+the commissioner of Prè and a European officer of gendarmerie.
+
+
+
+
+CHIERI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
+Turin, 13 m. S.E. by rail and 8 m. by road from the town of Turin. Pop.
+(1901) 11,929 (town), 13,803 (commune). Its Gothic cathedral, founded in
+1037 and reconstructed in 1405, is the largest in Piedmont, and has a
+13th century octagonal baptistery. Chieri was subject to the bishop of
+Turin in the 9th and 10th centuries, it became independent in the 11th
+century. In 1347 it submitted voluntarily to Count Amedeus VI. of Savoy
+to save itself from the marquis of Monferrato, and finally came under
+the dominion of Savoy in the 16th century. In 1785 it was made into a
+principality of the duke of Aosta. It was an early centre of trade and
+manufacture; and in the middle of the 15th century produced about
+100,000 pieces of cotton goods per annum.
+
+  See L. Cibrario, _Delle storie di Chieri_ (Turin, 1855).
+
+
+
+
+CHIETI, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province of
+Chieti, and the seat of an archbishop, 140 m. E.N.E. of Rome by rail,
+and 9 m. W. of Castellammare Adriatico. Pop. (1901) 26,368. It is
+situated at a height of 1083 ft. above sea-level, 3 m. from the railway
+station, from which it is reached by an electric tramway. It commands a
+splendid view of the Apennines on every side except the east, where the
+Adriatic is seen. It is an active modern town, upon the site of the
+ancient _Teate Marrucinorum_ (q.v.), with woollen and cotton
+manufactories and other smaller industries. The origin of the see of
+Chieti dates from the 4th century, S. Justinus being the first bishop.
+The cathedral has been spoilt by restoration, and the decoration of the
+exterior is incomplete; the Gothic campanile of 1335 is, however, fine.
+The cathedral possesses two illuminated missals. Close by is the town
+hall, which contains a small picture gallery, in which, in 1905, was
+held an important exhibition of ancient Abruzzese art. The de Laurentiis
+family possesses a private collection of some importance. To the north
+of Chieti is the octagonal church of S. Maria del Tricaglio, erected in
+1317, which is said (without reason) to stand upon the site of a temple
+of Diana. The order of the Theatines, founded in 1524, takes its name
+from the city. Under the Lombards Chieti formed part of the duchy of
+Benevento; it was destroyed by Pippin in 801, but was soon rebuilt and
+became the seat of a count. The Normans made it the capital of the
+Abruzzi.
+
+
+
+
+CHI-FU, CHEFOO, or YEN-T'AI (as it is called by the natives), a seaport
+of northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Chih-li, in the
+province of Shan-tung, near the mouth of the Yi-ho, about 30 m. E. of
+the city of Têng-chow-fu. It was formerly quite a small place, and had
+only the rank of an unwalled village; but it was chosen as the port of
+Têng-chow, opened to foreign trade in 1858 by the treaty of Tientsin,
+and it is now the residence of a Tao-t'ai, or intendant of circuit, the
+centre of a gradually increasing commerce, and the seat of a British
+consulate, a Chinese custom-house, and a considerable foreign
+settlement. The native town is yearly extending, and though most of the
+inhabitants are small shop-keepers and coolies of the lowest class, the
+houses are for the most part well and solidly built of stone. The
+foreign settlement occupies a position between the native town and the
+sea, which neither affords a convenient access for shipping nor allows
+space for any great extension of area. Its growth, however, has hitherto
+been steady and rapid. Various streets have been laid out, a large
+hotel erected for the reception of the visitors who resort to the place
+as a sanatorium in summer, and the religious wants of the community are
+supplied by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church. Though the harbour
+is deep and extensive, and possessed of excellent anchorage, large
+vessels have to be moored at a considerable distance from the shore.
+Chi-fu has continued to show fair progress as a place of trade, but the
+total volume is inconsiderable, having regard to the area it supplies.
+In 1880 the total exports and imports were valued at £2,724,000, in 1899
+they amounted to £4,228,000, and in 1904 to £4,909,908. In 1895 there
+entered the port 905 vessels representing a tonnage of 835,248 tons,
+while in 1905 the number of vessels had risen to 1842, representing a
+tonnage of 1,492,514 tons. The imports are mainly woollen and cotton
+goods, iron and opium, and the exports include bean cake, bean oil,
+peas, raw silk, straw-braid, walnuts, a coarse kind of vermicelli,
+vegetables and dried fruits. Communication with the interior is only by
+roads, which are extremely defective, and nearly all the traffic is by
+pack animals. From its healthy situation and the convenience of its
+anchorage, Chi-fu has become a favourite rendezvous for the fleets of
+the European powers in Chinese waters, and consequently it has at times
+been an important coaling station. It lies in close proximity to Korea,
+Port Arthur and Wei-hai-Wei, and it shared to some extent in the
+excitement to which the military and naval operations in these quarters
+gave rise. The Chi-fu convention was signed here in 1876 by Sir Thomas
+Wade and Li-Hung-Chang.
+
+
+
+
+CHIGI-ALBANI, the name of a Roman princely family of Sienese extraction
+descended from the counts of Ardenghesca. The earliest authentic mention
+of them is in the 13th century, and they first became famous in the
+person of Agostino Chigi (d. 1520), an immensely rich banker who built
+the palace and gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by
+Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments; Pope
+Julius II. made him practically his finance minister and gave him the
+privilege of quartering his own (Della Rovere) arms with those of the
+Chigi. Fabio Chigi, on being made pope (Alexander VII.) in 1655,
+conferred the Roman patriciate on his family, and created his nephew
+Agostino prince of Farnese and duke of Ariccia, and the emperor Leopold
+I. created the latter _Reichsfürst_ (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in
+1659. In 1712 the family received the dignity of hereditary marshals of
+the Church and guardians of the conclaves, which gave them a very great
+importance on the death of every pope. On the marriage in 1735 of
+another Agostino Chigi (1710-1769) with Giulia Albani, heiress of the
+Albani, a Venetian patrician family, said to be of Albanian origin, her
+name was added to that of Chigi. The family owns large estates at Siena.
+
+  See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, vol. iii. (Berlin,
+  1868); _Almanach de Gotha_.
+
+
+
+
+CHIGWELL, a parish and residential district in the Epping parliamentary
+division of Essex, England; with stations (Chigwell Lane and Chigwell)
+on two branches of the Great Eastern railway, 12 m. N.E. from London.
+Pop. (1901) 2508. The old village church of St Mary, principally
+Perpendicular, has a Norman south door. The village lies in a branch of
+the Roding valley, fragments of Hainault Forest lying to the south and
+east, bordering the village of Chigwell Row. The village of Chigwell
+appears in the Domesday survey. The pleasant scenery of the
+neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers both of visitors and of
+residents from London, is described in Dickens's novel, _Barnaby Rudge_,
+and the King's Head Inn, Dickens's "Maypole," still stands. The old
+grammar school, founded by Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (d.
+1631), whose fine memorial brass is in St Mary's church, has become one
+of the minor modern institutions of the English public school type.
+William Penn attended school at Chigwell from his home at Wanstead.
+
+
+
+
+CHIH-LI ("Direct Rule"), the metropolitan province of China, in which is
+situated Peking, the capital of the empire. It contains eleven
+prefectural cities, and occupies an area of 58,950 sq. m. The population
+is 29,400,000, the vast majority of whom are resident in the plain
+country. This province forms part of the great delta plain of China
+proper, 20,000 sq. m. of which are within the provincial boundaries; the
+remainder of the territory consists of the mountain ranges which define
+its northern and western frontier. The plain of Chih-li is formed
+principally by detritus deposited by the Pei-ho and its tributary the
+Hun-ho ("muddy river"), otherwise known as the Yung-ting-ko, and other
+streams having their sources in mountains of Shan-si and other ranges.
+It is bounded E. by the Gulf of Chih-li and Shan-tung, and S. by
+Shan-tung and Ho-nan. The proportion of Mahommedans among the population
+is very large. In Peking there are said to be as many as 20,000
+Mahommedan families, and in Pao-ting Fu, the capital of the province,
+there are about 1000 followers of the prophet. The extremes of heat and
+cold in Chih-li are very marked. During the months of December, January
+and February the rivers are frozen up, and even the Gulf of Chih-li is
+fringed with a broad border of ice. There are four rivers of some
+importance in the province: the Pei-ho, with the Hun-ho, which rises in
+the mountains in Mongolia and, flowing to the west of Peking, forms a
+junction with the Pei-ho at Tientsin; the Shang-si-ho, which rises in
+the mountains on the north of the province of Shan-si, and takes a
+south-easterly course as far as the neighbourhood of Ki Chow, from which
+point it trends north-east and eventually joines the Hun-ho some 15 m.
+above Tientsin; the Pu-to-ho, which rises in Shan-si, and after running
+a parallel course to Shang-si-ho on the south, empties itself in the
+same way into the Hun-ho; and the Lan-ho, which rises in Mongolia,
+enters the province on the north-east after passing to the west of
+Jehol, passes the city of Yung-p'ing Fu in its course (which is
+south-easterly) through Chih-li, and from thence winds its way to the
+north-eastern boundary of the Gulf of Chih-li. The province contains
+three lakes of considerable size. The largest is the Ta-lu-tsze Hu,
+which lies in 37° 40' N. and 115° 20' E.; the second in importance is
+one which is situated to the east of Pao-ting Fu; and the third is the
+Tu-lu-tsze Hu, which lies east by north of Shun-te Fu. Four high roads
+radiate from Peking, one leading to Urga by way of Süan-hwa Fu, which
+passes through the Great Wall at Chang-kiu K'ow; another, which enters
+Mongolia through the Ku-pei K'ow to the north-east, and after continuing
+that course as far as Fung-ning turns in a north-westerly direction to
+Dolonnor; a third striking due east by way of T'ung-chow and Yung-p'ing
+Fu to Shan-hai Kwan, the point where the Great Wall terminates on the
+coast; and a fourth which trends in a south-westerly direction to
+Pao-ting Fu and on to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si. The mountain ranges to
+the north of the province abound with coal, notably at Chai-tang,
+T'ai-gan-shan, Miao-gan-ling, and Fu-tao in the Si-shan or Western
+Hills. "At Chai-tang," wrote Baron von Richthofen, "I was surprised to
+walk over a regular succession of coal-bearing strata, the thickness of
+which, estimating it step by step as I proceeded gradually from the
+lowest to the highest strata, exceeds 7000 ft." The coal here is
+anthracite, as is also that at T'ai-gan-shan, where are found beds of
+greater value than any in the neighbourhood of Peking. In Süan-hwa Fu
+coal is also found, but not in such quantities as in the places above
+named. Iron and silver also exist in small quantities in different parts
+of the province, and hot and warm springs are very common at the foot of
+the hills along the northern and western edges of the province. The
+principal agricultural products are wheat, kao-liang, oats, millet,
+maize, pulse and potatoes. Fruits and vegetables are also grown in large
+quantities. Of the former the chief kinds are pears, apples, plums,
+apricots, peaches, persimmons and melons. Tientsin is the Treaty Port of
+the province.
+
+
+
+
+CHIHUAHUA, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded N. and N.E. by
+the United States (New Mexico and Texas), E. by Coahuila, S. by Durango,
+and W. by Sinaloa and Sonora. Pop. (1895) 260,008; (1900) 327,784. Area,
+87,802 sq. m. The surface of the state is in great part an elevated
+plateau, sloping gently toward the Rio Grande. The western side,
+however, is much broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which form
+elevated valleys of great fertility. An arid sandy plain extending from
+the Rio Grande inland for 300 to 350 m. is quite destitute of vegetation
+where irrigation is not used. There is little rainfall in this region
+and the climate is hot and dry. The more elevated plateaus and valleys
+have the heavier rainfall, but the average for the state is barely 39
+in.; an impermeable clay substratum prevents its absorption by the soil,
+and the bare surface carries it off in torrents. The great Bolsón de
+Mapimí depression, in the S.E. part of the state, was once considered to
+be an unreclaimable desert, but experiments with irrigation have shown
+its soil to be highly fertile, and the conversion of the narrow valleys
+of the sierras on the west into irrigation reservoirs promises to
+reclaim a considerable part of its area. The only river of consequence
+is the Conchos, which flows north and north-east into the Rio Grande
+across the whole length of the state. In the north there are several
+small streams flowing northward into lakes. Agriculture has made little
+progress in Chihuahua, and the scarcity of water will always be a
+serious obstacle to its development outside the districts where
+irrigation is practicable. The climate and soil are favourable to the
+production of wheat, Indian corn, beans, indigo, cotton and grapes, from
+which wine and brandy are made. The principal grape-producing district
+is in the vicinity of Ciudad Juárez. Stock-raising is an important
+industry in the mountainous districts of the west, where there is
+excellent pasturage for the greater part of the year. The principal
+industry of the state, however, is mining--its mineral resources
+including gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead and coal. The silver mines
+of Chihuahua are among the richest in Mexico, and include the famous
+mining districts of Batopilas, Chihuahuilla, Cosihuiriachic, Jesús
+María, Parral, and Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua el Viejo. There are more
+than one hundred of these mines, and the total annual yield at the end
+of the 19th century was estimated at $4,500,000. The state is traversed
+from north to south by the Mexican Central railway, and there are short
+branches to some of the mining districts.
+
+Chihuahua originally formed part of the province of Nueva Viscaya, with
+Durango as the capital. In 1777 the northern provinces, known as the
+Provincias Internas, were separated from the viceroyalty, and in 1786
+the provinces were reorganized as intendencias, but Chihuahua was not
+separated from Durango until 1823. An effort was made to overthrow
+Spanish authority in 1810, but its leader Hidalgo and two of his
+lieutenants were captured and executed, after which the province
+remained passive until the end of the struggle. The people of the state
+have been active partizans in most of the revolutionary outbreaks in
+Mexico, and in the war of 1862-66 Chihuahua was loyal to Juárez. The
+principal towns are the capital Chihuahua, El Parral, 120 m. S.S.E. of
+the state capital, in a rich mining district (pop. 14,748 in 1900),
+Ciudad Juárez and Jimenez, 120 m. S.E. of Chihuahua (pop. 5881 in 1900).
+
+
+
+
+CHIHUAHUA, a city of Mexico, capital of the above state, on the
+Chihuahua river, about 1000 m. N.W. of Mexico City and 225 m. S. by E.
+of El Paso. Pop. (1895) 18,279; (1900) 30,405. The city stands in a
+beautiful valley opening northward and hemmed in on all other sides by
+spurs of the Sierra Madre. It is 4635 ft. above sea-level, and its
+climate is mild and healthy. The city is laid out regularly, with broad
+streets, and a handsome plaza with a monument to Hidalgo and his
+companions of the revolution of 1810, who were executed here. The most
+noteworthy of its public buildings is the fine old parish church of San
+Francisco, begun in 1717 and completed in 1789, one of the best
+specimens of 18th-century architecture in Mexico. It was built, it is
+said, with the proceeds of a small tax on the output of the Santa
+Eulalia mine. Other prominent buildings are the government palace, the
+Porfirio Diaz hospital, the old Jesuit College (now occupied by a modern
+institution of the same character), the mint, and an aqueduct built in
+the 18th century. Chihuahua is a station on the Mexican Central railway,
+and has tramways and telephones. Mining is the principal occupation of
+the surrounding district, the famous Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua el Viejo
+mines being about 12 m. from the city. Next in importance is
+agriculture, especially fruit-growing. Manufacturing is making good
+progress, especially the weaving of cotton fabrics by modern methods.
+The manufacture of cotton and woollen goods are old industries in
+Chihuahua, but the introduction of American skill and capital toward the
+end of the 19th century placed them on an entirely new footing. The
+manufacture of gunpowder for mining operations is another old industry.
+
+Chihuahua was founded between 1703 and 1705 as a mining town, and was
+made a villa in 1715 with the title San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua.
+Because of the rich mines in its vicinity it soon became one of the most
+prosperous towns in northern Mexico, although the state was constantly
+raided by hostile Indians. In 1763 it had a population of nearly 5000.
+The war of independence was followed by a period of decline, owing to
+political disorder and revolution, which lasted until the presidency of
+General Porfirio Diaz. In the war between Mexico and the United States,
+Chihuahua was captured on the 1st of March 1847, by Colonel A.W.
+Doniphan, and again on the 7th of March by General Price. In 1864
+President Juárez made the city his provisional capital for a short time.
+
+
+
+
+CHILAS, a hill village in the North-West Frontier Province of India. It
+is dominated by a fort on the left bank of the Indus, about 50 m. below
+Bunji, 4100 ft. above sea-level. It was occupied by a British force
+early in 1893, when a determined attack was made on the place by the
+Kohistanis from the Indus valley districts to the south-west, aided by
+contingents from Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus.
+Its importance consists in its position with reference to the
+Kashmir-Gilgit route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected
+with Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its command
+of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit from the Punjab
+frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil pass. By the Kashmir route
+Gilgit is 400 m. from the rail-head at Rawalpindi. The Kagan route would
+bring it 100 m. nearer, but the unsettled condition of the country
+through which the road passes has been a bar to its general use.
+
+
+
+
+CHILBLAINS (or KIBE; _Erythema pernio_), a mild form of frostbite,
+affecting the fingers or toes and other parts, and causing a painful
+inflammatory swelling, with redness and itching of the affected part.
+The chief points to be noticed in its aetiology are (1) that the lesions
+occur in the extremities of the circulation, and (2) that they are
+usually started by rapid changes from heat to cold or vice versa. The
+treatment is both general and local. In the general treatment, if a
+history of blanching fingers (fingers or hands going "dead") can be
+obtained, the chilblains may be regarded as mild cases of Raynaud's
+disease, and these improve markedly under a course of nitrites. Cardiac
+tonics are often helpful, especially in those cases where there is some
+attendant lesion of the heart. But the majority of cases improve
+wonderfully on a good course of a calcium salt, _e.g._ calcium lactate
+or chloride; fifteen grains three times a day will answer in most cases.
+The patient should wash in soft tepid water, and avoid extremes of heat
+and cold. In the local treatment, two drugs are of great value in the
+early congestive stage--ichthyol and formalin. Ichthyol, 10 to 20% in
+lanoline spread on linen and worn at night, often dispels an attack at
+the beginning. Formalin is equally efficacious, but requires more skill
+in its use. It can be used as an ointment, 10 to 50% for delicate skins,
+stronger for coarser skins. It should be replaced occasionally by
+lanoline. If the stage of ulceration has been reached, a paste made from
+the following prescription, spread thickly on linen and frequently
+changed, soon cures:--Hydrarg. ammoniat. gr. v., ichthyol [minim]x,
+pulveris zinci oxidi [drachm]iv, vaseline [ounce]ss.
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713), English banker, was a Wiltshire man,
+who, having been apprenticed to a goldsmith, became himself a London
+goldsmith in 1664. In 1671 he married Elizabeth (d. 1720), daughter of
+another goldsmith named William Wheeler (d. 1663), and with his wife's
+stepfather, Robert Blanchard (d. 1681), took over about the same time
+the business of goldsmiths hitherto carried on by the Wheelers. This was
+the beginning of Child's Bank. Child soon gave up the business of a
+goldsmith and confined himself to that of a banker. He inherited some
+wealth and was very successful in business; he was jeweller to the
+king, and lent considerable sums of money to the government. Being a
+freeman of the city of London, Child was elected a member of the court
+of common council in 1681; in 1689 he became an alderman, and in the
+same year a knight. He served as sheriff of London in 1691 and as lord
+mayor in 1699. His parliamentary career began about this time. In 1698
+he was chosen member of parliament for Devizes and in 1702 for the city
+of London, and was again returned for Devizes in 1705 and 1710. He died
+on the 4th of October 1713, and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Sir
+Francis, who was a benefactor to Christ's hospital, bought Osterley
+Park, near Isleworth, now the residence of his descendant the earl of
+Jersey.
+
+Child had twelve sons. One, Sir Robert, an alderman, died in 1721.
+Another, Sir Francis (c. 1684-1740), was lord mayor of London in 1732,
+and a director of the East India Company. He was chosen member of
+parliament for the city of London in 1722, and was member for Middlesex
+from 1727 until his death. After the death of the younger Sir Francis at
+Fulham on the 20th of April 1740 the banking business passed to his
+brother Samuel, and the bank is still owned by his descendants, the
+principal proprietor being the earl of Jersey. Child's Bank was at first
+conducted at the Marygold, next Temple Bar in Fleet Street, London; and
+the present bank occupies the site formerly covered by the Marygold and
+the adjacent Devil tavern.
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896), American scholar and educationist, was
+born in Boston on the 1st of February 1825. He graduated at Harvard in
+1846, taking the highest rank in his class in all subjects; was tutor in
+mathematics in 1846-1848; and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in
+history, political economy and English. After two years of study in
+Europe, in 1851 he succeeded Edward T. Channing as Boylston professor of
+rhetoric, oratory and elocution. Child studied the English drama (having
+edited _Four Old Plays_ in 1848) and Germanic philology, the latter at
+Berlin and Göttingen during a leave of absence, 1849-1853; and he took
+general editorial supervision of a large collection of the British
+poets, published in Boston in 1853 and following years. He edited
+Spenser (5 vols., Boston, 1855), and at one time planned an edition of
+Chaucer, but contented himself with a treatise, in the _Memoirs of the
+American Academy of Arts and Sciences_ for 1863, entitled "Observations
+on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales," which did much to
+establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation and scansion as now
+generally understood. His largest undertaking, however, grew out of an
+original collection, in his British Poets series, of _English and
+Scottish Ballads_, selected and edited by himself, in eight small
+volumes (Boston, 1857-1858). Thenceforward the leisure of his life--much
+increased by his transfer, in 1876, to the new professorship of
+English--was devoted to the comparative study of British vernacular
+ballads. He accumulated, in the university library, one of the largest
+folklore collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than
+printed sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all
+other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative hearing to
+popular versions still surviving. At last his final collection was
+published as _The English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, at first in ten
+parts (1882-1898), and then in five quarto volumes, which remain the
+authoritative treasury of their subject. Professor Child worked--and
+overworked--to the last, dying in Boston on the 11th of September 1896,
+having completed his task save for a general introduction and
+bibliography. A sympathetic biographical sketch was prefixed to the work
+by his pupil and successor George L. Kittredge.
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690), governor of Bombay, and in fact if not in
+name the first governor-general of the British settlements in India, was
+born in London. He was sent as a little boy to his uncle, the chief of
+the factory at Rajapur; and in 1682 was appointed chief of the East
+India Company's affairs at Surat and Bombay, while at the same time his
+brother, Sir Josiah Child (q.v.), was governor of the company at home.
+The two brothers showed themselves strong men and guided the affairs of
+the company through the period of struggle between the Moguls and
+Mahrattas. They have been credited by history with the change from
+unarmed to armed trade on the part of the company; but as a matter of
+fact both of them were loth to quarrel with the Mogul. War broke out
+with Aurangzeb in 1689, but in the following year Child had to sue for
+peace, one of the conditions being that he should be expelled from
+India. He escaped this expulsion by his death in 1690.
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (1630-1699), English merchant, economist and governor
+of the East India Company, was born in London in 1630, the second son of
+Richard Child, a London merchant of old family. After serving his
+apprenticeship in the business, to which he succeeded, he started on his
+own account at Portsmouth, as victualler to the navy under the
+Commonwealth, when about twenty-five. He amassed a comfortable fortune,
+and became a considerable stock-holder in the East India Company, his
+interest in India being accentuated by the fact that his brother John
+(q.v.) was making his career there. He was returned to parliament in
+1659 for Petersfield; and in later years sat for Dartmouth (1673-1678)
+and for Ludlow (1685-1687). He was made a baronet in 1678. His advocacy,
+both by speech and by pen, under the pseudonym of Philopatris, of the
+East India Company's claims to political power, as well as to the right
+of restricting competition with its trade, brought him to the notice of
+the shareholders, and he became a director in 1677, and, subsequently,
+deputy-governor and governor. In this latter capacity he was for a
+considerable time virtually the sole ruler of the company, and directed
+its policy as if it were his own private business. He and his brother
+have been credited with the change from unarmed to armed traffic; but
+the actual renunciation of the Roe doctrine of unarmed traffic by the
+company was resolved upon in January 1686, under Governor Sir Joseph
+Ash, when Child was temporarily out of office. He died on the 22nd of
+June 1699. Child made several important contributions to the literature
+of economics; especially _Brief Observations concerning Trade and the
+Interest of Money_ (1668), and _A New Discourse of Trade_ (1668 and
+1690). He was a moderate in those days of the "mercantile system," and
+has sometimes been regarded as a sort of pioneer in the development of
+the free-trade doctrines of the 18th century. He made various proposals
+for improving British trade by following Dutch example, and advocated a
+low rate of interest as the "_causa causans_ of all the other causes of
+the riches of the Dutch people." This low rate of interest he thought
+should be created and maintained by public authority. Child, whilst
+adhering to the doctrine of the balance of trade, observed that a people
+cannot always sell to foreigners without ever buying from them, and
+denied that the export of the precious metals was necessarily
+detrimental. He had the mercantilist partiality for a numerous
+population, and became prominent with a new scheme for the relief and
+employment of the poor; it is noteworthy also that he advocated the
+reservation by the mother country of the sole right of trade with her
+colonies. Sir Josiah Child's eldest son, Richard, was created Viscount
+Castlemain in 1718 and earl of Tylney in 1731.
+
+  See also Macaulay, _History of England_, vol. iv.; R. Grant, _Sketch
+  of the History of the East India Company_ (1813); D. Macpherson,
+  _Annals of Commerce_ (1805); B. Willson, _Ledger and Sword_ (1903).
+      (T. A. I.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880), American author, was born at Medford,
+Massachusetts, on the 11th of February 1802. She was educated at an
+academy in her native town and by her brother Convers Francis
+(1795-1863), a Unitarian minister and from 1842 to 1863 Parkman
+professor in the Harvard Divinity School. Her first stories, _Hobomok_
+(1824) and _The Rebels_ (1825), were popular successes. She was a
+schoolmistress until 1828, when she married David Lee Child (1794-1874),
+a brilliant but erratic Boston lawyer and journalist. From 1826 to 1834
+she edited _The Juvenile Miscellany_, the first children's monthly
+periodical in the United States. About 1831 both she and her husband
+began to identify themselves with the anti-slavery cause, and in 1833
+she published _An Appeal for that Class of Americans called Africans_, a
+stirring portrayal of the evils of slavery, and an argument for
+immediate abolition, which had a powerful influence in winning recruits
+to the anti-slavery cause. Henceforth her time was largely devoted to
+the anti-slavery cause. From 1840 to 1844, assisted by her husband, she
+edited the _Anti-Slavery Standard_ in New York City. After the Civil War
+she wrote much in behalf of the freedmen and of Indian rights. She died
+at Wayland, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1880. In addition to
+the books above mentioned, she wrote many pamphlets and short stories
+and _The (American) Frugal Housewife_ (1829), one of the earliest
+American books on domestic economy, _The Mother's Book_ (1831), a
+pioneer cook-book republished in England and Germany, _The Girls' Own
+Book_ (1831), _History of Women_ (2 vols., 1832), _Good Wives_ (1833),
+_The Anti-Slavery Catechism_ (1836), _Philothea_ (1836), a romance of
+the age of Pericles, perhaps her best book, _Letters from New York_ (2
+vols., 1843-1845), _Fact and Fiction_ (1847), _The Power of Kindness_
+(1851), _Isaac T. Hopper: a True Life_ (1853), _The Progress of
+Religious Ideas through Successive Ages_ (3 vols., 1855), _Autumnal
+Leaves_ (1857), _Looking Toward Sunset_ (1864), _The Freedman's Book_
+(1865), _A Romance of the Republic_ (1867), and _Aspirations of the
+World_ (1878).
+
+  See _The Letters of Lydia Maria Child, with a Biographical
+  Introduction by J.G. Whittier_ (Boston, 1883); and a chapter in T.W.
+  Higginson's _Contemporaries_ (Boston, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, the common term for the offspring of human beings, generally
+below the age of puberty; the term is the correlative of "parent," and
+applies to either sex, though some early dialectical uses point to a
+certain restriction to a girl. The word is derived from the A.S. _cild_,
+an old Teutonic word found in English only, in other Teutonic languages
+_kind_ and its variants being used, usually derived from the
+Indo-European root _ken_, seen in Gr. [greek: genos], Lat. _genus_, and
+Eng. "kin"; _cild_ has been held to be a modification of the same root,
+but the true root is _kilth_, seen in Goth. _kilthei_, womb, an origin
+which appears in the expressions "child-birth," "to be with child," and
+the like; the plural in A.S. was _cild_, and later _cildru_, which in
+northern M.E. became _childre or childer_, a form dialectically extant,
+and in southern English _childeren_ or _children_ (with the plural
+termination -en, as in "brethren"). There are several particular uses of
+"child" in the English version of the Bible, as of a young man in the
+"Song of the three holy children," of descendants or members of a race,
+as in "children of Abraham," and also to express origin, giving a
+description of character, as "children of darkness." During the 13th and
+14th centuries "child" was used, in a sense almost amounting to a title
+of dignity, of a young man of noble birth, probably preparing for
+knighthood. In the _York Mysteries_ of about 1440 (quoted in the _New
+English Dictionary_) occurs "be he churl or child," obviously referring
+to gentle birth, cf. William Bellenden's translation (1553) of Livy (ii.
+124) "than was in Rome ane nobill childe ... namit Caius Mucius." The
+spelling "childe" is frequent in modern usage to indicate its archaic
+meaning. Familiar instances are in the line of an old ballad quoted in
+_King Lear_, "childe Roland to the dark tower came," and in Byron's
+_Childe Harold_. With this use may be compared the Spanish and
+Portuguese _Infante_ and _Infanta_, and the early French use of _Valet_
+(q.v.).
+
+_Child-study._--The physical, psychological and educational development
+of children, from birth till adulthood, has provided material in recent
+years for what has come to be regarded as almost a distinct part of
+comparative anthropological or sociological science, and the literature
+of adolescence (q.v.) and of "child-study" in its various aspects has
+attained considerable proportions. In England the British Child Study
+Association was founded in 1894, its official organ being the
+_Paidologist_, while similar work is done by the Childhood Society, and,
+to a certain extent, by the Parents' National Educational Union (which
+issues the _Parents' Review_). In America, where specially valuable work
+has been done, several universities have encouraged the study (notably
+Chicago, while under the auspices of Professor John Dewey); and
+Professor G. Stanley Hall's initiative has led to elaborate inquiries,
+the principal periodical for the movement being the _Pedagogical
+Seminary_. The impetus to this study of the child's mind and capacities
+was given by the classic work of educationists like J.A. Comenius, J.H.
+Pestalozzi, and F.W.A. Froebel, but more recent writers have carried it
+much further, notably W.T. Preyer (_The Mind of the Child_, 1881), whose
+psychological studies stamp him as one of the chief pioneers in new
+methods of investigation. Other authorities of first-rate importance
+(their chief works only being given here) are J. Sully (_Studies of
+Childhood_, 1896), Earl Barnes (_Studies in Education_, 1896, 1902),
+J.M. Baldwin (_Mental Development in the Child and the Race_, 1895),
+Sigismund (_Kind und Welt_, 1897), A.F. Chamberlain (_The Child_, 1900),
+G. Stanley Hall (_Adolescence_, 1904; he had from 1882 been the leader
+in America of such investigations), H. Holman and R. Langdon Down
+(_Practical Child Study_, 1899), E.A. Kirkpatrick (_Fundamentals of
+Child-study_, 1903), and Prof. Tracy of Toronto (_Psychology of
+Childhood_, 5th ed., 1901); while among a number of contributions worth
+particular attention may be mentioned W.B. Drummond's excellent summary,
+_Introduction to Child Study_ (1907), which deals succinctly with
+methods and results; Irving King's _Psychology of Child Development_
+(1906, useful for its bibliography); Prof. David R. Major's _First Steps
+in Mental Growth_ (1906); and Miss M. Shinn's _Notes an the Development
+of a Child_ (1893) and Mrs Louise E. Hogan's _Study of a Child_ (1898),
+which are noteworthy among individual and methodical accounts of what
+children will do. In such books as those cited a great deal of important
+material has been collected and analysed, and a number of conclusions
+suggested which bear both on psychology and the science of education;
+but it must be borne in mind, as regards a great deal of the voluminous
+literature of the subject, that it is often more pertinent to general
+psychology and hygiene than to any special conclusions as to the
+essential nature of a child--whatever "_a_ child" generically may be as
+the special object of a special science. The child, after all, is in a
+transition stage to an adult, and there is often a tendency in modern
+"child students" to interpret the phenomena exhibited by a particular
+child with a _parti pris_, or to exaggerate child-study--which is really
+interesting as providing the knowledge of growth towards full human
+equipment--as though it involved the discovery of some distinct form of
+animal, of separate value on its own account.
+
+_Growth._--Into the psychical characteristics and development of the
+child and all the interesting educational problems involved it is
+impossible to enter here, and reference must be made to the works cited
+above. But a knowledge of the more important features of normal physical
+development has a constant importance. Some of these, as matters of
+comparative physiology or pathology, are dealt with in other articles in
+this work. One of these chief matters of interest is weight and height,
+and this is naturally affected by race, nutrition and environment. But
+while the standard in different countries somewhat differs, the British
+average for healthy children may here be followed. At birth the average
+weight of a baby is a little over 7 lb and the length about 20 in. The
+following are the averages for weight and height, taking the age in
+years of the child at the last birthday:--
+
+  +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |  Age.  | Height, in inches. | Weight, in pounds. |
+  +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |        |   Girls  |   Boys  |   Girls  |   Boys  |
+  |        |          |         |          |         |
+  |   1    |    28.7  |   29    |   19.8   |   20.5  |
+  |   2    |    32.5  |   32.5  |   25.5   |   26.5  |
+  |   3    |    35    |   35    |   30     |   31.2  |
+  |   4    |    38    |   38    |   34     |   35    |
+  |   5    |    40.5  |   41    |   39.2   |   41.2  |
+  |   6    |    42.8  |   44    |   41.7   |   44.4  |
+  |   7    |    44.5  |   46    |   47.5   |   49.7  |
+  |   8    |    46.6  |   47    |   52.1   |   54.9  |
+  |   9    |    48.7  |   49    |   55.5   |   60.4  |
+  |  10    |    51    |   51.8  |   62     |   67.5  |
+  |  11    |    53.1  |   53.5  |   68     |   72    |
+  |  12    |    55.6  |   55    |   76.4   |   76.7  |
+  |  13    |    57.7  |   57    |   87.2   |   82.6  |
+  |  14    |    59.8  |   59.3  |   96.7   |   92    |
+  |  15    |    60.9  |   62    |  102.7   |  106    |
+  +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
+
+  See also CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; CHILDREN'S COURTS; CHILDREN'S
+  GAMES; INFANT; &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHILDEBERT, the name of three Frankish kings.
+
+
+CHILDEBERT I. (d. 558) was one of the four sons of Clovis. In the
+partition of his father's realm in 511 he received as his share the town
+of Paris, and the country to the north as far as the river Somme, and to
+the west as far as the English Channel, with the Armorican peninsula. In
+524, after the murder of Chlodomer's children, Childebert annexed the
+cities of Chartres and Orleans. He took part in the various expeditions
+against the kingdom of Burgundy, and in 534 received as his share of the
+spoils of that kingdom the towns of Mâcon, Geneva and Lyons. When
+Vitiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence to the Franks in
+535, the possession of Arles and Marseilles was guaranteed to Childebert
+by his brothers. Childebert also made a series of expeditions against
+the Visigoths of Spain; in 542 he took possession of Pampeluna with the
+help of his brother Clotaire I., and besieged Saragossa, but was forced
+to retreat. From this expedition he brought back to Paris a precious
+relic, the tunic of St Vincent, in honour of which he built at the gates
+of Paris the famous monastery of St Vincent, known later as St
+Germain-des-Prés. He died without issue in 558, and was buried in the
+abbey he had founded, where his tomb has been discovered.
+
+  See "Nouveaux documents sur le tombeau de Childebert à
+  Saint-Germain-des-Prés," in the _Bulletin de la Société des
+  Antiquaires_ (1887).
+
+
+CHILDEBERT II. (570-595), king of Austrasia, was a son of Sigebert. When
+his father was assassinated in 575, Childebert was taken from Paris by
+Gundobald, one of his faithful _leudes_, to Metz, where he was
+recognized as sovereign. He was then only five years old, and during his
+long minority the power was disputed between his mother Brunhilda and
+the nobles. Chilperic, king at Paris, and King Gontran of Burgundy,
+sought alliance with Childebert, who was adopted by both in turn. But
+after the assassination of Chilperic in 584, and the dangers occasioned
+to the Frankish monarchy by the expedition of Gundobald in 585,
+Childebert threw himself unreservedly into the arms of Gontran. By the
+pact of Andelot in 587 Childebert was recognized as Gontran's heir, and
+with his uncle's help he quelled the revolts of the nobles and succeeded
+in seizing the castle of Woëwre. Many attempts were made on his life by
+Fredegond, who was anxious to secure Gontran's inheritance for her son
+Clotaire II. On the death of Gontran in 592 Childebert annexed the
+kingdom of Burgundy, and even contemplated seizing Clotaire's estates
+and becoming sole king of the Franks. He died, however, in 595.
+Childebert II. had had relations with the Byzantine empire, and fought
+in 585 in the name of the emperor Maurice against the Lombards in Italy.
+
+
+CHILDEBERT III. was one of the last and feeblest of the Merovingians. A
+son of King Theuderich III., he succeeded his brother Clovis III. in
+695, and reigned until 711.
+
+  See B. Krusch, "Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Könige," in
+  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxii. 451-490.    (C. PF.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILDERIC, the name of three Frankish kings.
+
+
+CHILDERIC I. (c. 437-481), king of the Salian Franks, succeeded his
+father Merwich (Merwing) as king about. 457. With his tribe he was
+established around the town of Tournai, on lands which he had received
+as a _foederatus_ of the Romans, and for some time he kept the peace
+with his allies. About 463, in conjunction with the Roman general
+Egidius, he fought against the Visigoths, who hoped to extend their
+dominion along the banks of the Loire; after the death of Egidius he
+assisted Count Paul in attempting to check an invasion of the Saxons.
+Paul having perished in the struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from
+some Saxons, followed them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and
+massacred them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who wished
+to invade Italy. These are all the facts known about him. The stories of
+his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight years in Thuringia
+with King Basin and his wife Basine; of his return when a faithful
+servant advised him that he could safely do so by sending to him half of
+a piece of gold which he had broken with him; and of the arrival at
+Tournai of Queen Basine, whom he married, are entirely legendary. After
+the fall of the Western Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric
+regarded himself as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in
+481 and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis (q.v.), afterwards
+king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered in 1653, when numerous
+precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a figure of the
+king, were found.
+
+
+CHILDERIC II. (c. 653-673), king of Austrasia, was a son of the Frankish
+king Clovis II., and in 660, although a child, was proclaimed king of
+Austrasia, while his brother, Clotaire III., ruled over the rest of the
+dominions of Clovis. After the death of Clotaire in 670 he became ruler
+of the three Frankish kingdoms, Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, but
+soon quarrelled with some supporters in Neustria, and was assassinated
+whilst hunting. He was buried at St Germain near Paris.
+
+
+CHILDERIC III. (d. c. 751), king of the Franks, was the last king of the
+Merovingian dynasty. The throne had been vacant for seven years when the
+mayors of the palace, Carloman and Pippin the Short, decided in 743 to
+recognize Childeric as king. We cannot say whose son he was, or what
+bonds bound him to the Merovingian family. He took no part in public
+business, which was directed, as before, by the mayors of the palace.
+When in 747 Carloman retired into a monastery, Pippin resolved to take
+the royal crown for himself; taking the decisive step in 751 after
+having received the celebrated answer of Pope Zacharias that it were
+better to name king him who possessed the power than him who possessed
+it not. Childeric was dethroned and placed in the monastery of St Omer;
+his son, Theuderich, was imprisoned at Saint-Wandrille.
+
+  See W. Junghans, _Die Geschichte der fränkischen Könige Childerich und
+  Clodovech_ (Göttingen, 1857); J.J. Chiflet, _Anastasis Childerici I.
+  Francorum regis_ (Antwerp, 1655); J.B.D. Cochet, _Le Tombeau de
+  Childeric I, roi des Francs_ (Paris, 1859); and E. Lavisse, _Histoire
+  de France_, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY (1827-1896), British statesman, was born
+in London on the 25th of June 1827. On leaving Cambridge he went out to
+Australia (1850), and became a member of the government of Victoria, but
+in 1857 returned to England as agent-general of the colony. Entering
+parliament in 1860 as Liberal member for Pontefract (a seat that he
+continued to hold till 1885), he became civil lord of the admiralty in
+1864, and in 1865 financial secretary to the treasury. Childers occupied
+a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone ministries. He
+was first lord of the admiralty from 1868 to 1871, and as such
+inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Ill-health compelled his
+resignation of office in 1871, but next year he returned to the ministry
+as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. From 1880 to 1882 he was
+secretary for war, a post he accepted somewhat unwillingly; and in that
+position he had to bear the responsibility for the reforms which were
+introduced into the war office under the parsimonious conditions which
+were then part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the
+Egyptian War occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy;
+and also the Boer War, in which he and his colleagues showed to less
+advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was chancellor of the exchequer, and the
+beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter year was the occasion
+of the government's fall. Defeated at the general election at
+Pontefract, he was returned as a Home Ruler (one of the few Liberals who
+adopted this policy before Mr Gladstone's conversion) in 1886 for South
+Edinburgh, and was home secretary in the ministry of 1886. When the
+first Home Rule bill was introduced he demurred privately to its
+financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his threat of
+resignation. He retired from parliament in 1892, and died on the 29th of
+January 1896, his last piece of work being the drafting of a report for
+the royal commission on Irish financial relations, of which he was
+chairman. Childers was a capable and industrious administrator of the
+old Liberal school, and he did his best, in the political conditions
+then prevailing, to improve the naval and military administration while
+he was at the admiralty and war office. His own bent was towards
+finance, but no striking reform is associated with his name. His most
+ambitious effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of consols in
+1884, but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the
+subsequent conversion in 1888.
+
+  The _Life_ (1901) of Mr Childers, by his son, throws some interesting
+  side-lights on the inner history of more than one Gladstonian cabinet.
+
+
+
+
+CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR (1838-1876), English Oriental scholar, son of
+the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at Nice, was born in 1838.
+In 1860 he received an appointment in the civil service of Ceylon, which
+he retained until 1864, when he was compelled to return to England owing
+to ill-health. He had studied P[=a]li during his residence in Ceylon,
+under Yátrámullé Unnánsé, a learned Buddhist for whom he cherished a
+life-long respect, and he had gained an insight into the Sinhalese
+character and ways of thought. In 1869 he published the first P[=a]li
+text ever printed in England, and began to prepare a P[=a]li dictionary,
+the first volume of which was published in 1872, and the second and
+concluding volume in 1875. In the following year it was awarded the
+Volney prize by the Institute of France, as being the most important
+philological work of the year. He was a frequent contributor to the
+Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which he published the
+_Mah[=a]-parinibb[=a]na Sutta_, the P[=a]li text giving the account of
+the last days of Buddha's life. In 1872 he was appointed sub-librarian
+at the India Office, and in the following year he became the first
+professor of P[=a]li and Buddhist literature at University College,
+London. He died in London on the 25th of July 1876.
+
+
+
+
+CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO. English law has always in theory given to
+children the same remedies as to adults for ill-usage, whether by their
+parents or by others, and has never recognized the _patria potestas_ as
+known to the earlier Roman law; and while powers of discipline and
+chastisement have been regarded as necessarily incident to paternal
+authority, the father is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done
+to them. The only points in which infancy created a defect in civil
+status were that infants were subject to the restraints on complete
+freedom of action involved in their being in the legal custody of the
+father, and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers
+and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in amount and
+severity to the nature of the fault committed and the age and mental
+capacity of the child punished. But the court of chancery, in delegated
+exercise of the authority of the sovereign as _parens patriae_, always
+asserted the right to take from parents, and if necessary itself to
+assume the wardship of children where parental rights were abused or
+serious cruelty was inflicted, the power being vested in the High Court
+of Justice. Abuse of the power of correction was regarded as giving a
+cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if attended by fatal
+results rendered the parent liable to indictment for murder or
+manslaughter.
+
+The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children undoubtedly
+changed considerably with the relaxation of the accepted standard of
+severity in domestic or scholastic discipline and with the growth of new
+ideas as to the duties of parents to children, which in their latest
+developments tend enormously to enlarge the parental duties without any
+corresponding increase of filial obligations.
+
+Starting from the earlier conception, which limited ill-treatment
+legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common law came to
+recognize criminal liability in cases where persons, bound under duty or
+contract to supply necessaries to a child, unable by reason of its
+tender years to provide for itself, wilfully neglected to supply them,
+and thereby caused the death of the child or injury to its health,
+although no actual assault had been committed. Questions have from time
+to time arisen as to what could be regarded as necessary within this
+rule; and quite apart from legislation, popular opinion has influenced
+courts of justice in requiring more from parents and employers than used
+to be required. But parliament has also intervened to punish abandonment
+or exposure of infants of under two years, whereby their lives are
+endangered, or their health has been or is likely to be permanently
+injured (Offences against the Person Act of 1861, s. 27), and the
+neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or servants (same act, s. 26,
+and Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875, s. 6). By the Poor
+Law Amendment Act 1868, parents were rendered _summarily_ punishable who
+wilfully neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid or
+lodging for their children under fourteen years of age in their custody,
+whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be seriously
+injured. This enactment (now superseded by later legislation) made no
+express exception in favour of parents who had not sufficient means to
+do their duty without resort to the poor law, and was construed as
+imposing criminal liability on parents whose peculiar religious tenets
+caused them advisedly to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick
+child.
+
+The chief progress in the direction of adequate protection for children
+prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the subject than
+in the institution of an effective system of police, whereby it became
+possible to discover and repress cruelty punishable under the ordinary
+law. It is quite inaccurate to say that children had very few rights in
+England, or that animals were better protected. But before the
+constitution of the present police force, and in the absence of any
+proper system of public prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless
+cases of neglect and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as
+nobody's business, because there was no person ready to undertake in the
+public interest the protection of the children of cruel or negligent
+parents. In 1889 a statute was passed with the special object of
+preventing cruelty to children. This act was superseded in 1894 by a
+more stringent act, which was repealed by the Prevention of Cruelty to
+Children Act 1904, in its turn superseded for the most part by the
+Children Act 1908, which introduced many new provisions in the law
+relating to children and specifically deals with the offence of
+"cruelty" to them. This offence can only be committed by a person over
+sixteen in respect of a child under sixteen of whom he has "custody,"
+"charge" or "care." The act presumes that a child is in the custody of
+its parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent, or of
+its guardians or persons liable by law to maintain it; that it is in the
+charge of a person to whom the parent has committed such charge (e.g. a
+schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a person who has actual
+possession or control of it. Cruelty is defined as consisting in
+assault, ill-treatment (falling short of actual assault), neglect,
+abandonment or exposure of the child in a manner likely to cause
+_unnecessary_ suffering or injury to health, including injury to or loss
+of sight, hearing or limb, or any organ of the body or any mental
+derangement; and the act or omission must be wilful, i.e. deliberate and
+intentional, and not merely accidental or inadvertent. The offence may
+be punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender may be
+sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was directly or
+indirectly interested in any sum of money payable on the death of the
+child, e.g. by having taken out a policy permitted under the Friendly
+Societies Acts. A parent or other person legally liable to maintain a
+child or young person will be deemed to have "neglected" him by failure
+to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid, or lodging, or if in
+the event of inability to provide such food, &c., by failure to take
+steps to procure the same under acts relating to the relief of the poor.
+
+These statutes overlap the common law and the statutes already
+mentioned. Their real efficacy lies in the main in the provisions which
+facilitate the taking of evidence of young children, in permitting poor
+law authorities to prosecute at the expense of the rates, and in
+permitting a constable on arresting the offender to take the child away
+from the accused, and the court of trial on conviction to transfer the
+custody of the child from the offender to some fit and willing person,
+including any society or body corporate established for the reception of
+poor children or for the prevention of cruelty to children. The
+provisions of the acts as to procedure and custody extend not only to
+the offence of cruelty but also to all offences involving bodily injury
+to a child under sixteen, such as abandonment, assault, kidnapping and
+illegally engaging a child in a dangerous public performance. The act
+of 1908 also makes an endeavour to check the heavy mortality of infants
+through "overlaying,"[1] enacting that where it is proved that the death
+of an infant under three years of age was caused by suffocation whilst
+the infant was in bed with some other person over the age of sixteen,
+and that that person was at the time of going to bed under the influence
+of drink, that other person shall be deemed to have neglected the child
+in manner likely to cause injury to its health, as mentioned above. The
+acts have been utilized with great zeal and on the whole with much
+discretion by various philanthropic societies, whose members make it
+their business to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all
+classes in society, and particularly by the Society for the Prevention
+of Cruelty to Children, which is incorporated under royal charter of the
+28th of May 1895, for the purposes _inter alia_ of preventing the public
+and private wrongs of children, and the corruption of their morals and
+of taking action to enforce the laws for their protection.
+
+The act of 1908 enacted more stringent provisions against baby-farming
+(q.v.). The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897 did not apply where only
+one child was taken, but now by the act of 1908, where a person
+undertakes for reward the nursing and maintenance of one or more infants
+under the age of _seven_ years apart from their parents or having no
+parents, he must give notice in writing to the local authority within
+forty-eight hours from the reception of the child. If an infant is
+already in the care of a person without reward and he undertakes to
+continue the nursing for reward, such undertaking is a reception of the
+child. The notice to the local authority must state the name, sex, date
+and place of birth of the infant, the name and address of the person
+receiving the infant and of the person from whom the infant was
+received. Notice must also be given of any change of address of the
+person having the care of the infant, or of the death of the infant, or
+of its removal to the care of some other person, whose name and address
+must also be given. It is the duty of local authorities to provide for
+the carrying-out in their districts of that portion of the act which
+refers to nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint infants'
+protection visitors, to fix the number of infants which any person may
+retain for nursing, to remove infants improperly kept, &c. Relatives or
+legal guardians of an infant who undertake its nursing and maintenance,
+hospitals, convalescent homes, or institutions, established for the
+protection and care of infants, and conducted in good faith for
+religious and charitable purposes, as well as boarding schools at which
+efficient elementary education is given, are exempt from the provisions
+of the act.
+
+The acts of 1904 and 1908 deal with many other offences in relation to
+children and young persons. The act of 1904 introduced restrictions on
+the employment of children which lie on the border land between cruelty
+and the regulation of child labour. It prohibits custodians of children
+from taking them, or letting them be, in the street or in public-houses
+to sing, play, perform or sell between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. These
+provisions apply to boys under fourteen and girls under sixteen. There
+are further prohibitions (1) on allowing children under eleven to sing,
+play, perform or be exhibited for profit, or offer anything for sale in
+public-houses or places of public amusement at any hour without a
+licence from a justice, which is granted only as to children over ten
+and under stringent conditions; (2) on allowing children under sixteen
+to be trained as acrobats, contortionists, or circus performers, or for
+any dangerous performance; and the Children's Dangerous Performances Act
+1879, as amended in 1897, makes it an offence to employ a male young
+person under sixteen and a female under eighteen in a dangerous public
+performance.
+
+The act of 1908 renders liable to a fine not exceeding £25, or
+alternatively, or in addition thereto, imprisonment with or without hard
+labour for any term not exceeding three months, any custodian, &c., of
+any child or young person who allows him to be in any street, premises
+or place for the purpose of begging or receiving alms, or of inducing
+the giving of alms, whether or not there is a pretence of singing,
+playing, performing or offering anything for sale. An important
+departure in the act of 1908 was the attempt to prevent the exposure of
+children to the risk of burning. Any custodian, &c., of a child under
+seven who allows that child to be in a room Containing an open grate not
+sufficiently protected to guard against the risk of burning or scalding
+is liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding £10. Provision
+is made against allowing children between the ages of four and sixteen
+to be in brothels; it is also made a misdemeanour if any custodian, &c.,
+of a girl under sixteen causes or encourages her seduction or
+prostitution, and any person having the custody of a young girl may be
+bound over to exercise proper care if it is shown to the satisfaction of
+a court of summary jurisdiction, on the complaint of any person, that
+she is exposed to such risk.
+
+The act of 1908, following legislation in many parts of the United
+States and in some of the British colonies, places a penalty on selling
+tobacco to any person apparently under the age of sixteen, whether for
+his own use or not. It empowers constables and park keepers to seize
+tobacco in the possession of any person apparently under sixteen found
+smoking in any street or public place, as well as to search them; it
+also empowers a court, of summary jurisdiction to prevent automatic
+machines for the sale of tobacco being used by young persons. The act
+also contains useful provisions empowering the clearing of a court
+whilst a child or young person is giving evidence in certain cases (e.g.
+of decency or morality), and the forbidding children (other than infants
+in arms) being present in court during the trial of other persons; it
+places a penalty on pawnbrokers taking an article in pawn from children
+under fourteen; and on vagrants for preventing children above the age of
+five receiving education. It puts a penalty on giving intoxicating
+liquor to any child under the age of five, except upon the orders of a
+duly qualified medical practitioner, or in case of sickness, or other
+urgent cause; also upon any holder of the licence of any licensed
+premises who allows a child to be at any time in the bar of the licensed
+premises; or upon any person who causes or attempts to cause a child to
+be in the bar of licensed premises other than railway refreshment rooms
+or premises used for any purpose to which the holding of a licence is
+merely auxiliary, or where the child is there simply for the purpose of
+passing through to some other part of the premises. It makes provision
+for the safety of children at entertainments, and consolidates the law
+relating to reformatory and industrial schools, and to juvenile
+offenders (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS).
+
+In the act of 1908, "child" is denned as a person under the age of
+fourteen years, and "young person" as a person who is fourteen years and
+upwards and under the age of sixteen years. The act applies to Scotland
+and Ireland. In the application of the act to Ireland exception is made
+relative to the exclusion of children from bars of licensed premises, in
+the case of a child being on licensed premises where a substantial part
+of the business carried on is a drapery, grocery, hardware or other
+business wholly unconnected with the sale of intoxicating liquor, and
+the child is there for the purpose of purchasing goods other than
+intoxicating liquor.
+
+_British Possessions._--Legislation much on the lines of the acts of
+1889-1908 has been passed in many British possessions, e.g. Tasmania
+(1895, 1906), Queensland (1896, 1905), Jamaica (1896), South Australia
+(1899, 1904), New South Wales (1892 and 1900), New Zealand (1906),
+Mauritius (1906), Victoria (1905,1906). In South Australia a State
+Children's Department has been created to care for and manage the
+property and persons of destitute and neglected children, and the
+officials of the council may act in cases of cruelty to children; the
+legislation of Victoria and Queensland is based on that of South
+Australia. See also CHILDREN'S COURTS, EDUCATION and LABOUR LEGISLATION.
+    (W. F. C.; T. A. I.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+    [1] There has been some doubt as to whether it is more correct to
+    say a person "_overlays_" or "_overlies_" a child, and the question
+    came up in committee on the bill. According to Sir J.A.H. Murray
+    (see Letter in _The Times_, 12th of May 1908) "to lie," an
+    intransitive verb, becomes transitive when combined with a
+    preposition, e.g. a nurse lies over a child or overlies a child; "to
+    lay" is the causal derivative of "to lie," and is followed by two
+    objects, e.g. to lay the table with a cloth, or to lay a cloth on
+    the table; similarly, to overlay a surface with varnish, or to
+    overlay a child with a blanket, or with the nurse's or mother's
+    body. The instrument can be left unexpressed, and a person can be
+    said to overlay a child, i.e. with her own body, a pillow, &c. Thus,
+    while "overlie" covers the case where the woman herself lies over
+    the child, "overlay" is the more general word.
+
+
+
+
+CHILDRENITE, a rare mineral species; a hydrous basic aluminium iron
+phosphate, orthorhombic in crystallization. The ferrous oxide is in part
+replaced by manganous oxide and lime, and in the closely allied and
+isomorphous species eosphorite manganese predominates over iron. The
+general formula for the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH)2PO2 + H2O.
+Childrenite is found only as small brilliant crystals of a
+yellowish-brown colour, somewhat resembling chalybite in general
+appearance. They are usually pyramidal in habit, often having the form
+of double six-sided pyramids with the triangular faces deeply striated
+parallel to their shorter edges. Hardness 4.5-5; specific gravity
+3.18-3.24. The mineral, named after the zoologist and mineralogist J.G.
+Children (1777-1852), secretary of the Royal Society, was detected in
+1823 on specimens obtained some years previously during the cutting of a
+canal near Tavistock in Devonshire. It has also been found in a few
+copper mines in Cornwall and Devonshire.
+
+Eosphorite occurs as crystals of prismatic habit with angles very nearly
+the same as those of childrenite. Unlike childrenite, it has a distinct
+cleavage in one direction, and often occurs in compact masses as well as
+in crystals. The colour is sometimes yellowish-white, but usually
+rose-pink, and on this account the mineral was named from [Greek:
+êosphoros], dawn-bearer. Hardness 5; specific gravity 3.11-3.145. It was
+discovered in 1878 in a pegmatite-vein at Branchville, Connecticut,
+where it is associated with other rare manganese phosphates.    (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILDREN'S COURTS, or JUVENILE COURTS, a special system of tribunals for
+dealing with juvenile offenders, first suggested in the United States.
+The germ of such institutions was planted in Massachusetts in 1869, when
+a plan was introduced at Boston of hearing charges against children
+separately, and apart from the ordinary business of the lesser
+tribunals. No great progress was made in the development of the idea in
+Massachusetts, as the legal authorities were not fully convinced of the
+utility or need for a separate court so long as the children were kept
+strictly apart from adults, and this could be assured by a separate
+session. But the system of "probation," by which children were handed
+over to the kindly care and guardianship of an appointed officer, and
+thus escaped legal repression, was created about the same time in Boston
+and produced excellent results. The probation officer is present at the
+judge's side when he decides a case, and is given charge of the
+offender, whom he takes by the hand, either at his parent's residence or
+at school, and continually supervises, having power if necessary to
+bring him again before the judge. The example of Massachusetts in due
+course influenced other countries, and especially the British colony of
+South Australia, where a State Children's Department was created at
+Adelaide in 1895, and three years later a juvenile court was opened
+there for the trial of persons under eighteen and was conducted with
+great success, though the system of probation officers was not
+introduced. A juvenile court was also established at Toronto (Canada) on
+the South Australian model.
+
+The movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very rapidly. In the
+United States Illinois was the first state to call a distinct children's
+court into existence, and Judge Richard Tuthill was the pioneer at
+Chicago, where the court was established in 1899. Many states followed
+suit, including New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Kansas,
+Colorado, Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1906.
+In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the Society for
+the Protection of Children, there is a separate children's court with
+rooms attached, where the children for detention wait till they are
+brought in for trial. Brooklyn has also a children's court. In
+Pennsylvania, where the juvenile court was at first opposed as
+unconstitutional, the difficulty was met by first bringing the child
+before the magistrate in the police court, a course which (though
+followed by his transferring the case to the special court) perpetuated
+the very evils the children's court was intended to avoid; the work of
+probation was, however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by female
+officers. The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an
+especially appointed judge, and policemen act as probation officers to
+some extent. The court of Indianapolis, however, gained the reputation
+of being the most complete and perfect in the United States. It works
+with a large and highly efficient band of volunteer probation officers
+under a chief. The juvenile court of Denver, Colorado, attained
+remarkable results under Judge B. Lindsey, whose magnetic personality,
+wonderful comprehension of boy nature, and extraordinary influence over
+them achieved great results. The court meets once a fortnight, when
+fresh cases are tried and boys already on probation report themselves,
+often to the number of two hundred at a time. The latter appear before
+the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a sealed
+letter, and according to its purport receives praise or blame, or he may
+be committed to the Detention House. An efficient court was also
+constituted at Baltimore, Maryland, with a judge especially chosen to
+preside, probation being for fixed periods, varying from three months to
+three years, and children being brought back to the court for parole or
+discharge, or, if necessary, committal to the house of one of the
+philanthropic societies. In Washington, D.C., the system of having no
+distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was followed,
+and it was found that numbers of children came to the court for help and
+guidance, looking upon the judge for the time being as their friend and
+counsellor. Probation in this instance offered peculiar difficulties on
+account of the colour question, two-thirds of the children having negro
+blood and a white boy being always preferred for a vacant situation.
+Throughout, the action of juvenile courts in the United States has been
+to bring each individual into "human touch" with kindly helpful workers
+striving to lead the young idea aright and train it to follow the
+straight path. It was the result always of the effort of private persons
+and not due to government initiative, indeed the advocates and champions
+of the system only established it by overcoming strong opposition from
+the authorities.
+
+Progress in the same direction has been made in England. The home office
+had recommended London police magistrates to keep children's cases
+separate from those of adults; the same practice or something analogous
+obtained in many county boroughs, such as Bath, Birmingham, Bristol,
+Bolton, Bradford, Hull, Manchester, Walsall, Halifax and others, and the
+Children Act 1908 definitely established children's courts. This act
+enacted that courts of summary jurisdiction when hearing charges, &c.,
+against children or young persons should, unless the child or young
+person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different building or
+room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the court are held, or
+on different days or at different times. Furthermore, provision must be
+made for preventing persons apparently under the age of sixteen years
+whilst being conveyed to or from court, or whilst waiting before or
+after their attendance in court, from associating with adults, unless
+such adults are charged jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons
+other than members and officers of the court, the parties to the case,
+their solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the
+case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave of the
+court. Bona-fide press representatives are also excepted. The main
+object of the whole system is to keep the child, the embryotic offender
+who has probably erred from ignorance or the pressure of circumstances
+or misfortune, altogether free from the taint or contagion that attaches
+to criminal proceedings. The moral atmosphere of a legal tribunal is
+injurious to the youthful mind, and children who appear before a bench,
+whether as accused or as witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with
+legal processes.
+
+The most beneficial action of the children's court comes from its
+association with the system of personal guardianship and close
+supervision exercised by the probation officers, official and voluntary.
+Where the intervention of the newly constituted tribunal can not only
+save the child from evil association when first arrested, but can rescue
+him without condemnation and committal to prison, its functions may be
+relied upon to diminish crime by cutting it off at the source. Much
+depends upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority.
+Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, firm, sympathetic,
+tactful and able to gain the confidence of those brought before him, he
+may do great good, by dealing with each individual and not merely with
+his offence, realizing that the court does not exist to condemn but to
+strengthen and give a fresh chance. Where the children's court is only a
+branch of the existing jurisdiction worked by the regular magistrate or
+judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen, the
+beneficial results are not so noticeable.    (A. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILDREN'S GAMES. The study of traditional games has in recent years
+become an important branch of folklore research in England, and has
+contributed not a little towards elucidating many unrecorded facts in
+early history. These games may be broadly divided into two
+kinds--dramatic games, and games of skill and chance. These differ
+materially in their object. Games of skill and chance are played for the
+purpose of winning property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic
+games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided between
+boys' games and girls' games. Boys' games are mostly of a contest
+character, girls' of a more domestic type. The boys' dramatic games have
+preserved some interesting beliefs and customs, but the tendency in
+these games, such as "prisoner's base," has been to drop the words and
+tune and to preserve only that part (action) which tends best for
+exercise and use in school playgrounds. The girls' singing-games have
+not developed on these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of
+their early characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune
+and action. The words, in verse, express ideas contained in customs not
+now in vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking place between
+men and women and between people of different villages. The tunes are
+simple, and the same tune is frequently used for different games. The
+actions are illustrative of the ideas to be expressed. The players
+represent various objects--animals, villages and people. The singing
+game is therefore not a game in the usual sense of the word. There is no
+element of "gambling" or playing "to win" in it--no one is richer or
+poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to play together.
+It is really a "play," and has survived because it has handed down some
+instances of custom and belief which were deeply rooted and which made a
+strong appeal to the imagination of our ancestors. The singing games
+represent in dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances
+common to people in early stages of development. These dances celebrated
+events which served to bind the people together and to give them a
+common interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were dramatic
+in character, singing and action forming a part of them, and their
+performers were connected by ties of place or kindred. They are probably
+survivals of what we might call folk drama. In these times it was held
+imperative to perform religious ceremonies periodically; at sowing and
+harvesting to ensure good crops; in the care of cattle and on occasions
+of marriage, birth and death. These were matters affecting the welfare
+of the whole community. Events were celebrated with dance, song and
+feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected with some
+belief which rendered ceremony necessary.
+
+At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for their
+basis, but in process of time they became purely secular and were
+performed at certain seasons only, because it was the custom to do so.
+They then became recognized as beautiful or pleasing things in the life
+of the people, and so continued, altering somewhat in ideas but
+retaining their old dramatic forms. They were danced by old and young at
+festivals and holidays, these being held about the same time of year as
+that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been held.
+
+Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods, "line" and
+"circle." These represent two of the early forms of dramatic action. The
+"line" form (two lines of players standing opposite each other having a
+space of ground between them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents
+two different and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest.
+This method is used in all cases where contest is involved. The "circle"
+form, on the other hand, where all players join hands, represents those
+occasions when all the people of one place were engaged in celebrating
+events in which all were interested. Thus games celebrating sowing and
+harvest, and those associated with love and marriage, are played in this
+form. Both these methods allow of development. The circle varies from
+examples where all perform the same actions and say the same words to
+that where two or more players have principal parts, the others only
+singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the singing has
+disappeared. The form or method of play and the actions constitute the
+oldest remaining parts of the game (the words being subject to
+alterations and loss through ignorance of their meaning), and it is to
+this form or method, the actions and the accompaniment of song, that
+they owe their survival, appealing as they do to the strong dramatic
+instinct of children and of uncultured folk.
+
+It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known singing
+games. In "line" form, a fighting game is "We are the Rovers." The words
+tell us of two opposing parties fighting for their land; both sides
+alternately deride one another and end by fighting until one side is
+victorious. Two other "line" games, "Nuts in May" and "Here come three
+dukes a-riding," are also games of contest, but not for territory. These
+show an early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by
+capture, and are played in "line" form because of the element of contest
+contained in the custom. Another form, the "arch," is also used to
+indicate contest.
+
+Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest and
+marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and sanction by
+assembled friends. "Oats and beans and barley" and "Sally Water" are
+typical of this form. The large majority of circle games deal with love
+or marriage and domestic life. The customs surviving in these games deal
+with tribal life and take us back to "foundation sacrifice," "well
+worship," "sacredness of fire," besides marriage and funeral customs.
+
+  Details may be found in the periodical publications of the Folk-lore
+  Society, and particularly in the following works:--A.B. Gomme's
+  _Traditional Games of Great Britain_ (2 vols., Nutt, 1894-1898);
+  Gomme's _Children's Singing Games_ (Nutt, 1904.); Eckenstein's
+  _Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes_ (Duckworth, 1906); Maclagan,
+  _Games of Argyllshire_, Folk-lore Society (1900); Newell's _Games of
+  American Children_ (Harper Bros., New York, 1884). In Mrs Gomme's
+  _Traditional Games_, several versions of each game, together with a
+  short account of the suggested origin and of the custom or belief
+  indicated, are given for each game. In vol. ii. (pp. 458-531) a memoir
+  of the history of games is given, and the customs and beliefs which
+  originated them, reviewing the whole subject from the anthropological
+  point of view, and showing the place which games occupy among the
+  evidences of early man. In Miss Eckenstein's comparative study of
+  nursery rhymes suggested origins are given for many of these, and an
+  attempt made to localize certain of the customs and events. In several
+  of the publications of the Folk-lore Society local collections of
+  games are given, all of which may be studied with advantage. Stubbes
+  and other early writers give many instances of boys' games in their
+  days, many of which still exist. Tylor and other writers on
+  anthropology, in dealing with savage custom, confirm the views here
+  expressed. For nursery rhymes see Halliwell, _Nursery Rhymes_ (1845),
+  and Chambers's _Popular Rhymes_ (first printed 1841, reprinted in
+  1870). The recently collected _Morris Dances_ by Mr Cecil Sharp should
+  also be consulted. One of the morris dances, bean-setting, evidently
+  dealing with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while
+  others indicating fighting or rivalry are danced in line form, each
+  line dancing in circle before crossing over to the opposite, side, and
+  thus conforming to the laws already shown to exist in the more
+  ordinary game.    (A. B. G.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1829-1894), American publisher, was born in
+Baltimore, Maryland, on the 12th of May 1829. He was educated in the
+public schools, and after a brief term of service in the navy, he became
+in 1843 a clerk in a book-shop at Philadelphia. There, in 1847, he
+established an independent book-shop, and two years later organized the
+publishing house of Childs & Peterson. In 1864, with Anthony J. Drexel,
+he purchased the _Public Ledger_, at that time a little known newspaper;
+he completely changed its policy and methods, and made it one of the
+most influential journals in the country. He died at Philadelphia on the
+3rd of February 1894. Childs was widely known for his public spirit and
+philanthropy. In addition to numerous private benefactions in
+educational and charitable fields, he erected memorial windows to
+William Cowper and George Herbert in Westminster Abbey (1877), and to
+Milton in St Margaret's, Westminster (1888), a monument to Leigh Hunt at
+Kensal Green, a Shakespeare memorial fountain at Stratford-on-Avon
+(1887), and monuments to Edgar Allan Poe and to Richard A. Proctor. He
+gave Woodland Cemetery to the Typographical Society of Philadelphia for
+a printers' burial-ground, and with Anthony J. Drexel founded in 1892 a
+home for Union printers at Colorado Springs, Colorado.
+
+His _Recollections_ were published at Philadelphia in 1890.
+
+
+
+
+CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua _chiri_, cold, or
+_tchili_, snow), a republic of South America, occupying the narrow
+western slope of the continent between Peru and its southern extremity.
+(For map see ARGENTINA.) It extends from the northern boundary of the
+province of Tacna, about 17° 25' S., to Cape Horn at the extreme
+southern point of the Fuegian archipelago in 55° 58' 40'' S., with an
+extreme meridian length of 2661 m., and with a coast line considerably
+exceeding that figure owing to a westward curve of about 3-1/2° and an
+eastward trend south of 50° S. of nearly 8°. Its mainland width ranges
+from about 46 to 228 m., and its area, including the islands of the
+southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774 sq. m., though the
+Gotha computation (1904) places it at 293,062 sq. m. Chile is thus a
+ribbon-like strip of territory between the Andes and the Pacific,
+comparatively regular north of the 42nd parallel, but with an extremely
+ragged outline south of that line. It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by
+Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W. by the Pacific. Its eastern boundary
+lines are described under ARGENTINA and BOLIVIA. The war of 1879-81 with
+Peru and Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-fourth
+her total area. By subsequent agreements the Bolivian department of the
+Literal, or Atacama, and the Peruvian department of Tarapacá, were
+formally ceded to Chile, and the northern frontier was removed to the
+river Camarones, which enters the Pacific at 19° 12' S. Under the treaty
+of Ancon (20th October 1883) Chile was to retain possession of the
+provinces of Tacna and Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of
+Moquegua for a period of ten years, and then submit "to popular vote
+whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru." At the
+expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the
+agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible possession of
+the territory. This arbitrary retention of Tacna and Arica, which became
+the province of Tacna under Chilean administration, removed the frontier
+still farther north, to the river Sama, which separates that province
+from the remaining part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Starting
+from the mouth of that river, in 17° 57' S., the disputed boundary
+follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in the
+Alto do Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the water parting to the
+Bolivian boundary line in the Cordillera Silillica.
+
+  _Physiography._--For purposes of general topographical description
+  Chile may be divided into three regions: the desert region of the
+  north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of
+  Coquimbo and Llanquihue, and the heavily-forested rainy region south
+  of lat. 41° S. The desert region is an elevated arid plateau
+  descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it breaks
+  down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft. From the sea this
+  plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat topped hills
+  closely following the coast line. The surface is made up of extensive
+  plains covered with sand and deposits of alkaline salts, broken by
+  ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs from the Andes,
+  and by irregular lateral ranges in the vicinity of the main cordillera
+  enclosing elevated saline plateaus. This region is rainless, barren
+  and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vegetation except in some
+  small river valleys where irrigation is possible, and on the slopes of
+  some of the snow-covered peaks where the water from the melting snows
+  nourishes a scanty and coarse vegetation before it disappears in the
+  thirsty sands. It is very rich in mineral and saline deposits,
+  however. The eastern parts of this region lie within the higher ranges
+  of the Andes and include a large district awarded to Chile in 1899
+  (see ARGENTINA and ATACAMA). This arid, bleak area is apparently a
+  continuation southward of the great Bolivian _altaplanicie_, and is
+  known as the Puna de Atacama. Its average elevation is estimated at
+  11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line of volcanoes crosses it from north to
+  south, and extensive lava beds cover a considerable part of its
+  surface. Large shallow saline lakes are also characteristic features
+  of this region. From 28° S. the spurs from the cordillera toward the
+  coast are more sharply defined and enclose deeper valleys, where the
+  cultivation of the soil becomes possible, at first through irrigation
+  and then with the aid of light periodical rains. The slopes of the
+  Andes are precipitous, the general surface is rough, and in the north
+  the higher ground and coast are still barren. Beginning with the
+  province of Aconcagua the coast elevations crystallize into a range of
+  mountains, the Cordillera Maritima, which follows the shore line south
+  to the province of Llanquihue, and is continued still farther south by
+  the mountain range of Chiloé and the islands of the western coast,
+  which are the peaks of a submerged mountain chain. Lying between this
+  coast range and the Andes is a broad valley, or plain, extending from
+  the Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly
+  over 620 m. with an average width of about 60 m. It is sometimes
+  called the "Vale of Chile," and is the richest and most
+  thickly-populated part of the republic. It is a highly fertile region,
+  is well watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate
+  rainfall, and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great
+  productiveness. It slopes toward the south, and its lower levels are
+  filled with lakes and with depressions where lakes formerly existed.
+  It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy
+  tracts, as in Ñuble and Arauco; in the north very little natural
+  forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the
+  enclosing mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is
+  heavier, the plain is well covered with forest. South of 41° S. the
+  country is mountainous, heavily-forested and inhospitable. There are
+  only a few scattered settlements within its borders, and a few nomadic
+  tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast. The
+  deeply-indented coast line is filled with islands which preserve the
+  general outline of the continent southward to the Fuegian archipelago,
+  the outside groups forming a continuation of the Cordillera Maritima.
+  The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout this region, especially
+  in the latitude of Chiloé, gives rise to a large number of rivers and
+  lakes. Farther south this excessive precipitation is in the form of
+  snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at a comparatively low level
+  which in places discharge into the inlets and bays of the sea. The
+  extreme southern part of this region extends eastward to the Atlantic
+  entrance to the Straits of Magellan, and includes the greater part of
+  the large island of Tierra del Fuego with all the islands lying south
+  and west of it. There are some comparatively level stretches of
+  country immediately north of the Straits, partly forested and partly
+  grassy plains, where sheep farming has been established with some
+  degree of success, but the greater part of this extreme southern
+  territory is mountainous, cold, wet and inhospitable. The perpetual
+  snow-line here descends to 3500 to 4000 ft. above sea-level, and the
+  forest growth does not rise above an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  It has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile
+  comprise about twenty-five millions of acres (slightly over 39,000 sq.
+  m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area. The desert regions
+  of the north include comparatively large areas of plains and gently
+  sloping surfaces, traversed by ranges of barren hills. The remainder
+  of the republic, probably more than three-fifths of its surface, is
+  extremely mountainous. The western slopes of the Andes, with its spurs
+  and lateral ranges, cover a broad zone on the eastern side of the
+  republic, and the Cordillera Maritima covers another broad zone on its
+  western side from about lat. 33° to the southern extremity of Chiloé,
+  or below lat. 43°. This maritime range is traversed by several river
+  valleys, some of which, like the Bio-Bio, are broad and have so gentle
+  a slope as to be navigable. The Andes, however, present an unbroken
+  barrier on the east, except at a few points in the south where the
+  general elevation is not over 5000 to 6000 ft., and where some of the
+  Chilean rivers, as the Palena and Las Heras, have their sources on its
+  eastern side. From the 52nd to about the 31st parallel this great
+  mountain system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes,
+  apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes
+  short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several
+  parallel ranges appear on the Argentine side and one on the Chilean
+  side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau. The
+  Chilean lateral range, which extends from the 29th to the 19th
+  parallels, traverses an elevated desert region and possesses several
+  noteworthy peaks, among which are Cerro Bolson, 16,017 ft., and Cerro
+  Dona Ines, 16,706 ft. It is broken to some extent in crossing the
+  province of Antofagasta, the southern division being known as the
+  Sierra de Huatacondo. At the southern frontier of Bolivia the main
+  chain, which has served as the boundary line between Argentina and
+  Chile, divides into two great ranges, the principal one continuing
+  almost due north along the eastern side of the great Bolivian
+  _alta-planicie_, and the other forming its western rim, where it is
+  known as the Cordillera Silillica, and then following the trend of the
+  coast north-westward into Peru becomes the Cordillera Occidental. The
+  western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with short spurs
+  enclosing deep valleys. The whole system is volcanic, and a
+  considerable number of volcanoes are still intermittently active,
+  noticeably in central and southern Chile. The culminating point of the
+  Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of 23,097 ft.
+
+  In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation of
+  these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined. The
+  highest of these apparently detached groups are Mt. Macá (lat. 45°
+  S.), 9711 ft., and Mt. Arenales (about 47° S. lat.), 11,286 ft.
+  Cathedral Peak on Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft. and
+  the highest point on Taytao peninsula to 3937 ft. The coast range of
+  central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating point in
+  the province of Santiago being 7316 ft. Between central Chile and the
+  northern desert region there is a highly mountainous district where
+  distinct ranges or elongated spurs cross the republic from the Andes
+  to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great beauty and
+  fertility. The most famous of these is the "Vale of Quillota" between
+  Valparaiso and Santiago. The Chilean Andes between Tacna and Valdivia
+  are crossed by 24 passes, the majority of them at elevations exceeding
+  10,000 ft. The best-known of these is the Uspallata pass between
+  Santiago and the Argentine city of Mendoza, 12,870 ft. above
+  sea-level. The passes of central and southern Chile are used only in
+  the summer season, but those of northern Chile are open throughout the
+  whole year.
+
+  The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively recent
+  elevation still subject Chile, in common with other parts of the
+  western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances.
+  In some instances since European occupation, violent earthquake shocks
+  have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of the
+  coast. After the great earthquake of 1835 Captain Robert FitzRoy
+  (1805-1865) of H.M.S. "Beagle" found putrid mussel-shells still
+  adhering to the rocks 10 ft. above high water on the island of Santa
+  Maria, 30 m. from Concepción, and Charles Darwin declares, in
+  describing that disaster, that "there can be no doubt that the land
+  round the bay of Concepción was upraised two or three feet." These
+  upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land
+  sometimes settling back to its former position. This happened on the
+  island of Santa Maria after 1835. The existence of sea-shells at
+  elevations of 350 to 1300 ft. in other parts of the republic shows
+  that these forces, supplemented by a gradual uplifting of the coast,
+  have been in operation through long periods of time and that the
+  greater part of central and southern Chile has been raised from the
+  sea in this way. These earthquake shocks have two distinct
+  characteristics, a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible,
+  called a _temblor_, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a
+  violent horizontal or rotary vibration, or motion, also repeated at
+  frequent intervals, called a _terremoto_, which is caused by a
+  fracture or displacement of the earth's strata at some particular
+  point, and often results in considerable damage. When the earthquake
+  occurs on the coast, or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves
+  are sometimes formed, which cause even greater damage than the
+  earthquake itself. Arica has been three times destroyed by tidal
+  waves, and other small towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered
+  similar disasters. Coquimbo was swept by a tidal wave in 1849, and
+  Concepción and Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835. The great
+  earthquake which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was
+  not followed by a tidal wave. These violent shocks are usually limited
+  to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may be felt at
+  long distances from the centre of disturbance. In this respect Chile
+  may be divided into at least four great earthquake areas, two in the
+  desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and the fourth
+  extending from Concepción to Chiloé. A study of Chilean earthquake
+  phenomena, however, would probably lead to a division of southern
+  Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas.
+
+
+    Coast.
+
+  The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of islands
+  extending from Chiloé S. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which shows
+  that they are in part the summits of a submerged mountain chain, a
+  continuation southward of the Cordillera Maritima. Three groups of
+  these islands, called the Chiloé, Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes,
+  lie N. of the Taytao peninsula (lat. 45° 50' to 46° 55' S.), and with
+  the mainland to the E. form the province of Chiloé. The largest of
+  these is the island of Chiloé, which is inhabited. Some of the smaller
+  islands of these groups are also inhabited, though the excessive
+  rainfall of these latitudes and the violent westerly storms render
+  them highly unfavourable for human occupation. Some of the smallest
+  islands are barren rocks, but the majority of them are covered with
+  forests. These archipelagoes are separated from the mainland in the
+  north by the gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 m.
+  wide, which appear to be a submerged part of the great central valley
+  of Chile, and farther south by the narrower Moraleda channel, which
+  terminates southward in a confusing network of passages between the
+  mainland and the islands of the Chonos group. One of the narrow parts
+  of the Chilean mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of
+  this group, where the accidental juxtaposition of Magdalena island,
+  which indents the continent over half a degree at this point, and the
+  basin of Lake Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp
+  wedge-shaped projection westward, narrows the distance between the
+  two to about 26 m. The Taytao peninsula, incorrectly called the Tres
+  Montes on some maps, is a westward projection of the mainland, with
+  which it is connected by the narrow isthmus of Ofqui, over which the
+  natives and early missionaries were accustomed to carry their boats
+  between the Moraleda Channel and Gulf of Peñas. A short ship canal
+  here would give an uninterrupted and protected inside passage from
+  Chacao Channel all the way to the Straits of Magellan, a distance of
+  over 760 m. A southern incurving projection of the outer shore-line of
+  this peninsula is known as Tres Montes peninsula, the most southern
+  point of which is a cape of the same name. Below the Taytao peninsula
+  is the broad open Gulf of Peñas, which carries the coast-line eastward
+  fully 100 m. and is noticeably free from islands. The northern
+  entrance to Messier Channel is through this gulf. Messier, Pitt,
+  Sarmiento and Smyth's Channels, which form a comparatively safe and
+  remarkably picturesque inside route for small steamers, about 338 m.
+  in length, separate another series of archipelagoes from the mainland.
+  These channels are in places narrow and tortuous. Among the islands
+  which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Azopardo
+  (lying within Baker Inlet), Prince Henry, Campaña, Little Wellington,
+  Great Wellington and Mornington (of the Wellington archipelago), Madre
+  de Dios, Duke of York, Chatham, Hanover, Cambridge, Contreras, Rennell
+  and the Queen Adelaide group of small barren rocks and islands lying
+  immediately north of the Pacific entrance to the Straits of Magellan.
+  The large number of English names on this coast is due to the fact
+  that the earliest detailed survey of this region was made by English
+  naval officers; the charts prepared from their surveys are still in
+  use and form the basis of all subsequent maps. None of these islands
+  is inhabited, although some of them are of large size, the largest
+  (Great Wellington) being about 100 m. long. It has likewise been
+  determined, since the boundary dispute with Argentina called attention
+  to these territories and led to their careful exploration at the
+  points in dispute, that Skyring Water, in lat. 53° S., opens westward
+  into the Gulf of Xaultegua, which transforms Ponsonby Land and Cordoba
+  (or Croker) peninsula into an island, to which the name of Riesco has
+  been given. The existence of such a channel was considered probable
+  when these inland waters were first explored in 1829 by Captain
+  FitzRoy, but it was not discovered and surveyed until three-quarters
+  of a century had elapsed. Belonging to the Fuegian group south of the
+  Straits of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Ines, Clarence, Dawson,
+  Londonderry, Hoste, Navarin and Wollaston islands, with innumerable
+  smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores and filling the
+  channels between them. Admirable descriptions of this inhospitable
+  region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts of the globe, may be
+  found in the _Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty's
+  Ships "Adventure" and "Beagle" between the years 1826 and 1836_ (3
+  vols., 1839).
+
+  The western and larger part of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.) belongs to
+  Chile. About 63 m. S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat. 56° 25' S., is the Diego
+  Ramirez group of small, rocky islands, the most southern possession of
+  the republic. Its westernmost possessions are Sala-y-Gomez and Easter
+  islands, the former in about 27° S., 105° W., and the latter, the
+  easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, in 27° 6' S., 109° 17' W.
+  Much nearer the Chilean coast (396 m.), lying between the 33rd and
+  34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan Fernandez group, and
+  rising apparently from the same submerged plateau about 500 m. farther
+  north of the latter are the rocky islets of San Ambrosio and San
+  Felix, all belonging to Chile. North of Chiloé there are few islands
+  in close proximity to the coast. The more important of these are La
+  Mocha, off the southern coast of Arauco, in lat. 38° 20' S., which is
+  8 m. long and rises to an elevation of 1240 ft. above the sea; Santa
+  Maria, 30 m. south-west of Concepcion, which partially encloses the
+  Bay of Arauco and is well cultivated; and Quiriquina, lying off the
+  port of Talcahuano in the entrance to Concepción bay. There are a few
+  barren islands on the desert coast, the largest of which are between
+  Coquimbo and Caldera. Since the removal of their guano deposits they
+  have become practically worthless, except where they serve to shelter
+  anchorages.
+
+
+    Harbours.
+
+  The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient in
+  good harbours. Those of the desert region are only slight indentations
+  in a remarkably uniform coast-line, sheltered on one side by a point
+  of land, or small island. The landings are generally dangerous because
+  of the surf, and the anchorages are unsafe from storms on the
+  unprotected side. Among the most frequented of these are Valparaiso,
+  Coquimbo, Caldera, Iquique and Arica. There are some small harbours
+  for coasting vessels of light draught along the coast of central
+  Chile, usually at the partially obstructed mouths of the larger
+  rivers, as San Antonio near the mouth of the Maipó, Constitución at
+  the mouth of the Maule, and Llico on the outlet of Lake Vichuquen, but
+  there is no harbour of importance until Conceptión (or Talcahuano) Bay
+  is reached. There are three harbours on this bay, El Tomé, Penco and
+  Talcahuano (q.v.), the last being the largest and best-protected port
+  on the inhabited part of the Chilean coast. Immediately south of this
+  bay is the large Bay of Arauco, into which the Bio-Bio river
+  discharges, and on which, sheltered by the island of Santa Maria, are
+  the ports of Coronel and Lota. The next important harbour is that of
+  El Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia river and 15 m. below the
+  city of Valdivia. The Bay of San Carlos on the northern coast of
+  Chiloé, which opens upon the narrow Chacao channel, has the port of
+  Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for vessels of
+  light and medium draught. Inside the island of Chiloé the large gulfs
+  of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado are well protected from the severe
+  westerly storms of these latitudes, but they are little used because
+  the approach through the Chacao channel is tortuous and only 2 to 3 m.
+  wide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 m. wide and 150 m. long, are
+  beset with small rocky islands. At the north end of the first is the
+  Reloncavi, a large and nearly landlocked bay, on which stands Puerto
+  Montt, the southern terminus of the Chilean central railway. The large
+  Gulf of Peñas, south of Taytao peninsula, is open to the westerly
+  storms of the Pacific, but it affords entrance to several natural
+  harbours. Among these are the Gulfs of Tres Montes and San Estevan,
+  and Tarn Bay at the entrance to Messier Channel. The next 300 m. of
+  the Chilean coast contain numerous bays and inlets affording safe
+  harbours, but the mainland and islands are uninhabited and the climate
+  inhospitable. Behind Rennell Island in lat. 52° S., however, is a
+  succession of navigable estuaries which penetrate inland nearly to the
+  Argentine frontier. The central part of this group of estuaries is
+  called Worsley Sound, and the last and farthest inland of its arms is
+  Last Hope Inlet (Ultima Esperanza), on which is situated the Chilean
+  agricultural colony of Puerto Consuelo. The Straits of Magellan, about
+  360 m. in length, lie wholly within Chilean territory. Midway of them
+  is situated Punta Arenas, the most southern town and port of the
+  republic.
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  Except in the extreme south the hydrography of Chile is of the
+  simplest description, all the larger rivers having their sources in
+  the Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific. Their courses are
+  necessarily short, and only a few have navigable channels, the
+  aggregate length of which is only 705 m. Nearly all rivers in the
+  desert region are lost in the sands long before reaching the coast.
+  Their waterless channels are interesting, however, as evidence of a
+  time when climatological conditions on this coast were different. The
+  principal rivers of this region are Sama (which forms the provisional
+  boundary line with Peru), Tacna, Camarones, Loa, Copiapó, Huasco,
+  Elqui, Limari and Choapa. The Loa is the largest, having its sources
+  on the slopes of the Cordillera south of the Minho volcano, between
+  21° and 21° 30' S. lat., and flowing south on an elevated plateau to
+  Chiuchiu, and thence west and north in a great curve to Quillaga,
+  whence its dry channel turns westward again and reaches the Pacific in
+  lat. 21° 28' S., a few miles south of the small port of Huanillos. Its
+  total length is estimated at 250 m. The upper courses of the river are
+  at a considerable elevation above the sea and receive a large volume
+  of water from the Cordilleras. The water of its upper course and
+  tributaries is sweet, and is conducted across the desert in pipes to
+  some of the coast towns, but in its lower course, as in all the rivers
+  of this region, it becomes brackish. The Copiapó, which once
+  discharged into the sea, is now practically exhausted in irrigating a
+  small fertile valley in which stands the city of that name. The
+  Copiapó and Huasco have comparatively short courses, but they receive
+  a considerable volume of water from the higher sierras. The latter is
+  also used to irrigate a small, cultivated valley. The rivers of the
+  province of Coquimbo--the Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa--exist
+  under less arid conditions, and like those of the province of
+  Aconcagua--the Ligua and Aconcagua--are used to irrigate a much larger
+  area of cultivated territory. The central agricultural provinces are
+  traversed by several important rivers, all of them rising on the
+  western slopes of the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the lower
+  coast range to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate
+  the great central valley of Chile. These are the Maipó (Maypó or
+  Maipú), Rapel, Mataquito, Maule, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Tolten,
+  Valdivia or Calle-Calle, Bueno and Maullin. With the exception of the
+  first three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are
+  open only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their
+  mouths. The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220
+  m., 100 of which are navigable. These rivers have been of great
+  service in the agricultural development of this part of Chile,
+  affording means of transportation where railways and highways were
+  entirely lacking. Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers,
+  whose economic value has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which
+  flows through Santiago and enters the Maipó from the north; the
+  turbulent Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro,
+  which waters an extensive part of the province of Talca and enters the
+  Maule from the north; the Ñuble, which rises in the higher Andes north
+  of the peaks of Chillan and flows entirely across the province of
+  Ñuble to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which rises
+  in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about lat.
+  35° 30' S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the Cautin,
+  which rises in the north-east corner of Cautin and after a tortuous
+  course westward nearly across that province forms the principal
+  confluent of the Imperial. The unsettled southern regions of Chiloé
+  (mainland) and Magallanes are traversed by a number of important
+  rivers which have been only partially explored. They have their
+  sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side of the line of
+  highest summits. The Puelo has its origin in a lake of the same name
+  in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through the Cordilleras
+  into an estuary (Reloncavi Inlet) of the Gulf of Reloncavi at the
+  northern end of the Gulf of Chacao. Its lower course is impeded in
+  such a manner as to form three small lakes, called Superior, Inferior
+  and Taguatagua. A large northern tributary of the Puelo, the Manso,
+  has its sources in Lake Mascardi and other lakes and streams
+  south-east of the Cerro Tronador, also in Argentina, and flows
+  south-west through the Cordilleras to unite with the Puelo a few miles
+  west of the 72nd meridian. The Reloncavi Inlet also receives the
+  outflow of Lake Todos los Santos through a short tortuous stream
+  called the Petrohue. The Comau Inlet and river form the boundary line
+  between the provinces of Llanquihue and Chiloé, and traverse a densely
+  wooded country in a north-westerly direction from the Andes to the
+  north-eastern shore of the Gulf of Chacao. Continuing southward, the
+  Yelcho is the next important river to traverse this region. It drains
+  a large area of Argentine territory, where it is called the Rio
+  Fetaleufu or Fetalauquen, its principal source being a large lake of
+  the same name. It flows south-west through the Andes, and then
+  north-west through Lake Yelcho to the Gulf of Corcovado. The Argentine
+  colony of the 16th of October, settled principally by Welshmen from
+  Chubut, is located on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in
+  about lat. 43° S. The Palena is another river of the same character,
+  having its source in a large frontier lake called General Paz and
+  flowing for some distance through Argentine territory before crossing
+  into Chile. It receives one large tributary from the south, the Roo
+  Pico, and enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of
+  the 44th parallel. The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an
+  extensive Andean region between the 44th and 45th parallels and
+  discharging into the Puyuguapi channel, which separates Magdalena
+  island from the mainland. The Aisen also has its source in Argentine
+  territory near the 46th parallel, and drains a mountainous region as
+  far north as the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and
+  discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in about
+  lat. 45° 20' S. The lower course of this river is essentially an
+  inlet, and is navigable for a short distance. The next large river is
+  the Las Heras, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos
+  Aires and Pueyrredon, or Cochrane, find their way to the Pacific. Both
+  of these large lakes are crossed by the boundary line. The Las Heras
+  discharges into Martinez Inlet, the northern part of a large estuary
+  called Baker or Calen Inlet which penetrates the mainland about 75 m.
+  and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-east corner of the Gulf of Peñas.
+  Azopardo (or Merino Jarpa) island lies wholly within this great
+  estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands, called
+  Baker Islands, which separate it from Messier Channel. The course of
+  the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aires is south and south-west, the
+  short range of mountains in which are found the Cerros San Valentin
+  and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet. Baker Inlet also
+  receives the waters of still another large Argentine-Chilean lake, San
+  Martin, whose far-reaching fjord-like arms extend from lat. 49° 10' to
+  48° 20' S.; its north-west arm drains into the Tero, or La Pascua,
+  river. Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply cut passage through
+  the Andes, and the divide between its southern extremity (Laguna Tar)
+  and Lake Viedma, which discharges through the Santa Cruz river into
+  the Atlantic, is so slight as to warrant the hypothesis that this was
+  once a strait between the two oceans. After a short north-westerly
+  course the Toro discharges into Baker Inlet in lat. 48° 15' S., long.
+  73° 24' W. South of the Toro there are no large rivers on this coast,
+  but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply into the mountains and bring
+  away the drainage of their snow-capped, storm-swept elevations. A
+  peculiar network of fjords and connecting channels terminating inland
+  in a peculiarly shaped body of water with long, widely branching arms,
+  called Worsley Sound, Obstruction Sound and Last Hope Inlet, covers an
+  extensive area between the 51st and 53rd parallels, and extends nearly
+  to the Argentine frontier. It has the characteristics of a tidewater
+  river and drains an extensive region. The sources of the Argentine
+  river Coile are to be found among the lakes and streams of this same
+  region, within Chilean territory. A noteworthy peculiarity of southern
+  Chile, from the Taytao peninsula (about 46° 50' S. lat.) to Tierra del
+  Fuego, is the large number of glaciers formed on the western and
+  southern slopes of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which
+  discharge direct into these deeply cut estuaries. Some of the larger
+  lakes of the Andes have glaciers discharging into them. The formation
+  of these icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge
+  direct into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found
+  elsewhere in the same latitudes.
+
+
+    Lakes.
+
+  The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are found
+  chiefly in the southern half of the republic. In the north the only
+  lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper saline plateaus
+  between the 23rd and 28th parallels. They are fed from the melting
+  snows and periodical storms of the higher Andes, and most of them are
+  completely dry part of the year. Their waters are saturated with
+  saline compounds, which in some cases have considerable commercial
+  value. In central Chile above the Bio-Bio river the lakes are small
+  and have no special geographical interest, with the exception perhaps
+  of the Laguna del Maule, in 36° 7' S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37°
+  20', which lie in the Andes near the Argentine frontier and are
+  sources of the two rivers of the same names. Below the Bio-Bio river
+  there is a line of large picturesque lakes extending from the province
+  of Cautin, south through that of Llanquihue, corresponding in
+  character and position to the dry lacustrine depressions extending
+  northward in the same valley. They lie on the eastern side near the
+  Cordilleras, and serve the purpose of great reservoirs for the
+  excessive precipitation of rain and snow on their western slopes. With
+  one exception they all drain westward into the Pacific through short
+  and partly navigable rivers, and some of the lakes are also utilized
+  for steamship navigation. These lakes are Villarica on the southern
+  frontier of Cautin, Rinihue and Ranco in Valdivia, and Puyehue,
+  Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos in Llanquihue. The largest of
+  the number are Lakes Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an
+  estimated area of 200 sq. m. and the latter of 300 sq. m. Lake Todos
+  los Santos is situated well within the Andean foothills north-east of
+  Puerto Montt and at an elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that
+  of the other lakes, Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level. The
+  great Andean lakes of General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos
+  Aires (in lat. 46° 30' S.), Pueyrredon, or Cpchrane (47° 15' S.) and
+  San Martin (49° S.), lie partly within Chilean territory. In the
+  extreme south are Lagoa Blanca, a large fresh-water lake in lat. 52°
+  30' S., and two large inland salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called
+  Otway Water and Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage.
+
+  _Geology._--Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions which
+  differ from each other in their geological structure. Along the coast
+  lies a belt of granite and schist overlaid unconformably by Cretaceous
+  and Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are formed chiefly of
+  folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks of later date. The
+  great longitudinal valley of Chile runs approximately, but only
+  approximately, along the boundary between the two zones. Towards the
+  north the coastal zone disappears beneath the sea and the Andean zone
+  reaches to the shore. The ancient rocks which form the most
+  characteristic feature of the former do indeed occur upon the coast of
+  Peru, but in the north of Chile they are found only in isolated masses
+  standing close to the shore or, as at Mejillones, projecting into the
+  sea. South of Antofagasta the old rocks form a nearly continuous band
+  along the coast, extending as far as Cape Horn and Staten Island, and
+  occupying the greater part of the islands of southern Chile.
+  Lithologically they are crystalline schists, together with granite,
+  diorite, gabbro and other igneous rocks. They are known to be
+  pre-Jurassic, but whether they are Palaeozoic or Archaean is
+  uncertain. They are strongly folded and are overlaid unconformably by
+  Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. In the north both the Cretaceous and
+  Tertiary beds of this zone are limited in extent, but towards the
+  south Mesozoic beds, which are at least in part Cretaceous, form a
+  band of considerable width. The Tertiary beds include both marine and
+  terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly of Miocene and Pliocene
+  age. The whole of the north part of Tierra del Fuego is occupied by
+  plateaus of horizontal Tertiary strata.
+
+  The Chilean Andes correspond with the Western Cordillera of Bolivia
+  and Peru, and consist almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds,
+  together with the products of the Tertiary eruptions. The Mesozoic
+  beds are thrown into a series of parallel folds which run in the
+  direction of the chain and which are generally free from any
+  complications such as overthrusting or overfolding. The Cretaceous
+  beds form a synclinal upon the eastern side of the chain (and, in
+  general, beyond the Chilean boundary), while the Jurassic beds are
+  thrown into a number of folds which form the axis and the western
+  flank. Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other
+  igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesozoic foundation
+  rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later date. The Trias is known
+  only at La Ternera near Copiapó, where coal-seams with Rhaetic plants
+  have been found; but the rest of the Mesozoic series, from the Lias to
+  the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented without a break of
+  more than local importance. The deposits are marine, consisting mainly
+  of sandstone and limestone, together with tuffs and conglomerates of
+  porphyry and porphyrite. These porphyritic rocks form a characteristic
+  feature of the southern Andes, and were at one time supposed to be
+  metamorphic; but they are certainly volcanic, and as they contain
+  marine fossils they must have been laid down beneath the sea. They are
+  not confined to any one horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the
+  Jurassic and occasionally also amongst the Cretaceous strata. They
+  form, in fact, a special facies which may frequently be traced
+  laterally into the more normal marine deposit of the same age. The
+  fauna of the Mesozoic beds is very rich, and includes forms which are
+  found in northern Europe, others which occur in central Europe, and
+  others again which are characteristic of the Mediterranean region. It
+  lends no support to Neumayr's theory of climatic zones. A large part
+  of the chain is covered by the products of the great volcanoes which
+  still form the highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes. The
+  rocks are liparites, dacites, hornblende and pyroxene andesites. The
+  recent lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are
+  olivine-bearing hypersthene-andesite and basalt.[1]
+
+  _Climate_.--The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical
+  heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low
+  temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego and the
+  southern coast. The high altitudes of the Andean region also introduce
+  vertical zones of temperature, modified to some extent by the rainless
+  plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall of the south. In
+  general terms it may be said that the extremes of temperature are not
+  so great as in corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere,
+  because of the greater expanse of water in comparison with the land
+  areas, the summers being cooler and the winters warmer. The cold
+  antarctic, or Humboldt, current sweeps northward along the coast and
+  greatly modifies the heat of the arid, tropical plateaus. The climate
+  of northern and central Chile is profoundly affected by the high
+  mountain barrier on the eastern frontier and by the broad treeless
+  pampas of Argentina, which raise the easterly moisture-laden winds
+  from the Atlantic to so high an elevation that they sweep across Chile
+  without leaving a drop of rain. At very rare intervals light rains
+  fall in the desert regions north of Coquimbo, but these are brought by
+  the prevailing coast winds. With this exception these regions are the
+  most arid on the face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical sun
+  during the day and chilled at night by the proximity of snow-covered
+  heights and a cold ocean current. Going south the temperature slowly
+  falls and the rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided
+  into a short rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season. At
+  Copiapó, in 27° 22' S., 1300 ft. above the sea, the mean annual
+  temperature is 60° and the rainfall about 1 in., but at Coquimbo, in
+  29° 56' S., the temperature is 59.2° and the rainfall 1½ in. At
+  Santiago, in 33° 27' S., 1755 ft. above the sea, the mean temperature
+  is 54° and the annual rainfall 16½ in., though the latter varies
+  considerably. The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21.
+  At Talca, in 35° 36' S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual
+  temperature is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the
+  rainfall has increased to 19.7 in. The long dry season of this region
+  makes irrigation necessary, and vegetation has something of a
+  subtropical appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37°.
+  The climate is healthy and agreeable, though the death-rate among the
+  common people is abnormally high on account of personal habits and
+  unsanitary surroundings. In southern Chile the climate undergoes a
+  radical change--the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a long
+  rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall. The plains as well as the
+  western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the rivers become
+  torrents, and the sky is covered with heavy clouds a great part of the
+  year. At Valdivia, in 39° 49' S. and near the sea-level, the mean
+  annual temperature is 52.9° and the annual rainfall 108 to 115 in.,
+  with about 150 rainy days in the year. These meteorological conditions
+  are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north end of the island of
+  Chiloé, in 41° 46' S., where the mean annual temperature is 50.7° and
+  the annual rainfall 134 in. The equable character of the climate at
+  this point is shown by the limited range between its summer and winter
+  temperatures, the mean for January being 56.5° and the mean for July
+  45.9°. The almost continual cloudiness is undoubtedly a principal
+  cause, not only of the low summer temperatures, but also of the
+  comparatively high winter temperatures. Frosts are infrequent, and
+  snow does not lie long. The climate is considered to be healthful
+  notwithstanding the excessive humidity. The 600 m. of coast from the
+  Chonos Archipelago south to the Fuegian islands have a climate closely
+  approximating that of the latter. It is wet and stormy all the year
+  through, though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and
+  Valdivia. The line of perpetual snow, which is 6000 ft. above
+  sea-level between lat. 41° and 43°, descends to 3500 (to 4000) ft. in
+  Tierra del Fuego, affording another indication of the low maximum
+  temperatures ruling during the summer. At the extreme south, where
+  Chilean territory extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the
+  Straits of Magellan, a new climatic influence is encountered in the
+  warm equatorial current flowing down the east coast of South America,
+  which gives to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that
+  of the western shore. The Andes, although much broken in these
+  latitudes, also exert a modifying influence on these eastern
+  districts, sheltering them from the cold westerly storms and giving
+  them a drier climate. This accounts for the surprising meteorological
+  data obtained from Punta Arenas, in 53° 10' S., where the mean annual
+  temperature is 43.2° and the annual rainfall only 22.5 in. Other
+  observations reduce this annual precipitation to less than 16 in.
+  According to observations made by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition
+  (1901-1903), at Orange Bay, Hoste Island, in lat. 55° 31' S., long.
+  68° 05' W., which is more exposed to the westerly storms, the mean
+  temperature for 11 months was 41.98° and the total precipitation (rain
+  and snow) 53.1 in. The mean maximum temperature was 49.24°, and the
+  mean minimum 35.83°. The observations showed 284 days with rain or
+  snow, of which 70 were with snow.
+
+  _Flora_.--The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and less
+  interesting than those of Argentina and Brazil, but contains many
+  peculiar genera and species. A classification of this flora
+  necessitates its division into at least three general zones--the
+  desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of
+  the south. The first is an arid desert absolutely barren along part of
+  the coast, between Tacna and Copiapó, but with a coarse scanty
+  vegetation near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes
+  where moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the
+  sand. In the valleys of the Copiapó and Huasco rivers a meagre
+  vegetation is to be found near their channels, apart from what is
+  produced by irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry
+  river channels below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing
+  southward into the province of Coquimbo a gradual change in the arid
+  conditions may be observed. The higher summits of the Cordilleras
+  afford a larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent
+  are the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water
+  supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an
+  indication of what the coming season is to be. The arborescent growth
+  near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are to be
+  found the "algarrobo" (_Prosopis siliquastrum_) and "chañar"
+  (_Gourliea chilensis_), but the only shrub to be found on the coast is
+  a species of _Skytanthus_. Near the sierras where irrigation is
+  possible, fruit-growing is so successful, especially the grape and
+  fig, that the product is considered the best in Chile. In regard to
+  the indigenous flora of this region John Ball[2] says: "The species
+  which grow here are the more or less modified representatives of
+  plants which at some former period existed under very different
+  conditions of life." Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a
+  dwarfed species, and then a larger columnar form (_Cereus quisco_).
+  The streams are fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields
+  fill the irrigated valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better
+  covered with a thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the
+  streams, however, continue barren as far south as the transverse
+  ranges of mountains across the province of Aconcagua.
+
+  To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character
+  between the northern and southern zones. It is much more than this,
+  however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly
+  its own. A large majority of the 198 genera peculiar to the South
+  American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile. This
+  zone extends from about the 30th to the 36th parallel, perhaps a
+  little farther south to include some characteristic types. The
+  evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south,
+  and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a subtropical
+  aspect. One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is the
+  _peumo_ (_Cryptocarya peumus_), whose dense evergreen foliage is
+  everywhere conspicuous. The _quillay_ (_Quillaja saponaria_) is
+  another characteristic evergreen tree of this region, whose bark
+  possesses saponaceous properties. In earlier times the coquito palm
+  (_Jubaea spectabilis_) was to be found throughout this part of Chile,
+  but it has been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine sap,
+  from which a treacle was made. One of the most striking forest trees
+  is the _pehuen_ or Chilean pine (_Araucaria imbricata_), which often
+  grows to a height of 100 ft. and is prized by the natives for its
+  fruit. Three indigenous species of the beech--the _roble_ (_Fagus
+  obliqua_), _coyhue_ (_F. Dombeyi_), and _rauli_ (_F. procera_)--are
+  widely diffused and highly prized for their wood, especially the
+  first, which is misleadingly called _roble_ (oak). Most of the woods
+  used in construction and manufactures are found between the Bio-Bio
+  river and the Taytao peninsula, among which are the _alerce_
+  (_Fitzroya patagonica_), _ciprés_ or Chiloé cypress (_Libocedrus
+  tetragona_), the Chilean cypress (_L. Chilensis_), _lingue_ (_Persea
+  lingue_), laurel (_Laurus aromatica_), _avellano_ (_Guevina
+  avellana_), _luma_ (_Myrtus luma_), _espino_ (_Acacia cavenia_) and
+  many others. Several exotic species have been introduced into this
+  part of Chile, some of which have thriven even better than in their
+  native habitats. Among these are the oak, elm, beech (_F. sylvatica_),
+  walnut, chestnut, poplar, willow and eucalyptus. Through the central
+  zone the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain slopes,
+  but in the southern zone there are no plains, with the exception of
+  small areas near the Straits of Magellan, and the forests are
+  universal. In the variety, size and density of their growth these
+  forests remind one of the tropics. They are made up, in great part, of
+  the evergreen beech (_Fagus betuloides_), the deciduous antarctic
+  beech (_F. antarctica_),[3] and Winter's bark (_Drimys Winteri_),
+  intermingled with a dense undergrowth composed of a great variety of
+  shrubs and plants, among which are _Maytenus magellanica, Arbutus
+  rigida, Myrtus memmolaria_, two or three species of _Berberis_, wild
+  currant (_Ribes antarctica_), a trailing blackberry, tree ferns,
+  reed-like grasses and innumerable parasites. On the eastern side of
+  the Cordillera, in the extreme south, the climate is drier and open,
+  and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping
+  forests extend from an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft. down to the level
+  of the sea. A peculiar vegetable product of this inclement region is a
+  small globular fungus growing on the bark of the beech, which is a
+  staple article of food among the Fuegians--probably the only instance
+  where a fungus is the bread of a people.
+
+  It is generally conceded that the potato originated in southern Chile,
+  as it is found growing wild in Chiloé and neighbouring islands and on
+  the adjacent mainland. The strawberry is also indigenous to these
+  latitudes on both sides of the Andes, and Chile is credited with a
+  species from which the cultivated strawberry derives some of its best
+  qualities. Maize and quinoa (_Chenopodium quinoa_) were known in Chile
+  before the arrival of Europeans, but it is not certain that they are
+  indigenous. Species of the bean and pepper plant are also indigenous,
+  and the former is said to have been cultivated by the natives. Among
+  the many economic plants which have been introduced into Chile and
+  have become important additions to her resources, the more prominent
+  are wheat, barley, hemp and alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), together with
+  the staple European fruits, such as the apple, pear, peach, nectarine,
+  grape, fig, olive and orange. The date-palm has also been introduced
+  into the southern provinces of the desert region. Among the marine
+  productions on the southern coast, a species of kelp, _Macrocystis
+  pyrifera_, merits special mention because of its extraordinary length,
+  its habit of clinging to the rocks in strong currents and turbulent
+  seas, and its being a shelter for innumerable species of marine
+  animals. Captain FitzRoy found it growing from a depth of 270 ft.
+
+  _Fauna._--The fauna of Chile is comparatively poor, both in species
+  and individuals. A great part of the northern deserts is as barren of
+  animal life as of vegetation, and the dense humid forests of the south
+  shelter surprisingly few species. There are no large mammals in all
+  this extensive region except the Cetacea and a species of the
+  _Phocidae_ of southern waters. Neither are there any dangerous species
+  of Carnivora, which are represented by the timid puma (_Felis
+  concolor_), three species of wildcats, three of the fox, two of
+  _Conepatus_, a weasel, sea-otter and six species of seal. The rodents
+  are the most numerously represented order, which includes the _coypu_
+  or nutria (_Myopotamus coypus_), the chinchilla (_Chinchilla
+  laniger_), the tuco-tuco (_Ctenomys brasiliensis_), a rabbit, and 12
+  species of mice--in all some 12 genera and 25 species. The coypu,
+  sometimes called the South American beaver, inhabits the river-banks,
+  and is highly prized for its fur. It is also found along the
+  river-courses of Argentina. The ruminants are represented by a few
+  species only--the guanaco (_Auchenia huanaco_), _vicuna_ (_A.
+  vicugna_), _huemul_ (_Cervus chilensis_), which appears on the Chilean
+  escutcheon, and the _pudu_ deer, a small and not very numerous
+  species. There are two species of the Edentata, _Dasypus_ and
+  _Pichiciego_, the latter very rare, and one of the opossums. European
+  animals, such as horses, cattle, sheep, swine and goats, have been
+  introduced into the country and do well. Sheep-raising has also been
+  inaugurated with some degree of success in the vicinity of the Straits
+  of Magellan. The avifauna, with the exception of waterfowl, is also
+  limited to comparatively few species. Birds of prey are represented by
+  the condor, vulture, two species of the carrion-hawk (_Polyborus_),
+  and owl. The Chilean slopes of the Andes appear to be a favourite
+  haunt of the condor, where neighbouring stock-raisers suffer severe
+  losses at times from its attacks. The _Insessores_ are represented by
+  a number of species. Parrots are found as far south as Tierra del
+  Fuego, where Darwin saw them feeding on seeds of the Winter's bark.
+  Humming-birds have a similar range on this coast, one species
+  (_Mellisuga Kingii_) being quite numerous as far south as Tierra del
+  Fuego. A characteristic genus is that of _Pteroptochus_, of which
+  there are three or four species each characterized by some conspicuous
+  peculiarity. These are _P. megapodius_, called _El Turco_ by the
+  natives, which is noticeable for its ungainly appearance and awkward
+  gait; the _P. albicollis_, which inhabits barren hillsides and is
+  called _tapacollo_ from the manner of carrying its tail turned far
+  forward over its back; the _P. rubecula_, of Chiloé, a small timid
+  denizen of the gloomy forest, called the _cheucau_ or _chuca_, whose
+  two or three notes are believed by the superstitious natives to be
+  auguries of impending success or disaster; and an allied species
+  (_Hylactes Tarnii_, King) called the _guid-guid_ or barking bird,
+  whose cry is a close imitation of the yelp of a small dog. The
+  southern coast and its inland waters are frequented by several species
+  of petrel, among which are the _Procellaria gigantea_, whose strength
+  and rapacity led the Spaniards to call it _quebranta huesos_
+  (breakbones), the _Puffinus cinereus_, which inhabits the inland
+  channels in large flocks, and an allied species (_Puffinuria
+  Berardii_) which inhabits the inland sounds and resembles the auk in
+  some particulars of habit and appearance. There are numerous species
+  in these sheltered channels, inlets and sounds of geese, ducks, swans,
+  cormorants, ibises, bitterns, red-beaks, curlew, snipe, plover and
+  moorhens. Conspicuous among these are the great white swan (_Cygnus
+  anatoides_), the black-necked swan (_Anser nigricollis_), the
+  antarctic goose (_Anas antarctica_) and the "race-horse" or "steamer
+  duck" (_Micropterus brachypterus_).
+
+  The marine fauna is less known than the others, but it is rich in
+  species and highly interesting in its varied forms and
+  characteristics. The northern coast has no sheltered waters of any
+  considerable extent, and the shore slopes abruptly to a great depth,
+  which gives it a marine life of no special importance. In the shoal
+  waters about Juan Fernandez are found a species of codfish (possibly
+  _Gadus macrocephalus_), differing in some particulars from the
+  Newfoundland cod, and a large crayfish, both of which are caught for
+  the Valparaiso market. The sheltered waters of the broken southern
+  coast, however, are rich in fish and molluscs, especially in mussels,
+  limpets and barnacles, which are the principal food resource of the
+  nomadic Indian tribes of those regions. A large species of barnacle,
+  _Balanus psittacus_, is found in great abundance from Concepción to
+  Puerto Montt, and is not only eaten by the natives, by whom it is
+  called _pico_, but is also esteemed a great delicacy in the markets of
+  Valparaiso and Santiago. Oysters of excellent flavour are found in
+  the sheltered waters of Chiloé. The Cetacea, which frequent these
+  southern waters, are represented by four species--two dolphins and the
+  sperm and right whale--and the _Phocidae_ by six species, one of which
+  (_Phoca lupina_) differs but little from the common seal. Another
+  species (_Macrorhinus leoninus_), popularly known as the sea-elephant,
+  is provided with short tusks and a short trunk and sometimes grows to
+  a length of 20 ft. Still another species, the sea-lion (_Otaria
+  jubata_), furnishes the natives of Tierra del Fuego with an acceptable
+  article of food, but like the _Phoca lupina_ it is becoming scarce.
+
+  Of Reptilia Chile is singularly free, there being recorded only eleven
+  species--five saurians, four ophidians, one frog and one toad--but a
+  more thorough survey of the uninhabited territories of the south may
+  increase this list. There are no alligators in the streams, and the
+  tropical north has very few lizards. There are no poisonous snakes in
+  the country, and, in a region so filled with lakes and rivers as the
+  rainy south, only two species of batrachians. The insect life of these
+  strangely associated regions is likewise greatly restricted by adverse
+  climatic conditions, a considerable part of the northern desert being
+  absolutely barren of animal and vegetable life, while the climate of
+  Tierra del Fuego and the southern coast is highly unfavourable to
+  terrestrial animal life, for which reason comparatively few species
+  are to be found. Writing of a journey inland from Iquique, Charles
+  Darwin says (_Journal of Researches, &c._, p. 444): "Excepting the
+  _Vultur aura_, ... I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor
+  insect." Of his entomological collection in Tierra del Fuego, which
+  was not large, the majority were of Alpine species. Moreover, he did
+  not find a single species common to that island and Patagonia. These
+  conditions subsist with but few modifications, if any, from the
+  Straits northward to the 42nd parallel, the extreme humidity, abnormal
+  rainfall and dark skies being unfavourable to the development of
+  insect life, while the Andes interpose an impassable barrier to
+  migration from the countries of the eastern coast. The only venomous
+  species to be found in central Chile is that of a spider which
+  frequents the wheat fields in harvest time.
+
+_Population._--The population of Chile is largely concentrated in the
+twelve agricultural provinces between and including Coquimbo and
+Concepción, though the next six provinces to the south, of more recent
+general settlement, have received some foreign immigrants, and are
+rapidly growing. In the desert provinces the population is limited to
+the mining communities, and to the ports and supply stations maintained
+for their support and for the transport, smelting and export of their
+produce. The province of Atacama has, in addition to its mining
+population, a considerable number of agriculturists located in a few
+irrigated river valleys, which class is largely increased in the
+adjoining province of Coquimbo. The more northern provinces, however,
+maintain their populations without the support of such small cultivated
+areas. In the southern territories unfavourable conditions of a widely
+different character prevail, and the population is restricted to a few
+small settlements and some nomadic tribes of Indians. Here, however,
+there are localities where settlements could be maintained by ordinary
+means and the population could be greatly increased. Since the census of
+1895 the population of Punta Arenas has been largely increased by the
+discovery of gold in the vicinity. The twelve provinces first mentioned,
+which include the celebrated "Vale of Chile," comprise only 17% of the
+area of the republic, but the census of 1895 showed that 72% of the
+total population was concentrated within their borders. The four desert
+provinces north of Coquimbo had only 8% of the total, and the seven
+provinces and one territory south of Concepción had 20%. According to
+the census of 1895 the total population was 2,712,145, to which the
+census officials added 10% to cover omissions. This shows an increase
+slightly over 7% for the preceding decennial period, the population
+having been returned as 2,527,320 in 1885. The census returns of 1875
+and 1866 gave respectively 2,068,447 and 2,084,943, showing an actual
+decrease in population. During these years Chile held the anomalous
+position of a country spending large sums annually to secure immigrants
+while at the same time her own labouring classes were emigrating by
+thousands to the neighbouring republics to improve their condition.
+Writing in 1879, a correspondent of _The Times_[4] stated that this
+emigration then averaged 8000 a year, and in bad times had reached as
+many as 30,000 in one year. The condition of the Chilean labourer has
+been much improved since then, however, and Chile no longer suffers so
+serious a loss of population. In 1895, the foreigners included in the
+Chilean population numbered 72,812, of which 42,105 were European,
+29,687 American, and 1020 Asiatic, &c. According to nationality there
+were 8269 Spanish, 7809 French, 7587 Italian, 7049 German, 6241 British,
+1570 Swiss, 1490 Austro-Hungarian, 13,695 Peruvian, 7531 Argentine, 6654
+Bolivian, 701 American (U.S.), 797 Chinese. According to residence,
+1,471,792 were inhabitants of rural districts, and 1,240,353 of towns.
+The registration of births, marriages and deaths is compulsory since the
+1st of January 1885, but the provisions of the law are frequently
+eluded. Notwithstanding the healthiness of the climate, the death-rate
+is high, especially in the large cities. In Santiago and Valparaiso the
+death-rate sometimes rises to 42 and 60 per 1000, and infant mortality
+is very high, being 73% of the births in some of the provincial towns.
+This unfavourable state of affairs is due to the poverty, ignorance and
+insanitary habits of the lower classes. The government has made repeated
+efforts to secure immigrants from Europe, but the lands set apart for
+immigrant settlers are in the forested provinces south of the Bio-Bio,
+where the labour and hardships involved in establishing a home are
+great, and the protection of the law against bandits and criminal
+assaults is weak. The Germans have indeed settled in many parts of these
+southern provinces since 1845, and by keeping together have succeeded in
+building up several important towns and a large number of prosperous
+agricultural communities. One German authority (Hüber) estimates the
+number of Germans in two of these provinces at 5000. The arrivals,
+however, have been on the whole discouragingly small, the total for the
+years 1901-1905 being only 14,000.
+
+Although Chileans claim a comparatively small admixture with the native
+races, it is estimated that the whites and creoles of white extraction
+do not exceed 30 to 40% of the population, while the _mestizos_ form
+fully 60%. This estimate is unquestionably conservative, for there has
+been no large influx of European blood to counterbalance the race
+mixtures of earlier times. The estimated number of Indians living within
+the boundaries of Chile is about 50,000, which presumably includes the
+nomadic tribes of the Fuegian archipelago, whose number probably does
+not reach 5000. The semi-independent Araucanians, whose territory is
+slowly being occupied by the whites, are concentrated in the eastern
+forests of Bio-Bio, Malleco and Cautin, all that remains to them of the
+Araucania which they so bravely and successfully defended for more than
+three centuries. Their number does not much exceed 40,000, which is
+being steadily reduced by drunkenness and epidemic diseases. A small
+part of these Indians live in settled communities and include some very
+successful stock-raisers, but the greater part live apart from
+civilization. There are also some remnants of tribes in the province of
+Chiloé, which inhabit the island of that name, the Chonos and Guaytecas
+archipelagoes and the adjacent mainland, who have the reputation of
+being good boatmen and fishermen; and there are remnants of a people
+called Changos, on the desert coast, and traces of Calchaqui blood in
+the neighbouring Andean foothills.
+
+There is a wide difference in every respect between the upper or ruling
+class and the common people. The former includes the landed proprietors,
+professional men and a part of those engaged in commercial and
+industrial pursuits. These educated classes form only a small minority
+of the population. Many of them, especially the landed proprietors, are
+descendants of the original Spanish settlers and are celebrated for
+their politeness and hospitality. The political control of the republic
+was secured to them by the constitution of 1833. The common people were
+kept in ignorance and practically in a state of hopeless servitude. They
+were allowed to occupy small leaseholds on the large estates on
+condition of performing a certain amount of work for the landlord. Every
+avenue toward the betterment of their condition was practically closed.
+The condition of the itinerant labourers (_peons_) was still worse, the
+wages paid them being hardly sufficient to keep them from starvation.
+The Chilean _peon_, however, comes from a hardy stock, and has borne all
+these hardships with a fortitude and patience which go far to
+counterbalance his faults. Recent reforms in education, &c., together
+with the growth of manufacturing industries, are slowly leading to
+improvements in the material condition of the common people.
+
+The political organization of the country has not been favourable to the
+development of artistic or scientific tastes, though Chile has produced
+political leaders, statesmen and polemical writers in abundance.
+Historical literature has been enriched by the works of Diego Barros
+Arana, Benjamin Vicuña Mackenna, Miguel Luis Amunátegui, Carlos Walker
+Martinez, and others. One of the earliest native histories of Chile was
+that of Abbé J. Ignacio Molina, an English translation of which has long
+been a recognized authority; it is full of errors, however, and should
+be studied only in connexion with modern standard works. Among these
+must be included Claude Gay's monumental work, _Historia General de
+Chile_, and Sir C.R. Markham's admirable studies on special parts of the
+subject. In science, nearly all the important work has been done by
+foreigners, among whom are Charles Darwin, Claude Gay, Eduard Pöppig,
+Rudolph A. Philippi and Hans Steffen, who deserves special mention for
+his excellent geographical work in the southern Andes.
+
+  _Divisions and Towns._--Chile contains 23 provinces and one territory,
+  which are subdivided into 75 departments, 855 subdelegations and 3068
+  districts. The territory north of the Bio-Bio was originally divided
+  into 13 provinces, besides which the Spaniards held Chiloé, Juan
+  Fernandez and Valdivia, the latter being merely a military outpost.
+  During the years which have elapsed since the War of Independence the
+  territory south of the Bio-Bio has been effectively occupied and
+  divided into six provinces, Chiloé and the neighbouring islands and
+  mainland to the east became a province, and four provinces in the
+  northern deserts were acquired from Bolivia and Peru. In addition to
+  this, Chile claimed Patagonia and the adjacent islands, and has
+  finally secured not only the forested strip of territory west of the
+  Andes, but also a large piece of the Patagonian mainland, south of
+  lat. 52° S., the larger part of Tierra del Fuego, and all the western
+  islands. This extensive region, comprising an area of 71,127 sq. m.,
+  has been provisionally organized as the territory of Magallanes. For a
+  list of provinces, their areas, reduced from official returns, their
+  populations, and the names and populations of their capitals, see the
+  bottom of this page.
+
+  +------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+-------------------+
+  |                  |        |           |             |    Population.    |
+  |    Provinces.    |  Area. |Population.|  Capitals.  +---------+---------+
+  |                  |        |  Census   |             | Census  |   Est.  |
+  |                  |        |   1895.   |             |  1895.  |   1902. |
+  +------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+---------+---------+
+  |Tacna             |  9,251 |   24,160  |Tacna        |   9,418 |  11,504 |
+  |Tarapacá          | 18,131 |   89,751  |Iquique      |  33,031 |  42,788 |
+  |Antofagasta       | 46,611 |   44,035  |Antofagasta  |  13,530 |  16,084 |
+  |Atacama           | 30,729 |   59,713  |Copiapo      |   9,301 |   8,991 |
+  |Coquimbo          | 13,461 |  160,898  |La Serena    |  15,712 |  19,536 |
+  |Aconcagua         |  5,487 |  113,165  |San Felipe   |  11,313 |  11,660 |
+  |Valparaiso        |  1,953 |  220,756  |Valparaiso   | 122,447 | 142,282 |
+  |Santiago          |  5,665 |  415,636  |Santiago     | 256,403 | 332,059 |
+  |O'Higgins         |  2,342 |   85,277  |Rancagua     |   6,665 |   7,133 |
+  |Colchagua         |  3,856 |  157,566  |San Fernando |   7,447 |   8,164 |
+  |Curicó            |  2,978 |  103,242  |Curicó       |  12,669 |  14,340 |
+  |Talca             |  3,840 |  128,961  |Talca        |  33,232 |  42,766 |
+  |Lináres           |  3,942 |  101,858  |Lináres      |   7,331 |   7,256 |
+  |Maule             |  2,475 |  119,791  |Cauquenes    |   8,574 |   9,895 |
+  |Nuble             |  3,407 |  152,935  |Chillan      |  28,738 |  36,382 |
+  |Concepción        |  3,252 |  188,190  |Concepción   |  39,837 |  49,351 |
+  |Arauco            |  2,458 |   59,237  |Lebú         |   2,784 |   3,178 |
+  |Bio-Bio           |  5,246 |   88,749  |Los Angeles  |   7,868 |   7,777 |
+  |Malleco           |  2,973 |   98,032  |Angol        |   7,056 |   7,638 |
+  |Cautin            |  5,832 |   78,221  |Temuco       |   7,078 |   9,699 |
+  |Valdivia          |  8,649 |   60,687  |Valdivia     |   8,060 |   9,704 |
+  |Llanquihue        | 45,515 |   78,315  |Puerto Montt |   3,480 |   4,140 |
+  |Chiloé            |  8,593 |   77,750  |Ancud        |   3,182 |   3,787 |
+  |Magallanes (Ter.) | 71,127 |    5,170  |Punta Arenas |   3,227 |   8,327 |
+  |                  +--------+-----------+             |         |         |
+  |Total, official   | 307,774| 2,712,145 |             |         |         |
+  |Total according to|        |           |             |         |         |
+  | Gotha computation| 293,062|           |             |         |         |
+  |With 10% added for|        |           |             |         |         |
+  | omissions        |        | 2,983,359 |             |         |         |
+  |Official estimate |        |           |             |         |         |
+  | for 1902         |        | 3,173,783 |             |         |         |
+  +------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+---------+---------+
+
+  In addition to the provincial capitals there are few towns of
+  importance. Among these may be mentioned:--
+
+  +------------------+---------------------+
+  |                  |     Population.     |
+  |                  +----------+----------+
+  |                  |   1895.  |Est. 1902.|
+  +------------------+----------+----------+
+  | Arica            |   2,853  |   2,824  |
+  | Pisagua          |   3,635  |   4,720  |
+  | Taltal           |   5,834  |   6,574  |
+  | Tocopilla        |   3,383  |   4,752  |
+  | Vallenar         |   5,052  |   5,199  |
+  | Coquimbo         |   7,322  |   8,165  |
+  | Ovalle           |   5,565  |   5,772  |
+  | Los Andes (Santa |          |          |
+  |   Rosa)          |   5,504  |   6,854  |
+  | Quillota         |   9,621  |   9,876  |
+  | Vina del Mar     |  10,651  |    ...   |
+  | Melipilla        |   4,286  |   5,023  |
+  | Rengo            |   6,463  |   7,232  |
+  | Vichuquen        |     826  |   3,714  |
+  | Molina           |   3,609  |   3,222  |
+  | Parral           |   8,586  |  10,219  |
+  | Constitución     |   6,400  |   6,453  |
+  | San Carlos       |   7,051  |   6,579  |
+  | Coronel          |   4,575  |   5,959  |
+  | Lota             |   9,797  |    ...   |
+  | Talcahuano       |  10,431  |  13,499  |
+  | El Tomé          |   3,977  |   6,189  |
+  | Arauco           |   3,008  |   3,334  |
+  | Cañete           |   2,000  |   2,552  |
+  | Mulchen          |   4,268  |   4,332  |
+  | Traiguen         |   5,732  |   7,099  |
+  | Victoria         |   6,989  |  10,002  |
+  | La Unión         |   2,830  |   3,908  |
+  | Osorno           |   4,667  |   5,888  |
+  | Castro (Chiloé)  |   1,035  |   2,166  |
+  +------------------+----------+----------+
+
+  The population is not concentrated in large cities, but is well
+  distributed through the cultivated parts of the country. The large
+  number of small towns, important as ports, market towns, or
+  manufacturing centres, is a natural result. Many of the foregoing
+  towns are only villages in size, but their importance is not to be
+  measured in this way. Arica is one of the oldest ports on the coast,
+  and has long been a favoured port for Bolivian trade because the
+  passes through the Cordilleras at that point are not so difficult.
+  Moreover, the railway from Arica to La Paz will still further add to
+  its importance, though it may not greatly increase its population.
+  Another illustration is that of Vichuquen, province of Curicó,
+  situated on a tide-water lake on the coast, which is the centre of a
+  large salt-making industry. Still another instance is that of Castro,
+  the oldest settlement and former capital of Chiloé, which after a
+  century of decay is increasing again through the efforts to develop
+  the industries of that island.
+
+  _Communications._--Railway construction in Chile dates from 1850, when
+  work was begun on a short line between Copiapó and the port of
+  Caldera, in the Atacama desert region. Since then lines have been
+  built by private companies from the coast at several points to inland
+  mining centres. One of these, running from Antofagasta to the
+  Caracoles district, was afterwards extended to Oruro, Bolivia, and has
+  become a commercial route of international importance, with a total
+  length of 574 m., 224 of which are in Chile. It should be remembered
+  that many of these railway enterprises of the desert region originated
+  at a time when the territory belonged to Bolivia and Peru. The first
+  railway to be constructed in central Chile was the government line
+  from Valparaiso to Santiago, 115 m. in length, which was opened to
+  traffic in 1863. About the same time the government began the
+  construction of a longitudinal trunk line running southward from
+  Santiago midway between the Andes and the Coast range, and connecting
+  with all the provincial capitals and prominent ports. This is the only
+  railway "system" it is possible for Chile to have. The civil war of
+  1891 called attention to the need of a similar inland route through
+  the northern provinces. A branch of the Valparaiso and Santiago line
+  runs to Los Andes, and its extension across the Andes connects with
+  the Argentine lines from Buenos Aires to Mendoza and the Chilean
+  frontier--all sections together forming a transcontinental route about
+  850 m. in length. The Transandine section of this route crosses the
+  Cordillera through the Uspallata pass. A further Transandine scheme
+  provides for a line through the Pino Hachado pass (38° 30' to 39° S.),
+  and the Argentine Great Southern Company obtained a concession in 1909
+  to extend its Neuquen line to the frontier of Chile. The railways of
+  the republic had a total mileage at the end of 1906 of 2950 m., of
+  which 1495 m. were owned by the state, and 1455 m. belonged to private
+  companies. The private lines are located in the northern provinces and
+  are for the most part built and maintained for the transportation of
+  mining products and supplies.
+
+  In addition to her railway lines Chile has about 21,000 m. of public
+  roads of all descriptions, 135 m. of tramways, and 705 m. of navigable
+  river channels, besides a very considerable mileage of lake and coast
+  navigation. Telegraphic communication between all the important towns
+  of the republic, initiated in 1855 with a line between Santiago and
+  Valparaiso, is maintained by the state, which in 1903 owned 9306 m. of
+  line in a total of 11,080 m. Cable communication with Europe by way of
+  Buenos Aires was opened in 1875, and is now maintained by means of two
+  underground cables across the Andes, 32 m. in length. A West Coast
+  cable also connects with Europe and North American states by way of
+  Panama. There were 15,853 m. of telephone wires in the republic in
+  1906, all the principal cities having an admirable service. Modern
+  postal facilities date from 1853. The Chilean post-office is
+  administered by a director-general at Santiago, and has a high degree
+  of efficiency and liberality, compared with those of other South
+  American states. The postal rates are low, and newspapers and other
+  periodical publications circulate free, as a means of popular
+  instruction. The postal revenues for 1904 amounted to 2,775,730 pesos
+  and the expenditures to 2,407,753 pesos. Chile is a member of the
+  International Postal Union, and has arrangements with the principal
+  commercial nations for the exchange of postal money values.
+
+  The sea has been the only means of communication with distant parts of
+  the country, and must continue to be the chief transportation route.
+  There are said to be 56 ports on the Chilean coast, of which only 12
+  are prominent in foreign trade. Many of the so-called ports are only
+  landing-places on an open coast, others are on shallow bays and
+  obstructed river-mouths, and some are little-known harbours among the
+  channels and islands of the south. The prosperity of Chile is
+  intimately connected with her ocean-going trade, and no elaborate
+  system of national railway lines and domestic manufactures can ever
+  change this relationship. These conditions should have developed a
+  large merchant marine, but the Chileans are not traders and are
+  sailors only in a military sense. In 1905 their ocean-going merchant
+  marine consisted of only 148 vessels, of which 54 were steamers of
+  42,873 tons net, and 94 were sailing vessels of 39,346 tons. Nineteen
+  of the 54 steamers belonged to a subsidized national line whose West
+  Coast service once extended to San Francisco, California, and a large
+  part of the others belongs to a Lota coal-mining and copper-smelting
+  company which employs them in carrying coal to the northern ports and
+  bringing back metallic ores for smelting. The navigable rivers and
+  inland lakes employ a number of small steamers. The foreign commerce
+  of the republic is carried chiefly by foreign vessels, and the
+  coasting trade is also open to them. Three or four foreign companies
+  maintain a regular steamship service to Valparaiso and other Chilean
+  ports. The shipping entries at all Chilean ports during the year 1904,
+  both national and foreign, numbered 11,756, aggregating 17,723,138
+  tons, and the clearances 11,689, aggregating 17,370,763 tons. Very
+  nearly one-half this tonnage was British, a little over 18% German,
+  and about 29% Chilean.
+
+  _Commerce._--In the aggregate, the commerce of Chile is large and
+  important; in proportion to population it is exceeded among South
+  American states only by Argentina, Uruguay and the Guianas. Unlike
+  those states, it depends in great part on mining and its allied
+  occupations. The values of imports and exports (including bullion,
+  specie and re-exports) in pesos of 18d. during the five years
+  1901-1905 were as follows:--
+
+             Imports.           Exports.
+    Year.     pesos.             pesos.
+
+    1901    139,300,766       171,844,976
+    1902    132,428,204       185,879,965
+    1903    149,081,524       210,442,144
+    1904    164,874,928       232,493,598
+    1905    188,596,418       265,209,192
+
+  The principal imports comprise live animals, fish, coffee, maté (_Ilex
+  paraguayensis_), tea, sugar, wood and its manufactures, structural
+  iron and steel, hardware and machinery, railway and telegraph
+  supplies, lime and cement, glass and earthenware, cotton, woollen and
+  silk manufactures, coal, petroleum, paints, &c. Import duties are
+  imposed at the rates of 60, 35, 15, 5 and 25%, and certain classes of
+  merchandise are admitted free. The higher rates are designed chiefly
+  to protect national industries, while wines, liquors, cigars and
+  tobacco are admitted at the lowest rate. The 25% rate covers all
+  articles not mentioned in the schedules, which number 2260 items. The
+  duty free list includes raw cotton, certain descriptions of live
+  animals, agricultural machinery and implements, metal wire, fire
+  engines, structural iron and steel, and machinery in general. The
+  tariff is nominally _ad valorem_, but as the rates are imposed on
+  fixed official valuations it is essentially specific. The duties on
+  imports in 1905 amounted to 91,321,860 pesos, and in 1906 to
+  103,507,556 pesos. The principal exports are gold, silver, copper
+  (bars, regulus and ores), cobalt and its ores, lead and its ores,
+  vanadium ores, manganese, coal, nitrate of soda, borate of lime,
+  iodine, sulphur, wheat and guano. Nitrate of soda forms from 70 to 75%
+  of the exports, and the royalty received from it is the principal
+  source of national revenue, yielding about £4,000,000 per annum. In
+  1904 mineral products made up fully seven-eighths of the exports,
+  while agricultural and pastoral products did not quite reach
+  one-eighth.
+
+  _Agriculture._--According to the census returns about one-half the
+  population of Chile lives in rural districts, and is engaged nominally
+  in agricultural pursuits. What may be called central Chile is
+  singularly well adapted to agriculture. The northern part of this
+  region has a sub-tropical climate, light rainfall and a long, dry
+  summer, but with irrigation it produces a great variety of products.
+  Alfalfa, or lucerne (_Medicago sativa_), is grown extensively for
+  shipment to the mining towns of the desert provinces. There were no
+  less than 108,384 acres devoted to it in 1904, a considerable part of
+  which was in the irrigated river valleys of Coquimbo and Aconcagua.
+  Considerable attention is also given to fruit cultivation in these
+  subtropical provinces, where the orange, lemon, fig, melon, pineapple
+  and banana are produced with much success. Some districts, especially
+  in Coquimbo, have gained a high reputation for the excellence of their
+  preserved fruits. The vine is cultivated all the way from Atacama and
+  Coquimbo, where excellent raisins are produced, south to Concepción,
+  where some of the best wines of Chile are manufactured. In 1904 there
+  were 93,370 acres devoted to grape production in this region, the
+  product for that year being 30,184,704 gallons of wine and 212,366
+  gallons of brandy. The universal beverage of the people--_chicha_--is
+  made from Indian corn. Although wheat is produced in the northern part
+  of this region, it is grown with greater success in the south, where
+  the rainfall is heavier and the average temperature is lower. There
+  were 1,044,025 acres devoted to this cereal in 1903, which produced
+  17,910,614 bushels, or an average of 17 bushels (of 60 lb) to the
+  acre. In 1904 the production was increased to 19,999,324 bushels, but
+  in 1905 it fell off to 15,771,477 bushels. At one time Chile supplied
+  Argentina and the entire West Coast as far north as California with
+  wheat, but Argentina and California have become wheat producers and
+  exporters, and Chile has been driven from all her old consuming
+  markets. Great Britain is now her best customer, and Brazil takes a
+  small quantity for milling mixtures. Chile has been badly handicapped
+  by her crude methods of cultivation, but these are passing away and
+  modern methods are taking their place. Formerly wheat was grown
+  chiefly in the region of long rainless summers, and the ripened grain
+  was thrown upon uncovered earth floors and threshed by horses driven
+  about over the straw, but this antiquated process was not suited to
+  the climate and enterprise of the more southern provinces, and the
+  modern threshing-machine has been introduced. Barley is largely
+  produced, chiefly for home consumption. Maize (Indian corn) is grown
+  in every part of Chile except the rainy south where the grain cannot
+  ripen, and is a principal article of food. The green maize furnishes
+  two popular national dishes, _choclos_ and _humitas_, which are eaten
+  by both rich and poor. Potatoes also are widely cultivated, but the
+  humid regions of the south, particularly from Valdivia to Chiloé,
+  produce the greatest quantity. The total annual production exceeds
+  three million bushels. The kidney bean (_Phaseolus vulgaris_) is
+  another staple product in every part of the country, and is perhaps
+  the most popular article of food among all classes of Chileans. Peas
+  are largely cultivated south of the Maule. Walnuts have become another
+  important product and are exported, the average annual produce being
+  48,000 to 50,000 bushels. The olive was introduced from Spain in
+  colonial times and is widely distributed through the north central
+  provinces, but its economic importance is not great. Of the European
+  fruits introduced into the southern provinces, the apple has been the
+  most successful. It grows with little care and yields even better than
+  in its original home. The peach, apricot, plum, quince and cherry are
+  also cultivated with success. Wild strawberries are found on both
+  sides of the Andes; the cultivated varieties are unsurpassed,
+  especially those of the province of Concepción.
+
+  The pastoral industries of Chile have been developed chiefly for the
+  home market. The climate is admirably suited to cattle-raising, as the
+  winters are mild and pasture is to be found throughout the whole year,
+  but the proximity of the Argentine pampas is fatal to its profitable
+  development. The government has been trying to promote cattle-breeding
+  by levying duties (as high as 16 pesos a head) on cattle imported from
+  Argentina, but with no great success. The importation, which formerly
+  numbered about 140,000 per annum, still numbers not far from 100,000
+  head. There are some districts in central Chile where cattle-raising
+  is the principal occupation, but the long dry summers limit the
+  pasturage on the open plains and prevent the development which perhaps
+  would otherwise result. As in Argentina, beef is generally dried in
+  the sun to make _charqui_ (jerked beef), in which form it is exported
+  to the desert provinces. Horse and mule breeding are carried on to a
+  limited extent, and since the opening of the far South more attention
+  has been given to sheep. Goats and swine are raised in small numbers
+  on the large estates, but in Chiloé swine-raising is one of the chief
+  occupations of the people. Some attention has been given to the
+  production of butter and cheese, but the industry has attained no
+  great importance. A new industry which has made noteworthy progress,
+  however, is that of bee-keeping, which is greatly favoured by the mild
+  climate and the long season and abundance of flowers.
+
+  _Manufactures._--The manufacturing interests of Chile have become
+  influential enough to force a high tariff policy upon the country.
+  They have been restricted principally to articles of necessity--food
+  preparations, beverages, textiles and wearing apparel, leather and
+  leatherwork, woodwork, pottery, chemicals, ironware, &c. In earlier
+  days, when Chile had less competition in the production of wheat,
+  flour mills were to be found everywhere in the wheat-producing
+  provinces, and flour was one of the leading exports. Concepción,
+  Talca, and other provincial capitals developed important milling
+  industries, which were extended to all the chief towns of the newer
+  provinces south of the Bio-Bio. There are over 500 large flour mills
+  in Chile, the greater part of which are equipped with modern
+  roller-process machinery. The development of the coal deposits in the
+  provinces of Concepción and Arauco has made possible other industries
+  besides those of smelting mineral ores, and numerous small
+  manufacturing establishments have resulted, especially in Santiago,
+  Valparaiso, Copiapó and other places where no permanent water power
+  exists. Tanning leather is an important industry, especially in the
+  south, some of the Chilean trees, notably the _algarrobilla_
+  (_Balsamocarpon brevifolium_) and _lingue_ (_Persea lingue_) being
+  rich in tannin. To provide a market for the leather produced,
+  factories have been established for the manufacture of boots and
+  shoes, harness and saddles, and under the protection of a high tariff
+  are doing well. Brewing and distilling have made noteworthy progress,
+  the domestic consumption of their products being very large. The
+  breweries are generally worked by Germans and are situated chiefly in
+  the south, though there are large establishments in Santiago and
+  Valparaiso. Small quantities of their products are exported. Furniture
+  and carriage factories, cooperages, and other manufactories of wood
+  are numerous and generally prosperous. There are likewise a large
+  number of factories for canning and preserving fruits and vegetables.
+  Foundries and machine shops have been established, especially for the
+  manufacture of railway material. The sugar beet has been added to the
+  productions of Chile, and with it the manufacture on a small scale of
+  beet sugar. There is one large refinery at Viña del Mar, however,
+  which imports raw cane sugar from Peru for refining. The manufacture
+  of textiles is carried on at Santiago and El Tomé, and numerous small
+  factories are devoted to clothing of various descriptions. The great
+  mining industries have led to a noteworthy development in the
+  production of chemicals, and a considerable number of factories are
+  engaged in the production of pharmaceutical preparations, perfumeries,
+  soaps, candles, &c.
+
+  _Mining_.--The most important of all the national industries, however,
+  is that of mining. In 1903 there were 11,746 registered mines, on
+  which mining dues were paid, the aggregate produce being valued at
+  178,768,170 pesos. These mines gave employment to 46,592 labourers, of
+  whom 24,445 were employed by the nitrate companies, 13,710 in various
+  metalliferous mines, 6437 in coal mines, and 2000 in other mines. Gold
+  is found in nearly all the provinces from Antofagasta to Concepción,
+  and in Llanquihue, Chiloé and Magallanes territory, but the output is
+  not large. There are a great many placer washings, among which are
+  some extensive deposits near the Straits of Magellan. Silver is found
+  principally on the elevated slopes and plateaus of the Andes in the
+  desert provinces of the north. The second most important mining
+  industry in Chile, however, is that of copper, which is found in the
+  provinces of Antofagasta, Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Valparaiso,
+  Santiago, O'Higgins, Colchagua, Curicó and Talca, but the richest
+  deposits are in the three desert provinces. Chile was once the largest
+  producer of copper in the world, her production in 1860-1864 being
+  rated at 60 to 67% of the total. Low prices afterwards caused a large
+  shrinkage in the output, but she is still classed among the principal
+  producers. Iron mining has never been developed in Chile, although
+  extensive deposits are said to exist. Manganese ores are mined in
+  Atacama and Coquimbo, and their export is large. The other metals
+  reported in the official returns are lead, cobalt and vanadium, of
+  which only small quantities are produced. Bolivian tin is exported
+  from Chilean ports. Among the non-metallic minerals are nitrate of
+  soda, borate of lime, coal, salt and sulphur, together with various
+  products derived from these minerals, such as iodine, sulphuric acid,
+  &c. Guano is classed among the mineral products and still figures as
+  an export, though the richest Chilean deposits were exhausted long
+  before the war with Peru. Of non-metallic products nitrate of soda is
+  by far the most important. Extensive deposits of the salt (called
+  _caliche_ in its crude, impure state) in the provinces of Tacna,
+  Tarapacá, Antofagasta and Atacama owe their existence to the rainless
+  character of the climate. Those of the first-named province have been
+  discovered since the war between Chile and Peru, and have greatly
+  extended the prospective life of the industry. The nitrate fields,
+  which lie between 50 and 100 m. from the coast and at elevations
+  exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level, have been officially estimated at
+  89,177 hectares (344 sq. m.) and to contain 2316 millions of metric
+  quintals (254,760,000 short tons). The first export of nitrates was in
+  1830, and in 1884 it reached an aggregate of 550,000 tons, and in 1905
+  of 1,603,140 tons. The latter figure is apparently about the
+  production agreed upon between the Chilean government and the nitrate
+  companies to prevent overproduction and a resulting decline in price.
+  Nearly all the _oficinas_, or working plants, are owned and operated
+  by British companies, and the railways of this desolate region are
+  generally owned by the same companies and form a part of the working
+  plant. Borate of lime also furnishes another important export, though
+  a less valuable one than nitrate of soda. Extensive deposits of borax
+  and common salt have been found in the same region, which with several
+  other products of these saline deposits, such as iodine, add
+  considerably to its exports. The coal deposits of Chile are found
+  chiefly in the provinces of Concepción and Arauco, the principal mines
+  being on the coast of the Bay of Arauco at Coronel and Lota. Coal is
+  found also in Valdivia, on the island of Chiloé, and in the vicinity
+  of Punta Arenas on the Straits of Magellan. Sulphur is found in the
+  volcanic regions of the north, but the principal mines are in the
+  provinces of Talca.
+
+The relative magnitude and value of these mineral products may be seen
+in the following abstract from the official returns of 1903:--
+
+  +-----------------------+---------------+------------+-------------+
+  |                       |     Unit.     |  Quantity. | Value pesos |
+  |                       |               |            |  (of 18d.). |
+  +-----------------------+---------------+------------+-------------+
+  | Gold                  |    grammes    |  1,424,625 |   1,745,115 |
+  | Silver                |       "       | 39,012,382 |   1,284,308 |
+  | Copper                |    kilogrs.   | 29,923,132 |  21,438,397 |
+  | Lead                  |       "       |     70,984 |       9,097 |
+  | Cobalt ore            |       "       |    284,990 |      99,695 |
+  | Lead and Vanadium ores|       "       |      2,000 |             |
+  | Manganese ore         |       "       | 17,110,000 |     682,400 |
+  | Coal                  |      tons     |    827,112 |   8,250,720 |
+  | Nitrates              |metric quintals| 14,449,200 | 140,102,012 |
+  | Iodine                |    kilogrs.   |    157,444 |   1,687,327 |
+  | Borates               |       "       | 16,878,913 |   2,363,048 |
+  | Salt                  |metric quintals|    162,635 |     324,270 |
+  | Sulphur               |    kilogrs.   |  3,440,642 |     337,515 |
+  | Sulphuric acid        |       "       |  1,600,000 |     176,000 |
+  | Guano                 |metric quintals|    111,335 |     267,466 |
+  | Various               |    kilogrs.   |        200 |         800 |
+  +-----------------------+---------------+------------+-------------+
+
+_Government._--Chile is a centralized republic, whose government is
+administered under the provisions of the constitution of 1833 and the
+amendments of the 9th of August 1888, the 11th of August 1890, the 20th
+of August 1890, the 22nd of December 1891, and the 7th of July 1892.
+According to this constitution the sovereignty resides in the nation,
+but suffrage is restricted to married citizens over twenty-one and
+unmarried citizens over twenty-five years of age, not in domestic
+service, who can read and write, and who are the owners of real estate,
+or who have capital invested in business or industry, or who receive
+salaries or incomes proportionate in value to such real estate as
+investment; and as 75% of the population is classed as illiterate, and a
+great majority of the labouring classes is landless, badly paid, and
+miserably poor, it is apparent that political sovereignty in Chile is
+the well-guarded possession of a small minority. The dominant element in
+this minority is the rich landholding interest, and the constitution and
+the laws of the first half-century were framed for the special
+protection of that interest.
+
+The supreme powers of government are vested in three distinct
+branches--legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative power is
+exercised by a national congress, which consists of two chambers---a
+senate of 32 members, and a chamber of deputies of 94 members. The
+membership of the lower house is in the proportion of one deputy for
+each 30,000 of the departmental population, and each fraction over
+15,000; and the senate is entitled to one-third the membership of the
+chamber. The senators are elected by provinces and by a direct
+cumulative vote, and hold office for six years, one-half of the senate
+being renewed every three years. The deputies are elected by departments
+and by a direct cumulative vote, and hold office for three years. Both
+senators and deputies must have reached the age of thirty-six, must have
+a specified income, and are required to serve without salary. A
+permanent committee of 14 members represents the two chambers during the
+congressional recess and exercises certain supervisory and advisory
+powers in the administration of public affairs. Congress convenes each
+year on the 1st of June and sits until the 1st of September, but the
+president may prorogue an ordinary session for a period of 50 days, and
+with the consent of the council of state may convene it in extraordinary
+session. Congress has the privilege of giving or withholding its
+confidence in the acts of the government.
+
+The executive is a president who is elected for a term of five years and
+is ineligible for the next succeeding term. He is chosen by electors,
+who are elected by departments in the manner prescribed for deputies and
+in the proportion of three electors for each deputy. These elections are
+held on the 25th of June in the last year of a presidential term, the
+electors cast their votes on the 25th of July, and the counting takes
+place in a joint session of the two chambers of congress on the 30th of
+August, congress in joint session having the power to complete the
+election when no candidate has been duly chosen by the electors. The
+formal installation of the president takes place on the 18th of
+September, the anniversary of the declaration of national independence.
+In addition to the prerogatives commonly invested in his office, the
+president is authorized to supervise the judiciary, to nominate
+candidates for the higher ecclesiastical offices, to intervene in the
+enforcement of ecclesiastical decrees, papal bulls, &c., to exercise
+supervisory police powers, and to appoint the intendants of provinces
+and the governors of departments, who in turn appoint the sub-delegates
+and inspectors of subordinate political divisions. The president, who is
+paid £2250 per annum, must be native-born, not less than thirty years of
+age, and eligible for election to the lower house. He is assisted and
+advised by a cabinet of six ministers whose departments are: interior,
+foreign affairs, worship and colonization, justice and public
+instruction, war and marine, finance, industry and public works. In case
+of a vacancy in the presidential office, the minister of interior
+becomes the "vice-president of the republic" and discharges the duties
+of the executive office until a successor can be legally elected. A
+council of state of 12 members, consisting of the president, 6 members
+appointed by congress and 5 by the president, has advisory functions,
+and its approval is required in many executive acts and appointments.
+
+The provinces are administered by _intendentes_, and the departments by
+_gobernadores_, both appointees of the national executive. The
+sub-delegacies are governed by _sub-delegados_ appointed by the
+governors, and the districts by _inspectores_ appointed by the
+sub-delegates. Directly and indirectly; therefore, the administration of
+all these political divisions is in the hands of the president, who, in
+like manner, makes and controls the appointments of all judicial
+functionaries, subject, however, to receiving recommendations of
+candidates from the courts and to submitting appointments to the
+approval of the council of state. This gives the national executive
+absolute control of all administrative matters in every part of the
+republic. The police force also is a national organization under the
+immediate control of the minister of interior, and the public prosecutor
+in every department is a representative of the national government.
+There is no legislative body in any of these political divisions, nor
+any administrative official directly representing the people, with this
+exception: under the law of the 22nd of December 1891, municipalities,
+or communes, are created and invested with certain specified powers of
+local government affecting local police services, sanitation, local
+improvements, primary instruction, industrial and business regulations,
+&c.; they are authorized to borrow money for sanitary improvements,
+road-making, education, &c., and to impose certain specified taxes for
+their support; these municipalities elect their own _alcaldes_, or
+mayors, and municipal councils, the latter having legislative powers
+within the limits of the law mentioned.
+
+  _Justice._--The judicial power consists of a Supreme Court of Justice
+  of seven members located in the national capital, which exercises
+  supervisory and disciplinary authority over all the law courts of the
+  republic; six courts of appeal, in Tacna, Serena, Valparaiso,
+  Santiago, Talca and Concepción; tribunals of first instance in the
+  department capitals; and minor courts, or justices of the peace, in
+  the sub-delegacies and districts. The jury system does not exist in
+  Chile, and juries are unknown except in cases where the freedom of the
+  press has been abused. All trials, therefore, are heard by one or more
+  judges, and appeals may be taken from a lower to a higher court. The
+  government is represented in each department by a public prosecutor.
+  The police officials, who are under the direct control of the
+  minister of interior, also exercise some degree of judicial authority.
+  This force is essentially military in its organization, and consisted
+  in 1901 of 500 officers, 934 non-commissioned officers and 5400 police
+  soldiers. Small forces of local policemen are supported by various
+  municipalities. The judges of the higher courts are appointed by the
+  national executive, and those of the minor tribunals by the federal
+  official governing the political division in which they are located.
+
+  _Army_.--For military purposes the republic is divided into five
+  districts, the northern desert provinces forming the first, the
+  central provinces as far south as the Bio-Bio the second and third,
+  and the southern provinces and territory the fourth and fifth. Large
+  sums of money have been expended in arms, equipment, guns and
+  fortifications. The army is organized on the German model and has been
+  trained by European officers who have been employed both for the
+  school and regiment. Though the president and minister of war are the
+  nominal heads of the army, its immediate direction is concentrated in
+  a general staff comprising six service departments, at the head of
+  which is a chief of staff. After the triumph of the revolutionists in
+  the civil war of 1891, the army was reorganized under the direction of
+  Colonel Emil Körner, an accomplished German officer, who subsequently
+  served as chief of the general staff. In 1904 the permanent force
+  consisted of 12 battalions of infantry, 6 regiments of cavalry, 4
+  regiments of mountain artillery, 1 regiment of horse artillery, 2
+  regiments of coast artillery, and 5 companies of
+  engineers--aggregating 915 officers and 4757 men. To this nucleus were
+  added 6160 recruits, the contingent for that year of young men
+  twenty-one years of age compelled to serve with the colours. Under the
+  law of the 5th of September 1900, military service is obligatory for
+  all citizens between eighteen and forty-five years, all young men of
+  twenty-one years being required to serve a certain period with the
+  regular force. After this period they are transferred to the 1st
+  reserve for 9 years, and then to the 2nd reserve. The military rifle
+  adopted for all three branches of the service is the Mauser, 1895
+  model, of 7 mm. calibre, and the batteries are provided with Krupp
+  guns of 7 and 7.5 cm. calibre. Military instruction is given in a
+  well-organized military school at Santiago, a war academy and a school
+  of military engineering.
+
+  _Navy_.--The Chilean navy is essentially British in organization and
+  methods, and all its best fighting ships were built in British yards.
+  In 1906 the effective fighting force consisted of 1 battle ship, 2
+  belted cruisers, 4 protected cruisers, 3 torpedo gunboats, 6
+  destroyers and 8 modern torpedo boats. In addition to these there are
+  several inferior armed vessels of various kinds which bring the total
+  up to 40, not including transports and other auxiliaries. The
+  administration of the navy, under the president and minister of war
+  and marine, is confided to a general naval staff, called the
+  "Direccion jeneral de la Armada," with headquarters at Valparaiso. Its
+  duties also include the military protection of the ports, the
+  hydrographic survey of the coast, and the lighthouse service. The
+  _personnel_ comprises about 465 officers, including those of the
+  staff, and 4000 petty officers and men. There is a military port at
+  Talcahuano, in Concepción Bay, strongly fortified, and provided with
+  arsenal and repair shops, a large dry dock and a patent slip. The
+  naval school, which occupies one of the noteworthy edifices of
+  Valparaiso, is attended by 90 cadets and is noted for the thoroughness
+  of its instruction.
+
+  _Education_.--Under the old conservative régime very little was done
+  for the public school outside the larger towns. As a large proportion
+  of the labouring classes lived in the small towns and rural
+  communities, they received comparatively little attention. The
+  increasing influence of more liberal ideas greatly improved the
+  situation with reference to popular education, and the government now
+  makes vigorous efforts to bring its public school system within the
+  reach of all. The constitution provides that free instruction must be
+  provided for the people. School attendance is not compulsory, however,
+  and the gain upon illiteracy (75%) appears to be very slow. The
+  government also gives primary instruction to recruits when serving
+  with the colours, which, with the increasing employment of the people
+  in the towns, helps to stimulate a desire for education among the
+  lower classes. Education in Chile is very largely under the control of
+  the national government, the minister of justice and public
+  instruction being charged with the direction of all public schools
+  from the university down to the smallest and most remote primary
+  school. The system includes the University of Chile and National
+  Institute at Santiago, lyceums or high schools in all the provincial
+  capitals and larger towns, normal schools at central points for the
+  training of public school teachers, professional and industrial
+  schools, military schools and primary schools. Instruction in all
+  these is free, and under certain conditions text-books are supplied.
+  In the normal schools, where the pupils are trained to enter the
+  public service as primary teachers, not only is the tuition free, but
+  also books, board, lodging and everything needed in their school work.
+  The national university at Santiago comprises faculties of theology,
+  law and political science, medicine and pharmacy, natural sciences and
+  mathematics, and philosophy. The range of studies is wide, and the
+  attendance large. The National Institute at Santiago is the principal
+  high school of the secondary grade in Chile. There were 30 of these
+  high schools for males and 12 for females in 1903, with an aggregate
+  of 11,504 matriculated students. The normal schools for males are
+  located at Santiago, Chillán and Valdivia; and for females at La
+  Serena, Santiago and Concepción. The mining schools at Copiapó, La
+  Serena and Santiago had an aggregate attendance of 180 students in
+  1903, and the commercial schools at Iquique and Santiago an attendance
+  of 214. The more important agricultural schools are located at
+  Santiago, Chillán, Concepción and Ancud, the Quinta Normal de
+  Agricultura in the national capital having a large attendance. The
+  School of Mechanic Arts and Trades (_Escuela de Artes y Oficios_) of
+  Santiago has a high reputation for the practical character of its
+  instruction, in which it is admirably seconded by a normal handicraft
+  school (Slöyd system) and a night school of industrial drawing in the
+  same city, and professional schools for girls in Santiago and
+  Valparaiso, where the pupils are taught millinery, dress-making,
+  knitting, embroidery and fancy needlework. The government also
+  maintains schools for the blind and for the deaf and dumb. The public
+  primary schools numbered 1961 in 1903, with 3608 teachers, 166,928
+  pupils enrolled, and an average attendance of 108,582. The cost of
+  maintaining these schools was 4,146,574 pesos, or an average of
+  £2:17:3 per pupil in attendance. In addition to the public schools
+  there are a Roman Catholic university at Santiago, which includes law
+  and civil engineering among its regular courses of study; numerous
+  private schools and seminaries of the secondary grade, with a total of
+  11,184 students of both sexes in 1903; and 506 private primary
+  schools, with an attendance of 29,684. The private schools usually
+  conform to the official requirements in regard to studies and
+  examinations, which facilitates subsequent admission to the university
+  and the obtainment of degrees; probably they do better work than the
+  public schools, especially in the German settlements of the southern
+  provinces. A Consejo de Instrucción Pública (council of public
+  instruction) of 14 members exercises a general supervision over the
+  higher and secondary schools. There are schools of music and fine arts
+  in Santiago. The national library at Santiago, with 116,300 volumes in
+  1906, and the national observatory, are both efficiently administered.
+  At the beginning of the 20th century there were 41 public libraries in
+  the republic, including public school collections, with an aggregate
+  of 240,000 volumes.
+
+  _Charities._--According to the returns of 1903 there were 88 hospitals
+  in the republic, which reported 79,051 admissions during the year, and
+  had 6215 patients under treatment at its close; 628,536 patients
+  received gratuitous medical assistance at the public dispensaries
+  during the year; there were 24 foundling hospitals with 5570 children;
+  and there were 3092 persons in the various _hospicios_ or asylums, and
+  1478 in the imbecile asylums.
+
+  _Religion._--The Roman Catholic religion is declared by the
+  constitution to be the religion of the state, and the inaugural oath
+  of the president pledges him to protect it. A considerable part of its
+  income is derived from a subsidy included in the annual budget, which
+  makes it a charge upon the national treasury like any other public
+  service. The secular supervision of this service is entrusted to a
+  member of the president's cabinet, known as the minister of worship
+  and colonization. The executive and legislative powers intervene in
+  the appointments to the higher offices of the Church. The greater part
+  of the population remains loyal to the established faith. The law of
+  1865 gives the privilege of religious worship to other faiths, and the
+  laws of 1883 made civil marriage and the civil registry of births,
+  deaths and marriages obligatory, and secularized the cemeteries. Under
+  the reform of 1865 full religious freedom is practically accorded, and
+  it is provided that the services of religious organizations other than
+  the Roman Catholic may be held in private residences or in edifices
+  owned by private individuals or corporations. Of the 72,812 foreigners
+  residing in Chile in 1895, about 16,000 were described as Protestants.
+  Notwithstanding the opposition of some political elements to the
+  Church, the Chileans themselves may all be classed as Roman Catholics.
+  The ecclesiastical organization includes one archbishop, who resides
+  at Santiago, three bishops residing at La Serena, Concepción and
+  Ancud, and two vicars residing in Antofagasta and Tarapacá. These
+  benefices are filled by appointments from lists of three prepared by
+  the council of state and sent to Rome by the president, and in the
+  case of an archbishop or bishop the appointment must also receive the
+  approval of the Senate. The Chilean clergy are drawn very largely from
+  the higher classes, and their social standing is much better than in
+  many South American states. The Church also possesses much property of
+  its own, and is therefore able to maintain itself on a comparatively
+  small subsidy from the public treasury, which was 985,910 pesos
+  (£73,943) in 1902. The Church maintains seminaries in all cathedral
+  towns, and these also receive a subsidy from the government.
+
+  _Finance._--For a long time Chile was considered one of the poorest
+  states of Spanish America, but the acquisition of the rich
+  mineral-producing provinces of the north, together with the
+  development of new silver and copper mines in Atacama and Coquimbo,
+  largely increased her revenues and enabled her to develop other
+  important resources. During the decade 1831-1840 the annual revenues
+  averaged about 2,100,000 pesos (of 48d.), which in the decade
+  1861-1870 had increased to an average of only 8,200,000 pesos--and
+  this during a period of considerable agricultural activity on account
+  of wheat exports to California and Australia. After 1870 the revenues
+  increased more rapidly owing to the development of new mining
+  industries, the receipts in 1879 amounting to 15,300,000 pesos, and in
+  1882 to 28,900,000 pesos. The revenues from the captured Peruvian
+  nitrate fields then became an important part of the national income,
+  which ten years later (1902) reached an aggregate of 138,507,178 pesos
+  (of i8d.), of which 105,072,832 pesos were in gold. In 1906 the
+  receipts from all sources were estimated at 149,100,000 pesos, of
+  which 62,200,000 pesos gold were credited to the tax on nitrate,
+  39,800,000 pesos gold to import duties, and 23,500,000 pesos currency
+  to railway receipts. During these years of fiscal prosperity the
+  country suffered much from financial crises caused by industrial
+  stagnation, an excessive and depreciated paper currency and political
+  disorder. To ensure an income that would meet its foreign engagements,
+  the government collected the nitrate and iodine taxes and import
+  duties in gold. As a considerable part of the expenditures were in
+  gold, the practice was adopted of keeping the gold and currency
+  accounts separate. In 1895 a conversion law was passed in which the
+  sterling value of the peso was reduced to 18d., at which rate the
+  outstanding paper should be redeemed. A conversion fund was also
+  created, and, although the government afterwards authorized two more
+  large issues, the beneficial effects of this law were so pronounced
+  that the customs regulations were modified in 1907 to permit the
+  payment of import duties in paper. The national revenue is derived
+  chiefly from the nitrate taxes, customs duties, alcohol tax, and from
+  railway, postal and telegraph receipts. There is no land tax, and
+  licence or business taxes are levied by the municipalities for local
+  purposes. The national expenditures are chiefly for the interest and
+  amortization charges on the public debt, official salaries, military
+  expenses in connexion with the army and navy, public works (including
+  railway construction, port improvements, water and sewage works), the
+  administration of the state railways, telegraph lines and post office,
+  church subsidies, public instruction and foreign representation.
+
+  The ordinary and extraordinary receipts and expenditures for the five
+  years 1899-1903, in gold and currency, in pesos of 18d., were as
+  follows:--
+
+  +------+--------------------------+-----------------------------+
+  |      |      Receipts, pesos.    |     Expenditures, pesos.    |
+  |      +-------------+------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |      |    Gold.    |   Paper.   |    Gold.     |    Paper.    |
+  +------+-------------+------------+--------------+--------------+
+  | 1899 |  83,051,604 | 45,239.970 | 31,732,797   | 76,749,793   |
+  | 1900 |  89,869,178 | 46,515,102 | 30,564,821   | 82,143,742   |
+  | 1901 |  74,665,061 | 35,394,434 | 39,808,517   | 91,087,171   |
+  | 1902 | 105,072,832 | 33,434,346 | 45,093,278[5]| 89,170,087[5]|
+  | 1903 | 108,503,565 | 32,490,145 | 12,508,075   | 84,721,437   |
+  +------+-------------+------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+  For 1906 the expenditures were fixed at 149,000,000 pesos, and the
+  revenues were estimated to produce 149,100,000 pesos, which included
+  62,200,000 pesos gold from nitrate taxes, 39,800,000 pesos gold and
+  200,000 pesos paper from import duties, 23,500,000 pesos paper from
+  the state railways, 2,500,000 pesos paper from postal and telegraph
+  receipts, and 15,000,000 pesos gold from loans. How the revenues are
+  expended is shown in the estimates for 1907, in which the total
+  expenditures were estimated at 134,830,532 pesos paper and 58,796,780
+  pesos gold, the principal appropriations being 16,192,780 pesos paper
+  and 99,733 gold for the war department, 10,460.781 paper and 6,315,731
+  gold for the marine department, 40,934,273 paper and 16,984,671 gold
+  for railways, and 6,324,817 paper for public works. In addition to
+  these the budget of 1906 provided for gold expenditures in 1907 of
+  7,000,000 pesos on sanitary works and 8,000,000 pesos on the Arica-La
+  Paz railway. The custom of dividing receipts and expenditures into
+  ordinary and extraordinary, of treating the receipts from loans as
+  revenue, of adding six months to the fiscal year for closing up
+  accounts, and of dividing receipts and expenditures into separate gold
+  and currency accounts, leads to much confusion and complication in the
+  returns, and is the cause of unavoidable discrepancies and
+  contradictions.
+
+  In May 1906 the external debt of the republic aggregated £21,700,000,
+  including the loans of 1905 and 1906, amounting to £5,700.000, for
+  sanitary works and railway construction. At the same time the internal
+  debt was 107,000,000 pesos (£8,025,000), which increases the funded
+  indebtedness to £29,725,000. Like Brazil, Chile has been careful to
+  preserve her foreign credit, and though an average indebtedness of
+  about £10 per capita may seem large for a nation with so much absolute
+  poverty among its people, the government is finding no difficulty in
+  negotiating new loans, the mineral resources of the country and the
+  conservative instincts of the people being considered satisfactory
+  guarantees. According to official returns, the real-estate valuations
+  in 1903-1904 aggregated 1,777,217,704 pesos, of which 1,020,609,215
+  pesos were in urban and 754,608,489 pesos in rural property. Of the
+  total returned, 1,775,217,704 is described as taxable, and 262,626,576
+  pesos as non-taxable. The large and steadily increasing receipts from
+  import duties, amounting to 91,321,860 pesos in 1905, and 103,507,556
+  pesos in 1906, appears to indicate an encouraging state of prosperity
+  in the country, although an average of 34½ pesos a year (nearly £2 :
+  12s.), in addition to the increased prices paid for home manufactures,
+  seems to be a very heavy indirect tax upon so poor a people.
+
+  _Currency._--The monetary circulation in Chile consists almost wholly
+  of paper currency, nominally based on a gold standard of 18d. per
+  peso. The conversion law of 1895 made the currency convertible at this
+  rate, although the gold peso was rated at 48d. previous to that date;
+  but the financial crisis of 1898 caused the suspension of specie
+  payments, and a forced issue of additional paper led to a further
+  postponement of conversion and the prompt withdrawal of specie from
+  circulation. The paper circulation consists of national and bank
+  issues. The former owes its existence very largely to the war with
+  Peru, the civil war of 1891, and the financial troubles of 1898. On
+  the 1st of January 1890 the national issues stood at 22,487,916 pesos,
+  and the bank issues at 16,679,790 pesos, making a total of 39,167,706
+  pesos currency in circulation. This total was largely increased by
+  President Balmaceda in 1891. On the 31st of July 1898 the conversion
+  of paper notes, under the law of 1st June 1895, was suspended, and the
+  government issued 27,989,929 pesos to the banks of issue, which was
+  described as a loan at 2%, and raised their outstanding circulation to
+  40,723,089 pesos, and at the same time issued on its own account
+  17,693,890 pesos and assumed responsibility for 1,193,641 pesos which
+  had been illegally put into circulation before 1896. This gave an
+  aggregate registered circulation of 86,045,166 pesos in 1898. In 1904
+  another issue of 30,000,000 pesos was authorized and the date of
+  conversion was still further postponed, and in 1907 a more general act
+  provided that the maximum paper circulation should not exceed
+  150,000,000 pesos of the value of 18d. per peso, and that new issues
+  should be made only through the issue department and against deposits
+  of gold, which deposits would be returned to depositors on the
+  presentation of the currency issued. The redemption of this issue was
+  guaranteed by a conversion fund of 100,000,000 pesos, and by an
+  authorization to issue a loan of 50,000,000 pesos to redeem the
+  balance, if necessary. The conversion fund under the act of 1895 stood
+  at 77,282,257 pesos (£5,796,170) on the 31st of May 1907. There are 23
+  joint-stock banks of issue, with an aggregate registered capital of
+  40,689,665 pesos (£3,051,724). Their circulating notes are secured by
+  deposits in the national treasury of gold, government notes and other
+  approved securities. There is no state bank, though the Bank of Chile,
+  with its numerous agencies and its paid-up capital of 20,000,000
+  pesos, may be said to fill the place of such an institution. Besides
+  these, there are four non-issue banks, two foreign banks and their
+  agencies, and three mortgage banks, with agencies at the important
+  provincial centres, which loan money on real-estate security and issue
+  interest bearing hypothecary notes to bearer. There are 8 savings
+  banks in the republic, whose aggregate deposits on the 31st of
+  December 1906 were 14,799,728 pesos.
+
+  The monetary unit, the gold peso, does not form a part of the actual
+  coinage. The gold coins authorized by this law are the _condor_ of 20
+  pesos, the _medio condor_, or _doblon_, of 10 pesos, and the _escudo_
+  of 5 pesos. The silver coins are the _peso_ of 100 centavos and its
+  fractional parts of 20, 10 and 5 centavos. The bronze coins are of 2½,
+  2, 1, and ½ centavos.
+
+  The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard in
+  Chile, but the old Spanish standards are still widely used, especially
+  in handling mining and farm produce. Nitrate of soda is estimated in
+  Chilean quintals (101.41 lb) in the field, and metric quintals (220.46
+  lb) at the port of shipment. In silver and copper mining the _marc_ (8
+  oz.) is commonly used in describing the richness of the ores. Farm
+  produce is generally sold by the _arroba_ or _fanega_; the _vara_ is
+  used in lineal measurement, and the _cuadra_ is used by country people
+  in land measurement.    (A. J. L.)
+
+
+HISTORY.
+
+  Inca conquest.
+
+Chile was the recognized name of the country from the beginning of its
+known history. The land was originally inhabited by tribes of Indians,
+who, though not mere savages, were far below the level of civilization
+distinguishing the races of Mexico and Peru. When the country first
+became known to the Spaniards in the 16th century the northern tribes
+were found to be more civilized and much more submissive than those of
+the south. The difference was no doubt due to the invasion and conquest
+of northern Chile in the 15th century by Yupanqui, Inca of Peru,
+grandfather of Atahualpa, ruler of Peru at the time of its conquest by
+Pizarro. The dominion of the Incas in Chile was probably bounded by the
+Rapel river (lat. 34° 10' S.), and, though their control of the country
+was slight, the Peruvian influence led to the introduction of a higher
+civilization, and, by weakening the power of the tribes, paved the way
+for the invasion of the Spaniards. Beyond the limits of the Inca
+conquest the Indians of Chile were distinguished by fierce independence
+of character and by their warlike qualities. Rude and ignorant as they
+were, they possessed a rough military organization; each community was
+led by its _ulmen_ (chief), and in war the tribes fought together under
+an elected leader (_toqui_). The name of the Araucanians, the most
+powerful of the tribes, came to be applied to the whole confederation of
+Indians living south of the Bio-bio river.
+
+
+  Spanish invasions.
+
+The first Spanish invasion of Chile took place in 1535, when Diego de
+Almagro, the companion and rival of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru,
+marched into Chile in search of gold. Disappointed in his quest, and
+meeting with obstinate resistance from the southern tribes, he returned
+to Peru with his whole force in 1538. In 1540 Pizarro sent Pedro de
+Valdivia to make a regular conquest and settlement of Chile. Valdivia
+founded Santiago, the present capital of Chile, in February 1541, and
+proceeded to build the towns of La Serena, Conceptión, Villarica,
+Imperial, Valdivia and Angol, in order to secure his hold on the
+country. But the Indians fought desperately for their independence, and
+in 1553 a general rising of the tribes ended in the defeat and death of
+Valdivia and in the destruction of most of his settlements. This was the
+beginning of nearly a century of continuous warfare. As there was no
+gold in the country the number of settlers was small, the loose tribal
+organization of the natives made it impossible to inflict a vital defeat
+on them, and the mountainous and thickly wooded country lent itself
+admirably to a warfare of surprises and ambuscades. General after
+general and army after army were despatched from Spain and Peru; Chile
+was given a government independent of the viceroy of Lima; attack after
+attack was made on the Indians, their lands were laid waste, and the
+struggle was conducted with merciless ferocity: all in vain. Settlements
+and forts were never free from assault and were taken and retaken; if
+one Indian army was destroyed another took its place, if one _toqui_ was
+killed another was chosen; when defeated, the Indians retired to their
+forests, marshes and hills, recruited their forces, and fell on the
+pursuing Spaniards. In 1612 an attempt was made by a Jesuit missionary
+to negotiate a peace, but not till 1640 was the desperate struggle ended
+by the treaty of Quillin, which left the Indians all the land south of
+the Bio-bio river. Up to 1800 the peace was broken by three wars, in
+1655, in 1723 and in 1766, the last ended by a treaty which actually
+gave the Araucanians the right to have a minister at Santiago.
+
+
+  Colonial system.
+
+It was this constant warfare with the Indians and the necessity for hard
+continuous work, owing to the lack of precious metals in Chile, that no
+doubt helped to produce in the settlers the strength and hardihood of
+character that distinguishes the Chileans among South American races.
+But not unnaturally the material condition of the country was the
+reverse of prosperous. The expenditure far exceeded the revenue. The
+Indian warfare occupied nearly the whole attention of the governors and
+much of the time of the settlers. By the Spanish colonial system the
+development of manufactures was prohibited and the trade of the colony
+was limited not only to Spain but to the one port of Cadiz. Till the
+18th century ships were not allowed to sail round Cape Horn, so that the
+Chileans had to trade indirectly through Peru and the Argentine.
+Agriculture was the one resource of the colony, and wheat was grown for
+export to Peru, but the land was concentrated in the hands of a few big
+landowners, and the cultivation of the vine and olive was forbidden. At
+the end of the 17th century Santiago was a town of poor one-storeyed
+houses and had only 8000 inhabitants; the other towns, Valparaiso,
+Concepción, La Serena, were only large villages. Books were not allowed
+to be imported, and education was limited to such as was given here and
+there by priests and monks. The Indians within the limits of the Spanish
+colony were treated like slaves, and horribly mutilated to prevent their
+escape; but at the same time a gradual fusion of races was taking place,
+and the Chilean peasant (_peon_) of to-day is as much of Indian as of
+Spanish descent. The Araucanians, however, continued to preserve their
+independence; they jealously resented the introduction of Spanish
+influence, and the missionary efforts of the Jesuits met with little
+success.
+
+During the 18th century the condition of the colony was improved in many
+ways. The Bourbon kings of Spain were more liberal in their colonial
+policy. Merchant-ships were allowed to sail direct to Chile, trade with
+France was sometimes permitted, and a large batch of hardy emigrants was
+sent out from the Biscay provinces of Spain. Freed from the
+preoccupation of the Indian wars, the governors gave more attention to
+the general welfare of the country: a university was started in Santiago
+in 1747, many towns were built about the same time, agriculture and
+industries were promoted and a coasting trade grew up. In 1778 Charles
+III. threw open all the ports of Spain to the colonies and allowed
+freedom of trade with France. But in general the administration of the
+colony was burdensome, oppressive and inefficient. The people had no
+voice in the government. Ruling with the help of the Royal Audience, the
+governor was absolute master of the country, and regulated the smallest
+details of life. Such time as the officials could spare from the main
+object of enriching themselves by extortion and corruption was given up
+to endless official and religious ceremonies and to petty disputes of
+etiquette and precedence. All the high posts and offices were filled by
+men sent from Spain, with the result that bitter jealousy reigned
+between them and the native-born colonists (_criollos_). The _criollos_
+as a rule filled the posts in the municipalities (_cabildos_), disposed
+of by sale, so that when the revolution broke out the _cabildos_
+naturally became the centres of the movement. As in all Spanish
+colonies, so in Chile, the Church played a large part in the public
+life. Chile was divided into the two bishoprics of Santiago and
+Concepción, and the Church managed to accumulate most of the wealth of
+the country. At the same time the monks and Jesuits did useful work in
+teaching industrial and agricultural arts, and in giving the people a
+certain degree of education; but the influence of the Church was used to
+bolster up the traditional narrow colonial system, and the constant
+quarrels between the clergy and the secular powers often threw the
+country into confusion.
+
+At the opening of the 19th century Chile was a colony whose resources
+had hardly been touched, with a population of about 500,000 persons, of
+Spanish and mixed Spanish and Indian blood: a people endowed with the
+vigour of character bred by a mountainous country and a bracing climate
+and by a hard struggle for existence, but ignorant through lack of
+education, shut out by a narrow-minded commercial system from knowledge
+of the outside world, and destitute of the character-training that free
+institutions afford.
+
+
+  Struggle for independence.
+
+The national independence of Chile dates from the second decade of the
+19th century. The revolt of England's North American colonies, and the
+events of the French Revolution naturally suggested the idea of a
+struggle for independence to the Spanish colonists, and the deposition
+of Ferdinand VII. by Napoleon, and the ensuing disorganization of Spain,
+supplied the desired opportunity. In 1809 risings took place in
+Venezuela, in Ecuador, in Upper Peru and in the Argentine; the
+revolutionary fever spread to Chile, and on the 18th of September 1810
+the _cabildo_ of Santiago secured the resignation of the governor and
+vested his powers in an elected _Junta_ (board) of seven members. This
+event was the beginning of the independence of Chile. But it was some
+time before independence was fully attained. The mass of the people were
+ignorant, intercourse between them was slight, and there was a strong
+section attached to the old régime. The party determined on independence
+was at first small, and compelled to conceal its aims till the ground
+had been prepared for open decisive action. Further, there were
+divisions between the patriots of Santiago and those of Concepción, and
+bitter jealousies between the leaders, the chief of whom were Juan
+Martinez de Rozas, José Miguel Carrera and Bernardo O'Higgins. Owing to
+the apathy of the people and the enmities existing among the leaders,
+the Spanish forces, sent by the viceroy of Peru to crush the
+revolutionary movement, succeeded after two years' indecisive fighting
+in completely defeating the patriots at Rancagua in 1814. For three
+years the Spaniards maintained their hold on Chile, ruling the country
+with tyrannical harshness, but in the spring of 1817 a patriot force
+which had been organized at Mendoza in the Argentine by José de San
+Martin, an Argentine officer, and by O'Higgins, crossed the Andes and
+overwhelmed the royalists at the battle of Chacabuco. O'Higgins was
+named director-general of Chile, while San Martin, realizing that the
+independence of each colony depended on the Spanish being expelled from
+the whole of South America, set about preparing an invasion of Peru. The
+viceroy of Lima made one more effort to uphold the power of Spain in
+Chile, but the army he despatched under Mariano Osorio, the victor of
+Rancagua, was decisively defeated at the river Maipo on the 3rd of April
+1818. By this battle the independence of Chile, formally proclaimed by
+O'Higgins in the previous February, was finally secured.
+
+
+  The republic.
+
+The next few years witnessed the expulsion of the royalists from the
+south of Chile, the equipment of a small fleet, placed under the command
+of Manuel Blanco Encalada and Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald), and the
+invasion of Peru by San Martin with the help of the fleet, ending in the
+proclamation of Peruvian independence in 1821; though the Spanish power
+was not finally broken until Bolivar's victory at Ayacucho in 1824.
+Relieved from all fear of Spanish attacks from the north, the new
+republic of Chile entered upon a period of internal confusion and
+dissension bordering upon anarchy. As soon as the necessity for
+establishing a stable government arose the lack of training in
+self-government among the Chileans became painfully obvious. O'Higgins
+as director-general, rightly perhaps, considered that firm orderly
+government was more important than the concession of liberal
+institutions, but his administration roused strong hostility, and in
+1823 he was compelled to resign. From that date up to 1830 there were no
+less than ten governments, while three different constitutions were
+proclaimed. The nation was divided into small mutually hostile parties;
+there were ecclesiastical troubles owing to the hostility of the Church
+to the new republic; there were Indian risings in the south and royalist
+revolts in the island of Chiloé; the expenditure exceeded the revenue,
+and the employment of the old Spanish financial expedients naturally
+increased the general discontent. Up to 1830 the Liberal party, which
+favoured a free democratic régime, held the upper hand, but in that year
+the Conservatives, backed by a military rising led by General Joaquin
+Prieto, placed themselves in power after a sanguinary battle at Lircay.
+Prieto was elected president in 1831, and a new constitution was drafted
+and promulgated in 1833, which, with some modifications, remains the
+constitution of Chile at the present time. This constitution invested
+the executive with almost dictatorial powers, and the Conservatives
+entered upon a long term of office.
+
+The aim of the Conservative policy was to secure above all a strong
+administration; power was concentrated in the hands of a small circle;
+public liberties were restricted and all opposition crushed by force.
+Inaugurated under General Prieto's administration (1831-1841) by his
+able minister Diego Portales, this policy was continued by his
+successors General Manuel Bulnes (1841-1851) and Manuel Montt
+(1851-1861), each of whom like Prieto was elected to a double term of
+office. In spite of the discontent of the Liberals, the Conservative
+ascendancy secured a long period of firm stable government, which was
+essential to put an end to the confusion in public life and to give time
+for the people to awake to a fuller realization of the duties and
+responsibilities of national independence. The internal peace of the
+country was only disturbed three times, by Liberal risings in 1835, in
+1851 and in 1859, all of which were crushed, but not without severe
+fighting. In 1836 Chile also became involved in a war with a
+confederation of Peru and Bolivia, which ended in the victory of Chile
+and the dissolution of the confederation.
+
+While refusing to allow the people any share in, or control over, the
+government, the Conservative leaders devoted themselves to improving the
+condition of the people and of the country, and under their firm rule
+Chile advanced rapidly in prosperity. The government established a
+department for education, a training college for teachers, and numerous
+schools and libraries; literary magazines were started and a school of
+art and an academy of music founded. By the consolidation of the foreign
+debt, by the regular payment of interest, by the establishment of
+several banks, and by the negotiation of commercial treaties, the
+financial position of the country was improved. Internal development was
+promoted by the working of the silver mines of Copiapo and the coal
+mines of Lota, by the building of railways and erection of telegraphs,
+and by the colonization of the rich Valdivia province with German
+settlers.
+
+The Straits of Magellan were occupied; under an American engineer,
+William Wheelwright, a line of steamers was started on the coast, and,
+by a wise measure allowing merchandise to be landed free of duty for
+re-exportation, Valparaiso became a busy port and trading centre; while
+the demand for food-stuffs in California and Australia, following upon
+the rush for gold, gave a strong impetus to agriculture. A code of law
+was drawn up and promulgated, and the ecclesiastical system was
+organized under an archbishop appointed by the pope. To Montt, as
+minister under Bulnes and afterwards as president, must be given the
+main credit for the far-seeing policy which laid the foundations of the
+prosperity of Chile; and though the administration was in many ways
+harsh and narrow, firm government, rather than liberty that would have
+tended to anarchy, was essential for the success of the young republic.
+
+After 1861, however, a Liberal reaction set in, aided by divisions in
+the Conservative party arising mainly over church questions. Montt's
+successors, José Joaquin Perez (1861-1871), Federico Errázuriz
+(1871-1876) and Anibal Pinto (1876-1881), abandoned the repressive
+policy of their predecessors, invited the co-operation of the Liberals,
+and allowed discontent to vent itself freely in popular agitation. Some
+democratic changes were made in the constitution, notably a law
+forbidding the re-election of a president, and the gradual and peaceful
+transition to a Liberal policy was a proof of the progress which the
+nation had made in political training. Outside the movement for
+constitutional reform, the most important internal question was the
+successful Liberal attack on the privileged position and narrow views of
+the Church, which led to the birth of a strong ultra-montane party among
+the clergy. The government continued to be animated by a progressive
+spirit: schools, railways, telegraphs were rapidly extended; a steamship
+mail service to Europe was subsidized, and the stability of the
+government enabled it to raise new foreign loans in order to extinguish
+the old high interest-bearing loans and to meet the expenses of public
+works. In 1877 a financial crisis occurred, met by the emission of paper
+money, but the depression was only temporary, and the country soon
+rallied from the effects.
+
+During this period there was desultory fighting with the Indians; there
+was a long boundary dispute with the Argentine, settled in 1880; and in
+1865 Chilean sympathy with Peru in a quarrel with Spain led to a foolish
+war with Spain. The blockade of their ports and the bombardment of
+Valparaiso by a Spanish squadron impressed the Chileans with the
+necessity of possessing an adequate fleet to defend their long
+coast-line; and it was under President Errázuriz that the ships were
+obtained and the officers trained that did such good service in the
+great war with Peru. With a population of over two millions, a rapidly
+increasing revenue, ruled by a government that was firm and progressive
+and that enjoyed the confidence of all classes, Chile was well equipped
+for the struggle with Peru that began in 1879.
+
+
+  Close of the war with Peru.
+
+The war of 1879-82 between Chile and Peru is the subject of a separate
+article (see CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR). By the beginning of 1881 the war had
+reached a stage when the final struggle was close at hand. On the 13th
+of January of that year the Chilean forces under command of General
+Baquedano attacked the entrenched positions of the Peruvians at daybreak
+in the vicinity of Chorillos, a village some few miles from Lima, and
+forming the outer line of defence for the capital. After a stubborn
+fight the day ended in victory for the attacking forces; but the losses
+on both sides were great, and on the following day negotiations for
+peace were attempted by the representatives of the foreign powers in
+Lima, the object being to avoid, if possible, any further bloodshed.
+This attempt to end the conflict proved, however, abortive, and on the
+15th of January at 2 P.M. hostilities recommenced in the neighbourhood
+of Miraflores. After severe fighting for some four hours the Chileans
+again proved victorious, and drove the Peruvians from the second line of
+defence back upon the city of Lima. Lima was now at the mercy of the
+Chileans, and on the 17th of January a division of 4000 men of all arms,
+under the command of General Cornelio Saavedra, was sent forward to
+occupy the Peruvian capital and restore order within the town limits. A
+portion of the Chilean forces was shortly afterwards withdrawn from
+Peru, and the army of occupation remaining in the conquered country was
+in charge of Admiral Patricio Lynch, an officer who had been specially
+promoted for distinguished services during the war. President Anibal
+Pinto of Chile now set about to find means to conclude a treaty of peace
+with Peru, but his efforts in this direction were frustrated by the
+armed resistance offered in the country districts to the Chilean
+authorities by the remainder of the Peruvian forces under command of
+General Cáceres. So matters continued--the Chileans administering on the
+seaboard and in the principal towns, the Peruvians maintaining a
+guerilla warfare in the mountainous districts of the interior. In
+September 1881 the term of office of president Pinto expired, and he was
+succeeded in the post of chief executive of Chile by President Domingo
+Santa Maria. Ex-President Pinto died three years later in Valparaiso,
+leaving a memory respected and admired by all political parties in his
+country. The name of Pinto will always occupy a prominent place in the
+annals of Chilean history, not only because the war with Peru took place
+during his term of office, but also on account of the fact that it was
+largely due to the intelligent direction of all details by the president
+during the struggle that the Chilean arms proved so absolutely
+successful by land and sea.
+
+
+  President Santa Maria.
+
+Señor Domingo Santa Maria, who now acceded to the presidency of Chile,
+was a Liberal in politics, and had previously held various important
+posts under the government. Under the rule of President Montt he had
+been an active member of the opposition and involved in various
+revolutionary conspiracies; for his participation in these plots he was
+at one time exiled from the country, but returned and received official
+employment under President Perez. The principal task confronting
+President Santa Maria on assuming the presidency was to negotiate a
+treaty of peace with Peru and provide for the evacuation of the Chilean
+army of occupation. The presence of the Peruvian general Cáceres and his
+forces in the interior of Peru prevented for some two years the
+formation of any Peruvian national administration in Lima with which the
+Chilean authorities could deal. In August of 1883 the Peruvians were
+defeated by the forces commanded by Admiral Lynch, and a government was
+then organized under the leadership of General Iglesias. A provisional
+treaty of peace was then drawn up and signed by General Iglesias and the
+Chilean representative, and this was finally ratified by the Chilean and
+Peruvian congresses respectively in April 1884. By the terms of this
+treaty Peru ceded to Chile unconditionally the province of Tarapacá, and
+the provinces of Tacna and Arica were placed under Chilean authority for
+the term of ten years, the inhabitants having then to decide by a
+general vote whether they remained a part of Chile or elected to belong
+once more to Peru. In the event of the decision being favourable to Peru
+a sum of 10,000,000 dollars was to be paid by Peru to Chile. On the
+ratification of this treaty the Chilean forces were immediately
+withdrawn from Lima and other points of occupation in Peruvian
+territory. The government of Bolivia also attempted to negotiate a
+treaty of peace with Chile in 1884, and for this purpose sent
+representatives to Santiago. No satisfactory terms, however, could be
+arranged, and the negotiations ended in only an armistice being agreed
+to, by which Chile remained in occupation of the Bolivian seaboard
+pending a definite settlement at some future period.
+
+The administration of President Santa Maria met with violent opposition
+from the Conservatives, who included the Clerical party in their ranks,
+and also from a certain section of the Liberals. The dislike of the
+Conservatives to President Santa Maria was occasioned by his
+introduction of the law of civil marriage, the civil registration of
+births and deaths, and the freeing of the cemeteries. Hitherto no
+marriage was legal unless celebrated according to the rites of the
+Roman Catholic religion, and all registers of births and deaths were
+kept by the parish priests. Civil employees were now appointed under the
+new laws to attend to this work. Formerly the cemeteries were entirely
+under the control of the Church, and, with the exception of a few places
+specially created for the purpose, were reserved solely for the burial
+of Roman Catholics. Under the new regime these cemeteries were made
+common to the dead of all religions. Under President Perez, in 1865, a
+clause in the law of constitution had been introduced permitting the
+exercise of all creeds of religion, and this was now put into practice,
+all restrictions being removed. On several occasions, notably in 1882
+and 1885, President Santa Maria used his influence in the elections of
+senators and deputies to congress for the purpose of creating a
+substantial majority in his favour. He was induced to take this course
+in consequence of the violent opposition raised in the chambers by the
+liberal policy he pursued in connexion with Church matters. This
+intervention caused great irritation amongst the Conservatives and
+dissentient Liberals, and the political situation on more than one
+occasion became so strained as to bring the country to the verge of
+armed revolution. No outbreak, however, took place, and in 1886 the five
+years of office for which President Santa Maria had been elected came to
+an end, and another Liberal, Señor José Manuel Balmaceda, then succeeded
+to power.
+
+
+  Balmaceda elected president.
+
+  Revolution of 1891.
+
+The election of Balmaceda was bitterly opposed by the Conservatives and
+dissentient Liberals, but was finally successfully carried by the
+official influence exercised by President Santa Maria. On assuming
+office President Balmaceda endeavoured to bring about a reconciliation
+of all sections of the Liberal party in congress and so form a solid
+majority to support the administration, and to this end he nominated as
+ministers representatives of the different political groups. Six months
+later the cabinet was reorganized, and two most bitter opponents to the
+recent election of President Balmaceda were accorded portfolios.
+Believing that he had now secured the support of the majority in
+congress on behalf of any measures he decided to put forward, the new
+president initiated a policy of heavy expenditure on public works, the
+building of schools, and the strengthening of the naval and military
+forces of the republic. Contracts were given out to the value of
+£6,000,000 for the construction of railways in the southern districts;
+some 10,000,000 dollars were expended in the erection of schools and
+colleges; three cruisers and two sea-going torpedo boats were added to
+the squadron; the construction of the naval port at Talcahuano was
+actively pushed forward; new armament was purchased for the infantry and
+artillery branches of the army, and heavy guns were acquired for the
+purpose of permanently and strongly fortifying the neighbourhoods of
+Valparaiso, Talcahuano and Iquique. In itself this policy was not
+unreasonable, and in many ways extremely beneficial for the country.
+Unfortunately corruption crept into the expenditure of the large sums
+necessary to carry out this programme. Contracts were given by favour
+and not by merit, and the progress made in the construction of the new
+public works was far from satisfactory. The opposition in congress to
+President Balmaceda began to increase rapidly towards the close of 1887,
+and further gained ground in 1888. In order to ensure a majority
+favourable to his views, the president threw the whole weight of his
+official influence into the elections for senators and deputies in 1888;
+but many of the members returned to the chambers through this official
+influence joined the opposition shortly after taking their seats. In
+1889 congress became distinctly hostile to the administration of
+President Balmaceda, and the political situation became grave, and at
+times threatened to involve the country in civil war. According to usage
+and custom in Chile, a ministry does not remain in office unless
+supported by a majority in the chambers. Balmaceda now found himself in
+the impossible position of being unable to appoint any ministry that
+could control a majority in the senate and chamber of deputies and at
+the same time be in accordance with his own views of the administration
+of public affairs. At this juncture the president assumed that the
+constitution gave him the power of nominating and maintaining in office
+any ministers he might consider fitting persons for the purpose, and
+that congress had no right of interference in the matter. The chambers
+were now only waiting for a suitable opportunity to assert their
+authority. In 1890 it was stated that President Balmaceda had determined
+to nominate and cause to be elected as his successor at the expiration
+of his term of office in 1891 one of his own personal friends. This
+question of the election of another president brought matters to a head,
+and congress refused to vote supplies to carry on the government. To
+avoid trouble Balmaceda entered into a compromise with congress, and
+agreed to nominate a ministry to their liking on condition that the
+supplies for 1890 were voted. This cabinet, however, was of short
+duration, and resigned when the ministers understood the full amount of
+friction between the president and congress. Balmaceda then nominated a
+ministry not in accord with the views of congress under Señor Claudio
+Vicuña, whom it was no secret that Balmaceda intended to be his
+successor in the presidential chair, and, to prevent any expression of
+opinion upon his conduct in the matter, he refrained from summoning an
+extraordinary session of the legislature for the discussion of the
+estimates of revenue and expenditure for 1891. When the 1st of January
+1891 arrived, the president published a decree in the _Diario Oficial_
+to the effect that the budget of 1890 would be considered the official
+budget for 1891. This act was illegal and beyond the attributes of the
+executive power. As a protest against the action of President Balmaceda,
+the vice-president of the senate, Señor Waldo Silva, and the president
+of the chamber of deputies, Señor Ramon Barros Luco, issued a
+proclamation appointing Captain Jorje Montt in command of the squadron,
+and stating that the navy could not recognize the authority of Balmaceda
+so long as he did not administer public affairs in accordance with the
+constitutional law of Chile. The majority of the members of the chambers
+sided with this movement, and on the 7th of January Señores Waldo Silva,
+Barros Luco and a number of senators and deputies embarked on board the
+Chilean warship "Blanco Encalada," accompanied by the "Esmeralda" and
+"O'Higgins" and other vessels, sailing out of Valparaiso harbour and
+proceeding northwards to Tarapaca to organize armed resistance against
+the president (see CHILEAN CIVIL WAR). It was not alone this action of
+Balmaceda in connexion with congress that brought about the revolution.
+He had alienated the sympathy of the aristocratic classes of Chile by
+his personal vanity and ambition. The oligarchy composed of the great
+landowners have always been an important factor in the political life of
+the republic; when President Balmaceda found that he was not a _persona
+grata_ to this circle he determined to endeavour to govern without their
+support, and to bring into the administration a set of men who had no
+traditions and with whom his personality would be all-powerful. The
+Clerical influence was also thrown against him in consequence of his
+radical ideas in respect of Church matters.
+
+Immediately on the outbreak of the revolution President Balmaceda
+published a decree declaring Montt and his companions to be traitors,
+and without delay organized an army of some 40,000 men for the
+suppression of the insurrectionary movement. While both sides were
+preparing for extremities, Balmaceda administered the government under
+dictatorial powers with a congress of his own nomination. In June 1891
+he ordered the presidential election to be held, and Señor Claudio
+Vicuña was duly declared chosen as president of the republic for the
+term commencing in September 1891. The resources of Balmaceda were
+running short on account of the heavy military expenses, and he
+determined to dispose of the reserve of silver bullion accumulated in
+the vaults of the Casa de Moneda in accordance with the terms of the law
+for the conversion of the note issue. The silver was conveyed abroad in
+a British man-of-war, and disposed of partly for the purchase of a fast
+steamer to be fitted as an auxiliary cruiser and partly in payment for
+other kinds of war material.
+
+The organization of the revolutionary forces went on slowly. Much
+difficulty was experienced in obtaining the necessary arms and
+ammunition. A supply of rifles was bought in the United States, and
+embarked on board the "Itata," a Chilean vessel in the service of the
+rebels. The United States authorities refused to allow this steamer to
+leave San Diego, and a guard was stationed on the ship. The "Itata,"
+however, slipped away and made for the Chilean coast, carrying with her
+the representatives of the United States. A fast cruiser was immediately
+sent in pursuit, but only succeeded in overhauling the rebel ship after
+she was at her destination. The "Itata" was then forced to return to San
+Diego without landing her cargo for the insurgents. The necessary arms
+and ammunition were arranged for in Europe; they were shipped in a
+British vessel, and transferred to a Chilean steamer at Fortune Bay, in
+Tierra del Fuego, close to the Straits of Magellan and the Falkland
+Islands, and thence carried to Iquique, where they were safely
+disembarked early in July 1891. A force of 10,000 men was now raised by
+the _junta_ of the revolution, and preparations were rapidly pushed
+forward for a move to the south with the object of attacking Valparaiso
+and Santiago. Early in April a portion of the revolutionary squadron,
+comprising the "Blanco Encalada" and other ships, was sent to the
+southward for reconnoitring purposes and put into the port of Caldera.
+During the night of the 23rd of April, and whilst the "Blanco Encalada"
+was lying quietly at anchor, a torpedo boat called the "Almirante
+Lynch," belonging to the Balmaceda faction, steamed into the bay of
+Caldera and discharged a torpedo at the rebel ship. The "Blanco
+Encalada" sank in a few minutes and 300 of her crew perished.
+
+
+  Defeat and suicide of Balmaceda.
+
+In the middle of August 1891 the rebel forces were embarked at Iquique
+(where a provisional government under Captain Jorje Montt had been set
+up), numbering in all about 9000 men, and sailed for the south. On the
+20th of August the congressist army was disembarked at Quinteros, about
+20 m. north of Valparaiso, and marched to Concon, where the Balmacedists
+were entrenched. A severe fight ensued, in which the troops of President
+Balmaceda were defeated with heavy loss. This reverse roused the worst
+passions of the president, and he ordered the arrest and imprisonment of
+all persons suspected of sympathy with the revolutionary cause. The
+population generally were, however, distinctly antagonistic to
+Balmaceda; and this feeling had become accentuated since the 17th of
+August 1891, on which date he had ordered the execution of a number of
+youths belonging to the military college at San Lorenzo on a charge of
+seditious practices. The shooting of these boys created a feeling of
+horror throughout the country, and a sensation of uncertainty as to what
+measures of severity might not be practised in the future if Balmaceda
+won the day. After the victory at Concon the insurgent army, under
+command of General Campos, marched in a southerly direction towards Viña
+del Mar, and thence to Placilla, where the final struggle in the
+conflict took place. Balmaceda's generals Barbosa and Alcérrica had here
+massed their troops in a strong position. The battle, on the 28th of
+August, resulted in victory for the rebels. Both the Balmacedist
+generals were killed and Valparaiso was at once occupied. Three days
+later the victorious insurgents entered Santiago and assumed the
+government of the republic. After the batile of Placilla it was clear to
+President Balmaceda that he could no longer hope to find a sufficient
+strength amongst his adherents to maintain himself in power, and in view
+of the rapid approach of the rebel army he abandoned his official duties
+to seek an asylum in the Argentine legation. The president remained
+concealed in this retreat until the 18th of September. On the evening of
+that date, when the term for which he had been elected president of the
+republic terminated, he committed suicide by shooting himself. The
+excuse for this act, put forward in letters written shortly before his
+end, was that he did not believe the conquerors would give him an
+impartial trial. The death of Balmaceda finished all cause of contention
+in Chile, and was the closing act of the most severe and bloodiest
+struggle that country had ever witnessed. In the various engagements
+throughout the conflict more than 10,000 lives were lost, and the joint
+expenditure of the two governments on military preparations and the
+purchase of war material exceeded £10,000,000 sterling.
+
+An unfortunate occurrence soon after the close of the revolution brought
+strained relations for a short period between the governments of the
+United States and Chile. A number of men of the U.S.S. "Baltimore"
+having been given liberty on shore, an argument arose between some of
+them and a group of Chilean sailors in a drinking den in Valparaiso.
+Words led to blows. The Americans were badly handled, one of their
+number being killed and others severely hurt. The United States
+government characterized the affair as an outrage, demanding an
+indemnity as satisfaction. The Chilean authorities demurred at this
+attitude, and attempted to argue the matter. James G. Elaine, then
+secretary of state, refused peremptorily to listen to any explanations.
+In the end Chile paid an indemnity of $75,000 as asked, but the affair
+left bad feeling in its train.
+
+
+  President Jorje Montt.
+
+The close of the revolution against Balmaceda left the government of
+Chile in the hands of the _junta_ under whose guidance the military and
+naval operations had been organized. Admiral Jorje Montt had been the
+head of this revolutionary committee, and he acted as president of the
+provisional government when the administration of the country changed
+hands after the victory of the Congressional party. An election was now
+immediately ordered for the choice of a president of the republic and
+for representatives in the senate and chamber of deputies. Admiral
+Montt, as head of the executive power, stanchly refused to allow
+official influence to be brought to bear in any way in the presidential
+campaign. The great majority of the voters, however, required no
+pressure to decide who was in their opinion the man most fitted to
+administer the affairs of the republic. For the first time in the
+history of Chile a perfectly free election was held, and Admiral Montt
+was duly chosen by a nearly unanimous vote to be chief magistrate for
+the constitutional term of five years. The senate and chamber of
+deputies were formally constituted in due course, and the government of
+the republic resumed normal conditions of existence. The new president
+showed admirable tact in dealing with the difficult problem he was
+called upon to face. Party feeling still ran high between the partisans
+of the two sides of the recent conflict. Admiral Montt took the view
+that it was politic and just to let bygones be bygones, and he acted
+conscientiously by this principle in all administrative measures in
+connexion with the supporters of the late President Balmaceda. Early in
+1892 an amnesty was granted to the officers of the Balmaceda régime, and
+they were freely permitted to return to Chile without any attempt being
+made to molest them. The first political act of national importance of
+the new government was the grant of control to the municipalities, which
+hitherto had possessed little power to direct local affairs, and were
+not even permitted to dispose of the municipal revenues to any important
+amount without first obtaining the consent of the central government.
+Almost absolute power was now given these corporations to manage their
+own concerns, and the organization of the police was placed in their
+hands; at a later period, however, it was found necessary to modify this
+latter condition.
+
+President Montt next turned his attention towards the question of how
+best to repair the damage occasioned to the country by eight months of
+civil warfare. The plan of public works authorized in 1887 was
+reconsidered, and the construction of portions of the various
+undertakings recommenced. The army and navy were reorganized. Additional
+instructors were brought from Germany, and all arms of the military
+service were placed on a thoroughly efficient footing in matters of
+drill and discipline. Several new and powerful cruisers were added to
+the navy, and the internal economy of this branch of the national
+defence was thoroughly inspected and many defects were remedied.
+President Montt then took in hand the question of a reform of the
+currency, the abolition of inconvertible paper money, and the
+re-establishment of a gold basis as the monetary standard of the
+republic. This reform of the currency became the keynote of the
+president's policy during the remainder of his term of office. Great
+opposition was raised by the representatives of the debtor class in
+congress to the suppression of the inconvertible paper money, but in the
+end President Montt carried the day, and on the 11th of February 1895 a
+measure finally became law establishing a gold currency as the only
+legal tender in Chile. In July 1896 the Conversion Act was put in force,
+a dollar of 18d. being the monetary unit adopted. In 1895 relations with
+the neighbouring republic of Argentina began to become somewhat strained
+in regard to the interpretation of the treaty concerning the boundary
+between the two countries. The treaties of 1881, 1893 and 1895 left
+doubts in the minds of both Chileans and Argentines as to the position
+of the frontier line. On the 17th of April 1896 another protocol was
+drawn up, by which the contending parties agreed to submit any
+differences to the arbitration of Great Britain, at the instance of one
+or both governments. President Montt had now fulfilled his term of
+office, and on the 18th of September 1896 he handed over the
+presidential power to his successor, Señor Federico Errázuriz, who had
+been duly elected in the month of June previously.
+
+
+  President Errázuriz.
+
+  Crisis with Argentina.
+
+The election for the position of president of the republic was closely
+contested in 1896 between Señor Errázuriz and Señor Reyes, and ended in
+the triumph of the former candidate by the narrow majority of one vote.
+The father of the new president had been chief magistrate of Chile from
+1871 to 1876, and his administration had been one of the best the
+country had ever enjoyed; his son had therefore traditions to uphold in
+the post he was now called upon to fill. At the beginning of 1897 the
+public attention was absorbed by foreign political questions. The
+problems to be solved were the frontier difficulty with Argentina, the
+question of the possession of Tacna and Arica with Peru, and the
+necessity of fulfilling the obligation contracted with Bolivia to give
+that country a seaport on the Pacific coast. The treaty made in 1896
+with the Argentine government, referring to the arbitration of disputed
+points concerning the boundary, became practically for the moment a dead
+letter, and both Argentines and Chileans began to talk openly of an
+appeal to arms to settle the matter once for all. The governments of
+both countries began to purchase large supplies of war material, and
+generally to make preparations for a possible conflict. In these
+circumstances no final settlement with Peru and Bolivia was possible,
+the authorities of those republics holding back to see the issue of the
+Chile-Argentine dispute, and Chile being in no position at the time to
+insist on any terms being arranged. So matters drifted until the
+beginning of 1898. In July of that year the crisis reached an acute
+stage. Both Chile and Argentina put forward certain pretensions to
+territory in the Atacama district to the north, and also to a section of
+Patagonia in the south. Neither side would give way, nor was any
+disposition exhibited to refer the matter to arbitration under the
+protocol of 1896. The cry of an acute financial crisis emanating from
+the fear of war with Argentina was now raised in Chile. The president
+was advised that the only way of averting the financial ruin of the
+banking institutions of the republic was to suspend the conversion law
+and lend from the national treasury inconvertible notes to the banks.
+Señor Errázuriz weakly gave way, and a decree was promulgated placing
+the currency once more on an inconvertible paper money basis until 1902.
+In August of 1898 the Chilean government determined to insist upon the
+terms of the protocol of 1896 being acted upon, and intimated to
+Argentina that they demanded the fulfilment of the clause relating to
+arbitration on disputed points. This was practically an ultimatum, and a
+refusal on the part of the Argentine government to comply with the terms
+of the 1896 agreement meant a declaration of war by Chile. For a few
+days the issue hung in the balance, and then the Argentine government
+accepted the provisions made in 1896 for arbitration. The dispute
+concerning the Atacama district was submitted to an arbitration
+tribunal, consisting of the representative of the United States in
+Argentina, assisted by one Argentine and one Chilean commissioner. This
+tribunal, after due investigation, gave their decision in April 1899,
+and the verdict was accepted unreservedly by both governments. The
+dispute regarding the Patagonian territory was submitted to the
+arbitration of Great Britain, and a commission--consisting of Lord
+Macnaghten, Sir John Ardagh and Sir T.H. Holdich--was appointed in 1899
+to hear the case.
+
+The Argentine difficulty was ended, but Chile still had to find a
+settlement with Peru and Bolivia. The treaty made with the former
+country in 1893 was not ratified, as it was thought to concede too much
+to Peru, and the subsequent _ad referendum_ treaty was rejected on
+account of Peru claiming that only Peruvians, and not all residents,
+should have the right to vote in the plebiscite to be taken by the terms
+of the treaty of 1883 for the possession of Tacna and Arica. By the
+terms of the armistice of 1883 between Chile and Bolivia, a three years'
+notice had to be given by either government wishing to denounce that
+agreement. By the protocol of 1895 Chile agreed to give to Bolivia the
+port of Arica, or some other suitable position on the seaboard. On these
+lines a settlement was proposed. Vitor, a landing-place a little to the
+south of Arica, was offered by the Chilean government to Bolivia, but
+refused as not complying with the conditions stated in the protocol of
+1895; the Bolivians furthermore preferred to wait and see if Arica was
+finally ceded by Peru to Chile, and if so to claim the fulfilment of the
+terms of the protocol.
+
+After the accession to office of President Errázuriz there was no
+stability of any ministry. Political parties in congress were so evenly
+balanced and so subdivided into groups that a vote against the ministry
+was easy to obtain, and the resignation of the cabinet immediately
+followed in accordance with the so-called parliamentary system in vogue
+in Chile. The president of the republic has no power to dissolve the
+chambers, to endeavour to remedy the evil by one or another political
+party obtaining a substantial working majority, but must wait to see the
+results of the triennial elections. As a consequence of these conditions
+Conservative, Liberal and coalition ministries held office at short
+intervals. These unsettled political circumstances checked any
+continuity of policy, and tended to block the passage of all useful
+legislation to help forward the economic development of the country and
+inhabitants; on the other hand, the financial situation was better by
+the end of 1899 than in the previous year, since all proposals for a
+fresh paper issue had been vetoed; and the elections for congress and
+municipal office at the opening of 1900 returned a majority favourable
+to a stable currency policy.
+
+In September 1900 a fresh outburst of hostile feeling against Chile was
+created in Argentina by a note addressed by the Chilean government to
+Bolivia, intimating that Chile was no longer inclined to hand over the
+port of Arica or any other port on the Pacific, but considered the time
+ripe for a final settlement of the questions connected with the Chilean
+occupation of Bolivian territory, which had now been outstanding for
+sixteen years. The foreign policy of Chile, as indicated by this note,
+was considered by Argentina to be grasping and unconciliatory, and there
+were rumours of an anti-Chilean South American federation. Chile
+disclaimed any aggressive intentions; but in December the Bolivian
+congress declined to relinquish their claim to a port, and refused to
+conclude a definite treaty of peace. The year closed with a frontier
+incident between Chile and Argentina in the disputed territory of Ultima
+Esperanza, where some Argentine colonists were ejected by Chilean
+police; but both governments signed protocols agreeing not to take
+aggressive action in consequence.
+
+
+  President Riesco.
+
+At the opening of 1901 the country was chiefly interested in the
+forthcoming presidential election, for which the candidates were Don
+Pedro Montt (Conservative and Clerical) and Señor German Riesco
+(Liberal). The relations between President Errázuriz and congress became
+rather strained, owing to the former's inclination to retain in office a
+ministry on which congress had passed a vote of censure; but Errázuriz
+had been in ill-health for more than a year, and on the 1st of May he
+resigned, and died in July. At the ensuing election Riesco was elected
+president. The attitude of Chile towards the Pan-American Congress at
+Mexico became a matter of interest in the autumn, particularly in
+connexion with the proposal for compulsory arbitration between all
+American governments. The Chilean government made it quite clear that
+they would withdraw from the congress if this proposal was meant to be
+retroactive; and their unyielding attitude testified to the
+apprehensions felt by Chile concerning United States interference. In
+October the Chilean government announced that the contemplated
+conversion scheme, for which gold had been accumulated, would be
+postponed for two years (till October 1903), the gold being held as a
+reserve fund pending the result of the arbitration over the Argentine
+frontier. This was generally considered to be a reasonable and
+statesmanlike course. Unfortunately, a recrudescence of the excitement
+over the boundary dispute was occasioned by the irritation created in
+Argentina by the fact that, pending a decision, Chile was constructing
+roads in the disputed territory. During December 1901 relations were
+exceedingly strained, and troops were called out on both sides. But at
+the end of the month it was agreed to leave the question to the British
+arbitrators, and the latter decided to send one of their number, Sir
+T.H. Holdich, to examine the territory.
+
+
+  Argentine boundary award.
+
+The survey occupied some eight months, and it was not until the autumn
+that Sir T.H. Holdich returned to England to make his report. The
+difficulty of ascertaining the true line watershed had been very great,
+but the result was eminently successful. The award of King Edward was
+signed on the 20th of November 1902, and both parties to the litigation
+were satisfied. In order that future disputes might be amicably settled,
+a treaty was signed by which it was agreed that any question that might
+arise should be submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain or in
+default of that power to the Swiss Confederation. The removal of this
+source of irritation and the restoration of friendly relations between
+the two republics was a great relief to the finance of Chile. Had it not
+been for the political instability of the country, the effects of the
+diminution of expenditure on military and naval preparations would have
+effected a rapid improvement in its financial position. The constant
+change of ministry (there being no stable majority in the congress)
+prevented during 1903 any settled policy, or that confidence in the
+government which is the basis of commercial prosperity. In 1904,
+however, both trade and revenue showed signs of improvement, and the
+sale of the warships "Esmeralda" and "Chambuco" for £1,000,000 furnished
+a surplus, which was devoted to the improvement of the port of
+Valparaiso. This was the beginning of a period of steady industrial
+growth and development. The settlement of the long outstanding dispute
+with Bolivia in a treaty of peace signed on the 17th of October 1905 was
+very advantageous to both countries. By this treaty Bolivia ceded all
+claims to a seaport and strip of the coast, on condition that Chile
+constructed at her own charges a railway to Lapaz from the port of
+Arica, giving at the same time to Bolivia free transit across Chilean
+territory to the sea. A cash indemnity of £300,000 was also paid, and
+certain stipulations were made with regard to the construction of other
+railways giving access from Chile to the Bolivian interior.
+
+
+  Valparaiso earthquake
+
+The prosperity of Chile was to suffer a rude shock. On the 17th of
+August 1906 a terrible earthquake visited Valparaiso and the surrounding
+district. The town of Valparaiso was almost entirely destroyed, while
+Santiago and other towns were severely shaken and suffered much damage.
+It was estimated that about 3000 persons were killed, a still larger
+number injured, and at least 100,000 rendered homeless. The loss of
+property was enormous. The fire which broke out after the earthquake
+shock had subsided added to the horror of the catastrophe. Measures
+were, however, promptly taken for succouring the people, who had been
+driven from their homes, and the task of restoration was vigorously
+taken in hand. Before the end of the year the rebuilding of the city was
+rapidly progressing.
+
+
+  President Pedro Montt.
+
+In 1906 Señor Pedro Montt was elected president and entered upon his
+office on the 17th of September. The personality of the president,
+however, had become of much less importance in modern Chile than in
+earlier days. Up to 1870 the government was in the hands of a small
+oligarchy of Santiago families, but the president enjoyed large powers
+of initiative. Nowadays the congress has virtually absorbed the
+executive power, with the result that the cabinet is often changed many
+times in one year. This prevents indeed any continuity of policy, for
+the majority in congress is perpetually fluctuating, and ministerial
+crises rapidly follow one another. Chile, however, except in the
+Balmacedist civil war, is happily distinguished by its freedom from
+revolution and serious political unrest. Its history in this respect is
+in marked contrast to that of the neighbouring South American states.
+The completion of the Trans-Andean railway between Valparaiso and Buenos
+Aires was bound to be of immense commercial and industrial value; and
+eventually the making of a longitudinal railway route uniting the
+nitrate province of the north with Santiago, and Santiago with Puerto
+Montt in the distant south, opened up further important prospects. Such
+a line of through communication, binding together the different
+provinces forming the long narrow strip of territory stretching along
+more than 2000 m. of the Pacific littoral, could only be looked forward
+to, both politically and economically, as an inestimable benefit to the
+country.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_General History_.--The most valuable authority is D.
+  Barros Arana's _Historia jeneral de Chile_ (15 vols., Santiago, 1884),
+  from the earliest days up to 1830. Smaller handbooks covering the
+  whole period are: A.U. Hancock, a _History of Chile_ (Chicago, 1893),
+  the only general history in English, and containing a bibliography;
+  Gaspar Toro, _Compendio de la historia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1879), a
+  good clear abstract of Chilean history; and F. Valdes Vergara,
+  _Historia de Chile_ (Valparaiso, 1898), written primarily for schools,
+  but containing useful sketches of leading figures in Chilean history.
+
+  _Works on Special Periods_.--Colonial Period: M.L. Amunátequi,
+  _Descubri miento y conquista de Chile_ (Santiago, 1885), a valuable
+  detailed account of the Spanish conquest; by same author, _Los
+  Precursores de la independencia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1870), a clear
+  useful description of the evils of the Spanish colonial system;
+  Horacio Lara, _Cronica de la Araucania_ (Santiago, 1889), a history of
+  the Araucanian Indians right up to recent dates; Abbé Eyzaguirre,
+  _Histoire du Chili_ (Lille, 1855), mainly dealing with the position of
+  the Church during the colonial period. Perez Garcia's _Historia del
+  reino de Chile_ (Santiago, 1900), an old history by a Spanish officer
+  written about 1780, and Molina's _History of Chili_ in the English
+  translation (London, 1809), will also be found useful. Useful material
+  for research exists in J.T. Medina's _Coleccion de documentos para la
+  historia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1888), a collection of despatches and
+  official documents; his _Cosas de la colonia_ (Santiago, 1889), an
+  accumulation of undigested information about life in the colonial
+  period; and _Historiadores de Chile_ (21 vols., Santiago, 1861), a
+  collection of ancient chronicles and official documents up to the
+  early part of the 17th century.
+
+  _Revolutionary Period_.--A. Roldan, _Las Primeras Asambleas
+  nacionales_ (Santiago, 1890), an account of the struggles in the first
+  national assemblies; A. Valdes, _Revolucion Chilena y campañas de la
+  independencia_ (Santiago, 1888), an account of the early fighting and
+  rivalry of the revolutionary leaders; W. Pilling, _Emancipation of
+  South America_ (London, 1893), a translation of B. Mitre's life of San
+  Martin, describing the fighting in the wars of independence; Lord
+  Cochrane, _Narrative of Services in Chile, Peru and Brazil_ (London,
+  1859), an autobiography describing the naval exploits that helped to
+  secure the expulsion of the Spaniards; B. Vicuña Machenna, _Vida de
+  O'Higgins_ (Santiago, 1882), giving a useful account of the
+  revolutionary struggle and the main actors; and the same author's
+  _Historia jeneral de la republica de Chile_, a collection of essays on
+  the early republican history by various writers.
+
+  _Later History_.--R. Sotomayor Valdes, _Historia de Chili,
+  1831-1871_, a detailed account of the period (Santiago, 1875); the
+  same author's _Campaña del ejercito Chileno en 1837_ (Santiago, 1896),
+  describing the fighting of the first Peruvian War; B. Vicuña Machenna,
+  _D. Diego Portales_ (Valparaiso, 1863), a good account of the life and
+  time of Portales, the famous minister of the Conservative party; P.B.
+  Fiqueroa, _Historia de la revolution constituyente 1858-59_ (Santiago,
+  1889), an account of the revolution at the end of Montt's presidency;
+  F. Fonch, _Chile in der Gegenwart_ (Berlin, 1870), a description of
+  Chile at the time; _Statement on Behalf of Chile_ (in the
+  Chilean-Argentine Boundary Arbitration) (6 vols., London, 1901-1902);
+  Sir Thomas Holdich, _Countries of the King's Award_ (1904); Beltran y
+  Rospido, _Los Pueblos hispano-americanos en el siglo XX._ (Madrid,
+  1904); P.F. Martin, _Through Five Republics of South America_ (London,
+  1906); Wright, _The Republic of Chile_ (London, 1905); G.F. Scott
+  Elliot, _Chilé_ (London, 1907); Sir W.M. Conway, _Aconcagua and
+  Tierra del Fuego_ (London, 1902); "Chile-Argentine Arbitration" in the
+  _Geog. Journal_ (January 1903); C.M. Pepper, _Panama to Patagonia_
+  (London, 1907); C.E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854-1904_
+  (London, 1904); M. Hume, _Lecture on the Republic of Chile_ (London,
+  1902).    (E. G. J. M.; C. E. A.; G. E.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See A. Pissis, "Sur la constitution géologique de la chaîne des
+    Andes entre le 16° et le 55° degré de latitude sud," _Ann. des
+    mines_, ser. 7, vol. iii. (Mém.), 1873, pp. 402-426, pils. ix., x.;
+    R.A. Philippi, _Die tertiären und quartären Versteinerungen Chiles_
+    (Leipzig, 1887), (includes also descriptions of some Cretaceous
+    fossils), and _Los Fósiles secondarios de Chile_ (Santiago, 1899);
+    Karl Burckhardt, "Profils géologiques transversaux de la Cordillère
+    argentino-chilienne. Stratigraphie et tectonique," _Anales Mus. La
+    Plata_, 1900, and "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Jura- und
+    Kreide-formation der Cordillere," _Palaeontographica_, vol. 1.
+    (1903-1904) pp. 1-144, pls. i.-xvi.; see also a series of papers on
+    South American geology by G. Steinmann and his collaborators in
+    _Neues Jahrb, für Min._ Beil.-band viii. et seq.
+
+  [2] _Notes of a Naturalist in South America_, p. 134.
+
+  [3] Also classified as _Nothofagus_ (Mirb.).
+
+  [4] A. Gallenga, _South America_ (London, 1880), p. 181.
+
+  [5] The expenditures of 1902 are also given as 25,882,702 pesos gold,
+    and 108,844,693 pesos currency.
+
+
+
+
+CHILEAN CIVIL WAR (1891). The Chilean civil war grew out of political
+dissensions between the president of Chile, J.M. Balmaceda, and his
+congress (see CHILE: _History_), and began in January 1891. On the 6th,
+at Valparaiso, the political leaders of the Congressional party went on
+board the ironclad "Blanco Encalada," and Captain Jorje Montt of that
+vessel hoisted a broad pennant as commodore of the Congressional fleet.
+Preparations had long been made for the naval _pronunciamento_, and in
+the end but few vessels of the Chilean navy adhered to the cause of the
+"dictator" Balmaceda. But amongst these were two new and fast torpedo
+gunboats, "Almirante Condell" and "Almirante Lynch," and in European
+dockyards (incomplete) lay the most powerful vessel of the navy, the
+"Arturo Prat," and two fast cruisers. If these were secured by the
+Balmacedists the naval supremacy of the congress would be seriously
+challenged. For the present, and without prejudice to the future,
+command of the sea was held by Montt's squadron (January). The rank and
+file of the army remained faithful to the executive, and thus in the
+early part of the war the "Gobernistas," speaking broadly, possessed an
+army without a fleet, the congress a fleet without an army. Balmaceda
+hoped to create a navy; the congress took steps to recruit an army by
+taking its sympathizers on board the fleet. The first shot was fired, on
+the 16th of January, by the "Blanco" at the Valparaiso batteries, and
+landing parties from the warships engaged small parties of government
+troops at various places during January and February. The dictator's
+principal forces were stationed in and about Iquique, Coquirabo,
+Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepción. The troops at Iquique and Coquimbo
+were necessarily isolated from the rest and from each other, and
+military operations began, as in the campaign of 1879 in this quarter,
+with a naval descent upon Pisagua followed by an advance inland to
+Dolores. The Congressional forces failed at first to make good their
+footing (16th-23rd of January), but, though defeated in two or three
+actions, they brought off many recruits and a quantity of munitions of
+war. On the 26th they retook Pisagua, and on the 15th of February the
+Balmacedist commander, Eulojio Robles, who offered battle in the
+expectation of receiving reinforcements from Tacna, was completely
+defeated on the old battlefield of San Francisco. Robles fell back along
+the railway, called up troops from Iquique, and beat the invaders at
+Haura on the 17th, but Iquique in the meanwhile fell to the
+Congressional fleet on the 16th. The Pisagua line of operations was at
+once abandoned, and the military forces of the congress were moved by
+sea to Iquique, whence, under the command of Colonel Estanislao Del
+Canto, they started inland. The battle of Pozo Almonte, fought on the
+7th of March, was desperately contested, but Del Canto was superior in
+numbers, and Robles was himself killed and his army dispersed. After
+this the other Balmacedist troops in the north gave up the struggle.
+Some were driven into Peru, others into Bolivia, and one column made a
+laborious retreat from Calama to Santiago, in the course of which it
+twice crossed the main chain of the Andes.
+
+The Congressional _Junta de Gobierno_ now established in Iquique
+prosecuted the war vigorously, and by the end of April the whole country
+was in the hands of the "rebels" from the Peruvian border to the
+outposts of the Balmacedists at Coquimbo and La Serena. The _Junta_ now
+began the formation of a properly organized army for the next campaign,
+which, it was believed universally on both sides, would be directed
+against Coquimbo. But in a few months the arrival of the new ships from
+Europe would reopen the struggle for command of the sea; the
+_torpederas_ "Condell" and "Lynch" had already weakened the
+Congressional squadron severely by sinking the "Blanco Encalada" in
+Caldera Bay (23rd of April), and the Congressional party could no longer
+aim at a methodical conquest of successive provinces, but was compelled
+to attempt to crush the dictator at a blow. Where this blow was to fall
+was not decided up to the last moment, but the instrument which was to
+deliver it was prepared with all the care possible under the
+circumstances. Del Canto was made commander-in-chief, and an ex-Prussian
+officer, Emil Körner, chief of staff. The army was organized in three
+brigades of all arms, at Iquique, Caldera and Vallenar. Körner
+superintended the training of the men, gave instruction in tactics to
+the officers, caused maps to be prepared, and in general took every
+precaution that his experience could suggest to ensure success. Del
+Canto was himself no mere figurehead, but a thoroughly capable leader
+who had distinguished himself at Tacna (1880) and Miraflores (1881), as
+well as in the present war. The men were enthusiastic, and the officers
+unusually numerous. The artillery was fair, the cavalry good, and the
+train and auxiliary services well organized. About one-third of the
+infantry were armed with the (Männlicher) magazine rifle, which now made
+its first appearance in war, the remainder had the Gras and other
+breech-loaders, which were also the armament of the dictator's infantry.
+Balmaceda could only wait upon events, but he prepared his forces as
+best he was able, and his _torpederas_ constantly harried the
+Congressional navy. By the end of July Del Canto and Körner had done
+their work as well as time permitted, and early in August the troops
+prepared to embark, not for Coquimbo, but for Valparaiso itself.
+
+The expedition by sea was admirably managed, and Quinteros, N. of
+Valparaiso and not many miles out of range of its batteries, was
+occupied on the 20th of August 1891. Balmaceda was surprised, but acted
+promptly. The first battle was fought on the Aconcagua at Concon on the
+21st. The eager infantry of the Congressional army forced the passage of
+the river and stormed the heights held by the Gobernistas, capturing 36
+guns. The killed and wounded of the Balmacedists numbered 1600, and
+nearly all the prisoners, about 1500 men, enrolled themselves in the
+rebel army, which thus more than made good its loss of 1000 killed and
+wounded. The victors pressed on towards Valparaiso, but were soon
+brought up by the strong fortified position of the Balmacedist general
+Barbosa at Viña del Mar, whither Balmaceda hurried up all available
+troops from Valparaiso and Santiago, and even from Concepción. Del Canto
+and Körner now resolved on a daring step. Supplies of all kinds were
+brought up from Quinteros to the front, and on the 24th of August the
+army abandoned its line of communications and marched inland. The flank
+march was conducted with great skill, little opposition was encountered,
+and the rebels finally appeared to the south-east of Valparaiso. Here,
+on the 28th, took place the decisive battle of La Placilla. Concon had
+been perhaps little more than the destruction of an isolated corps; the
+second battle was a fair trial of strength, for Barbosa was well
+prepared, and had under his command the greater part of the existing
+forces of the dictator. But the splendid fighting qualities of the
+Congressional troops and the superior generalship of their leaders
+prevailed in the end over every obstacle. The government army was
+practically annihilated, 941 men were killed, including Barbosa and his
+second in command, and 2402 wounded. The Congressional army lost over
+1800 men. Valparaiso was occupied the same evening and Santiago soon
+afterwards. There was no further fighting, for so great was the effect
+of the battles of Concon and La Placella that even the Coquimbo troops
+surrendered without firing a shot.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lieut. Sears and Ensign Wells, U.S.N., _The Chilian
+  Revolution of 1891_ (Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1893);
+  _The Capture of Valparaiso, 1891_ (Intelligence Department, War
+  Office, London, 1892); Hermann Kunz, _Taktische Beispiele aus den
+  Kriegen der neuesten Zeit; der Bürgerkrieg in Chile_ (Berlin, 1901);
+  _Revista militar de Chile_ (February-March 1892); Hugo Kunz, _Der
+  Bürgerkrieg in Chile_ (Vienna, 1892); _Militär Wochenblatt_ (5th
+  supplement, 1892); Sir W. Laird Clowes, _Four Modern Naval Campaigns_
+  (London, 1902); _Proceedings of U.S. Naval Institute_ (1894) (for La
+  Placilla); and the military and naval periodicals of 1892.
+
+
+
+
+CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR (1879-1882). The proximate cause of this war was the
+seizure, by the authorities of Bolivia, of the effects of the Chilean
+Nitrate Company at Antofagasta, then part of the Bolivian province of
+Atacama. The first act of hostility was the despatch of 500 soldiers to
+protect Chilean interests at Antofagasta. This force, under Colonel
+Sotomayor, landed and marched inland; the only resistance encountered
+was at Calama on the river Loa, where a handful of newly raised militia
+was routed (23rd March 1879). About the same time Chilean warships
+occupied Cobija and Tocapilla, and Sotomayor, after his victory at
+Calama, marched to the latter port. Bolivia had declared war on the 1st
+of March, but Peru not till the 5th of April: this delay gave the
+Chileans time to occupy every port on the Bolivian coast. Thus the
+Chilean admiral was able to proceed at once to the blockade of the
+southern ports of Peru, and in particular Iquique, where there took
+place the first naval action of the war. On the 21st of April the
+Chilean sloop "Esmeralda" and the gunboat "Covadonga"--both small and
+weak ships--engaged the Peruvian heavy ironclads "Huascar" and
+"Independencia"; after a hot fight the "Huascar" under Miguel Grau sank
+the "Esmeralda" under Arturo Piat, who was killed, but Carlos Condell in
+the "Covadonga" manoeuvred the "Independencia" aground and shelled her
+into a complete wreck. The Chileans now gave up the blockade and
+concentrated all their efforts on the destruction of the "Huascar,"
+while the allies organized a field army in the neighbourhood of Tacna
+and a large Chilean force assembled at Antofagasta.
+
+On the 8th of October 1879 the "Huascar" was brought to action off
+Angamos by the "Blanco Encalada," and the "Almirante Cochrane." Grau was
+outmatched as hopelessly and made as brave a fight as Prat at Iquique.
+Early in the action a shot destroyed the Peruvian's conning tower,
+killing Grau and his staff, and another entered her turret, killing the
+flag captain and nearly all the crew of the turret guns. When the
+"Huascar" finally surrendered she had but one gun left in action, her
+fourth commander and three-quarters of her crew were killed and wounded,
+and the steering-gear had been shot away. The Peruvian navy had now
+ceased to exist. The Chileans resumed the blockade, and more active
+operations were soon undertaken. The whole force of the allies was about
+20,000 men, scattered along the seaboard of Peru. The Chileans on the
+other hand had a striking force of 16,000 men in the neighbourhood of
+Antofagasta, and of this nearly half was embarked for Pisagua on the
+26th of October. The expeditionary force landed, in the face of
+considerable opposition, on the 2nd of November, and captured Pisagua.
+From Pisagua the Peruvians and Bolivians fell back along the railway to
+their reinforcements, and when some 10,000 men had been collected they
+moved forward to attack the Chilean position of San Francisco near
+Dolores station (19th November). In the end the Chileans were
+victorious, but their only material gain was the possession of Iquique
+and the retreat of the allies, who fell back inland towards Tarapacá.
+The tardy pursuit of the Chileans ended in the battle of Tarapacá on the
+27th. In this the allies were at first surprised, but, rapidly
+recovering themselves, took the offensive, and after a murderous fight,
+in which more men were killed than were wounded, the Chileans suffered a
+complete defeat. For some inexplicable reason the allies made no use of
+their victory, continued to retreat and left the Chileans in complete
+possession of the Tarapacá region. With this the campaign of 1879 ended.
+Chile had taken possession of the Bolivian seaboard and of the Peruvian
+province of Tarapacá, and had destroyed the hostile navy.
+
+  The objective of the Chileans in the second campaign was the province
+  of Tacna and the field force of the allies at Tacna and Arica. The
+  invasion was again carried out by sea, and 12,000 Chileans were landed
+  at Pacocha (Ylo), far to the N. of Arica. Careful preparations were
+  made for a desert march, and on the 12th of March 1880 the advanced
+  corps started inland for Moquegua, which was occupied on the 20th.
+  Near Moquegua the Peruvians, some 2000 strong, took up an unusually
+  strong position in the defile of Cuesta de los Angeles. But the great
+  numerical superiority of the assailants enabled them to turn the
+  flanks and press the front of the Peruvian position, and after a
+  severe struggle the defence collapsed (March 22nd), In April the army
+  began its advance southward from Moquegua to Tacna, while the Chilean
+  warships engaged in a series of minor naval operations in and about
+  the bay of Callao. Arica was also watched, and the blockade was
+  extended north of Lima. The land campaign had ere this culminated in
+  the battle of Tacna (May 26th), in which the Chileans attacked at
+  first in several disconnected bodies, and suffered severely until all
+  their forces came on the field. Then a combined advance carried all
+  before it. The allies engaged under General Narciso Campero, the new
+  president of Bolivia, lost nearly 3000 men, and the Chileans,
+  commanded by Manuel Baquedano, lost 2000 out of 8500 on the field. The
+  defeated army was completely dissolved, and it only remained for the
+  Chileans to march on Arica from the land side. The navy co-operated
+  with its long-range guns, on the 7th of June a general assault was
+  made, and before nightfall the whole of the defences were in the hands
+  of the Chileans. Their second campaign had given them entire
+  possession of another strip of Peru (from Pisagua to Ylo), and they
+  had shown themselves greatly superior, both in courage and leadership,
+  to their opponents. While the army prepared for the next campaign, the
+  Chilean navy was active; the blockade became more stringent and
+  several fights took place, in one of which the "Covadonga" was sunk;
+  an expeditionary force about 3000 strong, commanded by Patricio Lynch,
+  a captain in the Chilean navy, carried out successful raids at various
+  places on the coast and inland.
+
+  The Chilean army was reorganized during the summer, and prepared for
+  its next operation, this time against Lima itself. General Baquedano
+  was in command. The leading troops disembarked at Pisco on the 18th of
+  November 1880, and the whole army was ready to move against the
+  defences of Lima six weeks later. These defences consisted of two
+  distinct positions, Chorrillos and Miraflores, the latter being about
+  4000 yds. outside Lima. The first line of defence was attacked by
+  Baquedano on the 13th of January 1881. Reconnaissances proved that the
+  Peruvian lines could not be turned, and the battle was a pure frontal
+  attack. The defenders had 22,000 men in the lines, the Chileans
+  engaged about 24,000. The battle of Chorrillos ended in the complete
+  defeat of the Peruvians, less than a quarter of whose army rallied
+  behind the Miraflores defences. The Chileans lost over 3000 men. Two
+  days later took place the battle of Miraflores (January 15th). Here
+  the defences were very strong, and the action began with a daring
+  counter-attack by some Peruvians. Neither party had intended to fight
+  a battle, for negotiations were in progress, but the action quickly
+  became general. Its result was, as before, the complete dissolution of
+  the defending army. Lima, incapable of defence, was occupied by the
+  invaders on the 17th, and on the 18th Callao surrendered. The
+  resistance of the Peruvians was so far broken that Chile left only a
+  small army of occupation to deal with the remnants of their army. The
+  last engagement took place at Caxacamara in September 1882, when the
+  Peruvians won an unimportant success.
+
+  See T.B.M. Mason, _The War on the Pacific Coast, 1879-1881_ (U.S.
+  Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1883); Captain Châteauminois
+  (transl.), _Mémoire du Ministre de la Guerre du Chili sur la guerre
+  Chilo-Péruvienne_ (1882); Barros Arana, _Hist. de la guerre du
+  Pacifique_ (1884); Sir W. Laird Clowes, _Four Modern Naval Campaigns_
+  (London, 1902); Anon., _Précis de la guerre du Pacifique_ (Paris,
+  1886); Clements R. Markham, _The War between Peru and Chile_.
+
+
+
+
+CHILIASM (from Gr. [Greek: Chiliasmos, Chilioi], a thousand), the belief
+that Christ will return to reign in the body for a thousand years, the
+doctrine of the Millennium (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+CHILLÁN, a city and the capital of the province of Ñuble, in the
+southern part of central Chile, 35° 56' S., 71° 37' W., 246 m. by rail
+S.S.W. of Santiago and about 56 m. direct (108 by rail) N.E. of
+Concepción. Pop. (1895) 28,738; (1902, official estimate) 36,382.
+Chillán is one of the most active commercial cities of central Chile,
+and is surrounded by a rich agricultural and grazing country. Chillán
+was founded by Ruiz de Gambôa in 1594. Its present site was chosen in
+1836. The original site, known as Chillán Viejo, forms a suburb of the
+new city. The hot sulphur springs of Chillán, which were discovered in
+1795, are about 45 m. E.S.E. They issue from the flanks of the "Volcan
+Viejo," about 7000 ft. above sea-level. The highest temperature of the
+water issuing from these springs is a little over 135°. The principal
+volcanoes of the Chillán group are the Nevado (9528 ft.) and the Viejo.
+After a repose of about two centuries the Nevado de Chillán broke out in
+eruption early in 1861 and caused great destruction. The eruption ceased
+in 1863, but broke out again in 1864.
+
+
+
+
+CHILLIANWALLA, a village of British India in the Punjab, situated on the
+left bank of the river Jhelum, about 85 m. N.W. of Lahore. It is
+memorable as the scene of a battle on the 13th of January 1849, between
+a British force commanded by Lord Gough and the Sikh army under Sher
+Singh. The loss of the Sikhs was estimated at 4000, while that of the
+British in killed and wounded amounted to 2800, of whom nearly 1000 were
+Europeans and 89 were British and 43 native officers. An obelisk
+erected at Chillianwalla by the British government preserves the names
+of those who fell.
+
+CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Livingston county, Missouri,
+U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state, on the Grand river, about
+80 m. N.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 5717; (1900) 6905 (538 negroes);
+(1910) 6265. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
+Wabash, and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. There are various
+manufactures. Coal and limestone are found in the vicinity, and much
+live stock is raised, wool and hides being shipped from Chillicothe.
+Chillicothe was settled about 1830, and the town was laid out in 1837 on
+land granted directly by the Federal government; it was incorporated in
+1855.
+
+
+
+
+CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Ross county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+the W. bank of the Scioto river, on the Ohio & Erie Canal, about 50 m.
+S. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 11,288; (1900) 12,976, of whom 986 were
+negroes, and 910 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,508. Chillicothe is
+served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western (which has railway shops
+here), and other railways. The city has two parks. There are several
+ancient mounds in the vicinity. Chillicothe is built on a plain about 30
+ft. above the river, in the midst of a fertile agricultural region, and
+has a large trade in grain and coal, and in manufactures. The value of
+the city's factory products increased from $1,615,959 in 1900 to
+$3,146,890 in 1905, or 94.7%. Chillicothe was founded in 1796, and was
+first incorporated in 1802. In 1800-1803 it was the capital of the
+North-West Territory, and in 1803-1810 and 1812-1816 the capital of
+Ohio. Three Indian villages bore the name Chillicothe, each being in
+turn the chief town of the Chillicothe, one of the four tribal divisions
+of the Shawnee, in their retreat before the whites; the village near
+what is now Oldtown in Greene county was destroyed by George Rogers
+Clark in 1780; that in Miami county, where Piqua is now, was destroyed
+by Clark in 1782; and the Indian village near the present Chillicothe
+was destroyed in 1787 by Kentuckians.
+
+  See Henry Howe, _Historical Collections of Ohio_ (Columbus, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM (1602-1644), English divine and controversialist,
+was born at Oxford in October 1602. In June 1618 he became a scholar of
+Trinity College, Oxford, and was made a fellow of his college in June
+1628. He had some reputation as a skilful disputant, excelled in
+mathematics, and gained some credit as a writer of verses. The marriage
+of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria of France had stimulated the
+propaganda of the Roman Catholic Church, and the Jesuits made the
+universities their special point of attack. One of them, "John Fisher,"
+who had his sphere at Oxford, succeeded in making a convert of young
+Chillingworth, and prevailed upon him to go to the Jesuit college at
+Douai. Influenced, however, by his godfather, Laud, then bishop of
+London, he resolved to make an impartial inquiry into the claims of the
+two churches. After a short stay he left Douai in 1631 and returned to
+Oxford. On grounds of Scripture and reason he at length declared for
+Protestantism, and wrote in 1634, but did not publish, a confutation of
+the motives which had led him over to Rome. This paper was lost; the
+other, on the same subject, was probably written on some other occasion
+at the request of his friends. He would not, however, take orders. His
+theological sensitiveness appears in his refusal of a preferment offered
+to him in 1635 by Sir Thomas Coventry, lord keeper of the great seal. He
+was in difficulty about subscribing the Thirty-nine Articles. As he
+informed Gilbert Sheldon, then warden of All Souls, in a letter, he was
+fully resolved on two points--that to say that the Fourth Commandment is
+a law of God appertaining to Christians is false and unlawful, and that
+the damnatory clauses in the Athanasian Creed are most false, and in a
+high degree presumptuous and schismatical. To subscribe, therefore, he
+felt would be to "subscribe his own damnation." At this time his
+principal work was far towards completion. It was undertaken in defence
+of Dr Christopher Potter, provost of Queen's College in Oxford, who had
+for some time been carrying on a controversy with a Jesuit known as
+Edward Knott, but whose real name was Matthias Wilson. Potter had
+replied in 1633 to Knott's _Charity Mistaken_ (1630), and Knott
+retaliated with _Mercy and Truth_. This work Chillingworth engaged to
+answer, and Knott, hearing of his intention and hoping to bias the
+public mind, hastily brought out a pamphlet tending to show that
+Chillingworth was a Socinian who aimed at perverting not only
+Catholicism but Christianity.
+
+Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury, was not a little solicitous about
+Chillingworth's reply to Knott, and at his request, as "the young man
+had given cause why a more watchful eye should be held over him and his
+writings," it was examined by the vice-chancellor of Oxford and two
+professors of divinity, and published with their approbation in 1637,
+with the title _The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation_.
+The main argument is a vindication of the sole authority of the Bible in
+spiritual matters, and of the free right of the individual conscience to
+interpret it. In the preface Chillingworth expresses his new view about
+subscription to the articles. "For the Church of England," he there
+says, "I am persuaded that the constant doctrine of it is so pure and
+orthodox, that whosoever believes it, and lives according to it,
+undoubtedly he shall be saved, and that there is no error in it which
+may necessitate or warrant any man to disturb the peace or renounce the
+communion of it. This, in my opinion, is all intended by subscription."
+His scruples having thus been overcome, he was, in the following year
+(1638), promoted to the chancellorship of the church of Sarum, with the
+prebend of Brixworth in Northamptonshire annexed to it. In the great
+civil struggle he used his pen against the Scots, and was in the king's
+army at the siege of Gloucester, inventing certain engines for
+assaulting the town. Shortly afterwards he accompanied Lord Hopton,
+general of the king's troops in the west, in his march; and, being laid
+up with illness at Arundel Castle, he was there taken prisoner by the
+parliamentary forces under Sir William Waller. As he was unable to go to
+London with the garrison, he was conveyed to Chichester, and died there
+in January 1644. His last days were harassed by the diatribes of the
+Puritan preacher, Francis Cheynell.
+
+  Besides his principal work, Chillingworth wrote a number of smaller
+  anti-Jesuit papers published in the posthumous _Additional Discourses_
+  (1687), and nine of his sermons have been preserved. In politics he
+  was a zealous Royalist, asserting that even the unjust and tyrannous
+  violence of princes may not be resisted, although it might be avoided
+  in terms of the instruction, "when they persecute you in one city,
+  flee into another." His writings long enjoyed a high popularity. The
+  _Religion of Protestants_ is characterized by much fairness and
+  acuteness of argument, and was commended by Locke as a discipline of
+  "perspicuity and the way of right reasoning." The charge of
+  Socinianism was frequently brought against him, but, as Tillotson
+  thought, "for no other cause but his worthy and successful attempts to
+  make the Christian religion reasonable." His creed, and the whole gist
+  of his argument, is expressed in a single sentence, "I am fully
+  assured that God does not, and therefore that men ought not to,
+  require any more of any man than this, to believe the Scripture to be
+  God's word, and to endeavour to find the true sense of it, and to live
+  according to it."
+
+  A _Life_ by Rev. T. Birch was prefixed to the 1742 edition of
+  Chillingworth's _Works_.
+
+
+
+
+CHILOÉ (from _Chile_ and _hué_, "part of Chile"), a province of southern
+Chile, and also the name of a large island off the Chilean coast forming
+part of the province. The province, area 8593 sq. m., pop. (1895)
+77,750, is composed of three groups of islands, Chiloé, Guaitecas and
+Chonos, and extends from the narrow strait of Chacao in 41° 40' S. to
+the peninsula of Taytao, about 45° 45' S. The population is composed
+mainly of Indians, distantly related to the tribes of the mainland, and
+mestizos. The capital of the province is Ancud or San Carlos, at the
+northern end of the island of Chiloé, on the sheltered bay of San
+Carlos, once frequented by whalers. It is the seat of a bishopric; pop.
+(1905) 3182. Other towns are Castro, the former capital, on the eastern
+shore of Chiloé, and the oldest town of the island (founded 1566), once
+the seat of a Jesuit mission, and Melinca on an island of the Guaitecas
+group.
+
+  The island of Chiloé, which lies immediately south of the province of
+  Llanquihue, is a continuation of the western Chilean formation, the
+  coast range appearing in the mountainous range of western Chiloé and
+  the islands extending south along the coast. Between this coast range
+  and the Andes, the gulfs of Chacao, or Ancud and Corcovado (average
+  width, 30 m.) separate the island from the mainland. Chiloé has an
+  extreme length north to south of about 118 m., and an average width of
+  35 to 40 m., with an area of about 4700 sq. m. There are several lakes
+  on the island--Cucao, 12 m. long, being the largest,--and one small
+  river, the Pudeto, in the northern part of the island, is celebrated
+  as the scene of the last engagement in the war for independence, the
+  Spanish retaining possession of Chiloé until 1826.
+
+
+
+
+CHILON, of Sparta, son of Damagetus, one of the Seven Sages of Greece,
+flourished about the beginning of the 6th century B.C. In 560 (or 556)
+he acted as ephor, an office which he is even said to have founded. The
+tradition was that he died of joy on hearing that his son had gained a
+prize at the Olympic games. According to Chilon, the great virtue of man
+was prudence, or well-grounded judgment as to future events.
+
+  A collection of the sayings attributed to him will be found in F.W.
+  Mullach, _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, i.; see Herodotus i. 69;
+  Diogenes Laertius i. 68; Pausanias iii. 16, x. 24.
+
+
+
+
+CHILPERIC, the name of two Frankish kings.
+
+
+CHILPERIC I. (d. 584) was one of the sons of Clotaire I. Immediately
+after the death of his father in 561 he endeavoured to take possession
+of the whole kingdom, seized the treasure amassed in the royal town of
+Berny and entered Paris. His brothers, however, compelled him to divide
+the kingdom with them, and Soissons, together with Amiens, Arras,
+Cambrai, Thérouanne, Tournai and Boulogne, fell to Chilperic's share,
+but on the death of Charibert in 567 his estates were augmented. When
+his brother Sigebert married Brunhilda, Chilperic also wished to make a
+brilliant marriage. He had already repudiated his first wife, Audovera,
+and had taken as his concubine a serving-woman called Fredegond. He
+accordingly dismissed Fredegond, and married Brunhilda's sister,
+Galswintha. But he soon tired of his new partner, and one morning
+Galswintha was found strangled in her bed. A few days afterwards
+Chilperic married Fredegond. This murder was the cause of long and
+bloody wars, interspersed with truces, between Chilperic and Sigebert.
+In 575 Sigebert was assassinated by Fredegond at the very moment when he
+had Chilperic at his mercy. Chilperic retrieved his position, took from
+Austrasia Tours and Poitiers and some places in Aquitaine, and fostered
+discord in the kingdom of the east during the minority of Childebert II.
+One day, however, while returning from the chase to the town of Chelles,
+Chilperic was stabbed to death.
+
+Chilperic may be regarded as the type of Merovingian sovereigns. He was
+exceedingly anxious to extend the royal authority. He levied numerous
+imposts, and his fiscal measures provoked a great sedition at Limoges in
+579. He wished to bring about the subjection of the church, and to this
+end sold bishoprics to the highest bidder, annulled the wills made in
+favour of the bishoprics and abbeys, and sought to impose upon his
+subjects a rationalistic conception of the Trinity. He pretended to some
+literary culture, and was the author of some halting verse. He even
+added letters to the Latin alphabet, and wished to have the MSS.
+rewritten with the new characters. The wresting of Tours from Austrasia
+and the seizure of ecclesiastical property provoked the bitter hatred of
+Gregory of Tours, by whom Chilperic was stigmatized as the Nero and the
+Herod of his time.
+
+  See Sérésia, _L'Église et l'État sous les rois francs au VIe siècle_
+  (Ghent, 1888).
+
+
+CHILPERIC II. (d. 720) was the son of Childeric II. He became king of
+Neustria in 715, on which occasion he changed his name from Daniel to
+Chilperic. At first he was a tool in the hands of Ragenfrid, the mayor
+of the palace. Charles Martel, however, overthrew Ragenfrid, accepted
+Chilperic as king of Neustria, and, on the death of Clotaire IV., set
+him over the whole kingdom. The young king died soon afterwards.
+     (C. PF.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILTERN HILLS, or THE CHILTERNS, a range of chalk hills in England,
+extending through part of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire.
+Running from S.W. to N.E., they form a well-marked escarpment
+north-westward, while the south-eastern slope is long. The name of
+Chilterns is applied to the hills between the Thames in the
+neighbourhood of Goring and the headwaters of its tributary the Lea
+between Dunstable and Hitchin, the crest line between these points being
+about 55 m. in length. But these hills are part of a larger chalk
+system, continuing the line of the White Horse Hills from Berkshire, and
+themselves continued eastward by the East Anglian ridge. The greatest
+elevation of the Chilterns is found in the centre from Watlington to
+Tring, where heights from 800 to 850 ft. are frequent. Westward towards
+the Thames gap the elevation falls away but little, but eastward the
+East Anglian ridge does not often exceed 500 ft., though it continues
+the northward escarpment across Hertfordshire. There are several passes
+through the Chilterns, followed by main roads and railways converging on
+London, which lies in the basin of which these hills form part of the
+northern rim. The most remarkable passes are those near Tring, Wendover
+and Prince's Risborough, the floors of which are occupied by the gravels
+of former rivers. The Chilterns were formerly covered with a forest of
+beech, and there is still a local supply of this wood for the
+manufacture of chairs and other articles in the neighbourhood of
+Wycombe.
+
+
+
+
+CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An old principle of English parliamentary law
+declared that a member of the House of Commons, once duly chosen, could
+not _resign_ his seat. This rule was a relic of the days when the local
+gentry had to be compelled to serve in parliament. The only method,
+therefore, of avoiding the rule came to be by accepting an office of
+profit from the crown, a statute of 1707 enacting that every member
+accepting an office of profit from the crown should thereby vacate his
+seat, but should be capable of re-election, unless the office in
+question had been created since 1705, or had been otherwise declared to
+disqualify for a seat in parliament. Among the posts of profit held by
+members of the House of Commons in the first half of the 18th century
+are to be found the names of several crown stewardships, which
+apparently were not regarded as places of profit under the crown within
+the meaning of the act of 1707, for no seats were vacated by appointment
+to them. The first instance of the acceptance of such a stewardship
+vacating a seat was in 1740, when the house decided that Sir W.W. Wynn,
+on inheriting from his father, in virtue of a royal grant, the
+stewardship of the lordship and manor of Bromfield and Yale, had _ipso
+facto_ vacated his seat. On the passing of the Place Act of 1742, the
+idea of utilizing the appointment to certain crown stewardships
+(possibly suggested by Sir W.W. Wynn's case) as a pretext for enabling a
+member to resign his seat was carried into practice. These nominal
+stewardships were eight in number, but only two survived to be used in
+this way in contemporary practice--those of the Chilterns and
+Northstead; and when a member wished to vacate his seat, he was
+accordingly spoken of as taking the Chiltern Hundreds.
+
+  1. _Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, County Bucks._--The
+  Chiltern Hundreds formed a bailiwick of the ordinary type. They are
+  situated on the Chiltern Hills, and the depredations of the bandits,
+  who found shelter within their recesses, became at an early period so
+  alarming that a special officer, known as the steward of the Chiltern
+  Hundreds, was appointed for the protection of the inhabitants of the
+  neighbouring districts. It is doubtful at what date the necessity for
+  such an appointment disappeared, but the three hundreds of Stoke,
+  Burnham and Desborough are still distinguished by the old name. The
+  appointment of steward was first used for parliamentary purposes in
+  1750, the appointment being made by the chancellor of the exchequer
+  (and at his discretion to grant or not), and the warrant bestowing on
+  the holder "all wages, fees, allowances and other privileges and
+  pre-eminences." Up to the 19th century there was a nominal salary of
+  20s. attached to the post. It was laid down in 1846 by the chancellor
+  of the exchequer that the Chilterns could not be granted to more than
+  one person in the same day, but this rule has not been strictly
+  adhered to, for on four occasions subsequent to 1850 the Chilterns
+  were granted twice on the same day. The Chilterns might be granted to
+  members whether they had taken the oath or not, or during a recess,
+  though in this case a new writ could not be issued until the House met
+  again. Each new warrant expressly revoked the grant to the last
+  holder, the new steward retaining it in his turn until another should
+  be appointed.
+
+  2. _Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of East Hundred, or Hendred,
+  Berks._--This stewardship was first used for parliamentary purposes in
+  1763, and was in more or less constant use until 1840, after which it
+  disappeared. This manor comprised copyholds, the usual courts were
+  held, and the stewardship was an actual and active office, the duties
+  being executed by a deputy steward. The manor was sold by public
+  auction in 1823 for £910, but in some manner the crown retained the
+  right of appointing a steward for seventeen years after that date.
+
+  3. _Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead, Yorkshire._--This
+  manor was crown property before 1750, but was in lease until 1838. It
+  has no copyhold lands, nor are there any records of manor courts.
+  There are no traces of any profits having ever been derived from the
+  office. It was used for parliamentary purposes in 1844 and
+  subsequently.
+
+  4. _Steward of the Manor of Hempholme, Yorkshire._--This manor appears
+  to have been of the same nature as that of Northstead. It was in lease
+  until 1835. It was first used for parliamentary purposes in 1845 and
+  was in constant use until 1865. It was sold in 1866.
+
+  5. _Escheator of Munster._--Escheators were officers commissioned to
+  secure the rights of the crown over property which had legally
+  escheated to it. In Ireland mention is made of escheators as early as
+  1256. In 1605 the escheatorship of Ireland was split up into four, one
+  for each province, but the duties soon became practically nominal. The
+  escheatorship of Munster was first used for parliamentary purposes in
+  the Irish parliament from 1793 to 1800, and in the united parliament
+  (24 times for Irish seats and once for a Scottish seat) from 1801 to
+  1820. After 1820 it was discontinued and finally abolished in 1838.
+
+  6. _Steward of the Manor of Old Shoreham, Sussex._--This manor
+  belonged to the duchy of Cornwall, and it is difficult to understand
+  how it came to be regarded as a crown appointment. It was first used
+  for parliamentary purposes in 1756, and then, occasionally, until
+  1799, in which year it was sold by the duchy to the duke of Norfolk.
+
+  7. _Steward of the Manor of Poynings, Sussex._--This manor reverted to
+  the crown on the death of Lord Montague about 1804, but was leased up
+  to about 1835. It was only twice used for parliamentary purposes, in
+  1841 and 1843.
+
+  8. _Escheator of Ulster._--This appointment was used in the united
+  parliament three times, for Irish seats only; the last time in 1819.
+
+  See parliamentary paper--_Report from the Select Committee on House of
+  Commons (Vacating of Seats)_ (1894). (T.A.I.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILWA (incorrectly SHIRWA), a shallow lake in south-east Africa, S.S.E.
+of Lake Nyasa, cut by 35°20'E., and lying between 15° and 15°35'S. The
+lake is undergoing a process of desiccation, and in some dry seasons (as
+in 1879 and 1903) the "open water" is reduced to a number of large
+pools. Formerly the lake seems to have found an outlet northwards to the
+Lujenda branch of the Rovuma, but with the sinking of its level it is
+now separated from the Lujenda by a wooded ridge some 30 to 40 ft. above
+the surrounding plains. There are four islands, the largest rising 500
+ft. above the water. The lake was discovered by David Livingstone in
+1859 and was by him called Shirwa, from a mishearing of the native name.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMAERA, in Greek mythology, a fire-breathing female monster resembling
+a lion in the fore part, a goat in the middle, and a dragon behind
+(_Iliad_, vi. 179), with three heads corresponding. She devastated Caria
+and Lycia until she was finally slain by Bellerophon (see H.A. Fischer,
+_Bellerophon_, 1851). The origin of the myth was the volcanic nature of
+the soil of Lycia (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 110; Servius on _Aeneid_, vi.
+288), where works have been found containing representations of the
+Chimaera in the simple form of a lion. In modern art the Chimaera is
+usually represented as a lion, with a goat's head in the middle of the
+back, as in the bronze Chimaera of Arezzo (5th century). The word is now
+used generally to denote a fantastic idea or fiction of the imagination.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMAY, a town in the extreme south-east of the province of Hainaut,
+Belgium, dating from the 7th century. Pop. (1904) 3383. It is more
+commonly spoken of as being in the district _entre Sambre et Meuse_.
+Owing to its proximity to the French frontier it has undergone many
+sieges, the last of which was in 1640, when Turenne gave orders that it
+should be reduced to such ruin that it could never stand another. The
+town is chiefly famous for the castle and park that bear its name.
+Originally a stronghold of the Cröy family, it has passed through the
+D'Arenbergs to its present owners, the princes of Caraman-Chimay. The
+castle, which before Turenne's order to demolish it possessed seven
+towers, has now only one in ruins, and a modern château was built in the
+Tudor style in the 18th century. This domain carried with it the right
+to one of the twelve peerages of Hainaut. Madame Tallien, daughter of Dr
+Cabarrus, the Lady of Thermidor, married as her second husband the
+prince de Chimay, and held her little court here down to her death in
+1835. There is a memorial to her in the church, which also contains a
+fine monument of Phillippe de Cröy, chamberlain and comrade in arms of
+the emperor Charles V. John Froissart the chronicler died and was buried
+here. There is a statue in his honour on the Grand Place. Chimay is
+situated on a stream called the White Water, which in its lower course
+becomes the Viroin and joins the Meuse.
+
+
+
+
+CHIME, (1) (Probably derived from a mistaken separation into two words,
+_chimbe bell_, of _chymbal_ or _chymbel_, the old form of "cymbal," Lat.
+_cymbalum_), a mechanical arrangement by which a set of bells in a
+church or other tower, or in a clock, are struck so as to produce a
+sequence of musical sounds or a tune. For the mechanism of such an
+arrangement in a clock and in a set of bells, see the articles CLOCK and
+BELL. The word is also applied to the tune thus played by the bells and
+also to the harmonious "fall" of verse, and so, figuratively, to any
+harmonious agreement of thought or action. (2) (From Mid. Eng. _chimb_,
+a word meaning "edge," common in varied forms to Teutonic languages, cf.
+Ger. _Kimme_), the bevelled rim formed by the projecting staves at the
+ends of a cask.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMERE (Lat. _chimera, chimaera_; O. Fr. _chamarre_, Mod. Fr.
+_simarre_; Ital. _zimarra_; cf. Span. _zamarra_, a sheepskin coat;
+possibly derived ultimately from Gr. [Greek: cheimerios], "wintry," i.e.
+a winter overcoat), in modern English use the name of a garment worn as
+part of the ceremonial dress of Anglican bishops. It is a long
+sleeveless gown of silk or satin, open down the front, gathered in at
+the back between the shoulders, and with slits for the arms. It is worn
+over the rochet (q.v.), and its colour is either black or scarlet
+(convocation robes). By a late abuse the sleeves of the rochet were,
+from motives of convenience, sometimes attached to the chimere. The
+origin of the chimere has been the subject of much debate; but the view
+that it is a modification of the cope (q.v.) is now discarded, and it is
+practically proved to be derived from the medieval tabard (_tabardum,
+taberda_ or _collobium_), an upper garment worn in civil life by all
+classes of people both in England and abroad. It has therefore a common
+origin with certain academic robes (see ROBES, § _Academic dress_).
+
+The word "chimere," which first appears in England in the 14th century,
+was sometimes applied not only to the tabard worn over the rochet, but
+to the sleeved cassock worn under it. Thus Archbishop Scrope is
+described as wearing when on his way to execution (1405) a blue chimere
+with sleeves. But the word properly applies to the sleeveless tabard
+which tended to supersede, from the 15th century onwards, the
+inconvenient _cappa clausa_ (a long closed cloak with a slit in front
+for the arms) as the out-of-doors upper garment of bishops. These
+chimeres, the colours of which (murrey, scarlet, green, &c.) may
+possibly have denoted academical rank, were part of the civil costume of
+prelates. Thus in the inventory of Walter Skirlawe, bishop of Durham
+(1405-1406), eight chimeres of various colours are mentioned, including
+two for riding (_pro equitatura_). The chimere was, moreover, a cold
+weather garment. In summer its place was taken by the tippet.
+
+In the Anglican form for the consecration of bishops the newly
+consecrated prelate, hitherto vested in rochet, is directed to put on
+"the rest of the episcopal habit," i.e. the chimere. The robe has thus
+become in the Church of England symbolical of the episcopal office, and
+is in effect a liturgical vestment. The rubric containing this direction
+was added to the Book of Common Prayer in 1662; and there is proof that
+the development of the chimere into at least a choir vestment was
+subsequent to the Reformation. Foxe, indeed, mentions that Hooper at his
+consecration wore "a long scarlet chymere down to the foot" (_Acts and
+Mon._, ed. 1563, p. 1051), a source of trouble to himself and of scandal
+to other extreme reformers; but that this was no more than the full
+civil dress of a bishop is proved by the fact that Archbishop Parker at
+his consecration wore surplice and tippet, and only put on the chimere,
+when the service was over, to go away in. This civil quality of the
+garment still survives alongside the other; the full dress of an
+Anglican prelate at civil functions of importance (e.g. in parliament,
+or at court) is still rochet and chimere.
+
+  The continental equivalent of the chimere is the _zimarra_ or
+  _simarre_, which is defined by foreign ecclesiologists (Moroni,
+  Barbier de Montault) as a kind of _soutane_ (cassock), from which it
+  is distinguished by having a small cape and short, open arms
+  (_manches-fausses_) reaching to the middle of the upper arm and
+  decorated with buttons. In France and Germany it is fitted more or
+  less to the figure; in Italy it is wider and falls down straight in
+  front. Like the _soutane_, the _zimarra_ is not proper to any
+  particular rank of clergy, but in the case of bishops and prelates it
+  is ornamented with red buttons and bindings. It never has a train
+  (_cauda_). It is not universally worn, e.g. in Germany apparently only
+  by prelates. G. Moroni identifies the _zimarra_ with the _epitogium_
+  which Domenico Magri, in his _Hierolexicon_ (ed. 1677), calls the
+  uppermost garment of the clergy, worn over the _soutane_ (_toga_)
+  instead of the _mantellum_ (_vestis suprema clericorum loco pallii_),
+  with a cross-reference to _Tabardum_, the "usual" upper garment
+  (_pallium usuale_); and this definition is repeated in the 8th edition
+  of the work (1732). From this it appears that so late as the middle of
+  the 18th century the _zimarra_ was still in common use as an
+  out-of-doors overcoat. But, according to Moroni, by the latter half of
+  the 19th century the _zimarra_, though still worn by certain civilians
+  (e.g. notaries and students), had become in Italy chiefly the domestic
+  garment of the clergy, notably of superiors, parish priests, rectors,
+  certain regulars, priests of congregations, bishops, prelates and
+  cardinals. It was worn also by the Roman senators, and is still worn
+  by university professors. A black _zimarra_ lined with white, and
+  sometimes ornamented with a white binding and gold tassels, is worn by
+  the pope.
+
+  More analogous to the Anglican chimere in shape, though not in
+  significance, is the purple _mantelletum_ worn over the rochet by
+  bishops, and by others authorized to wear the episcopal insignia, in
+  presence of the pope or his legates. This symbolizes the temporary
+  suspension of the episcopal jurisdiction (symbolized by the rochet) so
+  long as the pope or his representative is present. Thus at the Curia
+  cardinals and prelates wear the _mantelletum_, while the pope wears
+  the _zimarra_, and the first act of the cardinal camerlengo after the
+  pope's death is to expose his rochet by laying aside the
+  _mantelletum_, the other cardinals following his example, as a symbol
+  that during the vacancy of the papacy the pope's jurisdiction is
+  vested in the Sacred College. On the analogy of the _mantelletum_
+  certain Anglican prelates, American and colonial, have from time to
+  time appeared in purple chimeres; which, as the Rev. N.F. Robinson
+  justly points out, is a most unhappy innovation, since it has no
+  historical justification, and its symbolism is rather unfortunate.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See the _Report_ of the sub-committee of Convocation on
+  the ornaments of the church and its ministers, p. 31 (London, 1908);
+  the Rev. N.F. Robinson, "The black chimere of Anglican Prelates: a
+  plea for its retention and proper use," in _Transactions of the St
+  Paul's Ecclesiological Soc._ vol. iv. pp. 181-220 (London, 1898);
+  Herbert Druitt, _Costume on Brasses_ (London, 1906); G. Moroni,
+  _Dizionario dell' erudizione storico-ecclesiastica_ (Venice, 1861),
+  vol. 103, s.v. "Zimarra": X. Barbier de Montault, _Traité pratique de
+  la construction, &c., des églises_, ii. 538 (Paris, 1878).    (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIMESYAN (_Tsimshian_), a tribe of North American Indians, now some
+3000 in number, living around the mouth of the Skeena river, British
+Columbia, and on the islands near the coast. They are a powerfully built
+people, who tattoo and wear labrets and rings in noses and ears. They
+are skilful fishermen, and live in large communal houses. They are
+divided into clans and distinct social orders.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMKENT, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Syr-darya, 70 m.
+by rail N.N.E. of Tashkent. Pop. (1897) 10,756, mostly Sarts. It
+occupies a strategical position at the west end of the valley between
+the Alexander range and the Ala-tau (or Talas-tau), at the meeting of
+commercial routes from (1) Vyernyi and Siberia beyond, from the
+north-east, (2) the Aral Sea and Orenburg (connected with it by rail
+since 1905) to the north-west, and (3) Ferghana and Bokhara to the
+south. The citadel, which was stormed by the Russians in 1864, stands on
+high ground above the town, but is now in ruins. Chimkent is visited by
+consumptive patients who wish to try the koumiss cure. It has cotton
+mills and soap-works.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMNEY (through the Fr. _cheminée_, from _caminata_, sc. _camera_, a
+Lat. derivative of _caminus_, an oven or furnace), in architecture, that
+portion of a building, rising above the roof, in which are the flues
+conveying the smoke to the outer air. Originally the term included the
+fireplace as well as the chimney shaft. At Rochester Castle (1130) and
+Heddington, Essex, there were no external chimney shafts, and the flue
+was carried through the wall at some height above the fireplace. In the
+early examples the chimney shaft was circular, with one flue only, and
+was terminated with a conical cap, the smoke issuing from openings in
+the side, which at Sherborne Abbey (A.D. 1300) were treated
+decoratively. It was not till the 15th century that the smoke issued at
+the top, and later in the century that more than one flue was carried up
+in the same shaft. There are a few examples of the clustered shaft in
+stone, but as a rule they are contemporaneous with the general use of
+brick. The brick chimney shafts, of which there are fine specimens at
+Hampton Court, were richly decorated with chevrons and other geometrical
+patterns. One of the best examples is that at Thornton Castle,
+Gloucestershire.
+
+In the 15th and 16th centuries in France the chimney shaft was
+recognized as an important architectural feature, and was of
+considerable elevation in consequence of the great height of the roofs.
+In the château of Meillant (1503) the chimney shafts are decorated with
+angle buttresses, niches and canopies, in the late Flamboyant style; and
+at Chambord and Blois they are carved with pilasters and niches with
+panelling above, carved with the salamander and other armorial devices.
+In the Roman palaces they are sometimes masked by the balustrades, and
+(when shown) take the form of sepulchral urns, as if to disguise their
+real purpose. Though not of a very architectural character, the chimneys
+at Venice present perhaps the greatest variety of terminations, and as a
+rule the smoke comes out on the sides and not through the top.
+    (R. P. S.)
+
+  _Factory Chimneys_.--Chimneys, besides removing the products of
+  combustion, also serve to provide the fire with the air requisite for
+  burning the fuel. The hot air in the shaft, being lighter than the
+  cold air outside it, tends to rise, and as it does so air flows in at
+  the bottom to take its place. An ascending current is thus established
+  in the chimney, its velocity, other things being equal, varying as the
+  square root of the height of the shaft above the grate. The velocity
+  also increases with increase of temperature in the gas column, but
+  since the weight of each cubic foot grows less as the gases expand,
+  the amount of smoke discharged by a chimney does not increase
+  indefinitely with the temperature; a maximum is reached when the
+  difference in temperature between the gases in the shaft and the
+  outside air is about 600° F., but the rate of increase is very slow
+  after the difference has passed about 300° F. In designing a chimney
+  the dimensions (height and sectional area) have to be so proportioned
+  to the amount of fuel to be burnt in the various furnaces connected
+  with it that at the temperature employed the products of combustion
+  are effectively removed, due allowance being made for the frictional
+  retardation of the current against the sides of the flues and shafts
+  and in passing through the fire. The velocity of the current in actual
+  chimneys varies widely, from 3 or 4 to 50 or 60 ft. a second.
+  Increased velocity, obtainable by increasing the height of the shaft,
+  gives increased delivering capacity, but a speed of 10 or 12 ft. a
+  second is regarded as good practice. Ordinary factory chimneys do not
+  in general exceed 180 or 200 ft. in height, but in some cases,
+  especially when, as in chemical works, they are employed to get rid of
+  objectionable vapours, they have been made double that height, or even
+  more. In section they are round, octagonal or square. The circular
+  form offers the least resistance to wind pressure, and for a given
+  height and sectional area requires less material to secure stability
+  than the octagonal and still less than the square; on the other hand,
+  there is more liability to cracking. Brick is the material commonly
+  used, but many chimneys are now made of iron or steel. Reinforced
+  concrete is also employed.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMNEYPIECE, the term given to the projecting hood which in medieval
+times was built over a fireplace to catch the smoke, and at a later date
+to the decorative framework, often carried up to the ceiling.
+"Chimneypiece" or "mantelpiece" is now the general term for the jambs,
+mantelshelf and external accessories of a fireplace. For many centuries
+the chimneypiece was the most ornamental and most artistic feature of a
+room, but as fireplaces have become smaller, and modern methods of
+heating have been introduced, its artistic as well as its practical
+significance has grown less.
+
+  Up to the 12th century rooms were warmed entirely by a hypocaust, or
+  with braziers, or by fires on the hearth, the smoke finding its way up
+  to a lantern in the roof. The earliest chimneypiece known is that in
+  the King's House at Southampton, with Norman shafts in the joints
+  carrying a segmental arch, which is attributed to the first half of
+  the 12th century. At a later date, in consequence of the greater width
+  of the fireplace, flat or segmental arches were thrown across and
+  constructed with voussoirs, sometimes joggled, the thrust of the arch
+  being resisted by bars of iron at the back. In domestic work of the
+  14th century the chimneypiece was greatly increased in order to allow
+  of the members of the family sitting on either side of the fire on the
+  hearth, and in these cases great beams of timber were employed to
+  carry the hood; in such cases the fireplace was so deeply recessed as
+  to become externally an important architectural feature, as at Haddon
+  Hall. The largest chimneypiece existing is in the great hall of the
+  Palais des Comtes at Poitiers, which is nearly 30 ft. wide, having two
+  intermediate supports to carry the hood; the stone flues are carried
+  up between the tracery of an immense window above. In the early
+  Renaissance style, the chimneypiece of the Palais de Justice at Bruges
+  is a magnificent example; the upper portion, carved in oak, extends
+  the whole width of the room, with statues of nearly life size of
+  Charles V. and others of the royal family of Spain. The most prolific
+  modern designer of chimneypieces was J.B. Piranesi, who in 1765
+  published a large series, on which at a later date the Empire style in
+  France was based. In France the finest work of the early Renaissance
+  period is to be found in the chimneypieces, which are of infinite
+  variety of design.
+
+  The English chimneypieces of the early 17th century, when the purer
+  Italian style was introduced by Inigo Jones, were extremely simple in
+  design, sometimes consisting only of the ordinary mantelpiece, with
+  classic architraves and shelf, the upper part of the chimney breast
+  being panelled like the rest of the room. In the latter part of the
+  century the classic architrave was abandoned in favour of a much
+  bolder and more effective moulding, as in the chimneypieces at Hampton
+  Court, and the shelf was omitted.
+
+  In the 18th century the architects returned to the Inigo Jones classic
+  type, but influenced by the French work of Louis XIV. and XV. Figure
+  sculpture, generally represented by graceful figures on each side,
+  which assisted to carry the shelf, was introduced, and the overmantel
+  developed into an elaborate frame for the family portrait over the
+  chimneypiece. Towards the close of the 18th century the designs of the
+  brothers Adam superseded all others, and a century later they came
+  again into fashion. The Adam mantels are in wood enriched with
+  ornament, cast in moulds, sometimes copied from the carved wood
+  decoration of old times.    (R. P. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIMPANZEE (_Chimpanzi_), the vernacular name of the highest species of
+the man-like apes, forming the typical representatives of the genus
+_Anthropopithecus_. Chimpanzees, of which there appear to be at least
+two species, range through the tropical forest-zone of Africa from the
+west coast to Uganda. The typical _A. troglodytes_ has been long known
+to European science, Dr Tyson, a celebrated surgeon and anatomist of his
+time, having dissected a young individual, and described it, as a pigmy
+or _Homo sylvestris_, in a book published in 1699. Of this baby
+chimpanzee the skeleton may be seen in the Natural History branch of the
+British Museum alongside the volume in which it is described. It was
+not, however, till 1788 that the chimpanzee received what is now
+recognized as a scientific name, having been christened in that year
+_Simia troglodytes_ by the naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin. In his
+classification it was included in the same genus as the orang-utan; and
+it has recently been suggested that the name _Simia_ pertains of right
+to the chimpanzee rather than to the orang-utan. Between the typical
+West African chimpanzee and the gorilla (q.v.) there is no difficulty in
+drawing a distinction; the difficulty comes in when we have to deal with
+the aberrant races, or species, of chimpanzee, some of which are so
+gorilla-like that it is by no means easy to determine to which group
+they really pertain. In height the adult male chimpanzee of the typical
+form does not exceed 5 ft., and the colour of the hair is a full black,
+while the skin, especially that of the face, is light-coloured; the ears
+are remarkably large and prominent, and the hands reach only a short
+distance below the knees. The head is rounded and short, without
+prominent beetling ridges above the eyes, or a strong crest along the
+middle line of the back of the skull; and the tusks of the old males are
+of no very great length and prominence. Moreover, there is no very
+marked difference in the size of the two sexes. Gentleness and docility
+are specially characteristic of the species, even when full-grown; while
+in the native state its habits are thoroughly arboreal.
+
+  In central Africa the chimpanzees assume more or less marked
+  gorilla-like traits. The first of these aberrant types is
+  Schweinfurth's chimpanzee (_Anthropopithecus troglodytes
+  schweinfurthi_), which inhabits the Niam-Niam country, and, although
+  evidently belonging to the same species as the typical race, exhibits
+  certain gorilla-like features. These traits are still more developed
+  in the bald chimpanzee (_A. tschego_) of Loango, the Gabun, and other
+  regions of French Congo, which takes its English name from the sparse
+  covering of hair on the head. The most gorilla-like of all the races
+  is, however, the kulu-kamba chimpanzee (_A. kulu-kamba_) of du
+  Chaillu, which inhabits central Africa. The celebrated ape "Mafuka,"
+  which lived in the Dresden zoological gardens during 1875, and came
+  from Loango, was apparently a member of this species, although it was
+  at one time regarded as a hybrid between a chimpanzee and a gorilla.
+  These gorilla-like traits were still more pronounced in "Johanna," a
+  female chimpanzee living in Barnum & Bailey's show in 1899, which has
+  been described and figured by Dr A. Keith. The heavy ridges over the
+  brow, originally supposed to be distinctive of the gorilla, are
+  particularly well marked in "Johanna," and they would doubtless be
+  still more noticeable in the male of the same race, which seems to be
+  undoubtedly du Chaillu's kulu-kamba. Still the large size and
+  prominence of the ears proclaim that both "Mafuka" and "Johanna" were
+  chimpanzees and not gorillas. A gorilla-like feature in "Johanna" is,
+  however, the presence of large folds at the sides (_ala_) of the
+  nostrils, which are absent in the typical chimpanzee, but in the
+  gorilla extend down to the upper lip. Chimpanzees exhibit great
+  docility in confinement, where, however, they seldom survive for any
+  great length of time. They likewise display a much higher degree of
+  intelligence than any of the other man-like apes. (See PRIMATES.)
+      (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHINA, a country of eastern Asia, the principal division of the Chinese
+empire. In addition to China proper the Chinese Empire includes
+Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and Sin-kiang (East Turkestan, Kulja,
+Dzungaria, &c., _i.e._ all the Chinese dependencies lying between
+Mongolia on the north and Tibet on the south). Its most southern point
+is in 18° 50' N.; its most northern in 53° 25' N.; its most western in
+74° E., and its most eastern in 135° E. It lies, however, mainly between
+20° and 50° N. and 80° and 130° E. It is considerably larger than the
+whole of Europe. Though its area has not been exactly ascertained the
+various estimates closely approximate, varying between 4,277,000 and
+4,300,000 sq. m. It is bounded N.W., N. and N.E. by Asiatic Russia,
+along a frontier extending some 6000 m.; E. by Korea and those parts of
+the Pacific known as the Yellow Sea and China Sea; S. and S.W. by the
+China Sea, French Indo-China, Upper Burma and the Himalayan states. It
+is narrowest in the extreme west. Chinese Turkestan along the meridian
+of Kashgar (76° E.) has a breadth of but 250 m. It rapidly broadens and
+for the greater part of its area is over 1800 m. across in a direct N.
+and S. line. Its greatest length is from the N.E. corner of Manchuria to
+the S.W. confines of Tibet, a distance of 3100 m. in a direct line. Its
+seaboard, about 5000 m. following the indentations of the coast, is
+almost, wholly in China proper, but the peninsula of Liao-tung and also
+the western shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung are in Manchuria.
+
+China[1] proper or the Eighteen Provinces (_Shih-pa-shêng_) occupies the
+south-eastern part of the empire. It is bounded N. by Mongolia, W. by
+Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. by Burma, S. by Tongking and the gulf of that
+name, S.E. by the South China Sea, E. by the East China Sea, the Yellow
+Sea, Gulf of Chih-li and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 1,500,000
+sq. m.
+
+This vast country is separated from the rest of continental Asia by
+lofty tablelands and rugged mountain ranges, which determine the general
+course--west to east--of its principal rivers. On the north and west the
+Mongolian and Tibetan tablelands present towards China steep escarpments
+across which are very few passes. On the S.W. and S., on the borders of
+Yun-nan, high mountains and deep valleys separate China from Burma and
+Tongking. On the narrow N.E. frontier the transition from the Manchurian
+plateau to the alluvial plain of northern China is not abrupt, but,
+before the advent of railways, Manchuria afforded few and difficult
+means of access to other regions. Thus China was almost cut off from the
+rest of the world save by sea routes.
+
+
+I. THE COUNTRY
+
+Western China consists of highlands often sparsely, and eastern China of
+lowlands densely peopled. Western China contains the only provinces
+where the population is under 100 per sq. m. From the Tibetan and
+Mongolian tablelands project mountain ranges which, ramifying over the
+western region, enclose elevated level tracts and lower basins and
+valleys. East of this mountainous region, which extends into central
+China and covers probably fully half of the kingdom, are, in the north
+a great alluvial plain and in the south a vast calcareous tableland
+traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation (see §§ _Mountains_ and
+_Geology_). In north-eastern China there is only one mountain system,
+the group of hills---highest peak 5060 ft.---forming the Shan-tung
+peninsula. This peninsula was formerly an island, but has been attached
+to the mainland by the growth of the alluvial plain. Besides the broad
+division of the country into western and eastern China it may also be
+considered as divided into three regions by the basins of its chief
+rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow river) in the north, the Yangtsze-kiang in
+the centre, and the Si-kiang (West river) in the south. In the northern
+provinces of Kan-suh and Shen-si the basins of the Hwang-ho and
+Yangtsze-kiang are separated by a mountain chain with various names--the
+eastern termination of the Kuen-lun range of central Asia. These
+mountains, in China, attain, in the Tsing-ling Shan, a maximum elevation
+of 13,000 ft. East of Shen-si, in Ho-nan the Fu-niu-shan continue the
+range, but with decreasing elevation, and beyond this the deltaic plain
+is entered.
+
+The watershed between the Yangtsze-kiang and that of the Si-kiang is
+less clearly marked. It traverses the immense tableland which occupies a
+great part of the south-west provinces of Yun-nan and Kwei-chow and is
+continued eastward by the lower tableland of Kwang-si and the Nanshan
+hills (whose elevation seldom exceeds 6000 ft.). The basin of the
+Yangtsze-kiang forms the whole of central China. Its western border, in
+Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan, is wholly mountainous, with heights exceeding
+19,000 ft. Central Sze-ch'uen, which is shut in by these mountains on
+the west, by the Yun-nan and Kwei-chow plateau on the south, by the
+Kiu-lung range on the north, and by highlands eastward (save for the
+narrow valley through which the Yangtsze-kiang forces its way), is a
+vast red sandstone tableland of about 1600 ft. elevation. It is
+exceedingly fertile and supports a dense population. Eastward of
+Sze-ch'uen the Yangtsze valley is studded with lakes. Finally it enters
+the deltaic plain. The basin of the Si-kiang fills the two southern
+provinces of Kwang-si and Kwang-tung and contains no very striking
+orographic features. It may be added that in the extreme S.W. portion of
+China is part of a fourth drainage area. Here the Mekong, Salween,
+Song-koi (Red river), &c. flow south to Indo-China.
+
+  _The Coast_.--The coast-line, following all the minor indentations,
+  is reckoned at over 4500 m.; if only the larger inlets and
+  promontories be regarded, the coast-line is about 2150 m. in length.
+  Its shape is that of a semicircle, with its most easterly point midway
+  (30° N.) between its northern and southern extremities. At either end
+  of this semicircular sweep lies a peninsula, and beyond the peninsula
+  a gulf. In the north are the peninsula of Shan-tung and the gulf of
+  Chih-li; in the south the Lien-chow peninsula and the gulf of
+  Tongking. Due south of Lien-chow peninsula, separated rom it by a
+  narrow strait, is Hai-nan, the only considerable island of China. From
+  the northern point of the gulf of Chih-li to 30° N., where is
+  Hang-chow bay, the shores are flat and alluvial save where the
+  Shan-tung peninsula juts out. Along this stretch there are few good
+  natural harbours, except at the mouths of rivers and in the Shan-tung
+  promontory; the sea is shallow and has many shoals. The waters
+  bordering the coast of Chih-li are partly frozen in winter; at 10 m.
+  from the shore the water is only 20 ft. deep. The proximity of Peking
+  gives its few ports importance; that of Taku is at the mouth of the
+  Peiho. In Shan-tung, deeply indented on its southern coast, are the
+  ports of Chi-fu, Wei-hai-wei and Tsing-tao (the last in Kiao-chow
+  bay). South of Shan-tung and north of the mouth of the Yangtsze huge
+  sandbanks border the coast, with narrow channels between them and the
+  shore. The estuary of the Yangtsze is 60 m. across; it contains
+  islands and sandbanks, but there is easy access to Wusung (Shanghai)
+  and other river ports. The bay of Hangchow, as broad at its entrance
+  as the Yangtsze estuary, forms the mouth of the Tsien-tang-kiang. The
+  Chusan and other groups of islands lie across the entrance of the bay.
+
+  South of Hang-chow bay the character of the coast alters. In place of
+  the alluvial plain, with flat, sandy and often marshy shores, the
+  coast is generally hilly, often rocky and abrupt; it abounds in small
+  indentations and possesses numerous excellent harbours; in this region
+  are Fu-chow, Amoy, Swatow, Hongkong, Macao, Canton and other
+  well-known ports. The whole of this coast is bordered by small
+  islands. Formosa lies opposite the S.E. coast, the channel between it
+  and Fu-kien province being about 100 m. wide. Formosa protects the
+  neighbouring regions of China from the typhoons experienced farther
+  north and farther south.
+
+
+    Deltaic Plain.
+
+  _Surface_.---As already indicated, one of the most noticeable features
+  in the surface of China is the immense deltaic plain in the
+  north-eastern portion of the country, which, curving round the
+  mountainous districts of Shan-tung, extends for about 700 m. in a
+  southerly direction from the neighbourhood of Peking and varies from
+  150 to 500 m. in breadth. This plain is the delta of the Yellow river
+  and, to some extent, that of the Yangtsze-kiang also. Beginning in the
+  prefecture of Yung-p'ing Fu, in the province of Chih-li, its outer
+  limit passes in a westerly direction as far as Ch'ang-p'ing Chow,
+  north-west of Peking. Thence running a south-south-westerly course it
+  passes westward of Chêng-ting Fu and Kwang-p'ing Fu till it reaches
+  the upper waters of the Wei river in Ho-nan. From this point it turns
+  westward and crosses the Hwang-ho or Yellow river in the prefecture of
+  Hwai-k'ing. Leaving this river it takes a course a little to the east
+  of south, and passing west of Ju-ning Fu, in the province of Ho-nan,
+  it turns in a more easterly direction as far as Luchow Fu. From this
+  prefecture an arm of the plain, in which lies the Chao Lake, stretches
+  southward from the Hwai river to the Yangtsze-kiang, and trending
+  eastward occupies the region between that river and Hangchow Bay. To
+  the north of this arm rises a hilly district, in the centre of which
+  stands Nanking. The greater part of this vast plain descends very
+  gently towards the sea, and is generally below the level of the Yellow
+  river, hence the disastrous inundations which so often accompany the
+  rise of that river. Owing to the great quantity of soil which is
+  brought down by the waters of the Yellow river, and to the absence of
+  oceanic currents, this delta is rapidly increasing and the adjoining
+  seas are as rapidly becoming shallower. As an instance, it is said
+  that the town of P'utai was one Chinese mile[2] west of the seashore
+  in the year 200 B.C., and in 1730 it was 140 m. inland, thus giving a
+  yearly encroachment upon the sea of about 100 ft. Again,
+  Sien-shwuy-kow on the Peiho was on the seashore in A.D. 500, and it is
+  now about 18 m. inland.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  Some of the ranges connected with the mountain system of central Asia
+  which enter the western provinces of China have been mentioned above,
+  others may be indicated here. In the eastern portion of Tibet the
+  Kuen-lun range throws off a number of branches, which spread first of
+  all in a south-easterly direction and eventually take a north and
+  south course, partly in the provinces of Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan, where
+  they divide the beds of the rivers which flow into Siam and French
+  Indo-China, as well as the principal northern tributaries of the
+  Yangtsze-kiang. In the north-west, traversing the western portion of
+  the province of Kan-suh, are parallel ranges running N.W. and S.E. and
+  forming a prolongation of the northern Tibetan mountains. They are
+  known as the Lung-shan, Richthofen and Nan-shan, and join on the
+  south-east the Kuen-lun range. The Richthofen range (locally called
+  Tien-shan, or Celestial Mountains) attains elevations of over 20,000
+  ft. Several of its peaks are snowclad, and there are many glaciers.
+  Forming the northern frontier of the province of Sze-ch'uen run the
+  Min-shan and the Kiu-lung (or Po-mêng) ranges, which, entering China
+  in 102° E., extend in a general easterly course as far as 112° E. in
+  the province of Hu-peh. These ranges have an average elevation of 8000
+  and 11,000 ft. respectively. In the south a number of parallel ranges
+  spread from the Yun-nan plateau in an easterly direction as far as the
+  province of Kwang-tung. Then turning north-eastward they run in lines
+  often parallel with the coast, and cover large areas of the provinces
+  of Fu-kien, Kiang-si, Cheh-kiang, Hu-nan and southern Ngan-hui, until
+  they reach the Yangtsze-kiang; the valley of that river from the
+  Tung-ting Lake to Chin-kiang Fu forming their northern boundary. In
+  Fu-kien these hills attain the character of a true mountain range with
+  heights of from 6500 to nearly 10,000 ft. Besides the chief ranges
+  there are the Tai-hang Mountains in Shan-si, and many others, among
+  which may be mentioned the ranges--part of the escarpment of the
+  Mongolian plateau--which form the northern frontier of Chih-li. Here
+  the highest peak is Ta-kuang-ting-tzu (6500 ft.), about 300 m. N.N.E.
+  of Peking and immediately north of Wei Ch'ang (the imperial hunting
+  grounds).
+
+
+    The Yellow River.
+
+  _Rivers and Canals._--The rivers of China are very numerous and there
+  are many canals. In the north the rivers are only navigable by small
+  craft; elsewhere they form some of the most frequented highways in the
+  country. The two largest rivers, the Yangtsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho
+  (Yellow river), are separately noticed. The Hwang-ho (length about
+  2400 m.) has only one important tributary in China, the Wei-ho, which
+  rises in Kan-suh and flows through the centre of Shen-si. Below the
+  confluence the Hwang-ho enters the plains. According to the Chinese
+  records this portion of the river has changed its course nine times
+  during 2500 years, and has emptied itself into the sea at different
+  mouths, the most northerly of which is represented as having been in
+  about 39° N., or in the neighbourhood of the present mouth of the
+  Peiho, and the most southerly being that which existed before the
+  change in 1851-1853, in 34° N. Owing to its small value as a navigable
+  highway and to its propensity to inundate the regions in its
+  neighbourhood, there are no considerable towns on its lower course.
+
+
+    The Yangtsze-kiang.
+
+  The Yangtsze-kiang is the chief waterway of China. The river, flowing
+  through the centre of the country, after a course of 2900 m., empties
+  itself into the Yellow Sea in about 31° N. Unlike the Yellow river,
+  the Yangtsze-kiang is dotted along its navigable portions with many
+  rich and populous cities, among which are Nanking, An-ch'ing
+  (Ngank'ing), Kiu-kiang, Hankow and I-ch'ang. From its mouth to
+  I-ch'ang, about 1000 m., the river is navigable by large steamers.
+  Above this last-named city the navigation becomes impossible for any
+  but light native craft or foreign vessels specially constructed for
+  the navigation, by reason of the rapids which occur at frequent
+  intervals in the deep mountain gorges through which the river runs
+  between Kwei-chow and I-ch'ang. Above Kwei-chow it receives from the
+  north many tributaries, notably the Min, which water the low
+  table-land of central Sze-ch'uen. The main river itself has in this
+  province a considerable navigable stretch, while below I-ch'ang it
+  receives the waters of numerous navigable affluents. The Yangtsze
+  system is thus all important in the economic and commercial
+  development of China.
+
+  Perhaps the most remarkable of the affluents of the Yangtsze is the
+  Han-kiang or Han river. It rises in the Po-mêng mountains to the north
+  of the city of Ning-kiang Chow in Shen-si. Taking a generally easterly
+  course from its source as far as Fan-cheng, it from that point takes a
+  more southerly direction and empties itself into the Yangtsze-kiang at
+  Han-kow, "the mouth of the Han." Here it is only 200 ft. wide, while
+  higher up it widens to 2600 ft. It is navigable by steamers for 300 m.
+  The summer high-water line is for a great part of its course, from
+  I-ch'eng Hien to Han-kow, above the level of its banks. Near
+  Sien-t'ao-chên the elevation of the plain above low water is no more
+  than 1 ft., and in summer the river rises about 26 ft. above its
+  lowest level. To protect themselves against inundations the natives
+  have here, as elsewhere, thrown up high embankments on both sides of
+  the river, but at a distance from the natural banks of about 50 to 100
+  ft. This intervening space is flooded every year, and by the action of
+  the water new layers of sand and soil are deposited every summer, thus
+  strengthening the embankments from season to season.
+
+  The Hwai-ho is a large river of east central China flowing between the
+  Hwang-ho and the Yangtsze-kiang. The Hwai-ho and its numerous
+  affluents (it is said to have 72 tributaries) rise in Ho-nan. The main
+  river flows through the centre of Ngan-hui, in which province it
+  receives from the N.W. the Sha-ho, Fei-ho and other important
+  affluents. Formerly it received through the Sha-ho part of the waters
+  of the Hwang-ho. The Hwai-ho flows into the Hungtso lake, through
+  which it feeds the Grand Canal, not far from the old course of the
+  Hwang-ho, and probably at one time joined that river not far from its
+  mouth. It has a length of about 800 m. and is navigable from the point
+  where it leaves the hill country of Ho-nan to Lake Hungtso. It is
+  subject to violent floods, which inundate the surrounding country for
+  a distance of 10 to 20 m. Many of its tributaries are also navigable
+  for considerable distances.
+
+
+    Grand Canal.
+
+  Next in importance to the Yangtsze-kiang as a water highway is the
+  Yun-ho, or, as it is generally known in Europe, the Grand Canal. This
+  magnificent artificial river reaches from Hang-chow Fu in the province
+  of Cheh-kiang to Tientsin in Chih-li, where it unites with the Peiho,
+  and thus may be said to extend to Tung-chow in the neighbourhood of
+  Peking. According to the itineraries published by Père Gandar, the
+  total length of the canal is 3630 _li_, or about 1200 m. A rough
+  measurement, taking account only of the main bends of the canal, makes
+  its length 850 m. After leaving Hang-chow the canal passes round the
+  eastern border of the Tai-hu or Great Lake, surrounding in its course
+  the beautiful city of Su-chow, and then trends in a generally
+  north-westerly direction through the fertile districts of Kiang-su as
+  far as Chin-kiang on the Yangtsze-kiang. In this, the southern
+  section, the slope is gentle and water is plentiful (from 7 ft. at low
+  water to 11 ft., and occasionally 13 ft. at high water). Between
+  Su-chow and Chin-kiang the canal is often over 100 ft. wide, and its
+  sides are in many places faced with stone. It is spanned by fine stone
+  bridges, and near its banks are many memorial arches and lofty
+  pagodas. In the central portion of the canal, that is between
+  Chin-kiang and Tsing-kiang-pu, at which latter place it crosses the
+  dry channel which marks the course of the Yellow river before 1852,
+  the current is strong and difficult to ascend in the upward (northern)
+  journey. This part of the canal skirts several lakes and is fed by the
+  Hwai-ho as it issues from the Hungtso lake. The country lying west of
+  the canal is higher than its bed; while the country east is lower than
+  the canal. The two regions are known respectively as Shang-ho (above
+  the river) and Ssia-ho (below the river). Waste weirs opening on the
+  Ssia-ho (one of the great rice-producing areas of China) discharge the
+  surplus water in flood seasons. The northern and considerably the
+  longest section of the canal extends from the old bed of the Yellow
+  river to Tientsin. It largely utilizes existing rivers and follows
+  their original windings. Between Tsing-kiang-pu and the present course
+  of the Yellow river the canal trends N.N.W., skirting the highlands of
+  Shan-tung. In this region it passes through a series of lagoons, which
+  in summer form one lake--Chow-yang. North of that lake on the east
+  bank of the canal, is the city of Tsi-ning-chow. About 25 m. N. of
+  that city the highest level of the canal is reached at the town of Nan
+  Wang. Here the river Wen enters the canal from the east, and about 30
+  m. farther N. the Yellow river is reached. On the west side of the
+  canal, at the point where the Yellow river now cuts across it, there
+  is laid down in Chinese maps of the 18th century a dry channel which
+  is described as being that once followed by the Yellow river, i.e.
+  before it took the channel it abandoned in 1851-1853. The passage of
+  the Yellow river to the part of the canal lying north of that stream
+  is difficult, and can only be effected at certain levels of the
+  river. Frequently the waters of the river are either too low or the
+  current is too strong to permit a passage. Leaving this point the
+  canal passes through a well-wooded and hilly country west of
+  Tung-p'ing Chow and east of Tung-ch'ang Fu. At Lin-ching Chow it is
+  joined at right angles by the Wei river in the midst of the city. Up
+  to this point, i.e. from Tsing-kiang-pu to Lin-ching Chow, a distance
+  of over 300 m., navigation is difficult and the water-supply often
+  insufficient. The differences of level, 20 to 30 ft., are provided for
+  by barrages over which the boats--having discharged their cargo--are
+  hauled by windlasses. Below the junction with the Wei the canal
+  borrows the channel of the river and again becomes easily navigable.
+  Crossing the frontier into Chih-li, between Te Chow and Tsang Chow,
+  which it passes to the west, it joins the Peiho at Tientsin, after
+  having received the waters of the Keto river in the neighbourhood of
+  Tsing Hien.[3]
+
+  The most ancient part of the canal is the section between the Yangtsze
+  and the Hwai-ho. This part is thought, on the strength of a passage in
+  one of the books of Confucius, to have been built c. 486 B.C. It was
+  repaired and enlarged in the 3rd century A.D. The southern part,
+  between the Yangtsze and Hang-chow, was built early in the 7th century
+  A.D. The northern part is stated to have been constructed in the three
+  years 1280-1283. The northern portion of the canal is now of little
+  use as a means of communication between north and south.[4] It is
+  badly built, neglected and charged with the mud-laden waters of the
+  Yellow river. The "tribute fleet" bearing rice to Peking still uses
+  this route; but the rice is now largely forwarded by sea. The central
+  and southern portions of the canal are very largely used.
+
+  The Peiho (length about 350 m.) is of importance as being the high
+  waterway to Peking. Taking its rise in the Si-shan, or Western
+  Mountains, beyond Peking, it passes the city of T'sung-chow, the port
+  of Peking, and Tientsin, where it meets the waters of the Hun-ho and
+  empties itself into the gulf of Chih-li at the village of Taku. The
+  Peiho is navigable for small steamers as far as Tientsin during the
+  greater part of the year, but from the end of November to the
+  beginning of March it is frozen up.
+
+
+    The Si-kiang.
+
+  In the southern provinces the Si-kiang, or Western river, is the most
+  considerable. It has a length of over 1000 m. This river takes its
+  rise in the prefecture of Kwang-nan Fu in Yun-nan, whence it reaches
+  the frontier of Kwang-si at a distance of about 90 li from its source.
+  Then trending in a north-easterly direction it forms the boundary
+  between the two provinces for about 150 li. From this point it takes a
+  generally south-easterly course, passing the cities of Tsien Chow,
+  Fung-e Chow, Shang-lin Hien, Lung-ngan Hien, Yung-kang Chow and
+  Nan-ning Fu to Yung-shan Hien. Here it makes a bend to the north-east,
+  and continues this general direction as far as Sin-chow Fu, a distance
+  of 800 li, where it meets and joins the waters of the Kien-kiang from
+  the north. Its course is then easterly, and after passing Wu-chow Fu
+  it crosses the frontier into Kwang-tung. In this part of its course it
+  flows through a gorge 3 m. long and in places but 270 yds. in width.
+  Both above and below this gorge it is 1 m. wide. Some 30 m. above
+  Canton it divides into two main and several small branches. The
+  northern branch, called Chu-kiang, or Pearl river, flows past Fat-shan
+  and Canton and reaches the sea through the estuary called the Bocca
+  Tigris or Bogue, at the mouth of which is the island of Hong-Kong. The
+  southern branch, which retains the name of Si-kiang, reaches the sea
+  west of Macao. Near the head of its delta the Si-kiang receives the
+  Pei-kiang, a considerable river which flows through Kwang-tung in a
+  general N. to S. direction. Like the Yangtsze-kiang the Si-kiang is
+  known by various names in different parts of its course. From its
+  source to Nan-ning Fu in Kwang-si it is called the Si-yang-kiang, or
+  river of the Western Ocean; from Nan-ning Fu to Sin-chow Fu it is
+  known as the Yu-kiang, or the Bending river; and over the remainder of
+  its course it is recognized by the name of the Si-kiang, or Western
+  river. The Si-kiang is navigable as far as Shao-king, 130 m., for
+  vessels not drawing more than 15 ft. of water, and vessels of a light
+  draught may easily reach Wu-chow Fu, in Kwang-si, which is situated 75
+  m. farther up. In winter the navigation is difficult above Wu-chow Fu.
+  Above that place there is a rapid at low water, but navigation is
+  possible to beyond Nan-ning Fu.
+
+  [Illustration: CHINA]
+
+  _Lakes._--There are numerous lakes in the central provinces of China.
+  The largest of these is the Tung-t'ing in Hu-nan, which, according to
+  the Chinese geographers, is upwards of 800 li, or 266 m., in
+  circumference. In native gazetteers its various portions are known
+  under distinct names; thus it is said to include the Ts'ing-ts'ao, or
+  Green Grass Lake; the Ung, or Venerable Lake; the Chih-sha, or Red
+  Sand Lake; the Hwang-yih, or Imperial Post-house Lake; the Ngan-nan,
+  or Peaceful Southern Lake; and the Ta-tung, or Great Deep Lake. In
+  ancient times it went by the name of the Kiu-kiang Hu, or Lake of the
+  Nine Rivers, from the fact that nine rivers flowed into it. Its chief
+  affluents are the Siang-kiang, which rises in the highlands in the
+  north of Kwang-si and flows in a general N.N.E. direction, and the
+  Yuen-kiang, which flows N. and then E. from the eastern border of
+  Kwei-chow. The lake is connected with the Yangtsze-kiang by two
+  canals, the Taping and the Yochow Fu. In summer it is fed by the
+  overflow from the Yangtsze-kiang; in winter it pours its waters into
+  that river through the Yochow Fu canal. During the winter and spring
+  the water of the lake is so low that the shallow portions become
+  islands, separated by rivers such as the Siang and Yuen, and
+  numberless streams; but in summer, owing to the rise in the waters of
+  the Yangtsze-kiang, the whole basin of the lake is filled. It is then
+  about 75 m. long and 60 m. broad. About 180 m. E. of the Tung-t'ing
+  lake is the Poyang lake, which occupies the low-lying part of the
+  province of Kiang-si, and is connected with the Yangtsze by the Hu-kow
+  canal. The Poyang lake is also subject to a wide difference between
+  high and low water, but not quite to the same extent as the Tung-t'ing
+  lake, and its landmarks are more distinctly defined. It is about 90 m.
+  long by 20 broad. The T'ai lake, in the neighbourhood of Su-chow Fu,
+  is also celebrated for its size and the beauty of its surroundings. It
+  is about 150 m. in circumference, and is dotted over with islands, on
+  which are built temples for the devotees of religion, and
+  summer-houses for the votaries of pleasure from the rich and
+  voluptuous cities of Hang-chow and Su-chow. The boundary line between
+  the provinces of Cheh-kiang and Kiang-su crosses its blue waters, and
+  its shores are divided among thirteen prefectures. Besides these lakes
+  there are, among others, two in Yun-nan, the Kun-yang-hai (Tien-chi)
+  near Yun-nan Fu, which is 40 m. long and is connected with the
+  Yangtsze-kiang by the Pu-to river, and the Erh-hai (Urh-hai) to the
+  east of the city of Tali.
+
+  _The Great Wall._--Along the northern provinces of Chih-li, Shan-si,
+  Shen-si and Kan-suh, over 22° of longitude (98° to 120° E.), stretches
+  the Great Wall of China, built to defend the country against foreign
+  aggression. It was begun in the 3rd century B.C., was repaired in the
+  15th century, and in the 16th century was extended by 300 m. Following
+  the windings the wall is 1500 m. long. Starting near the seashore[5]
+  at Shan-hai-kwan on the gulf of Liao-tung, where the Chinese and
+  Manchurian frontiers meet, it goes eastward past Peking (which is
+  about 35 m. to the south) and then trends S. and E. across Shan-si to
+  the Hwang-ho. From the neighbourhood of Peking to the Hwang-ho there
+  is an inner and an outer wall. The outer (northern) wall passes
+  through Kalgan, thus guarding the pass into Mongolia. A branch wall
+  separates the greater part of the western frontier of Chih-li from
+  Shan-si. West of the Hwang-ho the Great Wall forms the northern
+  frontier of Shen-si, and west of Shen-si it keeps near the northern
+  frontier of Kan-suh, following for some distance in that province the
+  north bank of the Hwang-ho. It ends at Kiayu-kwan (98° 14'E.) just
+  west of Su-chow. This part of the wall was built to protect the one
+  main artery leading from central Asia to China through Kan-suh and
+  Shen-si by the valley of the Wei-ho, tributary of the Hwang-ho. There
+  is a branch wall in Kan-suh running west and south to protect the
+  Tibetan frontier. The height of the wall is generally from 20 to 30
+  ft., and at intervals of some 200 yds. are towers about 40 ft. high.
+  Its base is from 15 to 25 ft. thick and its summit 12 ft. wide. The
+  wall is carried over valleys and mountains, and in places is over 4000
+  ft. above sea-level. Military posts are still maintained at the chief
+  gates or passes--at Shan-hai-kwan, the Kalgan pass, the Yenmun pass
+  (at the N. of Shan-si) and the Kaiyu pass in the extreme west, through
+  which runs the caravan route to Barkal in Turkestan. Colonel A.W.S.
+  Wingate, who in the opening years of the 20th century visited the
+  Great Wall at over twenty places widely apart and gathered many
+  descriptions of it in other places, states that its position is
+  wrongly shown "on the maps of the day" (1907) in a number of places;
+  while in others it had ceased to exist, "the only places where it
+  forms a substantial boundary being in the valley bottoms, on the
+  passes and where it crosses main routes. These remarks apply with
+  particular force to the branch running south-west from the Nan-k'ow
+  pass and forming the boundary of Chih-li and Shan-si provinces." In
+  Colonel Wingate's opinion the wall was originally built by degrees and
+  in sections, not of hewn stone, but of round boulders and earth, the
+  different sections being repaired as they fell into ruin. "Only in the
+  valley bottoms and on the passes was it composed of masonry or
+  brickwork. The Mings rebuilt of solid masonry all those sections
+  through which led a likely road for invading Tatars to follow, or
+  where it could be seen at a distance from the sky-line." The building
+  of the wall "was a sufficiently simple affair," not to be compared
+  with the task of building the pyramids of Egypt.[6]
+
+  _Climate._--The climate over so vast an area as China necessarily
+  varies greatly. The southern parts of Yun-nan, Kwang-si and Kwang-tung
+  (including the city of Canton) lie within the tropics. The northern
+  zone (in which lies Peking) by contrast has a climate which resembles
+  that of northern Europe, with winters of Arctic severity. The central
+  zone (in which Shanghai is situated) has a generally temperate
+  climate. But over both northern and central China the influence of the
+  great plateau of Mongolia tends to establish uniform conditions
+  unusual in so large an area. The prevailing winds during summer--the
+  rainy season--are south-easterly, caused by heat and the ascending
+  current of air over the sandy deserts of central Asia, thus drawing in
+  a current from the Pacific Ocean. In the winter the converse takes
+  place, and the prevailing winds, descending from the Mongolian
+  plateau, are north and north-west, and are cold and dry. From October
+  to May the climate of central China is bracing and enjoyable. The
+  rainfall is moderate and regular.
+
+  In northern China the inequalities both of temperature and rainfall
+  are greater than in the central provinces. In the province of Chih-li,
+  for example, the heat of summer is as intense as is the cold of
+  winter. In summer the rains often render the plain swampy, while the
+  dry persistent westerly winds of spring create dust storms
+  (experienced in Peking from March to June). The rainfall is, however,
+  uncertain, and thus the harvests are precarious. The provinces of
+  Shan-tung and Shan-si are peculiarly liable to prolonged periods of
+  drought, with consequent severe famines such as that of 1877-1878,
+  when many millions died. In these regions the air is generally
+  extremely dry, and the daily variations of temperature consequent on
+  excessive radiation are much greater than farther south.
+
+  Accurate statistics both of heat and rainfall are available from a few
+  stations only. The rainfall on the southern coasts is said to be about
+  100 in. yearly; at Peking the rainfall is about 24 in. a year. In the
+  coast regions the temperatures of Peking, Shanghai and Canton may be
+  taken as typical of those of the northern, central and southern zones.
+  In Peking (39° N.) the mean annual temperature is about 53° F., the
+  mean for January 23°, for July 79°. In Shanghai (31° 11' N.)[7] the
+  mean annual temperature is 59°, the mean for January 36.2°, for July
+  80.4°. In Canton (23° 15' N.) the mean annual temperature is 70°, the
+  mean for January 54°, for July 82°. The range of temperature, even
+  within the tropics, is noteworthy. At Peking and Tientsin the
+  thermometer in winter falls sometimes to 5° below zero and rises in
+  summer to 105° (at Taku 107° has been recorded); in Shanghai in winter
+  the thermometer falls to 18° and in summer rises to 102°. In Canton
+  frost is said to have been recorded, but according to the _China Sea
+  Directory_ the extreme range is from 38° to 100°.[8] The climate of
+  Shanghai, which resembles, but is not so good as, that of the
+  Yangtsze-kiang valley generally, is fairly healthy, but there is an
+  almost constant excess of moisture. The summer months, July to
+  September, are very hot, while snow usually falls in December and
+  January.
+
+  At Canton and along the south coast the hot season corresponds with
+  the S.W. monsoon; the cool season--mid October to end of April--with
+  the N.E. monsoon. Farther north, at Shanghai, the S.W. monsoon is
+  sufficiently felt to make the prevailing wind in summer southerly.
+
+  _Provinces._--China proper is divided into the following provinces:
+  Cheh-kiang, Chih-li, Fu-kien, Ngan-hui (An-hui), Ho-nan, Hu-nan,
+  Hu-peh, Kan-suh, Kiang-si, Kiang-su, Kwang-si, Kwang-tung, Kwei-chow,
+  Shan-si, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan. See the separate
+  notices of each province and the article on Shêng-king, the southern
+  province of Manchuria.    (X.)
+
+
+  _Geology._
+
+  The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of
+  the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary
+  deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin.
+  From the close of the Palaeozoic period down to the present day the
+  greater part of the empire has been dry land, and it is only in the
+  southern portion of Tibet and in the western Tian Shan that any
+  evidence of a Mesozoic sea has yet been found. The geological sequence
+  may be summarized as follows:--
+
+  _Archean._--Gneiss, crystalline schists, phyllites, crystalline
+  limestones. Exposed in Liao-tung, Shan-tung, Shan-si, northern Chih-li
+  and in the axis of the mountain ranges, e.g. the Kuen-lun and the
+  ranges of southern China.
+
+  _Sinian._--Sandstones, quartzites, limestones. Sometimes rests
+  unconformably upon the folded rocks of the Archaen system; but
+  sometimes, according to Lóczy, there is no unconformity. Covers a
+  large area in the northern part of China proper; absent in the eastern
+  Kuen-lun; occurs again in the ranges of S.E. China. In Liao-tung
+  Cambrian fossils have been found near the summit of the series; they
+  belong to the oldest fauna known upon the earth, the fauna of the
+  _Olenellus_ zone. It is, however, not improbable that in many places
+  beds of considerably later date have been included in the Sinian
+  system.
+
+  _Ordovician._--Ordovician fossils have been found in the Lung-shan,
+  Kiang-su (about 50 m. east of Nan-king), in the south-west of
+  Cheh-kiang and in the south-east of Yun-nan. Ordovician beds probably
+  occur also in the Kuen-lun.
+
+  _Silurian._--Limestones and slates with Silurian corals and other
+  fossils have been found in Sze-ch'uen.
+
+  _Devonian._--Found in Kan-suh and in the Tsing-ling-shan, but becomes
+  much more important in southern China. Occurs also on the south of the
+  Tian-shan, in the Altyn-tagh, the Nan-shan and the western Kuen-lun.
+
+  _Carboniferous._--Covers a large area in northern China, in the
+  plateau of Shen-si and Shan-si, extending westwards in tongues between
+  the folds of the Kuen-lun. In this region it consists of a lower
+  series of limestones and an upper series of sandstones with seams of
+  coal, which may perhaps be in part of Permian age. This is probably
+  the most extensive coalfield in the world.
+
+  In south China the whole series consists chiefly of limestones, and
+  the coal seams are comparatively unimportant. Carboniferous beds are
+  also found in the Tian-shan, the Nan-shan, Kan-suh, on the southern
+  borders of the Gobi, &c.
+
+  _Mesozoic._--Marine Triassic beds containing fossils similar to those
+  of the German Muschelkalk have been found by Lóczy near Chung-tien, on
+  the eastern border of the Tibetan plateau. Elsewhere, however, the
+  Mesozoic is represented chiefly by a red sandstone, which covers the
+  greater part of Sze-ch'uen and fills also a number of troughs amongst
+  the older beds of southern China. No marine fossils are found in this
+  sandstone, but remains of plants are numerous, and these belong to the
+  Rhaetic, Lias and Lower Oolite. No Cretaceous beds are known in China
+  excepting in S. Tibet (on the shores of the Tengri-nor) and in the
+  western portion of the Tian-shan.
+
+  _Cainozoic and Recent._--No marine deposits of this age are known.
+  Although the loess of the great plain and the sand of the desert are
+  still in process of formation, the accumulation of these deposits
+  probably began in the Tertiary period.
+
+  _Volcanic Rocks._--Amongst the Archean rocks granitic and other
+  intrusions are abundant, but of more modern volcanic activity the
+  remains are comparatively scanty. In south China there is no evidence
+  of Tertiary or Post-Tertiary volcanoes, but groups of volcanic cones
+  occur in the great plain of north China. In the Liao-tung and
+  Shan-tung peninsulas there are basaltic plateaus, and similar
+  outpourings occur upon the borders of Mongolia. All these outbursts
+  appear to be of Tertiary or later data.
+
+  _Loess._--One of the most characteristic deposits of China is the
+  loess, which not merely imparts to north China the physical character
+  of the scenery, but also determines the agricultural products, the
+  transport, and general economic life of the people of that part of the
+  country. It is peculiar to north China and it is not found south of
+  the Yangtsze. The loess is a solid but friable earth of
+  brownish-yellow colour, and when triturated with water is not unlike
+  loam, but differs from the latter by its highly porous and tubular
+  structure. The loess soil is extremely favourable to agriculture. (See
+  LOESS and _infra, § Agriculture._)
+
+  The loess is called by the Chinese _Hwang-t'u_, or yellow earth, and
+  it has been suggested that the imperial title _Hwang-ti_, Yellow
+  Emperor or Ruler of the Yellow, had its origin in the fact that the
+  emperor is lord of the loess or yellow earth.
+
+
+    Structure.
+
+  Structurally, China proper may be divided into two regions, separated
+  from each other by the folded range of the Tsing-ling-shan, which is a
+  continuation of the folded belt of the Kuen-lun. North of this chain
+  the Palaeozoic beds are in general nearly horizontal, and the
+  limestones and sandstones of the Sinian and Carboniferous systems form
+  an extensive plateau which rises abruptly from the western margin of
+  the great plain of northern China. The plateau is deeply carved by the
+  rivers which flow through it; and the strata are often faulted, but
+  they are never sharply folded. South of the Tsing-ling-shan, on the
+  other hand, the Palaeozoic beds are thrown into a series of folds
+  running from W. 30° S. to E. 30° N., which form the hilly region of
+  southern China. Towards Tongking these folds probably bend southwards
+  and join the folds of Further India. Amongst these folded beds lie
+  trough-like depressions filled with the Mesozoic red sandstone which
+  lies unconformably upon the Palaeozoic rocks.
+
+  The present configuration of China is due, in a very considerable
+  degree, to faulting. The abrupt eastern edge of the Shan-si plateau,
+  where it overlooks the great plain, is a line of fault, or rather a
+  series of step faults, with the downthrow on the east; and von
+  Richthofen has shown reason to believe that this line of faulting is
+  continued far to the south and to the north. He believed also that the
+  present coast-line of China has to a large extent been determined by
+  similar faults with their downthrow on the east.
+
+  Concerning the structure of the central Asian plateau our knowledge is
+  still incomplete. The great mountain chains, the Kuen-lun, the
+  Nan-shan and the Tian-shan, are belts of folding; but the Mongolian
+  Altai is a horst--a strip of ancient rock lying between two faults and
+  with a depressed area upon each side. In the whole of this northern
+  region faulting, as distinct from folding, seems to have played an
+  important part. Along the southern margin of the Tian-shan there is a
+  remarkable trough-like depression which appears to lie between two
+  approximately parallel faults.    (P. LA.)
+
+
+  _Fauna_.
+
+  China lies within two zoological provinces or regions, its southern
+  portion forming a part of the Oriental or Indian region and having a
+  fauna close akin to that of the western Himalaya, Burma and Siam,
+  whereas the districts to the north of Fu-chow and south of the
+  Yangtsze-kiang lie within the eastern Holarctic (Palaearctic) region,
+  or rather the southern fringe of the latter, which has been separated
+  as the Mediterranean transitional region. Of these two divisions of
+  the Chinese fauna, the northern one is the more interesting, since it
+  forms the chief home of a number of peculiar generic types, and also
+  includes types represented elsewhere at the present day (exclusive in
+  one case of Japan) only in North America. The occurrence in China of
+  these types common to the eastern and western hemispheres is important
+  in regard to the former existence of a land-bridge between Eastern
+  Asia and North America by way of Bering Strait.
+
+  Of the types peculiar to China and North America the alligator of the
+  Yangtsze-kiang is generically identical with its Mississippi relative.
+  The spoon-beaked sturgeon of the Yangtsze and Hwang-ho is, however,
+  now separated, as _Psephurus_, from the closely allied American
+  _Polyodon_. Among insectivorous mammals the Chinese and Japanese
+  shrew-moles, respectively forming the genera _Uropsilus_ and
+  _Urotrichus_, are represented in America by _Neurotrichus_. The giant
+  salamander of the rivers of China and Japan and the Chinese mandarin
+  duck are by some included in the same genera as their American
+  representatives, while by others they are referred to genera apart.
+  Whichever view we take does not alter their close relationship. One
+  wapiti occurs on the Tibetan frontier, and others in Manchuria and
+  Amurland.
+
+  As regards mammals and birds, the largest number of generic and
+  specific types peculiar to China are met with in Sze-ch'uen. Foremost
+  among these is the great panda (_Aeluropus melanoleucus_),
+  representing a genus by itself, probably related to bears and to the
+  true panda (_Aelurus_), the latter of which has a local race in
+  Sze-ch'uen. Next come the snub-nosed monkeys (_Rhinopithecus_), of
+  which the typical species is a native of Sze-ch'uen, while a second is
+  found on the upper Mekong, and a third in the mountains of central
+  China. In the Insectivora the swimming-shrew (_Nectogale_) forms
+  another generic type peculiar to Sze-ch'uen, which is also the sole
+  habitat of the mole-like _Scaptochirus_, of _Uropsilus_, near akin to
+  the Japanese _Urotrichus_, of _Scaptonyx_, which connects the latter
+  with the moles (_Talpa_), and of _Neotetracus_, a relative of the
+  Malay rat-shrews (_Gymnura_). Here also may be mentioned the
+  raccoon-dog, forming the subgenus _Nyctereutes_, common to China and
+  Japan. The Himalayan black and the Malay bear have each a local race
+  in Sze-ch'uen, where the long-haired Fontanier's cat (_Felis tristis_)
+  and the Tibet cat (_F. scripta_) connect Indo-Malay species with the
+  American ocelots, while the bay cat (_F. temmincki_), a Malay type, is
+  represented by local forms in Sze-ch'uen and Fu-chow. The Amurland
+  leopard and Manchurian tiger likewise constitute local races of their
+  respective species.
+
+  Among ruminants, the Sze-ch'uen takin represents a genus (_Budorcas_)
+  found elsewhere in the Mishmi Hills and Bhutan, while serows
+  (_Nemorhaedus_) and gorals (_Urotragus_), allied to Himalayan and
+  Burmo-Malay types, abound. The Himalayan fauna is also represented by
+  a race of the Kashmir hangul deer. Of other deer, the original habitat
+  of Père David's milu (_Elaphurus_), formerly kept in the Peking park,
+  is unknown. The sika group, which is peculiar to China, Japan and
+  Formosa, is represented by _Cervus hortulorum_ in Manchuria and the
+  smaller _C. manchuricus_ and _sika_ in that province and the Yangtsze
+  valley; while musk-deer (_Moschus_) abound in Kan-suh and Sze-ch'uen.
+  The small water-deer (_Hydropotes_ or _Hydrelaphus_) of the Yangtsze
+  valley represents a genus peculiar to the country, as do the three
+  species of tufted deer (_Elaphodus_), whose united range extends from
+  Sze-ch'uen to Ning-po and I-ch'ang. Muntjacs (_Cervulus_) are likewise
+  very characteristic of the country, to which the white-tailed,
+  plum-coloured species, like the Tenasserim _C. crinifrons_, are
+  peculiar. The occurrence of races of the wapiti in Manchuria and
+  Amurland has been already mentioned.
+
+  To refer in detail to the numerous forms of rodents inhabiting China
+  is impossible here, and it must suffice to mention that the
+  flying-squirrels (_Pteromys_) are represented by a large and handsome
+  species in Sze-ch'uen, where is also found the largest kind of
+  bamboo-rat (_Rhizomys_), the other species of which are natives of the
+  western Himalaya and the Malay countries. Dwarf hamsters of the genus
+  _Cricetulus_ are natives of the northern provinces. In the extreme
+  south, in Hai-nan, is found a gibbon ape (_Hylobates_), while langur
+  (_Semnopithecus_) and macaque monkeys (_Macacus_) likewise occur in
+  the south, one of the latter also inhabiting Sze-ch'uen.
+
+  To give an adequate account of Chinese ornithology would require space
+  many times the length of this article. The gorgeous mandarin duck
+  (_Aix galerita_) has already been mentioned among generic types common
+  to America. In marked distinction to this is the number of species of
+  pheasants inhabiting north-western China, whence the group ranges into
+  the eastern Himalaya. Among Chinese species are two of the three
+  species of blood-pheasants (_Ithagenes_), two tragopans (_Ceriornis_
+  or _Tragopan_), a monal (_Lophophorus_), three out of the five species
+  of _Crossoptilum_, the other two being Tibetan, two kinds of
+  _Pucrasia_, the gorgeous golden and Amherst's pheasants alone
+  representing the genus _Chrysolophus_, together with several species
+  of the typical genus _Phasianus_, among which it will suffice to
+  mention the long-tailed _P. reevesi_. The Himalayan bamboo-partridges
+  (_Bambusicola_) have also a Chinese representative. The only other
+  large bird that can be mentioned is the Manchurian crane, misnamed
+  _Grus japonensis_. Pigeons include the peculiar subgenus
+  _Dendroteron_; while among smaller birds, warblers, tits and finches,
+  all of an Eastern Holarctic type, constitute the common element in the
+  avifauna. Little would be gained by naming the genera, peculiar or
+  otherwise.
+
+  China has a few peculiar types of freshwater tortoises, among which
+  _Ocadia sinensis_ represents a genus unknown elsewhere, while there is
+  also a species of the otherwise Indian genus _Damonia_. The Chinese
+  alligator, _Alligator sinensis_, has been already mentioned. Among
+  lizards, the genera _Plestiodon_, _Mabuia_, _Tachydromus_ and _Gecko_,
+  of which the two latter are very characteristic of the Oriental
+  region, range through China to Japan; and among snakes, the Malay
+  python (_Python reticulatus_) is likewise Chinese. The giant
+  salamander (_Cryptobranchus_, or _Megalobatrachus, maximus_)
+  represents, as mentioned above, a type found elsewhere only in North
+  America, while _Hynobius_ and _Onychodactylus_ are peculiar generic
+  types of salamanders. Among fishes, it must suffice to refer to the
+  spoon-beaked sturgeon (_Psephurus_) of the Yangtsze-kiang, and the
+  numerous members of the carp family to be found in the rivers of
+  China. From these native carp the Chinese have produced two highly
+  coloured breeds, the goldfish and the telescope-eyed carp.
+
+  Among the invertebrates special mention may be made of the great
+  ailanthus silk-moth (_Attacus cynthia_) of northern China and Japan,
+  and also of its Manchurian relative _A. pernyi_; while it may be added
+  that the domesticated "silkworm" (_Bombyx mori_) is generally believed
+  to be of Chinese origin, although this is not certain. Very
+  characteristic of China is the abundance of handsomely coloured
+  swallow-tailed butterflies of the family _Papilionidae_. The Chinese
+  kermes (_Coccus sinensis_) is also worth mention, on account of it
+  yielding wax. As regards land and freshwater snails, China exhibits a
+  marked similarity to Siam and India; the two groups in which the
+  Chinese province displays decided peculiarities of its own being
+  _Helix_ (in the wider sense) and _Clausilia_. There are, for instance,
+  nearly half a score of subgenera of _Helix_ whose headquarters are
+  Chinese, while among these, forms with sinistral shells are relatively
+  common. The genus _Clausilia_ is remarkable on account of attaining a
+  second centre of development in China, where its finest species,
+  referable to several subgenera, occur. Carnivorous molluscs include a
+  peculiar slug (_Rathouisia_) and the shelled genera _Ennea_ and
+  _Streptaxis_. In the western provinces species of _Buliminus_ are
+  abundant, and in the operculate group _Heudeia_ forms a peculiar type
+  akin to _Helicina_, but with internal foldings to the shell.
+
+  Lastly, it has to be mentioned that the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang
+  are inhabited by a small jelly-fish, or medusa (_Limnocodium kawaii_),
+  near akin to _L. sowerbii_, which was discovered in the hot-house
+  tanks in the Botanical Gardens in the Regent's Park, London, but whose
+  real home is probably the Amazon.    (R. L.*)
+
+
+  _Flora_.
+
+  The vegetation of China is extremely rich, no fewer than 9000 species
+  of flowering plants having been already enumerated, of which nearly a
+  half are endemic or not known to occur elsewhere. Whole provinces are
+  as yet only partially explored; and the total flora is estimated to
+  comprise ultimately 12,000 species. China is the continuation eastward
+  of the great Himalayan mass, numerous chains of mountains running
+  irregularly to the sea-board. Thousands of deep narrow valleys form
+  isolated areas, where peculiar species have been evolved. Though the
+  greater part of the country has long ago been cleared of its primeval
+  forest and submitted to agriculture, there still remain some extensive
+  forests and countless small woods in which the original flora is well
+  preserved. Towards the north the vegetation is palaearctic, and
+  differs little in its composition from that of Germany, Russia and
+  Siberia. The flora of the western and central provinces is closely
+  allied to that of the Himalayas and of Japan; while towards the south
+  this element mingles with species derived from Indo-China, Burma and
+  the plain of Hindostan. Above a certain elevation, decreasing with the
+  latitude, but approximately 6000 ft. in the Yangtsze basin, there
+  exist in districts remote from the traffic of the great rivers,
+  extensive forests of conifers, like those of Central Europe in
+  character, but with different species of silver fir, larch, spruce and
+  Cembran pine. Below this altitude the woods are composed of deciduous
+  and evergreen broad-leafed trees and shrubs, mingled together in a
+  profusion of species. Pure broad-leafed forests of one or two species
+  are rare, though small woods of oak, of alder and of birch are
+  occasionally seen. There is nothing comparable to the extensive beech
+  forests of Europe, the two species of Chinese beech being sporadic and
+  rare trees. The heaths, _Calluna_ and _Erica_, which cover great
+  tracts of barren sandy land in Europe, are absent from China, where
+  the Ericaceous vegetation is made up of numerous species of
+  _Rhododendron_, which often cover vast areas on the mountain slopes.
+  Pine forests occur at low levels, but are always small in extent.
+
+  The appearance of the vegetation is very different from that of the
+  United States, which is comparable to China in situation and in
+  extent. Though there are 60 species of oak in China, many with
+  magnificent foliage and remarkable cupules, the red oaks, so
+  characteristic of North America, with their bristle-pointed leaves,
+  turning beautiful colours in autumn, are quite unknown. The great
+  coniferous forest west of the Rocky Mountains has no analogue in
+  China, the gigantic and preponderant Douglas fir being absent, while
+  the giant _Sequoias_ are represented only on a small scale by
+  _Cryptomeria_, which attains half their height.
+
+  Certain remnants of the Miocene flora which have disappeared from
+  Europe are still conspicuous and similar in North America and China.
+  In both regions there are several species of _Magnolia_; one species
+  each of _Liriodendron, Liquidambar_ and _Sassafras_; and curious
+  genera like _Nyssa, Hamamelis, Decumaria_ and _Gymnocladus_. The
+  swamps of the south-eastern states, in which still survive the once
+  widely spread _Taxodium_ or deciduous cypress, are imitated on a small
+  scale by the marshy banks of rivers near Canton, which are clad with
+  _Glyptostrobus_, the "water-pine" of the Chinese. _Pseudolarix,
+  Cunninghamia_ and _Keteleeria_ are coniferous genera peculiar to
+  China, which have become extinct elsewhere. The most remarkable tree
+  in China, the only surviving link between ferns and conifers, _Ginkgo
+  biloba_, has only been seen in temple gardens, but may occur wild in
+  some of the unexplored provinces. Its leaves have been found in the
+  tertiary beds of the Isle of Mull.
+
+  Most of the European genera occur in China, though there are curious
+  exceptions like the plane tree, and the whole family of the
+  _Cistaceae_, which characterize the peculiar _maquis_ of the
+  Mediterranean region. The rhododendrons, of which only four species
+  are European, have their headquarters in China, numbering 130 species,
+  varying in size from miniature shrubs 6 in. high to tall trees.
+  _Lysimachia, Primula, Clematis, Rubus_ and _Gentiana_ have each a
+  hundred species, extraordinary variable in habit, in size and in
+  colour of the flowers. The ferns are equally polymorphic, numbering
+  400 species, and including strange genera like _Archangiopteris_ and
+  _Cheiropteris_, unknown elsewhere. About 40 species of bamboos have
+  been distinguished; the one with a square stem from Fu-kien is the
+  most curious.
+
+  With a great wealth of beautiful flowering shrubs and herbaceous
+  plants, the Chinese at an early period became skilled horticulturists.
+  The emperor Wu Ti established in 111 B.C. a botanic garden at
+  Ch'ang-an, into which rare plants were introduced from the west and
+  south. Many garden varieties originated in China. The chrysanthemum,
+  perhaps the most variable of cultivated flowers, is derived from two
+  wild species (small and inconspicuous plants), and is mentioned in the
+  ancient Chinese classics. We owe to the skill of the Chinese many
+  kinds of roses, lilies, camellias and peonies; and have introduced
+  from China some of the most ornamental plants in our gardens, as
+  _Wistaria, Diervilla, Kerria, Incarvillea, Deutzia, Primula sinensis,
+  Hemerocallis_, &c. The peach and several oranges are natives of China.
+  The varnish tree (_Rhus vernicifera_), from which lacquer is obtained;
+  the tallow tree (_Sapium sebiferum_); the white mulberry, on which
+  silkworms are fed; and the tea plant were all first utilized by the
+  Chinese. The Chinese have also numerous medicinal plants, of which
+  ginseng and rhubarb are best known. Nearly all our vegetables and
+  cereals have their counterpart in China, where there are numerous
+  varieties not yet introduced into Europe, though some, like the Soy
+  bean, are now attracting great attention.    (A. HE.*)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L. Richard (S.J.), _Géographie de l'empire de Chine_
+  (Shanghai, 1905)--the first systematic account of China as a whole in
+  modern times. The work, enlarged, revised and translated into English
+  by M. Kennelly (S.J.), was reissued in 1908 as Richard's
+  _Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies_. This
+  is the standard authority for the country and gives for each section
+  bibliographical notes. It has been used in the revision of the present
+  article. Valuable information on northern, central and western China
+  is furnished by Col. C.C. Manifold and Col. A.W.S. Wingate in the
+  _Geog. Journ._ vol. xxiii. (1904) and vol. xxix. (1907). Consult also
+  Marshall Broomhall (ed.), _The Chinese Empire: a General and
+  Missionary Survey_ (London, 1907); B. Willis, E. Blackwelder and
+  others, _Research in China_, vol. i. part i. "Descriptive Topography
+  and Geology," part ii. "Petrography and Zoology," and Atlas
+  (Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1906-1907); Forbes and Hemsley,
+  "Enumeration of Chinese Plants," in _Journ. Linnean Soc. (Bot.)_,
+  vols. xxiii. and xxxvi.; Bretschneider, _History of European Botanical
+  Discoveries in China_; E. Tiessen, _China das Reich der achtzehn
+  Provinzen_, Teil i. "Die allgemeine Geographie des Landes" (Berlin,
+  1902); and _The China Sea Directory_ (published by the British
+  Admiralty), a valuable guide to the coasts: vol. ii. (5th ed., 1906)
+  deals with Hong-Kong and places south thereof, vol. iii. (4th ed.,
+  1906, supp. 1907) with the rest of the Chinese coast; vol. i. (5th
+  ed., 1906) treats of the islands and straits in the S.W. approach to
+  the China Sea. Much of China has not been surveyed, but considerable
+  progress has been made since 1900. _The Atlas of the Chinese Empire_
+  (London, 1908), a good general atlas, which, however, has no hill
+  shading, gives maps of each province on the scale of 1:3,000,000. The
+  preface contains a list of the best regional maps.
+
+  _The Journal af the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_
+  contains papers on all subjects relating to China.
+
+
+II. THE PEOPLE
+
+  Population.
+
+China is noted for the density of its population, but no accurate
+statistics are forthcoming. The province of Shan-tung is reputed to
+have a population of 680 per sq. m. The provinces of central China, in
+the basin of the Yangtsze-kiang--namely Sze-ch'uen, Hu-peh, Ngan-hui,
+Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang--contain probably a third of thes total
+population, the density of the people in these provinces being
+represented as from 490 to 310 per sq. m. Ho-nan, which belongs partly
+to the basin of the Hwang-ho and partly to that of the Yangtsze-kiang,
+as well as the S.E. coast provinces of Fu-kien and Kwang-tung, are also
+densely peopled, Ho-nan being credited with 520 persons per sq. m.,
+Fu-kien with 490 and Kwang-tung with about 320.
+
+  The Chinese government prints from time to time in the _Peking
+  Gazette_ returns of the population made by the various provincial
+  authorities. The method of numeration is to count the households, and
+  from that to make a return of the total inhabitants of each province.
+  There would be no great difficulty in obtaining fairly accurate
+  returns if sufficient care were taken. It does not appear, however,
+  that much care is taken. Mr E.H. Parker published in the _Statistical
+  Society's Journal_ for March 1899 tables translated from Chinese
+  records, giving the population from year to year between 1651 and
+  1860. These tables show a gradual rise, though with many fluctuations,
+  up till 1851, when the total population is stated to be 432 millions.
+  From that point it decreases till 1860, when it is put down at only
+  261 millions. The Chinese Imperial Customs put the total population of
+  the empire in 1906 at 438,214,000 and that of China proper at
+  407,253,000. It has been held by several inquirers that these figures
+  are gross over-estimates. Mr Rockhill, American minister at Peking
+  (1905-1909), after careful inquiry[9] concluded that the inhabitants
+  of China proper did not exceed, in 1904, 270,000,000. Other competent
+  authorities are inclined to accept the round figure of 400,000,000 as
+  nearer the accurate number. Eleven cities were credited in 1908 with
+  between 500,000 and 1,000,000 inhabitants each, and smaller cities are
+  very numerous, but the population is predominantly rural. In addition
+  to the Chinese the population includes a number of aboriginal races
+  such as the Lolos (q.v.), the Miaotsze (q.v.), the Ikias of Kwei-chow
+  and Kwang-si, the Hakka, found in the south-east provinces, and the
+  Hoklos of Kwang-tung province.[10] The Manchus resident in China are
+  estimated to number 4,000,000. According to the Imperial Customs
+  authorities, the number of foreigners resident in China in 1908 was
+  69,852. Of these 44,143 were Japanese, 9520 Russian, 9043 British,
+  3637 German, 3545 American, 3353 Portuguese, 2029 French, 554 Italian
+  and 282 Belgian.
+
+
+    Emigration.
+
+  The Chinese are a colonizing race, and in Manchuria, Mongolia and
+  Turkestan they have brought several districts under cultivation. In
+  the regions where they settle they become the dominant race--thus
+  southern Manchuria now differs little from a province of China proper.
+  In Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula and throughout the Far East Chinese
+  are numerous as farmers, labourers and traders; in some places, such
+  as Singapore, Chinese are among the principal merchants. This
+  colonizing spirit is probably due more to the enterprise of the people
+  than to the density of the population. There were Chinese settlements
+  at places on the east coast of Africa before the 10th century A.D.
+  Following the discovery of gold in California there was from 1850
+  onwards a large emigration of Chinese to that state and to other parts
+  of America. But in 1879 Chinese exclusion acts were passed by the
+  United States, an example followed by Australia, where Chinese
+  immigration was also held to be a public danger. Canada also adopted
+  the policy of excluding Chinese, but not before there had been a
+  considerable immigration into British Columbia. Two factors, a racial
+  and an economic, are at work to bring about these measures of
+  exclusion. As indentured labourers Chinese have been employed in the
+  West Indies, South America and other places (see COOLIE).
+
+  In addition to several million Chinese settlers in Manchuria, and
+  smaller numbers in Mongolia, Turkestan and Tibet, it was estimated in
+  1908 that there were over 9,000,000 Chinese resident beyond the
+  empire. Of these 2,250,000 were in Formosa, which for long formed a
+  part of the empire, and over 6,000,000 in neighbouring regions of Asia
+  and in Pacific Islands. In the West Indies (chiefly Cuba) the number
+  of Chinese was estimated at 100,000, in South America (Brazil, Peru
+  and Chile) at 72,000, in the United States at 150,000, in Canada at
+  12,000, and in Australia and New Zealand at 35,000. There are
+  comparatively few Chinese in Japan (if Formosa be excepted) and Korea.
+  The number is given in 1908 as 17,000 in Japan and 11,000 in Korea.
+
+
+_Social Life._
+
+The awakening of the East which has followed the Russo-Japanese War of
+1904-5 has affected China also. It is too soon to say how far the influx
+of European ideas will be able to modify the immemorial customs and
+traditions of perhaps the most conservative people in the world; but the
+process has begun, and this fact makes it difficult to give a picture of
+Chinese habits and customs which shall be more than historical or
+provisional. Moreover, the difficulty of presenting a picture which
+shall be true of China as a whole is enhanced by the different
+characteristics observable in various regions of so vast a country. The
+Chinese themselves, until the material superiority of Western
+civilization forced them to a certain degree to conform to its
+standards, looked down from the height of their superior culture with
+contempt on the "Western barbarians." Nor was their attitude wholly
+without justification. Their civilization was already old at a time when
+Britain and Germany were peopled by half-naked barbarians, and the
+philosophical and ethical principles on which it was based remain, to
+all appearances, as firmly rooted as ever. That these principles have,
+on the whole, helped to create a national type of a very high order few
+Europeans who know the Chinese well would deny. The Chinese are
+naturally reserved, earnest and good-natured; for the occasional
+outbursts of ferocious violence, notably against foreign settlements,
+are no index to the national character. There is a national proverb that
+"the men of the Four Seas are all brothers," and even strangers can
+travel through the country without meeting with rudeness, much less
+outrage. If the Chinese character is inferior to the European, this
+inferiority lies in the fact that the Chinaman's whole philosophy of
+life disinclines him to change or to energetic action. He is
+industrious; but his industry is normally along the lines marked out by
+authority and tradition. He is brave; but his courage does not naturally
+seek an outlet in war. The jealously exclusive empire, into which in the
+19th century the nations of the West forced an entrance, was organized
+for peace; the arts of war had been all but forgotten, and soldiers were
+of all classes the most despised.
+
+  The whole social and political organization of the Chinese is based,
+  in a far more real sense than in the West, on the family. The supreme
+  duty is that of the child to its parent; on this the whole Chinese
+  moral system is built up. Filial piety, according to the teaching of
+  Confucius, is the very foundation of society; the nation itself is but
+  one great family, and the authority of the government itself is but an
+  extension of the paternal authority, to which all its children are
+  bound to yield implicit obedience. The western idea of the liberty and
+  dignity of the individual, as distinct from the community to which he
+  belongs, is wholly alien to the Chinese mind. The political unit in
+  China is not the individual but the family, and the father of the
+  family is supposed to be responsible for the qualities and views of
+  all his kin. He is rewarded for their virtues, punished for their
+  faults; the deserts of a son ennoble the father and all his ancestors,
+  and conversely his crimes disgrace them.
+
+  An outcome of this principle is the extraordinary importance in China
+  of funeral rites, especially in the case of the father. The eldest
+  son, now head of the family, or, failing him, his first-born or
+  adopted son, fixes one of the three souls of the dead in the tablet
+  commemorating his virtues, burns incense to his shade, and supplies
+  him with paper money and paper representations of everything (clothes,
+  servants, horses) that he may require in his journey to the other
+  world. Mourning lasts for three years, during which the mourners wear
+  white garments and abstain from meat, wine and public gatherings.
+  Custom, too, dictates that wherever the Chinaman may die he must be
+  brought back for burial to the place of his birth; one of the objects
+  of the friendly societies is to provide funds to charter ships to
+  transport home the bodies of those who have died abroad. Annually, in
+  May, the white-clad people stream to the graves and mortuary temples
+  with flowers, fruit and other offerings for the dead. Christian
+  missionaries have found in this ancestor worship the most serious
+  obstacle to the spread of a religion which teaches that the convert
+  must, if need be, despise his father and his mother and follow Christ.
+
+  The same elaborate ceremonialism that characterizes the Chinese
+  funeral customs is found also in their marriage rites and the rules of
+  their social intercourse generally. Confucius is reported to have said
+  that "all virtues have their source in etiquette," and the due
+  observance of the "ceremonial" (_li_) in the fulfilling of social
+  duties is that which, in Chinese opinion, distinguishes civilized from
+  barbarous peoples. The Board of Rites, one of the departments of the
+  central government, exists for the purpose of giving decisions in
+  matters of etiquette and ceremony. As to marriage, the rule that the
+  individual counts for nothing obtains here in its fullest
+  significance. The breeding of sons to carry on the ancestral cult is a
+  matter of prime importance, and the marriage of a young man is
+  arranged at the earliest possible age. The bride and bridegroom have
+  little voice in the matter, the match being arranged by the parents
+  of the parties; the lifting of the bride's veil, so that the
+  bridegroom may see her face, is the very last act of the long and
+  complicated ceremony.
+
+  In the traditional Chinese social system four classes are
+  distinguished: the literary, the agricultural, the artisan and the
+  trading class. Hereditary nobility, in the European sense, scarcely
+  exists, and the possession of an hereditary title gives in itself no
+  special privileges. Official position is more highly esteemed than
+  birth and the bureaucracy takes the place of the aristocracy in the
+  west. There are, nevertheless, besides personal decorations for merit,
+  such as the yellow jacket, five hereditary rewards for merit; these
+  last only for a fixed number of lives. A few Chinese families,
+  however, enjoy hereditary titles in the full sense, the chief among
+  them being the Holy Duke of Yen (the descendant of Confucius). The
+  Imperial Clansmen consist of those who trace their descent direct from
+  the founder of the Manchu dynasty, and are distinguished by the
+  privilege of wearing a yellow girdle; collateral relatives of the
+  imperial house wear a red girdle. Twelve degrees of nobility (in a
+  descending scale as one generation succeeds another) are conferred on
+  the descendants of every emperor; in the thirteenth generation the
+  descendants of emperors are merged in the general population, save
+  that they retain the yellow girdle. The heads of eight houses, the
+  "Iron-capped" (or helmeted) princes, maintain their titles in
+  perpetuity by rule of primogeniture in virtue of having helped the
+  Manchu in the conquest of China. Imperial princes apart, the highest
+  class is that forming the civil service. (See also § _Government and
+  Administration_.) The peasant class forms the bulk of the population.
+  The majority of Chinese are small landowners; their standard of living
+  is very low in comparison with European standards. This is in part due
+  to the system of land tenure. A parent cannot, even if he wished to do
+  so, leave all his land to one son. There must be substantially an
+  equal division, the will of the father notwithstanding. As early
+  marriages and large families are the rule, this process of continual
+  division and subdivision has brought things down to the irreducible
+  minimum in many places. Small patches of one-tenth or even
+  one-twentieth of an acre are to be found as the estate of an
+  individual landowner, and the vast majority of holdings run between
+  one and three acres. With three acres a family is deemed very
+  comfortable, and the possession of ten acres means luxury.
+
+  The only class which at all resembles the territorial magnates of
+  other countries is the class of retired officials. The wealth of an
+  official is not infrequently invested in land, and consequently there
+  are in most provinces several families with a country seat and the
+  usual insignia of local rank and influence. On the decease of the
+  heads or founders of such families it is considered dignified for the
+  sons to live together, sharing the rents and profits in common. This
+  is sometimes continued for several generations, until the country seat
+  becomes an agglomeration of households and the family a sort of clan.
+  A family of this kind, with literary traditions, and with the means to
+  educate the young men, is constantly sending its scions into the
+  public service. These in turn bring their earnings to swell the common
+  funds, while the rank and dignity which they may earn add to the
+  importance and standing of the group as a whole. The members of this
+  class are usually termed the _literati_ or gentry.
+
+  The complex character of the Chinese is shown in various ways. Side by
+  side with the reverence of ancestors the law recognizes the right of
+  the parent to sell his offspring into slavery and among the poor this
+  is not an uncommon practice, though in comparison with the total
+  population the number of slaves is few. The kidnapping of children for
+  sale as slaves is carried on, but there is no slave raiding. There are
+  more female than male slaves; the descendants of male slaves acquire
+  freedom in the fifth generation. While every Chinese man is anxious to
+  have male children, girls are often considered superfluous.
+
+  The position of women is one of distinct inferiority; a woman is
+  always subject to the men of her family--before marriage to her
+  father, during marriage to her husband, in widowhood to her son; these
+  states being known as "the three obediences." Sons who do not,
+  however, honour their mothers outrage public opinion. Polygamy is
+  tolerated, secondary wives being sometimes provided by the first wife
+  when she is growing old. Secondary wives are subordinate to first
+  wives. A wife may be divorced for any one of seven reasons. The sale
+  of wives is practised, but is not recognized by law. Women of the
+  upper classes are treated with much respect. The home of a Chinese man
+  is often in reality ruled by his mother, or by his wife as she
+  approaches old age, a state held in veneration. Chinese women
+  frequently prove of excellent business capacity, and those of high
+  rank--as the recent history of China has conspicuously
+  proved--exercise considerable influence on public affairs.
+
+  Deforming the feet of girls by binding and stopping their growth has
+  been common for centuries. The tottering walk of the Chinese lady
+  resulting from this deformation of the feet is the admiration of her
+  husband and friends. Foot-binding is practised by rich and poor in all
+  parts of the country, but is not universal. In southern and western
+  China Hakka women and certain others never have their feet bound. It
+  has been noted that officials (who all serve on the itinerary system)
+  take for secondary wives natural-footed women, who are frequently
+  slaves.[11] Every child is one at birth, and two on what Europeans
+  call its first birthday, the period of gestation counting as one year.
+
+  In their social intercourse the Chinese are polite and ceremonious;
+  they do not shake hands or kiss, but prostrations (kotowing),
+  salutations with joined hands and congratulations are common. They
+  have no weekly day of rest, but keep many festivals, the most
+  important being that of New Year's Day. Debts are supposed to be paid
+  before New Year's Day begins and for the occasion new clothes are
+  bought. Other notable holidays are the Festival of the First Full
+  Moon, the Feast of Lanterns and the Festival of the Dragon Boat. A
+  feature of the festivals is the employment of thousands of lanterns
+  made of paper, covered with landscapes and other scenes in gorgeous
+  colours. Of outdoor sports kite-flying is the most popular and is
+  engaged in by adults; shuttle-cock is also a favourite game, while
+  cards and dominoes are indoor amusements. The theatre and marionette
+  shows are largely patronized. The habit of opium smoking is referred
+  to elsewhere; tobacco smoking is general among both sexes.
+
+  Except in their head-dress and their shoes little distinction is made
+  between the costumes of men and women.[12] Both sexes wear a long
+  loose jacket or robe which fits closely round the neck and has wide
+  sleeves, and wide short trousers. Over the robe shorter jackets--often
+  sleeveless--are worn, according to the weather. For winter wear the
+  jackets are wadded, and a Chinaman will speak of "a three, four or six
+  coat cold day." A man's robe is generally longer than that of a woman.
+  Petticoats are worn by ladies on ceremonial occasions and the long
+  robe is removed when in the house. "It is considered very unwomanly
+  not to wear trousers, and very indelicate for a man not to have skirts
+  to his coat." No Chinese woman ever bares any part of her body in
+  public--even the hands are concealed in the large sleeves--and the
+  evening dress of European ladies is considered indelicate; but Hakka
+  women move about freely without shoes or stockings. A Chinese man
+  will, however, in warm weather often strip naked to the waist. Coolies
+  frequently go bare-legged; they use sandals made of rope and possess
+  rain-coats made of palm leaves. The garments of the poorer classes are
+  made of cotton, generally dyed blue. Wealthy people have their clothes
+  made of silk. Skirts and jackets are elaborately embroidered. Costly
+  furs and fur-lined clothes are much prized, and many wealthy Chinese
+  have fine collections of furs. Certain colours may only be used with
+  official permission as denoting a definite rank or distinction, e.g.
+  the yellow jacket. The colours used harmonize--the contrasts in colour
+  seen in the clothes of Europeans is avoided. Dark purple over blue are
+  usual colour combinations. The mourning colour is white. Common shoes
+  are made of cotton or silk and have thick felt soles; all officials
+  wear boots of satin into which is thrust the pipe or the fan--the
+  latter carried equally by men and women. The fan is otherwise stuck at
+  the back of the neck, or attached to the girdle, which may also hold
+  the purse, watch, snuff-box and a pair of chop-sticks.
+
+  Formerly Chinese men let their hair grow sufficiently long to gather
+  it in a knot at the top; on the conquest of the country by the Manchu
+  they were compelled to adopt the queue or pigtail, which is often
+  artificially lengthened by the employment of silk thread, usually
+  black in colour. The front part of the head is shaved. As no Chinese
+  dress their own hair, barbers are numerous and do a thriving trade.
+  Women do not shave the head nor adopt the queue. Men wear in general a
+  close-fitting cap, and the peasants large straw hats. Circular caps,
+  larger at the crown than round the head and with an outward slope are
+  worn in winter by mandarins, conical straw hats in summer. Women have
+  elaborate head ornaments, decking their hair with artificial flowers,
+  butterflies made of jade, gold pins and pearls. The faces of Chinese
+  ladies are habitually rouged, their eyebrows painted. Pearl or bead
+  necklaces are worn both by men and women. Officials and men of leisure
+  let one or two finger nails grow long and protect them with a metal
+  case.
+
+  The staple food of the majority of the Chinese in the south and
+  central provinces is rice; in the northern provinces millet as well as
+  rice is much eaten. In separate bowls are placed morsels of pork,
+  fish, chicken, vegetables and other relishes. Rice-flour, bean-meal,
+  macaroni, and shell fish are all largely used. Flour balls cooked in
+  sugar are esteemed. Beef is never eaten, but Mahommedans eat mutton,
+  and there is hardly any limit to the things the Chinese use as food.
+  In Canton dogs which have been specially fed are an article of diet.
+  Eggs are preserved for years in a solution of salt, lime and wood-ash,
+  or in spirits made from rice. Condiments are highly prized, as are
+  also preserved fruits. Special Chinese dishes are soups made from
+  sea-slugs and a glutinous substance found in certain birds' nests,
+  ducks' tongues, sharks' fins, the brains of chickens and of fish, the
+  sinews of deer and of whales, fish with pickled fir-tree cones, and
+  roots of the lotus lily. A kind of beer brewed from rice is a usual
+  drink; _samshu_ is a spirit distilled from the same grain and at
+  dinners is served hot in small bowls. Excellent native wines are
+  made. The Chinese are, however, abstemious with regard to alcoholic
+  liquors. Water is drunk hot by the very poor, as a substitute for tea.
+  Tea is drunk before and after meals in cups without handle or saucer;
+  the cups are always provided with a cover. Two substantial meals are
+  taken during the day--luncheon and dinner; the last named at varying
+  hours from four till seven o'clock. At dinner a rich man will offer
+  his guest twenty-four or more dishes (always a multiple of 4), four to
+  six dishes being served at a time. Food is eaten from bowls and with
+  chop-sticks (q.v.) and little porcelain spoons. Men dine by themselves
+  when any guests are present; dinner parties are sometimes given by
+  ladies to ladies. Chinese cookery is excellent; in the culinary art
+  the Chinese are reputed to be second only to the French.
+
+  Ethnologically the Chinese are classed among the Mongolian races (in
+  which division the Manchus are also included), although they present
+  many marked contrasts to the Mongols. The Tatars, Tibetans, Burmese,
+  Shans, Manchu and other races--including the Arab and Japanese--have
+  mingled with the indigenous population to form the Chinese type, while
+  aboriginal tribes still resist the pressure of absorption by the
+  dominant race (see ante, _Population_). The Chinese are in fact
+  ethnically a very mixed people, and the pure Mongol type is uncommon
+  among them. Moreover, natives of different provinces still present
+  striking contrasts one to another, and their common culture is
+  probably the strongest national link. By some authorities it is held
+  that the parent stock of the Chinese came from the north-west, beyond
+  the alluvial plain; others hold that it was indigenous in eastern
+  China. Notwithstanding the marked differences between the inhabitants
+  of different provinces and even between those living in the same
+  province, certain features are common to the race. "The stature is
+  below the average and seldom exceeds 5 ft. 4 in., except in the North.
+  The head is normally brachycephalic or round horizontally, and the
+  forehead low and narrow. The face is round, the mouth large, and the
+  chin small and receding. The cheek-bones are prominent, the eyes
+  almond-shaped, oblique upwards and outwards, and the hair coarse, lank
+  and invariably black. The beard appears late in life, and remains
+  generally scanty. The eyebrows are straight and the iris of the eye is
+  black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat. The hands and feet
+  are disproportionately small, and the body early inclines to obesity.
+  The complexion varies from an almost pale-yellow to a dark-brown,
+  without any red or ruddy tinge. Yellow, however, predominates."[13]
+
+  A few words may be added concerning the Manchus, who are the ruling
+  race in China. Their ethnic affinities are not precisely known, but
+  they may be classed among the Ural-Altaic tribes, although the term
+  Ural-Altaic (q.v.) denotes a linguistic rather than a racial group. By
+  some authorities they are called Tung-tatze, i.e. Eastern Tatars---the
+  Tatars of to-day being of true Mongol descent. Manchu is the name
+  adopted in the 13th century by one of several tribes which led a
+  nomadic life in Manchuria and were known collectively in the 11th
+  century as Nüchihs. Some authorities regard the Khitans (whence the
+  European form Cathay), who in the 9th and 10th centuries dwelt in the
+  upper Liao region, as the ancestors of this race. It was not until the
+  16th century that the people became known generally as Manchus and
+  obtained possession of the whole of the country now bearing their name
+  (see MANCHURIA). They had then a considerable mixture of Chinese and
+  Korean blood, but had developed a distinct nationality and kept their
+  ancient Ural-Altaic language. In China the Manchus retained their
+  separate nationality and semi-military organization. It was not until
+  the early years of the 20th century that steps were officially taken
+  to obliterate the distinction between the two races. The Manchus are a
+  more robust race than the inhabitants of central and southern China,
+  but resemble those of northern China save that their eyes are
+  horizontally set. They are a lively and enterprising people, but have
+  not in general the intellectual or business ability of the Chinese.
+  They are courteous in their relations with strangers. The common
+  people are frugal and industrious. The Manchu family is generally
+  large. The women's feet are unbound; they twist their hair round a
+  silver bangle placed cross-wise on the top of the head. The Manchus
+  have no literature of their own, but as the language of the court
+  Manchu has been extensively studied in China.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Sir John F. Davies, _China_ (2 vols., London, 1857); É.
+  Réclus, _The Universal Geography_, vol. vii. (Eng. trans. ed. by E.G.
+  Ravenstein and A.H. Keane); É. and O. Réclus, _L'Empire du milieu_
+  (Paris, 1902); Sir R.K. Douglas, _Society in China_ (London, 1895); J.
+  Doolittle, _Social Life of the Chinese_ (2 vols., New York, 1867);
+  H.A. Giles, _China and the Chinese_ (1902); E. Bard, _Les Chinois chez
+  eux_ (Paris, 1900); A.G. Jones, _Desultory Notes on Chinese Etiquette_
+  (Shanghai, 1906); Mrs Archibald Little, _Intimate China_ (London,
+  1899) and _The Land of the Blue Gown_ (London, 1902); E.H. Parker,
+  _John Chinaman and a Few Others_ (London, 1901); J. Dyer-Ball, _Things
+  Chinese_ (Shanghai, 1903); Cheng Kitung, _The Chinese Painted by
+  Themselves_ (Eng. trans. by J. Millington, London, 1885); L. Richard,
+  _Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire_ (Shanghai, 1908). (X.)
+
+
+_Religion._
+
+  The ancient faith.
+
+The earliest traces of religious thought and practice in China point to
+a simple monotheism. There was a Divine Ruler of the universe, abiding
+on high, beyond the ken of man. This Power was not regarded as the
+Creator of the human race, but as a Supreme Being to whom wickedness was
+abhorrent and virtuous conduct a source of joy, and who dealt out
+rewards and punishments with unerring justice, claiming neither love nor
+reverence from mankind. If a man did his duty towards his neighbour, he
+might pass his whole time on earth oblivious of the fact that such a
+Power was in existence; unless perchance he wished to obtain some good
+or attain some end, in which case he might seek to propitiate Him by
+sacrifice and prayer. There was no Devil to tempt man astray, and to
+rejoice in his fall; neither was there any belief that righteous
+behaviour in this world would lead at death to absorption in the Deity.
+To God, understood in this sense, the people gave the name _Tien_, which
+in the colloquial language was used of the sky; and when, in the first
+stages of the written character, it became necessary to express the idea
+of _Tien_, they did not attempt any vague picture of the heavens, but
+set down the rude outline of a man. Perhaps about this period the title
+_Shang Ti_, or Supreme Ruler, came into vogue as synonymous with _Tien_.
+But although the two terms were synonyms, and both may be equally
+rendered by "God," there is nevertheless an important distinction to be
+observed, much as though _Tien_ and _Shang Ti_ were two Persons in one
+substance. _Tien_ is far more an abstract Being, while _Shang Ti_
+partakes rather of the nature of a personal God, whose anthropomorphic
+nature is much more strongly accentuated. _Shang Ti_ is described as
+walking and talking, as enjoying the flavour of sacrifices, as pleased
+with music and dancing in his honour, and even as taking sides in
+warfare; whereas _Tien_ holds aloof, wrapped in an impenetrable majesty,
+an _ignotum pro mirifico_. So much for religion in primeval days,
+gathered scrap by scrap from many sources; for nothing like a history of
+religion is to be found in Chinese literature.
+
+Gradually to this monotheistic conception was added a worship of the
+sun, moon and constellations, of the five planets, and of such
+noticeable individual stars as (e.g.) Canopus, which is now looked upon
+as the home of the God of Longevity. Earth, too--Mother Earth--came in
+for her share of worship, indicated especially by the God of the Soil,
+and further distributed among rivers and hills. Wind, rain, heat, cold,
+thunder and lightning, as each became objects of desire or aversion,
+were invested with the attributes of deities. The various parts of the
+house--door, kitchen-stove, courtyard, &c.--were also conceived of as
+sheltering some spirit whose influence might be benign or the reverse.
+The spirits of the land and of grain came to mean one's country, the
+commonwealth, the state; and the sacrifices of these spirits by the
+emperor formed a public announcement of his accession, or of his
+continued right to the throne. Side by side with such sacrificial rites
+was the worship of ancestors, stretching so far back that its origin is
+not discernible in such historical documents as we possess. In early
+times only the emperor, or the feudal nobles, or certain high officials,
+could sacrifice to the spirits of nature; the common people sacrificed
+to their own ancestors and to the spirits of their own homes. For three
+days before performing such sacrifices, a strict vigil with purification
+was maintained; and by the expiration of that time, from sheer
+concentration of thought, the mourner was able to see the spirits of the
+departed, and at the sacrifice next day seemed to hear their movements
+and even the murmur of their sighs. Ancestral worship in China has
+always been, and still is, worship in the strict sense of the term. It
+is not a memorial service in simple honour of the dead; but sacrifices
+are offered, and the whole ceremonial is performed that the spirits of
+former ancestors may be induced to extend their protection to the living
+and secure to them as many as possible of the good things of this world.
+
+For Confucianism, which cannot, strictly speaking, be classed as a
+religion, see CONFUCIUS.
+
+
+    Taoism.
+
+  Around the scanty utterances of Lao Tz[)u] or Lao-tsze (q.v.; see also
+  § _Chinese Literature, §§ Philosophy_) an attempt was made by later
+  writers to weave a scheme of thought which should serve to satisfy the
+  cravings of mortals for some definite solution of the puzzle of life.
+  Lao Tz[)u] himself had enunciated a criterion which he called _Tao_,
+  or the Way, from which is derived the word Taoism; and in his usual
+  paradoxical style he had asserted that the secret of this Way, which
+  was at the beginning apparently nothing more than a line of right
+  conduct, could not possibly be imparted, even by those who understood
+  it. His disciples, however, of later days proceeded to interpret the
+  term in the sense of the Absolute, the First Cause, and finally as
+  One, in whose obliterating unity all seemingly opposed conditions of
+  time and space were indistinguishably blended. This One, the source of
+  human life, was placed beyond the limits of the visible universe; and
+  for human life to return thither at death and to enjoy immortality, it
+  was only necessary to refine away all corporeal grossness by following
+  the doctrines of Lao Tz[)u]. By and by, this One came to be regarded
+  as a fixed point of dazzling luminosity in remote ether, around which
+  circled for ever and ever, in the supremest glory of motion, the souls
+  of those who had left the slough of humanity behind them. These
+  transcendental notions were entirely corrupted at a very early date by
+  the introduction of belief in an elixir of life, and later still by
+  the practice of alchemistic experiments. Opposed by Buddhism, which
+  next laid a claim for a share in the profits of popular patronage,
+  Taoism rapidly underwent a radical transformation. It became a
+  religion, borrowing certain ceremonial, vestments, liturgies, the idea
+  of a hell, arrangement of temples, &c., from its rival; which rival
+  was not slow in returning the compliment. As Chu Hsi said, "Buddhism
+  stole the best features of Taoism; Taoism stole the worst features of
+  Buddhism. It is as though one took a jewel from the other, and the
+  loser recouped the loss with a stone." At the present day there is not
+  much to choose between the two religions, which flourish peaceably
+  together. As to their temples, priests and ceremonial, it takes an
+  expert to distinguish one from the other.
+
+
+    Buddhism.
+
+  There is no trustworthy information as to the exact date at which
+  Buddhism first reached China. It is related that the emperor Ming Ti
+  (A.D. 58-76) had a dream in which a golden man appeared to him, and
+  this mysterious visitant was interpreted by the emperor's brother to
+  be none other than Sh[=a]kyamuni Buddha, the far-famed divinity of the
+  West. This shows that Buddhism must then have been known to the
+  Chinese, at any rate by hearsay. The earliest alleged appearance of
+  Buddhism in China dates from 217 B.C., when certain Shamans who came
+  to proselytize were seized and thrown into prison. They escaped
+  through the miraculous intervention of a golden man, who came to them
+  in the middle of the night and opened their prison doors. Hsü Kuan, a
+  writer of the Sung dynasty, quotes in his _Tung Chai Chi_ passages to
+  support the view that Buddhism was known in China some centuries
+  before the reign of Ming Ti; among others, the following from the _Sui
+  Shu Ching Chi Chih_: "These Buddhist writings had long been circulated
+  far and wide, but disappeared with the advent of the Ch'in dynasty,"
+  under which (see § _Chinese Literature, §§ History_) occurred the
+  Burning of the Books. It is, however, convenient to begin with the
+  alleged dream of Ming Ti, as it was only subsequent to that date that
+  Buddhism became a recognized religion of the people. It is certain
+  that in A.D. 65 a mission of eighteen members was despatched to Khotan
+  to make inquiries on the subject, and that in 67 the mission returned,
+  bringing Buddhist writings and images, and accompanied by an Indian
+  priest, Kashiapmadanga, who was followed shortly afterwards by another
+  priest, Gobharana. A temple was built for these two at Lo-yang, then
+  the capital of China, and they settled down to the work of translating
+  portions of the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese; but all that now
+  remains of their work is the S[=u]tra of Forty-two Sections,
+  translated by Kashiapmadanga. During the next two hundred and fifty
+  years an unbroken line of foreign priests came to China to continue
+  the task of translation, and to assist in spreading the faith. Such
+  work was indeed entirely in their hands, for until the 4th century the
+  Chinese people were prohibited from taking orders as priests; but by
+  that date Buddhism had taken a firm hold upon the masses, and many
+  Chinese priests were attracted towards India, despite the long and
+  dangerous journey, partly to visit the birthplace of the creed and to
+  see with their own eyes the scenes which had so fired their
+  imaginations, and partly in the hope of adding to the store of books
+  and images already available in China (see § _Chinese Literature, §§
+  Geography and Travel_). Still, the train of Indian missionaries,
+  moving in the opposite direction, did not cease. In 401, Kumarajiva,
+  the nineteenth of the Western Patriarchs and translator of the Diamond
+  S[=u]tra, finally took up his residence at the court of the soi-disant
+  emperor, Yao Hsing. In 405 he became State Preceptor and dictated his
+  commentaries on the sacred books of Buddhism to some eight hundred
+  priests, besides composing a _sh[=a]stra_ on Reality and Semblance.
+  Dying in 417, his body was cremated, as is still usual with priests,
+  but his tongue, which had done such eminent service during life,
+  remained unharmed in the midst of the flames. In the year 520
+  B[=o]dhidharma, or Ta-mo, as he is affectionately known to the
+  Chinese, being also called the White Buddha, reached Canton, bringing
+  with him the sacred bowl of the Buddhist Patriarchate, of which he was
+  the last representative in the west and the first to hold office in
+  the east. Summoned to Nanking, he offended the emperor by asserting
+  that real merit lay, not in works, but solely in purity and wisdom
+  combined. He therefore retired to Lo-yang, crossing the swollen waters
+  of the Yangtsze on a reed, a feat which has ever since had a great
+  fascination for Chinese painters and poets. There he spent the rest of
+  his life, teaching that religion was not to be learnt from books, but
+  that man should seek and find the Buddha in his own heart. Thus
+  Buddhism gradually made its way. It had to meet first of all the
+  bitter hostility of the Taoists; and secondly, the fitful patronage
+  and opposition of the court. Several emperors and empresses were
+  infatuated supporters of the faith; one even went so far as to take
+  vows and lead the life of an ascetic, further insisting that to render
+  full obedience to the Buddhist commandment, "Thou shalt not kill," the
+  sacrificial animals were to be made of dough. Other emperors,
+  instigated by Confucian advisers, went to the opposite extreme of
+  persecution, closed all religious houses, confiscated their property,
+  and forced the priests and nuns to return to the world. From about the
+  11th century onwards Buddhism has enjoyed comparative immunity from
+  attack or restriction, and it now covers the Chinese empire from end
+  to end. The form under which it appears in China is to some extent of
+  local growth; that is to say, the Chinese have added and subtracted
+  not a little to and from the parent stock. The cleavage which took
+  place under Kanishka, ruler of the Indo-Scythian empire, about the 1st
+  century A.D., divided Buddhism into the Mah[=a]y[=a]na, or Greater
+  Vehicle, and the Hin[=a]y[=a]na, as it is somewhat contemptuously
+  styled, or Lesser Vehicle. The latter was the nearer of the two to the
+  Buddhism of Sh[=a]kyamuni, and exhibits rather the mystic and esoteric
+  sides of the faith. The former, which spread northwards and on to
+  Nepaul, Tibet, China, Mongolia and Japan, leaving southern India,
+  Burma and Siam to its rival, began early to lean towards the
+  deification of Buddha as a personal Saviour. New Buddhas and
+  B[=o]dhisatvas were added, and new worlds were provided for them to
+  live in; in China, especially, there was an enormous extension of the
+  mythological element. In fact, the Mah[=a]y[=a]na system of Buddhism,
+  inspired, as has been observed, by a progressive spirit, but without
+  contradicting the inner significance of the teachings of Buddha,
+  broadened its scope and assimilated other religio-philosophical
+  beliefs, whenever this could be done to the advantage of those who
+  came within its influence. Such is the form of this religion which
+  prevails in China, of which, however, the Chinese layman understands
+  nothing. He goes to a temple, worships the gods with prostrations,
+  lighted candles, incense, &c., to secure his particular ends at the
+  moment; he may even listen to a service chanted in a foreign tongue
+  and just as incomprehensible to the priests as to himself. He pays his
+  fees and departs, absolutely ignorant of the history or dogmas of the
+  religion to which he looks for salvation in a future state. All such
+  knowledge, and there is now not much of it, is confined to a few of
+  the more cultured priests.
+
+
+    Mardaism.
+
+  The 7th century seems to have been notable in the religious history of
+  China. Early in that century, Mazdaism, or the religion of Zoroaster,
+  based upon the worship of fire, was introduced into China, and in 621
+  the first temple under that denomination was built at Ch'ang-an in
+  Shensi, then the capital. But the harvest of converts was
+  insignificant; the religion failed to hold its ground, and in the 9th
+  century disappeared altogether.
+
+
+    Mahommedanism.
+
+  Mahommedans first settled in China in the Year of the Mission, A.D.
+  628, under Wahb-Abi-Kabha, a maternal uncle of Mahomet, who was sent
+  with presents to the emperor. Wahb-Abi-Kabha travelled by sea to
+  Canton, and thence overland to Ch'ang-an, the capital, where he was
+  well received. The first mosque was built at Canton, where after
+  several restorations, it still exists. Another mosque was erected in
+  742; but many of the Mahommedans went to China merely as traders, and
+  afterwards returned to their own country. The true stock of the
+  present Chinese Mahommedans was a small army of 4000 Arab soldiers
+  sent by the caliph Abu Giafar[14] in 755 to aid in putting down a
+  rebellion. These soldiers had permission to settle in China, where
+  they married native wives; and four centuries later, with the
+  conquests of Jenghiz Khan, large numbers of Arabs penetrated into the
+  empire and swelled the Mahommedan community. Its members are now
+  indistinguishable from the general population; they are under no civic
+  disabilities, and are free to open mosques wherever they please, so
+  long as, in common with Buddhists and Taoists, they exhibit the tablet
+  of the emperor's sovereignty in some conspicuous position.
+
+
+    Nestorianism.
+
+  In A.D. 631 the Nestorians sent a mission to China and introduced
+  Christianity under the name of the Luminous Doctrine. In 636 they were
+  allowed to settle at Ch'ang-an; and in 638 an Imperial Decree was
+  issued, stating that Olopun, a Nestorian priest who is casually
+  mentioned as a Persian, had presented a form of religion which his
+  Majesty had carefully examined and had found to be in every way
+  satisfactory, and that it would henceforth be permissible to preach
+  this new doctrine within the boundaries of the empire. Further, the
+  establishment of a monastery was authorized, to be served by
+  twenty-one priests. For more than a century after this, Nestorian
+  Christianity seems to have flourished in China. In 781 the famous
+  Nestorian Tablet, giving a rough outline of the object and scope of
+  the faith, was set up at Ch'ang-an (the modern Si-gan Fu),
+  disappearing soon afterwards in the political troubles which laid the
+  city in ruins, to be brought to light again in 1625 by Father Semedo,
+  S.J. The genuineness of this tablet was for many years in dispute,
+  Voltaire, Renan, and others of lesser fame regarding it as a pious
+  Jesuit fraud; but all doubts on the subject have now been dispelled by
+  the exhaustive monograph of Père Havret, S.J., entitled _La Stèle de
+  Si-ngan_. The date of the tablet seems to mark the zenith of Nestorian
+  Christianity in China; after this date it began to decay. Marco Polo
+  refers to it as existing in the 13th century; but then it fades out of
+  sight, leaving scant traces in Chinese literature of ever having
+  existed.
+
+
+    Manichaeism.
+
+  The Manichaeans, worshippers of the Chaldaean Mani or Man[=e]s, who
+  died about A.D. 274, appear to have found their way to China in the
+  year 694. In 719 an envoy from Tokharestan reached Ch'ang-an, bringing
+  a letter to the emperor, in which a request was made that an
+  astronomer who accompanied the mission might be permitted to establish
+  places of worship for persons of the Manichaean faith. Subsequently, a
+  number of such chapels were opened at various centres; but little is
+  known of the history of this religion, which is often confounded by
+  Chinese writers with Mazdeism, the fate of which it seems to have
+  shared, also disappearing about the middle of the 9th century.
+
+
+    Judaism.
+
+  By "the sect of those who take out the sinew," the Chinese refer to
+  the Jews and their peculiar method of preparing meat in order to make
+  it _kosher_. Wild stories have been told of their arrival in China
+  seven centuries before the Christian era, after one of the numerous
+  upheavals mentioned in the Old Testament; and again, of their having
+  carried the Pentateuch to China shortly after the Babylonish
+  captivity, and having founded a colony in Ho-nan in A.D. 72. The Jews
+  really reached China for the first time in the year A.D. 1163, and
+  were permitted to open a synagogue at the modern K'ai-fêng Fu in 1164.
+  There they seem to have lived peaceably, enjoying the protection of
+  the authorities and making some slight efforts to spread their tenets.
+  There their descendants were found, a dwindling community, by the
+  Jesuit Fathers of the 17th century; and there again they were visited
+  in 1850 by a Protestant mission, which succeeded in obtaining from
+  them Hebrew rolls of parts of the Pentateuch in the square character,
+  with vowel points. After this, it was generally believed that the few
+  remaining stragglers, who seemed to be entirely ignorant of everything
+  connected with their faith, had become merged in the ordinary
+  population. A recent traveller, however, asserts that in 1909 he found
+  at K'ai-fêng Fu a Jewish community, the members of which keep as much
+  as possible to themselves, worshipping in secret, and preserving their
+  ancient ritual and formulary.
+
+  See H. Hackmann, _Buddhism as a Religion_ (1910); H.A. Giles,
+  _Religions of Ancient China_ (1905); G. Smith, _The Jews at
+  K'ae-fung-foo_ (1851); Dabry de Thiersant, _Le Mahométisme en Chine_
+  (1878); P. Havret. S.J., _La Stèle chrétienne de Si-ngan-fou_ (1895).
+      (H. A. GI.)
+
+
+    Christian missions.
+
+  [Christian missions, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, are
+  established in every province in China. Freedom to embrace the
+  Christian faith has been guaranteed by the Chinese government since
+  1860, and as a rule the missionaries have free scope in teaching and
+  preaching, though local disturbances are not infrequent. The number of
+  members of the Roman Catholic Church in China was reckoned by the
+  Jesuit fathers at Shanghai to be, in 1907, "about one million"; in the
+  same year the Protestant societies reckoned in all 250,000 church
+  members. By the Chinese, Roman Catholicism is called the "Religion of
+  the Lord of Heaven"; Protestantism the "Religion of Jesus." For the
+  progress and effects of Christianity in China see § _History_, and
+  MISSIONS, § _China_.    ED.]
+
+
+_Education and the Press._
+
+The educational system of China till nearly the close of the 19th
+century was confined in its scope to the study of Chinese classics.
+Elementary instruction was not provided by the state. The well-to-do
+engaged private tutors for their sons; the poorer boys were taught in
+small schools on a voluntary basis. No curriculum was compulsory, but
+the books used and the programme pursued followed a traditional rule.
+The boys (there were no schools for girls) began by memorizing the
+classics for four or five years. Then followed letter-writing and easy
+composition. This completed the education of the vast majority of the
+boys not intended for the public service. The chief merit of the system
+was that it developed the memory and the imitative faculty. For
+secondary education somewhat better provision was made, practically the
+only method of attaining eminence in the state being through the schools
+(see § _Civil Service_). At prefectural cities and provincial capitals
+colleges were maintained at the public expense, and at these
+institutions a more or less thorough knowledge of the classics might be
+obtained. At the public examinations held periodically the exercises
+proposed were original poems and literary essays. Three degrees were
+conferred, _Siu-ts'ai_ (budding talent), _Chû-jên_ (promoted scholar)
+and _Chin-shih_ (entered scholar). The last degree was given to those
+who passed the final examination at Peking, and the successful
+candidates were also called metropolitan graduates.
+
+  The first education on western lines was given by the Roman Catholic
+  missionaries. In 1852 they founded a college for the education of
+  native priests; they also founded and maintained many primary and some
+  higher schools--mainly if not exclusively for the benefit of their
+  converts. The Protestant missions followed the example of the Roman
+  Catholics, but a new departure, which has had a wide success, was
+  initiated by the American Protestant missionary societies in founding
+  schools--primary and higher--and colleges in which western education
+  was given equally to all comers, Christian or non-Christian.
+  Universities and medical schools have also been established by the
+  missionary societies. They also initiated a movement for the education
+  of girls and opened special schools for their instruction.
+
+  Missionary effort apart, the first step towards western education was
+  the establishment of two colleges in 1861, one at Peking, the other at
+  Canton in connexion with the imperial maritime customs. These
+  institutions were known as T'ung Wen Kwan, and were provided with a
+  staff of foreign professors and teachers. These colleges were mainly
+  schools of languages to enable young Chinese to qualify as
+  interpreters in English, French, &c. Similar schools were established
+  at Canton, Fuchow and one or two other places, with but indifferent
+  results. A more promising plan was conceived in 1880, or thereabouts,
+  by the then viceroy of Nanking, who sent a batch of thirty or forty
+  students to America to receive a regular training on the understanding
+  that on their return they would receive official appointments. The
+  promise was not kept. A report was spread that these students were
+  becoming too much Americanized. They were hastily recalled, and when
+  they returned they were left in obscurity. The next step was taken by
+  the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95.
+  The viceroy wrote a book, _China's Only Hope_, which he circulated
+  throughout the empire, and in which he strongly advocated a reform of
+  the traditional educational system. His scheme was to make Chinese
+  learning the foundation on which a western education should be
+  imparted.[15] The book was one of the factors in the 1898 reform
+  movement, and Chang Chih-tung's proposals were condemned when that
+  movement was suppressed. But after the Boxer rising the Peking
+  government adopted his views, and in 1902 regulations were issued for
+  the reform of the old system of public instruction. A university on
+  western lines was established in that year at Peking, the T'ung Wen
+  Kwan at the capital being incorporated in it. The new educational
+  movement gained enormously in strength as the result of the
+  Russo-Japanese War, and in 1906 a new system, theoretically almost
+  perfect, was established. The new system comprises the study of the
+  Chinese language, literature and composition, modern sciences, history
+  and geography, foreign languages,[16] gymnastics, drill and, in the
+  higher grades, political economy, and civil and international law.
+
+  By 1910 primary and secondary government schools and schools for
+  special subjects (such as agriculture and engineering) had been
+  established in considerable numbers. In every province an Imperial
+  University was also established. The Imperial University at Peking now
+  teaches not only languages and Chinese subjects but also law,
+  chemistry, mathematics, &c. A medical school was founded at Peking in
+  1906 through the energy of British Protestant missionaries, and is
+  called the Union Medical College. When in 1908, the United States,
+  finding that the indemnity for the Boxer outrages awarded her was
+  excessive, agreed to forgo the payment of £2,500,000, China undertook
+  to spend an equal amount in sending students to America.
+
+  The general verdict of foreign observers on the working of the new
+  system up to 1910 was that in many instances the teaching was
+  ineffective, but there were notable exceptions. The best teachers,
+  next to Europeans, were foreign or mission-trained Chinese. The
+  Japanese employed as teachers were often ignorant of Chinese and were
+  not as a rule very successful. (See further § _History_.) A remarkable
+  indication of the thirst for western learning and culture was the
+  translation into Chinese and their diffusion throughout the country of
+  numerous foreign standard and other works, including modern fiction.
+
+
+    Native press.
+
+  The _Peking Gazette_, which is sometimes called the oldest paper in
+  the world, is not a newspaper in the ordinary sense, but merely a
+  court gazette for publishing imperial decrees and such public
+  documents as the government may wish to give out. It never contains
+  original articles nor any discussion of public affairs. The first
+  genuine native newspaper was published at Shanghai about 1870. It was
+  termed the _Shen Pao_ or _Shanghai News_, and was a Chinese
+  speculation under foreign protection, the first editor being an
+  Englishman. It was some years before it made much headway, but success
+  came, and it was followed by various imitators, some published at
+  Shanghai, some at other treaty ports and at Hong-Kong. In 1910 there
+  were over 200 daily, weekly or monthly journals in China. The effect
+  of this mass of literature on the public mind of China is of
+  first-rate importance.
+
+  The attitude of the central government towards the native press is
+  somewhat undefined. Official registration of a newspaper is required
+  before postal facilities are given. There are no press laws, but as
+  every official is a law unto himself in these matters, there is
+  nothing to prevent him from summarily suppressing an obnoxious
+  newspaper and putting the editor in prison. The emperor, among other
+  reform edicts which provoked the _coup d'état_ of 1898, declared that
+  newspapers were a boon to the public and appointed one of them a
+  government organ. The empress-dowager revoked this decree, and
+  declared that the public discussion of affairs of state in the
+  newspapers was an impertinence, and ought to be suppressed.
+  Nevertheless the newspapers continued to flourish, and their outspoken
+  criticism had a salutary effect on the public and on the government.
+  The official classes seem to have become alarmed at the independent
+  attitude of the newspapers, but instead of a campaign of suppression
+  the method was adopted, about 1908, of bringing the vernacular press
+  under official control. This was accomplished chiefly by the purchase
+  of the newspapers by the mandarins, with the result that at the
+  beginning of 1910 there was said to be hardly an independent native
+  daily newspaper left in China. The use of government funds to
+  subsidize or to purchase newspapers and thus to stifle or mislead
+  public opinion provoked strong protests from members of the Nanking
+  provincial council at its first sitting in the autumn of 1909. The
+  appropriation by the Shanghai Taot'ai of moneys belonging to the
+  Huangpu conservancy fund for subsidizing papers led to his impeachment
+  by a censor and to the return of the moneys.[17]     (X.)
+
+
+III. ECONOMICS
+
+_Agriculture and Industry._
+
+China is pre-eminently an agricultural country. The great majority of
+its inhabitants are cultivators of the soil. The holdings are in general
+very small, and the methods of farming primitive. Water is abundant and
+irrigation common over large areas. Stock-raising, except in Sze-ch'uen
+and Kwang-tung, is only practised to a small extent; there are few large
+herds of cattle or flocks of sheep, nor are there any large meadows,
+natural or cultivated. In Sze-ch'uen yaks, sheep and goats are reared in
+the mountains, and buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies on the plateau.
+Cattle are extensively reared in the mountainous districts of
+Kwang-tung. The camel, horse and donkey are reared in Chih-li. Forestry
+is likewise neglected. While the existing forests, found mainly in high
+regions in the provinces of Hu-nan, Fu-kien and Kwei-chow, are
+disappearing and timber has to be imported, few trees are planted. This
+does not apply to fruit trees, which are grown in great variety, while
+horticulture is also a favourite pursuit.
+
+The Chinese farmer, if his methods be primitive, is diligent and
+persevering. In the richer and most thickly populated districts terraces
+are raised on the mountain sides, and even the tops of lofty hills are
+cultivated. The nature of the soil and means of irrigation as well as
+climate are determining factors in the nature of the crops grown; rice
+and cotton, for example, are grown in the most northern as well as the
+most southern districts of China. This is, however, exceptional and each
+climatic region has its characteristic cultures.
+
+
+    Soils.
+
+  The loess soil (see § _Geology_) is the chief element in determining
+  the agricultural products of north China. Loess soil bears excellent
+  crops, and not merely on the lower grounds, but at altitudes of 6000
+  and 8000 ft. Wherever loess is found the peasant can live and thrive.
+  Only one thing is essential, and that is the annual rainfall. As,
+  owing to the porous nature of loess, no artificial irrigation is
+  possible, if the rain fails the crops must necessarily fail. Thus
+  seasons of great famine alternate with seasons of great plenty. It
+  appears, also, that the soil needs little or no manuring and very
+  little tillage. From its extremely friable nature it is easily broken
+  up, and thus a less amount of labour is required than in other parts.
+  The extreme porosity of the soil probably also accounts for the length
+  of time it will go on bearing crops without becoming exhausted. The
+  rainfall, penetrating deeply into the soil in the absence of
+  stratification, comes into contact with the moisture retained below,
+  which holds in solution whatever inorganic salts the soil may
+  contain, and thus the vegetation has an indefinite store to draw
+  upon.[18]
+
+  There is no one dominant deposit in south China, where red sandstone
+  and limestone formations are frequent. Cultivation here is not
+  possible on the high elevations as in the north, but in the plains and
+  river valleys the soil is exceedingly fertile, while the lower slopes
+  of the mountains are also cultivated. In the north, moreover, but one
+  crop, in general, can be raised in the year. In the centre two and
+  sometimes three crops are raised yearly, and in the south, especially
+  in the lower basin of the Si-kiang, three crops are normally gathered.
+  In the north, too, the farmer has frequently to contend with drought
+  or with rain or floods; in the central and southern regions the
+  weather is more settled.
+
+
+    Distribution of crops.
+
+  In the north of China wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and maize are
+  the staple crops. Beans and peas are also cultivated. Rice thrives in
+  north-east Kan-suh, in some districts of Shan-si, in the extreme south
+  of Shan-tung and in parts of the Wei-ho plain in Shen-si. Cotton is
+  grown in Shen-si and Shan-tung. In Kan-suh and Shen-si two crops are
+  raised in favoured localities, cereals in spring and cotton or rice in
+  summer. Tobacco and the poppy are also grown in several of the
+  northern provinces. Rhubarb and fruit trees are largely cultivated in
+  the western part of north China.
+
+  In the central provinces tea, cotton, rice and ramie fibre are the
+  chief crops. Tea is most largely cultivated in Ngan-hui, Kiang-si,
+  Hu-peh, Hu-nan, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan. Cotton is chiefly grown in
+  Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Hu-peh. The seed is sown in May and the crops
+  gathered in September. The cotton is known as white and yellow, the
+  white variety being the better and the most cultivated. The poppy is
+  largely cultivated and, in connexion with the silk industry, the
+  mulberry tree. The mulberry is found principally in the provinces of
+  Sze-ch'uen, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang. The central provinces are also
+  noted for their gum-lac, varnish and tallow trees.
+
+  The crops of the south-eastern provinces are much the same as those of
+  the central provinces, but are predominantly rice, the sugar-cane,
+  ground-nuts and cinnamon. Tea is the chief crop in Fu-kien. The
+  sugar-cane is principally cultivated in Kwang-tung, Fu-kien and
+  Sze-ch'uen. In the south-western provinces the poppy, tea, tobacco and
+  rice are the chief crops. Wheat, maize and barley are also largely
+  raised.
+
+  While rice does not, unlike tea and cotton, form the principal crop of
+  any one province it is more universally cultivated than any other
+  plant and forms an important item in the products of all the central
+  and southern provinces. Regarding China as a whole it forms the staple
+  product and food of the country. Two chief varieties are grown, that
+  suited only to low-lying regions requiring ample water and the red
+  rice cultivated in the uplands. Next to rice the most extensively
+  cultivated plants are tea and cotton, the sugar-cane, poppy and
+  bamboo. Besides the infinite variety of uses to which the wood of the
+  bamboo is applied, its tender shoots and its fruit are articles of
+  diet.
+
+
+    Fruits.
+
+  Fruit is extensively cultivated throughout China. In the northern
+  provinces the chief fruits grown are pears, plums, apples, apricots,
+  peaches, medlars, walnuts and chestnuts, and in Kan-suh and Shan-tung
+  the jujube (q.v.). Strawberries are an important crop in Kan-suh. In
+  Shan-si, S.W. Chih-li and Shan-tung the vine is cultivated; the grapes
+  of Shan-si are reputed to produce the best wine of China. Oranges are
+  also grown in favoured localities in the north. The chief fruits of
+  the central and southern provinces are the orange, lichi, mango,
+  persimmon, banana, vine and pineapple, but the fruits of the northern
+  regions are also grown. The coco-nut and other palms flourish on the
+  southern coast.
+
+
+    The poppy.
+
+  As shown above, the poppy has been grown in almost every district of
+  China. In 1906 it was chiefly cultivated in the following provinces:
+  Yun-nan, Kwei-chow, Sze-ch'uen, Kan-suh, Shen-si, Shan-si, Shan-tung,
+  Ho-nan, Kiang-su (northern part) and Cheh-kiang. The poppy is first
+  mentioned in Chinese literature in a book written in the first half of
+  the 8th century A.D., and its medicinal qualities are referred to in
+  the _Herbalist's Treasury_ of 973. It was not then nor for centuries
+  later grown in China for the preparation of opium.[19] There is no
+  evidence to show that the Chinese ever took opium in the shape of
+  pills (otherwise than medicinally). The cultivation of the poppy for
+  the manufacture of opium began in China in the 17th century, but it
+  was not until after 1796, when the importation of foreign opium was
+  declared illegal, that the plant was cultivated on an extensive scale.
+  After 1906 large areas which had been devoted to the poppy were given
+  over to other crops, in consequence of the imperial edict aimed at the
+  suppression of opium-smoking (see § _History_).
+
+_Mining._--The mineral resources of China are great, but the government
+has shown a marked repugnance to allow foreigners to work mines, and
+the mineral wealth has been very inadequately exploited. Mining
+operations are controlled by the Board of Commerce. In 1907 this board
+drew up regulations respecting the constitution of mining and other
+companies. They contained many features against which foreign powers
+protested.
+
+
+    Coal.
+
+  Coal, iron, copper and tin are the principal minerals found in China;
+  there are also extensive deposits of coal and other minerals in
+  Manchuria. In China proper the largest coal measures are found in
+  Shan-si, Hu-nan, Kwei-chow and Sze-ch'uen. There are also important
+  coalfields in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Ho-nan, Yun-nan, Hu-peh and
+  Kwang-tung--and almost all of the seven other provinces have also coal
+  measures of more or less value. The lack of transport facilities as
+  well as the aversion from the employment of foreign capital has
+  greatly hindered the development of mining. Numerous small mines have
+  been worked for a long period by the natives in the province of
+  Hu-nan. There are two principal local fields in this province, one
+  lying in the basin of the Lei river and yielding anthracite, and the
+  other in the basin of the Siang river yielding bituminous coal. Both
+  rivers drain into the Yangtsze, and there is thus an easy outlet by
+  water to Hankow. The quality of the coal, however, is inferior, as the
+  stratification has been much disturbed, and the coal-seams have been
+  in consequence crushed and broken. The largest coalfield in China lies
+  in the province of Shan-si. Coal and iron have here been worked by the
+  natives from time immemorial, but owing to the difficulty of transport
+  they have attained only a limited local circulation. The whole of
+  southern Shan-si, extending over 30,000 sq. m., is one vast coalfield,
+  and contains, according to the estimate of Baron von Richthofen,
+  enough coal to last the world at the present rate of consumption for
+  several thousand years. The coal-seams, which are from 20 to 36 ft. in
+  thickness, rest conformably on a substructure of limestone. The
+  stratification is throughout undisturbed and practically horizontal.
+  As the limestone bed is raised some 2000 ft. above the neighbouring
+  plain the coal-seams crop out in all directions. Mining is thus
+  carried on by adits driven into the face of the formation, rendering
+  the mining of the coal extremely easy. The coalfield is divided into
+  two by a mountain range of ancient granitic formation running
+  north-east and south-west, termed the Ho-shan. It is of anterior date
+  to the limestone and coal formations, and has not affected the
+  uniformity of the stratification, but it has this peculiarity, that
+  the coal on the east side is anthracite, and that on the west side is
+  bituminous. A concession to work coal and iron in certain specified
+  districts in this area was granted to a British company, the Peking
+  Syndicate, together with the right to connect the mines by railway
+  with water navigation. The syndicate built a railway in Shan-si from
+  P'ingyang to Tsi-chow-fu, the centre of a vast coalfield, and
+  connected with the main Peking-Hankow line; lines to serve coal mines
+  have also been built in Hu-nan and other provinces. The earliest in
+  date was that to the K'aip'ing collieries in the east of the province
+  of Chih-li, the railway connecting the mines with the seaport of Taku.
+  The coal at K'aip'ing is a soft bituminous coal with a large
+  proportion of dust. The output is about 1,500,000 tons per annum. A
+  mine has also been opened in the province of Hu-peh, about 60 m. below
+  Hankow, and near the Yangtsze, in connexion with iron-works.
+
+
+    Iron.
+
+  Iron ore of various qualities is found almost as widely diffused as
+  coal. The districts where it is most worked at present lie within the
+  coalfield of Shan-si, viz. at Tsi-chow-fu and P'ing-ting-chow. The ore
+  is a mixture of clay iron ore and spathic ore, together with limonite
+  and hematite. It is found abundantly in irregular deposits in the Coal
+  Measures, and is easily smelted by the natives in crucibles laid in
+  open furnaces. This region supplies nearly the whole of north China
+  with the iron required for agricultural and domestic use. The out-turn
+  must be very considerable, but no data are available for forming an
+  accurate estimate. The province of Sze-ch'uen also yields an abundance
+  of iron ores of various kinds. They are worked by the natives in
+  numerous places, but always on a small scale and for local consumption
+  only. The ores occur in the Coal Measures, predominant among them
+  being a clay iron ore. Hu-nan, Fu-kien, Cheh-kiang and Shan-tung all
+  furnish iron ores. Iron (found in conjunction with coal) is worked in
+  Manchuria.
+
+
+    Copper, tin, &c.
+
+  Copper is found chiefly in the provinces of Kwei-chow and Yun-nan,
+  where a rich belt of copper-bearing ores runs east and west across
+  both provinces, and including south Sze-ch'uen. The chief centres of
+  production are at the cities of Tung-ch'uen-fu, Chow-t'ung and
+  Ning-yuen. The mines are worked as a government monopoly, private
+  mining being nominally prohibited. The output is considerable, but no
+  statistics are published by government. Rich veins of copper ore are
+  also worked near Kiu-kiang. Tin is mined in Yun-nan, the headquarters
+  of the industry being the city of Meng-tsze, which since 1909 has been
+  connected with Hanoi by railway. This is an important industry, the
+  value of tin exported in 1908 being £600,000. Tin is also mined in
+  Hai-nan and lead in Yun-nan. Antimony ore is exported from Hu-nan;
+  petroleum is found in the upper Yangtsze region. Quicksilver is
+  obtained in Kwei-chow. Salt is obtained from brine wells in Shan-si
+  and Sze-ch'uen, and by evaporation from sea water. Excellent kaolin
+  abounds in the north-eastern part of Kiang-si, and is largely used in
+  the manufacture of porcelain.
+
+
+    Precious metals.
+
+  The Chinese government has opened small gold mines at Hai-nan, in
+  which island silver is also found. A little gold-washing is done in
+  the sandy beds of certain rivers, for instance, the Han river and the
+  upper Yangtsze, above Su-chow (Suifu), which here goes by the name of
+  the "Goldsand" river. The amount so extracted is extremely small and
+  hardly pays the labour of washing, but the existence of gold grains
+  points to a matrix higher up. The whole of south-western China has the
+  reputation of being highly metalliferous. Gold is obtained in some
+  quantities on the upper waters of the Amur river, on the frontier
+  between China and Siberia. The washings are carried on by Chinese.
+  Gold has also been found in quartz veins at P'ing-tu, in Shan-tung,
+  but hardly in paying quantities. There are silver mines in Yun-nan.
+
+
+    Silk and porcelain.
+
+  _Manufactures._--The principal native manufactures before the
+  competition of western nations made itself felt were--apart from the
+  preparation of tea and other produce for the market--those of
+  porcelain and silk. The silks and gauzes of Su-chow and Nanking in the
+  province of Kiang-su, and those of Hang-chow in Cheh-kiang, are highly
+  esteemed throughout China. Silk-weaving is still carried on solely in
+  native looms and chiefly in the cities named. The greater part of the
+  silk spun is used in China, but a considerable export trade has grown
+  up and 27% of the world's supply of raw silk is from China. The
+  reeling of silk cocoons by steam-machinery is supplanting native
+  methods. There are filatures for winding silk at Shanghai, Canton,
+  Chifu and other cities.
+
+  The most famous porcelain came from the province of Kiang-si, the seat
+  of the industry being the city of King-te-chen. Imperial works were
+  established here about the year A.D. 1000, and the finest porcelain is
+  sent to Peking for the use of the emperor. At one time 1,000,000
+  work-people were said to be employed, and the kilns numbered 600. The
+  Taiping rebels destroyed the kilns in 1850. Some of them have been
+  rebuilt. "Activity begins to reign anew, but the porcelain turned out
+  is far from equalling in colour and finish that of former times. At
+  the present day King-te-chen has but 160 furnaces and employs 160,000
+  workmen."[20] The common rice bowls sold throughout China are
+  manufactured here. The value of the export sales is said to be about
+  £500,000 yearly.
+
+
+    Cotton, &c.
+
+  The spinning and weaving of cotton on hand-looms is carried on almost
+  universally. Besides that locally manufactured, the whole of the large
+  import of Indian yarn is worked up into cloth by the women of the
+  household. Four-fifths of the clothing of the lower classes is
+  supplied by this domestic industry. Of minor industries Indian ink is
+  manufactured in Ngan-hui and Sze-ch'uen, fans, furniture, lacquer ware
+  and matting in Kwang-tung, dyes in Cheh-kiang and Chih-li, and
+  varnished tiles in Hu-nan. Paper, bricks and earthenware are made in
+  almost all the provinces.
+
+  Of industries on a large scale--other than those indicated--the most
+  important are cotton-spinning and weaving mills established by foreign
+  companies at Shanghai. Permission to carry on this industry was
+  refused to foreigners until the right was secured by the Japanese
+  treaty following the war of 1894-95. Some native-owned mills had been
+  working before that date, and were reported to have made large
+  profits. Nine mills, with an aggregate of 400,000 spindles, were
+  working in 1906, five of them under foreign management. There are also
+  four or five mills at one or other of the ports working 80,000
+  spindles more. These mills are all engaged in the manufacture of yarn
+  for the Chinese market, very little weaving being done. Chinese-grown
+  cotton is used, the staple of which is short; only the coarser counts
+  can be spun.
+
+  At certain large centres flour and rice mills have been erected and
+  are superseding native methods of treating wheat and rice; at Canton
+  there are sugar refineries. At Hanyang near Hankow are large
+  iron-works owned by Chinese. They are supplied with ore from the mines
+  at Ta-ye, 60 m. distant, and turn out (1909) about 300 steel rails a
+  day.
+
+
+_Commerce_.
+
+  The foreign trade of China is conducted through the "treaty ports,"
+  i.e. sea and river ports and a few inland cities which by the treaty
+  of Nanking (1842) that of Tientsin (1860) and subsequent treaties have
+  been thrown open to foreigners for purposes of trade. (The Nanking
+  treaty recognized five ports only as open to foreigners--Canton,[21]
+  Amoy, Fu-chow, Ning-po and Shanghai.) These places are as follows,
+  treaty ports in Manchuria being included: Amoy, Antung, Canton,
+  Chang-sha, Dairen, Chin-kiang, Chinwantao, Ch'ungk'ing, Chifu,
+  Fu-chow, Funing (Santuao), Hang-chow, Hankow, I-ch'ang, Kang-moon,
+  Kiao-chow, Kiu-kiang, K'iung-chow, Kow-loon, Lappa, Lung-chow,
+  Mengtsze, Mukden, Nanking, Nanning, Ning-po, Niu-chwang, Pakhoi,
+  Sanshui, Shanghai, Shasi, Su-chow, Swatow, Szemao, Tatungkow,
+  Tientsin, Teng-yueh, Wen-chow, Wu-chow, Wuhu, Yo-chow.
+
+  The progress of the foreign trade of China is set out in the
+  following table. The values are given both in currency and sterling,
+  but it is to be remarked that during the period when silver was
+  falling, that is, from 1875 to 1893, the silver valuation represents
+  much more accurately variations in the volume of trade than does the
+  gold valuation. Gold prices fell continuously during this period,
+  while silver prices were nearly constant. Since 1893 silver prices
+  have tended to rise, and the gold valuation is then more accurate. The
+  conversion from silver to gold is made at the rate of exchange of the
+  day, and therefore varies from year to year.
+
+
+  _Table of Imports and Exports, exclusive of Bullion._
+
+  +--------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
+  |        |          Imports.         |          Exports.         |
+  |        +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+  |  Year. |   Value in  |Equivalent in|   Value in  |Equivalent in|
+  |        |    Taels.   |  Sterling.  |    Taels.   |  Sterling.  |
+  +--------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+  |   1875 |  66,344,000 | £19,903,000 |  77,308,000 | £23,193,000 |
+  |   1885 |  84,803,000 |  22,618,000 |  73,899,000 |  19,206,000 |
+  |   1890 | 113,082,000 |  29,213,000 |  96,695,000 |  24,980,000 |
+  |   1895 | 154,685,000 |  25,136,000 | 154,964,000 |  25,181,000 |
+  |   1898 | 189,991,000 |  28,498,000 | 170,743,000 |  25,612,000 |
+  |[A]1904 | 344,060,000 |  49,315,000 | 239,486,000 |  34,326,000 |
+  |[A]1905 | 447,100,791 |  67,065,118 | 227,888,197 |  34,183,229 |
+  +--------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+  [A] This marked increase is partly owing to a more complete
+  presentation of statistics; in 1903 an additional number of vessels
+  were placed under the control of the imperial maritime customs.
+
+
+  In 1907 the net imports were valued at £67,664,222 and the exports at
+  £42,961,863. In 1908 China suffered from the general depression in
+  trade. In that year the imports were valued at £52,600,730, the
+  exports at £36,888,050. The distribution of the trade among the
+  various countries of the world is shown in the table which is given
+  below. Hong-Kong is a port for trans-shipment. The imports into China
+  from it come originally from Great Britain, India, Germany, France,
+  America, Australia, the Straits Settlements, &c., and the exports from
+  China to it go ultimately to the same countries.
+
+
+  _Imports into China._ (000's omitted.)
+
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+  |    Imports from         |1875.|1880.|1885.| 1890.| 1895.| 1905.|   1908.|
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+  |United Kingdom           |£6340|£6382|£6396|£6,357|£5,518|£1,971|  £9,647|
+  |Hong-Kong                | 8282| 8829| 9404|18,615|14,331|22,240|  20,033|
+  |India                    | 4451| 6039| 4306| 2,661| 2,753| 5,220|   4,066|
+  |Other British possessions|  396|  346|  542|   571|   732|   963|        |
+  |United States            |  304|  351|  884|   949|   827|11,538|   5,499|
+  |Continent of Europe      |     |     |     |      |      |      |        |
+  |  (except Russia)        |  230|  671|  671|   638| 1,227| 4,295|[B]3,332|
+  |Russian Empire           |  .. |  .. |  .. |   231|   309|   302|     422|
+  |Japan                    |  746| 1021| 1404| 1,909| 2,794| 9,197|   7,000|
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+
+
+  _Exports from China._ (000's omitted.)
+
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+  |    Imports from         |1875.|1880.|1885.| 1890.| 1895.| 1905.|   1908.|
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+  |United Kingdom           |£6340|£6382|£6396|£6,357|£5,518|£1,971|  £9,647|
+  |Hong-Kong                | 8282| 8829| 9404|18,615|14,331|22,240|  20,033|
+  |India                    | 4451| 6039| 4306| 2,661| 2,753| 5,220|   4,066|
+  |Other British possessions|  396|  346|  542|   571|   732|   963|        |
+  |United States            |  304|  351|  884|   949|   827|11,538|   5,499|
+  |Continent of Europe      |     |     |     |      |      |      |        |
+  |  (except Russia)        |  230|  671|  671|   638| 1,227| 4,295|[B]3,332|
+  |Russian Empire           |  .. |  .. |  .. |   231|   309|   302|     422|
+  |Japan                    |  746| 1021| 1404| 1,909| 2,794| 9,197|   7,000|
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+
+  [B] Germany, France, Belgium and Italy only.
+
+
+  The chief imports are cotton goods, opium, rice and sugar, metals,
+  oil, coal and coke, woollen goods and raw cotton, and fish. Cotton
+  goods are by far the most important of the imports. They come chiefly
+  from the United Kingdom, which also exports to China woollen
+  manufactures, metals and machinery. China is next to India the
+  greatest consumer of Manchester goods. The export of plain cotton
+  cloths to China and Hong-Kong has for some years averaged 500,000,000
+  yds. per annum. The only competitor which Great Britain has in this
+  particular branch of trade is the United States of America, which has
+  been supplying China with increasing quantities of cotton goods. The
+  value in sterling of the total imports into China from the United
+  Kingdom long remained nearly constant, but inasmuch as the gold prices
+  were falling the volume of the export was in reality steadily growing.
+  The imports into England, however, of Chinese produce have fallen off,
+  mainly because China tea has been driven out of the English market by
+  the growth of the India and Ceylon tea trade, and also because the
+  bulk of the China silk is now shipped directly to Lyons and other
+  continental ports instead of to London, as formerly was the rule. The
+  growth of the import of Indian yarn into China has been very rapid. In
+  1884 the import was 35,000,000 lb and in 1904 it reached 217,171,066
+  lb. The imports into China from all countries for 1908 were as
+  follows:--
+
+    Opium          £4,563,000       Coal and coke   1,124,000
+    Cotton goods   14,786,000       Oil, kerosene   2,666,000
+    Raw cotton        232,000       Rice            3,543,000
+    Woollen goods     717,000       Sugar           3,514,000
+    Metals          2,956,000       Fish, &c.       1,028,000
+
+  The principal exports from China are silk and tea. These two articles,
+  indeed, up to 1880 constituted more than 80% of the whole export.
+  Owing, however, mainly to the fall in silver, and partly also to cheap
+  ocean freights, it has become profitable to place on the European
+  market a vast number of miscellaneous articles of Chinese produce
+  which formerly found no place in the returns of trade. The silver
+  prices in China did not change materially with the fall in silver, and
+  Chinese produce was thus able to compete favourably with the produce
+  of other countries. The following table shows the relative condition
+  of the export trade in 1880 and 1908:--
+
+  +---------------+-------------+-------------+
+  | Exports of    |     1880.   |     1908.   |
+  +---------------+-------------+-------------+
+  | Silk          |  £9,750,000 | £11,055,000 |
+  | Tea           |  11,774,000 |   4,384,000 |
+  | Miscellaneous |   4,058,000 |  21,448,000 |
+  +---------------+-------------+-------------+
+  |    Total      | £25,582,000 | £36,888,000 |
+  +---------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+  In the miscellaneous class the chief items of exports in 1908 were
+  beans and beancake, £3,142,000; raw cotton, £1,379,000; hides,
+  £1,028,000; straw braid, £1,002,000; furs and skin rugs, £760,000;
+  paper, £458,000; and clothing, £177,000. Sugar, tobacco, mats and
+  matting are also exported. The export of all cereals except pulse is
+  forbidden. Of the tea exported in 1908 the greater part went to Russia
+  and Siberia, the United States and Great Britain. There is a regular
+  export of gold amounting on an average to about a million sterling per
+  annum. A part of it would seem to be the hoardings of the nation
+  brought out by the high price of gold in terms of silver, but a part
+  is virgin gold derived from gold workings in Manchuria on the upper
+  waters of the Amur river.
+
+  Customs duty is levied on exports as well as imports, both being
+  assessed at rates based on a nominal 5% ad val.
+
+  _Shipping and Navigation._--Besides the over-sea trade China has a
+  large coasting and river trade which is largely carried on by British
+  and other foreign vessels. During the year 1908, 207,605 vessels, of
+  83,991,289 tons (86,600 being steamers of 77,955,525 tons), entered
+  and cleared Chinese ports.[22] Of these 28,445 vessels of 34,405,761
+  tons were British; 33,539 of 11,998,588 tons, Chinese vessels of
+  foreign type; 103,124 of 4,947,272 tons, Chinese junks; 5496 vessels
+  of 6,585,671 tons, German; 30,708 of 18,055,138 tons, Japanese; 653 of
+  998,775 tons, American; 3901 of 5,071,689 tons, French; 1033 of
+  980,635 tons, Norwegian.
+
+  Of vessels engaged in the foreign trade only the entrances during the
+  year numbered 38,556 of 12,187,140 tons, and the clearances 36,602 of
+  12,057,126 tons. The nationality of the vessels (direct foreign trade)
+  was mainly as follows:--
+
+  +-------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |             |     Entrances.     |     Clearances.    |
+  | Nationality +--------+-----------+--------+-----------+
+  |   1908.     |  No.   |   Tons.   |  No.   |   Tons.   |
+  +-------------+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+
+  | British     |  4,569 | 4,678,094 |  4,614 | 4,754,087 |
+  | German      |    891 | 1,195,775 |    928 | 1,124,872 |
+  | Norwegian   |    255 |   254,211 |    259 |   255,295 |
+  | French      |    468 |   629,680 |    468 |   616,883 |
+  | American    |    136 |   440,602 |    131 |   439,947 |
+  | Japanese    |  2,187 | 2,587,818 |  2,046 | 2,461,132 |
+  | Chinese     | 29,775 | 2,001,872 | 27,888 | 1,915,258 |
+  +-------------+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+
+
+  The tonnage of the Dutch, Austrian and Russian vessels cleared and
+  entered was in each case between 102,000 and 127,000.
+
+
+_Communications._
+
+  External communication is carried on by ancient caravan routes
+  crossing Central Asia, by the trans-Siberian railway, which is
+  increasingly used for passenger traffic, but chiefly by steamship,
+  the steamers being almost entirely owned by foreign companies. There
+  is regular and rapid communication with Europe (via the Suez canal
+  route) and with Japan and the Pacific coast of America. Other lines
+  serve the African and the Australasian trade. The only important
+  Chinese-owned steamers are those of the Chinese Merchants' Steam
+  Navigation Company, which has its headquarters at Shanghai.
+
+  Internal communications are by river, canal, road and railway, the
+  railways since the beginning of the 20th century having become a very
+  important factor. In 1898 the Chinese government agreed that all
+  internal waterways should be open to foreign and native steamers, and
+  in 1907 there were on the registers of the river ports for inland
+  water traffic 609 steamers under the Chinese flag and 255 under
+  foreign flags.
+
+
+    The Pioneer Line destroyed.
+
+    China's first efforts.
+
+    The era of concessions.
+
+    Administration.
+
+  _Railways._--A short line of railway between Shanghai and Wusung was
+  opened in 1875. The fate of this pioneer railway may be mentioned as
+  an introduction to what follows. The railway was really built without
+  any regular permission from the Chinese government, but it was hoped
+  that, once finished and working, the irregularity would be overlooked
+  in view of the manifest benefit to the people. This might have been
+  accomplished but for an unfortunate accident which happened on the
+  line a few months after it was opened. A Chinaman was run over and
+  killed, and this event, of course, intensified the official
+  opposition, and indeed threatened to bring about a riot. The working
+  of the line was stopped by order of the British minister, and
+  thereupon negotiations were entered into with a view to selling the
+  line to the Chinese government. A bargain was struck sufficiently
+  favourable to the foreign promoters of the line, and it was further
+  agreed that, pending payment of the instalments which were spread over
+  a year, the line should continue to be worked by the company. The
+  expectation was that when the officials once got the line into their
+  own hands, and found it a paying concern, they would continue to run
+  it in their own interest. Not so, however, did things fall out. The
+  very day that the twelve months were up the line was closed; the
+  engines were dismantled, the rails and sleepers were torn up, and the
+  whole concern was shipped off to the distant island of Formosa, where
+  carriages, axles and all the rest of the gear were dumped on the shore
+  and left for the most part to disappear in the mud. The spacious area
+  of the Shanghai station was cleared of its buildings, and thereon was
+  erected a temple to the queen of heaven by way of purifying the sacred
+  soil of China from such abomination. This put a stop for nearly twenty
+  years to all efforts on the part of foreigners to introduce railways
+  into China. The next step in railway construction was taken by the
+  Chinese themselves, and on the initiative of Li Hung-chang. In 1886 a
+  company was formed under official patronage, and it built a short
+  line, to connect the coal-mines of K'aip'ing in Chih-li with the mouth
+  of the Peiho river at Taku. The government next authorized the
+  formation of a Native Merchants' Company, under official control, to
+  build a line from Taku to Tientsin, which was opened to traffic in
+  1888. It was not, however, till nine years later, viz. in 1897, that
+  the line was completed as far as Peking. A British engineer, Mr
+  Kinder, was responsible for the construction of the railway. Meantime,
+  however, the extension had been continued north-east along the coast
+  as far as Shanhai-Kwan, and a farther extension subsequently connected
+  with the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The money for these extensions was
+  mostly found by the government, and the whole line is now known as the
+  Imperial Northern railway. The length of the line is 600 m. Meanwhile
+  the high officials of the empire had gradually been brought round to
+  the idea that railway development was in itself a good thing. Chang
+  Chih-tung, then viceroy of the Canton provinces, memorialized strongly
+  in this sense, with the condition, however, that the railways should
+  be built with Chinese capital and of Chinese materials. In particular,
+  he urged the making of a line to connect Peking with Hankow for
+  strategic purposes. The government took him at his word, and he was
+  transferred from Canton to Hankow, with authority to proceed forthwith
+  with his railway. True to his purpose, he at once set to work to
+  construct iron-works at Hankow. Smelting furnaces, rolling mills, and
+  all the machinery necessary for turning out steel rails, locomotives,
+  &c., were erected. Several years were wasted over this preliminary
+  work, and over £1,000,000 sterling was spent, only to find that the
+  works after all were a practical failure. Steel rails could be made,
+  but at a cost two or three times what they could be procured for in
+  Europe. After the Japanese War the hope of building railways with
+  Chinese capital was abandoned. A prominent official named Sheng
+  Hsuan-hwai was appointed director-general of railways, and empowered
+  to enter into negotiations with foreign financiers for the purpose of
+  raising loans. It was still hoped that at least the main control would
+  remain in Chinese hands, but the diplomatic pressure of France and
+  Russia caused even that to be given up, and Great Britain insisting on
+  equal privileges for her subjects, the future of railways in China
+  remained in the hands of the various concessionaires. But after the
+  defeat of Russia by Japan (1904-1905) the theory of the undivided
+  Chinese control of railways was resuscitated. The new spirit was
+  exemplified in the contracts for the financing and construction of
+  three railways--the Canton-Kowloon line in 1907, and the
+  Tientsin-Yangtsze and the Shanghai-Hangchow-Ning-po lines in 1908. In
+  the first of these instances the railway was mortgaged as security for
+  the loan raised for its construction, and its finance and working were
+  to be modelled on the arrangements obtaining in the case of the
+  Imperial Northern railway, under which the administration, while
+  vested in the Chinese government, was supervised by a British
+  accountant and chief engineer. In the other two instances, however, no
+  such security was offered; the Chinese government undertook the
+  unfettered administration of the foreign capital invested in the
+  lines, and the Europeans connected with these works became simply
+  Chinese employés. Moreover, in 1908 the Peking-Hankow line was
+  redeemed from Belgian concessionaires, a 5% loan of £5,000,000 being
+  raised for the purpose in London and Paris. In that year there was
+  much popular outcry against foreign concessionaires being allowed to
+  carry out the terms of their contract, and the British and Chinese
+  corporation in consequence parted with their concession for the
+  Su-chow, Ning-po and Hang-chow railway, making instead a loan of
+  £1,500,000 to the ministry of communications for the provinces through
+  which the line would run. A double difficulty was encountered in the
+  construction and management of the railways; the reconciliation of the
+  privileges accorded to foreign syndicates and governments with the
+  "Recovery of Rights" campaign, and the reconciliation of the claims of
+  the central government at Peking with the demands of the provincial
+  authorities. As to the foreigners, Great Britain, France, Germany, the
+  United States, Russia and Japan, all had claims and concessions, many
+  of them conflicting; while as between Peking and the provinces there
+  was a quarrel mainly concerned with the spoils and "squeezes" to be
+  obtained by railway construction; in some instances the provinces
+  proved more powerful than the central government, as in the case of
+  the Su-chow-Ning-po line, and notably in the matter of the
+  Tientsin-Pukau (Nanking) railway. In that case the provincial
+  authorities overrode the central government, with the result that "for
+  wholesale jobbery, waste and mismanagement the enterprise acquired
+  unenviable notoriety in a land where these things are generally
+  condoned." The good record of one or two lines notwithstanding, the
+  management of the railways under Chinese control had proved, up to
+  1910, inefficient and corrupt.[23] Nevertheless, so great was the
+  economic development following the opening of the line, that in
+  Chinese hands the Peking-Hankow railway yielded a profit.
+
+
+    The Railway systems.
+
+  The main scheme of the railway systems of China is simple. It consists
+  of lines, more or less parallel, running roughly north and south,
+  linked by cross lines with coast ports, or abutting on navigable
+  rivers. One great east and west line will run through central China,
+  from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen. Connexion with Europe is afforded by the
+  Manchuria-trans-Siberia main line, which has a general east and west
+  direction. From Harbin on this railway a branch runs south to Mukden,
+  which since 1908 has become an important railway centre. Thence one
+  line goes due south to Port Arthur; another south-east to An-tung (on
+  the Yalu) and Korea; a third south and west to Tientsin and Peking. A
+  branch from the Mukden-Tientsin line goes round the head of the Gulf
+  of Liao-tung and connects Niu-chwang with the Mukden-Port Arthur line.
+  By this route it is 470 m. from Peking to Niu-chwang.
+
+  From Peking the trunk line (completed in 1905) runs south through the
+  heart of China to Hankow on the Yangtsze-kiang. This section (754 m.
+  long) is popularly known as "the Lu-Han line," from the first part of
+  the names of the terminal stations. The continuation south of this
+  line from Hankow to Canton was in 1910 under construction. Thus a
+  great north and south connexion nearly 2000 m. long is established
+  from Canton to Harbin. From Mukden southward the line is owned and
+  worked by China.
+
+  A railway (German concession) starts from Kiao-chow and runs westward
+  through Shan-tung to Chinan Fu, whence an extension farther west to
+  join the main Lu-Han line at Cheng-ting Fu in Chih-li was undertaken.
+  Westward from Cheng-ting Fu a line financed by the Russo-Chinese Bank
+  runs to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si.
+
+  Another main north and south railway parallel to, but east of, the
+  Lu-Han line and following more or less the route of the Grand Canal,
+  is designed to connect Tientsin, Su-chow (in Kiang-su), Chin-kiang,
+  Nanking, Shanghai, Hang-chow and Ning-po. The southern section
+  (Nanking, Shanghai, &c.) was open in 1909. This Tientsin-Ning-po
+  railway connects at Chinan-Fu with the Shan-tung lines.
+
+  A third north and south line starts from Kiu-Kiang on the Yangtsze
+  below Hankow and traversing the centre of Kiang-si province will join
+  the Canton-Hankow line at Shao-Chow in Kwang-tung province. The
+  construction of the first section, Kiu-Kiang to Nanchang (76 m.),
+  began in 1910.
+
+  In southern China besides the main Canton to Hankow railway (under
+  construction) a line (120 m. long) runs from Canton to Kowloon
+  (opposite Hong-Kong), and there are local lines running inland from
+  Swatow and Fuchow. The French completed in 1909 a trunk line (500 m.
+  long) from Haiphong in Tong King to Yun-nan Fu, the capital of
+  Yun-nan, some 200 m. being in Chinese territory. The French hold
+  concessions for railways in Kwang-si and Kwang-tung. The British
+  government has the right to extend the Burma railway system through
+  Yun-nan and north to the Yangtsze.
+
+  There are local lines in Hu-nan and Ho-nan which connect with the
+  trunk line from Canton to Peking. The Peking-Kalgan line (122 m. long)
+  is a distinct undertaking. The Chinese propose to continue it another
+  530 m. north-westward to Urga in Mongolia, and an eventual junction
+  with the trans-Siberian railway in the neighbourhood of Lake Baikal is
+  contemplated. This line would greatly shorten the distance between
+  Moscow and Peking.
+
+  In 1910 there were open for traffic in China (not reckoning the
+  Russian and Japanese systems in Manchuria, _q.v._) over 3000 m. of
+  railway, and 1500 m. of trunk lines were under construction.
+
+
+    Roads, rivers, and canals.
+
+  China is traversed in all directions by roads. Very few are paved of
+  metalled and nearly all are badly kept; speaking generally, the
+  government spends nothing in keeping either the roads or canals in
+  repair. The roads in several instances are subsidiary to the canals
+  and navigable rivers as a means of communication. The ancient trade
+  routes were twelve in number, viz.[24]:--
+
+     1.  The West river route (W. from Canton).
+     2.  The Cheling Pass route (N.W. from Canton).
+     3.  The Meiling Pass route (N. from Canton).
+     4.  The Min river route (N.W. from Fu-chow).
+     5.  The Lower Yangtsze route (as far W. as Hu-peh and Hu-nan).
+     6.  The Upper Yangtsze route (from I'chang to Sze-ch'uen).
+     7.  The Kwei-chow route.
+     8.  The Han river route (Hankow to Shen-si).
+     9.  The Grand Canal (already described).
+    10.  The Shan-si route.
+    11.  The Kiakhta route.
+    12.  The Manchurian route.
+
+  Of the routes named, that by the West river commands the trade of
+  Kwang-si and penetrates to Yun-nan (where it now has to meet the
+  competition of the French railway from Tong King) and Kwei-chow. The
+  Cheling Pass route from Canton is so named as it crosses that pass
+  (1500 ft. high) to reach the water-ways of Hu-nan at Chen-chow on an
+  affluent of the Siang, and thus connects with the Yangtsze. The trade
+  of this route--whence in former times the teas of Hu-nan (Oonam) and
+  Hu-peh (Oopaek) reached Canton--has been largely diverted via Shanghai
+  and up the Yangtsze. The Canton-Hankow railway also supersedes it for
+  through traffic. The route by the Meiling Pass (1000 ft. High) links
+  Canton and Kiu-kiang. This route is used by the King-te Chen porcelain
+  works to send, to Canton the commoner ware, there to be painted with
+  florid and multicoloured designs. The Min river route serves mainly
+  the province of Fu-kien. The Lower Yangtsze is a river route, now
+  mainly served by steamers (though the salt is still carried by junks),
+  and the Upper Yangtsze is a river route also, but much more difficult
+  of navigation. The Kwei-chow route is up the river Yuen from Changte
+  and the Tung-t'ing lake. The Han river route becomes beyong Sing-nagn
+  Fu a land route over the Tsingling mountains to the capital of
+  Shen-si, and thence on to Kan-suh, Mongolia and Siberia. The Shan-si
+  route from Peking, wholly by road, calls for no detailed account; the
+  Manchurian route is now adequately served by railways. There remains
+  the important Kiakhta route. From Peking it goes to Kalgan (this
+  section is now served by a railway), whence the main route traverses
+  Mongolia, while branches serve Shan-si, Shen-si, Kan-suh, Turkestan,
+  &c. By this route go the caravans bearing tea to Siberia and Russia.
+  Other routes are from Yun-nan to Burma and from Sze-ch'uen province to
+  Tibet.
+
+  The government maintains a number of courier roads, which, like the
+  main trade roads, keep approximately to a straight line. These courier
+  roads are sometimes cut in the steep sides of mountains or run through
+  them in tunnels. They are, in the plains, 20 to 25 ft. wide and are
+  occasionally paved. The chief courier roads starting from Peking go to
+  Sze-chu'en, Yun-nan, Kweilin (in Kwang-si), Canton and Fu-chow. Canals
+  are numerous, especially in the deltas of the Yangtsze and Si-kiang.
+
+  In the centre and south of China the roads are rarely more than 5 ft.
+  broad and wheeled traffic is seldom possible. Bridges are generally of
+  stone, sometimes of wood; large rivers are crossed by bridges of
+  boats. In the north carts drawn by ponies, mules or oxen are employed;
+  in the centre and south passengers travel in sedan-chairs or in
+  wheelbarrows, or ride on ponies. Occasionally the local authorities
+  employ the corvée system to dig out the bed of a canal, but as a rule
+  roads are left to take care of themselves.
+
+  _Posts and Telegraphs._--Every important city is now connected by
+  telegraph with the capital, and the service is reasonably efficient.
+  In 1907 there were 25,913 m. of telegraph lines. Connexion is also
+  established with the British lines in Burma and the Russian lines in
+  Siberia. The Great Northern Telegraph Company (Danish) and the Eastern
+  Extension Telegraph Company (British) connect Shanghai by cable with
+  Hong-Kong, Japan, Singapore and Europe. An imperial _postal service_
+  was established in 1896 under the general control of the maritime
+  customs.[25] By an edict of November 1906 the control of the postal
+  services was transferred to the Board of Communication. The Post
+  Office serves all the open ports, and every important city in the
+  interior. There were in 1910 some 4000 native post-offices, employing
+  15,000 persons, of whom about 200 only were foreigners. The treaty
+  powers however, still maintain their separate post offices at
+  Shanghai, and several other treaty ports for the despatch and receipt
+  of mails from Europe. During the years 1901-1908 mail matters
+  increased from ten millions to two hundred and fifty-two millions of
+  items; and the 250 tons of parcels handled to 27,155 tons. In postal
+  matters China has adopted a most progressive attitude. The imperial
+  post conforms in all respects to the universal Postal Union
+  regulations.    (G. J.; X.)
+
+
+IV. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
+
+Changes in the traditional form of government in China--an autocracy
+based on parental rule--were initiated in 1905 when a commission was
+appointed to study the forms of government in other countries.[26] On
+the 1st of September 1906 an imperial edict was issued in which the
+establishment of parliamentary institutions in China was foreshadowed.
+In 1907 an advisory council--as a sort of stepping-stone to
+representative government--was established by another edict. On the
+27th of August 1908 an edict announced the convocation of a parliament
+in the ninth year from that date. An edict of the 3rd of December 1908
+reaffirmed that of the 27th of August. An edict of the 31st of October
+1909 fixed the classes from which an Imperial Assembly (or Senate) was
+to be selected, and an edict of the 9th of May 1910 gave the names of
+the senators, all of whom had been nominated by the throne. The assembly
+as thus constituted consisted of 200 members drawn from eight classes:
+(1) princes and nobles of the imperial house--16 members; (2) Manchu and
+Chinese nobles--12 members; (3) princes and nobles of dependencies--14
+members; (4) imperial clansmen other than those mentioned--6 members;
+(5) Peking officials--32 members; (6) eminent scholars--10 members; (7)
+exceptional property owners--10 members; (8) representatives of
+provincial assemblies--100 members. The national assembly, which was
+opened by the regent on the 3rd of October 1910, thus contained the
+elements of a two-chambered parliament. The edict summoning the assembly
+contained the following exhortations:--
+
+  The members should understand that this assemblage of the senate is an
+  unprecedented undertaking in China and will be the forerunner of the
+  creation of a parliament. They are earnestly desired to devote to it
+  their patriotism and sincerity, to observe proper order, and to fulfil
+  their duties in representing public opinion. Thus it is hoped that our
+  sincere wish to effect constitutional reforms in their proper order
+  and to aim at success may be duly satisfied.
+
+Concurrently with these steps towards a fundamental alteration in the
+method of government, changes were made in many departments of the
+state, and an elective element was introduced into the provincial
+administrations. The old conception of government with such
+modifications as had been made up to 1910 are set forth below.
+
+
+    The Chinese conception of government.
+
+  The laws of the state prescribe the government of the country to be
+  based on the government of the family.[27] The emperor is the sole and
+  supreme head of the state, his will being absolute alike in the
+  highest affairs and in the humblest details of private life. The
+  highest form of legislation was an imperial decree, whether
+  promulgated in general terms or to meet a special case. In either form
+  it was the law of the land, and no privilege or prescriptive right
+  could be pleaded against it. All officers of state, all judges and
+  magistrates, hold their offices entirely at the imperial pleasure.
+  They can be dismissed, degraded, punished, without reason assigned and
+  without form of trial--even without knowing by whom or of what they
+  are accused. The monarch has an advisory council, but he is not bound
+  by its advice, nor need he pretend that he is acting by and with its
+  advice and concurrence. This condition of affairs dates back to a
+  primitive state of society, which probably existed among the Chinese
+  who first developed a civilized form of government. That this system
+  should have been maintained in China through many centuries is a fact
+  into the causes of which it is worth while to inquire. We find it
+  pictured in the records which make up the _Book of History_, and we
+  find it enforced in the writings of the great apostle of patriarchal
+  institutions, Confucius, and in all the other works which go to make
+  up the Confucian Canon. The reverence with which these scriptures are
+  viewed was the principal means of perpetuating the primitive form of
+  Chinese imperialism. The contents of their pages formed the study of
+  every schoolboy, and supplied the themes at the competitive
+  examinations through which every one had to pass who sought an
+  official career. Thus the mind of the nation was constantly and almost
+  exclusively turned towards them, and their dogmas became part and
+  parcel of the national training. The whole theory of government is the
+  embodiment of parental love and filial piety. As the people are the
+  children of the emperor, so is he the _T'ien-tsze_ or the Son of
+  Heaven.
+
+
+    The emperor.
+
+  In practice the arbitrary power of the emperor is tempered in several
+  ways. Firstly, although the constitution conferred this absolute and
+  unchecked power on the emperor, it was not for his gratification but
+  that he might exercise it for the good of his people. He rules by
+  divine authority, and as the vicegerent of heaven upon earth. If he
+  rules corruptly or unjustly, heaven will send disasters and calamity
+  on the people as a reproof; if the rule becomes tyrannical, heaven may
+  withdraw its favour entirely, and then rebellion may be justified. The
+  Manchu dynasty came to the throne as foreign conquerors, nevertheless
+  they base their right to rule, not on the power of the sword, but on
+  divine approval. On this moral ground they claim the obedience of
+  their subjects, and submit themselves to the corresponding
+  obligations. The emperor, unless he has gained the throne by conquest,
+  is selected by his predecessor or by the imperial family in conclave.
+  He is usually a son (but seldom the eldest son) of his predecessor,
+  and need not be the child of the empress-consort,[28] though (other
+  things being equal) a son of the empress is preferred. Failing a son
+  another prince of the imperial house is chosen, the choice being
+  properly among the princes of a generation below that of the preceding
+  emperor, so that the new emperor may be adopted as the son of his
+  predecessor, and perform for him the due ceremonies at the ancestral
+  tablets. Apart from this ancestor-worship the emperor worships only at
+  the Altar of Heaven, leaving Buddhism, Taoism, and any other form of
+  worship to his subjects. The emperor's sacrifices and prayers to
+  heaven are conducted with great parade and ceremony. The chief of
+  these state observances is the sacrifice at the winter solstice, which
+  is performed before sunrise on the morning of the 21st of December at
+  the Temple of Heaven. The form of the altar is peculiar.
+
+  "It consists of a triple circular terrace, 210 ft. wide at the base,
+  150 in the middle, and 90 at the top.... The emperor, with his
+  immediate suite, kneels in front of the tablet of Shang-ti (The
+  Supreme Being, or Heaven), and faces the north. The platform is laid
+  with marble stones, forming nine concentric circles; the inner circle
+  consists of nine stones, cut so as to fit with close edges round the
+  central stone, which is a perfect circle. Here the emperor kneels, and
+  is surrounded first by the circles of the terraces and their enclosing
+  walls, and then by the circle of the horizon. He then seems to himself
+  and to his court to be in the centre of the universe, and turning to
+  the north, assuming the attitude of a subject, he acknowledges in
+  prayer and by his position that he is inferior to heaven, and to
+  heaven alone. Round him on the pavement are the nine circles of as
+  many heavens, consisting of nine stones, then eighteen, then
+  twenty-seven, and so on in successive multiples of nine till the
+  square of nine, the favourite number of Chinese philosophy, is reached
+  in the outermost circle of eighty-one stones."
+
+  On this occasion, also, a bullock of two years old, and without
+  blemish, is offered as a whole burnt-offering in a green porcelain
+  furnace which stands close beside the altar. The emperor's life is
+  largely occupied with ceremonial observances, and custom ordains that
+  except on state occasions he should not leave the walls of the palace.
+
+  For his knowledge of public affairs the emperor is thus largely
+  dependent upon such information as courtiers and high officers of
+  state permit to reach him.[29] The palace eunuchs have often exercised
+  great power, though their influence has been less under the Manchus
+  than was the case during previous dynasties. Though in theory the
+  throne commands the services and money of all its subjects yet the
+  crown as such has no revenues peculiarly its own. It is dependent on
+  contributions levied through the high officials on the several
+  provinces, subject always to the will of the people, and without their
+  concurrence and co-operation nothing can be done.[30] The power of the
+  purse and the power of the sword are thus exercised mediately, and the
+  autocratic power is in practice transferred to the general body of
+  high functionaries, or to that clique which for the time being has
+  the ear of the emperor, and is united enough and powerful enough to
+  impose its will on the others.
+
+
+    China governed by its civil service.
+
+  The functionaries who thus really wield the supreme power are almost
+  without exception civil officials. Naturally the court has shown an
+  inclination to choose Manchu rather than Chinese, but of late years
+  this preference has become less marked, and in the imperial
+  appointments to provincial administrations the proportion of Manchus
+  chosen was at the beginning of the 20th century not more than
+  one-fifth of the whole number. The real reason for this change is the
+  marked superiority of the Chinese, in whose hands the administration
+  is stated to be safer for the Manchu dynasty. Practically all the high
+  Chinese officials have risen through the junior ranks of the civil
+  service, and obtained their high position as the reward--so it must be
+  presumed--of long and distinguished public service.
+
+
+    Functions of the central government.
+
+  Through the weakness of some of the emperors the functions of the
+  central government gradually came to be to check the action of the
+  provincial governments rather than assume a direct initiative in the
+  conduct of affairs. "The central government may be said to criticize
+  rather than to control the action of the provincial administrations,
+  wielding, however, at all times the power of immediate removal from
+  his post of any official whose conduct may be found irregular or
+  considered dangerous to the stability of the state."[31] This was
+  written in 1877, and since then the pressure of foreign nations has
+  compelled the central government to assume greater responsibilities,
+  and the empire is now ruled from Peking in a much more effective
+  manner than was the case when Lord Napier in 1834 could find no
+  representative of the central government with whom to transact
+  business.
+
+  If the central authorities take the initiative, and issue orders to
+  the provincial authorities, it, however, does not follow that they
+  will be carried out. The orders, if unwelcome, are not directly
+  disobeyed, but rather ignored, or specious pleas are put forward,
+  showing the difficulty or impossibility of carrying them out at that
+  particular juncture. The central government always wields the power of
+  removing or degrading a recalcitrant governor, and no case has been
+  known where such an order was not promptly obeyed. But the central
+  government, being composed of officials, stand by their order, and are
+  extremely reluctant to issue such a command, especially at the bidding
+  of a foreign power. Generally the opinion of the governors and
+  viceroys has great weight with the central government.
+
+
+    Departments of the central administration.
+
+  Under the Ming dynasty the _Nuiko_ or Grand Secretariat formed the
+  supreme council of the empire. It is now of more honorific than actual
+  importance. Active membership is limited to six persons, namely, four
+  grand secretaries and two assistant grand secretaries, half of whom,
+  according to a general rule formerly applicable to nearly all the high
+  offices in Peking, must be Manchu and half Chinese. It constitutes the
+  imperial chancery or court of archives, and admission to its ranks
+  confers the highest distinction attainable by Chinese officials,
+  though with functions that are almost purely nominal. Members of the
+  grand secretariat are distinguished by the honorary title of
+  _Chung-t'ang._ The most distinguished viceroys are usually advanced to
+  the dignity of grand secretary while continuing to occupy their posts
+  in the provinces. The best known of recent grand secretaries was Li
+  Hung-chang.
+
+  Under the Manchu dynasty the Grand Council (_Chün Chi Ch'u_) became
+  the actual privy council of the sovereign, in whose presence its
+  members daily transacted the business of the state. This council is
+  composed of a small knot of men holding various high offices in the
+  government boards at Peking. The literal meaning of Chün Chi Ch'u is
+  "place of plans for the army," and the institution derives its name
+  from the practice established by the early emperors of the Manchu
+  dynasty of treating public affairs on the footing of a military
+  council. The usual time of transacting business is from 4 to 6 a.m. In
+  addition to the grand council and the grand secretariat there were
+  boards to supervise particular departments. By a decree of the 6th of
+  November 1906 the central administration was remodelled, subsequent
+  decrees making other changes. The administration in 1910 was carried
+  on by the following agencies:--
+
+  A. _Councils._--(1)The grand council. Its title was modified in 1906
+  and it is now known as the Grand Council of State Affairs or Privy
+  Council. It has no special function, but deals with all matters of
+  general administration and is presided over by the emperor (or
+  regent). (2) The Grand Secretariat. This body gained no increase of
+  power in 1906. (3) The advisory council or senate (_Tu Chêng Yuen_)
+  created in 1907 and containing representatives of each province. It
+  includes all members of the grand council and the grand secretariat
+  and the heads of all the executive departments.[32] The members of
+  these three bodies form advisory cabinets to the emperor.
+
+  B. _Boards._--Besides boards concerned with the affairs of the court
+  there were, before the pressure of foreign nations and the movement
+  for reform caused changes to be made, six boards charged with the
+  conduct of public affairs. They were: (1) _Li Pu_, the Board of Civil
+  Appointments, controlling all appointments in the civil service from
+  the rank of district magistrate upwards. (2) _Hu Pu_, the Board of
+  Revenue, dealing with all revenues which reached the central
+  government. (3) _Li Pu_, the Board of Ceremonies. (4) _Ping Pu_, the
+  Board of War. It controlled the provincial forces. The Manchu forces
+  were an independent organization attached to the palace. (5) _Hsing
+  Pu_, the Board of Punishments. It dealt with the criminal law only,
+  especially the punishment of officials guilty of malpractices. (6)
+  _Kung Pu_, the Board of Works. Its work was limited to the control of
+  the construction and repair of official residences.
+
+  As rearranged and enlarged there are now the following boards, given
+  in order of precedence:--
+
+  1. _Wai-wu Pu_.--This was established in 1901 in succession to the
+  _Tsung-li Yamên_,[33] which was created in 1861 after the
+  Anglo-Chinese War in 1860 as a board for foreign affairs. Previous to
+  that war, which established the right of foreign powers to have their
+  representatives in Peking, all business with Western nations was
+  transacted by provincial authorities, chiefly the viceroy at Canton.
+  The only department at Peking which dealt specially with foreign
+  affairs was the _Li Fan Yuen_, or board of control for the
+  dependencies, which regulated the affairs of Mongolia, Tibet and the
+  tributary states generally. With the advent of formally accredited
+  ambassadors from the European powers something more than this was
+  required, and a special board was appointed to discuss all questions
+  with the foreign envoys. The number was originally four, with Prince
+  Kung, a brother of the emperor Hien Fêng, at their head. It was
+  subsequently raised to ten, another prince of the blood, Prince Ching,
+  becoming president. The members were spoken of collectively as the
+  prince and ministers. For a long time the board had no real power, and
+  was looked on rather as a buffer between the foreign envoys and the
+  real government. The importance of foreign affairs, however,
+  especially since the Japanese War, identified the _Yamên_ more with
+  the grand council, several of the most prominent men being members of
+  both. At the same time that the _Tsung-li Yamên_ was created, two
+  important offices were established in the provinces for dealing with
+  foreign commercial questions, viz. the superintendencies of trade for
+  the northern and southern ports. The negotiations connected with the
+  Boxer outbreak proved so conclusively that the machinery to the
+  _Tsung-li Yamên_ was of too antiquated a nature to serve the new
+  requirements, that it was determined to abolish the _Yamên_ and to
+  substitute for it a board (_Pu_) to be styled the _Wai-wu Pu_, or
+  "board of foreign affairs."
+
+  2. Board of Civil Appointments.
+
+  3. Board of Home Affairs.
+
+  4. Board of Finance and Paymaster General's Department.
+
+  5. Board of Ceremonies.
+
+  6. Army Board or Ministry of War (instituted 1906).[34]
+
+  7. Board of Judicature.
+
+  8. Board of Agriculture, Works and Commerce (instituted 1903).
+
+  9. Board of dependencies.
+
+  10. Board of Education (instituted 1903).
+
+  11. Board of Communications (instituted 1906).
+
+  Each board has one president and two vice-presidents, with the
+  exception of the Wai-wu Pu, which has a comptroller-general and two
+  presidents, and the Boards of War and Education, each of which has a
+  comptroller-general in addition to the president. According to the
+  decree of 1906 no distinction, in filling up the various boards, is to
+  be made between Manchu and Chinese.
+
+  Besides the boards named there are other departments of state, some of
+  them not limited to any one branch of the public service. The more
+  important are those that follow:--
+
+  The Censorate (_Tu Ch'a Yuen_).--An institution peculiar to China. The
+  constitution provides a paid body of men whose duty it is to inform
+  the emperor of all facts affecting the welfare of the people and the
+  conduct of government, and in particular to keep an eye on the
+  malfeasance of his officers. These men are termed _Yü shih_ (imperial
+  recorder), generally translated censors. Their office has existed
+  since the 3rd century B.C. The body consists of two presidents, a
+  Chinese and a Manchu, 24 supervising censors attached to the
+  ministries at Peking, and 56 censors, divided into fifteen divisions,
+  each division taking a particular province or area, so as to embrace
+  the whole eighteen provinces, besides one metropolitan division. The
+  censors are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even of the
+  emperor himself; to censure the manner in which all other officials
+  perform or neglect their duties and to denounce them to the throne.
+  They receive appeals made to the emperor, either by the people against
+  the officials or by subordinate officials against their superiors.
+  They exercise, in accord with the Board of Justice, an oversight over
+  all criminal cases and give their opinion whenever the death penalty
+  is to be pronounced. They superintend the working of the different
+  boards and are sometimes sent to various places as imperial
+  inspectors, hence they are called _êrh mu kuan_ (the eyes and ears of
+  the emperor). The censors exercise their office at times with great
+  boldness;[35] their advice if unpalatable may be disregarded and the
+  censor in question degraded. The system of the censorate lends itself
+  to espionage and to bribery, and it is said to be more powerful for
+  mischief than for good. With the growth in influence of the native
+  press the institution appears to lose its _raison d'être_.
+
+  The grand court of revision (_Ta-li sze_) or Court of Cassation
+  exercises, in conjunction with the Board of Justice and the Censorate,
+  a general supervision over the administration of the criminal law.
+  These bodies are styled collectively _San-fah sze_ (the Three High
+  Justices).
+
+  The Hanlin College (_Hanlin Yuen_, literally Forest of Pencils) is
+  composed of all the literate who have passed the palace examination
+  and obtained the title of _Hanlin_ or imperial academist. It has two
+  chancellors--a Manchu and a Chinese. Its functions are of a purely
+  literary character and it is of importance chiefly because the heads
+  of the college, who are presumably the most eminent scholars of the
+  empire, have the right of advising the throne on all public affairs,
+  and are eligible as members of the grand council or of the Wai-wu Pu.
+  The Chinese set fire to it during the fighting in Peking in June 1900
+  in the hope of burning out the adjoining British legation. The whole
+  of the library, containing some of the most valuable manuscripts in
+  the world, was destroyed.
+
+
+    Provincial government.
+
+  Each of the eighteen provinces of China proper, the three provinces of
+  Manchuria and the province of Sin-kiang are ruled by a viceroy placed
+  over one, two and in one instance three provinces, or by a governor
+  over a single province either under a viceroy or depending directly on
+  the central government, the viceroy or the governor being held
+  responsible to the emperor for the entire administration, political,
+  judicial, military and fiscal. The most important viceroyalties are
+  those of Chih-li, Liang-kiang and Liang-kwang. The viceroyalty of
+  Liang-kiang comprises the provinces of Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and
+  Kiang-si. The viceroy resides at Nanking and hence is sometimes called
+  the viceroy of Nanking. Similarly the viceroy of Liang-kwang
+  (comprising the provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si) through having
+  his residence at Canton is sometimes styled the viceroy of Canton. The
+  three provinces adjoining the metropolitan province of
+  Chih-li--Shan-tung, Shan-si and Ho-nan--have no viceroys over them;
+  seven provinces--including Chih-li--have no governors, the viceroy
+  officiating as governor. In provinces where there are both a viceroy
+  and a governor they act conjointly, but special departments are
+  administered by the one rather than the other. The viceroy controls
+  the military and the salt tax; the governor the civil service
+  generally.
+
+  The viceroy or governor is assisted by various other high officials,
+  all of whom down to the district magistrate are nominated from Peking.
+  The chief officials are the treasurer, the judicial commissioner or
+  provincial judge, and the commissioner of education (this last post
+  being created in 1903). The treasurer controls the finances of the
+  whole province, receiving the taxes and paying the salaries of the
+  officials. The judge, the salt commissioner, and the grain collector
+  are the only other officials whose authority extends over the whole
+  province. Each province is subdivided into prefectures ruled by
+  prefects, and each prefecture into districts ruled by a district
+  magistrate, _Chih-hsien_, the official through whom the people in
+  general receive the orders of the government. Two or more prefectures
+  are united into a _tao_ or circuit, the official at the head of which
+  is called a _Taot'ai_. Each town and village has also its unofficial
+  governing body of "gentry."[36] The officials appointed from Peking
+  hold office for three years, but they may be re-appointed once, and in
+  the case of powerful viceroys they may hold office for a prolonged
+  period. Another rule is that no official is ever appointed to a post
+  in the province of his birth; a rule which, however, did not apply to
+  Manchuria. The Peking authorities take care also in making the high
+  appointments to send men of different political parties to posts in
+  the same province.
+
+  The edict of the 6th of November 1906 initiating changes in the
+  central administration was accompanied by another edict outlining
+  changes in the provincial government, and an edict of the 22nd of July
+  1908 ordered the election of provincial assemblies. The edict made it
+  clear that the functions of the assemblies were to be purely
+  consultative. The elections took place according to the regulations,
+  the number of members allotted to each province varying from 30 (Kirin
+  province, Manchuria, and two others) to 140 in Chih-li. The franchise
+  was restricted, but the returns for the first elections showed nearly
+  1000 voters for each representative. The first meetings of the
+  assemblies were held in October 1909.
+
+_The Civil Service._--The bureaucratic element is a vital feature in
+the government of China, the holding of office being almost the only
+road to distinction. Officials are by the Chinese called collectively
+_Kwan_ (rulers or magistrates) but are known to foreigners as mandarins
+(q.v.). The mandarins are divided into nine degrees, distinguished by
+the buttons worn on the top of their caps. These are as follows:--first
+and highest, a plain red button; second, a flowered red button; third, a
+transparent blue button; fourth, an opaque blue button; fifth, an
+uncoloured glass button; sixth, an opaque white shell button; seventh, a
+plain gilt button; eighth, a gilt button with flowers in relief; ninth,
+a gilt button with engraved flowers. The buttons indicate simply rank,
+not office. The peacock feathers worn in their hats are an order granted
+as reward of merit, and indicate neither rank nor office. The Yellow
+Jacket similarly is a decoration, the most important in China.
+
+The ranks of the civil service are recruited by means of examinations.
+Up to the beginning of 1906 the subjects in which candidates were
+examined were purely Chinese and literary with a smattering of history.
+In 1906 this system was modified and an official career was opened to
+candidates who had obtained honours in an examination in western
+subjects (see § _Education_). The old system is so closely identified
+with the life of China that some space must be devoted to a description
+of it.
+
+  As a general rule students preparing for the public examination read
+  with private tutors. There were neither high schools nor universities
+  where a regular training could be got. In most of the provincial
+  capitals, and at some other places, there were indeed institutions
+  termed colleges, supported to some extent from public funds, where
+  advanced students could prosecute their studies; but before the
+  movement initiated by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the
+  China-Japan War of 1894, they hardly counted as factors in the
+  national education. The private tutors, on the other hand, were
+  plentiful and cheap. After a series of preliminary trials the student
+  obtained his first qualification by examination held before the
+  literary chancellor in the prefecture to which he belonged. This was
+  termed the _Siuts'ai_, or licentiate's degree, and was merely a
+  qualification to enter for the higher examinations. The number of
+  licentiate degrees to be given was, however, strictly limited; those
+  who failed to get in were set back to try again, which they might do
+  as often as they pleased. There was no limit of age. Those selected
+  next proceeded to the great examination held at the capital of each
+  province, once in three years, before examiners sent from Peking for
+  the purpose. Here again the number who passed was strictly limited.
+  Out of 10,000 or 12,000 competitors only some 300 or 350 could obtain
+  degrees. The others, as before, must go back and try again. This
+  degree, termed _Chü jên_, or provincial graduate, was the first
+  substantial reward of the student's ambition, and of itself qualified
+  for the public service, though it did not immediately nor necessarily
+  lead to active employment. The third and final examination took place
+  at Peking, and was open to provincial graduates from all parts of the
+  empire. Out of 6000 competitors entering for this final test, which
+  was held triennially, some 325 to 350 succeeded in obtaining the
+  degree of _Chin shih_, or metropolitan graduate. These were the
+  finally selected men who became the officials of the empire.
+
+  Several other doors were, however, open by which admission to the
+  ranks of bureaucracy could be obtained. In the first place, to
+  encourage scholars to persevere, a certain number of those who failed
+  to reach the _chü jên_, or second degree, were allowed, as a reward of
+  repeated efforts, to get into a special class from which selection for
+  office might be made. Further, the government reserved to itself the
+  right to nominate the sons and grandsons of distinguished deceased
+  public servants without examination. And, lastly, by a system of
+  "recommendation," young men from favoured institutions or men who had
+  served as clerks in the boards, might be put on the roster for
+  substantive appointment. The necessities of the Chinese government
+  also from time to time compelled it to throw open a still wider door
+  of entry into the civil service, namely, admission by purchase. During
+  the T'aip'ing rebellion, when the government was at its wits' end for
+  money, formal sanction was given to what had previously been only
+  intermittently resorted to, and since then immense sums of money have
+  been received by the sale of patents of rank, to secure either
+  admission to office or more rapid promotion of those already employed.
+  As a result of this policy, the country has been saddled with
+  thousands of titular officials far in excess of the number of
+  appointments to be given away. Deserving men were kept waiting for
+  years, while inferior and less capable officials were pushed ahead,
+  because they had money wherewith to bribe their way. Nevertheless the
+  purchase system admitted into the service a number of men free from
+  that bigoted adherence to Confucian doctrine which characterizes the
+  literary classes, and more in touch with modern progress.
+
+  All candidates who succeed in entering the official ranks are eligible
+  for active employment, but as the number of candidates is far in
+  excess of the number of appointments a period of weary waiting ensues.
+  A few of the best scholars get admitted at once into the Hanlin
+  college or into one or other of the boards at Peking. The rest are
+  drafted off in batches to the various provinces to await their turn
+  for appointment as vacancies occur. During this period of waiting they
+  are termed "expectants" and draw no regular pay. Occasional service,
+  however, falls in their way, as when they are commissioned for special
+  duty in outlying districts, which they perform as _Wei yuens_, or
+  deputies of the regular officials. The period of expectancy may be
+  abridged by recommendation or purchase, and it is generally supposed
+  that this last lever must invariably be resorted to to secure any
+  lucrative local appointment. A poor but promising official is often,
+  it is said, financed by a syndicate of relations and friends, who look
+  to recoup themselves out of the customary perquisites which attach to
+  the post. Appointments to the junior provincial posts are usually left
+  to the provincial government, but the central government can always
+  interfere directly. Appointments to the lucrative posts of customs,
+  _taot'ai_, at the treaty ports are usually made direct from Peking,
+  and the officer selected is neither necessarily nor usually from the
+  provincial staff. It would perhaps be safe to say that this
+  appointment has hitherto always been the result of a pecuniary
+  arrangement of greater or less magnitude.
+
+
+    Bribery and torture.
+
+  During the first five years (1906-1910) of the new method, by which
+  candidates for the civil service were required, in addition to Chinese
+  classics, to have a knowledge of western science, great efforts were
+  made in several provinces to train up a better class of public
+  official. The old system of administration had many theoretical
+  excellencies, and there had been notable instances of upright
+  administration, but the regulation which forbade a mandarin to hold
+  any office for more than three years made it the selfish interest of
+  every office-holder to get as much out of the people within his
+  jurisdiction as he possibly could in that time. This corruption in
+  high places had a thoroughly demoralizing effect. While among the
+  better commercial classes Chinese probity in business relations with
+  foreigners is proverbial, the people generally set little or no value
+  upon truth, and this has led to the use of torture in their courts of
+  justice; for it is argued that where the value of an oath is not
+  understood, some other means must be resorted to to extract evidence.
+
+  _Justice._--The _Chih-Hsien_ or district magistrate decides ordinary
+  police cases; he is also coroner and sheriff, he hears suits for
+  divorce and breach of promise, and is a court of first instance in all
+  civil cases; "the penalty for taking a case first to a higher court is
+  fifty blows with the bamboo on the naked thigh."[37] Appeal from the
+  _Hsien_ court lies to the _Fu_, or prefectural court, and thence cases
+  may be taken to the provincial judge, who signs death warrants, while
+  there are final courts of appeal at Peking. Civil cases are usually
+  settled by trade gilds in towns and by village elders, or by
+  arbitration in rural districts. Reference has been made to the use of
+  torture. Flogging is the only form of torture which has been allowed
+  under the Manchus. The obdurate witness is laid on his face, and the
+  executioner delivers his blows on the upper part of the thighs with
+  the concave side of a split bamboo, the sharp edges of which mutilate
+  the sufferer terribly. The punishment is continued until the man
+  either supplies the evidence required or becomes insensible.
+  Punishment by bamboo was formally abolished by imperial edict in 1905,
+  and other judicial reforms were instituted. They remained largely
+  inoperative, and even in Shanghai, under the eyes of foreign
+  residents, gross cases of the infliction of torture occurred in
+  1909.[38]
+
+  For capital offences the usual modes of inflicting the extreme penalty
+  of the law are--in bad cases, such as parricides, "cutting to pieces,"
+  and for less aggravated crimes either strangulation or decapitation.
+  The culprit who is condemned to be "cut to pieces" is fastened to a
+  cross, and while thus suspended cuts are made by the executioner on
+  the fleshy parts of the body; and he is then beheaded. Strangulation
+  is reserved for lesser degrees of guilt, it being considered a
+  privilege to pass out of life with a whole body. When it has been
+  granted to a criminal of rank thus to meet his end, a silken cord is
+  sent to him at his own home. No explanatory message is considered
+  necessary, and he is left to consummate his own doom. Popular
+  sentiment regards decapitation as a peculiarly disgraceful mode of
+  death. Constant practice makes the executioners wonderfully expert in
+  the performance of their office. No block or resting-place for the
+  head is used. The neck is simply outstretched to its full length by
+  the aid of an assistant, and one blow invariably leaves the body
+  headless.
+
+
+    Consular jurisdiction.
+
+  The laws are in accord with the principle which regards the family as
+  a unit. Thus there is no bankruptcy law--if a debtor's own estate will
+  not suffice to pay his debts the deficiency must be made good by his
+  relatives; if a debtor absconds his immediate family are imprisoned.
+  By analogy if one member of a party commits an offence and the guilty
+  person cannot be detected, the whole party must suffer. Foreigners
+  residing in China resented the application of this principle of law to
+  themselves. As a result extra-territorial rights were sought by
+  European powers. They were secured by Russia as early as 1689, but it
+  was not until 1843 that any other nation acquired them. In that year
+  Great Britain obtained the right to try British subjects by its own
+  consuls, a right secured in more explicit terms by the United States
+  and France in 1844. Now eighteen powers, including Japan, have
+  consular courts for the trial of their own subjects according to the
+  laws of their native lands. Mixed courts have also been established,
+  that is, a defendant is tried in the court of his own nationality, the
+  court giving its decision under the supervision of a representative of
+  the plaintiff's nationality. In practice the Chinese have seldom sent
+  representatives to sit on the bench of consular courts, but, as the
+  Europeans lack confidence in the administration of Chinese justice, no
+  suit brought by a foreigner against a Chinese is decided without the
+  presence of an assessor of the plaintiff's nationality.
+
+
+    Army.
+
+  _Defence._--The Chinese constitution in the period before the reform
+  edicts of 1905-1906 provided for two independent sets of military
+  organizations--namely, the Manchu army and the several provincial
+  armies. On the establishment of the dynasty in 1644 the victorious
+  troops, composed mainly of Manchus, but including also Mongols and
+  Chinese, were permanently quartered in Peking, and constituted a
+  hereditary national army. The force was divided into eight banners,
+  and under one or other of these all Manchus and all the descendants of
+  the members of other nationalities were enrolled. They form the bulk
+  of the population of the "Tatar city" of Peking. Each adult male was
+  by birth entitled to be enrolled as a soldier, and by virtue of his
+  enrolment had a right to draw rations--i.e. his allowance of the
+  tribute rice, whether on active service or not. Detachments from one
+  or other of the banners were stationed as garrisons in the chief
+  provincial centres, as at Canton, Fuchow and Hang-chow, &c., and their
+  descendants still occupy the same position. As a fighting force the
+  Manchu garrisons both in the capital and in the provinces had long
+  become quite effete. In the capital, however, the _élite_ of the
+  Manchu soldiery were formed into a special corps termed the Peking
+  Field Force. Its nominal strength was 20,000, the men were armed and
+  drilled after the European fashion, and fairly well paid. There were
+  other corps of picked Manchus better paid and better armed than the
+  ordinary soldier, and it was computed that in 1901 the Manchu army in
+  or near Peking could muster 40,000, all more or less efficient.
+
+  The second organization was termed the army of the Green Standard,
+  being the Chinese provincial forces. The nominal strength was from
+  20,000 to 30,000 for each province, or about 500,000 in all; the
+  actual strength was about one-third of this. They were enrolled to
+  keep the peace within their own province, and resembled a militia or
+  local constabulary rather than a national army. They were generally
+  poorly paid and equally badly drilled and armed.
+
+  The only real fighting force which China possessed at the beginning of
+  the 20th century was made up of certain special corps which were not
+  provided for in the constitution, and consequently used to be termed
+  _yung_, "braves," or irregulars, but had acquired various distinctive
+  names. They were enlisted by provincial governors, and all had some
+  smattering of foreign drill. They were also fairly well paid and
+  armed. After the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95 some of these corps
+  were quartered near Peking and Tientsin, and came generally to be
+  spoken of as the Army of the North.
+
+  An imperial decree issued in 1901 after the Boxer rising ordered the
+  reorganization of the military forces of the empire, and on provincial
+  lines something was accomplished--especially in Chih-li under Yuan
+  Shih-k'ai, who practically created "the Army of the North." It was
+  not, however, until after the Russo-Japanese War that determined
+  efforts were made to organize a national army on western lines; an
+  army which should be responsible to the central government and not
+  dependent upon the provincial administrations. A decree of 1905
+  provided (on paper) for training schools for officers in each of the
+  provinces, middle grade military schools in selected provinces, and a
+  training college and military high school in Peking. The Army Board
+  was reorganized and steps taken to form a general staff. Considerable
+  progress had been made by 1910 in the evolution of a body of efficient
+  officers. In practice the administration remained largely
+  provincial--for instance the armament of the troops was provided by
+  the provincial governors and was far from uniform. The scheme[39]
+  contemplated the creation of a force about 400,000 strong in 36
+  divisions and in two armies, the northern and the southern.
+  Recruitment is on the voluntary principle, except in the case of the
+  Manchus, who apparently enter the new army instead of the "eight
+  banners." The terms of service are three years with the colours, three
+  in the reserve and four in the territorial army. The Japanese system
+  of training is followed. Reservists are called out for 30 days every
+  year and the territorialists for 30 days every other year.
+
+  Up to 1909 six divisions and one mixed brigade of the northern army
+  had been organized in Shan-tung, Chih-li and Ho-nan; elsewhere three
+  divisions and six mixed brigades; total strength about 60,000 with 350
+  guns. (These figures do not include all the provincial foreign trained
+  troops.) The efficiency of the troops varied; the northern army was
+  superior to the others in training and armament. About a third of the
+  60,000 men of the new army were in 1909 stationed in Manchuria (See
+  also § _History_.)
+
+  An imperial edict of the 15th of September 1907 reorganized the army
+  of the Green Standard. It was placed under the control of the minister
+  of war and formed in battalions and squadrons. The duty of the troops
+  in peace time remained much as previously. In war they pass under the
+  control of regular officers, though their use outside their own
+  provinces does not seem to be contemplated.
+
+
+    Navy.
+
+  The Chinese navy in 1909 consisted of the 4300 ton cruiser "Hai Chi"
+  (two 8-in., ten 4.7-in. guns) of 24 knot original speed, three 3000
+  ton cruisers, "Hai Yung," "Hai Schew" and "Hai Shen" (three 6-in.,
+  eight 4-in. guns) of 19.5 knot original speed, some modern gunboats
+  built in Japan, a few miscellaneous vessels and some old torpedo
+  boats. With the destruction of the northern fleet by the Japanese at
+  the capture of Wei-hai-wei in 1895, the Chinese navy may be said to
+  have ceased to exist. Previously it consisted of two divisions, the
+  northern and southern, of which the former was by far the more
+  formidable. The southern was under the control of the viceroy of
+  Nanking, and took no part in the Chino-Japanese War. While the
+  northern fleet was grappling in a death-struggle, the southern was
+  lying snugly in the Yangtsze waters, the viceroy of Nanking apparently
+  thinking that as the Japanese had not attacked him there was no reason
+  why he should risk his ships.
+
+  _The New Scheme._--An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a naval
+  and military advisory board. Nimrod Sound, centrally situated on the
+  coast of Cheh-kiang, was chosen as naval base, and four naval schools
+  were ordered to be established; a navigation school at Chifu, an
+  engineering school at Whampoa, a school for naval artificers at
+  Fuchow, and a gunnery and musketry school at Nimrod Sound. A superior
+  naval college was founded at Peking. The coast defences were placed
+  under the control of the naval department, and the reorganization of
+  the dockyards undertaken. During 1910 orders for cruisers were placed
+  abroad.
+
+  _Arsenals and Dockyards._--After the loss of Port Arthur, China
+  possessed no dockyard which could dock vessels over 3000 tons. Many
+  years ago the Chinese government established at Fuchow a shipbuilding
+  yard, placing it in the hands of French engineers. Training schools
+  both for languages and practical navigation were at the same time
+  organized, and a training ship was procured and put under the command
+  of a British naval officer. Some twenty-five or thirty small vessels
+  were built in the course of as many years, but gradually the whole
+  organization was allowed to fall into decay. Except for petty repairs
+  this establishment was in 1909 valueless to the Chinese government.
+  There were also small dockyards at Kiang-nan (near Shanghai), Whampoa
+  and Taku. There are well-equipped arsenals at Shanghai and at
+  Tientsin, but as they are both placed up shallow rivers they are
+  useless for naval repairs. Both are capable of turning out heavy guns,
+  and also rifles and ammunition in large quantities. There are also
+  military arsenals at Nanking, Wuchang, Canton and Chêngtu.
+
+  _Forts._--A great number of forts and batteries have been erected
+  along the coast and at the entrance to the principal rivers. Chief
+  among these, now that the Taku forts formerly commanding the entrance
+  to Tientsin have been demolished, are the Kiangyin forts commanding
+  the entrance to the Yangtsze, the Min forts at the entrance of the
+  Fuchow river, and the Bogue forts at the entrance to the Canton river.
+  These are supplied with heavy armament from the Krupp and Armstrong
+  factories.
+
+
+_Finance._
+
+In fiscal matters, as for many other purposes, the Chinese empire is an
+agglomeration of a number of quasi-independent units. Each province has
+a complete administrative staff, collects its own revenue, pays its own
+civil service, and other charges placed upon it, and out of the surplus
+contributes towards the expenses of the imperial government a sum which
+varies with the imperiousness of the needs of the latter and with its
+own comparative wealth or poverty. The imperial government does not
+collect directly any part of the revenues, unless the imperial maritime
+customs be excepted, though these, too, pass through the books of the
+provincial authorities.[40]
+
+It has hitherto been extremely difficult to obtain anything like
+trustworthy figures for the whole revenue of China, for the reason that
+no complete statistics are published by the central government at
+Peking.[41] The only available data are, first, the returns published by
+the imperial maritime customs for the duties levied on foreign trade;
+and, secondly, the memorials sent to Peking by the provincial
+authorities on revenue matters, certain of which are published from time
+to time in the _Peking Gazette_. These are usually fragmentary, being
+merely reports which the governor has received from his subordinates,
+detailing, as the case may be, the yield of the land tax or the likin
+for his particular district, with a dissertation on the causes which
+have made it more or less than for the previous period. Or the return
+may be one detailing the expenditure of such and such a department, or
+reporting the transmission of a sum in reply to a requisition of the
+board of revenue, with a statement of the source from which it has been
+met. It is only by collating these returns over a long period that
+anything like a complete statement can be made up. And even then these
+returns do not represent anything like the total of taxation paid by the
+people, but, as far as they go, they may be taken to represent the
+volume of taxation on which the Peking government can draw revenue.
+
+The following table, taken from a memorandum by Sir Robert Hart, dated
+the 25th of March 1901, shows the latest official estimate (up to 1910)
+of the revenue and expenditure of China:--
+
+            _Revenue._
+                                   Taels.[42]
+  Land tax                       26,500,000
+  Provincial duties               1,600,000
+      "      receipts (various)   1,000,000
+  Grain commutation               3,100,000
+  Salt gabelle                   13,500,000
+  Li-kin                         16,000,000
+  Native customs                  2,700,000
+  Maritime customs:--
+    General cargo                17,000,000
+    Foreign opium                 5,000,000
+    Native opium                  1,800,000
+                                 ----------
+      Total                      88,200,000
+
+             _Expenditure._
+                                   Taels.
+  Provincial                     20,000,000
+  Military and naval             35,000,000
+  Metropolitan                   10,000,000
+  Bannermen (Manchu "soldiers")   1,380,000
+  Palace                          1,100,000
+  Customs                         3,600,000
+  Legations                       1,000,000
+  River works                       940,000
+  Railways                          800,000
+  Loans                          24,000,000
+  Contingent reserve              3,300,000
+                                -----------
+      Total                     101,120,000
+
+A calculation of revenue from all sources published by the Shanghai
+_Shen Pao_ in 1908, apparently derived from official sources, gave a
+total revenue of 105,000,000 taels, or about 15 million sterling. This
+sum is obviously less than the actual figures. In 1907 Mr H.B. Morse,
+commissioner of customs and statistical secretary in the inspectorate
+general of customs, drew up the following table based on the amounts
+presumed to be paid by the tax payer:--
+
+  +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+
+  |                       |  Imperial  |  Provincial |   Local    |
+  |                       |  Adminis-  |   Adminis-  |  Adminis-  |
+  |                       |  tration.  |   tration.  |  tration.  |
+  +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+
+  |                       |   Taels.   |    Taels.   |   Taels.   |
+  |   I. Land Tax         | 25,887,000 |  67,060,000 |  9,315,000 |
+  |  II. Tribute          |  7,420,000 |  15,582,000 |  2,300,000 |
+  | III. Native Customs   |  3,790,000 |   1,290,000 |    249,000 |
+  |  IV. Salt Gabelle     | 13,050,000 |  26,000,000 | 25,000,000 |
+  |   V. Miscellaneous    |  3,856,000 |   5,998,000 |    985,000 |
+  |  VI. Foreign Customs  | 31,169,000 |   3,942,000 |  1,230,000 |
+  | VII. Li-kin           | 13,890,060 |  22,502,000 |  3,639,000 |
+  +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+
+  |      Total            | 99,062,000 | 142,374,000 | 42,718,000 |
+  +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+
+
+Mr Morse adds that the grand total shown, taels 284,150,000[43] "is an
+obviously insufficient sum on which to maintain the fabric of government
+in an empire like China, but it has been reached by calculations based
+on a few known facts and ... is offered as throwing some light on a
+subject veiled in obscurity."[44]
+
+The service of the foreign debt, together with the pressure of other
+needs--such as the cost of education and the army--made more manifest
+than previously the chaos of the Chinese fiscal system. A scheme to
+reform the national finances was promulgated under an edict of the 11th
+of January 1909, but it did not appear to be of a practical character.
+
+  _Sources of Revenue_. I. _Land Tax_.--In China, as in most oriental
+  countries, the land has from time immemorial been the mainstay of the
+  revenue. In the early years of the present dynasty there was levied
+  along with the land tax a poll tax on all adult males, but in 1712 the
+  two were amalgamated, and the whole burden was thrown upon land,
+  families not possessing land being thereafter exempted from taxation.
+  At the same time it was decreed that the amount of the land tax as
+  then fixed should be permanent and settled for all time coming. It
+  would appear from the records that this promise has been kept as far
+  as the central government has been concerned. In all its many
+  financial difficulties it does not seem ever to have tried to increase
+  the revenue by raising the land tax. The amount of tax leviable on
+  each plot is entered on the title deed, and, once entered, it cannot
+  be changed.[45] The tax on almost all lands is thus stated to be so
+  much in silver and so much in rice, wheat or whatever the principal
+  crop may be. Except in two provinces, however, the grain tax is now
+  commuted and paid in silver. The exceptions are Kiang-su and
+  Cheh-kiang, which still send forward their taxes in grain. The value
+  of the grain forwarded (generally called tribute rice) is estimated at
+  taels 6,500,000. The total collection in silver, as reported by the
+  responsible officials, amounts in round numbers to taels 25,000,000.
+  The total yield of the land tax, therefore, is taels 31,500,000, or
+  say £4,725,000. It will readily be granted that for such a large
+  country as China this is a very insignificant one. In India the land
+  tax yields about £20,000,000, and China has undoubtedly a larger
+  cultivated area, a larger population, and soil that is on the whole
+  more fertile; but it is certain that this sum by no means represents
+  the amounts actually paid by the cultivators. It is the sum which the
+  various magistrates and collectors have to account for and remit in
+  hard cash. But as nothing is allowed them for the costs of collection,
+  they add on a percentage beforehand to cover the cost. This they
+  usually do by declaring the taxes leviable not in silver, but in
+  copper "cash", which indeed is the only currency that circulates in
+  country places, and by fixing the rate of exchange to suit themselves.
+  Thus while the market rate is, say, 1500 cash to the tael, they
+  declare by general proclamation that for tax-paying purposes cash will
+  be received at the rate of 3500 or 4000 to the tael. Thus while the
+  nominal land tax in silver remains the same it is in effect doubled or
+  trebled, and, what is worse, no return is made or account required of
+  the extra sums thus levied. Each magistrate or collector is in effect
+  a farmer. The sum standing opposite the name of his district is the
+  sum which he is bound to return under penalty of dismissal, but all
+  sums which he can scrape together over and above are the perquisites
+  of office less his necessary expenses. Custom, no doubt, sets bounds
+  to his rapacity. If he went too far he would provoke a riot; but one
+  may safely say there never is any reduction, what change can be
+  effected being in the upward direction. According to the best
+  information obtainable a moderate estimate of the sums actually paid
+  by the cultivators would give two shillings per acre. This on an
+  estimate of the area under cultivation should give for the eighteen
+  provinces £19,000,000 as being actually levied, or more than four
+  times what is returned.
+
+  2. _The Salt Duty._--The trade in salt is a government monopoly. Only
+  licensed merchants are allowed to deal in it, and the import of
+  foreign salt is forbidden by the treaties. For the purpose of salt
+  administration China is divided into seven or eight main circuits,
+  each of which has its own sources of production. Each circuit has
+  carefully defined boundaries, and salt produced in one circuit is not
+  allowed to be consigned into or sold in another. There are great
+  differences in price between the several circuits, but the consumer is
+  not allowed to buy in the cheapest market. He can only buy from the
+  licensed merchants in his own circuit, who in turn are debarred from
+  procuring supplies except at the depot to which they belong.
+  Conveyance from one circuit to another is deemed smuggling, and
+  subjects the article to confiscation.
+
+  Duty is levied under two heads, the first being a duty proper, payable
+  on the issue of salt from the depot, and the second being likin levied
+  on transit or at the place of destination. The two together amount on
+  an average to about taels 1.50 per picul of 133-1/2 lb or 3s. 9d. per
+  cwt. The total collection returned by the various salt collectorates
+  amounts to taels 13,500,000 (£2,025,000) per annum. The total
+  consumption of salt for all China is estimated at 25 million piculs,
+  or nearly 1-1/2 million tons, which is at the rate of 9 lb per annum
+  per head of the population. If the above amount of taels 1.50 were
+  uniformly levied and returned, the revenue would be 37-1/2 million
+  taels instead of 13-1/2. In this calculation, however, no allowance is
+  made for the cost of collection.
+
+  3. _Likin on General Merchandise_.--By the term likin is meant a tax
+  on inland trade levied while in transit from one district to another.
+  It was originally a war tax imposed as a temporary measure to meet the
+  military expenditure required by the T'aip'ing and Mahommedan
+  rebellions of 1850-1870. It is now one of the permanent sources of
+  income, but at the same time it is in form as objectionable as a tax
+  can be, and is equally obnoxious to the native and to the foreign
+  merchant. Tolls or barriers are erected at frequent intervals along
+  all the principal routes of trade, whether by land or water, and a
+  small levy is made at each on every conceivable article of commerce.
+  The individual levy is small, but over a long transit it may amount to
+  15 or 20%. The objectionable feature is the frequent stoppages with
+  overhauling of cargo and consequent delays. By treaty, foreign goods
+  may commute all transit dues for a single payment of one-half the
+  import tariff duty, but this stipulation is but indifferently
+  observed. It must also be remembered, per contra, that dishonest
+  foreign merchants will take out passes to cover _native-owned_ goods.
+  The difficulty in securing due observance of treaty rights lies in the
+  fact that the likin revenue is claimed by the provincial authorities,
+  and the transit dues when commuted belong to the central government,
+  so that the former are interested in opposing the commutation by every
+  means in their power. As a further means of neutralizing the
+  commutation they have devised a new form of impost, viz. a terminal
+  tax which is levied on the goods after the termination of the transit.
+  The amount and frequency of likin taxation are fixed by provincial
+  legislation--that is, by a proclamation of the governor. The levy is
+  authorized in general terms by an imperial decree, but all details are
+  left to the local authorities. The yield of this tax is estimated at
+  taels 13,000,000 (£l,950,000), a sum which probably represents
+  one-third of what is actually paid by the merchants, the balance being
+  costs of collection.
+
+  4. _Imperial Maritime Customs_.--The maritime customs is the one
+  department of finance in China which is managed with probity and
+  honesty, and this it owes to the fact that it is worked under foreign
+  control. It collects all the duties leviable under the treaties on the
+  foreign trade of China, and also all duties on the coasting trade so
+  far as carried on by vessels of foreign build, whether Chinese or
+  foreign owned. It does not control the trade in native craft, the
+  so-called junk trade, the duties on which are still levied by the
+  native custom-house officials. By arrangement between the British and
+  Chinese governments the foreign customs levy at the port of entry a
+  likin on Indian opium of taels 80 per chest, in addition to the tariff
+  duty of taels 30. This levy frees the opium from any further duty on
+  transit into the interior. The revenue of the maritime customs rose
+  from taels 8,200,000 in 1865 to taels 35,111,000 in 1905.
+
+  5. _Native Customs_,--The administration of the native customs
+  continues to be similar to what prevailed in the maritime customs
+  before the introduction of foreign supervision. Each collector is
+  constituted a farmer, bound to account for a fixed minimum sum, but
+  practically at liberty to retain all he may collect over and above. If
+  he returns more he may claim certain honorary rewards as for extra
+  diligence, but he generally manages to make out his accounts so as to
+  show a small surplus, and no more. Only imperfect and fragmentary
+  returns of the native collectorates have been published, but the total
+  revenue accruing to the Chinese government from this source did not
+  appear up to 1900 much to exceed two million taels (£300,000). In
+  November 1901 native customs offices within 15 m. of a treaty port
+  were placed under the control of the maritime customs, their revenues
+  having been hypothecated for the service of the Boxer indemnity. The
+  result was that the amount of the native customs collected by the
+  commissioners of customs increased from taels 2,206,000 in 1902 to
+  taels 3,699,000 in 1906.
+
+  6. _Duty on Native Opium_.--The collection of the duty on opium is in
+  the hands of the provincial officials, but they are required to
+  rendera separate account of duty and likin collected on the drug, and
+  to hold the sum at the disposal of the board of revenue at Peking. The
+  annual import into China of Indian opium used to amount to about
+  50,000 chests, the exact amount of opium imported in 1904 being 54,750
+  piculs, on which the Chinese government received from duty and likin
+  combined about 5-1/2 million taels (£825,000). The total amount of
+  native-grown opium was estimated in 1901 at about 400,000 chests
+  (53,000,000 lb), and if this were taxed at taels 60 per chest, which
+  in proportion to its price was a similar rate to that levied on Indian
+  opium, it should give a revenue of 24 million taels. Compared with
+  this the sums actually levied, or at least returned by the local
+  officials as levied, were insignificant. The returns gave a total levy
+  for all the eighteen provinces of only taels 2,200,000 (£330,000). The
+  anti-opium smoking campaign initiated by the Chinese government in
+  1905 affected the revenue both by the decreased importation of the
+  drug and the decrease in the area under poppy cultivation in China. In
+  1908 the opium likin revenue had fallen to taels 3,800,000.
+
+  7. _Miscellaneous_.--Besides the main and regular sources of income,
+  the provincial officials levy sums which must in the aggregate amount
+  to a very large figure, but which hardly find a place in the returns.
+  The principal are land transfer fees, pawnbrokers' and other licences,
+  duties on reed flats, commutation of corvée and personal services, &c.
+  The fee on land transfers is 3%, and it could be shown, from a
+  calculation based on the extent and value of the arable land and the
+  probable number of sales, that this item alone ought to yield an
+  annual return of between one and two millions sterling. Practically
+  the whole of this is absorbed in office expenses. Under this heading
+  should also be included certain items which though not deemed part of
+  the regular revenue, have been so often resorted to that they cannot
+  be left out of account. These are the sums derived from sale of office
+  or of brevet rank, and the subscriptions and benevolences which under
+  one plea or another the government succeeds in levying from the
+  wealthy. Excluding these, the government is always ready to receive
+  subscriptions, rewarding the donor with a grant of official rank
+  entitling him to wear the appropriate "button." The right is much
+  sought after, and indeed there are very few Chinamen of any standing
+  that are not thus decorated, for not only does the button confer
+  social standing, but it gives the wearer certain very substantial
+  advantages in case he should come into contact with the law courts.
+  The minimum price for the lowest grade is taels 120 (£18), and more of
+  course for higher grades. The proceeds of these sales go directly to
+  the Peking government, and do not as a rule figure in the provincial
+  returns. The total of the miscellaneous items accruing for the benefit
+  of the government is estimated at taels 5,500,000.
+
+  _Expenditure._--In regard to expenditure a distinction has to be drawn
+  between that portion of the revenue which is controlled by the central
+  government, and that controlled by the several provincial authorities.
+  As the provinces collect the revenue, and as the authorities there are
+  held responsible for the peace, order and good government of their
+  respective territories, it follows that the necessary expenses of the
+  provinces form a sort of first charge on the revenue. (As the tables
+  given show, the provinces spend the greater part of the revenue
+  collected.) The board of revenue at Peking, which is charged with a
+  general supervision of finance matters all over the empire, makes up
+  at the end of the year a general estimate of the funds that will be
+  required for imperial purposes during the ensuing year, and apportions
+  the amount among the several provinces and the several collectorates
+  in each province. The estimate is submitted to the emperor, and, when
+  sanctioned, instructions are sent to all the viceroys and governors in
+  that sense, who, in turn, pass them on to their subordinate officers.
+  In ordinary times these demands do not materially vary from year to
+  year, and long practice has created a sort of equilibrium between
+  imperial and provincial demands. The remittances to the capital are,
+  as a rule, forwarded with reasonable regularity, mostly in the form of
+  hard cash. There is, however, a constant pull going on between Peking
+  and the provinces--the former always asking for more, the latter
+  resisting and pleading impecuniosity, yet generally able to find the
+  amounts required. The expenses which the central government has to
+  meet are:--(1) Imperial household; (2) pay of the Manchu garrison in
+  and about Peking; (3) costs of the civil administration in the
+  capital; (4) cost of the army so far as the expenses are not borne by
+  the provinces; (5) naval expenses;[46] (6) foreign loans--interest and
+  sinking fund. To meet all these charges the Peking government for
+  several years up to 1900 drew on the provinces for about taels
+  20,000,000 (£3,000,000), including the value of the tribute rice,
+  which goes to the support of the Manchu bannermen.[47] No estimates
+  are furnished of the sums allowed under such heading. The imperial
+  household appears to receive in silver about taels 1,500,000
+  (£225,000) but it draws besides large supplies in kind from the
+  provinces, e.g. silks and satins from the imperial factories at
+  Su-chow and Hangchow, porcelain from the Kiang-si potteries, &c., the
+  cost of which is defrayed by the provinces. The imperial government
+  has also at its disposal the revenue of the foreign customs. Prior to
+  the Chino-Japanese war of 1894-95 this revenue, which, after allowing
+  for the costs of collection, amounted to about 20,000,000 taels
+  (£3,000,000), was nominally shared with the provinces in the
+  proportion of four-tenths and six-tenths. The whole of the customs
+  revenue is now pledged to foreign bondholders and absorbed by the
+  service of the several loans. Besides supplying its own wants the
+  imperial government has to provide for outlying portions of the empire
+  which are unable to maintain themselves--(1) Manchuria, (2) Kan-suh
+  and the central Asian dominion, (3) the south-western provinces of
+  Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. Manchuria, or, as it is termed, the
+  north-east frontier defence, costs about taels 2,000,000 over and
+  above its own resources. The central Asian territories constitute a
+  drain on the imperial government of about taels 4,000,000 a year. This
+  is met by subsidies from Sze-ch'uen, Shan-si, Ho-nan and other wealthy
+  provinces. Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si require aids aggregating
+  taels 2,000,000 to keep things going.
+
+  _External Debt._--Prior to the war with Japan in 1894 the foreign debt
+  of China was almost nil. A few trifling loans had been contracted at 7
+  and 8%, but they had been punctually paid off, and only a fraction of
+  one remained. The expenses of the war, however, and the large
+  indemnity of taels 230,000,000 (£34,500,000) which Japan exacted,
+  forced China for the first time into the European market as a serious
+  borrower. The sum of £6,635,000 was raised in 1894-1895 in four small
+  loans at 6 or 7% interest. In 1895 a Franco-Russian loan of fr.
+  440,000,000 (£15,820,000) was raised in Paris. Two Anglo-German loans,
+  each of £16,000,000 (one in 1896, the other in 1898) were raised
+  through the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank. The Franco-Russian loan bears
+  4% interest, the first Anglo-German 5%, the second 4½%. The foreign
+  loans contracted up to 1900 amounted altogether to £54,455,000. The
+  charges for interest and sinking fund, which amounted to over
+  £3,000,000, were secured on the revenue of the maritime customs, and
+  on the likin taxes of certain specified provinces. The net income from
+  these two sources amounted to over taels 24,000,000, equivalent at
+  existing rate of exchange to £3,400,000, which was amply sufficient.
+
+  Between 1899 and 1907 (both years inclusive) £12,200,000 was raised on
+  loan for railway purposes. The charges on the first loan--for
+  £2,300,000--were secured on the revenue of the Imperial Northern
+  railway, the interest being 5%. The same interest was secured on the
+  other loans, save one for £1,000,000 in which the Hong Kong government
+  was concerned, which bears 4% interest.
+
+  The foreign debt also includes the indemnities exacted in 1901 by the
+  powers for the Boxer outrages. These indemnities, secured on imperial
+  revenue, are divided into five series amounting altogether to
+  £67,500,000, the amount payable on these indemnities (at 4% interest)
+  in 1907 being £2,824,425. The burden of meeting this amount was
+  apportioned between the eighteen provinces--the sums allocated ranging
+  from taels 2,500,000 for Kiang-su to taels 300,000 for Kwei-chow. In
+  1909 the grand total of China's indebtedness exceeded £140,000,000 and
+  the interest called for the payment of £7,427,450 in gold.
+
+  _Banks and Banking._--Native banks for purposes of inland exchange are
+  to be found in most large cities. They are private banks using their
+  own capital, and seldom receiving deposits from the public. The best
+  known are the Shan-si banks, which have branches all over the empire.
+  They work on a small capital, seldom over £50,000 each, and do a small
+  but profitable business by selling their drafts on distant places.
+  None of them issues notes, although they are not debarred from doing
+  so by law. They lend money on personal security, but do not advance
+  against shipments of goods. In some places there are small local
+  banks, usually called cash shops, which issue paper notes for small
+  sums and lend money out on personal security. The notes never reach
+  more than a very limited local circulation, and pass current merely on
+  the credit of the institution. There is no law regulating the
+  formation of banks or the issue of notes. _Pawnshops_ occupy a
+  prominent position in the internal economy of China. They lend on
+  deposit of personality at very high rates, 18 and 24%, and they
+  receive deposits of money from the public, usually allowing 6 to 10%.
+  They are the real banks of deposit of the country, and the better
+  class enjoy good credit. _Foreign Banks_ do a large business at
+  Shanghai and other treaty ports, and a _Government Bank_ has been
+  established at Peking.
+
+  _Currency._--In the commercial treaty between Great Britain and China
+  of 1902 China agreed to provide a uniform national coinage. An
+  imperial decree of October 1908 commanded the introduction of a
+  uniform tael currency; but another decree of May 1910 established a
+  standard currency dollar weighing 72 candareens (a candareen is the
+  100th part of the tael ounce) and subsidiary coins of fixed values in
+  decimal ratio. This decree properly enforced would introduce a much
+  needed stability into the monetary system of China.
+
+  The actual currency (1910) consists of (l) _Silver_, which may be
+  either uncoined ingots passing current by weight, or imported coins,
+  Mexican dollars and British dollars; and (2) _Copper_ "cash," which
+  has no fixed relation to silver. The standard is silver, the unit
+  being the Chinese ounce or tael, containing 565 grains. The tael is
+  not a coin, but a weight. Its value in sterling consequently
+  fluctuates with the value of silver; in 1870 it was worth about 6s.
+  8d., in 1907 it was worth 3s. 3d.[48] The name given in China to
+  uncoined silver in current use is "sycee." It is cast for convenience
+  sake into ingots weighing one to 50 taels. Its average fineness is
+  916.66 per 1000. When foreign silver is imported, say into Shanghai,
+  it can be converted into currency by a very simple process. The bars
+  of silver are sent to a quasi-public office termed the "Kung K'u," or
+  public valuers, and by them melted down and cast into ingots of the
+  customary size. The fineness is estimated, and the premium or
+  betterness, together with the exact weight, is marked in ink on each
+  ingot. The whole process only occupies a few hours, and the silver is
+  then ready to be put into use. The Kung K'u is simply a local office
+  appointed by the bankers of the place, and the weight and fineness are
+  only good for that locality. The government takes no responsibility in
+  the matter, but leaves merchants and bankers to adjust the currency as
+  they please. For purposes of taxation and payment of duties there is a
+  standard or treasury tael, which is about 10% heavier than the tael of
+  commerce in use at Shanghai. Every large commercial centre has its own
+  customary tael, the weight and therefore the value of which differ
+  from that of every other. Silver dollars coined in Mexico, and British
+  dollars coined in Bombay, also circulate freely at the open ports of
+  trade and for some distance inland, passing at a little above their
+  intrinsic value. Carolus dollars, introduced long ago and no longer
+  coined, are retained in current use in several parts of the interior,
+  chiefly the tea-growing districts. Being preferred by the people, and
+  as the supply cannot be added to, they have reached a considerable
+  premium above their intrinsic value. Provincial mints in Canton,
+  Wuchang, and other places have issued silver coins of the same weight
+  and touch as the Mexican dollar, but very few have gone into use. As
+  they possess no privilege in debt-paying power over imported Mexican
+  dollars there is no inducement for the people to take them up unless
+  they can be had at a cheaper rate than the latter, and these are laid
+  down at so small a cost above the intrinsic value that no profit is
+  left to the mint. The coinage has in consequence been almost
+  discontinued. Subsidiary coins, however, came largely into use, being
+  issued by the local mints. One coin "the hundredth part of a dollar"
+  proved very popular (the issue to the end of 1906 being computed at
+  12,500,000,000), but at rates corresponding closely to the intrinsic
+  value of the metal in it. The only coin officially issued by the
+  government--up to 1910--was the so-called copper _cash_. It is a small
+  coin which by regulation should weigh 1/16 of a tael, and should
+  contain 50 parts of copper, 40 of zinc, and 10 of lead or tin, and it
+  should bear a fixed ratio to silver of 1000 cash to one tael of
+  silver. In practice none of these conditions was observed. Being
+  issued from a number of mints, mostly provincial, the standard was
+  never uniform, and in many cases debased. Excessive issues lowered the
+  value of the coins, and for many years the average exchange was 1600
+  or more per tael. The rise in copper led to the melting down of all
+  the older and superior coins, and as for the same reason coining was
+  suspended, the result was an appreciation of the "cash," so that a
+  tael in 1909 exchanged for about 1220 cash or about 35 to a penny
+  English. Inasmuch as the "cash" bore no fixed relation to silver, and
+  was, moreover, of no uniform composition, it formed a sort of mongrel
+  standard of its own, varying with the volume in circulation.
+     (G.J.; X.)
+
+
+V. HISTORY
+
+(A)--_European Knowledge of China up to 1615._
+
+_China as known to the Ancients._--The spacious seat of ancient
+civilization which we call China has been distinguished by different
+appellations, according as it was reached by the southern sea-route or
+by the northern land-route traversing the longitude of Asia. In the
+former aspect the name has nearly always been some form of the name
+_Sin, Chin, Sinoe, China_. In the latter point of view the region in
+question was known to the ancients as the land of the _Seres_, to the
+middle ages as the empire of _Cathay_. The name of _Chin_ has been
+supposed (doubtfully) to be derived from the dynasty of _Ts'in_, which a
+little more than two centuries before the Christian era enjoyed a
+vigorous existence, uniting all the Chinese provinces under its
+authority, and extending its conquests far beyond those limits to the
+south and the west. The mention of the _Chinas_ in ancient Sanskrit
+literature, both in the laws of Manu and in the Mah[=a]bh[=a]rata, has
+often been supposed to prove the application of the name long before the
+predominance of the Ts'in dynasty. But the coupling of that name with
+the _Daradas_, still surviving as the people of Dardistan, on the Indus,
+suggests it as more probable that those _Chinas_ were a kindred race of
+mountaineers, whose name as _Shinas_ in fact likewise remains applied to
+a branch of the Dard races. Whether the _Sinim_ of the prophet Isaiah
+should be interpreted of the Chinese is probably not susceptible of any
+decision; by the context it appears certainly to indicate a people of
+the extreme east or south. The name probably came to Europe through the
+Arabs, who made the _China_ of the farther east into _Sîn_, and perhaps
+sometimes into _Thîn_. Hence the _Thîn_ of the author of the _Periplus
+of the Erythraean Sea_, who appears to be the first extant writer to
+employ the name in this form (_i.e._ assuming Max Müller's view that he
+belongs to the 1st century); hence also the _Sinae_ and _Thinae_ of
+Ptolemy.
+
+  It has often indeed been denied that the Sinae of Ptolemy really
+  represented the Chinese. But if we compare the statement of Marcianus
+  of Heraclea (a mere condenser of Ptolemy), when he tells us that the
+  "nations of the Sinae lie at the extremity of the habitable world, and
+  adjoin the eastern Terra Incognita," with that of Cosmas, who says, in
+  speaking of _Tzinista_, a name of which no one can question the
+  application to China, that "beyond this there is neither habitation
+  nor navigation"--we cannot doubt the same region to be meant by both.
+  The fundamental error of Ptolemy's conception of the Indian Sea as a
+  closed basin rendered it _impossible_ but that he should misplace the
+  Chinese coast. But considering that the name of _Sin_ has come down
+  among the Arabs from time immemorial as applied to the Chinese,
+  considering that in the work of Ptolemy this name certainly
+  represented the farthest known East, and considering how inaccurate
+  are Ptolemy's configurations and longitudes much nearer home, it seems
+  almost as reasonable to deny the identity of his India with ours as to
+  deny that his Sinae were Chinese.
+
+  If we now turn to the _Seres_ we find this name mentioned by classic
+  authors much more frequently and at an earlier date, for the passages
+  of Eratosthenes (in Strabo), formerly supposed to speak of a parallel
+  passing through _Thinae_--[Greek: dia Thinôn]--are now known to read
+  correctly [Greek: di'Athênôn]. The name _Seres_ indeed is familiar to
+  the Latin poets of the Augustan age, but always in a vague way, and
+  usually with a general reference to Central Asia and the farther East.
+  We find, however, that the first endeavours to assign more accurately
+  the position of this people, which are those of Mela and Pliny,
+  gravitate distinctly towards China in its northern aspect as the true
+  ideal involved. Thus Mela describes the remotest east of Asia as
+  occupied by the three races (proceeding from south to north), Indians,
+  Seres and Scyths; just as in a general way we might still say that
+  eastern Asia is occupied by the Indies, China and Tartary.
+
+  Ptolemy first uses the names of _Sera_ and _Serice_, the former for
+  the chief city, the latter for the country of the Seres, and as usual
+  defines their position with a precision far beyond what his knowledge
+  justified--the necessary result of his system. Yet even his definition
+  of Serice is most consistent with the view that this name indicated
+  the Chinese empire in its northern aspect, for he carries it eastward
+  to the 180th degree of longitude, which is also, according to his
+  calculation, in a lower latitude the eastern boundary of the Sinae.
+
+  Ammianus Marcellinus devotes some paragraphs to a description of the
+  Seres and their country, one passage of which is startling at first
+  sight in its seeming allusion to the Great Wall, and in this sense it
+  has been rashly interpreted by Lassen and by Reinaud. But Ammianus is
+  merely converting Ptolemy's dry tables into fine writing, and speaks
+  only of an encircling rampart of mountains within which the spacious
+  and happy valley of the Seres lies. It is true that Ptolemy makes his
+  Serice extend westward to Imaus, _i.e._ to Pamir. But the Chinese
+  empire _did_ so extend at that epoch, and we find Lieut. John Wood in
+  1838 speaking of "_China_" as lying immediately beyond Pamir, just as
+  the Arabs of the 8th century spoke of the country beyond the Jaxartes
+  as "_Sin_," and as Ptolemy spoke of "_Serice_" as immediately beyond
+  Imaus.
+
+  If we fuse into one the ancient notices of the Seres and their
+  country, omitting anomalous statements and manifest fables, the result
+  will be somewhat as follows: "The region of the Seres is a vast and
+  populous country, touching on the east the ocean and the limits of the
+  habitable world, and extending west to Imaus and the confines of
+  Bactria. The people are civilized, mild, just and frugal, eschewing
+  collisions with their neighbours, and even shy of close intercourse,
+  but not averse to dispose of their own products, of which raw silk is
+  the staple, but which included also silk-stuffs, fine furs, and iron
+  of remarkable quality." That is manifestly a definition of the
+  Chinese.
+
+  That Greek and Roman knowledge of the true position of so remote a
+  nation should at best have been somewhat hazy is nothing wonderful.
+  And it is worthy of note that the view entertained by the ancient
+  Chinese of the Roman empire and its inhabitants, under the name of
+  _Ta-thsin_, had some striking points of analogy to those views of the
+  Chinese which are indicated in the classical descriptions of the
+  Seres. There can be no mistaking the fact that in this case also the
+  great object was within the horizon of vision, yet the details
+  ascribed to it are often far from being true characteristics, being
+  only the accidents of its outer borders.
+
+_The Medieval Cathay._--"Cathay" is the name by which the Chinese empire
+was known to medieval Europe, and it is in its original form (_Kitai_)
+that China is still known in Russia and to most of the nations of
+Central Asia. West of Russia this name has long ceased to be a
+geographical expression, but it is associated with a remarkable phase in
+the history of geography and commerce. The name first became known to
+Europe in the 13th century, when the vast conquests of Jenghiz Khan and
+his house drew a new and vivid attention to Asia. For some three
+centuries previously the northern provinces of China had been detached
+from indigenous rule, and subject to northern conquerors. The first of
+these foreign dynasties was of a race called _Khitán_ issuing from the
+basin of the Sungari river, and supposed (but doubtfully) to have been
+of the blood of the modern Tunguses. The rule of this race endured for
+two centuries and originated the application of the name _Khitât_ or
+_Khitâï_ to northern China. The dynasty itself, known in Chinese history
+as _Liao_, or "Iron," disappeared from China 1123, but the name remained
+attached to the territory which they had ruled.
+
+The Khitán were displaced by the Nüchih (_Nyûché_ or _Chûrché_) race,
+akin to the modern Manchus. These reigned, under the title of _Kin_, or
+"Golden," till Jenghiz and his Mongols invaded them in turn. In 1234 the
+conquest of the Kin empire was completed, and the dynasty extinguished
+under Ogdai (Ogotai), the son and successor of Jenghiz Khan. Forty years
+later, in the reign of Kublai, grandson and ablest successor of Jenghiz,
+the Mongol rule was extended over southern China (1276), which till
+then had remained under a native dynasty, the Sung, holding its royal
+residence in a vast and splendid city, now known as Hang-chow, but then
+as Ling-nan, or more commonly as _King-sze_, i.e. the court. The
+southern empire was usually called by the conquerors _Mantzi_ (or as
+some of the old travellers write, _Mangi_), a name which western
+Asiatics seem to have identified with _Mâchîn_ (from the Sanskrit
+_Mahâchîn_), one of the names by which China was known to the traders
+from Persian and Arabian ports.
+
+The conquests of Jenghiz and his successors had spread not only over
+China and the adjoining East, but westward also over all northern Asia,
+Persia, Armenia, part of Asia Minor and Russia, threatening to deluge
+Christendom. Though the Mongol wave retired, as it seemed almost by an
+immediate act of Providence, when Europe lay at its feet, it had
+levelled or covered all political barriers from the frontier of Poland
+to the Yellow Sea, and when western Europe recovered from its alarm,
+Asia lay open, as never before or since, to the inspection of
+Christendom. Princes, envoys, priests--half-missionary,
+half-envoy--visited the court of the great khan in Mongolia; and besides
+these, the accidents of war, commerce or opportunity carried a variety
+of persons from various classes of human life into the depths of Asia.
+"'Tis worthy of the grateful remembrance of all Christian people," says
+an able missionary friar of the next age (Ricold of Monte Croce), "that
+just at the time when God sent forth into the Eastern parts of the world
+the Tatars to slay and to be slain, He also sent into the West his
+faithful and blessed servants, Dominic and Francis, to enlighten,
+instruct and build up in the faith." Whatever on the whole may be
+thought of the world's debt to Dominic, it is to the two mendicant
+orders, but especially to the Franciscans, that we owe a vast amount of
+information about medieval Asia, and, among other things, the first
+mention of _Cathay_. Among the many strangers who reached Mongolia were
+(1245-1247) John de Plano Carpini and (1253) William of Rubruk
+(Rubruquis) in French Flanders, both Franciscan friars of high
+intelligence, who happily have left behind them reports of their
+observations.
+
+  Carpini, after mentioning the wars of Jenghiz against the _Kitai_,
+  goes on to speak of that people as follows: "Now these _Kitai_ are
+  heathen men, and have a written character of their own... They seem,
+  indeed, to be kindly and polished folks enough. They have no beard,
+  and in character of countenance have a considerable resemblance to the
+  Mongols" [are _Mongoloid_, as our ethnologists would say], "but are
+  not so broad in the face. They have a peculiar language. Their betters
+  as craftsmen in every art practised by man are not to be found in the
+  whole world. Their country is very rich in corn, in wine, in gold and
+  silver, in silk, and in every kind of produce tending to the support
+  of mankind." The notice of Rubruk, shrewder and more graphic, runs
+  thus: "Farther on is Great Cathay, which I take to be the country
+  which was anciently called the Land of the Seres. For the best silk
+  stuffs are still got from them... The sea lies between it and India.
+  Those Cathayans are little fellows, speaking much through the nose,
+  and, as is general with all those eastern people, their eyes are very
+  narrow. They are first-rate artists in every kind, and their
+  physicians have a thorough knowledge of the virtues of herbs, and an
+  admirable skill in diagnosis by the pulse... The common money of
+  Cathay consists of pieces of cotton-paper, about a palm in length and
+  breadth, upon which certain lines are printed, resembling the seal of
+  Mangu Khan. They do their writing with a pencil, such as painters
+  paint with, and a single character of theirs comprehends several
+  letters, so as to form a whole word."
+
+  Here we have not only what is probably the first European notice of
+  paper-money, but a _partial_ recognition of the peculiarity of Chinese
+  writing, and a perception that puts to shame the perverse boggling of
+  later critics over the identity of these Cathayans with the Seres of
+  classic fame.
+
+But though these travellers saw Cathayans in the bazaars in the great
+khan's camps, the first actual visitors of Cathay itself were the Polo
+family, and it is to the book of Marco Polo's recollections mainly that
+Cathay owed the growing familiarity of its name in Europe during the
+14th and 15th centuries. It is, however, a great mistake to suppose, as
+has often been assumed, that the residence of the Polos in that country
+remained an isolated fact. They were but the pioneers of a very
+considerable intercourse, which endured till the decay of the Mongol
+dynasty in Cathay, i.e. for about half a century.
+
+We have no evidence that either in the 13th or 14th century Cathayans,
+i.e. Chinese, ever reached Europe, but it is possible that some did, at
+least in the former century. For, during the campaigns of Hulagu in
+Persia (1256-1265), and the reigns of his successors, Chinese engineers
+were employed on the banks of the Tigris, and Chinese astrologers and
+physicians could be consulted at Tabriz. Many diplomatic communications
+passed between the Hulaguid Ilkhans and the princes of Christendom. The
+former, as the great khan's liegemen, still received from him their
+seals of state; and two of their letters which survive in the archives
+of France exhibit the vermilion impressions of those seals in Chinese
+characters--perhaps affording the earliest specimen of that character
+which reached western Europe.
+
+Just as the Polos were reaching their native city (1295), after an
+absence of a quarter of a century, the forerunner of a new series of
+travellers was entering southern China by way of the Indian seas. This
+was John of Monte Corvino, another Franciscan who, already some fifty
+years of age, was plunging single-handed into that great ocean of
+paganism to preach the gospel according to his lights. After years of
+uphill and solitary toil converts began to multiply; coadjutors joined
+him. The Papal See became cognizant of the harvest that was being reaped
+in the far East. It made Friar John archbishop in Cambaluc (or Peking),
+with patriarchal authority, and sent him batches of suffragan bishops
+and preachers of his own order. The Roman Church spread; churches and
+Minorite houses were established at Cambaluc, at Zayton or Tsuan-chow in
+Fu-kien, at Yang-chow and elsewhere; and the missions flourished under
+the smile of the great khan, as the Jesuit missions did for a time under
+the Manchu emperors three centuries and a half later. Archbishop John
+was followed to the grave, about 1328, by mourning multitudes of pagans
+and Christians alike. Several of the bishops and friars who served under
+him have left letters or other memoranda of their experience, e.g.
+Andrew, bishop of Zayton, John of Cora, afterwards archbishop of
+Sultania in Persia, and Odoric of Pordenone, whose fame as a pious
+traveller won from the _vox populi_ at his funeral a beatification which
+the church was fain to seal. The only ecclesiastical narrative regarding
+Cathay, of which we are aware, subsequent to the time of Archbishop
+John, is that which has been gathered from the recollections of Giovanni
+de' Marignolli, a Florentine Franciscan, who was sent by Pope Benedict
+XII. with a mission to the great khan, in return for one from that
+potentate which arrived at Avignon from Cathay in 1338, and who spent
+four years (1342-1346) at the court of Cambaluc as legate of the Holy
+See. These recollections are found dispersed incoherently over a
+chronicle of Bohemia which the traveller wrote by order of the emperor
+Charles IV., whose chaplain he was after his return.
+
+But intercourse during the period in question was not confined to
+ecclesiastical channels. Commerce also grew up, and flourished for a
+time even along the vast line that stretches from Genoa and Florence to
+the marts of Cheh-kiang and Fu-kien. The record is very fragmentary and
+imperfect, but many circumstances and incidental notices show how
+frequently the remote East was reached by European traders in the first
+half of the 14th century--a state of things which it is very difficult
+to realize when we see how all those regions, when reopened to knowledge
+two centuries later, seemed to be discoveries as new as the empires
+which, about the same time, Cortes and Pizarro were conquering in the
+West.
+
+  This commercial intercourse probably began about 1310-1320. John of
+  Monte Corvino, writing in 1305, says it was twelve years since he had
+  heard any news from Europe; the only Western stranger who had arrived
+  in all that time being a certain Lombard chirurgeon (probably one of
+  the _Patarini_ who got hard measure at home in those days), who had
+  spread the most incredible blasphemies, about the Roman Curia and the
+  order of St Francis. Yet even on his first entrance to Cathay Friar
+  John had been accompanied by one Master Peter of Lucolongo, whom he
+  describes as a faithful Christian man and a great merchant, and who
+  seems to have remained many years at Peking. The letter of Andrew,
+  bishop of Zayton (1326), quotes the opinion of Genoese merchants at
+  that port regarding a question of exchanges. Odoric, who was in Cathay
+  about 1323-1327, refers for confirmation of the wonders which he
+  related of the great city of Cansay (i.e. King-sze, or Hang-chow) to
+  the many persons whom he had met at Venice since his return, who had
+  themselves been witnesses of those marvels. And Marignolli, some
+  twenty years later, found attached to one of the convents at Zayton,
+  in Fu-kien, a _fondaco_ or factory for the accommodation of the
+  Christian merchants.
+
+  But by far the most distinct and notable evidence of the importance
+  and frequency of European trade with Cathay, of which silk and silk
+  goods formed the staple, is to be found in the commercial hand-book
+  (c. 1340) of Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a clerk and factor of the
+  great Florentine house of the Bardi, which was brought to the ground
+  about that time by its dealings with Edward III. of England. This
+  book, called by its author _Libro di divisamenti di Paesi_, is a sort
+  of trade-guide, devoting successive chapters to the various ports and
+  markets of his time, detailing the nature of imports and exports at
+  each, the duties and exactions, the local customs of business,
+  weights, measures and money. The first two chapters of this work
+  contain instructions for the merchant proceeding to Cathay; and it is
+  evident, from the terms used, that the road thither was not
+  unfrequently travelled by European merchants, from whom Pegolotti had
+  derived his information. The route which he describes lay by Azov,
+  Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar (on the Jaxartes), Almálik (Gulja in Ili),
+  Kan-chow (in Kan-suh), and so to Hang-chow and Peking. Particulars are
+  given as to the silver ingots which formed the currency of Tatary, and
+  the paper-money of Cathay. That the ventures on this trade were not
+  insignificant is plain from the example taken by the author to
+  illustrate the question of expenses on the journey, which is that of a
+  merchant investing in goods there to the amount of some £12,000 (i.e.
+  in actual gold value, not as calculated by any fanciful and fallacious
+  equation of values).
+
+  Of the same remarkable phase of history that we are here considering
+  we have also a number of notices by Mahommedan writers. The
+  establishment of the Mongol dynasty in Persia, by which the great khan
+  was acknowledged as lord paramount, led (as we have already noticed in
+  part) to a good deal of intercourse. And some of the Persian
+  historians, writing at Tabriz, under the patronage of the Mongol
+  princes, have told us much about Cathay, especially Rashiduddin, the
+  great minister and historian of the dynasty (died 1318). We have also
+  in the book of the Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, who visited China
+  about 1347-1348, very many curious and in great part true notices,
+  though it is not possible to give credence to the whole of this
+  episode in his extensive travels.
+
+  About the time of the traveller first named the throne of the
+  degenerate descendants of Jenghiz began to totter to its fall, and we
+  have no knowledge of any Frank visitor to Cathay in that age later
+  than Marignolli; missions and merchants alike disappear from the
+  field. We hear, indeed, once and again of ecclesiastics despatched
+  from Avignon, but they go forth into the darkness, and are heard of no
+  more. Islam, with all its jealousy and exclusiveness, had recovered
+  its grasp over Central Asia; the Nestorian Christianity which once had
+  prevailed so widely was vanishing, and the new rulers of China
+  reverted to the old national policy, and held the foreigner at arm's
+  length. Night descended upon the farther East, covering Cathay with
+  those cities of which the old travellers had told such marvels,
+  Cambaluc and Cansay, Zayton and Chinkalan. And when the veil rose
+  before the Portuguese and Spanish explorers of the 16th century, those
+  names are heard no more. In their stead we have China, Peking,
+  Hangchow, Chinchew, Canton. Not only were the old names forgotten, but
+  the fact that those places had ever been known before was forgotten
+  also. Gradually new missionaries went forth from Rome--Jesuits and
+  Dominicans now; new converts were made, and new vicariates
+  constituted; but the old Franciscan churches, and the Nestorianism
+  with which they had battled, had alike been swallowed up in the ocean
+  of pagan indifference. In time a wreck or two floated to the
+  surface--a MS. Latin Bible or a piece of Catholic sculpture; and when
+  the intelligent missionaries called Marco Polo to mind, and studied
+  his story, one and another became convinced that Cathay and China were
+  one.
+
+  But for a long time all but a sagacious few continued to regard Cathay
+  as a region distinct from any of the new-found Indies; whilst
+  map-makers, well on into the 17th century, continued to represent it
+  as a great country lying entirely to the north of China, and
+  stretching to the Arctic Sea.
+
+  It was Cathay, with its outlying island of Zipangu (Japan), that
+  Columbus sought to reach by sailing westward, penetrated as he was by
+  his intense conviction of the smallness of the earth, and of the vast
+  extension of Asia eastward; and to the day of his death he was full of
+  the imagination of the proximity of the domain of the great khan to
+  the islands and coasts which he had discovered. And such imaginations
+  are curiously embodied in some of the maps of the early 16th century,
+  which intermingle on the same coast-line the new discoveries from
+  Labrador to Brazil with the provinces and rivers of Marco Polo's
+  Cathay.
+
+  Cathay had been the aim of the first voyage of the Cabots in 1496, and
+  it continued to be the object of many adventurous voyages by English
+  and Hollanders to the N.W. and N.E. till far on in the 16th century.
+  At least one memorable land-journey also was made by Englishmen, of
+  which the exploration of a trade-route to Cathay was a chief
+  object--that in which Anthony Jenkinson and the two Johnsons reached
+  Bokhara by way of Russia in 1558-1559. The country of which they
+  collected notices at that city was still known to them only as
+  _Cathay_, and its great capital only as _Cambaluc_.
+
+  Cathay as a supposed separate entity may be considered to come to an
+  end with the journey of Benedict Goës, the lay-Jesuit. This admirable
+  person was, in 1603, despatched through Central Asia by his superiors
+  in India with the specific object of determining whether the Cathay of
+  old European writers and of modern Mahommedans was or was not a
+  distinct region from that China of which parallel marvels had now for
+  some time been recounted. Benedict, as one of his brethren pronounced
+  his epitaph, "seeking Cathay found Heaven." He died at Suchow, the
+  frontier city of China, but not before he had ascertained that China
+  and Cathay were the same. After the publication of the narrative of
+  his journey (in the _Expeditio Christiana apud Sinas_ of Trigault,
+  1615) inexcusable ignorance alone could continue to distinguish
+  between them, but such ignorance lingered many years longer.   (H. Y.)
+
+
+(B)--_Chinese Origins._
+
+Chinese literature contains no record of any kind which might justify us
+in assuming that the nucleus of the nation may have immigrated from some
+other part of the world; and the several ingenious theories pointing to
+Babylonia, Egypt, India, Khotan, and other seats of ancient civilization
+as the starting-points of ethnical wanderings must be dismissed as
+untenable. Whether the Chinese were seated in their later homes from
+times immemorial, as their own historians assume, or whether they
+arrived there from abroad, as some foreign scholars have pretended,
+cannot be proved to the satisfaction of historical critics. Indeed,
+anthropological arguments seem to contradict the idea of any connexion
+with Babylonians, Egyptians, Assyrians, or Indians. The earliest
+hieroglyphics of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty
+(second millennium B.C.), betray the Mongol character of the nation that
+invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye wherever it
+appears in an ideograph. In a pair of eyes as shown in the most ancient
+pictorial or sculptural representations in the west, the four corners
+may be connected by a horizontal straight line; whereas lines drawn
+through the eyes of one of the oldest Chinese hieroglyphics cross each
+other at a sharp angle, as shown in the accompanying diagrams:--
+
+[Illustration: Egyptian.]
+
+[Illustration: Chinese.]
+
+This does not seem to speak for racial consanguinity any more than the
+well-known curled heads and bearded faces of Assyrian sculptures as
+compared to the straight-haired and almost beardless Chinese.
+Similarities in the creation of cultural elements may, it is true, be
+shown to exist on either side, even at periods when mutual intercourse
+was probably out of the question; but this may be due to uniformity in
+the construction of the human brain, which leads man in different parts
+of the world to arrive at similar ideas under similar conditions, or to
+prehistoric connexions which it is as impossible for us to trace now as
+is the origin of mankind itself. Our standpoint as regards the origin of
+the Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic. All we can do is
+to reproduce the tradition as it is found in Chinese literature. This
+tradition, as applying to the very earliest periods, may be nothing more
+than historical superstition, yet it has its historical importance.
+Supposing it were possible to prove that none of the persons mentioned
+in the Bible from Adam down to the Apostles ever lived, even the most
+sceptical critic would still have to admit that the history of a great
+portion of the human race has been materially affected by the belief in
+the examples of their alleged lives. Something similar may be said of
+the alleged earliest history of the Chinese with its model emperors and
+detestable tyrants, the accounts of which, whether based on reality or
+not, have exercised much influence on the development of the nation.
+
+The Chinese have developed their theories of prehistoric life.
+Speculation as to the origin and gradual evolution of their civilization
+has resulted in the expression of views by authors who may have
+reconstructed their systems from remnants of ancestral life revealed by
+excavations, or from observation of neighbouring nations living in a
+state of barbarism. This may account for a good deal of the repetition
+found in the Chinese mythological and legendary narratives, the personal
+and chronological part of which may have been invented merely as a
+framework for illustrating social and cultural progress. The scene of
+action of all the prehistoric figures from P'an-ku, the first human
+being, down to the beginning of real history has been laid in a part of
+the world which has never been anything but Chinese territory. P'an-ku's
+epoch, millions of years ago, was followed by ten distinct periods of
+sovereigns, including the "Heavenly emperors," the "Terrestrial
+emperors," and the "Human emperors," the _Yu-ch'au_ or "Nest-builders,"
+and _Sui-jön_, the "Fire Producer," the Prometheus of the Chinese, who
+borrowed fire from the stars for the benefit of man. Several of the
+characteristic phases of cultural progress and social organization have
+been ascribed to this mythological period. Authors of less fertile
+imagination refer them to later times, when the heroes of their accounts
+appear in shapes somewhat resembling human beings rather than as gods
+and demigods.
+
+The Chinese themselves look upon Fu-hi as their first historical
+emperor; and they place his lifetime in the years 2852-2738 B.C. Some
+accounts represent him as a supernatural being; and we see him depicted
+as a human figure with a fish tail something like a mermaid. He is
+credited with having established social order among his people, who,
+before him, had lived like animals in the wilds. The social chaos out of
+which Chinese society arose is described as being characterized by the
+absence of family life; for "children knew only their mothers and not
+their fathers." Fu-hi introduced matrimony; and in so doing he placed
+man as the husband at the head of the family and abolished the original
+matriarchate. This quite corresponds with his views on the dualism in
+natural philosophy, of which he is supposed to have laid the germs by
+the invention of the so-called _pa-kua_, eight symbols, each consisting
+of three parallel lines, broken or continuous. The continuous lines
+represented the male element in nature; the broken ones, the female. It
+is characteristic that the same ruler who assigned to man his position
+as the head of the family is also credited with the invention of that
+natural philosophy of the "male and female principles," according to
+which all good things and qualities were held to be male, while their
+less sympathetic opposites were female, such as heaven and earth, sun
+and moon, day and night, south and north. If these traditions really
+represent the oldest prehistoric creations of the popular mind, it would
+almost seem that the most ancient Chinese shared that naïve sentiment
+which caused our own forefathers to invent gender. The difference is
+that, with us, the conception survives merely in the language, where the
+article or suffixes mark gender, whereas with the Chinese, whose
+language does not express gender, it survives in their system of
+metaphysics. For all their attempts at fathoming the secrets of nature
+are based on the idea that male or female powers are inherent in all
+matter.
+
+To the same Emperor Fu-hi are ascribed many of the elementary inventions
+which raise man from the life of a brute to that of a social being. He
+taught his people to hunt, to fish, and to keep flocks; he constructed
+musical instruments, and replaced a kind of knot-writing previously in
+use by a system of hieroglyphics. All this cannot of course be
+considered as history; but it shows that the authors of later centuries
+who credited Fu-hi with certain inventions were not quite illogical in
+starting from the matriarchal chaos, after which he is said to have
+organized society with occupations corresponding to those of a period of
+hunting, fishing and herding. This period was bound to be followed by a
+further step towards the final development of the nation's social
+condition; and we find it quite logically succeeded by a period of
+agricultural life, personified in the Emperor, Shön-nung, supposed to
+have lived in the twenty-eighth century B.C. His name may be freely
+translated as "Divine Labourer"; and to him the Chinese ascribe the
+invention of agricultural implements, and the discovery of the medicinal
+properties of numerous plants.
+
+The third historical emperor was Huang-ti, the "Yellow emperor,"
+according to the literal translation. Ssï-ma Ts'ién, the Herodotus of
+the Chinese, begins his history with him; but Fu-hi and Shön-nung are
+referred to in texts much older than this historian, though many details
+relating to their alleged reigns have been added in later times.
+Huang-ti extended the boundaries of the empire, described as being
+originally confined to a limited territory near the banks of the Yellow
+river and the present city of Si-an-fu. Here were the sites of cities
+used as capitals of the empire under various names during long periods
+since remote antiquity. To Huang-ti, whose reign is said to have
+commenced in 2704 according to one source and in 2491 according to
+another, are ascribed most of the cultural innovations which historians
+were not able otherwise to locate within historical times. Under
+Huang-ti we find the first mention of a nation called the Hun-yü, who
+occupied the north of his empire and with whom he is represented to have
+engaged in warfare. The Chinese identify this name with that of the
+Hiung-nu, their old hereditary enemy and the ancestors of Attila's Huns.
+Even though the details of these legendary accounts may deserve little
+confidence, there must have been an old tradition that a nation called
+the Hun-yü, occupying the northern confines of China, were the ancestors
+of the Hiung-nu tribes, well known in historical times, a scion of whose
+great khans settled in territory belonging to the king of Sogdiana
+during the first century B.C., levied tribute from his neighbours, the
+Alans, and with his small but warlike horde initiated that era of
+migrations which led to the overrunning of Europe with Central-Asiatic
+Tatars.
+
+Fu-hi, Shön-nung and Huang-ti represent a group of rulers comprised by
+the Chinese under the name of _San-huang_, i.e. "The Three Emperors."
+Although we have no reason to deny their existence, the details recorded
+concerning them contain enough in the way of improbabilities to justify
+us in considering them as mythical creations. The chronology, too, is
+apparently quite fictitious; for the time allotted to their reigns is
+much too long as a term of government for a single human life, and, on
+the other hand, much too short, if we measure it by the cultural
+progress said to have been brought about in it. Fu-hi's period of
+hunting life must have lasted many generations before it led to the
+agricultural period represented by the name Shön-nung; and this period
+in turn could not possibly have led within a little more than one
+hundred years to the enormous progress ascribed to Huang-ti. Under the
+latter ruler a regular board of historians is said to have been
+organized with Ts'ang-kié as president, who is known also as Shi-huang,
+i.e. "the Emperor of Historians," the reputed inventor of hieroglyphic
+writing placed by some authors into the Fu-hi period and worshipped as
+Tz'ï-shön, i.e. "God of writing," to the present day. Huang-ti is
+supposed to have been the first builder of temples, houses and cities;
+to have regulated the calendar, to which he added the intercalary month;
+and to have devised means of traffic by cars drawn by oxen and by boats
+to ply on the lakes and rivers of his empire. His wife, known as "the
+lady of Si-ling," is credited with the invention of the several
+manipulations in the rearing of silkworms and the manufacture of silk.
+The invention of certain flutes, combined to form a kind of reed organ,
+led to a deeper study of music; and in order to construct these
+instruments with the necessary accuracy a system of weights and measures
+had to be devised. Huang-ti's successors, Shau-hau, Chuan-hü, and
+Ti-k'u, were less prominent, though each of them had their particular
+merits.
+
+  _The Model Emperors._--Most of the stories regarding the "Three
+  Emperors" are told in comparatively late records. The _Shu-king_,
+  sometimes described as the "Canon of History," our oldest source of
+  pre-Confucian history, supposed to have been edited by Confucius
+  himself, knows nothing of Fu-hi, Shön-nung and Huang-ti; but it begins
+  by extolling the virtues of the emperor _Yau_ and his successor
+  _Shun_. Yau and Shun are probably the most popular names in Chinese
+  history as taught in China. Whatever good qualities may be imagined of
+  the rulers of a great nation have been heaped upon their heads; and
+  the example of their lives has at all times been held up by
+  Confucianists as the height of perfection in a sovereign's character.
+  Yau, whose reign has been placed by the fictitious standard chronology
+  of the Chinese in the years 2357-2258, and about 200 years later by
+  the less extravagant "Annals of the Bamboo Books," is represented as
+  the patron of certain astronomers who had to watch the heavenly
+  bodies; and much has been written about the reputed astronomical
+  knowledge of the Chinese in this remote period. Names like Deguignes,
+  Gaubil, Biot and Schlegel are among those of the investigators. On the
+  other side are the sceptics, who maintain that later editors
+  interpolated statements which could have been made only with the
+  astronomical knowledge possessed by their own contemporaries.
+  According to an old legend, Shun banished "the four wicked ones" to
+  distant territories. One of these bore the name _T'au-t'ié_, i.e.
+  "Glutton"; called also San-miau. _T'au-t'ié_ is also the name of an
+  ornament, very common on the surface of the most ancient bronze
+  vessels, showing the distorted face of some ravenous animal. The
+  San-miau as a tribe are said to have been the forefathers of the
+  Tangutans, the Tibetans and the Miau-tz'ï in the south-west of China.
+  This legend may be interpreted as indicating that the non-Chinese
+  races in the south-west have come to their present seats by migration
+  from Central China in remote antiquity. During Yau's reign a
+  catastrophe reminding one of the biblical deluge threatened the
+  Chinese world. The emperor held his minister of works, Kun,
+  responsible for this misfortune, probably an inundation of the Yellow
+  river such as has been witnessed by the present generation. Its
+  horrors are described with poetical exaggeration in the _Shu-king_.
+  When the efforts to stop the floods had proved futile for nine years,
+  Yau wished to abdicate, and he selected a virtuous young man of the
+  name of Shun as his successor. Among the legends told about this
+  second model emperor is the story that he had a board before his
+  palace on which every subject was permitted to note whatever faults he
+  had to find with his government, and that by means of a drum suspended
+  at his palace gate attention might be drawn to any complaint that was
+  to be made to him. Since Kun had not succeeded in stopping the floods,
+  he was dismissed and his son Yü was appointed in his stead. Probably
+  the waters began to subside of their own accord, but Yü has been
+  praised up as the national hero who, by his engineering works, saved
+  his people from utter destruction. His labours in this direction are
+  described in a special section of the Confucian account known as
+  _Yü-kung_, i.e. "Tribute of Yü." Yü's merit has in the sequel been
+  exaggerated so as to credit him with more than human powers. He is
+  supposed to have cut canals through the hills, in order to furnish
+  outlets to the floods, and to have performed feats of engineering
+  compared to which, according to Von Richthofen, the construction of
+  the St Gotthard tunnel without blasting materials would be child's
+  play, and all this within a few years.
+
+_The Hia Dynasty._--As a reward for his services Yü was selected to
+succeed Shun as emperor. He divided the empire into nine provinces, the
+description of which in the _Yü-kung_ chapter of the "Canon of History"
+bears a suspicious resemblance to later accounts. Yü's reign has been
+assigned to the years 2205-2198, and the Hia Dynasty, of which he became
+the head, has been made to extend to the overthrow in 1766 B.C. of Kié,
+its eighteenth and last emperor, a cruel tyrant of the most vicious and
+contemptible character. Among the Hia emperors we find _Chung-k'ang_
+(2159-2147), whose reign has attracted the attention of European
+scholars by the mention of an eclipse of the sun, which his court
+astronomers had failed to predict. European astronomers and sinologues
+have brought much acumen to bear on the problem involved in the
+_Shu-king_ account in trying to decide which of the several eclipses
+known to have occurred about that time was identical with the one
+observed in China under Chung-k'ang.
+
+_The Shang, or Yin, Dynasty._--This period, which preceded the classical
+Chóu dynasty, is made to extend from 1766 to 1122 B.C. We must now be
+prepared to see an energetic or virtuous ruler at the head of a dynasty
+and either a cruel tyrant or a contemptible weakling at the end of it.
+It seems natural that this should be so; but Chinese historians, like
+the writers of Roman history, have a tendency to exaggerate both good
+and bad qualities. Ch'öng-tang, its first sovereign, is represented as a
+model of goodness and of humane feeling towards his subjects. Even the
+animal world benefited by his kindness, inasmuch as he abolished all
+useless torture in the chase. His great minister I Yin, who had greatly
+assisted him in securing the throne, served two of his successors.
+P'an-köng (1401) and Wu-ting (1324) are described as good rulers among a
+somewhat indifferent set of monarchs. The Shang dynasty, like the Hia,
+came to an end through the reckless vice and cruelty of a tyrant
+(Chóu-sin with his consort Ta-ki). China had even in those days to
+maintain her position as a civilized nation by keeping at bay the
+barbarous nations by which she was surrounded. Chief among these were
+the ancestors of the Hiung-nu tribes, or Huns, on the northern and
+western boundaries. To fight them, to make pacts and compromises with
+them, and to befriend them with gifts so as to keep them out of the
+Imperial territories, had been the rôle of a palatinate on the western
+frontier, the duchy of Chóu, while the court of China with its vicious
+emperor gave itself up to effeminate luxury. Chóu-sin's evil practices
+had aroused the indignation of the palatine, subsequently known as
+Wön-wang, who in vain remonstrated with the emperor's criminal treatment
+of his subjects. The strength and integrity of Wön-wang's character had
+made him the corner-stone of that important epoch; and his name is one
+of the best known both in history and in literature. The courage with
+which he spoke his mind in rebuking his unworthy liege lord caused the
+emperor to imprison him, his great popularity alone saving his life.
+During his incarceration, extending over three years, he compiled the
+_I-king_, or "Canon of Changes," supposed to be the oldest book of
+Chinese literature, and certainly the one most extensively studied by
+the nation. Wön-wang's son, known as Wu-wang, was destined to avenge his
+father and the many victims of Chóu-sin's cruelty. Under his leadership
+the people rose against the emperor and, with the assistance of his
+allies, "men of the west," possibly ancestors of the Huns, overthrew the
+Shang dynasty after a decisive battle, whereupon Chóu-sin committed
+suicide by setting fire to his palace.
+
+_Chóu Dynasty._--Wu-wang, the first emperor of the new dynasty, named
+after his duchy of Chóu on the western frontier, was greatly assisted in
+consolidating the empire by his brother, Chóu-kung, i.e. "Duke of Chóu."
+As the loyal prime-minister of Wu-wang and his successor the duke of
+Chóu laid the foundation of the government institutions of the dynasty,
+which became the prototype of most of the characteristic features in
+Chinese public and social life down to recent times. The brothers and
+adherents of the new sovereign were rewarded with fiefs which in the
+sequel grew into as many states. China thus developed into a
+confederation, resembling that of the German empire, inasmuch as a
+number of independent states, each having its own sovereign, were united
+under one liege lord, the emperor, styled "The Son of Heaven," who as
+high priest of the nation reigned in the name of Heaven. The emperor
+represented the nation in sacrificing and praying to God. His relations
+with his vassals and government officials, and those of the heads of the
+vassal states with their subjects as well as of the people among
+themselves were regulated by the most rigid ceremonial. The dress to be
+worn, the speeches to be made, and the postures to be assumed on all
+possible occasions, whether at court or in private life, were subject to
+regulations. The duke of Chóu, or whoever may have been the creator of
+this system, showed deep wisdom in his speculations, if he based that
+immutability of government which in the sequel became a Chinese
+characteristic, on the physical and moral immutability of individuals by
+depriving them of all spontaneous action in public and private life.
+Originally and nominally the emperor's power as the ruler over his
+vassals, who again ruled in his name, was unquestionable; and the first
+few generations of the dynasty saw no decline of the original strength
+of central power. A certain loyalty based on the traditional ancestral
+worship counteracted the desire to revolt. The rightful heir to the
+throne was responsible to his ancestors as his subjects were to theirs.
+"We have to do as our ancestors did," the people argued; "and since they
+obeyed the ancestors of our present sovereign, we have to be loyal to
+him." Interference with this time-honoured belief would have amounted to
+a rupture, as it were, in the nation's religious relations, and as long
+as the people looked upon the emperor as the Son of Heaven, his moral
+power would outweigh strong armies sent against him in rebellion. The
+time came soon enough when central power depended merely on this
+spontaneous loyalty.
+
+Not all the successors of Wu-wang profited by the lessons given them by
+past history. Incapacity, excessive severity and undue weakness had
+created discontent and loosened the relations between the emperor and
+his vassals. Increase in the extent of the empire greatly added to this
+decline of central power. For the emperor's own dominion was centrally
+situated and surrounded by the several confederate states; its
+geographical position prevented it from participating in the general
+aggrandisement of China, and increase in territory, population and
+prestige had become the privilege of boundary states. Tatar tribes in
+the north and west and the aboriginal Man barbarians in the south were
+forced by warfare to yield land, or enticed to exchange it for goods, or
+induced to mingle with their Chinese neighbours, thus producing a mixed
+population combining the superior intelligence of the Chinese race with
+the energetic and warlike spirit of barbarians. These may be the main
+reasons which gradually undermined the Imperial authority and brought
+some of the confederate states to the front, so as to overshadow the
+authority of the Son of Heaven himself, whose military and financial
+resources were inferior to those of several of his vassals. A few out of
+the thirty-five sovereigns of the Chóu dynasty were distinguished by
+extraordinary qualities. Mu-wang of the 10th century performed journeys
+far beyond the western frontier of his empire, and was successful in
+warfare against the Dog Barbarians, described as the ancestors of the
+Hiung-nu, or Huns. The reign of Süan-wang (827-782 B.C.) was filled with
+warfare against the Tangutans and the Huns, called Hién-yün in a
+contemporaneous poem of the "Book of Odes"; but the most noteworthy
+reign in this century is that of the lascivious Yu-wang, the
+oppressiveness of whose government had caused a bard represented in the
+"Book of Odes" to complain about the emperor's evil ways. The writer of
+this poem refers to certain signs showing that Heaven itself is
+indignant at Yu-wang's crimes. One of these signs was an eclipse of the
+sun which had recently occurred, the date and month being clearly
+stated. This date corresponds exactly with August 29, 776 B.C.; and
+astronomers have calculated that on that precise date an eclipse of the
+sun was visible in North China. This, of course, cannot be a mere
+accident; and since the date falls into the sixth year of Yu-wang's
+reign, the coincidence is bound to increase our confidence in that part
+of Chinese history. Our knowledge of it, however, is due to mere chance;
+for the record of the eclipse would probably not have been preserved
+until our days had it not been interpreted as a kind of _tekel upharsin_
+owing to the peculiarity of the political situation. It does not follow,
+therefore, as some foreign critics assume, that the historical period
+begins as late as Yu-wang's reign. China has no architectural witnesses
+to testify to her antiquity as Egypt has in her pyramids and temple
+ruins; but the sacrificial bronze vessels of the Shang and Chóu
+dynasties, with their characteristic ornaments and hieroglyphic
+inscriptions, seem to support the historical tradition inasmuch as
+natural development may be traced by the analysis of their artistic and
+paleographic phases. Counterfeiters, say a thousand years later, could
+not have resisted the temptation to introduce patterns and hieroglyphic
+shapes of later periods; and whatever bronzes have been assigned to the
+Shang dynasty, i.e. some time in the second millennium B.C., exhibit the
+Shang characteristics. The words occurring in their inscriptions,
+carefully collected, may be shown to be confined to ideas peculiar to
+primitive states of cultural life, not one of them pointing to an
+invention we may suspect to be of later origin. But, apart from this, it
+seems a matter of individual judgment how far back beyond that
+indisputable year 776 B.C. a student will date the beginning of real
+history.
+
+In the 7th century central authority had declined to such an extent that
+the emperor was merely the nominal head of the confederation, the
+hegemony in the empire falling in turn to one of the five principal
+states, for which reason the Chinese speak of a period of the "Five
+Leaders." The state of Ts'i, corresponding to North Shan-tung, had begun
+to overshadow the other states by unprecedented success in economic
+enterprise, due to the prudent advice of its prime minister, the
+philosopher Kuan-tzï. Other states attained leadership by success in
+warfare. Among these leaders we see duke Mu of T'sin (659 B.C.), a state
+on the western boundary which was so much influenced by amalgamation
+with its Hunnic neighbours that the purely Chinese states regarded it as
+a barbarian country. The emperor was in those days a mere shadow;
+several of his vassals had grown strong enough to claim and be granted
+the title "king," and they all tried to annihilate their neighbours by
+ruse in diplomacy and by force of arms, without referring to their
+common ruler for arbitration, as they were in duty bound. In this
+_bellum omnium contra omnes_ the state of Ts'in, in spite of repeated
+reverses, remained in possession of the field.
+
+  The period of this general struggle is spoken of by Chinese historians
+  as that of "The Contending States." Like that of the "Five Leaders" it
+  is full of romance; and the examples of heroism, cowardice, diplomatic
+  skill and philosophical equanimity which fill the pages of its history
+  have become the subject of elegant literature in prose and poetry. The
+  political development of the Chóu dynasty is the exact counterpart of
+  that of its spiritual life as shown in the contemporaneous literature.
+  The orthodox conservative spirit which reflects the ethical views of
+  the emperor and his royal partisans is represented by the name
+  Confucius (551-479 B.C.). The great sage had collected old traditions
+  and formulated the moral principles which had been dormant in the
+  Chinese nation for centuries. His doctrines tended to support the
+  maintenance of central power; so did those of other members of his
+  school, especially Mencius. Filial love showed itself as obedience to
+  the parents in the family and as loyalty to the emperor and his
+  government in public life. It was the highest virtue, according to the
+  Confucian school. The history of the nation as taught in the
+  _Shu-king_ was in its early part merely an illustration of
+  Confucianist ideas about good and bad government. The perpetual advice
+  to rulers was: "Be like Yau, Shun and Yü, and you will be right."
+  Confucianism was dominant during the earlier centuries of the Chóu
+  dynasty, whose lucky star began to wane when doctrines opposed to it
+  got the upper hand. The philosophical schools built up on the
+  doctrines of Lau-tzï had in the course of generations become
+  antagonistic, and found favour with those who did not endorse that
+  loyalty to the emperor demanded by Mencius; so had other thinkers,
+  some of whom had preached morals which were bound to break up all
+  social relations, like the philosopher of egotism, Yang Chu, according
+  to Mencius disloyalty personified and the very reverse of his ideal,
+  the duke of Chóu. The egotism recommended by Yang Chu to the
+  individual had begun to be practised on a large scale by the
+  contending states, their governments and sovereigns, some of whom had
+  long discarded Confucian rites under the influence of Tatar
+  neighbours. It appears that the anti-Confucian spirit which paved the
+  way towards the final extinction of Wu-wang's dynasty received its
+  chief nourishment from the Tatar element in the population of the
+  northern and western boundary states. Among these Ts'in was the most
+  prominent. Having placed itself in the possession of the territories
+  of nearly all of the remaining states, Ts'in made war against the last
+  shadow emperor, Nan-wang who had attempted to form an alliance against
+  the powerful usurper, with the result that the western part of the
+  Chóu dominion was lost to the aggressor.
+
+  Nan-wang died soon after (256 B.C.), and a relative whom he had
+  appointed regent was captured in 249 B.C., when the king of Ts'in put
+  an end to this last remnant of the once glorious Chóu dynasty by
+  annexing its territory. The king had already secured the possession of
+  the Nine Tripods, huge bronze vases said to have been cast by the
+  emperor Yü as representing the nine divisions of his empire and since
+  preseryed in the treasuries of all the various emperors as a symbol of
+  Imperial power. With the loss of these tripods Nan-wang had forfeited
+  the right to call himself "Son of Heaven." Another prerogative was the
+  offering of sacrifice to Shang-ti, the Supreme Ruler, or God, with
+  whom only the emperor was supposed to communicate. The king of Ts'in
+  had performed the ceremony as early as 253 B.C.    (F. H.*)
+
+
+(C)--_From the Ts'in Dynasty to 1875._
+
+  Ts'in dynasty 249-210 B.C.
+
+  Shi Hwang-ti.
+
+  Shi Hwang-ti.
+
+After the fall of the Chóu dynasty a kind of interregnum followed during
+which China was practically without an emperor. This was the time when
+the state of Ts'in asserted itself as the leader and finally as the
+master of all the contending states. Its king, Chau-siang, who died in
+251 B.C., though virtually emperor, abstained from adopting the imperial
+title. He was succeeded by his son, Hiao-wên Wang, who died after a
+three days' reign. Chwan-siang Wang, his son and successor, was a man of
+no mark. He died in 246 B.C. giving place to Shi Hwang-ti, "the first
+universal emperor." This sovereign was then only thirteen, but he
+speedily made his influence felt everywhere. He chose Hien-yang, the
+modern Si-gan Fu, as his capital, and built there a magnificent palace,
+which was the wonder and admiration of his contemporaries. He abolished
+the feudal system, and divided the country into provinces over whom he
+set officers directly responsible to himself. He constructed roads
+through the empire, he formed canals, and erected numerous and handsome
+public buildings.
+
+  Having settled the internal affairs of his kingdom, he turned his
+  attention to the enemies beyond his frontier. Chief among these were
+  the Hiung-nu Tatars, whose attacks had for years disquieted the
+  Chinese and neighbouring principalities. Against these foes he marched
+  with an army of 300,000 men, exterminating those in the neighbourhood
+  of China, and driving the rest into Mongolia. On his return from this
+  campaign he was called upon to face a formidable rebellion in Ho-nan,
+  which had been set on foot by the adherents of the feudal princes whom
+  he had dispossessed. Having crushed the rebellion, he marched
+  southwards and subdued the tribes on the south of the Nan-shan ranges,
+  i.e. the inhabitants of the modern provinces of Fu-kien, Kwang-tung
+  and Kwang-si. The limits of his empire were thus as nearly as possible
+  those of modern China proper. One monument remains to bear witness to
+  his energy. Finding that the northern states of Ts'in, Chao and Yen
+  were building lines of fortification along their northern frontier for
+  protection against the Hiung-nu, he conceived the idea of building one
+  gigantic wall, which was to stretch across the whole northern limit of
+  the huge empire from the sea to the farthest western corner of the
+  modern province of Kan-suh. This work was begun under his immediate
+  supervision in 214 B.C. His reforming zeal made him unpopular with the
+  upper classes. Schoolmen and pedants held up to the admiration of the
+  people the heroes of the feudal times and the advantages of the system
+  they administered. Seeing in this propaganda danger to the state Shi
+  Hwang-ti determined to break once and for all with the past. To this
+  end he ordered the destruction of all books having reference to the
+  past history of the empire, and many scholars were put to death for
+  failing in obedience to it. (See _infra § Chinese Literature, §§
+  History._) The measure was unpopular and on his death (210 B.C.)
+  rebellion broke out. His son and successor Erh-shi, a weak and
+  debauched youth, was murdered after having offered a feeble resistance
+  to his enemies. His son Tsze-yung surrendered to Liu Pang, the prince
+  of Han, one of the two generals who were the leaders of the rebellion.
+  He afterwards fell into the hands of Hiang Yu, the other chieftain,
+  who put him and his family and associates to death. Hiang Yu aspiring
+  to imperial honours, war broke out between him and Liu Pang. After
+  five years' conflict Hiang Yu was killed in a decisive battle before
+  Wu-kiang. Liu Pang was then proclaimed emperor (206 B.C.) under the
+  title of Kao-ti, and the new line was styled the Han dynasty.
+
+
+  Han dynasty 206 B.C.
+
+Kao-ti established his capital at Lo-yang in Ho-nan, and afterwards
+removed it to Chang-an in Shen-si. Having founded his right to rebel on
+the oppressive nature of the laws promulgated by Shi Hwang-ti, he
+abolished the ordinances of Ts'in, except that referring to the
+destruction of the books--for, like his great predecessor, he dreaded
+the influence exercised by the _literati_--and he exchanged the worship
+of the gods of the soil of Ts'in for that of those of Han, his native
+state. His successor Hwei-ti (194-179 B.C.), however, gave every
+encouragement to literature, and appointed a commission to restore as
+far as possible the texts which had been destroyed by Shi Hwang-ti. In
+this the commission was very successful. It was discovered that in many
+cases the law had been evaded, while in numerous instances scholars were
+found to write down from memory the text of books of which all copies
+had been destroyed, though in some cases the purity of the text is
+doubtful and in other cases there were undoubted forgeries. A period of
+repose was now enjoyed by the empire. There was peace within its
+borders, and its frontiers remained unchallenged, except by the
+Hiung-nu, who suffered many severe defeats. Thwarted in their attacks on
+China, these marauders attacked the kingdom of the Yueh-chi, which had
+grown up in the western extremity of Kan-suh, and after much fighting
+drove their victims along the T'ien-shan-nan-lu to the territory between
+Turkestan and the Caspian Sea. This position of affairs suggested to the
+emperor the idea of forming an offensive and defensive alliance with the
+Yueh-chi against the Hiung-nu. With this object the general Chang K'ien
+was sent as an ambassador to western Tatary. After having been twice
+imprisoned by the Hiung-nu he returned to China. Chang K'ien had
+actually reached the court of the Yueh-chi, or Indo-Scythians as they
+were called owing to their having become masters of India later on, and
+paid a visit to the kingdom of Bactria, recently conquered by the
+Yueh-chi. His report on the several kingdoms of western Asia opened up a
+new world to the Chinese, and numerous elements of culture, plants and
+animals were then imported for the first time from the west into China.
+While in Bactria Chan K'ien's attention was first drawn to the existence
+of India, and attempts to send expeditions, though at first fruitless,
+finally led to its discovery. Under Wu-ti (140-86 B.C.) the power of the
+Hiung-nu was broken and eastern Turkestan changed into a Chinese colony,
+through which caravans could safely pass to bring back merchandise and
+art treasures from Persia and the Roman market. By the Hans the feudal
+system was restored in a modified form; 103 feudal principalities were
+created, but they were more or less under the jurisdiction of civil
+governors appointed to administer the thirteen _chows_ (provinces) into
+which the country was divided. About the beginning of the Christian era
+Wang Mang rose in revolt against the infant successor of P'ing-ti (A.D.
+1), and in A.D. 9 proclaimed himself emperor. He, however, only gained
+the suffrages of a portion of the nation, and before long his oppressive
+acts estranged his supporters. In A.D. 23 Liu Siu, one of the princes of
+Han, completely defeated him. His head was cut off, and his body was
+torn in pieces by his own soldiery.
+
+
+  Eastern Han dynasty, A.D. 23.
+
+Liu Siu, was proclaimed emperor under the title of Kwang-wu-ti, reigned
+from A.D. 58 to 76. Having fixed on Lo-yang in Ho-nan as his capital,
+the line of which he was the first emperor became known as the Eastern
+Han dynasty. It is also known as the Later Han dynasty. During the reign
+of his successor Ming-ti, A.D. 65, Buddhism was introduced from India
+into China (see ante § _Religion_). About the same time the celebrated
+general Pan Ch'ao was sent on an embassy to the king of Shen-shen, a
+small state of Turkestan, near the modern Pidjan. Before long he added
+the states of Shen-shen, Khotan, Kucha and Kashgar as apanages to the
+Chinese crown, and for a considerable period the country enjoyed
+prosperity. The Han dynasty (including in the term the Eastern Han
+dynasty) has been considered the first national dynasty and is one of
+the most famous in China; nor has any ruling family been more popular.
+The Chinese, especially the northern Chinese, still call themselves "the
+sons of Han." The wealth and trade as well as the culture of the country
+was greatly developed, and the competitive examinations for literary
+degrees instituted. The homogeneity of the nation was so firmly
+established that subsequent dissensions and conquests could not alter
+fundamentally the character of the nation.
+
+
+    Wei dynasty
+
+  Towards the end of the 2nd century the power of the Eastern Hans
+  declined. In 173 a virulent pestilence, which continued for eleven
+  years, broke out. A magical cure for this plague was said to have been
+  discovered by a Taoist priest named Chang Chio, who in a single month
+  won a sufficiently large following to enable him to gain possession of
+  the northern provinces of the empire. He was, however, defeated by
+  Ts'aou Ts'aou, another aspirant to imperial honours, whose son, Ts'aou
+  P'ei, on the death of Hien-ti (A.D. 220), proclaimed himself emperor,
+  adopting the title of Wei as the appellation of his dynasty. There
+  were then, however, two other claimants to the throne, Liu Pei and Sun
+  Ch'üan, and the three adventurers agreed to divide the empire between
+  them. Ts'aou P'ei, under the title of Wên-ti, ruled over the kingdom
+  of Wei (220), which occupied the whole of the central and northern
+  portion of China. Liu Pei established the Shuh Han dynasty in the
+  modern province of Sze-ch'uen (221), and called himself Chao-lieh-ti;
+  and to Sun Ch'üan fell the southern provinces of the empire, from the
+  Yangtsze-kiang southwards, including the modern Tongking, which he
+  formed into the kingdom of Wu with Nan-king for his capital, adopting
+  for himself the imperial style of Ta-tê (A.D. 222).
+
+
+    "Three kingdom" period.
+
+    Western Tsin dynasty.
+
+  China during the period of the "Three Kingdoms" was a house divided
+  against itself. Liu Pei, as a descendant of the house of Han, looked
+  upon himself as the rightful sovereign of the whole empire, and he
+  despatched an army under Chu-ko Liang to support his claims. This army
+  was met by an Oppossing force under the Wei commander Sze-ma I, of
+  whom Chinese historians say that "he led armies like a god," and who,
+  by adopting a Fabian policy, completely discomfited his adversary. But
+  the close of this campaign brought no peace to the country. Wars
+  became chronic, and the reins of power slipped out of the hands of
+  emperors into those of their generals. Foremost among these were the
+  members of the Sze-ma family of Wei. Sze-ma I left a son, Sze-ma Chao,
+  scarcely less distinguished than himself, and when Sze-ma Chao died
+  his honours descended to Sze-ma Yen, who deposed the ruling sovereign
+  of Wei, and proclaimed himself emperor of China (A.D. 265). His
+  dynasty he styled the Western Tsin dynasty, and he adopted for himself
+  the title of Wu-ti. The most noticeable event in this reign was the
+  advent of the ambassadors of the emperor Diocletian in 284. For some
+  years the neighbouring states appear to have transferred their
+  allegiance from the house of Wei to that of Tsin. Wu-ti's successors
+  proving, however, weak and incapable, the country soon fell again into
+  disorder. The Hiung-nu renewed incursions into the empire at the
+  beginning of the 4th century, and in the confusion which followed, an
+  adventurer named Liu Yuen established himself (in 311) as emperor,
+  first at P'ing-yang in Shan-si and afterwards in Lo-yang and Chang-an.
+  The history of this period is very chaotic. Numerous states sprang
+  into existence, some founded by the Hiung-nu and others by the Sien-pi
+  tribe, a Tungusic clan, inhabiting a territory to the north of China,
+  which afterwards established the Liao dynasty in China. In 419 the
+  Eastern Tsin dynasty came to an end, and with it disappeared for
+  nearly two hundred years all semblance of united authority. The
+  country became divided into two parts, the north and the south. In the
+  north four families reigned successively, two of which were of Sien-pi
+  origin, viz. the Wei and the How Chow, the other two, the Pih Ts'i and
+  the How Liang, being Chinese. In the south five different houses
+  supplied rulers, who were all of Chinese descent.
+
+
+    Suy dynasty.
+
+  This period of disorder was brought to a close by the establishment of
+  the Suy dynasty (590). Among the officials of the ephemeral dynasty of
+  Chow was one Yang Kien, who on his daughter becoming empress (578) was
+  created duke of Suy. Two years later Yang Kien proclaimed himself
+  emperor. The country, weary of contention, was glad to acknowledge his
+  undivided authority; and during the sixteen years of his reign the
+  internal affairs of China were comparatively peaceably administered.
+  The emperor instituted an improved code of laws, and added 5000
+  volumes to the 10,000 which composed the imperial library. Abroad, his
+  policy was equally successful. He defeated the Tatars and chastised
+  the Koreans, who had for a long period recognized Chinese suzerainty,
+  but were torn by civil wars and were disposed to reject her authority.
+  After his death in 604 his second son forced the heir to the throne to
+  strangle himself, and then seized the throne. This usurper, Yang-ti,
+  sent expeditions against the Tatars, and himself headed an expedition
+  against the Uighurs, while one of his generals annexed the Lu-chu
+  Islands to the imperial crown. During his reign the volumes in the
+  imperial library were increased to 54,000, and he spent vast sums in
+  erecting a magnificent palace at Lo-yang, and in constructing
+  unprofitable canals. These and other extravagances laid so heavy a
+  burden on the country that discontent began again to prevail, and on
+  the emperor's return from a successful expedition against the Koreans,
+  he found the empire divided into rebellious factions. In the troubles
+  which followed General Li Yuen became prominent. On the death of the
+  emperor by assassination this man set Kung-ti, the rightful heir, on
+  the throne (617) until such time as he should have matured his
+  schemes.
+
+
+  Tang dynasty.
+
+Kung-ti was poisoned in the following year and Li Yuen proclaimed
+himself as Kao-tsu, the first emperor of the T'ang dynasty. At this time
+the Turks were at the height of their power in Asia (see TURKS:
+_History_), and Kao-tsu was glad to purchase their alliance with money.
+But divisions weakened the power of the Turks, and T'ai-tsung (reigned
+627-650), Kao-tsu's son and successor, regained much of the position in
+Central Asia which had formerly been held by China. In 640 Hami, Turfan
+and the rest of the Turkish territory were again included within the
+Chinese empire, and four military governorships were appointed in
+Central Asia, viz. at Kucha, Khotan, Kharastan and Kashgar. At the same
+time the frontier was extended as far as eastern Persia and the Caspian
+Sea. So great was now the fame of China, that ambassadors from Nepal,
+Magadha, Persia and Constantinople (643) came to pay their court to the
+emperor. Under T'ai-tsung there was national unity and peace, and in
+consequence agriculture and commerce as well as literature flourished.
+The emperor gave direct encouragements to the Nestorians, and gave a
+favourable reception to an embassy from Mahommed (see ante §
+_Religion_). On the accession of Kao-tsung (650) his wife, Wu How,
+gained supreme influence, and on the death of her husband in 683 she set
+aside his lawful successor, Chung-tsung, and took possession of the
+throne. This was the first occasion the country was ruled by a dowager
+empress. She governed with discretion, and her armies defeated the
+Khitán in the north-east and also the Tibetans, who had latterly gained
+possession of Kucha, Khotan and Kashgar. On her death, in 705,
+Chung-tsung partially left the obscurity in which he had lived during
+his mother's reign. But his wife, desiring to play a similar rôle to
+that enjoyed by her mother-in-law, poisoned him and set his son,
+Jui-tsung (710), on the throne. This monarch, who was weak and vicious,
+was succeeded by Yuen-tsung (713), who introduced reform into the
+administration and encouraged literature and learning. The king of
+Khokand applied for aid against the Tibetans and Arabs, and Yuen-tsung
+sent an army to his succour, but his general was completely defeated.
+During the disorder which arose in consequence of the invasion of the
+northern provinces by the Khitán, General An Lu-shan, an officer of
+Turkish descent, placed himself at the head of a revolt, and having
+secured Tung-kwan on the Yellow river, advanced on Chang-an. Thereupon
+the emperor fled, and placed his son, Su-tsung (756-762), on the throne.
+This sovereign, with the help of the forces of Khotan, Khokand and
+Bokhara, of the Uighurs and of some 4000 Arabs sent by the caliph
+Mansur, completely defeated An Lu-shan. During the following reigns the
+Tibetans made constant incursions into the western provinces of the
+empire, and T'ai-tsung (763-780) purchased the assistance of the Turks
+against those intruders by giving a Chinese princess as wife to the
+khan.
+
+  At this epoch the eunuchs of the palace gained an unwonted degree of
+  power, and several of the subsequent emperors fell victims to their
+  plots. The T'ang dynasty, which for over a hundred years had governed
+  firmly and for the good of the nation, began to decline. The history
+  of the 8th and 9th centuries is for the most part a monotonous record
+  of feeble governments, oppressions and rebellions. Almost the only
+  event worth chronicling is the iconoclastic policy of the emperor
+  Wu-tsung (841-847). Viewing the increase of monasteries and
+  ecclesiastical establishments as an evil, he abolished all temples,
+  closed the monasteries and nunneries, and sent the inmates back to
+  their families. Foreign priests were subjected to the same repressive
+  legislation, and Christians, Buddhists and Magi were bidden to return
+  whence they came. Buddhism again revived during the reign of the
+  emperor I-tsung (860-874), who, having discovered a bone of Buddha,
+  brought it to the capital in great state. By internal dissensions the
+  empire became so weakened that the prince of Liang found no difficulty
+  in gaining possession of the throne (907). He took the title of
+  T'ai-tsu, being the first emperor of the Later Liang dynasty. Thus
+  ended the T'ang dynasty, which is regarded as being the golden age of
+  Chinese literature.
+
+  Five dynasties, viz. the Later Liang, the Later T'ang, the Later Tsin,
+  the Later Han and the Later Chow, followed each other between the
+  years 907 and 960. Though the monarchs of these lines nominally held
+  sway over the empire, their real power was confined to very narrow
+  limits. The disorders which were rife during the time when the T'ang
+  dynasty was tottering to its fall fostered the development of
+  independent states, and so arose Liang in Ho-nan and Shan-tung, Ki in
+  Shen-si, Hwai-nan in Kiang-nan, Chow in Sze-ch'uen and parts of
+  Shen-si and Hu-kwang, Wu-yu[)e] in Cheh-kiang, Tsu and King-nan in
+  Hu-kwang, Ling-nan in Kwang-tung and the Uighurs in Tangut.
+
+
+  Sung dynasty.
+
+A partial end was made to this recognized disorganization when, in 960,
+General Chao Kw'ang-yin was proclaimed by the army emperor in succession
+to the youthful Kung-ti, who was compelled to abdicate. The
+circumstances of the time justified the change. It required a strong
+hand to weld the empire together again, and to resist the attacks of the
+Khitán Tatars, whose rule at this period extended over the whole of
+Manchuria and Liao-tung. Against these aggressive neighbours T'ai-tsu
+(_né_ Chao Kw'ang-yin) directed his efforts with varying success, and he
+died in 976, while the war was still being waged. His son T'ai-tsung
+(976-997) entered on the campaign with energy, but in the end was
+compelled to conclude a peace with the Khitán. His successor, Chên-tsung
+(997-1022), paid them tribute to abstain from further incursions.
+Probably this tribute was not sent regularly; at all events, under
+Jên-tsung (1023-1064), the Khitán again threatened to invade the empire,
+and were only bought off by the promise of an annual tribute of taels
+200,000 of silver, besides a great quantity of silken piece goods.
+Neither was this arrangement long binding, and so formidable were the
+advances made by the Tatars in the foilowing reigns, that Hwei-tsung
+(1101-1126) invited the Nüchih Tatars to expel the Khitán from
+Liao-tung. This they did, but having once possessed themselves of the
+country they declined to yield it to the Chinese, and the result was
+that a still more aggressive neighbour was established on the
+north-eastern frontier of China. The Nüchih or Kin, as they now styled
+themselves, overran the provinces of Chih-li, Shen-si, Shan-si and
+Ho-nan, and during the reign of Kao-tsung (1127-1163) they advanced
+their conquests to the line of the Yangtsze-kiang. From this time the
+Sung ruled only over southern China; while the Kin or "Golden" dynasty
+reign«d in the north. The Kin made Chung-tu, which occupied in part the
+site of the modern Peking, their usual residence. The Sung fixed their
+capital at Nanking and afterwards at Hangchow. Between them and the Kin
+there was almost constant war.
+
+
+  Mongol invasion: 12th century.
+
+During this period the Mongols began to acquire power in eastern Asia,
+and about the beginning of the 12th century the forces of Jenghiz Khan
+(q.v.) invaded the north-western frontier of China and the principality
+of Hia, which at that time consisted of the modern provinces of Shen-si
+and Kan-suh. To purchase the good-will of the Mongols the king of Hia
+agreed to pay them a tribute, and gave a princess in marriage to their
+ruler. In consequence of a dispute with the Kin emperor Wei-shao Wang,
+Jenghiz Khan determined to invade Liao-tung. He was aided by the
+followers of the Khitán leader Yeh-lü Ts'u-ts'ai, and in alliance with
+this general he captured Liao-yang, the capital city.
+
+  After an unsuccessful invasion of China in 1212, Jenghiz Khan renewed
+  the attack in 1213. He divided his armies into four divisions, and
+  made a general advance southwards. His soldiers swept over Ho-nan,
+  Chih-li and Shan-tung, destroying upwards of ninety cities. It was
+  their boast that a horseman might ride without stumbling over the
+  sites where those cities had stood. Panic-stricken, the emperor moved
+  his court from Chung-tu to K'ai-fêng Fu, much against the advice of
+  his ministers, who foresaw the disastrous effect this retreat would
+  have on the fortunes of Kin. The state of Sung, which up to this time
+  had paid tribute, now declined to recognize Kin as its feudal chief,
+  and a short time afterwards declared war against its quondam ally.
+  Meanwhile, in 1215, Yeh-lü Ts'u-ts'ai advanced into China by the
+  Shan-hai Kwan, and made himself master of Peking, one of the few
+  cities in Chih-li which remained to Kin. After this victory his nobles
+  wished him to proclaim himself emperor, but he refused, being mindful
+  of an oath which he had sworn to Jenghiz Khan. In 1216 Tung-kwan, a
+  mountain pass on the frontiers of Ho-nan and Shen-si, and the scene of
+  numerous dynastic battles (as it is the only gateway between
+  north-eastern and north-western China), was taken by the invaders. As
+  the war dragged on the resistance offered by the Kin grew weaker and
+  weaker. In 1220 Chi-nan Fu, the capital of Shan-tung, was taken, and
+  five years later Jenghiz Khan marched an army westward into Hia and
+  conquered the forces of the king. Two years later (1227) Jenghiz Khan
+  died.
+
+  With the view to the complete conquest of China by the Mongols,
+  Jenghiz declined to nominate either of the eldest two sons who had
+  been born to his Chinese wives as his heir, but chose his third son
+  Ogdai, whose mother was a Tatar. On hearing of the death of Jenghiz
+  Khan the Kin sent an embassy to his successor desiring peace, but
+  Ogdai told them there would be no peace for them until their dynasty
+  should be overthrown. Hitherto the Mongols had been without any code
+  of laws. But the consolidation of the nation by the conquests of
+  Jenghiz Khan made it necessary to establish a recognized code of laws,
+  and one of the first acts of Ogdai was to form such a code. With the
+  help also of Yeh-lü Ts'u-ts'ai, he established custom-houses in
+  Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shan-si and Liao-tung; and for this purpose
+  divided these provinces into ten departments. Meanwhile the war with
+  the Kin was carried on with energy. In 1230 Si-gan Fu was taken, and
+  sixty important posts were captured. Two years later, Tu-lé, brother
+  of Ogdai, took Fêng-siang Fu and Han-chung Fu, in the flight from
+  which last-named place 100,000 persons are said to have perished.
+  Following the course of the river Han in his victorious career, this
+  general destroyed 140 towns and fortresses, and defeated the army of
+  Kin at Mount San-fêng.
+
+
+    The Kin dynasty overthrown.
+
+  In 1232 the Mongols made an alliance with the state of Sung, by which,
+  on condition of Sung helping to destroy Kin, Ho-nan was to be the
+  property of Sung for ever. The effect of this coalition soon became
+  apparent. Barely had the Kin emperor retreated from K'ai-fêng Fu to
+  Ju-ning Fu in Ho-nan when the former place fell into the hands of the
+  allies. Next fell Loyang, and the victorious generals then marched on
+  to besiege Ju-ning Fu. The presence of the emperor gave energy to the
+  defenders, and they held out until every animal in the city had been
+  killed for food, until every old and useless person had suffered death
+  to lessen the number of hungry mouths, until so many able-bodied men
+  had fallen that the women manned the ramparts, and then the allies
+  stormed the walls. The emperor burned himself to death in his palace,
+  that his body might not fall into the hands of his enemies. For a few
+  days the shadow of the imperial crown rested on the head of his heir
+  Chang-lin, but in a tumult which broke out amongst his followers he
+  lost his life, and with him ended the "Golden" dynasty.
+
+  Notwithstanding the treaty between Ogdai and Sung, no sooner were the
+  spoils of Kin to be divided than war broke out again between them, in
+  prosecuting which the Mongol armies swept over the provinces of
+  Sze-ch'uen, Hu-kwang, Kiang-nan and Ho-nan, and were checked only when
+  they reached the walls of Lu-chow Fu in Ngan-hui. Ogdai died in 1241,
+  and was nominally succeeded by his grandson Cheliemên. But one of his
+  widows, Tolickona, took possession of the throne, and after exercising
+  rule for four years, established her son Kwei-yew as great khan. In
+  1248 his life was cut short, and the nobles, disregarding the claims
+  of Cheliemên, proclaimed as emperor Mangu, the eldest son of Tu-lé.
+  Under this monarch the war against Sung was carried on with energy,
+  and Kublai, outstripping the bounds of Sung territory, made his way
+  into the province of Yun-nan, at that time divided into a number of
+  independent states, and having attached them to his brother's crown he
+  passed on into Tibet, Tongking and Cochin-China, and thence striking
+  northwards entered the province of Kwang-si.
+
+
+  Kublai Khan emperior.
+
+On the death of Mangu in 1259 Kublai (q.v.) ascended the throne. Never
+in the history of China was the nation more illustrious, nor its power
+more widely felt, than under his sovereignty. During the first twenty
+years of his reign Sung kept up a resistance against his authority.
+Their last emperor Ping-ti, seeing his cause lost, drowned himself in
+the sea. The Sung dynasty, which had ruled southern China 320 years,
+despite its misfortunes is accounted one of the great dynasties of
+China. During its sway arts and literature were cultivated and many
+eminent writers flourished. His enemies subdued, Kublai Khan in 1280
+assumed complete jurisdiction as emperor of China. He took the title of
+Shit-su and founded what is known as the Yuen dynasty. He built a new
+capital close to Chung-tu, which became known as Kaanbaligh (city of the
+khan), in medieval European chronicles, Cambaluc, and later as Peking.
+At this time his authority was acknowledged "from the Frozen Sea, almost
+to the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of Hindustan, Arabia and
+the westernmost parts of Asia, all the Mongol princes as far as the
+Dnieper declared themselves his vassals, and brought regularly their
+tribute." It was during this reign that Marco Polo visited China, and he
+describes in glowing colours the virtues and glories of the "great
+khan." His rule was characterized by discretion and munificence. He
+undertook public works, he patronized literature, and relieved the
+distress of the poor, but the Chinese never forgot that he was an alien
+and regarded him as a barbarian. He died unregretted in 1294. His son
+had died during his lifetime, and after some contention his grandson
+Timur ascended the throne under the title of Yuen-chêng. This monarch
+died in 1307 after an uneventful reign, and, as he left no son,
+Wu-tsung, a Mongol prince, became emperor. To him succeeded Jên-tsung in
+1312, who made himself conspicuous by the honour he showed to the memory
+of Confucius, and by distributing offices more equally between Mongols
+and Chinese than had hitherto been done. This act of justice gave great
+satisfaction to the Chinese, and his death ended a peaceful and
+prosperous reign in 1320. At this time there appears to have been a
+considerable commercial intercourse between Europe and China. But after
+Jên-tsung's death the dynasty fell on evil days. The Mongols in adopting
+Chinese civilization had lost much of their martial spirit. They were
+still regarded as alien by the Chinese and numerous secret societies
+were formed to achieve their overthrow. Jên-tsung's successors were weak
+and incapable rulers, and in the person of Shun-ti (1333-1368) were
+summed up the vices and faults of his predecessors. Revolts broke out,
+and finally this descendant of Jenghiz Khan was compelled to fly before
+Chu Yüen-chang, the son of a Chinese labouring man. Deserted by his
+followers, he sought refuge in Ying-chang Fu, and there the last of the
+Yüen dynasty died. These Mongol emperors, whatever their faults, had
+shown tolerance to Christian missionaries and Papal legates (see _ante_
+§ _The Medieval Cathay_).
+
+
+  Ming dynasty.
+
+Chu Yüen-chang met with little opposition, more especially as his first
+care on becoming possessed of a district was to suppress lawlessness and
+to establish a settled government. In 1355 he captured Nanking, and
+proclaimed himself duke of Wu, but carefully avoided adopting any of the
+insignia of royalty. Even when master of the empire, thirteen years
+later, he still professed to dislike the idea of assuming the imperial
+title. His scruples were overcome, and he declared himself emperor in
+1368. He carried his arms into Tatary, where he subdued the last
+semblance of Mongol power in that direction, and then bent his steps
+towards Liao-tung. Here the Mongols defended themselves with the bravery
+of despair, but unavailingly, and the conquest of this province left
+Hung-wu, as the founder of the new or Ming ("Bright") dynasty styled
+himself, without a foe in the empire.
+
+  All intercourse with Europe seems now to have ceased until the
+  Portuguese arrived in the 16th century, but Hung-wu cultivated
+  friendly relations with the neighbouring states. As a quondam Buddhist
+  priest he lent his countenance to that religion to the exclusion of
+  Taoism, whose priests had for centuries earned the contempt of all but
+  the most ignorant by their pretended magical arts and their search
+  after the philosopher's stone. Hung-wu died in 1398 and was succeeded
+  by his grandson Kien-Wên. Aware that the appointment of this
+  youth--his father was dead--would give offence to the young emperor's
+  uncles, Hung-wu had dismissed them to their respective governments.
+  However, the prince of Yen, his eldest surviving son, rose in revolt
+  as soon as the news reached him of his nephew's accession, and after
+  gaining several victories over the armies of Kien-wên he presented
+  himself before the gates of Nanking, the capital. Treachery opened the
+  gates to him, and the emperor having fled in the disguise of a monk,
+  the victorious prince became emperor and took the title of Yung-lo
+  (1403). At home Yung-lo devoted himself to the encouragement of
+  literature and the fine arts, and, possibly from a knowledge that
+  Kien-wên was among the Buddhist priests, he renewed the law
+  prohibiting Buddhism. Abroad he swept Cochin-China and Tongking within
+  the folds of his empire and carried his arms into Tatary, where he
+  made new conquests of waste regions, and erected a monument of his
+  victories. He died in 1425, and was succeeded by his son Hung-hi.
+
+  Hung-hi's reign was short and uneventful. He strove to promote only
+  such mandarins as had proved themselves to be able and honest, and to
+  further the welfare of the people. During the reign of his successor,
+  Süen-tê (1426-1436), the empire suffered the first loss of territory
+  since the commencement of the dynasty. Cochin-China rebelled and
+  gained her independence. The next emperor, Chêng-t'ung (1436), was
+  taken prisoner by a Tatar chieftain, a descendant of the Yüen family
+  named Yi-sien, who had invaded the northern Erovinces. Having been
+  completely defeated by a Chinese force from Liao-tung, Yi-sien
+  liberated his captive, who reoccupied the throne, which during his
+  imprisonment (1450-1457) had been held by his brother King-ti. The two
+  following reigns, those of Chêng-hwa (1465-1488) and of Hung-chi
+  (1488-1506), were quiet and peaceful.
+
+
+    Struggle with Japan for Korea.
+
+  The most notable event in the reign of the next monarch, Chêng-te
+  (1506-1522), was the arrival of the Portuguese at Canton (1517). From
+  this time dates modern European intercourse with China. Chêng-te
+  suppressed a formidable insurrection headed by the prince of Ning, but
+  disorder caused by this civil war encouraged the foreign enemies of
+  China. From the north came a Tatar army under Yen-ta in 1542, during
+  the reign of Kia-tsing, which laid waste the province of Shen-si, and
+  even threatened the capital, and a little later a Japanese fleet
+  ravaged the littoral provinces. Ill-blood had arisen between the two
+  peoples before this, and a Japanese colony had been driven out of
+  Ningpo by force and not without bloodshed a few years previously.
+  Kia-tsing (d. 1567) was not equal to such emergencies, and his son
+  Lung-king (1567-1573)sought to placate the Tatar Yen-ta by making him
+  a prince of the empire and giving him commercial privileges, which
+  were supplemented by the succeeding emperor Wan-li (1573-1620) by the
+  grant of land in Shen-si. During the reign of this sovereign, in the
+  year 1592, the Japanese successfully invaded Korea, and Taikosarna,
+  the regent of Japan, was on the point of proclaiming himself king of
+  the peninsula, when a large Chinese force, answering to the invitation
+  of the king, appeared and completely routed the Japanese army, at the
+  same time that the Chinese fleet cut off their retreat by sea. In this
+  extremity the Japanese sued for peace, and sent an embassy to Peking
+  to arrange terms. But the peace was of short duration. In 1597 the
+  Japanese again invaded Korea, defeated the Chinese army, destroyed the
+  Chinese fleet and ravaged the coast. Suddenly, however, when in the
+  full tide of conquest, they evacuated Korea, which again fell under
+  the direction of China. Four years later the missionary Matteo Ricci
+  (q.v.) arrived at the Chinese court; and though at first the emperor
+  was inclined to send him out of the country, his abilities gradually
+  won for him the esteem of the sovereign and his ministers, and he
+  remained the scientific adviser of the court until his death in 1610.
+
+
+  Manchu invasion: 17th century.
+
+About this time the Manchu Tatars, goaded into war by the injustice they
+were constantly receiving at the hands of the Chinese, led an army into
+China (in 1616) and completely defeated the force which was sent against
+them. Three years later they gained possession of the province of
+Liao-tung. These disasters overwhelmed the emperor, and he died of a
+broken heart in 1620.
+
+In the same year T'ien-ming, the Manchu sovereign, having declared
+himself independent, moved the court to San-ku, to the east of Mukden,
+which, five years later, he made his capital. In 1627 Ts'ung-chêng, the
+last emperor of the Ming dynasty, ascended the Chinese throne. In his
+reign English merchants first made their appearance at Canton. The
+empire was now torn by internal dissensions. Rebel bands, enriched by
+plunder, and grown bold by success, began to assume the proportion of
+armies. Two rebels, Li Tsze-ch'êng and Shang K'o-hi, decided to divide
+the empire between them. Li besieged K'ai-fêng Fu, the capital of
+Ho-nan, and so long and closely did he beleaguer it that in the
+consequent famine human flesh was regularly sold in the markets. At
+length an imperial force came to raise the siege, but fearful of meeting
+Li's army, they cut through the dykes of the Yellow River, "China's
+Sorrow," and flooded the whole country, including the city. The rebels
+escaped to the mountains, but upwards of 200,000 inhabitants perished in
+the flood, and the city became a heap of ruins (1642). From K'ai-fêng Fu
+Li marched against the other strongholds of Ho-nan and Shen-si, and was
+so completely successful that he determined to attack Peking. A
+treacherous eunuch opened the gates to him, on being informed of which
+the emperor committed suicide. When the news of this disaster reached
+the general-commanding on the frontier of Manchu Tatary, he, in an
+unguarded moment, concluded a peace with the Manchus, and invited them
+to dispossess Li Tsze-ch'êng. The Manchus entered China, and after
+defeating a rebel army sent against them, they marched towards Peking.
+On hearing of the approach of the invaders, Li Tsze-ch'êng, after having
+set fire to the imperial palace, evacuated the city, but was overtaken,
+and his force was completely routed.
+
+
+  Ta-ts'ing dynasty.
+
+The Chinese now wished the Manchus to retire, but, having taken
+possession of Peking, they proclaimed the ninth son of T'ien-ming
+emperor of China under the title of Shun-chi, and adopted the name of
+Ta-ts'ing, or "Great Pure," for the dynasty (1644). Meanwhile the
+mandarins at Nanking had chosen an imperial prince to ascend the throne.
+At this most inopportune moment "a claimant" to the throne, in the
+person of a pretended son of the last emperor, appeared at court. While
+this contention prevailed inside Nanking the Tatar army appeared at the
+walls. There was no need for them to use force. The gates were thrown
+open, and they took possession of the city without bloodshed. Following
+the conciliatory policy they had everywhere pursued, they confirmed the
+mandarins in their offices and granted a general amnesty to all who
+would lay down their arms. As the Tatars entered the city the emperor
+left it, and after wandering about for some days in great misery, he
+drowned himself in the Yangtsze-kiang. Thus ended the Ming dynasty, and
+the empire passed again under a foreign yoke. By the Mings, who partly
+revived the feudal system by making large territorial grants to members
+of the reigning house, China was divided into fifteen provinces; the
+existing division into eighteen provinces was made by the Manchus.
+
+  All accounts agree in stating that the Manchu conquerors are
+  descendants of a branch of the family which gave the Kin dynasty to
+  the north of China; and in lieu of any authentic account of their
+  early history, native writers have thrown a cloud of fable over their
+  origin (see MANCHURIA). In the 16th century they were strong enough to
+  cope with their Chinese neighbours. Doubtless the Mings tried to check
+  their ambition by cruel reprisals, but against this must be put
+  numerous Manchu raids into Liao-tung.
+
+  The accession to the throne of the emperor Shun-chi did not restore
+  peace to the country. In Kiang-si, Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and Kwang-si
+  the adherents of the Ming dynasty defended themselves vigorously but
+  unsuccessfully against the invaders, while the pirate Chêng Chi-lung,
+  the father of the celebrated Coxinga, kept up a predatory warfare
+  against them on the coast. Eventually he was induced to visit Peking,
+  where he was thrown into prison and died. Coxinga, warned by his
+  father's example, determined to leave the mainland and to seek an
+  empire elsewhere. His choice fell on Formosa, and having driven out
+  the Dutch, who had established themselves in the island in 1624, he
+  held possession until the reign of K'ang-hi, when (1682) he resigned
+  in favour of the imperial government. Meanwhile a prince of the house
+  of Ming was proclaimed emperor in Kwang-si, under the title of
+  Yung-li. The Tatars having reduced Fu-kien and Kiang-si, and having
+  taken Canton after a siege of eight months, completely routed his
+  followers, and Yung-li was compelled to fly to Pegu. Some years later,
+  with the help of adherents in Yun-nan and Kwei-chow, he tried to
+  regain the throne, but his army was scattered, and he was taken
+  prisoner and strangled. Gradually opposition to the new régime became
+  weaker and weaker, and the shaved head with the pig-tail--the symbol
+  of Tatar sovereignty--became more and more adopted. In 1651 died Ama
+  Wang, the uncle of Shun-chi, who had acted as regent during his
+  nephew's minority, and the emperor then assumed the government of the
+  state. He appears to have taken a great interest in science, and to
+  have patronized Adam Schaal, a German Jesuit, who was at that time
+  resident at Peking. It was during his reign (1656) that the first
+  Russian embassy arrived at the capital, but as the envoy declined to
+  _kowtow_ before the emperor he was sent back without having been
+  admitted to an audience.
+
+  After an unquiet reign of seventeen years Shun-chi died (1661). and
+  was succeeded by his son K'ang-hi. He came into collision with the
+  Russians, who had reached the Amur regions about 1640 and had built a
+  fort on the upper Amur; but by the Treaty of Nerchinsk, concluded in
+  1689 (the first treaty made between China and a European power), the
+  dispute was settled, the Amur being taken as the frontier. K'ang-hi
+  was indefatigable in administering the affairs of the empire, and he
+  devoted much of his time to literary and scientific studies under the
+  guidance of the Jesuits. The dictionary of the Chinese language,
+  published under his superintendence, proves him to have been as great
+  a scholar as his conquests over the Eleuths show him to have been
+  famous as a general. During one of his hunting expeditions to Mongolia
+  he caught a fatal cold, and he died in 1721. Under his rule Tibet was
+  added to the empire, which extended from the Siberian frontier to
+  Cochin-China, and from the China Sea to Turkestan. During his reign
+  there was a great earthquake at Peking, in which 400,000 people are
+  said to have perished.
+
+  K'ien-lung, who began to reign in 1735, was ambitious and warlike. He
+  marched an army into Hi, which he converted into a Chinese province,
+  and he afterwards added eastern Turkestan to the empire. Twice he
+  invaded Burma, and once he penetrated into Cochin-China, but in
+  neither country were his arms successful. He is accused of great
+  cruelty towards his subjects, which they repaid by rebelling against
+  him. During his reign the Mahommedan standard was first raised in
+  Kan-suh. (Since the Mongol conquest in the 13th century there had been
+  a considerable immigration of Moslems into western China; and numbers
+  of Chinese had become converts). But the Mussulmans were unable to
+  stand against the imperial troops; their armies were dispersed; ten
+  thousand of them were exiled; and an order was issued that every
+  Mahommedan in Kan-suh above the age of fifteen should be put to death
+  (1784).
+
+  K'ien-lung wrote incessantly, both poetry and prose, collected
+  libraries and republished works of value. His campaigns furnished him
+  with themes for his verses, and in the Summer Palace was found a
+  handsome manuscript copy of a laudatory poem he composed on the
+  occasion of his war against the Gurkhas. This was one of the most
+  successful of his military undertakings. His generals marched 70,000
+  men into Nepal to within 60 miles of the British frontiers, and having
+  subjugated the Gurkhas they received the submission of the Nepalese,
+  and acquired an additional hold over Tibet (1792). In other directions
+  his arms were not so successful. There is no poem commemorating the
+  campaign against the rebellious Formosans, nor lament over the loss of
+  100,000 men in that island, and the last few years of his reign were
+  disturbed by outbreaks among the Miao-tsze, hill tribes living in the
+  mountains in the provinces of Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. In 1795, after a
+  reign of sixty years, K'ien-lung abdicated in favour of his fifteenth
+  son, who adopted the title of Kia-k'ing as the style of his reign.
+  K'ien-lung died at the age of eighty-eight in 1798.
+
+
+  Trade with Europe.
+
+During the reign of K'ien-lung commerce between Europe and Canton--the
+only Chinese port then open to foreign trade--had attained important
+dimensions. It was mainly in the hands of the Portuguese, the British
+and the Dutch. The British trade was then a monopoly of the East India
+Company. The trade, largely in opium, tea and silk, was subject to many
+exactions and restrictions,[49] and many acts of gross injustice were
+committed on the persons of Englishmen. To obtain some redress the
+British government at length sent an embassy to Peking (1793) and Lord
+Macartney was chosen to represent George III. on the occasion. The
+mission was treated as showing that Great Britain was a state tributary
+to China, and Lord Macartney was received with every courtesy. But the
+concessions he sought were not accorded, and in this sense his mission
+was a failure.
+
+Kia-k'ing's reign was disturbed and disastrous. In the northern and
+western provinces, rebellion after rebellion broke out, due in a great
+measure to the carelessness, incompetency and obstinacy of the emperor,
+and the coasts were infested with pirates, whose number and organization
+enabled them for a long time to hold the imperial fleet in check.
+Meanwhile the condition of the foreign merchants at Canton had not
+improved, and to set matters on a better footing the British government
+despatched a second ambassador in the person of Lord Amherst to Peking
+in 1816. As he declined to _kowtow_ before the emperor, he was not
+admitted to the imperial presence and the mission proved abortive.
+Destitute of all royal qualities, a slave to his passions, and the
+servant of caprice, Kia-k'ing died in 1820. The event fraught with the
+greatest consequences to China which occurred in his reign (though at
+the time it attracted little attention) was the arrival of the first
+Protestant missionary, Dr R. Morrison (q.v.), who reached Canton in
+1807.
+
+Tao-kwang (1820-1850), the new emperor, though possessed in his early
+years of considerable energy, had no sooner ascended the throne than he
+gave himself up to the pursuit of pleasure. The reforms which his first
+manifestoes foreshadowed never seriously occupied his attention.
+Insurrection occurred in Formosa, Kwang-si, Ho-nan and other parts of
+the empire, and the Triad Society, which had originated during the reign
+of K'ang-hi, again became formidable.
+
+
+  War with Great Britain, 1840.
+
+More important to the future of the country than the internal
+disturbances was the new attitude taken at this time towards China by
+the nations of Europe. Hitherto the European missionaries and traders in
+China had been dependent upon the goodwill of the Chinese. The
+Portuguese had been allowed to settle at Macao (q.v.) for some
+centuries; Roman Catholic missionaries since the time of Ricci had been
+alternately patronized and persecuted; Protestant missionaries had
+scarcely gained a foothold; the Europeans allowed to trade at Canton
+continued to suffer under vexatious regulations--the Chinese in general
+regarded Europeans as barbarians, "foreign devils." Of the armed
+strength of Europe they were ignorant. They were now to be undeceived,
+Great Britain being the first power to take action. The hardships
+inflicted on the British merchants at Canton became so unbearable that
+when, in 1834, the monopoly of the East India Company ceased, the
+British government sent Lord Napier as minister to superintend the
+foreign trade at that port. Lord Napier was inadequately supported, and
+the anxieties of his position brought on an attack of fever, from which
+he died at Macao after a few months' residence in China. The chief cause
+of complaint adduced by the mandarins was the introduction of opium by
+the merchants, and for years they attempted by every means in their
+power to put a stop to its importation. At length Captain (afterwards
+Admiral Sir Charles) Elliot, the superintendent of trade, in 1839 agreed
+that all the opium in the hands of Englishmen should be given up to the
+native authorities, and he exacted a pledge from the merchants that they
+would no longer deal in the drug. On the 3rd of April 20,283 chests of
+opium were handed over to the mandarins and were by them destroyed. The
+surrender of the opium led to further demands by Lin Tze-su, the Chinese
+imperial commissioner, demands which were considered by the British
+government to amount to a _casus belli_, and in 1840 war was declared.
+In the same year the fleet captured Chusan, and in the following year
+the Bogue Forts fell, in consequence of which operations the Chinese
+agreed to cede Hong-Kong to the victors and to pay them an indemnity of
+6,000,000 dollars. As soon as this news reached Peking, Ki Shen, who had
+succeeded Commissioner Lin, was dismissed from his post and degraded,
+and Yi Shen, another Tatar, was appointed in his room. Before the new
+commissioner reached his post Canton had fallen into the hands of Sir
+Hugh Gough, and shortly afterwards Amoy, Ning-po, Tinghai in Chusan,
+Chapu, Shanghai and Chin-kiang Fu shared the same fate. Nanking would
+also have been captured had not the imperial government, dreading the
+loss of the "Southern Capital," proposed terms of peace. Sir Henry
+Pottinger, who had succeeded Captain Elliot, concluded, in 1842, a
+treaty with the imperial commissioners, by which the four additional
+ports of Amoy, Fu-chow, Ningpo and Shanghai were declared open to
+foreign trade, and an indemnity of 21,000,000 dollars was to be paid to
+the British.
+
+
+    Hien-fêng emperor.
+
+    T'ai-p'ing rebellion.
+
+  On the accession of Hien-fêng in 1850, a demand was raised for the
+  reforms which had been hoped for under Tao-kwang, but Hien-fêng
+  possessed in an exaggerated form the selfish and tyrannical nature of
+  his father, together with a voluptuary's craving for every kind of
+  sensual pleasure. For some time Kwang-si had been in a very disturbed
+  state, and when the people found that there was no hope of relief from
+  the oppression they endured, they proclaimed a youth, who was said to
+  be the representative of the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, as
+  emperor, under the title of T'ien-tê or "Heavenly Virtue." From
+  Kwang-si the revolt spread into Hu-peh and Hu-nan, and then languished
+  from want of a leader and a definite political cry. When, however,
+  there appeared to be a possibility that, by force of arms and the
+  persuasive influence of money, the imperialists would re-establish
+  their supremacy, a leader presented himself in Kwang-si, whose energy
+  of character, combined with great political and religious enthusiasm,
+  speedily gained for him the suffrages of the discontented. This was
+  Hung Siu-ts'üan. He proclaimed himself as sent by heaven to drive out
+  the Tatars, and to restore in his own person the succession to China.
+  At the same time, having been converted to Christianity and professing
+  to abhor the vices and sins of the age, he called on all the virtuous
+  of the land to extirpate rulers who were standing examples of all that
+  was base and vile in human nature. Crowds soon flocked to his
+  standard. T'ien-tê was deserted; and putting himself at the head of
+  his followers (who abandoned the practice of shaving the head), Hung
+  Siu-ts'üan marched northwards and captured Wu-ch'ang on the
+  Yangtsze-kiang, the capital of Hu-peh. Then, moving down the river, he
+  proceeded to the attack of Nanking. Without much difficulty Hung
+  Siu-ts'üan in 1853 established himself within its walls, and
+  proclaimed the inauguration of the T'ai-p'ing dynasty, of which he
+  nominated himself the first emperor under the title of T'ien Wang or
+  "Heavenly king." During the next few years his armies penetrated
+  victoriously as far north as Tientsin and as far east as Chin-kiang
+  and Su-chow, while bands of sympathizers with his cause appeared in
+  the neighbourhood of Amoy. As if still further to aid him in his
+  schemes, Great Britain declared war against the Tatar dynasty in 1857,
+  in consequence of an outrage known as the "Arrow" affair (see PARKES,
+  SIR HARRY SMITH). In December 1857 Canton was taken by the British,
+  and a further blow was struck against the prestige of the Manchu
+  dynasty by the determination of Lord Elgin, who had been sent as
+  special ambassador, to go to Peking and communicate directly with the
+  emperor. In May 1858 the Taku Forts were taken, and Lord Elgin went up
+  the Peiho to Tientsin _en route_ for the capital. At Tientsin,
+  however, imperial commissioners persuaded him to conclude a treaty
+  with them on the spot, which treaty it was agreed should be ratified
+  at Peking in the following year. When, however, Sir Frederick Bruce,
+  who had been appointed minister to the court of Peking, attempted to
+  pass Taku to carry out this arrangement, the vessels escorting him
+  were treacherously fired on from the forts and he was compelled to
+  return. Thereupon Lord Elgin was again sent out with full powers,
+  accompanied by a large force under the command of Sir Hope Grant. The
+  French (to seek reparation for the murder of a missionary in Kwang-si)
+  took part in the campaign, and on the 1st of August 1860 the allies
+  landed without meeting with any opposition at Pei-tang, a village 12
+  m. north of Taku. A few days later the forts at that place were taken,
+  and thence the allies marched to Peking. Finding further resistance to
+  be hopeless, the Chinese opened negotiations, and as a guarantee of
+  their good faith surrendered the An-ting gate of the capital to the
+  allies. On the 24th of October 1860 the treaty of 1858 was ratified by
+  Prince Kung and Lord Elgin, and a convention was signed under the
+  terms of which the Chinese agreed to pay a war indemnity of 8,000,000
+  taels. The right of Europeans to travel in the interior was granted
+  and freedom guaranteed to the preaching of Christianity. The customs
+  tariff then agreed upon legalized the import of opium, though the
+  treaty of 1858, like that of 1842, was silent on the subject.
+
+  Great Britain and France were not the only powers of Europe with whom
+  Hien-fêng was called to deal. On the northern border of the empire
+  Russia began to exercise pressure. Russia had begun to colonize the
+  lower Amur region, and was pressing towards the Pacific. This was a
+  remote region, only part of the Chinese empire since the Manchu
+  conquest, and by treaties of 1858 and 1860 China ceded to Russia all
+  its territory north of the Amur and between the Ussuri and the Pacific
+  (see AMUR, province). The Russians in their newly acquired land
+  founded the port of Vladivostok (q.v.).
+
+
+    T'ung-chi emperor; dowager empress regent.
+
+  Hien-fêng died in the summer of the year 1861, leaving the throne to
+  his son T'ung-chi (1861-1875), a child of five years old, whose
+  mother, Tsz'e Hsi (1834-1908), had been raised from the place of
+  favourite concubine to that of Imperial Consort. The legitimate
+  empress, Tsz'e An, was childless, and the two dowagers became joint
+  regents. The conclusion of peace with the allies was the signal for a
+  renewal of the campaign against the T'ai-p'ings, and, benefiting by
+  the friendly feelings of the British authorities engendered by the
+  return of amicable relations, the Chinese government succeeded in
+  enlisting Major Charles George Gordon (q.v.) of the Royal Engineers in
+  their service. In a suprisingly short space of time this officer
+  formed the troops, which had formerly been under the command of an
+  American named Ward, into a formidable army, and without delay took
+  the field against the rebels. From that day the fortunes of the
+  T'ai-p'ings declined. They lost city after city, and, finally in July
+  1864, the imperialists, after an interval of twelve years, once more
+  gained possession of Nanking. T'ien Wang committed suicide on the
+  capture of his capital, and with him fell his cause. Those of his
+  followers who escaped the sword dispersed throughout the country, and
+  the T'ai-p'ings ceased to be.
+
+  With the measure of peace which was then restored to the country trade
+  rapidly revived, except in Yun-nan, where the Mahommedan rebels, known
+  as Panthays, under Suleiman, still kept the imperial forces at bay.
+  Against these foes the government was careless to take active
+  measures, until in 1872 Prince Hassan, the adopted son of Suleiman,
+  was sent to England to gain the recognition of the queen for his
+  father's government. This step aroused the susceptibilities of the
+  imperial government, and a large force was despatched to the scene of
+  the rebellion. Before the year was out the Mahommedan capital Ta-li Fu
+  fell into the hands of the imperialists, and the followers of Suleiman
+  were mercilessly exterminated. In February 1873 the two dowager
+  empresses resigned their powers as regents. This long-expected time
+  was seized upon by the foreign ministers to urge their right of
+  audience with the emperor, and on the 29th of June 1873 tne privilege
+  of gazing on the "sacred countenance" was accorded them.
+
+
+    Accession of Kwang-su, 1875.
+
+  The emperor T'ung-chi died without issue, and the succession to the
+  throne, for the first time in the annals of the Ts'ing dynasty, passed
+  out of the direct line. As already stated, the first emperor of the
+  Ts'ing dynasty, Shih-tsu Hwangti, on gaining possession of the throne
+  on the fall of the Ming, or "Great Bright" dynasty, adopted the title
+  of Shun-chi for his reign, which began in the year 1644. The legendary
+  progenitor of these Manchu rulers was Aisin Gioro, whose name is said
+  to point to the fact of his having been related to the race of
+  Nü-chih, or Kin, i.e. Golden Tatars, who reigned in northern China
+  during the 12th and 13th centuries. K'ang-hi (1661-1722) was the third
+  son of Shun-chi; Yung-chêng (1722-1735) was the fourth son of
+  K'ang-hi; K'ien-lung (1736-1795) was the fourth son of Yung-chêng;
+  Kia-k'ing (1796-1820) was the fifteenth son of K'ien-lung; Tao-Kwang
+  (1821-1850) was the second son of Kia-k'ing; Hien-fêng (1851-1861) was
+  the fourth of the nine sons who were born to the emperor Tao-kwang;
+  and T'ung-chi (1862-1875) was the only son of Hien-fêng. The choice
+  now fell upon Tsai-t'ien (as he was called at birth), the infant son
+  (born August 2, 1872) of Yi-huan, Prince Chun, the seventh son of the
+  emperor Tao-kwang and brother of the emperor Hien-fêng; his mother was
+  a sister of the empress Tsz'e Hsi, who, with the aid of Li Hung-chang,
+  obtained his adoption and proclamation as emperor, under the title of
+  Kwang-su, "Succession of Glory."
+
+
+    Imperial family nomenclature and rank.
+
+  In order to prevent the confusion which would arise among the princes
+  of the imperial house were they each to adopt an arbitrary name, the
+  emperor K'ang-hi decreed that each of his twenty-four sons should have
+  a _personal_ name consisting of two characters, the first of which
+  should be _Yung_, and the second should be compounded with the
+  determinative _shih_, "to manifest," an arrangement which would, as
+  has been remarked, find an exact parallel in a system by which the
+  sons in an English family might be called Louis _Edward_, Louis
+  _Edwin_, Louis _Edwy_, Louis _Edgar_ and so on. This device obtained
+  also in the next generation, all the princes of which had _Hung_ for
+  their first name, and the emperor K'ien-lung (1736-1795) extended it
+  into a system, and directed that the succeeding generations should
+  take the four characters _Yung_, _Mien_, _Yih_ and _Tsai_
+  respectively, as the first part of their names. Eight other
+  characters, namely, _P'u_, _Yu_, _Hêng_, _K'i_, _Tao_, _K'ai_,
+  _Tsêng_, _Ki_, were subsequently added, thus providing generic names
+  for twelve generations. With the generation represented by Kwang-su
+  the first four characters were exhausted, and any sons of the emperor
+  Kwang-su would therefore have been called _P'u_. By the ceremonial law
+  of the "Great Pure" dynasty, twelve degrees of rank are distributed
+  among the princes of the imperial house, and are as follows: (1)
+  Ho-shih Tsin Wang, prince of the first order; (2) To-lo Keun Wang,
+  prince of the second order; (3) To-lo Beileh, prince of the third
+  order; (4) Ku-shan Beitsze, prince of the fourth order; 5 to 8, Kung,
+  or duke (with distinctive designations); 9 to 12, Tsiang-keun, general
+  (with distinctive designations). The sons of emperors usually receive
+  patents of the first or second order on their reaching manhood, and on
+  their sons is bestowed the title of _Beileh_. A _Beileh's_ sons become
+  _Beitsze_; a Beitsze's sons become _Kung_, and so on.    (R. K. D.; X.)
+
+
+(D)--_From 1875 to 1901._
+
+  The two dowager-empresses.
+
+The accession to the throne of Kwang-su in January 1875 attracted little
+notice outside China, as the supreme power continued to be vested in the
+two dowager-empresses--the empress Tsz'e An, principal wife of the
+emperor Hien-fêng, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi, secondary wife of the same
+emperor, and mother of the emperor T'ung-chi. Yet there were
+circumstances connected with the emperor Kwang-su's accession which
+might well have arrested attention. The emperor T'ung-chi, who had
+himself succumbed to an ominously brief and mysterious illness, left a
+young widow in an advanced state of pregnancy, and had she given birth
+to a male child her son would have been the rightful heir to the throne.
+But even before she sickened and died--of grief, it was officially
+stated, at the loss of her imperial spouse--the dowager-empresses had
+solved the question of the succession by placing Kwang-su on the throne,
+a measure which was not only in itself arbitrary, but also in direct
+conflict with one of the most sacred of Chinese traditions. The solemn
+rites of ancestor-worship, incumbent on every Chinaman, and, above all,
+upon the emperor, can only be properly performed by a member of a
+younger generation than those whom it is his duty to honour. The emperor
+Kwang-su, being a first cousin to the emperor T'ung-chi, was not
+therefore qualified to offer up the customary sacrifices before the
+ancestral tablets of his predecessor. The accession of an infant in the
+place of T'ung-Tchi achieved, however, for the time being what was
+doubtless the paramount object of the policy of the two empresses,
+namely, their undisturbed tenure of the regency, in which the junior
+empress Tsz'e Hsi, a woman of unquestionable ability and boundless
+ambition, had gradually become the predominant partner.
+
+
+  Murder of Mr Margary.
+
+The first question that occupied the attention of the government under
+the new reign was one of the gravest importance, and nearly led to a war
+with Great Britain. The Indian government was desirous of seeing the old
+trade relations between Burma and the south-west provinces, which had
+been interrupted by the Yun-nan rebellion, re-established, and for that
+purpose proposed to send a mission across the frontier into China. The
+Peking government assented and issued passports for the party, which was
+under the command of Colonel Browne. Mr A.R. Margary, a young and
+promising member of the China consular service, who was told off to
+accompany the expedition as interpreter, was treacherously murdered by
+Chinese at the small town of Manwyne and almost simultaneously an attack
+was made on the expedition by armed forces wearing Chinese uniform
+(January 1875). Colonel Browne with difficulty made his way back to
+Bhamo and the expedition was abandoned.
+
+
+  Chifu convention 1876.
+
+Tedious negotiations followed, and, more than eighteen months after the
+outrage, an arrangement was come to on the basis of guarantees for the
+future, rather than vengeance for the past. The arrangement was embodied
+in the Chifu convention, dated 13th September 1876. The terms of the
+settlement comprised (1) a mission of apology from China to the British
+court; (2) the promulgation throughout the length and breadth of the
+empire of an imperial proclamation, setting out the right of foreigners
+to travel under passport, and the obligation of the authorities to
+protect them; and (3) the payment of indemnity. Additional articles were
+subsequently signed in London relative to the collection of likin on
+Indian opium and other matters.
+
+
+  Revolt in Central Asia.
+
+  Imperial consolidation.
+
+Simultaneously with the outbreak of the Mahommedan rebellion in Yun-nan,
+a similar disturbance had arisen in the north-west provinces of Shen-si
+and Kan-suh. This was followed by a revolt of the whole of the Central
+Asian tribes, which for two thousand years had more or less acknowledged
+the imperial sway. In Kashgaria a nomad chief named Yakub Beg, otherwise
+known as the Atalik Gh[=a]zi, had made himself amir, and seemed likely
+to establish a strong rule. The fertile province of Kulja or Ili, lying
+to the north of the T'ianshan range, was taken possession of by Russia
+in 1871 in order to put a stop to the prevailing anarchy, but with a
+promise that when China should have succeeded in re-establishing order
+in her Central Asian dominions it should be given back. The interest
+which was taken in the rebellion in Central Asia by the European powers,
+notably by the sultan of Turkey and the British government, aroused the
+Chinese to renewed efforts to recover their lost territories, and, as in
+the case of the similar crisis in Yun-nan, they undertook the task with
+sturdy deliberation. They borrowed money--£1,600,000--for the expenses
+of the expedition, this being the first appearance of China as a
+borrower in the foreign markets, and appointed the viceroy, Tso
+Tsung-t'ang, commander-in-chief. By degrees the emperor's authority was
+established from the confines of Kan-suh to Kashgar and Yarkand, and
+Chinese garrisons were stationed in touch with the Russian outpost in
+the region of the Pamirs (December 1877). Russia was now called upon to
+restore Kulja, China being in a position to maintain order. China
+despatched Chung-how, a Manchu of the highest rank, who had been
+notoriously concerned in the Tientsin massacre of 1870, to St Petersburg
+to negotiate a settlement. After some months of discussion a document
+was signed (September 1879), termed the treaty of Livadia, whereby China
+recovered, not indeed the whole, but a considerable portion of the
+territory, on her paying to Russia five million roubles as the cost of
+occupation. The treaty was, however, received with a storm of
+indignation in China. Memorials poured in from all sides denouncing the
+treaty and its author. Foremost among these was one by Chang Chih-tung,
+who afterwards became the most distinguished of the viceroys, and
+governor-general of Hu-peh and Hu-nan provinces. Prince Chun, the
+emperor's father, came into prominence at this juncture as an advocate
+for war, and under these combined influences the unfortunate Chung-how
+was tried and condemned to death (3rd of March 1880). For some months
+warlike preparations went on, and the outbreak of hostilities was
+imminent. In the end, however, calmer counsels prevailed. It was decided
+to send the Marquis Tseng, who in the meantime had become minister in
+London, to Russia to negotiate. A new treaty which still left Russia in
+possession of part of the Ili valley was ratified on the 19th of August
+1881. The Chinese government could now contemplate the almost complete
+recovery of the whole extensive dominions which had at any time owned
+the imperial sway. The regions directly administered by the officers of
+the emperor extended from the borders of Siberia on the north to Annam
+and Burma on the south, and from the Pacific Ocean on the east to
+Kashgar and Yarkand on the west. There was also a fringe of tributary
+nations which still kept up the ancient forms of allegiance, and which
+more or less acknowledged the dominioi of the central kingdom. The
+principal tributary nations then were Korea, Lu-chu, Annam, Burma and
+Nepal.
+
+
+  Korea and Japan.
+
+Korea was the first of the dependencies to come into notice. In 1866
+some Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered, and about the same time
+an American vessel was burnt in one of the rivers and her crew murdered.
+China refused satisfaction; both to France and America, and suffered
+reprisals to be made on Korea without protest. America and Japan both
+desired to conclude commercial treaties for the opening up of Korea, and
+proposed to negotiate with China. China refused and referred them to the
+Korean government direct, saying she was not wont to interfere in the
+affairs of her vassal states. As a result Japan concluded a treaty in
+1876, in which the independence of Korea was expressly recognized. This
+was allowed to pass without protest, but as other nations proceeded to
+conclude treaties on the same terms China began to perceive her mistake,
+and endeavoured to tack on to each a declaration by the king that he was
+in fact a tributary--a declaration, however, which was quietly ignored.
+Japan, however, was the only power with which controversy immediately
+arose. In 1882 a faction fight, which had long been smouldering, broke
+out, headed by the king's father, the Tai Won Kun, in the course of
+which the Japanese legation was attacked and the whole Japanese colony
+had to flee for their lives. China sent troops, and by adroitly
+kidnapping the Tai Won Kun, order was for a time restored. The Japanese
+legation was replaced, but under the protection of a strong body of
+Japanese troops. Further revolutions and riots followed, in which the
+troops of the two countries took sides, and there was imminent danger of
+war. To obviate this risk, it was agreed in 1885 between Count Ito and
+Li Hung-Chang that both sides should withdraw their troops, the king
+being advised to engage officers of a third state to put his army on
+such a footing as would maintain order, and each undertook to give the
+other notice should it be found necessary to send troops again. In this
+way a _modus vivendi_ was established which lasted till 1894.
+
+
+  Domestic affairs, 1875-1882.
+
+We can only glance briefly at the domestic affairs of China during the
+period 1875-1882. The years 1877-1878 were marked by a famine in
+Shan-si and Shan-tung, which for duration and intensity has probably
+never been equalled. It was computed that 12 or 13 millions perished. It
+was vainly hoped that this loss of life, due mainly to defective
+commumcations, would induce the Chinese government to listen to
+proposals for railway construction. The Russian scare had, however,
+taught the Chinese the value of telegraphs, and in 1881 the first line
+was laid from Tientsin to Shanghai. Further construction was continued
+without intermission from this date. A beginning also was made in naval
+affairs. The arsenal at Fuchow was turning out small composite gunboats,
+a training ship was bought and put under the command of a British
+officer. Several armoured cruisers were ordered from England, and some
+progress was made with the fortifications of Port Arthur and
+Wei-hai-wei. Forts were also built and guns mounted at Fuchow, Shanghai,
+Canton and other vulnerable points. Money for these purposes was
+abundantly supplied by the customs duties on foreign trade, and China
+had learnt that at need she could borrow from the foreign banks on the
+security of this revenue.
+
+In 1881 the senior regent, the empress Tsz'e An, was carried off by a
+sudden attack of heart disease, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi remained in
+undivided possession of the supreme power during the remainder of the
+emperor Kwang-su's minority. Li Hung-Chang, firmly established at
+Tientsin, within easy reach of the capital, as viceroy of the home
+province of Chih-li and superintendent of northern trade, enjoyed a
+larger share of his imperial mistress's favour than was often granted by
+the ruling Manchus to officials of Chinese birth, and in all the graver
+questions of foreign policy his advice was generally decisive.
+
+
+  Tongking and Hanoi.
+
+While the dispute with Japan was still going on regarding Korea, China
+found herself involved in a more serious quarrel in respect of another
+tributary state which lay on the southern frontier. By a treaty made
+between France and Annam in 1874, the Red river or Songkoi, which rising
+in-south-western China, flows through Tongking, was opened to trade,
+together with the cities of Haiphong and Hanoi situated on the delta.
+The object of the French was to find a trade route to Yun-nan and
+Sze-ch'uen from a base of their own, and it was hoped the Red river
+would furnish such a route. Tongking at this time, however, was infested
+with bands of pirates and cut-throats, many of whom were Chinese rebels
+or ex-rebels who had been driven across the frontier by the suppression
+of the Yun-nan and Taiping rebellions, conspicuous among them being an
+organization called the Black Flags. And when in 1882 France sent troops
+to Tongking to restore order (the Annamese government having failed to
+fulfil its promises in that respect) China began to protest, claiming
+that Annam was a vassal state and under her protection.
+
+
+    Troubles with France.
+
+  France took no notice of the protest, declaring that the claim had
+  merely an archaeological interest, and that, in any case, China in
+  military affairs was a _quantité négligeable_. France found, however,
+  that she had undertaken a very serious task in trying to put down the
+  forces of disorder (see TONGKING). The Black Flags were, it was
+  believed, being aided by money and arms from China, and as time went
+  on, the French were more and more being confronted with regular
+  Chinese soldiers. Several forts, well within the Tongking frontier,
+  were known to be garrisoned by Chinese troops. Operations continued
+  with more or less success during the winter and spring of 1883-1884.
+  Both sides, however, were desirous of an arrangement, and in May 1884
+  a convention was signed between Li Hung-Chang and a Captain Fournier,
+  who had been commissioned _ad hoc_, whereby China agreed to withdraw
+  her garrisons and to open her frontiers to trade, France agreeing, on
+  her part, to respect the fiction of Chinese suzerainty, and guarantee
+  the frontier from attack by brigands. No date had been fixed in the
+  convention for the evacuation of the Chinese garrisons, and Fournier
+  endeavoured to supplement this by a memorandum to Li Hung-Chang, at
+  the same time announcing the fact to his government. In pursuance of
+  this arrangement the French troops proceeded to occupy Langson on the
+  date fixed (21st June 1884). The Chinese commandant refused to
+  evacuate, alleging, in a despatch which no one in the French camp was
+  competent to translate, that he had received no orders, and begged for
+  a short delay to enable him to communicate with his superiors. The
+  French commandant ordered an attack, which was repulsed with severe
+  loss. Mutual recriminations ensued. From Paris there came a demand for
+  a huge indemnity as reparation for the insult. The Peking government
+  offered to carry out the convention, and to pay a small indemnity for
+  the lives lost through the misunderstanding. This was refused, and
+  hostilities recommenced, or, as the French preferred to call them,
+  reprisals, for the fiction was still kept up that the two countries
+  were not at war. Under cover of this fiction the French fleet
+  peaceably entered the harbour of Fuchow, having passed the forts at
+  the entrance to the river without hindrance. Once inside, they
+  attacked and destroyed the much inferior Chinese fleet which was then
+  quietly at anchor, destroying at the same time a large part of the
+  arsenal which adjoins the anchorage (23rd August 1884). Retracing its
+  steps, the French fleet attacked and destroyed with impunity the forts
+  which were built to guard the entrance to the Min river, and could
+  offer no resistance to a force coming from the rear. After this
+  exploit the French fleet left the mainland and continued its reprisals
+  on the coast of Formosa. Kelung, a treaty port, was bombarded and
+  taken, October 4th. A similar attempt, however, on the neighbouring
+  port of Tamsui was unsuccessful, the landing party having been driven
+  back to their ships with severe loss. The attempt was not renewed, and
+  the fleet thereafter confined itself to a semi-blockade of the island,
+  which was prolonged into 1885 but led to no practical results.
+  Negotiations for peace, however, which had been for some time in
+  progress through the mediation of Sir Robert Hart, were at this
+  juncture happily concluded (April 1885). The terms were practically
+  those of the Fournier convention of the year before, the demand for an
+  indemnity having been quietly dropped.
+
+
+  Increased prestige of China.
+
+China, on the whole, came out of the struggle with greatly increased
+prestige. She had tried conclusions with a first-class European power
+and had held her own. Incorrect conclusions as to the military strength
+of China were consequently drawn, not merely by the Chinese
+themselves--which was excusable--but by European and even British
+authorities, who ought to have been better informed. War vessels were
+ordered by China both from England and Germany, and Admiral Lang, who
+had withdrawn his services while the war was going on, was re-engaged
+together with a number of British officers and instructors. The
+completion of the works at Port Arthur was taken in hand, and a
+beginning was made in the construction of forts at Wei-hai-wei as a
+second naval base. A new department was created for the control of naval
+affairs, at the head of which was placed Prince Chun, father of the
+emperor, who since the downfall of Prince Kung in 1884 had been taking a
+more and more prominent part in public affairs.
+
+
+  1885-1894.
+
+From 1885 to 1894 the political history of China does not call for
+extended notice. Two incidents, however, must be recorded, (1) the
+conclusion in 1886 of a convention with Great Britain, in which the
+Chinese government undertook to recognize British sovereignty in Burma,
+and (2) the temporary occupation of Port Hamilton by the British fleet
+(May 1885-February 1887). In 1890 Admiral Lang resigned his command of
+the Chinese fleet. During a temporary absence of Lang's colleague,
+Admiral Ting, the Chinese second in command, claimed the right to take
+charge--a claim which Admiral Lang naturally resented. The question was
+referred to Li Hung-Chang, who decided against Lang, whereupon the
+latter threw up his commission. From this point the fleet on which so
+much depended began to deteriorate. Superior officers again began to
+steal the men's pays, the ships were starved, shells filled with
+charcoal instead of powder were supplied, accounts were cooked, and all
+the corruption and malfeasance that were rampant in the army crept back
+into the navy.
+
+
+  War with Japan, 1894.
+
+  European intervention.
+
+The year 1894 witnessed the outbreak of the war with Japan. In the
+spring, complications again arose with Japan over Korea, and hostilities
+began in July. The story of the war is told elsewhere (see
+CHINO-JAPANESE WAR), and it is unnecessary here to recount the details
+of the decisive victory of Japan. A new power had arisen in the Far
+East, and when peace was signed by Li Hung-Chang at Shimonoseki on the
+17th of April 1895 it meant the beginning of a new epoch. The terms
+included the cession of Liao-tung peninsula, then in actual occupation
+by the Japanese troops, the cession of Formosa, an indemnity of H. taels
+200,000,000 (about £30,000,000) and various commercial privileges.
+
+The signature of this treaty brought the European powers on the scene.
+It had been for some time the avowed ambition of Russia to obtain an
+ice-free port as an outlet to her Siberian possessions--an ambition
+which was considered by British statesmen as not unreasonable. It did
+not, therefore, at all suit her purposes to see the rising power of
+Japan commanding the whole of the coast-line of Korea. Accordingly in
+the interval between the signature and the ratification of the treaty,
+invitations were addressed by Russia to the great powers to intervene
+with a view to its modification on the ground of the disturbance of the
+balance of power, and the menace to China which the occupation of Port
+Arthur by the Japanese would involve. France and Germany accepted the
+invitation, Great Britain declined. In the end the three powers brought
+such pressure to bear on Japan that she gave up the whole of her
+continental acquisitions, retaining only the island of Formosa. The
+indemnity was on the other hand increased by H. taels 30,000,000. For
+the time the integrity of China seemed to be preserved, and Russia,
+France and Germany could pose as her friends. Evidence was, however,
+soon forthcoming that Russia and France had not been disinterested in
+rescuing Chinese territory from the Japanese grasp. Russia now obtained
+the right to carry the Siberian railway across Chinese territory from
+Stryetensk to Vladivostok, thus avoiding a long détour, besides giving a
+grasp on northern Manchuria. France obtained, by a convention dated the
+20th of June 1895, a rectification of frontier in the Mekong valley and
+certain railway and mining rights in Kiang-si and Yun-nan. Both powers
+obtained concessions of land at Hankow for the purposes of a settlement.
+Russia was also said to have negotiated a secret treaty, frequently
+described as the "Cassini Convention," but more probably signed by Li
+Hung-Chang at Moscow, giving her the right in certain contingencies to
+Port Arthur, which was to be refortified with Russian assistance. And by
+way of further securing her hold, Russia guaranteed a 4% loan of
+£15,000,000 issued in Paris to enable China to pay off the first
+instalment of the Japanese indemnity.
+
+
+  Mekong valley dispute, 1895.
+
+The convention between France and China of the 20th of June 1895 brought
+China into sharp conflict with Great Britain. China, having by the Burma
+convention of 1886 agreed to recognize British sovereignty over Burma,
+her quondam feudatory, also agreed to a delimitation of boundaries at
+the proper time. Effect was given to this last stipulation by a
+subsequent convention concluded in London (1st of March 1894), which
+traced the boundary line from the Shan states on the west as far as the
+Mekong river on the east. In the Mekong valley there were two
+semi-independent native territories over which suzerainty had been
+claimed in times gone by both by the kings of Ava and by the Chinese
+emperors. These territories were named Meng Lun and Kiang Hung--the
+latter lying partly on one side and partly on the other of the Mekong
+river, south of the point where it issues from Chinese territory. The
+boundary line was so drawn as to leave both these territories to China,
+but it was stipulated that China should not alienate any portion of
+these territories to any other power without the previous consent of
+Great Britain. Yielding to French pressure, and regardless of the
+undertaking she had entered into with Great Britain, China, in the
+convention with France in June 1895, so drew the boundary line as to
+cede to France that portion of the territory of Kiang Hung which lay on
+the left bank of the Mekong. Compensation was demanded by Great Britain
+from China for this breach of faith, and at the same time negotiations
+were entered into with France. These resulted in a joint declaration by
+the governments of France and Great Britain, dated the 15th of January
+1896, by which it was agreed as regards boundary that the Mekong from
+the point of its confluence with the Nam Huk northwards as far as the
+Chinese frontier should be the dividing line between the possessions or
+spheres of influence of the two powers. It was also agreed that any
+commercial privileges obtained by either power in Yun-nan or Sze-ch'uen
+should be open to the subjects of the other. The negotiations with China
+resulted in a further agreement, dated the 4th of February 1897, whereby
+considerable modifications in favour of Great Britain were made in the
+Burma boundary drawn by the 1894 convention.
+
+
+  Kiaochow, Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei.
+
+While Russia and France were profiting by what they were pleased to call
+the generosity of China, Germany alone had so far received no reward for
+her share in compelling the retrocession of Liao-tung; but, in November
+1897, she proceeded to help herself by seizing the Bay of Kiaochow in
+the province of Shan-tung. The act was done ostensibly in order to
+compel satisfaction for the murder of two German missionaries. A cession
+was ultimately made by way of a lease for a term of ninety-nine
+years--Germany to have full territorial jurisdiction during the
+continuance of the lease, with liberty to erect fortifications, build
+docks, and exercise all the rights of sovereignty. In December the
+Russian fleet was sent to winter in Port Arthur, and though this was at
+first described as a temporary measure, its object was speedily
+disclosed by a request made, in January 1898, by the Russian ambassador
+in London that two British cruisers, then also anchored at Port Arthur,
+should be withdrawn "in order to avoid friction in the Russian sphere of
+influence." They left shortly afterwards, and their departure in the
+circumstances was regarded as a blow to Great Britain's prestige in the
+Far East. In March the Russian government peremptorily demanded a lease
+of Port Arthur and the adjoining anchorage of Talienwan--a demand which
+China could not resist without foreign support. After an acrimonious
+correspondence with the Russian government Great Britain acquiesced in
+the _fait accompli_. The Russian occupation of Port Arthur was
+immediately followed by a concession to build a line of railway from
+that point northwards to connect with the Siberian trunk line in north
+Manchuria. As a counterpoise to the growth of Russian influence in the
+north, Great Britain obtained a lease of Wei-hai-wei, and formally took
+possession of it on its evacuation by the Japanese troops in May 1898.
+
+
+  "Open door," and "spheres of influence."
+
+After much hesitation the Chinese government had at last resolved to
+permit the construction of railways with foreign capital. An influential
+official named Sheng Hsuan-hwai was appointed director-general of
+railways, and empowered to enter into negotiations with foreign
+capitalists for that purpose. A keen competition thereupon ensued
+between syndicates of different nationalities, and their claims being
+espoused by their various governments, an equally keen international
+rivalry was set up. Great Britain, though intimating her preference for
+the "open door" policy, meaning equal opportunity for all, yet found
+herself compelled to fall in with the general movement towards what
+became known as the "spheres of influence" policy, and claimed the
+Yangtsze valley as her particular sphere. This she did by the somewhat
+negative method of obtaining from the Chinese government a declaration
+that no part of the Yangtsze valley should be alienated to any foreign
+power. A more formal recognition of the claim, as far as railway
+enterprise was concerned, was embodied in an agreement (28th of April
+1899) between Great Britain and Russia, and communicated to the Chinese
+government, whereby the Russian government agreed not to seek for any
+concessions within the Yangtsze valley, including all the provinces
+bordering on the great river, together with Cheh-kiang and Ho-nan, the
+British government entering into a similar undertaking in regard to the
+Chinese dominions north of the Great Wall.[50]
+
+  In 1899 Talienwan and Kiaochow were respectively thrown open by Russia
+  and Germany to foreign trade, and, encouraged by these measures, the
+  United States government initiated in September of the same year a
+  correspondence with the great European powers and Japan, with a view
+  to securing their definite adhesion to the "open door" policy. The
+  British government gave an unqualified approval to the American
+  proposal, and the replies of the other powers, though more guarded,
+  were accepted at Washington as satisfactory. A further and more
+  definite step towards securing the maintenance of the "open door" in
+  China was the agreement concluded in October 1900 between the British
+  and German governments. The signatories, by the first two articles,
+  agreed to endeavour to keep the ports on the rivers and littoral free
+  and open to international trade and economic activity, and to uphold
+  this rule for all Chinese territory as far as (_wo_ in the German
+  counterpart) they could exercise influence; not to use the existing
+  complications to obtain territorial advantages in Chinese dominions,
+  and to seek to maintain undiminished the territorial condition of the
+  Chinese empire. By a third article they reserved their right to come
+  to a preliminary understanding for the protection of their interests
+  in China, should any other power use those complications to obtain
+  such territorial advantages under any form whatever. On the submission
+  of the agreement to the powers interested, Austria, France, Italy and
+  Japan accepted its principles without express reservation--Japan first
+  obtaining assurances that she signed on the same footing as an
+  original signatory. The United States accepted the first two articles,
+  but expressed no opinion on the third. Russia construed the first as
+  limited to ports actually open in regions where the two signatories
+  exercise "their" influence, and favourably entertained it in that
+  sense, ignoring the reference to other forms of economic activity. She
+  fully accepted the second, and observed that in the contingency
+  contemplated by the third, she would modify her attitude according to
+  circumstances.
+
+  Meanwhile, negotiations carried on by the British minister at Peking
+  during 1898 resulted in the grant of very important privileges to
+  foreign commerce. The payment of the second instalment of the Japanese
+  indemnity was becoming due, and it was much discussed how and on what
+  terms China would be able to raise the amount. The Russian government,
+  as has been stated, had made China a loan of the sum required for the
+  first portion of the indemnity, viz. £15,000,000, taking a charge on
+  the customs revenue as security. The British government was urged to
+  make a like loan of £16,000,000 both as a matter of friendship to
+  China and as a counterpoise to the Russian influence. An arrangement
+  was come to accordingly, on very favourable terms financially to the
+  Chinese, but at the last moment they drew back, being overawed, as
+  they said, by the threatening attitude of Russia. Taking advantage of
+  the position which this refusal gave him, the British minister
+  obtained from the Tsung-Li-Yamen, besides the declaration as to the
+  non-alienation of the Yangtsze valley above mentioned, an undertaking
+  to throw the whole of the inland waterways open to steam traffic. The
+  Chinese government at the same time undertook that the post of
+  inspector-general of customs (then held by Sir Robert Hart) should
+  always be held by an Englishman so long as the trade of Great Britain
+  was greater than that of any other nation. Minor concessions were also
+  made, but the opening of the waterways was by far the greatest advance
+  that had been made since 1860.
+
+  Of still greater importance were the railway and mining concessions
+  granted during the same year (1898). The Chinese government had been
+  generally disposed to railway construction since the conclusion of the
+  Japanese War, but hoped to be able to retain the control in their own
+  hands. The masterful methods of Russia and Germany had obliged them to
+  surrender this control so far as concerned Manchuria and Shan-tung. In
+  the Yangtsze valley, Sheng, the director-general of railways, had been
+  negotiating with several competing syndicates. One of these was a
+  Franco-Belgian syndicate, which was endeavouring to obtain the trunk
+  line from Hankow to Peking. A British company was tendering for the
+  same work, and as the line lay mainly within the British sphere it was
+  considered not unreasonable to expect it should be given to the
+  latter. At a critical moment, however, the French and Russian
+  ministers intervened, and practically forced the Yamen to grant a
+  contract in favour of the Franco-Belgian company. The Yamen had a few
+  days before explicitly promised the British minister that the contract
+  should not be ratified without his having an opportunity of seeing it.
+  As a penalty for this breach of faith, and as a set-off to the
+  Franco-Belgian line, the British minister required the immediate grant
+  of all the railway concessions for which British syndicates were then
+  negotiating, and on terms not inferior to those granted to the Belgian
+  line. In this way all the lines in the lower Yangtsze, as also the
+  Shan-si Mining Companies' lines, were secured. A contract for a trunk
+  line from Canton to Hankow was negotiated in the latter part of 1898
+  by an American company.
+
+
+  The reform movement, 1898
+
+There can be little doubt that the powers, engrossed in the diplomatic
+conflicts of which Peking was the centre, had entirely underrated the
+reactionary forces gradually mustering for a struggle against the
+aggressive spirit of Western civilization. The lamentable consequences
+of administrative corruption and incompetence, and the superiority of
+foreign methods which had been amply illustrated by the Japanese War,
+had at first produced a considerable impression, not only upon the more
+enlightened commercial classes, but even upon many of the younger
+members of the official classes in China. The dowager-empress, who, in
+spite of the emperor Kwang-su having nominally attained his majority,
+had retained practical control of the supreme power until the conflict
+with Japan, had been held, not unjustly, to blame for the disasters of
+the war, and even before its conclusion the young emperor was adjured by
+some of the most responsible among his own subjects to shake himself
+free from the baneful restraint of "petticoat government," and himself
+take the helm. In the following years a reform movement, undoubtedly
+genuine, though opinions differ as to the value of the popular support
+which it claimed, spread throughout the central and southern provinces
+of the empire. One of the most significant symptoms was the relatively
+large demand which suddenly arose for the translations of foreign works
+and similar publications in the Chinese language which philanthropic
+societies, such as that "for the Diffusion of Christian and General
+Knowledge amongst the Chinese," had been trying for some time past to
+popularize, though hitherto with scant success. Chinese newspapers
+published in the treaty ports spread the ferment of new ideas far into
+the interior. Fifteen hundred young men of good family applied to enter
+the foreign university at Peking, and in some of the provincial towns
+the Chinese themselves subscribed towards the opening of foreign
+schools. Reform societies, which not infrequently enjoyed official
+countenance, sprang up in many of the large towns, and found numerous
+adherents amongst the younger _literati_. Early in 1898 the emperor, who
+had gradually emancipated himself from the dowager-empress's control,
+summoned several of the reform leaders to Peking, and requested their
+advice with regard to the progressive measures which should be
+introduced into the government of the empire. Chief amongst these
+reformers was Kang Yu-wei, a Cantonese, whose scholarly attainments,
+combined with novel teachings, earned for him from his followers the
+title of the "Modern Sage." Of his more or less active sympathizers who
+had subsequently to suffer with him in the cause of reform, the most
+prominent were Chang Yin-huan, a member of the grand council and of the
+Tsung-Li-Yamen, who had represented his sovereign at Queen Victoria's
+jubilee in 1897; Chin Pao-chen, governor of Hu-nan; Liang Chichao, the
+editor of the reformers' organ, _Chinese Progress_; Su Chiching, a
+reader of the Hanlin College, the educational stronghold of Chinese
+conservatism; and his son Su In-chi, also a Hanlin man, and provincial
+chancellor of public instruction in Hu-nan.
+
+It soon became evident, that there was no more enthusiastic advocate of
+the new ideas than the emperor himself. Within a few months the
+vermilion pencil gave the imperial sanction to a succession of edicts
+which, had they been carried into effect, would have amounted to a
+revolution as far-reaching as that which had transformed Japan thirty
+years previously. The fossilized system of examinations for the public
+service was to be altogether superseded by a new schedule based on
+foreign learning, for the better promotion of which a number of temples
+were to be converted into schools for Western education; a state
+department was to be created for the translation and dissemination of
+the standard works of Western literature and science; even the scions of
+the ruling Manchu race were to be compelled to study foreign languages
+and travel abroad; and last, but not least, all useless offices both in
+Peking and in the provinces were to be abolished. A further edict was
+even reported to be in contemplation, doing away with the _queue_ or
+pigtail, which, originally imposed upon the Chinese by their Manchu
+conquerors as a badge of subjection, had gradually become the most
+characteristic and most cherished feature of the national dress. But the
+bureaucracy of China, which had battened for centuries on corruption and
+ignorance, had no taste for self-sacrifice. Other vested interests felt
+themselves equally threatened, and behind them stood the whole latent
+force of popular superstition and unreasoning conservatism.
+
+
+  The Empress's coup d'état.
+
+The dowager-empress saw her opportunity. The Summer Palace, to which she
+had retired, had been for some time the centre of resistance to the new
+movement, and in the middle of September 1898 a report became current
+that, in order to put an end to the obstruction which hampered his
+reform policy, the emperor intended to seize the person of the
+dowager-empress and have her deported into the interior. Some colour was
+given to this report by an official announcement that the emperor would
+hold a review of the foreign-drilled troops at Tientsin, and had
+summoned Yuan Shihkai, their general, to Peking in order to confer with
+him on the necessary arrangements. But the reformers had neglected to
+secure the goodwill of the army, which was still entirely in the hands
+of the reactionaries. During the night of the 20th of September the
+palace of the emperor was occupied by the soldiers, and on the following
+day Kwang-su, who was henceforth virtually a prisoner in the hands of
+the empress, was made to issue an edict restoring her regency. Kang
+Yu-wei, warned at the last moment by an urgent message from the emperor,
+succeeded in escaping, but many of the most prominent reformers were
+arrested, and six of them were promptly executed. The _Peking Gazette_
+announced a few days later that the emperor himself was dangerously ill,
+and his life might well have been despaired of had not the British
+minister represented in very emphatic terms the serious consequences
+which might ensue if anything happened to him. Drastic measures were,
+however, adopted to stamp out the reform movement in the provinces as
+well as in the capital. The reform edicts were cancelled, the reformers'
+associations were dissolved, their newspapers suppressed, and those who
+did not care to save themselves by a hasty recantation of their errors
+were imprisoned, proscribed or exiled. In October the reaction had
+already been accompanied by such a recrudescence of anti-foreign feeling
+that the foreign ministers at Peking had to bring up guards from the
+fleet for the protection of the legations, and to demand the removal
+from the capital of the disorderly Kan-suh soldiery which subsequently
+played so sinister a part in the troubles of June 1900. But the
+unpleasant impression produced by these incidents was in a great measure
+removed by the demonstrative reception which the empress Tsz'e Hsi gave
+on the 15th of October to the wives of the foreign representatives--an
+act of courtesy unprecedented in the annals of the Chinese court.
+
+
+  The Boxer movement, 1900.
+
+The reactionary tide continued to rise throughout the year 1899, but it
+did not appear materially to affect the foreign relations of China.
+Towards the end of the year the brutal murder of Mr Brooks, an English
+missionary, in Shan-tung, had compelled attention to a popular movement
+which had been spreading rapidly throughout that province and the
+adjoining one of Chih-li with the connivance of certain high officials,
+if not under their direct patronage. The origin of the "Boxer" movement
+is obscure. Its name is derived from a literal translation of the
+Chinese designation, "the fist of righteous harmony." Like the kindred
+"Big Sword" Society, it appears to have been in the first instance
+merely a secret association of malcontents chiefly drawn from the lower
+classes. Whether the empress Tsz'e Hsi and her Manchu advisers had
+deliberately set themselves from the beginning to avert the danger by
+deflecting what might have been a revolutionary movement into
+anti-foreign channels, or whether with Oriental heedlessness they had
+allowed it to grow until they were powerless to control it, they had
+unquestionably resolved to take it under their protection before the
+foreign representatives at Peking had realized its gravity. The outrages
+upon native Christians and the threats against foreigners generally went
+on increasing. The Boxers openly displayed on their banners the device:
+"Exterminate the foreigners and save the dynasty," yet the
+representatives of the powers were unable to obtain any effective
+measures against the so-called "rebels," or even a definite condemnation
+of their methods.[51]
+
+Four months (January-April 1900) were spent in futile interviews with
+the Tsung-Li-Yamen. In May a number of Christian villages were destroyed
+and native converts massacred near the capital. On the 2nd of June two
+English missionaries, Mr Robinson and Mr Norman, were murdered at Yung
+Ching, 40 m. from Peking. The whole country was overrun with bands of
+Boxers, who tore up the railway and set fire to the stations at
+different points on the Peking-Tientsin line. Fortunately a mixed body
+of marines and bluejackets of various nationalities, numbering 18
+officers and 389 men, had reached Peking on the 1st of June for the
+protection of the legations. The whole city was in a state of turmoil.
+Murder and pillage were of daily occurrence. The reactionary Prince Tuan
+(grandson of the emperor Tao-kwang) and the Manchus generally, together
+with the Kan-suh soldiery under the notorious Tung-fu-hsiang, openly
+sided with the Boxers. The European residents and a large number of
+native converts took refuge in the British legation, where preparations
+were hastily made in view of a threatened attack. On the 11th the
+chancellor of the Japanese legation, Mr Sugiyama, was murdered by
+Chinese soldiers. On the night of the 13th most of the foreign
+buildings, churches and mission houses in the eastern part of the Tatar
+city were pillaged and burnt, and hundreds of native Christians
+massacred. On the 20th of June the German minister, Baron von Ketteler,
+was murdered whilst on his way to the Tsung-Li-Yamen. At 4 P.M. on the
+afternoon of the 20th the Chinese troops opened fire upon the legations.
+The general direction of the defence was undertaken by Sir Claude
+Macdonald, the British minister.
+
+
+  International expedition.
+
+Meanwhile Peking had been completely cut off since the 14th from all
+communication with the outside world, and in view of the gravity of the
+situation, naval and military forces were being hurried up by all the
+powers to the Gulf of Chih-li. On the 10th of June Admiral Sir E.
+Seymour had already left Tientsin with a mixed force of 2000 British,
+Russian, French, Germans, Austrians, Italians, Americans and Japanese,
+to repair the railway and restore communications with Peking. But his
+expedition met with unexpectedly severe resistance, and it had great
+difficulty in making good its retreat after suffering heavy losses. When
+it reached Tientsin again on the 26th of June, the British contingent of
+915 men had alone lost 124 killed and wounded out of a total casualty
+list of 62 killed and 218 wounded. The Chinese had in the meantime made
+a determined attack upon the foreign settlements at Tientsin, and
+communication between the city and the sea being also threatened, the
+Taku forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho were captured by the allied
+admirals on the 17th. The situation at Tientsin nevertheless continued
+precarious, and it was not till the arrival of considerable
+reinforcements that the troops of the allied powers were able to assume
+the offensive, taking the native city by storm on July 14th, at a cost,
+however, of over 700 killed and wounded. Even in this emergency
+international jealousy had grievously delayed the necessary
+concentration of forces. No power was so favourably situated to take
+immediate action as Japan, and the British government, who had strongly
+urged her to act speedily and energetically, undertook at her request to
+sound the other powers with regard to her intervention. No definite
+objection was raised, but the replies of Germany and Russia barely
+disguised their ill-humour. Great Britain herself went so far as to
+offer Japan the assistance of the British treasury, in case financial
+difficulties stood in the way, but on the same day on which this
+proposal was telegraphed to Tokyo (6th of July), the Japanese government
+had decided to embark forthwith the two divisions which it had already
+mobilized. By the beginning of August one of the Indian brigades had
+also reached Tientsin together with smaller reinforcements sent by the
+other powers, and thanks chiefly to the energetic counsels of the
+British commander, General Sir Alfred Gaselee, a relief column,
+numbering 20,000 men, at last set out for Peking on the 4th of August, a
+British naval brigade having started up river the previous afternoon.
+After a series of small engagements and very trying marches it arrived
+within striking distance of Peking on the evening of the 13th. The
+Russians tried to steal a march upon the allies during the night, but
+were checked at the walls and suffered heavy losses. The Japanese
+attacked another point of the walls the next morning, but met with
+fierce opposition, whilst the Americans were delayed by getting
+entangled in the Russian line of advance. The British contingent was
+more fortunate, and skilfully guided to an unguarded water-gate, General
+Gaselee and a party of Sikhs were the first to force their way through
+to the British legation. About 2 p.m. on the afternoon of the 14th of
+August, the long siege was raised.
+
+
+  Siege of the Peking legations.
+
+For nearly six weeks after the first interruption of communications, no
+news reached the outside world from Peking except a few belated
+messages, smuggled through the Chinese lines by native runners, urging
+the imperative necessity of prompt relief. During the greater part of
+that period the foreign quarter was subjected to heavy rifle and
+artillery fire, and the continuous fighting at close quarters with the
+hordes of Chinese regulars, as well as Boxers, decimated the scanty
+ranks of the defenders. The supply of both ammunition and food was
+slender. But the heroism displayed by civilians and professional
+combatants alike was inexhaustible. In their anxiety to burn out the
+British legation, the Chinese did not hesitate to set fire to the
+adjoining buildings of the Hanlin, the ancient seat of Chinese classical
+learning, and the storehouse of priceless literary treasures and state
+archives. The _Fu_, or palace, of Prince Su, separated only by a canal
+from the British legation, formed the centre of the international
+position, and was held with indomitable valour by a small Japanese force
+under Colonel Sheba, assisted by a few Italian marines and volunteers of
+other nationalities and a number of Christian Chinese. The French
+legation on the extreme right, and the section of the city wall held
+chiefly by Germans and Americans, were also points of vital importance
+which had to bear the brunt of the Chinese attack.
+
+  Little is known as to what passed in the councils of the Chinese court
+  during the siege.[52] But there is reason to believe that throughout
+  that period grave divergences of opinion existed amongst the highest
+  officials. The attack upon the legations appears to have received the
+  sanction of the dowager-empress, acting upon the advice of Prince Tuan
+  and the extreme Manchu party, at a grand council held during the night
+  of the 18th/19th June, upon receipt of the news of the capture of the
+  Taku forts by the international forces. The emperor himself, as well
+  as Prince Ching and a few other influential mandarins, strongly
+  protested against the empress's decision, but it was acclaimed by the
+  vast majority of those present. Three members of the Tsung-Li-Yamen
+  were publicly executed for attempting to modify the terms of an
+  imperial edict ordering the massacre of all foreigners throughout the
+  provinces, and most of the Manchu nobles and high officials, and the
+  eunuchs of the palace, who played an important part in Chinese
+  politics throughout the dowager-empress's tenure of power, were heart
+  and soul with the Boxers. But it was noted by the defenders of the
+  legations that Prince Ching's troops seldom took part, or only in a
+  half-hearted way, in the fighting, which was chiefly conducted by
+  Tung-fu-hsiang's soldiery and the Boxer levies. The modern artillery
+  which the Chinese possessed was only spasmodically brought into play.
+  Nor did any of the attacking parties ever show the fearlessness and
+  determination which the Chinese had somewhat unexpectedly displayed on
+  several occasions during the fighting at and around Tientsin.
+  Nevertheless, the position of the defenders at the end of the first
+  four weeks of the siege had grown well-nigh desperate. Mining and
+  incendiarism proved far greater dangers than shot and shell. Suddenly,
+  just when things were looking blackest, on the 17th of July the
+  Chinese ceased firing, and a sort of informal armistice secured a
+  period of respite for the beleaguered Europeans. The capture of the
+  native city of Tientsin by the allied forces had shaken the
+  self-confidence of the Chinese authorities, who had hitherto not only
+  countenanced, but themselves directed the hostilities.[53] Desultory
+  fighting, nevertheless, continued, and grave fears were entertained
+  that the approach of the relief column would prove the signal for a
+  desperate attempt to rush the legations. The attempt was made, but
+  failed. The relief, however, came not a day too soon. Of the small
+  band of defenders which, including civilian volunteers, had never
+  mustered 500, 65 had been killed and 131 wounded. Ammunition and
+  provisions were almost at an end. Even more desperate was the
+  situation at the Pei-tang, the Roman Catholic northern cathedral and
+  mission house, where, with the help of a small body of French and
+  Italian marines, Mgr Favier had organized an independent centre of
+  resistance for his community of over 3000 souls. Their rations were
+  absolutely exhausted when, on the 15th of August, a relief party was
+  despatched to their assistance from the legations.
+
+
+  Looting of Peking.
+
+The ruin wrought in Peking during the two months' fighting was
+appalling. Apart from the wholesale destruction of foreign property in
+the Tatar city, and of Chinese as well as European buildings in the
+vicinity of the legations, the wealthiest part of the Chinese city had
+been laid in ashes. The flames from a foreign drug store fired by the
+Boxers had spread to the adjoining buildings, and finally consumed the
+whole of the business quarter with all its invaluable stores of silks,
+curiosities, furs, &c. The retribution which overtook Peking after its
+capture by the international forces was scarcely less terrible. Looting
+was for some days almost universal. Order was, however, gradually
+restored, first in the Japanese and then in the British and American
+quarters, though several months elapsed before there was any real
+revival of native confidence.
+
+
+  Flight of the Chinese court.
+
+So unexpected had been the rapid and victorious advance of the allies,
+that the dowager-empress with the emperor and the rest of the court did
+not actually leave Peking until the day after the legations had been
+relieved. But the northern and western portions of the Tatar city had
+not yet been occupied, and the fugitives made good their escape on the
+15th. When the allies some days later marched through the Forbidden
+City, they only found a few eunuchs and subordinate officials in charge
+of the imperial apartments. At the end of September, Field Marshal Count
+von Waldersee, with a German expeditionary force of over 20,000 men,
+arrived to assume the supreme command conferred upon him with the more
+or less willing assent of the other powers.
+
+
+  Restoration of order.
+
+The political task which confronted the powers after the occupation of
+Peking was far more arduous than the military one. The action of the
+Russians in Manchuria, even in a treaty port like Niu-chwang, the
+seizure of the railway line not only to the north of the Great Wall, but
+also from Shan-hai-kwan to Peking, by the Russian military authorities,
+and the appropriation of an extensive line of river frontage at Tientsin
+as a Russian "settlement," were difficult to reconcile with the pacific
+assurances of disinterestedness which Russia, like the rest of the
+powers, had officially given. Great anxiety prevailed as to the effect
+of the flight of the Chinese court in other parts of the empire. The
+anti-foreign movement had not spread much beyond the northern provinces,
+in which it had had the open support of the throne and of the highest
+provincial officials. But among British and Americans alone, over 200
+defenceless foreigners, men, women and children, chiefly missionaries,
+had fallen victims to the treachery of high-placed mandarins like Yü
+Hsien, and hundreds of others had had to fly for their lives, many of
+them owing their escape to the courageous protection of petty officials
+and of the local gentry and peasantry. In the Yangtsze valley order had
+been maintained by the energy of the viceroys of Nanking and Wu-chang,
+who had acted throughout the critical period in loyal co-operation with
+the British consuls and naval commanders, and had courageously
+disregarded the imperial edicts issued during the ascendancy of the
+Boxers. After some hesitation, an Indian brigade, followed by French,
+German and Japanese contingents, had been landed at Shanghai for the
+protection of the settlements, and though the viceroy, Liu Kun-yi, had
+welcomed British support, and even invited the joint occupation of the
+Yangtsze forts by British and Chinese troops, the appearance of other
+European forces in the Yangtsze valley was viewed with great suspicion.
+In the south there were serious symptoms of unrest, especially after Li
+Hung-Chang had left Canton for the north, in obedience, as he alleged at
+the time, to an imperial edict which, there is reason to believe, he
+invented for the occasion. The Chinese court, after one or two
+intermediate halts, had retired to Si-gan-fu, one of the ancient
+capitals of the empire, situated in the inaccessible province of
+Shen-si, over 600 m. S.W. of Peking. The influence of the
+ultra-reactionaries, headed by Prince Tuan and General Tung-fu-hsiang,
+still dominated its councils, although credentials were sent to Prince
+Ching and to Li Hung-Chang, who, after waiting upon events at Shanghai,
+had proceeded to Peking, authorizing them to treat with the powers for
+the re-establishment of friendly relations.
+
+
+  Measures of reparation.
+
+The harmony of the powers, which had been maintained with some
+difficulty up to the relief of the legations, was subjected to a severe
+strain as soon as the basis of negotiations with the Chinese government
+came to be discussed. While for various reasons Russia, Japan and the
+United States were inclined to treat China with great indulgence,
+Germany insisted upon the signal punishment of the guilty officials as a
+_conditio sine qua non_, and in this she had the support not only of the
+other members of the Triple Alliance, but also of Great Britain, and to
+some extent even of France, who, as protector of the Roman Catholic
+Church in Eastern countries, could not allow the authors of the
+atrocities committed upon its followers to escape effectual punishment.
+It was not until after months of laborious negotiations that the demands
+to be formally made upon the Chinese government were embodied in a joint
+note signed by all the foreign ministers on the 20th and 21st of
+December 1900. The demands were substantially as follows:
+
+  Honourable reparation for the murder of von Ketteler and of Mr
+  Sugiyama, to be made in a specified form, and expiatory monuments to
+  be erected in cemeteries where foreign tombs had been desecrated. "The
+  most severe punishment befitting their crimes" was to be inflicted on
+  the personages designated by the decree of the 21st of September, and
+  also upon others to be designated later by the foreign ministers, and
+  the official examinations were to be suspended in the cities where
+  foreigners had been murdered or ill-treated. An equitable indemnity,
+  guaranteed by financial measures acceptable to the powers, was to be
+  paid to states, societies and individuals, including Chinese who had
+  suffered because of their employment by foreigners, but not including
+  Chinese Christians who had suffered only on account of their faith.
+  The importation or manufacture of arms or _matériel_ was to be
+  forbidden; permanent legation guards were to be maintained at Peking,
+  and the diplomatic quarter was to be fortified, while communication
+  with the sea was to be secured by a foreign military occupation of the
+  strategic points and by the demolition of the Chinese forts, including
+  the Taku forts, between the capital and the coast. Proclamations were
+  to be posted throughout China for two years, threatening death to the
+  members of anti-foreign societies, and recording the punishment of the
+  ringleaders in the late outrages: and the viceroys, governors and
+  provincial officials were to be declared by imperial edict
+  responsible, on pain of immediate dismissal and perpetual disability
+  to hold office, for anti-foreign outbreaks or violations of treaty
+  within their jurisdictions. China was to facilitate commercial
+  relations by negotiating a revision of the commercial treaties. The
+  Tsung-Li-Yamen was to be reformed and the ceremonial for the reception
+  of foreign ministers modified as the powers should demand. Compliance
+  with these terms was declared to be a condition precedent to the
+  arrangement of a time limit to the occupation of Peking and of the
+  provinces by foreign troops.
+
+Under instructions from the court, the Chinese plenipotentiaries affixed
+their signatures on the 14th of January 1901 to a protocol, by which
+China pledged herself to accept these terms in principle, and the
+conference of ministers then proceeded to discuss the definite form in
+which compliance with them was to be exacted. This further stage of the
+negotiations proved even more laborious and protracted than the
+preliminary proceedings. No attempt was made to raise the question of
+the dowager-empress's responsibility for the anti-foreign movement, as
+Russia had from the first set her face against the introduction of what
+she euphemistically termed "the dynastic question." But even with regard
+to the punishment of officials whose guilt was beyond dispute, grave
+divergences arose between the powers. The death penalty was ultimately
+waived in the case even of such conspicuous offenders as Prince Tuan and
+Tung-fu-hsiang, but the notorious Yü Hsien and two others were
+decapitated by the Chinese, and three other metropolitan officials were
+ordered to commit suicide, whilst upon others sentences of banishment,
+imprisonment and degradation were passed, in accordance with a list
+drawn up by the foreign representatives. The question of the punishment
+of provincial officials responsible for the massacre of scores of
+defenceless men, women and children was unfortunately reserved for
+separate treatment, and when it came up for discussion it became
+impossible to preserve even the semblance of unanimity, the Russian
+minister at once taking issue with his colleagues, although he had
+originally pledged himself as formally as the others to the principle.
+Count Lamsdorff frankly told the British ambassador at St Petersburg
+that Russia took no interest in missionaries, and as the foreigners
+massacred in the provinces belonged mostly to that class, she declined
+to join in the action of the other powers.
+
+
+  Russia and Manchuria.
+
+The real explanation of Russia's cynical secession from the concert of
+powers on this important issue must be sought in her anxiety to
+conciliate the Chinese in view of the separate negotiations in which she
+was at the same time engaged with China in respect of Manchuria. When
+the Boxer movement was at its height at the end of June 1900, the
+Chinese authorities in Manchuria had wantonly "declared war" against
+Russia, and for a moment a great wave of panic seems to have swept over
+the Russian administration, civil and military, in the adjoining
+provinces. The reprisals exercised by the Russians were proportionately
+fierce. The massacre at Blagovyeshchensk, where 5000 Chinese--men, women
+and children--were flung into the Amur by the Cossacks, was only one
+incident in the reign of terror by which the Russians sought to restore
+their power and their prestige. The resistance of the Chinese troops was
+soon overcome, and Russian forces overran the whole province, occupying
+even the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The Russian government officially
+repudiated all responsibility for the proclamations issued by General
+Gribsky and others, foreshadowing, if not actually proclaiming, the
+annexation of Chinese territory to the Russian empire. But Russia was
+clearly bent on seizing the opportunity for securing a permanent hold
+upon Manchuria. In December 1900 a preliminary agreement was made
+between M. Korostovetz, the Russian administrator-general, and Tseng,
+the Tatar general at Mukden, by which the civil and military
+administration of the whole province was virtually placed under Russian
+control. In February 1901 negotiations were opened between the Russian
+government and the Chinese minister at St Petersburg for the conclusion
+of a formal convention of a still more comprehensive character. In
+return for the restoration to China of a certain measure of civil
+authority in Manchuria, Russia was to be confirmed in the possession of
+exclusive military, civil and commercial rights, constituting in all but
+name a protectorate, and she was also to acquire preferential rights
+over all the outlying provinces of the Chinese empire bordering on the
+Russian dominions in Asia. The clauses relating to Chinese Turkestan,
+Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Mongolia were subsequently stated to have
+been dropped, but the convention nevertheless provoked considerable
+opposition both in foreign countries and amongst the Chinese themselves.
+Most of the powers, including Germany, who, however, denied that the
+Anglo-German agreement of the 16th of October 1900 applied to
+Manchuria,[54] advised the Chinese government not to pursue separate
+negotiations with one power whilst collective negotiations were in
+progress at Peking, and both Japan and Great Britain pressed for
+definite information at St Petersburg with regard to the precise tenor
+of the proposed convention. At the same time the two viceroys of the
+lower Yangtsze memorialized the throne in the strongest terms against
+the convention, and these protests were endorsed not only by the great
+majority of Chinese officials of high rank throughout the provinces, but
+by popular meetings and influential guilds and associations. Ultimately
+the two viceroys, Chang Chih-tung and Liu Kun-yi,[55] took the extreme
+step of warning the throne that they would be unable to recognize the
+convention, even if it were ratified, and notwithstanding the pressure
+exercised in favour of Russia by Li Hung-Chang, the court finally
+instructed the Chinese minister at St Petersburg to decline his
+signature. The attitude of Japan, where public feeling ran high, was
+equally significant, and on the 3rd of April the Russian government
+issued a circular note to the powers, stating that, as the generous
+intentions of Russia had been misconstrued, she withdrew the proposed
+convention.
+
+
+  The peace protocol, 1901.
+
+The work of the conference at Peking, which had been temporarily
+disturbed by these complications, was then resumed. Friction between
+European troops of different nationalities and an Anglo-Russian dispute
+over the construction of certain roads and railway sidings at Tientsin
+showed that an international occupation was fraught with manifold
+dangers. The question of indemnities, however, gave rise to renewed
+friction. Each power drew up its own claim, and whilst Great Britain,
+the United States and Japan displayed great moderation, other powers,
+especially Germany and Italy, put in claims which were strangely out of
+proportion to the services rendered by their military and naval forces.
+It was at last settled that China should pay altogether an indemnity of
+450 million taels, to be secured (1) on the unhypothecated balance of
+the customs revenue administered by the imperial maritime customs, the
+import duties being raised forthwith to an effective 5% basis; (2) on
+the revenues of the "native" customs in the treaty ports; (3) on the
+total revenues of the salt gabelle. Finally the peace protocol was drawn
+up in a form which satisfied all the powers as well as the Chinese
+court. The formal signature was, however, delayed at the last moment by
+a fresh difficulty concerning Prince Chun's penitential mission to
+Berlin. This prince, an amiable and enlightened youth,[56] son of the
+Prince Chun who was the emperor Hien-fêng's brother, and thus himself
+half-brother to the emperor Kwang-su, had reached Basel towards the end
+of August on his way to Germany, when he was suddenly informed that he
+and his suite would be expected to perform _kowtow_ before the German
+emperor. The prince resented this unexpected demand, and referred home
+for instructions. The Chinese court appear to have remained obdurate,
+and the German government perceived the mistake that had been made in
+exacting from the Chinese prince a form of homage which Western
+diplomacy had for more than a century refused to yield to the Son of
+Heaven, on the ground that it was barbarous and degrading. The point was
+waived, and Prince Chun was received in solemn audience by the emperor
+William at Potsdam on the 4th of September. Three days later, on the 7th
+of September, the peace protocol was signed at Peking.
+
+The articles recorded the steps to be taken to satisfy the demands of
+the powers as to commerce. Article 11 provided for the amendment of
+existing treaties of commerce and navigation, and for river conservancy
+measures at Tientsin and Shanghai. The British government appointed a
+special commission, with Sir J. Mackay, member of the council of India,
+as chief commissioner, to proceed to Shanghai to carry on the
+negotiations, and a commercial treaty was signed at Shanghai on the 6th
+of September 1902, by which existing obstacles to foreign trade, such as
+_likin_, &c., were removed, regulations were made for facilitating
+steamer navigation on inland waters, and several new ports were opened
+to foreign commerce.
+
+In accordance with the terms of the protocol, all the foreign troops,
+except the legation guards, were withdrawn from Peking on the 17th of
+September, and from the rest of Chih-li, except the garrisons at the
+different points specified along the line of communications, by the 22nd
+of September. On the 7th of October it was announced that the Chinese
+court had left Si-gan-fu on its way back to the northern capital. A
+month later (7th of November) the death of Li Hung-Chang at Peking
+removed, if not the greatest of Chinese statesmen, at any rate the one
+who had enjoyed the largest share of the empress-dowager's confidence.
+    (V. C.)
+
+
+(E)--_From 1901 to 1910._
+
+  "Awakening of China."
+
+The events connected with the Boxer rising and its suppression
+demonstrated even more forcibly than had the war with Japan in 1894-1895
+the necessity for the adoption of Western methods in many departments
+of life and administration if China was to maintain the position of a
+great power. The necessity for a thorough reform of the administration
+was widely recognized in 1901, and among the progressive classes of the
+community much disappointment was manifested because the powers had
+failed to insist, in the conditions of peace, on a reorganization of the
+machinery of government. The Yangtsze viceroys, the viceroy at Canton,
+Yuan Shih-kai and other high mandarins repeatedly memorialized the
+throne to grant effective reforms. While at Si-gan-fu the court did in
+fact issue several reform decrees, but at the same time all authority
+remained in the hands of reactionaries. There had been an awakening in
+China, but another lesson--afforded a few years later by the
+Russo-Japanese War--was needed before the reform party was able to gain
+real power.
+
+For three or four years following the signing of the peace protocol of
+1901 it seemed indeed that there would be little change in the system of
+government, though in some directions a return to the old state of
+affairs was neither possible nor desired. On the 7th of January 1902 the
+court returned to Peking--a step which marked the restoration, more or
+less, of normal conditions. The failure of the Boxer movement, in which,
+as has been shown, she was deeply implicated, had impressed upon the
+dowager empress the need for living on better terms with foreign powers,
+but the reform edicts issued from Si-gan-fu remained largely
+inoperative, though some steps were taken to promote education on
+Western lines, to readjust the land tax, and especially to reorganize
+the military forces (though on provincial rather than on a national
+basis). The building of railways was also pushed on, but the dowager
+empress was probably at heart as reactionary as she had proved in 1898.
+The emperor himself from his return to Peking until the day of his death
+appeared to have little influence on public affairs. The most
+disquieting feature of the situation in the years immediately following
+the return of the court to Peking was the continued efforts of Russia to
+obtain full control of Manchuria and a predominant influence in north
+China. The Chinese government was powerless to stem the advance of
+Russia, and the dowager empress herself was credited with indifference
+to the fate of Manchuria. It was the menace to other powers, notably
+Japan, involved in Russia's action which precipitated an issue in which
+the destinies of China were involved. Before considering the results of
+that struggle (the Russo-Japanese War) the chief events of the years
+1902-1905 may be outlined.
+
+
+  Relations with Europeans.
+
+The dowager empress from the day of her return from Si-gan-fu set
+herself to conciliate the foreign residents in Peking. Many foreign
+onlookers were gathered on the wall of the Tatar city to witness the
+return of the court, and to these the dowager empress made a deep bow
+twice, an apparently trivial incident which made a lasting impression.
+On the 1st of February following the dowager empress received the ladies
+of the various embassies, when she bewailed the attack on the legations,
+entertained her guests to tea and presented each with articles of
+jewelry, and from that time onward, as occasion offered, Tsz'e Hsi
+exchanged compliments and civilities with the foreign ladies in Peking.
+Moreover, Sir Robert Hart--after having been nearly forty years in
+China--was now presented at court, as well as Bishop Favier and others.
+Henceforth attacks on foreigners received no direct encouragement at
+court. Tung Fu-hsiang,[57] who had been banished to the remote province
+of Kan-suh, had at his command there his old Boxer troops, and his
+attitude caused anxiety at the end of 1902. He was said to have received
+support from Prince Tuan--who had been obliged to retire to
+Mongolia--but events proved that the power or the intention of these
+reactionaries to create trouble had been miscalculated. There were
+indeed serious Boxer disturbances in Sze-ch'uen in 1902, but they were
+put down by a new viceroy sent from Peking. Notwithstanding the murder
+of fifteen missionaries during 1902-1905, there was in general a marked
+improvement in the relations between the missionaries, the official
+classes and the bulk of the people, and an eagerness was shown in
+several provinces to take advantage of their educational work. This was
+specially marked in Hu-nan, a province which had been for long hostile
+to missionary endeavours. Illustrative of the attitude of numbers of
+high officials was the attendance of the viceroy of Sze-ch'uen, with the
+whole of his staff, at the opening in 1905 at Cheng-tu of new buildings
+of the Canadian Methodist Mission. This friendly attitude towards the
+missions was due in part to the influence of Chinese educated abroad and
+also, to a large extent, to the desire to take advantage of Western
+culture. The spread of this new spirit was coincident with an agitation
+for independence of foreign control and the determination of the Chinese
+to use modern methods to attain their ends. Thus in 1905 there was an
+extensive boycott of American goods throughout China, as a retaliatory
+measure for the exclusion of Chinese from the United States. Regarding
+China as a whole the attitude of the people towards Europeans was held
+to indicate that the general view was, not that the Boxer teaching was
+false, but that the spirits behind Western religion were more powerful
+than those behind Boxer-dom. The spiritual prestige of Christianity and
+respect for the power of the foreigner were direct outcomes of the
+failure of the Boxers.[58] The British expedition to Tibet in 1904, the
+occupation of Lhassa in August of that year, the flight of the Dalai
+Lama to Mongolia, gave grave concern to the Chinese government--which
+showed much persistence in enforcing its suzerain rights in Tibet--but
+did not, apparently, cause any ill-feeling towards Great Britain among
+the Chinese people--who viewed with seeming equanimity the flight of the
+head of the Buddhist religion from the headquarters of that faith. The
+country generally was peaceful, a rebellion in Kwang-si--where a
+terrible famine occurred in 1903--being suppressed in 1904 by the forces
+of the viceroy at Canton.
+
+
+  Commercial and railway progress.
+
+The expiatory measures required of China in connexion with the Boxer
+rising were carried through. China during 1902 recovered possession of
+the Peking-Tientsin railway and of the city of Tientsin, which was
+evacuated by the foreign troops in August of that year. The foreign
+troops were also all withdrawn from Shanghai by January 1903. The
+conclusion of a new commercial treaty between Great Britain and China in
+September 1902 has already been recorded. The payment of the indemnity
+instalments occasioned some dispute owing to the fall in silver in 1902,
+but the rise in the value of the tael in subsequent years led China to
+agree to the payment of the indemnity on a gold basis. The increase in
+revenue was a notable feature of the maritime customs in 1903-1905. This
+result was in part due to the new arrangements under the commercial
+treaty of 1902, and in part to the opening up of the country by
+railways. In especial the great trunk line from Peking to Hankow was
+pushed on. The line, including a bridge nearly 2 m. long over the Yellow
+river was completed and opened for traffic in 1905. The first section of
+the Shanghai-Nanking railway was opened in the same year. At this time
+the Chinese showed a strong desire to obtain the control of the various
+lines. During 1905, for instance, the Canton-Hankow railway concession
+was repurchased by the Chinese government from an American company,
+while the Pekin Syndicate, a British concern, also sold their railway in
+Ho-nan to the Chinese government.
+
+
+  Manchuria.
+
+Russia's action regarding Manchuria overshadowed, however, all other
+concerns during this period. The withdrawal of the proposed
+Russo-Chinese agreement of 1901 has been chronicled. The Russian
+government had, however, no intention of abandoning its hold on
+Manchuria. It aimed not only at effective military control but the
+reservation to Russian subjects of mining, railway and commercial
+rights. Both the sovereignty of China and the commercial interests of
+other nations were menaced. This led to action by various powers. The
+preamble of the Anglo-Japanese treaty of the 30th of January 1902
+declared the main motives of the contracting parties to be the
+maintenance of the independence and territorial integrity of China and
+Korea, and the securing of equal opportunities in those countries for
+the commerce and industry of all nations, i.e. the policy of the "open
+door." Protests were lodged by Great Britain, Japan and the United
+States against the grant of exclusive rights to Russian subjects in
+Manchuria. Russia asserted her intention to respect the commercial
+rights of other nations, and on the 8th of April 1902 an agreement was
+signed at Peking which appeared to show the good faith of the Russian
+government, as it provided for the withdrawal of the Russian troops in
+Manchuria within eighteen months from that date. In accordance with this
+agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang railway was transferred to China
+in October 1902 and the district between Shan-hai-kwan and the Liao
+river evacuated by Russia. But it soon appeared that Russia's hold on
+the country had not relaxed. Advantage was taken of the terms of
+concession granted in August 1896 to the Russo-Chinese Bank[59] to erect
+towns for Russian colonists and to plant garrisons along the line of
+railway, and to exclude Chinese jurisdiction altogether from the railway
+zone. The so-called evacuation became in fact the concentration of the
+Russian forces along the line of railway. Moreover, the maritime customs
+at Niu-chwang were retained by the Russo-Chinese Bank despite protests
+from the Chinese imperial authorities, and a Russian civil
+administration was established at that port. The evacuation of southern
+Manchuria should have taken place in April 1903, but in that month,
+instead of fulfilling the conditions of the 1902 agreement, the Russian
+chargé d'affaires in Peking made a series of further demands upon China,
+including the virtual reservation of the commerce of Manchuria for
+Russian subjects. Though Russia officially denied to the British and
+American governments that she had made these demands, it was
+demonstrated that they had been made. The United States and Japan
+thereupon insisted that China should conclude with them commercial
+treaties throwing open Mukden and two ports on the Yalu river to foreign
+trade. The American treaty was signed on the 8th of October 1903--the
+day fixed for the complete evacuation of Manchuria by Russia--and the
+Japanese treaty on the day following. Both treaties provided that the
+ports should be opened after ratifications had been exchanged. From fear
+of Russia China, however, delayed the ratification of the treaties.
+Meantime, in August 1903, a regular through railway service between
+Moscow and Port Arthur was established. In the same month a Russian
+Viceroyalty of the Far East was created which in effect claimed
+Manchuria as a Russian province. In September Russia withdrew some of
+the demands she had made in April, but her concessions proved illusory.
+When the 8th of October passed and it was seen that the Russians had not
+withdrawn their troops[60] there issued for a time threats of war from
+Peking. Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, who had at his command
+some 65,000 troops trained by Japanese officers, pressed on the
+government the necessity of action. At this point Japan intervened. Her
+interests were vitally affected by Russia's action not only in
+Manchuria, but in Korea, and seeing that China was powerless the
+Japanese government negotiated directly with St Petersburg. In these
+negotiations Russia showed that she would not yield her position in
+either country except to force. Japan chose the issue of war and proved
+successful.
+
+
+  Lessons of the Russo-Japanese War.
+
+The Russo-Japanese War did not very greatly alter China's position in
+Manchuria. In the southern part of that country Japan succeeded to the
+special privileges Russia had wrung from China (including the lease of
+Port Arthur); in the north Russia remained in possession of the railway
+zone. For Japan's position as at once the legatee of special privileges
+and the champion of China's territorial integrity and "the open door"
+see JAPAN, § _History_. However, the attitude of Japan was more
+conciliatory than that of Russia had been; Mukden and other places were
+thrown open to foreign trade and Chinese civil administration was
+re-established. The important results of the war, so far as China was
+concerned, were not to be looked for in Manchuria, but in the new spirit
+generated in the Chinese. They had been deeply humiliated by the fact
+that in the struggle between Russia and Japan China had been treated as
+a negligible quantity, and that the war had been fought on Chinese
+territory. The lesson which the loot of Peking and the fall of the
+Boxers in 1900 had half taught was now thoroughly mastered; the
+awakening of China was complete. The war had shown that when an Eastern
+race adopted Western methods it was capable of defeating a European
+nation.
+
+
+  Army reform.
+
+It was fortunate that among the influential advisers of the throne at
+this time (1905-1908) were Prince Chun (the prince who had visited
+Germany in 1901), Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, and Chang
+Chih-tung, the viceroy of Hu-kwang (i.e. the provinces of Hu-peh and
+Hu-nan), all men of enlightened and strong character. In 1907 both the
+viceroys named were summoned to Peking and made members of the grand
+council, of which Prince Ching, a man of moderate views, was president.
+Yuan Shih-kai was an open advocate of a reform of the civil service, of
+the abolition of Manchu privileges, of education and other matters. He
+had specially advocated the reconstitution of the military forces of the
+empire, and in Chih-li in 1905 he demonstrated before a number of
+foreign military attachés the high efficiency attained by the forces of
+the metropolitan province. The success achieved by Yuan Shih-kai in this
+direction incited Chang Chih-tung to follow his example, while a decree
+from the throne called upon the princes and nobles of China to give
+their sons a military education. The formerly despised military
+profession was thus made honourable, and with salutary effects. The
+imperial princes sought high commands, officers were awarded ranks and
+dignities comparable with those of civil servants, and the pay of the
+troops was increased. The new foreign drilled northern army was called
+upon to furnish a large proportion of a force sent under Prince Su into
+Mongolia--a country which had been on the point of falling into the
+hands of Russia, but over which, as one result of the Russo-Japanese
+War, China recovered control. In 1906 a step was taken towards the
+formation of a national army by withdrawing portions of the troops from
+provincial control and placing them under officers responsible to the
+central government, which also took over the charge of the provincial
+arsenals. In the years which followed further evidence was given of the
+earnestness and success with which the military forces were being
+reorganized. Less attention was given to naval affairs, but in the
+autumn of 1909 a naval commission under Tsai Hsün, a brother of the
+emperor Kwang-su, was sent to Europe to report on the steps necessary
+for the re-establishment of a fleet. Previously (in 1907) societies had
+been started in several provinces to collect funds for naval purposes.
+
+
+  A parliamentary constitution promised.
+
+The most striking evidence of the change which had occurred was,
+however, the appointment (in 1905) of an Imperial Commission, headed by
+Prince Tsai Tse, to study the administrative systems of foreign
+countries with a view to the possible establishment of a representative
+government in China. The revolutionary nature of this proposal excited
+indignation among the adherents to the old order, and a bomb was thrown
+among the commissioners as they were preparing to leave Peking.[61]
+After visiting Japan, America and Europe the commission returned to
+Peking in July 1906.[62] A committee over which Prince Ching presided
+was appointed to study the commission's report, and on the 1st of
+September following an edict was issued in which the establishment of a
+parliamentary form of government was announced, at a date not fixed. To
+fit the country for this new form of government (the edict went on to
+declare) the administration must be reformed, the laws revised,
+education promoted and the finances regulated. This edict, moreover, was
+but one of many edicts issued in 1906 and following years which showed
+how great a break with the past was contemplated. In November 1906 two
+edicts were issued with the object of reorganizing the central
+administrative offices. Their effect was to simplify the conduct of
+business, many useless posts being abolished, while an audit board was
+created to examine the national accounts. In November 1907 another edict
+was promulgated stating that for the present the formation of Houses of
+Lords and of Commons to determine all public questions was not
+practicable, but that it was proposed, as a preliminary measure, to
+create an Imperial Assembly. At the same time a scheme of provincial
+councils was ordered to be prepared. A more definite step followed in
+1908 when a decree (dated the 27th of August) announced the convocation
+of a parliament in the ninth year from that date.
+
+
+  The control of the Maritime Customs.
+
+One of the changes made in the public offices brought China into
+conflict with Great Britain. On the 9th of May 1906 a decree appointed
+Chinese commissioners to control the Imperial Maritime Customs.[63] This
+was the only department of the government under European (British)
+control, and the only department also against which no charge of
+inefficiency or corruption could be brought. The change decreed by China
+was in accord with the new national sentiment, but by all the foreign
+powers interested it was felt that it would be a retrograde step if the
+customs were taken out of the control of Sir Robert Hart (q.v.), who had
+been since 1863 inspector-general of the customs. The British secretary
+of state for foreign affairs (Sir Edward Grey) at once protested against
+the decree of the 6th of May, pointing out that the continuation of the
+established system had been stipulated for in the loan agreements of
+1896 and 1898. As a result of this and other representations the Board
+of Control of the Customs was late in 1906 made a department of the
+Board of Finance. The Chinese controllers-general continued in office,
+and despite the assurances given to Great Britain by China (in a note of
+the 6th of June 1906) that the appointment of the controllers-general
+was not intended to interfere with the established system of
+administration, the absolute authority of Sir Robert Hart was
+weakened.[64] Sir Robert Hart returned to England in 1908 "on leave of
+absence," Sir Robert Bredon, the deputy inspector-general, being placed
+in charge of the service under the authority of the Board of Control, of
+which on the 5th of April 1910 it was announced that he had been
+appointed a member. This step was viewed with disfavour by the British
+government, for, unless Sir Robert Bredon's post was to be merely a
+sinecure, it imposed two masters on the maritime customs. On the 20th of
+April Sir Robert Bredon severed his connexion with the Board of Control.
+At the same time Mr F.A. Aglen (the Commissioner of Customs at Hankow)
+became acting Inspector General (Sir Robert Hart being still nominally
+head of the service). The attempt on the part of the Chinese to control
+the customs was evidence of the strength of the "young China" or
+Recovery of Rights party--the party which aspired to break all the
+chains, such as extra-territoriality, which stamped the country as not
+the equal of the other great nations.[65]
+
+
+  The anti-opium agitation.
+
+In the steps taken to suppress opium smoking evidence was forthcoming of
+the earnestness with which the governing body in China sought to better
+the condition of the people. Opium smoking followed, in China, the
+introduction of tobacco smoking, and is stated to have been introduced
+from Java and Formosa in the early part of the 17th century. The first
+edict against the habit was issued in 1729. At that time the only
+foreign opium introduced was by the Portuguese from Goa, who exported
+about 200 chests[66] a year. In 1773 English merchants in India entered
+into the trade, which in 1781 was taken over by the East India
+Company--the import in 1790 being over 4000 chests. In 1796 the
+importation of foreign opium was declared contraband, and between 1839
+and 1860 the central government attempted, without success, to suppress
+the trade. It was legalized in 1858 after the second "opium war" with
+Great Britain. At that time the poppy was extensively grown in China,
+and the bulk of the opium smoked was, and continued to be, of home
+manufacture. But after 1860 the importation of opium from India greatly
+increased. Opium was also imported from Persia (chiefly to Formosa,
+which in 1895 passed into the possession of Japan). The total foreign
+import in 1863 was some 70,000 piculs,[67] in 1879 it was 102,000
+piculs, but in 1905 had fallen to 56,000 piculs. The number of opium
+smokers in China in the early years of the 20th century was estimated at
+from 25 to 30 millions. The evil effects of opium smoking were fully
+recognized, and Chang Chih-tung, one of the most powerful of the
+opponents of the habit, was high in the councils of the dowager-empress.
+On the 20th of September 1906 an edict was issued directing that the
+growth, sale and consumption of opium should cease in China within ten
+years, and ordering the officials to take measures to execute the
+imperial will. The measures promulgated, in November following, made the
+following provisions:--
+
+  (1) The cultivation of the poppy to be restricted annually by
+  one-tenth of its existing area; (2) all persons using opium to be
+  registered; (3) all shops selling opium to be gradually closed, and
+  all places where opium is smoked to discontinue the practice within
+  six months; (4) anti-opium societies to be officially encouraged, and
+  medicines distributed to cure the opium-smoking habit; (5) all
+  officials were requested to set an example to the people, and all
+  officials under sixty were required to abandon opium smoking within
+  six months or to withdraw from the service of the state.
+
+It was estimated that the suppression of opium smoking would entail a
+yearly loss of revenue of over £1,600,000, a loss about equally divided
+between the central and provincial governments. The first step taken to
+enforce the edict was the closing of the opium dens in Peking on the
+last day of 1906.
+
+  During 1907 the opium dens in Shanghai, Canton, Fu-chow and many other
+  large cities were closed, and restrictions on the issue of licences
+  were introduced in the foreign settlements; even the eunuchs of the
+  palace were prohibited from smoking opium under severe penalties. The
+  central government continued during 1908 and 1909 to display
+  considerable energy in the suppression of the use of opium, but the
+  provincial authorities were not all equally energetic. It was noted in
+  1908 that while in some provinces--even in Yun-nan, where its
+  importance tc trade and commerce and its use as currency seemed to
+  render it very difficult to do anything effective--the governor and
+  officials were whole-hearted in carrying out the imperial regulations,
+  in other provinces--notably in Kwei-chow and in the provinces of the
+  lower Yangtsze valley--great supineness was exhibited in dealing with
+  the subject. Lord William Cecil, however, stated that travelling in
+  1909 between Peking and Hankow, through country which in 1907 he had
+  seen covered with the poppy, he could not then see a single poppy
+  flower, and that going up the Yangtsze he found only one small patch
+  of poppy cultivation.[68] The Peking correspondent of _The Times_, in
+  a journey to Turkestan in the early part of 1910, found that in
+  Shen-si province the people's desire to suppress the opium trade was
+  in advance of the views of the government. Every day trains of opium
+  carts were passed travelling under official protection. But in the
+  adjoining province of Shan-si there had been complete suppression of
+  poppy cultivation and in Kan-suh the officials were conducting a very
+  vigorous campaign against the growth of the poppy.[69]
+
+  In their endeavours to suppress opium smoking the Chinese government
+  appealed to the Indian government for help, and in 1907 received a
+  promise that India would decrease the production of opium annually by
+  one-tenth for four years and subsequently if China did likewise. The
+  Indian government also assented to Indian opium being taxed equally
+  with Chinese opium, but China did not raise the duty on foreign opium.
+  In 1908 the Indian government undertook to reduce the amount of opium
+  exported by 5100 chests yearly. In the same year the opium dens in
+  Hong-Kong were closed. In February 1909, on the initiative of the
+  United States, an international conference was held at Shanghai to
+  consider the opium trade and habit. At this conference the Chinese
+  representative claimed that the consumption of opium had already been
+  reduced by one-half--a claim not borne out by the ascertained facts.
+  The conference was unable to suggest any heroic measures, but a number
+  of proposals were agreed to (including the closing of opium dens in
+  the foreign settlements), tending to the restriction of the opium
+  trade. The conference also dealt with another and growing habit in
+  China--the use of morphia.[70] Japan agreed to prohibit the export of
+  morphia to China, a prohibition to which the other powers had
+  previously agreed.
+
+
+  Education.
+
+The attempts to reform the educational system of China on a
+comprehensive scale date from the year of the return of the court to
+Peking after the Boxer troubles. In 1902 regulations were sanctioned by
+the emperor which aimed at remodelling the methods of public
+instruction. These regulations provided among other things for the
+establishment at Peking of a university giving instruction in Western
+learning, a technical college, and a special department for training
+officials and teachers. A much more revolutionary step was taken in
+September 1905 when a decree appeared announcing as from the beginning
+of 1906 the abolition of the existing method of examinations. The new
+system was to include the study of modern sciences, history, geography
+and foreign languages, and in the higher grades political economy and
+civil and international law. Thousands of temples were converted to
+educational purposes. In Canton, in 1907, the old examination hall was
+demolished to make way for a college with every appliance on Western
+lines. Equal zeal was noticeable in such conservative cities as
+Si-gan-fu, and in remote provinces like Kan-suh. By May 1906 fifteen
+so-called universities had been founded. Moreover, many young Chinese
+went abroad to acquire education--in Japan alone in 1906 there were
+13,000 students. In the same year primary schools for girls were
+established.[71] Perhaps the most striking evidence of the new spirit
+regarding education was the tenour of a communication to the throne from
+the head of the Confucian family. On the 31st of December 1906 an
+imperial edict had appeared raising Confucius to the same rank as Heaven
+and Earth--an action taken to indicate the desire of the government to
+emphasize the value of ethical training. In thanking the throne for the
+honour conferred on his ancestor the head of the family urged that at
+the new college founded at the birth-place of Confucius the teaching
+should include foreign languages, physical culture, political science
+and military drill.[72]
+
+While China, with the consent of the emperor and the empress-dowager,
+and under the guidance of Prince Ching, Yuan Shih-kai and Chang
+Chih-tung, was endeavouring to bring about internal reforms, her
+attitude to foreign powers was one of reserve and distrust. This was
+especially marked in the negotiations with Japan and with Russia
+concerning Manchuria, and was seen also in the negotiations with Great
+Britain concerning Tibet. It was not until April 1908, after four
+years' negotiations, that a convention with Great Britain respecting
+Tibet was signed, Chinese suzerain rights being respected. In September
+the Dalai Lama arrived in Peking from Mongolia and was received by the
+emperor, who also gave audience to a Nepalese mission.[73]
+
+
+  Death of the emperor and of the dowager empress.
+
+The emperor Kwang-su had witnessed, without being able to guide, the new
+reform movement. In August 1908 an edict was issued in his name
+announcing the convocation of a parliament in nine years' time. In
+November he died. His death occasioned no surprise, as disquieting
+reports about his health had been current since July, but the
+announcement that the dowager empress died on the 15th of November (the
+day after that on which the emperor was officially stated to have died)
+was totally unexpected. She had celebrated her birthday on the 3rd of
+November and appeared then to be in good health. The empress dowager had
+taken part in the choice of a successor to the throne, Kwang-su's
+valedictory edict had been drawn up under her supervision, and it is
+believed that the emperor died some days previous to the date officially
+given for his death. Kwang-su died childless and was succeeded by his
+infant nephew Pu-Yi (born on the 8th of February 1906), a son of Prince
+Chun, who was appointed regent. Prince Chun--himself then only
+twenty-six years old--had exercised considerable influence at court
+since his mission to Germany in 1901, and was one of the most
+enlightened of the Manchu princes. The death of the dowager empress
+removed a powerful obstacle to a reformed regime, and with her passed
+away the last prominent representative of the old era in China.
+
+
+  Accession of Hsuan Tung.
+
+The accession to the throne of Pu-Yi, who was given as reigning title
+Hsuan Tung ("promulgating universally"), was unaccompanied by
+disturbances, save for an outbreak at Ngan-king, easily suppressed.
+Prince Chun had the support of Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung,[74]
+the two most prominent Chinese members of the government at Peking--and
+thus a division between the Manchus and Chinese was avoided. On the 2nd
+of December 1908 the young emperor was enthroned with the usual rites.
+On the day following another edict, which, it was stated, had had the
+approval of the late dowager empress, was issued, reaffirming that of
+the 27th of August regarding the grant of a parliamentary constitution
+in nine years' time, and urging the people to prepare themselves for the
+change. Other edicts sought to strengthen the position of the regent as
+_de facto_ emperor. Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung received the title
+of Grand Guardians of the Heir, and the year 1908 closed with the chief
+Chinese members of the government working, apparently, in complete
+harmony with the regent.
+
+
+  Dismissal of Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+  Agreement with Japan.
+
+On the 1st of January 1909, however, the political situation was rudely
+disturbed by the dismissal from office of Yuan Shih-kai. This step led
+to representations by the British and American ministers to Prince
+Ching, the head of the foreign office, by whom assurances were given
+that no change of policy was contemplated by China, while the regent in
+a letter to President Taft reiterated the determination of his
+government to carry through its reform policy. The dismissal of Yuan
+Shih-kai was believed by the Chinese to be due to his "betrayal" of the
+emperor Kwang-su in the 1898 reform movement. He had nevertheless
+refused to go to extremes on the reactionary side, and in 1900, as
+governor of Shan-tung, he preserved a neutrality which greatly
+facilitated the relief of the Peking legations. During the last years
+of the life of the dowager empress it was his influence which largely
+reconciled her to the new reform movement. Yet Kwang-su had not
+forgotten the _coup d'état_ of 1898, and it is alleged that he left a
+testament calling upon his brother the prince regent to avenge the
+wrongs he had suffered.[75] During the greater part of the year there
+was serious estrangement between China and Japan, but on the 4th of
+September a convention was signed which settled most of the points in
+dispute respecting Manchuria and Korea. In Korea the boundary was
+adjusted so that Chientao, a mountainous district in eastern Manchuria
+regarded as the ancestral home of the reigning families of China and
+Korea, was definitely assigned to China; while in Manchuria, both as to
+railways and mines, a policy of co-operation was substituted for one of
+opposition.[76] Although Japan had made substantial concessions, those
+made by China in return provoked loud complaints from the southern
+provinces--the self-government society calling for the dismissal of
+Prince Ching. In northern Manchuria the Russian authorities had assumed
+territorial jurisdiction at Harbin, but on the 4th of May an agreement
+was signed recognizing Chinese jurisdiction.[77]
+
+
+  The control of railways.
+
+The spirit typified by the cry of "China for the Chinese" was seen
+actively at work in the determined efforts made to exclude foreign
+capital from railway affairs. The completion in October 1909 of the
+Peking-Kalgan railway was the cause of much patriotic rejoicing. The
+railway, a purely Chinese undertaking, is 122 m. long and took four
+years to build. It traversed difficult country, piercing the Nan K'ow
+Pass by four tunnels, one under the Great Wall being 3580 ft. long.
+There was much controversy between foreign financiers, generally backed
+by their respective governments, as to the construction of other lines.
+In March 1909 the Deutschasiatische Bank secured a loan of £3,000,000
+for the construction of the Canton-Hankow railway. This concession was
+contrary to an undertaking given in 1905 to British firms and was
+withdrawn, but only in return for the admittance of German capital in
+the Sze-ch'uen railway. After prolonged negotiations an agreement was
+signed in Paris on the 24th of May 1910 for a loan of £6,000,000 for the
+construction of the railway from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen, in which British,
+French, German and American interests were equally represented. In
+January 1910 the French line from Hanoi to Yunnan-fu was opened;[78] the
+railway from Shanghai to Nanking was opened for through traffic in 1909.
+
+
+  Provincial Assemblies constituted. A senate formed.
+
+The progress of the anti-opium movement and the dispute over the control
+of the Imperial Maritime Customs have already been chronicled. A notable
+step was taken in 1909 by the institution of elected assemblies in each
+of the provinces. The franchise on which the members were elected was
+very limited, and the assemblies were given consultative powers only.
+They were opened on the 14th of October (the 1st day of the 9th moon).
+The businesslike manner in which these assemblies conducted their work
+was a matter of general comment among foreign observers in China.[79] In
+February 1910 decrees appeared approving schemes drawn up by the
+Commission for Constitutional Reforms, providing for local government in
+prefectures and departments and for the reform of the judiciary. This
+was followed on the 9th of May by another decree summoning the senate to
+meet for the first time on the 1st day of the 9th moon (the 3rd of
+October 1910). All the members of the senate were nominated, and the
+majority were Manchus. Neither to the provincial assemblies nor to the
+senate was any power of the purse given, and the drawing up of a budget
+was postponed until 1915.[80]
+
+
+  Anti-dynastic movements. Riots in Hu-nan.
+
+The efforts of the central government to increase the efficiency of the
+army and to re-create a navy were continued in 1910. China was credited
+with the intention of spending £40,000,000 on the rehabilitation of its
+naval and military forces. It was estimated in March 1910 that there
+were about 200,000 foreign-trained men, but their independent spirit and
+disaffection constituted a danger to internal peace. The danger was
+accentuated by the mutual jealousy of the central and provincial
+governments. The anti-dynastic agitation, moreover, again seemed to be
+growing in strength. In April 1910 there was serious rioting at
+Changsha, Hu-nan, a town whence a few years previously had issued a
+quantity of anti-foreign literature of a vile kind. The immediate causes
+of the riots seem to have been many: rumours of the intention of the
+foreign powers to dismember China, the establishment of foreign firms at
+Changsha competing with native firms and exporting rice and salt at a
+time when the province was suffering from famine, and the approach of
+Halley's comet. Probably famine precipitated the outbreak, which was
+easily crushed, as was also a rising in May at Yung chow, a town in the
+south of Hu-nan. Much mission and mercantile property was wrecked at
+Changsha, but the only loss of life was the accidental drowning of three
+Roman Catholic priests.
+
+
+  The regent's policy.
+
+An edict of the 17th of August 1910 effected considerable and unexpected
+changes in the personnel of the central government. Tang Shao-yi, a
+former lieutenant of Yuan Shih-kai, was appointed president of the Board
+of Communications, and to him fell the difficult task of reconciling
+Chinese and foreign interests in the development of the railway system.
+Sheng Kung-pao regarded as the chief Chinese authority on currency
+questions, and an advocate of the adoption of a gold standard, was
+attached to the Board of Finance to help in the reforms decreed by an
+edict of May of the same year (see ante, _Currency_). The issue of the
+edict was attributed to the influence with the regent of Prince
+Tsai-tao, who had recently returned from a tour in Europe, where he had
+specially studied questions of national defence. The changes made among
+the high officials tended greatly to strengthen the central
+administration. The government had viewed with some disquiet the
+Russo-Japanese agreement of the 4th of July concerning Manchuria (which
+was generally interpreted as in fact lessening the authority of China in
+that country); it had become involved in another dispute with Great
+Britain, which regarded some of the measures taken to suppress opium
+smoking as a violation of the terms of the Chifu convention, and its
+action in Tibet had caused alarm in India. Thus the appointment to high
+office of men of enlightenment, pledged to a reform policy, was
+calculated to restore confidence in the policy of the Peking
+authorities. This confidence would have been greater had not the changes
+indicated a struggle for supreme power between the regent and the
+dowager empress Lung Yu, widow of Kwang-su.
+
+The strength of the various movements at work throughout China was at
+this time extremely difficult to gauge; the intensity of the desire for
+the acquisition of Western knowledge was equalled by the desire to
+secure the independence of the country from foreign control. The second
+of these desires gave the force it possessed to the anti-dynastic
+movement. At the same time some of the firmest supporters of reform were
+found among the Manchus, nor did there seem to be any reason to doubt
+the intention of the regent--if he retained power--to guide the nation
+through the troubled period of transition into an era of constitutional
+government and the full development of the resources of the empire.
+    (X.)
+
+
+PLATE I.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--KU K'AI-CHIH. TOILET SCENE. (British Museum. 4th
+Cent. A.D.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ATTRIBUTED TO WU TAOTZÜ. SAKYAMUNI. (8th Cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--CHAO MÊNG-FU, AFTER WANG WEI (8th CENT.). SCENE
+ON THE WANG CH'UAN. (Dated 1309. British Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--HSÜ HSI. BIRD ON APPLE-BOUGH. (10th Cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--CHIEN SHUN-CHU. THE EMPEROR HUAN-YEH. (15th
+Cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--KIU YING. COURT LADIES. (British Museum. 15th
+Cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--EAGLE. By LIN LIANG. (15th Cent. British
+Museum.)]
+
+Figs. 2, 4, and 5 are reproduced by permission of the Kokka Company,
+Tokyo.
+
+
+PLATE II
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--TEMPLE VASE (c. 1200 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--WINE VASE (c. 1000 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11--WINE VASE (c. 600 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--INLAID VESSEL (C. 500 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--WINE VESSEL (c. 100 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--INLAID VASE (c. 200 A.D.). In possession of
+C.J. Holmes.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--VASE (c. 1450 A.D.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--WINE VESSEL (c. 1450 A.D.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--TEMPLE VASE (c. 1700 A.D.).]
+
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.--Knowledge of the ancient history of China is
+  necessarily derived from the native writers on the subject.
+  Fortunately, the Chinese have always regarded the preservation of the
+  national records as a matter of supreme importance. Confucius set an
+  example in this respect, and has preserved for us in the _Spring and
+  Autumn Annals_ and the _Shu-king_, or _Book of History_, records of
+  his country's progress during the past and then present centuries. The
+  celebrated emperor Shih Hwang-ti, in establishing the empire,
+  attempted to strengthen his cause by destroying all works on the
+  national history. But so strongly was the historical sense inculcated
+  in the people that immediately on the death of the tyrant the
+  nation's records were again brought to light, and have been carefully
+  preserved and edited since that time. Prof. Legge's translation of the
+  _Spring and Autumn Annals_ and the _Shu-king, or Book of History_, in
+  the "Sacred Books of the East" series, have opened for students the
+  stores of historical knowledge which were at the command of Confucius,
+  and European writers on Chinese history have found in the dynastic
+  annals a never-failing source of valuable information. It was from
+  these works and epitomes of these that de Maillac gathered the facts
+  for his celebrated _Histoire générale de la Chine_, and it is from
+  similar sources that all other writers on Chinese history have drawn
+  their inspiration.
+
+  The following works on ancient and modern Chinese history may be
+  specially mentioned: J.A. de Moyria de Maillac, _Histoire générale de
+  la Chine_ (1777), &c.; J B. du Halde, _General History of China_ (4
+  vols., 1736); M. de Guignes, _Voyages à Péking ..._ (3 vols., 1808);
+  D. Boulger, _A History of China_ (3 vols., 1881); Valentine Chirol,
+  _The Far Eastern Question_ (1896); E.R. Huc, _The Chinese Empire_ (2
+  vols., 1855); T.T. Meadows, _The Chinese and their Rebellions_ (1856);
+  G. Pauthier, _Histoire des relations politiques de la Chine avec les
+  puissances occidentales depuis les temps les plus anciens jusqu'à nos
+  jours ..._ (1859); Sir George Staunton, _Notes of Proceedings and
+  Occurrences during the British Embassy to Peking in 1816_ (1824);
+  _Chinese Expansion historically reviewed_, a paper read before the
+  Central Asian Society by Baron Suyematsu on January 11, 1905; F.
+  Hirth, _Ancient History of China_ (New York, 1908); Prof. Herbert A.
+  Giles's _Chinese Biographical Dictionary_ (1897) is a storehouse of
+  biographical detail and anecdote.
+
+  For Chinese relations with foreign powers see H. Cordier, _Histoire
+  des relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales, 1860-1902_
+  (3 vols., Paris, 1901-1902); _Hertslet's China Treaties. Treaties,
+  &c., between Great Britain and China, and between China and Foreign
+  Powers, and Orders in Council, &c., affecting British Interests in
+  China_ (3rd ed., revised by G.G.P. Hertslet and E. Parkes, London,
+  1908); J.O. Bland and E. Backhouse, _China under the Empress Dowager_
+  (London, 1910). More general works are Sir R.K. Douglas, _China_,
+  history since the time of Marco Polo (London, 1899); E.H. Parker,
+  _China; Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce_ (London, 1901); _China,
+  Past and Present_ (London, 1903); A.J. Sargent, _Anglo-Chinese
+  Commerce and Diplomacy_--mainly in the 19th century (Oxford, 1907).
+  For current affairs see the authorities cited in the footnotes.
+
+
+VI. CHINESE ART
+
+1. _Painting._--Painting is the pre-eminent art of China, which can
+boast of a succession of great painters for at least twelve centuries.
+Though the Chinese have an instinctive gift for harmonious colour, their
+painting is above all an art of _line_. It is intimately connected with
+writing, itself a fine art demanding the same skill and supple power in
+the wielding of the brush. The most typical expression of the Chinese
+genius in painting is the ink sketch, such as the masters of the Sung
+dynasty most preferred and the Japanese from the 15th century adopted
+for an abiding model. Utmost vigour of stroke was here combined with
+utmost delicacy of modulation. Rich colour and the use of gold are an
+integral part of the Buddhist pictures, though in the masterpieces of
+the religious painters a grand rhythm of linear design gives the
+fundamental character. Exquisite subdued colour is also found in the
+"flower and bird pieces" and still-life subjects of the Sung artists,
+and becomes more emphatic and variegated in the decorative artists of
+the Ming period.
+
+Not to represent facts, but to suggest a poetic idea (often perfumed, so
+to speak, with reminiscence of some actual poem), has ever been the
+Chinese artist's aim. "A picture is a voiceless poem" is an old saying
+in China, where very frequently the artist was a literary man by
+profession. Oriental critics lay more stress on loftiness of sentiment
+and tone than on technical qualities. This idealist temper helps to
+explain the deliberate avoidance of all emphasis on appearances of
+material solidity by means of chiaroscuro, &c., and the exclusive use of
+the light medium of water-colour. The Chinese express actual dislike for
+the representation of relief. Whoever compares the painting of Europe
+with that of Asia (and Chinese painting is the central type for the one
+continent, as Italian may claim to be for the other) must first
+understand this contrast of aim. The limitations of the Chinese are
+great, but these limitations save them from mistaking advances in
+science for advances in art, and from petty imitation of fact. Their
+religious painting has great affinity with the early religious art of
+Italy (e.g. that of Siena). But the ideas of the Renaissance, its
+scientific curiosity, its materialism, its glorification of human
+personality, are wholly missing in China. For Europe, Man is ever the
+hero and the foreground--hence the dominant study of the nude, and the
+tendency to thronged compositions, with dramatic motives of effort and
+conflict. The Chinese artists, weak in the plastic, weak in the
+architectural sense, paint mostly in a lyric mood, with a contemplative
+ideal. Hence the value given to space in their designs, the
+semi-religious passion for nature, and the supremacy of landscape.
+Beauty is found not only in pleasant prospects, but in wild solitudes,
+rain, snow and storm. The life of things is contemplated and portrayed
+for its own sake, not for its uses in the life of men. From this point
+of view the body of Chinese painting is much more modern in conception
+than that of Western art. Landscape was a mature and free art in China
+more than a thousand years ago, and her school of landscape is the
+loftiest yet known to the world. Nor was man ever dissociated from
+nature. As early as the 4th century Ku K'ai-chih says that in painting a
+certain noble character he must give him a fit background of great peaks
+and deep ravines. Chinese painting, in sum, finely complements rather
+than poorly supplements that of Europe; where the latter is strong, it
+is weak; but in certain chosen provinces it long ago found consummate
+expression for thoughts and feelings scarcely yet expressed with us.
+
+
+  History: Early periods (to A.D. 618).
+
+The origin of Chinese painting is lost in legend, though there is no
+reason to doubt its great antiquity. References in literature prove that
+by the 3rd century B.C. it was a developed art. To this period is
+ascribed the invention of the hair-brush, in the use of which as an
+instrument both for writing and drawing the Chinese have attained
+marvellous skill; the usual material for the picture being woven silk,
+or, less often and since the 1st century A.D., paper. In early times
+wood panels were employed; and large compositions were painted on walls
+prepared with white lime. These mural decorations have all disappeared.
+History and portraiture seem to have been the prevailing subjects; a
+secular art corresponding to the social ideals of Confucianism. Yet long
+before the introduction of Buddhism (A.D. 67) with its images and
+pictures, we find that the two great symbolic figures of the Chinese
+imagination, the Tiger and the Dragon--typifying the forces of Nature
+and the power of the Spirit--had been evolved in art; and to imaginative
+minds the mystic ideas of Lao Tzü and the legends of his hermit
+followers proved a fruitful field for artistic motives of a kind which
+Buddhism was still more to enrich and multiply. Early classifications
+rank Buddhist and Taoist subjects together as one class.
+
+With the 2nd century A.D. we come to individual names of artists and to
+the beginnings of landscape. Ku K'ai-chih (4th century) ranks as one of
+the greatest names of Chinese art. A painting by him now in the British
+Museum (Plate I. fig. 1) shows a maturity which has nothing tentative
+about it. The dignified and elegant types are rendered with a mastery of
+sensitive brush-line which is not surpassed in later art. Ku K'ai-chih
+painted all kinds of subjects, but excelled in portraiture. During the
+next century the criticism of painting was formulated in six canons by
+Hsieh Ho. Rhythm, organic or structural beauty, is the supreme quality
+insisted on.
+
+
+  T'ang dynasty (A.D. 618-907).
+
+During the T'ang dynasty the empire expanded to its utmost limits,
+stretching as far as the Persian Gulf. India was invaded; Buddhism,
+taught by numbers of Indian missionaries, became firmly established, and
+controlled the ideals and imaginations of the time. The vigorous style
+of a great era was impressed upon the T'ang art, which culminated in Wu
+Taotzü, universally acknowledged as the greatest of all Chinese
+painters. It is doubtful if any of his work remains. The picture
+reproduced (Plate I. fig. 2) was long attributed to him, but is now
+thought to be of later date, like the two landscapes well known under
+his name in Japan. Wu Taotzü seems to have given supreme expression to
+the central subject of Buddhist art, the Nirvana of Buddha, who lies
+serenely asleep, with all creation, from saints and kings to birds and
+beasts, passionately bewailing him. The composition is known from
+Japanese copies; and it is in fact from the early religious schools of
+Japan that we can best conjecture the grandeur of the T'ang style. Wu
+Taotzü excelled in all subjects: other masters are best known for some
+particular one. Han Kan was famous for his horses, the models for
+succeeding generations of painters, both Chinese and Japanese. A
+specimen of his brush is in the British Museum; and in the same
+collection is a long roll which gives a glimpse of the landscape of this
+age. It is a copy by a great master of the Yuen dynasty, Chao Mêng-fu,
+from a famous painting by Wang Wei, representing scenes on the Wang
+Ch'uan, the latter's home (Plate I. fig. 3 shows a fragment). With the
+T'ang age landscape matured, and two schools arose, one headed by Wang
+Wei, the other by Li Ssü-hsün. The style of Wang Wei, who was equally
+famous as a poet, had a romantic idealist character--disdainful of mere
+fact--which in later developments created the "literary man's picture"
+of the Southern school, as opposed to the vigorous naturalism of the
+North.
+
+
+  Five dynasties (A.D. 907-960).
+
+Next come five brief dynasties, memorable less for any corporate style
+or tradition, than for some fine painters like Hsü Hsi, famous for his
+flowers, and Huang Ch'uan, a great master in a delicate style. Two
+pictures by him, fowls and peonies, of extraordinary beauty, are in the
+British Museum.
+
+
+  Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280).
+
+The empire, which had been broken up, was reunited, though shorn of its
+outer dependencies, under the house of Sung. This was an age of culture
+in which the freedom of the individual was proclaimed anew; glorious in
+art as in poetry and philosophy; the period which for Asia stands in
+history as the Periclean age for Europe.
+
+  The religious paintings of Li Lung-mien, the grandest of Sung masters,
+  if less forcible than those of T'ang, were unsurpassed in harmonious
+  rhythm of design and colour. But the most characteristic painting of
+  this period is in landscape and nature-subjects. With a passion
+  unmatched in Europe till Wordsworth's day, the Sung artists portrayed
+  their delight in mountains, mists, plunging torrents, the flight of
+  the wild geese from the reed-beds, the moonlit reveries of sages in
+  forest solitudes, the fisherman in his boat on lake or stream. To them
+  also, steeped in the Zen philosophy of contemplation, a flowering
+  branch was no mere subject for a decorative study, but a symbol of the
+  infinite life of nature. A mere hint to the spectator's imagination is
+  often all that they rely on; proof of the singular fulness and reality
+  of the culture of the time. The art of suggestion has never been
+  carried farther. Such traditional subjects as "Curfew from a Distant
+  Temple" and "The Moon over Raging Waves" indicate the poetic
+  atmosphere of this art. Ma Yuan, Hsia Kuei and the emperor Hwei-tsung
+  are among the greatest landscape artists of this period. They belong
+  to the South Sung school, which loved to paint the gorges and towering
+  rock-pinnacles of the Yangtsze. The sterner, less romantic scenery of
+  the Hwang-Ho inspired the Northern school, of which Kuo Hsi and Li
+  Ch'eng were famous among many others. Muh Ki was one of the greatest
+  masters of the ink sketch; Chao Tan Lin was famed for his tigers; Li
+  Ti for his flowers as for his landscapes; Mao I for still-life: to
+  name a few among a host.
+
+
+  Yuen dynasty (A.D. 1280-1368).
+
+The Mongol dynasty continues in art the Sung tradition. Chao Mêng-fu,
+the greatest master of his time, belongs to both periods, and ranks with
+the highest names in Chinese painting. A landscape by him, copied from
+Wang Wei, has been already mentioned as in the British Museum, which
+also has two specimens of Yen Hui, a painter less known in his own
+country than in Japan. He painted especially figures of Taoist legend.
+The portrait by Ch'ien Shun-chü (Plate I. fig. 5) is a fine example of
+purity of line and lovely colour, reminding us of Greek art.
+
+
+  Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644).
+
+The simplicity of motive and directness of execution which had been the
+strength of the Sung art gradually gave way during the Ming era to
+complicated conceptions and elaborate effects. The high glow of life
+faded; the lyrical temper and impassioned work of the Sung time were
+replaced by love of ornament and elegance. In this respect Kiu Ying is
+typical of the period, with his richly coloured scenes from court life
+(Plate I. fig. 6). None the less, there were a number of painters who
+still upheld the grander style of earlier ages. The greatest of these
+was Lin Liang (Plate I. fig. 7), whose brush work, if somewhat coarser,
+is as powerful as that of the Sung masters. But though individual
+painters of the first rank preserved the Ming age from absolute decline,
+it cannot be said that any new development of importance took place in a
+vitalizing direction.
+
+
+  Tsing dynasty (from A.D. 1644).
+
+The present dynasty prolongs the history of Ming art. The literary
+school of the South became more prominent, sending out offshoots in
+Japan. There has been no movement of national life to be reflected in
+art, though a great body of admirable painting has been produced, down
+to the present day. The four landscape masters known as the "four
+Wangs," Yün Shou-p'ing and Wu Li are pre-eminent names.
+
+  SOURCES AND AUTHORITIES.--While the designs on porcelain, screens,
+  &c., have long been admired in the West, the paintings of which these
+  are merely reproductions have been utterly ignored. Ignorance has
+  gained authority with time, till the very existence of a great school
+  of Chinese painting has been denied. Materials for study are scanty.
+  Fires, wars and the recent armed ravages of Western civilization have
+  left but little. The profound indifference of the Chinese to European
+  admiration has prevented their collections from being known. The
+  Japanese, always enthusiastic students and collectors of the
+  continental art, claim (whether justly or not, is hard to ascertain)
+  that the finest specimens are now in their country. Many of these are
+  reproduced in the invaluable Tokyo publications, the _Kokka_, Mr
+  Tajima's _Select Relics_, &c., with Japanese criticisms in English. Of
+  actual paintings the British Museum possesses a fair number, and the
+  Louvre a few, of real importance. Copies and forgeries abound.
+
+  See H.A. Giles, _Introduction to the History of Chinese Pictorial Art_
+  (1905); F. Hirth, _Scraps from a Collector's Note-Book_ (1905),
+  (supplements Giles's work and especially valuable for the art of the
+  Ch'ing dynasty); S.W. Bushell, _Chinese Art_, vol. ii. (1906); K.
+  Okakura, _Ideals of the East_ (1903); M. Paléologue, _L'Art chinois_
+  (1887); W. Anderson, _Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings_
+  (1886); Sei-ichi Taki, "Chinese Landscape Painting," _The Kokka_, Nos.
+  191, &c. (1906); _Chinesische Malereien aus der Sammlung Hirth_
+  (Catalogue of an exhibition held at Dresden) (1897); W. von Seidlitz,
+  article in _Kunstchronik_ (1896-1897), No. 16.
+
+2. _Engraving_.--According to native historians, the art of printing
+from wooden blocks was invented in China in the 6th century A.D., when
+it was employed for the publication of texts. The earliest evidence we
+have for the existence of woodcuts made to reproduce pictures or
+drawings is a passage in a work by Chang Yen-yüan, from which it appears
+that these were not made before the beginning of the T'ang dynasty,
+under which that author lived. The method employed was to cut the design
+with a knife on the plank of the wood, in the manner followed by
+European artists till the end of the 18th century, when engraving with a
+burin on boxwood ousted the older process. The Japanese borrowed the art
+from China; and in Japan a whole school of artists arose who worked
+specially for the woodcutters and adapted their designs to the
+limitations of the material employed. In China the art has remained
+merely reproductive, and its history is therefore of less interest.
+_Printing in colours_ was known to the Chinese in the 17th century, and
+probably earlier. In the British Museum is a set of prints brought from
+the East by Kaempfer in 1693, in which eight colours and elaborate
+_gauffrage_ are used. Some fine albums of colour prints have been issued
+in China, but nothing equal in beauty to the prints produced in Japan by
+the co-operation of woodcutter and designer. _Engraving on copper_ was
+introduced to China by the Jesuits, and some well-known sets of prints
+illustrating campaigns in Mongolia were made in the 18th century. But
+the method has never proved congenial to the artists of the Far East.
+
+  See Sir R.K. Douglas, _Guide to the Chinese and Japanese Illustrated
+  Books_ (British Museum, 1887); W. Anderson, _Japanese Wood Engraving_
+  (1895).
+
+3. _Architecture_.--In architecture the Chinese genius has found but
+limited and uncongenial expression. A nation of painters has built
+picturesquely, but this picturesqueness has fought against the
+attainment of the finest architectural qualities. There has been little
+development; the arch, for instance, though known to the Chinese from
+very early times, has been scarcely used as a principle of design, and
+the cupola has been undiscovered or ignored; and though foreign
+architectural ideas were introduced under the influence of the Buddhist
+and Mahommedan religions, these were more or less assimilated and
+subdued to the dominant Chinese design. Ruins scarcely exist and no
+building earlier than the 11th century A.D. is known; but we know from
+records that the forms of architecture still prevalent imitate in
+essentials those of the 4th and 5th centuries B.C. and doubtless
+represent an immemorial tradition.
+
+The grand characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pre-eminent
+importance of the roof. The _t'ing_ is the commonest model of building.
+The roof is the main feature; in fact the _t'ing_ consists of this roof,
+massive and immense, with recurved edges, and the numerous short columns
+on which the roof rests. The columns are of wood, the straight stems of
+the _nanmu_ being specially used for this purpose. The walls are not
+supports, but merely fill in, with stone or brickwork, the spaces
+between the columns. The scheme of construction is thus curiously like
+that of the modern American steel-framed building, though the external
+form may be derived from the tent of primitive nomads. The roof, being
+the preponderant feature, is that on which the art of the architect has
+been concentrated. A double or a triple roof may be devised; the ridges
+and eaves may be decorated with dragons and other fantastic animals, and
+the eaves underlaid with carved and lacquered woodwork; the roof itself
+is often covered with glazed tiles of brilliant hue. In spite of
+efforts, sometimes desperate, to give variety and individual character
+by ornament and detail, the general impression is one of poverty of
+design. "Chinese buildings are usually one-storeyed and are developed
+horizontally as they are increased in size or number. The principle
+which determines the plan of projection is that of symmetry" (Bushell).
+All important buildings must face the south, and this uniform
+orientation increases the general architectural monotony produced by a
+preponderance of horizontal lines.
+
+A special characteristic of Chinese architecture is the _pai-lou_, an
+archway erected only by special authority, usually to commemorate famous
+persons. The _pai-lou_ is commonly made of wood with a tiled roof, but
+sometimes is built entirely of stone, as is the gateway at the avenue of
+the Ming tombs. A magnificent example of the _pai-lou_ is that on the
+avenue leading to Wo Fo Ssü, the temple of the Sleeping Buddha, near
+Peking. This is built of marble and glazed terra-cotta. The _pai-lou_,
+like the Japanese _torii_, derives its origin from the _toran_ of Indian
+_stupas_. Lofty towers called _t'ai_, usually square and of stone, seem
+to have been a common type of important building in early times. They
+are described in old books as erected by the ancient kings and used for
+various purposes. The towers of the Great Wall are of the same
+character, and are made of stone, with arched doors and windows. Stone,
+though plentiful in most provinces of the empire, has been singularly
+little used by the Chinese, who prefer wood or brick. M. Paléologue
+attributes this preference of light and destructible materials to the
+national indifference of the Chinese to posterity and the future, their
+enthusiasm being wholly devoted to their ancestors and the past.
+
+Temples are designed on the general _t'ing_ model. The Temple of Heaven
+is the most imposing of the Confucian temples, conspicuous with its
+covering of deep-blue tiles and its triple roof. Near this is the great
+Altar of Heaven, consisting of three circular terraces with marble
+balustrades. Buddhist temples are built on the general plan of secular
+residences, and consist of a series of rectangular courts with the
+principal building in the centre, the lesser at the sides. Lama temples
+differ little from these except in the interior decorations and
+symbolism. Mahommedan mosques are far simpler and severer in internal
+arrangement, but outwardly these also are in the Chinese style.
+
+The _pagoda_ (Chinese _taa_), the type of Chinese architecture most
+familiar to the West, probably owes its peculiar form to Buddhist
+influence. In the pagoda alone may be found some trace of a religious
+imagination such as in Europe made Gothic architecture so full and
+splendid an expression of the aspiring spirit. The most famous pagoda
+was the Porcelain Tower of Nanking, destroyed by the T'aip'ing rebels in
+1854. This was covered with slabs of faience coated with coloured
+glazes. The ordinary pagoda is built of brick on a stone foundation; it
+is octagonal with thirteen storeys.
+
+No Chinese buildings show more beauty than some of the graceful stone
+bridges for which the neighbourhood of Peking has been famous for
+centuries.
+
+  See M. Paléologue, _L'Art chinois_ (1887): S.W. Bushell, _Chinese
+  Art_, vol. i. (1904); J. Fergusson, _History of Architecture_;
+  Professor Chûta Itô, articles in _The Kokka_, Nos. 197, 198.
+       (L. B.)
+
+4. _Sculpture_.--Except in the casting and decoration of bronze vessels
+the Chinese have not obtained distinction as sculptors. They have
+practised sculpture in stone from an early period, but the incised
+reliefs of the 2nd century B.C., a number of which are figured in
+Professor E. Chavannes's standard work,[81] while they display a certain
+spirit, lack the true plastic sense, and though the power of the Chinese
+draughtsmen increased rapidly under the T'ang and Sung dynasties, their
+work in stone showed no parallel progress. The feeling for solidity,
+which in Japan was a natural growth, was always somewhat exotic in
+China. With the impulse given to the arts by Buddhism a school of
+sculpture arose. The pilgrim Fa Hsien records sculpture of distinctive
+Chinese type in the 5th century. But Indian models dominated the art.
+Colossal Buddhas of stone were typical of the T'ang era. Little,
+however, remains of these earlier times, and such true sculpture in
+stone, wood or ivory as we know dates from the 14th and succeeding
+centuries. The well-known sculptures on the arch at Chu Yung Kuan (A.D.
+1345) are Hindu in style, though not without elements of breadth and
+strength, which seem to promise a greater development than actually took
+place. The colossal figures guarding the approach to the Ming tombs
+(15th century) show that the national taste rapidly became conventional
+and petrified so far as monumental sculpture was concerned, though
+occasional examples of devotional or portrait sculpture on a smaller
+scale in wood and ivory are found, which in power, grace, sincerity and
+restraint can rank with the work of more gifted nations. Such pieces,
+however, are extremely rare, and at South Kensington the ivory "Kwanyin
+and Child" (274. 1898) is a solitary example. As a rule the Chinese
+sculptor valued his art in proportion to the technical difficulties it
+conquered. He thus either preferred intractable materials like jade or
+rock-crystal, or, if he wrought in wood, horn or ivory, sought to make
+his work curious or intricate rather than beautiful. There is,
+nevertheless, beauty of a kind in Chinese bowls of jade, and there is
+dignity in some of the pieces of rock-crystal, but the bulk of the
+carving done in wood, horn and ivory does not deserve a moment's serious
+thought from the aesthetic point of view. The few fine specimens may be
+referred to the earlier part of the Ming dynasty when Chinese art in
+general was sincere and simple. After the middle of the 15th century
+there set in the taste for profuse ornament which injured all subsequent
+Chinese work, and wholly ruined Chinese sculpture.
+
+_Bronzes._--In Chinese bronzes we have a more consistent and exceptional
+form of plastic art, which can be traced continuously for some three
+thousand years. These bronzes take the form of ritual or honorific
+vessels, and the archaic shapes used in the service of the prehistoric
+religion of the country are repeated and copied with slight changes in
+decoration or detail to the present day.
+
+The oldest extant specimens, chiefly derived from the sack of the Summer
+Palace at Peking, may be referred to the Shang and Chow dynasties
+(1766-255 B.C.). These ancient pieces have a certain savage monumental
+grandeur of design, are usually covered with a rich and thick patina of
+red, green and brown, and are decorated with simple patterns--scrolls,
+zigzag lines and a form of what is known as the Greek key-pattern
+symbolizing respectively waves, mountains and storm clouds. The animal
+forms used are those of the _tao-tieh_ (glutton), a fabulous monster
+(possibly a conventionalized tiger) representing the powers of the
+earth, the serpent and the bull. These two last in later pieces combine
+to form the dragon, representing the power of the air. In the Chow
+dynasty libation vessels were also made in the form of a deer, a ram or
+a rhinoceros. These characteristics are shown in figures 9-17, Plate II.
+Fig. 9 is a temple vessel of a shape still in use, but which must date
+from before 1000 B.C. With this massive piece may be contrasted the
+flower-like wine vase shown in fig. 10, a favourite shape which is the
+prototype of some of the most graceful forms of Chinese porcelain and
+Japanese bronze. Its date is about 1000 B.C. The large wine vase shown
+in fig. 11 is some 400 years later. On the body appears the head of the
+tao-tieh, on the handles are superbly modelled serpents. The technique,
+which in the previous pieces was somewhat rude, has now become perfect,
+yet the menacing majestic feeling remains. We see it no less clearly in
+fig. 12, a marvellous vessel richly inlaid with gold and silver and
+covered with an emerald-green patina. It may date from about 500 B.C.,
+and indicates that even in this remote epoch the Chinese were not only
+daring and powerful artists but also master-craftsmen in metal.
+
+It is indeed at this period that the art reaches its climax. The
+monumental grandeur of the Shang specimens is often allied to
+clumsiness; the later work, if more elaborate, is always less powerful.
+Nevertheless, it is to a later period that ninety-nine out of a hundred
+Chinese bronzes must be referred, and the great majority belong either
+to the Han and succeeding dynasties (220 B.C.-A.D. 400), or to the
+Renaissance of the arts which culminated under the Ming dynasty a
+thousand years later.
+
+The characteristics of the first of these periods is the free use of
+small solid figures of animals as decoration--the phoenix, the elephant,
+the frog, the ox, the tortoise, and occasionally men; shapes grow less
+austere and less significant, as a comparison between figures 11 and 13
+will indicate; then towards the end of the 2nd century A.D. the
+influence of Buddhism is felt in the general tendency towards suavity of
+form (fig. 14). This vase is most delicately though sparingly inlaid
+with silver and a few touches of gold. Some small pieces, very richly
+and delicately inlaid and covered with a magnificent emerald-green
+patina, belonging to this period, form a connecting link between the
+inlaid work of the Chow dynasty and that of the Sung and Ming dynasties.
+The mirrors with Graeco-Bactrian designs, a conclusive proof of the
+external influences brought to bear upon Chinese art, are also
+attributed to the Han epoch.
+
+  The troubled period between A.D. 400 and A.D. 960, in spite of the
+  interval of activity under the T'ang dynasty, produced, it would seem,
+  but few bronzes, and those few were of no distinct or noteworthy
+  style. Under the Sung dynasty the arts revived, and to this time some
+  of the most splendid specimens of inlaid work belong--pieces of
+  workmanship and taste no less perfect than that of the Japanese, in
+  which the gold and silver of the earlier work are occasionally
+  reinforced with malachite and lapis-lazuli. The coming of Kublai Khan
+  and the Yuen dynasty (1280-1367) once more brought the East into
+  contact with the West, and to this time we may assign certain fine
+  pieces of Persian form such as pilgrim bottles. The vessels bearing
+  Arabic inscriptions belong to the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), with which
+  the modern history of Chinese art begins.
+
+  The work done while the Ming dynasty was still young provides the
+  student of Chinese art with many problems, and in one or two cases
+  even the South Kensington authorities assign to pre-Christian times
+  pieces that are clearly of Ming workmanship. The tendency of the
+  period was eclectic and archaistic. The products of earlier days were
+  reproduced with perfect technical command of materials, and with
+  admirable taste; it is indeed by an excess of these qualities that
+  archaistic Ming work may be distinguished from the true archaic. In
+  fig. 15 we see how the Ming bronze worker took an earlier Buddhistic
+  form of vase and gave it a new grace that amounted almost to artifice.
+  A parallel might be found among the products of the so-called _art
+  nouveau_ of to-day, in which old designs are revived with just that
+  added suavity or profusion of curvature that robs them of character.
+  Fig. 16 again might be mistaken almost for a piece of the Chow
+  dynasty, were not the grandeur of its form modified by just so much
+  harmony in the curvature of the body and neck, and by just so much
+  finish in the details as to rob the design of the old majestic vigour
+  and to mark it as the splendid effort of an age of culture, and not
+  the natural product of a period of strength.
+
+  It is, however, in the inlaid pieces that the difference tells most
+  clearly. Here we find the monstrous forms of the Shang and Chow
+  dynasties revived by men who appreciated their spirit but could not
+  help making the revival an excuse for the display of their own
+  superior skill. The monstrous vases and incense-burners of the past
+  thus appear once more, but are now decorated with a delicate
+  embroidery of inlay, are polished and finished to perfection, but lose
+  therewith just the rudeness of edge and outline which made the older
+  work so gravely significant. At times even some grandly planned vessel
+  will appear with such a festoon of pretty tracery wreathed about it
+  that the incongruity is little short of ridiculous, and we recognize
+  we have passed the turning-point to decline.
+
+  Decline indeed came rapidly, and to the latter part of the Ming epoch
+  we must assign those countless bronzes where dragons and flowers and
+  the stock symbols of happiness, good luck and longevity sprawl
+  together in interminable convolutions. When once we reach this stage
+  of contortion, of elaborate pierced and relief work, we come to the
+  place in history of Chinese bronzes where serious study may cease,
+  except in so far as the study of the symbols themselves throws light
+  upon the history of Chinese procelain (see CERAMICS). One class of
+  bronze alone needs a word of notice, namely, the profusely decorated
+  pieces which have a Tibetan origin, and are obviously no older than
+  the end of the Ming period. Of these fig. 17 will serve as a specimen,
+  and a comparison with fig. 9 will show how the softer rounded forms
+  and jewelled festoons of Hindu-Greek taste enervated the grand
+  primitive force of the earlier age, and that neither the added
+  delicacy of texture and substance nor the vastly increased dexterity
+  of workmanship can compensate for the vanished majesty.    (C. J. H.)
+
+
+VII. THE CHINESE LANGUAGE
+
+_Colloquial._--In treating of Chinese, it will be found convenient to
+distinguish, broadly, the spoken from the written language and to deal
+with each separately. This is a distinction which would be out of place
+if we had to do with any European, or indeed most Oriental languages.
+Writing, in its origin, is merely a symbolic representation of speech.
+But in Chinese, as we shall see, for reasons connected with the peculiar
+nature ot the script, the two soon began to move along independent and
+largely divergent lines. This division, moreover, will enable us to
+employ different methods of inquiry more suited to each. With regard to
+the colloquial, it is hardly possible to do more than consider it in the
+form or forms in which it exists at the present day throughout the
+empire of China. Although Chinese, like other living languages, must
+have undergone gradual changes in the past, so little can be stated with
+certainty about these changes that an accurate survey of its evolution
+is quite out of the question. Obviously a different method is required
+when we come to the written characters. The familiar line, "Litera
+scripta manet, volat irrevocabile verbum," is truer perhaps of Chinese
+than of any other tongue. We have hardly any clue as to how Chinese was
+spoken or pronounced in any given district 2000 years ago, although
+there are written remains dating from long before that time; and in
+order to gain an insight into the structure of the characters now
+existing, it is necessary to trace their origin and development.
+
+
+  The dialects.
+
+Beginning with the colloquial, then, and taking a linguistic survey of
+China, we find not one spoken language but a number of dialects, all
+clearly of a common stock, yet differing from one another as widely as
+the various Romance languages in southern Europe--say, French, Italian
+and Spanish. Most of these dialects are found fringing the coast-line of
+China, and penetrating but a comparatively short way into the interior.
+Starting from the province of Kwang-tung in the south, where the
+Cantonese and farther inland the Hakka dialects are spoken, and
+proceeding northwards, we pass in succession the following dialects:
+Swatow, Amoy--these two may almost be regarded as one--Foochow, Wenchow
+and Ningpo. Farther north we come into the range of the great dialect
+popularly known as Mandarin (_Kuan hua_ or "official language"), which
+sweeps round behind the narrow strip of coast occupied by the various
+dialects above-mentioned, and dominates a hinterland constituting nearly
+four-fifths of China proper. Mandarin, of which the dialect of Peking,
+the capital since 1421, is now the standard form, comprises a
+considerable number of sub-dialects, some of them so closely allied that
+the speakers of one are wholly intelligible to the speakers of another,
+while others (e.g. the vernaculars of Yangchow, Hankow or Mid-China and
+Ss[)u]-ch'uan) may almost be considered as separate dialects. Among all
+these, Cantonese is supposed to approximate most nearly to the primitive
+language of antiquity, whereas Pekingese perhaps has receded farthest
+from it. But although philologically and historically speaking Cantonese
+and certain other dialects may be of greater interest, for all practical
+purposes Mandarin, in the widest sense of the term, is by far the most
+important. Not only can it claim to be the native speech of the majority
+of Chinamen, but it is the recognized vehicle of oral communication
+between all Chinese officials, even in cases where they come from the
+same part of the country and speak the same _patois_. For these
+reasons, all examples of phraseology in this article will be given in
+Pekingese.
+
+So far, stress has been laid chiefly on the dissimilarity of the
+dialects. On the other hand, it must be remembered that they proceed
+from the same parent stem, are spoken by members of the same race, and
+are united by the bond of writing which is the common possession of all,
+and cannot be regarded as derived from one more than from another. They
+also share alike in the two most salient features of Chinese as a whole:
+(1) they are all monosyllabic, that is, each individual word consists of
+only one syllable; and (2) they are strikingly poor in vocables, or
+separate sounds for the conveyance of speech. The number of these
+vocables varies from between 800 and 900 in Cantonese to no more than
+420 in the vernacular of Peking. This scanty number, however, is eked
+out by interposing an aspirate between certain initial consonants and
+the vowel, so that for instance _p'u_ is distinguished from _pu_. The
+latter is pronounced with little or no emission of breath, the "p"
+approximating the farther north one goes (e.g. at Niuchwang) more
+closely to a "b." The aspirated _p'u_ is pronounced more like our
+interjection "Pooh!" To the Chinese ear, the difference between the two
+is very marked. It will be found, as a rule, that an Englishman imparts
+a slight aspirate to his p's, t's, k's and ch's, and therefore has
+greater difficulty with the unaspirated words in Chinese. The aspirates
+are better learned by the ear than by the eye, but in one way or another
+it is essential that they be mastered by any one who wishes to make
+himself intelligible to the native.
+
+The influence of the Mongolian population, assisted by the progress of
+time, has slowly but surely diminished the number of vocables in
+Pekingese. Thus the initials _ts_ and _k_, when followed by the vowel
+_i_ (with its continental value) have gradually become softer and more
+assimilated to each other, and are now all pronounced _ch_. Again, all
+consonantal endings in _t_ and _k_, such as survive in Cantonese and
+other dialects, have entirely disappeared from Pekingese, and _n_ and
+_ng_ are the only final consonants remaining. Vowel sounds, on the other
+hand, have been proportionately developed, such compounds as _ao, ia,
+iao, iu, ie, ua_ occurring with especial frequency. (It must be
+understood, of course, that the above are only equivalents, not in all
+cases very exact, for the sounds of a non-alphabetic language.)
+
+An immediate consequence of this paucity of vocables is that one and the
+same sound has to do duty for different words. Reckoning the number of
+words that an educated man would want to use in conversation at
+something over four thousand, it is obvious that there will be an
+average of ten meanings to each sound employed. Some sounds may have
+fewer meanings attached to them, but others will have many more. Thus
+the following represent only a fraction of the total number of words
+pronounced _shih_ (something like the "shi" in shirt): [Ch] "history,"
+[Ch] "to employ," [Ch] "a corpse," [Ch] "a market," [Ch] "an army," [Ch]
+"a lion," [Ch] "to rely on," [Ch] "to wait on," [Ch] "poetry," [Ch]
+"time," [Ch] "to know," [Ch] "to bestow," [Ch] "to be," [Ch] "solid,"
+[Ch] "to lose," [Ch] "to proclaim," [Ch] "to look at," [Ch] "ten," [Ch]
+"to pick up," [Ch] "stone," [Ch] "generation," [Ch] "to eat," [Ch] "a
+house," [Ch] "a clan," [Ch] "beginning," [Ch] "to let go," [Ch] "to
+test," [Ch] "affair," [Ch] "power," [Ch] "officer," [Ch] "to swear,"
+[Ch] "to pass away," [Ch] "to happen." It would be manifestly impossible
+to speak without ambiguity, or indeed to make oneself intelligible at
+all, unless there were some means of supplementing this deficiency of
+sounds. As a matter of fact, several devices are employed through the
+combination of which confusion is avoided. One of these devices is the
+coupling of words in pairs in order to express a single idea. There is a
+word [Ch] _ko_ which means "elder brother." But in speaking, the sound
+_ko_ alone would not always be easily understood in this sense. One must
+either reduplicate it and say _ko-ko_, or prefix [Ch] (_ta_, "great")
+and say _ta-ko_. Simple reduplication is mostly confined to family
+appellations and such adverbial phrases as [Ch][Ch] _man-man_, "slowly."
+But there is a much larger class of pairs, in which each of the two
+components has the same meaning. Examples are: [Ch][Ch] _k'ung-p'a_,
+"to be afraid," [Ch][Ch] _kao-su_, "to tell," [Ch][Ch] _shu-mu_, "tree,"
+[Ch][Ch] _p'i-fu_, "skin," [Ch][Ch] _man-ying_, "full," [Ch][Ch]
+_ku-tu_, "solitary." Sometimes the two parts are not exactly synonymous,
+but together make up the sense required. Thus in [Ch][Ch] _i-shang_,
+"clothes," _i_ denotes more particularly clothes worn on the upper part
+of the body, and _shang_ those on the lower part. [Ch][Ch] _fêng-huang_
+is the name of a fabulous bird, _fêng_ being the male, and _kuang_ the
+female. In another very large class of expressions, the first word
+serves to limit and determine the special meaning of the second:
+[Ch][Ch] "milk-skin," "cream"; [Ch][Ch] "fire-leg," "ham"; [Ch][Ch]
+"lamp-cage," "lantern"; [Ch][Ch] "sea-waist," "strait." There are,
+besides, a number of phrases which are harder to classify. Thus, [Ch]
+_hu_ means "tiger." But in any case where ambiguity might arise,
+_lao-hu_, "old tiger," is used instead of the monosyllable. [Ch]
+(another _hu_) is "fox," and [Ch] _li_, an animal belonging to the
+smaller cat tribe. Together, _hu-li_, they form the usual term for fox.
+[Ch][Ch] _chih tao_ is literally "to know the way," but has come to be
+used simply for the verb "to know." These pairs or two-word phrases are
+of such frequent occurrence, that the Chinese spoken language might
+almost be described as bi-syllabic. Something similar is seen in the
+extensive use of suffixes or enclitics, attached to many of the
+commonest nouns. [Ch] _nü_ is the word for "girl," but in speech
+[Ch][Ch] _nü-tz[)u]_ or [Ch][Ch] _nü-'rh_ is the form used. [Ch] and
+[Ch] both mean child, and must originally have been diminutives. A
+fairly close parallel is afforded by the German suffix _chen_, as in
+_Mädchen_. The suffix [Ch], it may be remarked, belongs especially to
+the Peking vernacular. Then, the use of so-called numeratives will often
+give some sort of clue as to the class of objects in which a substantive
+may be found. When in pidgin English we speak of "one piecee man" or
+"three piecee dollar," the word _piecee_ is simply a Chinese numerative
+in English dress. Even in ordinary English, people do not say "four
+cattle" but "four _head_ of cattle." But in Chinese the use of
+numeratives is quite a distinctive feature of the language. The
+commonest of them, [Ch] _ko_, can be used indifferently in connexion
+with almost any class of things, animal, vegetable or mineral. But there
+are other numeratives--at least 20 or 30 in everyday use--which are
+strictly reserved for limited classes of things with specific
+attributes. [Ch] _mei_, for instance, is the numerative of circular
+objects such as coins and rings; [Ch] _k'o_ of small globular
+objects--pearls, grains of rice, &c.; [Ch] _k'ou_ classifies things
+which have a mouth--bags, boxes and so forth; [Ch] _chien_ is used of
+all kinds of affairs; [Ch] _chang_ of chairs and sheets of paper; [Ch]
+_chih_ (literally half a pair) is the numerative for various animals,
+parts of the body, articles of clothing and ships; [Ch] _pa_ for things
+which are grasped by a handle, such as fans and knives.
+
+This by no means exhausts the list of devices by which the difficulties
+of a monosyllabic language are successfully overcome. Mention need only
+be made, however, of the system of "tones," which, as the most curious
+and important of all, has been kept for the last.
+
+
+  The tones.
+
+The tones may be defined as regular modulations of the voice by means of
+which different inflections can be imparted to the same sound. They may
+be compared with the half-involuntary modulations which express
+emotional feeling in our words. To the foreign ear, a Chinese sentence
+spoken slowly with the tones clearly brought out has a certain sing-song
+effect. If we speak of the tones as a "device" adopted in order to
+increase the number of vocables, this must be understood rather as a
+convenient way of explaining their practical function than as a
+scientific account of their origin. It is absurd to suppose the tones
+were deliberately invented in order to fit each written character with a
+separate sound. A tone may be said to be as much an integral part of the
+word to which it belongs as the sound itself; like the sound, too, it is
+not fixed once and for all, but is in a constant, though very gradual,
+state of evolution. This fact is proved by the great differences of
+intonation in the dialects. Theoretically, four tones have been
+distinguished--the even, the rising, the sinking and the entering--each
+of which falls again into an upper and a lower series. But only the
+Cantonese dialect possesses all these eight varieties of tone (to which
+a ninth has been added), while Pekingese, with which we are especially
+concerned here, has no more than four: the even upper, the even lower,
+the rising and the sinking. The history of the tones has yet to be
+written, but it appears that down to the 3rd century B.C. the only tones
+distinguished were the [Ch] "even," [Ch] "rising" and [Ch] "entering."
+Between that date and the 4th century A.D. the [Ch] sinking tone was
+developed. In the 11th century the even tone was divided into upper and
+lower, and a little later the entering tone finally disappeared from
+Pekingese. The following monosyllabic dialogue gives a very fair idea of
+the quality of the four Pekingese tones--_1st tone_: Dead (spoken in a
+raised monotone, with slightly plaintive inflection); _2nd tone_: Dead?
+(simple query); _3rd tone_: Dead? (an incredulous query long drawn out);
+_4th tone_: Dead! (a sharp and decisive answer). The native learns the
+tones unconsciously and by ear alone. For centuries their existence was
+unsuspected, the first systematic classification of them being
+associated with the name of Shên Yo, a scholar who lived A.D. 441-513.
+The Emperor Wu Ti was inclined to be sceptical, and one day said to him:
+"Come, tell me, what are these famous four tones?" "They are
+[Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] whatever your Majesty pleases to make them," replied
+Shên Yo, skilfully selecting for his answer four words which
+illustrated, and in the usual order, the four tones in question.
+Although no native is ever taught the tones separately, they are none
+the less present in the words he utters, and must be acquired
+consciously or unconsciously by any European who wishes to be
+understood. It is a mistake, however, to imagine that every single word
+in a sentence must necessarily be given its full tonic force. Quite a
+number of words, such as the enclitics mentioned above, are not
+intonated at all. In others the degree of emphasis depends partly on the
+tone itself, partly on its position in the sentence. In Pekingese the
+3rd tone (which is really the second in the ordinary series, the 1st
+being subdivided into upper and lower) is particularly important, and
+next to it in this respect comes the 2nd (that is, the lower even, or
+2nd division of the 1st). It may be said, roughly, that any speaker
+whose second and third tones are correct will at any rate be understood,
+even if the 1st and 4th are slurred over.
+
+
+  The characters.
+
+  Pictorial characters.
+
+It is chiefly, however, on its marvellous script and the rich treasures
+of its literature that the Chinese language depends for its unique
+fascination and charm. If we take a page of printed Chinese or carefully
+written manuscript and compare it with a page, say, of Arabic or
+Sanskrit, the Chinese is seen at once to possess a marked characteristic
+of its own. It consists of a number of wholly independent units, each of
+which would fit into a small square, and is called a character. These
+characters are arranged in columns, beginning on the right-hand side of
+the page and running from top to bottom. They are _words_, inasmuch as
+they stand for articulate sounds expressing root-ideas, but they are
+unlike our words in that they are not composed of alphabetical elements
+or letters. Clearly, if each character were a distinct and arbitrarily
+constructed symbol, only those gifted with exceptional powers of memory
+could ever hope to read or write with fluency. This, however, is far
+from being the case. If we go to work synthetically and first see how
+the language is built up, it will soon appear that most Chinese
+characters are susceptible of some kind of analysis. We may accept as
+substantially true the account of native writers who tell us that means
+of communication other than oral began with the use of knotted cords,
+similar to the _quippus_ of ancient Mexico and Peru, and that these were
+displaced later on by the practice of notching or scoring rude marks on
+wood, bamboo and stone. It is beyond question that the first four
+numerals, as written with simple horizontal strokes, date from this
+early period. Notching, however, carries us but a little way on the road
+to a system of writing, which in China, as elsewhere, must have sprung
+originally from pictures. In Chinese writing, especially, the
+indications of such an origin are unmistakable, a few characters,
+indeed, even in their present form, being perfectly recognizable as
+pictures of objects pure and simple. Thus, for "sun" the ancient Chinese
+drew a circle with a dot in it: [Ch], now modified into [Ch]; for "moon"
+[Ch], now [Ch]; for "God" they drew the anthropomorphic figure [Ch],
+which in its modern form appears as [Ch]; for "mountains" [Ch], now [Ch];
+for "child" [Ch], now [Ch]; for "fish" [Ch], now [Ch]; for "mouth" a
+round hole, now [Ch]; for "hand" [Ch], now [Ch]; for "well" [Ch], now
+written without the dot. Hence we see that while the origin of all
+writing is pictographic, in Chinese alone of living languages certain
+pictures have survived, and still denote what they had denoted in the
+beginning. In the script of other countries they were gradually
+transformed into hieroglyphic symbols, after which they either
+disappeared altogether or became further conventionalized into the
+letters of an alphabet. These picture-characters, then, accumulated
+little by little, until they comprised all the common objects which
+could be easily and rapidly delineated--sun, moon, stars, various
+animals, certain parts of the body, tree, grass and so forth, to the
+number of two or three hundred. The next step was to a few compound
+pictograms which would naturally suggest themselves to primitive man:
+[Ch] the sun just above the horizon = "dawn"; [Ch] trees side by side =
+"a forest"; [Ch] a mouth with something solid coming out of it = "the
+tongue"; [Ch] a mouth with vapor or breath coming out of it = "words."
+
+
+  Suggestive compounds.
+
+  Phonetic characters.
+
+But a purely pictographic script has its limitations. The more complex
+natural objects hardly come within its scope; still less the whole body
+of abstract ideas. While writing was still in its infancy, it must have
+occurred to the Chinese to join together two or more pictorial
+characters in order that their association might suggest to the mind
+some third thing or idea. "Sun" and "moon" combined in this way make the
+character [Ch], which means "bright"; woman and child make [Ch] "good";
+"fields" and "strength" (that is, labour in the fields) produce the
+character [Ch] "male"; two "men" on "earth" [Ch] signifies "to
+sit"--before chairs were known; the "sun" seen through "trees" [Ch]
+designates the east; [Ch] has been explained as (1) a "pig" under a
+"roof," the Chinese idea, common to the Irish peasant, of home, and also
+(2) as "several persons" under "a roof," in the same sense; a "woman"
+under a "roof" makes the character [Ch] "peace"; "words" and "tongue"
+[Ch] naturally suggest "speech"; two hands ([Ch], in the old form [Ch])
+indicate friendship; "woman" and "birth" [Ch] = "born of a woman," means
+"clan-name," showing that the ancient Chinese traced through the mother
+and not through the father. Interesting and ingenious as many of these
+combinations are, it is clear that their number, too, must in any
+practical system of writing be severely limited. Hence it is not
+surprising that this class of characters, correctly called ideograms, as
+representing ideas and not objects, should be a comparatively small one.
+Up to this point there seemed to be but little chance of the written
+language reaching a free field for expansion. It had run so far on lines
+sharply distinct from those of ordinary speech. There was nothing in the
+character _per se_ which gave the slightest clue to the sound of the
+word it represented. Each character, therefore, had to be learned and
+recognized by a separate effort of memory. The first step in a new, and,
+as it ultimately proved, the right direction, was the borrowing of a
+character already in use to represent another word identical in sound,
+though different in meaning. Owing to the scarcity of vocables noted
+above, there might be as many as ten different words in common use, each
+pronounced _fang_. Out of those ten only one, we will suppose, had a
+character assigned to it--namely [Ch] "square" (originally said to be a
+picture of two boats joined together). But among the other nine was
+_fang_, meaning "street" or "locality," in such common use that it
+became necessary to have some means of writing it. Instead of inventing
+an altogether new character, as they might have done, the Chinese took
+[Ch] "square" and used it also in the sense of "locality." This was a
+simple expedient, no doubt, but one that, applied on a large scale,
+could not but lead to confusion. The corresponding difficulty which
+presented itself in speech was overcome, as we saw, by many devices, one
+of which consisted in prefixing to the word in question another which
+served to determine its special meaning. A native does not say _fang_
+simply when he wishes to speak of a place, but _li-fang_ "earth-place."
+Exactly the same device was now adopted in writing the character. To
+_fang_ "square" was added another part meaning "earth," in order to show
+that the _fang_ in question had to do with location on the earth's
+surface. The whole character thus appeared as [Ch]. Once this phonetic
+principle had been introduced, all was smooth sailing, and writing
+progressed by leaps and bounds. Nothing was easier now than to provide
+signs for the other words pronounced _fang_. "A room" was [Ch]
+door-_fang_; "to spin" was [Ch] silk-_fang_; "fragrant" was [Ch]
+herbs-_fang_; "to inquire" was [Ch] words-_fang_; "an embankment," and
+hence "to guard against," was [Ch] mound-_fang_; "to hinder" was [Ch]
+woman-_fang_. This last example may seem a little strange until we
+remember that man must have played the principal part in the development
+of writing, and that from the masculine point of view there is something
+essentially obstructive and unmanageable in woman's nature. It may be
+remarked, by the way, that the element "woman" is often the
+determinative in characters that stand for unamiable qualities, e.g.
+[Ch][Ch] "jealous," [Ch][Ch] "treacherous," [Ch] "false" and [Ch]
+"uncanny." This class of characters, which constitutes at least
+nine-tenths of the language, has received the convenient name of
+_phonograms_. It must be added that the formation of the phonogram or
+phonetic compound did not always proceed along such simple lines as in
+the examples given above, where both parts are pictorial characters, one
+the "phonetic," representing the sound, and the other, commonly known as
+the "radical," giving a clue to the sense. In the first place, most of
+the phonetics now existing are not simple pictograms, but themselves
+more or less complex characters made up in a variety of ways. On
+analysing, for instance, the word [Ch] _hsün_, "to withdraw," we find it
+is composed of the phonetic [Ch] combined with the radical [Ch], an
+abbreviated form of [Ch] "to walk." But [Ch] _sun_ means "grandson," and
+is itself a suggestive compound made up of the two characters [Ch] "a
+son" and [Ch] "connect." The former character is a simple pictogram, but
+the latter is again resolvable into the two elements [Ch] "a down stroke
+to the left" and [Ch] "a strand of silk," which is here understood to be
+the radical and appears in its ancient form as [Ch], a picture of
+cocoons spun by the silkworm. Again, the sound is in most cases given by
+no means exactly by the so-called phonetic, a fact chiefly due to the
+pronunciation having undergone changes which the written character was
+incapable of recording. Thus, we have just seen that the phonetic of
+[Ch] is not _hsün_ but _sun_. There are extreme cases in which a
+phonetic provides hardly any clue at all as to the sound of its
+derivatives. The character [Ch], for example, which by itself is
+pronounced _ch'ien_, appears in combination as the modern phonetic of
+[Ch] _k'an_, [Ch] _juan_, [Ch] _yin_ and [Ch] _ch'ui_; though in the
+last instance it was not originally the phonetic but the radical of a
+character which was analysed as [Ch] _ch'ien_, "to emit breath" from
+[Ch] "the mouth," the whole character being a suggestive compound rather
+than an illustration of radical and phonetic combined. In general,
+however, it may be said that the "final" or rhyme is pretty accurately
+indicated, while in not a few cases the phonetic does give the exact
+sound for all its derivatives. Thus, the characters in which the element
+[Ch] enters are pronounced _chien, ch'ien, hsien_ and _lien_; but [Ch]
+and its derivatives are all _i_. A considerable number of phonetics are
+nearly or entirely obsolete as separate characters, although their
+family of derivatives may be a very large one. [Ch], for instance, is
+never seen by itself, yet [Ch], [Ch], and [Ch] are among the most
+important characters in the language. Objections have been raised in
+some quarters to this account of the phonetic development of Chinese. It
+is argued that the primitives and sub-primitives, whereby is meant any
+character which is capable of entering into combination with another,
+have really had some influence on the meaning, and do not merely possess
+a phonetic value. But insufficient evidence has hitherto been advanced
+in support of this view.
+
+The whole body of Chinese characters, then, may conveniently be divided
+up, for philological purposes, into pictograms, ideograms and
+phonograms. The first are pictures of objects, the second are composite
+symbols standing for abstract ideas, the third are compound characters
+of which the more important element simply represents a spoken sound. Of
+course, in a strict sense, even the first two classes do not directly
+represent either objects or ideas, but rather stand for sounds by which
+these objects and ideas have previously been expressed. It may, in fact,
+be said that Chinese characters are "nothing but a number of more or
+less ingenious devices for suggesting spoken words to a reader." This
+definition exposes the inaccuracy of the popular notion that Chinese is
+a language of ideographs, a mistake which even the compilers of the
+_Oxford English Dictionary_ have not avoided. Considering that all the
+earliest characters are pictorial, and that the vast majority of the
+remainder are constructed on phonetic principles, it is absurd to speak
+of Chinese characters as "symbolizing the idea of a thing, without
+expressing the name of it."
+
+
+  The "Six Scripts."
+
+The Chinese themselves have always been diligent students of their
+written language, and at a very early date (probably many centuries
+B.C.) evolved a sixfold classification of characters, the so-called
+[Ch][Ch] _liu shu_, very inaccurately translated by the Six Scripts,
+which may be briefly noticed:--
+
+1. [Ch][Ch] _chih shih_, indicative or self-explanatory characters. This
+is a very small class, including only the simplest numerals and a few
+others such as [Ch] "above" and [Ch] "below."
+
+2. [Ch][Ch] _hsiang hsing_, pictographic characters.
+
+3. [Ch][Ch] _hsing shêng_ or [Ch][Ch] _hsieh shêng_, phonetic compounds.
+
+4. [Ch][Ch] _hui i_, suggestive compounds based on a natural association
+of ideas. To this class alone can the term "ideographs" be properly
+applied.
+
+5. [Ch][Ch] _chuan chu_. The meaning of the name has been much disputed,
+some saying that it means "turned round"; e.g. [Ch] _mu_ "eye" is now
+written [Ch]. Others understand it as comprising a few groups of
+characters nearly related in sense, each character consisting of an
+element common to the group, together with a specific and detachable
+part; e.g. [Ch], [Ch], and [Ch], all of which have the meaning "old."
+This class may be ignored altogether, seeing that it is concerned not
+with the origin of characters but only with peculiarities in their use.
+
+6. [Ch][Ch] _chia chieh_, borrowed characters, as explained above, that
+is, characters adopted for different words simply because of the
+identity of sound.
+
+The order of this native classification is not to be taken as in any
+sense chronological. Roughly, it may be said that the development of
+writing followed the course previously traced--that is, beginning with
+indicative signs, and going on with pictograms and ideograms, until
+finally the discovery of the phonetic principle did away with all
+necessity for other devices in enlarging the written language. But we
+have no direct evidence that this was so. There can be little doubt that
+phonetic compounds made their appearance at a very early date, probably
+prior to the invention of a large number of suggestive compounds, and
+perhaps even before the whole existing stock of pictograms had been
+fashioned. It is significant that numerous words of daily occurrence,
+which must have had a place in the earliest stages of human thought,
+are expressed by phonetic characters. We can be fairly certain, at any
+rate, that the period of "borrowed characters" did not last very long,
+though it is thought that traces of it are to be seen in the habit of
+writing several characters, especially those for certain plants and
+animals, indifferently with or without their radicals. Thus [Ch][Ch] "a
+tadpole" is frequently written [Ch][Ch], without the part meaning
+"insect" or "reptile."
+
+
+    Styles of writing.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  In the very earliest inscriptions that have come down to us, the
+  so-called [Ch][Ch] _ku-wên_ or "ancient figures," all the
+  above-mentioned forms occur. None are wholly pictorial, with one or
+  two unimportant exceptions. These early inscriptions are found on
+  bronzes dating from the half-legendary period extending from the
+  beginning of the Shang dynasty in the 18th century B.C., or possibly
+  earlier, down to a point in the reign of King Hsüan of the Chou
+  dynasty, generally fixed at 827 B.C. They have been carefully
+  reproduced and for the most part deciphered by painstaking Chinese
+  archaeologists, and form the subject of many voluminous works. The
+  following may be taken as a specimen, in which it will be noticed that
+  only the last character is unmistakably pictorial: This is read:
+  [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch]--"Shên made [this] precious _ting_." These ancient
+  bronzes, which mainly take the shape of bells, cauldrons and
+  sacrificial utensils, were until within the last decade our sole
+  source of information concerning the origin and early history of
+  Chinese writing. But recently a large number of inscribed bone
+  fragments have been excavated in the north of China, providing new and
+  unexpected matter for investigation. The inscriptions on these bones
+  have already furnished a list of nearly 2500 separate characters, of
+  which not more than about 600 have been so far identified. They appear
+  to be responses given by professional soothsayers to private
+  individuals who came to them seeking the aid of divination in the
+  affairs of their daily life. It is difficult to fix their date with
+  much exactitude. The script, though less archaic than that of the
+  earlier bronzes, is nevertheless of an exceedingly free and irregular
+  type. Judging by the style of the inscriptions alone, one would be
+  inclined to assign them to the early years of the Chou dynasty, say
+  1100 B.C. But Mr L.C. Hopkins thinks that they represent a mode of
+  writing already obsolete at the time of their production, and retained
+  of set purpose by the diviners from obscurantist motives, much as the
+  ancient hieroglyphics were employed by the Egyptian priesthood. He
+  would therefore date them about 500 years later, or only half a
+  century before the birth of Confucius. If that is so, they are merely
+  late specimens of the "ancient figures" appearing long after the
+  latter had made way for a new and more conventionalized form of
+  writing. This new writing is called in Chinese [Ch] _chuan_, which is
+  commonly rendered by the word Seal, for the somewhat unscientific
+  reason that many ages afterwards it was generally adopted for use on
+  seals. Under the Chou dynasty, however, as well as the two succeeding
+  it, the meaning of the word was not "seal," but "sinuous curves," as
+  made in writing. It has accordingly been suggested that this epoch
+  marks the first introduction into China of the brush in place of the
+  bamboo or wooden pencil with frayed end which was used with some kind
+  of colouring matter or varnish. There are many arguments both for and
+  against this view; but it is unquestionable, at any rate, that the
+  introduction of a supple implement like the brush at the very time
+  when the forms of characters were fast becoming crystallized and
+  fixed, would be sufficient to account for a great revolution in the
+  style of writing. Authentic specimens of the [Ch][Ch] _ta chuan_,
+  older or Greater Seal writing, are exceedingly rare. But it is
+  generally believed that the inscriptions on the famous stone drums,
+  now at Peking, date from the reign of King Hsüan, and they may
+  therefore with practical certainty be cited as examples of the Greater
+  Seal in its original form. These "drums" are really ten roughly
+  chiselled mountain boulders, which were discovered in the early part
+  of the 7th century, lying half buried in the ground near Fêng-hsiang
+  Fu in the province of Shensi. On them are engraved ten odes, a
+  complete ode being cut on each drum, celebrating an Imperial hunting
+  and fishing expedition in that part of the country. A facsimile of one
+  of these, taken from an old rubbing and reproduced in Dr Bushell's
+  _Handbook of Chinese Art_, shows that great strides had been made in
+  this writing towards symmetry, compactness and conventionalism. The
+  vogue of the Greater Seal appears to have lasted until the reign of
+  the First Emperor, 221-210 B.C. (see _History_), when a further
+  modification took place. For many centuries China had been split up
+  into a number of practically independent states, and this circumstance
+  seems to have led to considerable variations in the styles of writing.
+  Having succeeded in unifying the empire, the First Emperor proceeded,
+  on the advice of his minister Li Ss[)u], to standardize its script by
+  ordaining that only the style in use in his own state of Ch'in should
+  henceforward be employed throughout China. It is clear, then, that
+  this new style of writing was nothing more than the Greater Seal
+  characters in the form they had assumed after several centuries of
+  evolution, with numerous abbreviations and modifications. It was
+  afterwards known as the [Ch][Ch] _hsiao chuan_, or Lesser Seal, and is
+  familiar to us from the _Shuo Wen_ dictionary (see _Literature_).
+  Though a decided improvement on what had gone before, the Lesser Seal
+  was destined to have but a short career of undisputed supremacy.
+  Reform was in the air; and something less cumbrous was soon felt to be
+  necessary by the clerks who had to supply the immense quantity of
+  written reports demanded by the First Emperor. Thus it came about that
+  a yet simpler and certainly more artistic form of writing was already
+  in use, though not universally so, not long after the decree
+  abolishing the Greater Seal. This [Ch][Ch] _li shu_, or "official
+  script," as it is called, shows a great advance on the Seal character;
+  so much so that one cannot help suspecting the traditional account of
+  its invention. It is perhaps more likely to have been directly evolved
+  from the Greater Seal. If the Lesser Seal was the script of the
+  semi-barbarous state of Ch'in, we should certainly expect to find a
+  more highly developed system of writing in some of the other states.
+  Unlike the Seal, the _li shu_ is perfectly legible to one acquainted
+  only with the modern character, from which indeed it differs but in
+  minor details. How long the Lesser Seal continued to exist side by
+  side with the _li shu_ is a question which cannot be answered with
+  certainty. It was evidently quite obsolete, however, at the time of
+  the compilation of the _Shuo Wên_, about a hundred years after the
+  Christian era. As for the Greater Seal and still earlier forms of
+  writing, they were not merely obsolete but had fallen into utter
+  oblivion before the Han Dynasty was fifty years old. When a number of
+  classical texts were discovered bricked up in old houses about 150
+  B.C., the style of writing was considered so singular by the literati
+  of the period that they refused to believe it was the ordinary ancient
+  character at all, and nicknamed it _k'o-t'ou shu_, "tadpole
+  character," from some fancied resemblance in shape. The theory that
+  these tadpole characters were not Chinese but a species of cuneiform
+  script, in which the wedges might possibly suggest tadpoles, must be
+  dismissed as too wildly improbable for serious consideration; but we
+  may advert for a moment to a famous inscription in which the real
+  tadpole characters of antiquity are said to appear. This is on a stone
+  tablet alleged to have been erected on Mount Hêng in the modern Hupeh
+  by the legendary Emperor Yü, as a record of his labours in draining
+  away the great flood which submerged part of China in the 23rd century
+  B.C. After more than one fruitless search, the actual monument is said
+  to have been discovered on a peak of the mountain in A.D. 1212, and a
+  transcription was made, which may be seen reproduced as a curiosity in
+  Legge's _Classics_, vol. iii. For several reasons, however, the whole
+  affair must be regarded as a gross imposture.
+
+  Out of the "official script" two other forms were soon developed,
+  namely the [Ch][Ch] _ts'ao shu_, or "grass character," which so
+  curtails the usual strokes as to be comparable to a species of
+  shorthand, requiring special study, and the [Ch][Ch] _hsing shu_ or
+  running hand, used in ordinary correspondence. Some form of grass
+  character is mentioned as in use as early as 200 B.C. or thereabouts,
+  though how nearly it approximated to the modern grass hand it is hard
+  to say; the running hand seems to have come several centuries later.
+  The final standardization of Chinese writing was due to the great
+  calligraphist Wang Hsi-chih of the 4th century, who gave currency to
+  the graceful style of character known as [Ch][Ch] _k'ai shu_,
+  sometimes referred to as the "clerkly hand." When block-printing was
+  invented some centuries later, the characters were cut on this model,
+  which still survives at the present day. It is no doubt owing to the
+  early introduction of printing that the script of China has remained
+  practically unchanged ever since. The manuscript rolls of the T'ang
+  and preceding dynasties, recently discovered by Dr Stein in Turkestan,
+  furnish direct evidence of this fact, showing as they do a style of
+  writing not only clear and legible but remarkably modern in
+  appearance.
+
+  The whole history of Chinese writing, then, is characterized by a slow
+  progressive development which precludes the idea of sharply-marked
+  divisions between one period and another. The Chinese themselves,
+  however, have canonized quite a series of alleged inventors, starting
+  from Fu Hsi, a mythical emperor of the third millennium B.C., who is
+  said to have developed a complete system of written characters from
+  the markings on the back of a dragon-horse; hence, by the way, the
+  origin of the dragon as an Imperial emblem. As a rule, the credit of
+  the invention of the art of writing is given to Ts'ang Chieh, a being
+  with fabulous attributes, who conceived the idea of a written language
+  from the markings of birds' claws upon the sand. The diffusion of the
+  Greater Seal script is traced to a work in fifteen chapters published
+  by Shih Chou, historiographer in the reign of King Hsüan. The Lesser
+  Seal, again, is often ascribed to Li Ss[)u] himself, whereas the
+  utmost he can have done in the matter was to urge its introduction
+  into common use. Likewise, Ch'êng Mo, of the 3rd century B.C., is
+  supposed to have invented the _li shu_ while in prison, and one
+  account attributes the Lesser Seal to him as well; but the fact is
+  that the whole history of writing, as it stands in Chinese authors, is
+  in hopeless confusion.
+
+_Grammar._--When about to embark on the study of a foreign language, the
+student's first thought is to provide himself with two indispensable
+aids--a dictionary and a grammar. The Chinese have found no difficulty
+in producing the former (see _Literature_). Now what as to the grammar?
+He might reasonably expect a people so industrious in the cultivation of
+their language to have evolved some system of grammar which to a certain
+degree would help to smooth his path. And yet the contrary is the case.
+No set of rules governing the mutual relations of words has ever been
+formulated by the Chinese, apparently because the need of such rules has
+never been felt. The most that native writers have done is to draw a
+distinction between [Ch][Ch] and [Ch][Ch] "full" and "empty words,"
+respectively, the former being subdivided into [Ch][Ch] "living words"
+or verbs, and [Ch][Ch] "dead words" or noun-substantives. By "empty
+words" particles are meant, though sometimes the expression is loosely
+applied to abstract terms, including verbs. The above meagre
+classification is their nearest approach to a conception of grammar in
+our sense. This in itself does not prove that a Chinese grammar is
+impossible, nor that, if constructed, it might not be helpful to the
+student. As a matter of fact, several attempts have been made by
+foreigners to deduce a grammatical system which should prove as rigid
+and binding as those of Western languages, though it cannot be said that
+any as yet has stood the test of time or criticism. Other writers have
+gone to the other extreme, and maintained that Chinese has no grammar at
+all. In this dictum, exaggerated as it sounds, there is a very
+substantial amount of truth. Every Chinese character is an indivisible
+unit, representing a sound and standing for a root-idea. Being free from
+inflection or agglutination of any kind, it is incapable of indicating
+in itself either gender, number or case, voice, mood, tense or person.
+Of European languages, English stands nearest to Chinese in this
+respect, whence it follows that the construction of a hybrid jargon like
+pidgin English presents fewer difficulties than would be the case, for
+instance, with pidgin German. For pidgin English simply consists in
+taking English words and treating them like Chinese characters, that is,
+divesting them of all troublesome inflections and reducing them to a set
+of root-ideas arranged in logical sequence. "You wantchee my no
+wantchee" is nothing more nor less than literally rendered Chinese:
+[Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] "Do you want me or not?" But we may go further, and
+say that no Chinese character can be definitely regarded as being any
+particular part of speech or possessing any particular function
+absolutely, apart from the general tenor of its context. Thus, taken
+singly, the character [Ch] conveys only the general idea "above" as
+opposed to "below." According to its place in the sentence and the
+requirements of common sense, it may be a noun meaning "upper person"
+(that is, a ruler); an adjective meaning "upper," "topmost" or "best";
+an adverb meaning "above"; a preposition meaning "upon"; and finally a
+verb meaning "to mount upon," or "to go to." [Ch] is a character that
+may usually be translated "to enter" as in [Ch][Ch] "to enter a door";
+yet in the locution [Ch][Ch] "enter wood," the verb becomes causative,
+and the meaning is "to put into a coffin." It would puzzle grammarians
+to determine the precise grammatical function of any of the words in the
+following sentence, with the exception of [Ch] (an interrogative, by the
+way, which here happens to mean "why" but in other contexts is
+equivalent to "how," "which" or "what"): [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] "Affair why
+must ancient," or in more idiomatic English, "Why necessarily stick to
+the ways of the ancients in such matters?" Or take a proverbial saying
+like [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch], which may be correctly rendered "The less
+a man has seen, the more he has to wonder at." It is one thing, however,
+to translate it correctly, and another to explain how this translation
+can be inferred from the individual words, of which the bald equivalents
+might be given as: "Few what see, many what Strange." To say that
+"strange" is the literal equivalent of [Ch] does not mean that [Ch] can
+be definitely classed as an adjective. On the other hand, it would be
+dangerous even to assert that the word here plays the part of an active
+verb, because it would be equally permissible to translate the above
+"Many things are strange to one who has seen but little."
+
+  Chinese grammar, then, so far as it deals with the classification of
+  separate words, may well be given up as a bad job. But there still
+  remains the art of syntax, the due arrangement of words to form
+  sentences according to certain established rules. Here, at any rate,
+  we are on somewhat firmer ground; and for many years the dictum that
+  "the whole of Chinese grammar depends upon position" was regarded as a
+  golden key to the written language of China. It is perfectly true that
+  there are certain positions and collocations of words which tend to
+  recur, but when one sits down to formulate a set of hard-and-fast
+  rules governing these positions, it is soon found to be a thankless
+  task, for the number of qualifications and exceptions which will have
+  to be added is so great as to render the rule itself valueless.
+  [Ch][Ch] means "on a horse," [Ch][Ch] "to get on a horse." But it will
+  not do to say that a preposition becomes a verb when placed before the
+  substantive, as many other prepositions come before and not after the
+  words they govern. If we meet such a phrase as [Ch][Ch], literally
+  "warn rebels," we must not mentally label [Ch] as a verb and [Ch] as a
+  substantive, and say to ourselves that in Chinese the verb is followed
+  immediately by its object. Otherwise, we might be tempted to
+  translate, "to warn the rebels," whereas a little reflection would
+  show us that the conjunction of "warning" and "rebels" naturally leads
+  to the meaning "to warn (the populace or whoever it may be) _against_
+  the rebels." After all our adventurous incursions into the domain of
+  syntax, we are soon brought back to the starting-point and are obliged
+  to confess that each particular passage is best interpreted on its own
+  merits, by the logic of the context and the application of common
+  sense. There is no reason why Chinese sentences should not be
+  dissected, by those who take pleasure in such operations, into
+  subject, copula and predicate, but it should be early impressed upon
+  the beginner that the profit likely to accrue to him therefrom is
+  infinitesimal. As for fixed rules of grammatical construction, so far
+  from being a help, he will find them a positive hindrance. It should
+  rather be his aim to free his mind from such trammels, and to accustom
+  himself to look upon each character as a root-idea, not a definite
+  part of speech.
+
+_The Book Language._--Turning now to some of the more salient
+characteristics of the book language, with the object of explaining how
+it came to be so widely separated from common speech, we might
+reasonably suppose that in primitive times the two stood in much closer
+relation to each other than now. But it is certainly a striking fact
+that the earliest literary remains of any magnitude that have come down
+to us should exhibit a style very far removed from any possible
+colloquial idiom. The speeches of the Book of History (see _Literature_)
+are more manifestly fictitious, by many degrees, than the elaborate
+orations in Thucydides and Livy. If we cannot believe that Socrates
+actually spoke the words attributed to him in the dialogues of Plato,
+much less can we expect to find the _ipsissima verba_ of Confucius in
+any of his recorded sayings. In the beginning, all characters doubtless
+represented spoken words, but it must very soon have dawned on the
+practical Chinese mind that there was no need to reproduce in writing
+the bisyllabic compounds of common speech. _Chien_ "to see," in its
+written form [Ch], could not possibly be confused with any other
+_chien_, and it was therefore unnecessary to go to the trouble of
+writing [Ch][Ch] _k'an-chien_ "look-see," as in colloquial. There was a
+wonderful outburst of literary activity in the Confucian era, when it
+would seem that the older and more cumbrous form of Seal character was
+still in vogue. If the mere manual labour of writing was so great, we
+cannot wonder that all superfluous particles or other words that could
+be dispensed with were ruthlessly cut away. So it came about that all
+the old classical works were composed in the tersest of language, as
+remote as can be imagined from the speech of the people. The passion for
+brevity and conciseness was pushed to an extreme, and resulted more
+often than not in such obscurity that detailed commentaries on the
+classics were found to be necessary, and have always constituted an
+important branch of Chinese literature. After the introduction of the
+improved style of script, and when the mechanical means of writing had
+been simplified, it may be supposed that literary diction also became
+freer and more expansive. This did happen to some extent, but the
+classics were held in such veneration as to exercise the profoundest
+influence over all succeeding schools of writers, and the divorce
+between literature and pooular speech became permanent and
+irreconcilable. The book language absorbed all the interest and energy
+of scholars, and it was inevitable that this elevation of the written
+should be accompanied by a corresponding degradation of the spoken word.
+This must largely account for the somewhat remarkable fact that the art
+of oratory and public speaking has never been deemed worthy of
+cultivation in China, while the comparatively low position occupied by
+the drama may also be referred to the same cause. At the same time, the
+term "book language," in its widest sense, covers a multitude of styles,
+some of which differ from each other nearly as much as from ordinary
+speech. The department of fiction (see _Literature_), which the lettered
+Chinaman affects to despise and will not readily admit within the
+charmed circle of "literature," really constitutes a bridge spanning the
+gulf between the severer classical style and the colloquial; while an
+elegant terseness characterises the higher-class novel, there are others
+in which the style is loose and shambling. Still, it remains true that
+no book of any first-rate literary pretensions would be easily
+intelligible to any class of Chinamen, educated or otherwise, if read
+aloud exactly as printed. The public reader of stories is obliged to
+translate, so to speak, into the colloquial of his audience as he goes
+along. There is no inherent reason why the conversation of everyday life
+should not be rendered into characters, as is done in foreign handbooks
+for teaching elementary Chinese; one can only say that the Chinese do
+not think it worth while. There are a few words, indeed, which, though
+common enough in the mouths of genteel and vulgar alike, have positively
+no characters to represent them. On the other hand, there is a vast
+store of purely book words which would never be used or understood in
+conversation.
+
+The book language is not only nice in its choice of words, it also has
+to obey special rules of construction. Of these, perhaps the most
+apparent is the carefully marked antithesis between characters in
+different clauses of a sentence, which results in a kind of parallelism
+or rhythmic balance. This parallelism is a noticeable feature in
+ordinary poetical composition, and may be well illustrated by the
+following four-line stanza:
+
+"[Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] The bright sun completes its course behind the
+mountains; [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] The yellow river flows away into the
+sea. [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] Would you command a prospect of a thousand
+_li_? [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] Climb yet one storey higher." In the first
+line of this piece, every single character is balanced by a
+corresponding one in the second: [Ch] white by [Ch] yellow, [Ch] sun by
+[Ch] river, and so on. In the 3rd and 4th lines, where more laxity is
+generally allowed, every word again has its counterpart, with the sole
+exception of [Ch] "wish" and [Ch] "further."
+
+The question is often asked: What sort of instrument is Chinese for the
+expression of thought? As a medium for the conveyance of historical
+facts, subtle emotions or abstruse philosophical conceptions, can it
+compare with the languages of the Western world? The answers given to
+this question have varied considerably. But it is noteworthy that those
+who most depreciate the qualities of Chinese are, generally speaking,
+theorists rather than persons possessing a profound first-hand knowledge
+of the language itself. Such writers argue that want of inflection in
+the characters must tend to make Chinese hard and inelastic, and
+therefore incapable of bringing out the finer shades of thought and
+emotion. Answering one a priori argument with another, one might fairly
+retort that, if anything, flexibility is the precise quality to be
+predicated of a language in which any character may, according to the
+requirements of the context, be interpreted either as noun, verb or
+adjective. But all such reasoning is somewhat futile. It will scarcely
+be contended that German, being highly inflected, is therefore superior
+in range and power to English, from which inflections have largely
+disappeared. Some of the early Jesuit missionaries, men of great natural
+ability who steeped themselves in Oriental learning, have left very
+different opinions on record. Chinese appeared to them as admirable for
+the superabundant richness of its vocabulary as for the conciseness of
+its literary style. And among modern scholars there is a decided
+tendency to accept this view as embodying a great deal more truth than
+the other.
+
+Another question, much debated years ago, which time itself is now
+satisfactorily answering, was whether the Chinese language would be able
+to assimilate the vast stock of new terminology which closer contact
+with the West would necessarily carry with it. Two possible courses, it
+seemed, were open: either fresh characters would be formed on the
+radical-phonetic principle, or the new idea might be expressed by the
+conjunction of two or more characters already existing. The former
+expedient had been tried on a limited scale in Japan, where in the
+course of time new characters were formed on the same principle as of
+old, which were yet purely Japanese and find no place in a Chinese
+dictionary. But although the field for such additions was boundless, the
+Chinese have all along been chary of extending the language in this way,
+probably because these modern terms had no Chinese sound which might
+have suggested some particular phonetic. They have preferred to adopt
+the other method, of which [Ch][Ch][Ch] (rise-descend-machine) for
+"lift," and [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] (discuss-govern-country-assembly) for
+"parliament" are examples. Even a metaphysical abstraction like The
+Absolute has been tentatively expressed by [Ch][Ch] (exclude-opposite);
+but in this case an equivalent was already existing in the Chinese
+language.
+
+A very drastic measure, strongly advocated in some quarters, is the
+entire abolition of all characters, to be replaced by their equivalent
+sounds in letters of the alphabet. Under this scheme [Ch] would figure
+as _jên_ or _ren_, [Ch] as _ma_, and so on. But the proposal has fallen
+extremely flat. The vocables, as we have seen, are so few in number that
+only the colloquial, if even that, could possibly be transcribed in this
+manner. Any attempt to transliterate classical Chinese would result in a
+mere jumble of sounds, utterly unintelligible, even with the addition of
+tone-marks. There is another aspect of the case. The characters are a
+potent bond of union between the different parts of the Empire with
+their various dialects. If they should ever fall into disuse, China will
+have taken a first and most fatal step towards internal disruption. Even
+the Japanese, whose language is not only free from dialects, but
+polysyllabic and therefore more suitable for romanization, have utterly
+refused to abandon the Chinese script, which in spite of certain
+disadvantages has hitherto triumphantly adapted itself to the needs of
+civilized intercourse.
+
+  See P. Premare, _Notitiae Linguae Sinicae_ (1831); Ma Kien-chung, _Ma
+  shih wên t'ung_ (1899); L.C. Hopkins, _The Six Scripts_ (1881) and
+  _The Development of Chinese Writing_ (1910); H.A. Giles, _A
+  Chinese-English Dictionary_ (2nd ed., 1910).    (H. A. GI.; L. GI.)
+
+
+VIII. CHINESE LITERATURE
+
+The literature of China is remarkable (1) for its antiquity, coupled
+with an unbroken continuity down to the present day; (2) for the variety
+of subjects presented, and for the exhaustive treatment which, not only
+each subject, but also each subdivision, each separate item, has
+received, as well as for the colossal scale on which so many literary
+monuments have been conceived and carried out; (3) for the accuracy of
+its historical statements, so far as it has been possible to test them;
+and further (4) for its ennobling standards and lofty ideals, as well as
+for its wholesome purity and an almost total absence of coarseness and
+obscenity.
+
+No history of Chinese literature in the Chinese language has yet been
+produced; native scholars, however, have adopted, for bibliographical
+purposes, a rough division into four great classes. Under the first of
+these, we find the Confucian Canon, together with lexicographical,
+philological, and other works dealing with the elucidation of words.
+Under the second, histories of various kinds, officially compiled,
+privately written, constitutional, &c.; also biography, geography and
+bibliography. Under the third, philosophy, religion, e.g. Buddhism; the
+arts and sciences, e.g. war, law, agriculture, medicine, astronomy,
+painting, music and archery; also a host of general works, monographs,
+and treatises on a number of topics, as well as encyclopaedias. The
+fourth class is confined to poetry of all descriptions, poetical
+critiques, and works dealing with the all-important rhymes.
+
+_Poetry._--Proceeding chronologically, without reference to Chinese
+classification, we have to begin, as would naturally be expected, with
+the last of the above four classes. Man's first literary utterances in
+China, as elsewhere, took the form of verse; and the earliest Chinese
+records in our possession are the national lyrics, the songs and
+ballads, chiefly of the feudal age, which reaches back to over a
+thousand years before Christ. Some pieces are indeed attributed to the
+18th century B.C.; the latest bring us down to the 6th century B.C. Such
+is the collection entitled _Shih Ching_ (or _She King_), popularly known
+as the Odes, which was brought together and edited by Confucius, 551-479
+B.C., and is now included among the Sacred Books, forming as it does an
+important portion of the Confucian Canon. These Odes, once over three
+thousand in number, were reduced by Confucius to three hundred and
+eleven; hence they are frequently spoken of as "the Three Hundred." They
+treat of war and love, of eating and drinking and dancing, of the
+virtues and vices of rulers, and of the misery and happiness of the
+people. They are in rhyme. Rhyme is essential to Chinese poetry; there
+is no such thing as blank verse. Further, the rhymes of the Odes have
+always been, and are still, the only recognized rhymes which can be used
+by a Chinese poet, anything else being regarded as mere jingle. Poetical
+licence, however, is tolerated; and great masters have availed
+themselves freely of its aid. One curious result of this is that whereas
+in many instances two given words may have rhymed, as no doubt they did,
+in the speech of three thousand years ago, they no longer rhyme to the
+ear in the colloquial of to-day, although still accepted as true and
+proper rhymes in the composition of verse.
+
+  It is noticeable at once that the Odes are mostly written in lines of
+  four words, examples of lines consisting of any length from a single
+  word to eight, though such do exist, being comparatively rare. These
+  lines of four words, generally recognized as the oldest measure in
+  Chinese poetry, are frequently grouped as quatrains, in which the
+  first, second and fourth lines rhyme; but very often only the second
+  and fourth lines rhyme, and sometimes there are groups of a larger
+  number of lines in which occasional lines are found without any rhyme
+  at all. A few stray pieces, as old as many of those found among the
+  Odes, have been handed down and preserved, in which the metre consists
+  of two lines of three words followed by one line of seven words. These
+  three lines all rhyme, but the rhyme changes with each succeeding
+  triplet. It would be difficult to persuade the English reader that
+  this is a very effective measure, and one in which many a gloomy or
+  pathetic tale has been told. In order to realise how a few Chinese
+  monosyllables in juxtaposition can stir the human heart to its lowest
+  depths, it is necessary to devote some years to the study of the
+  language.
+
+  At the close of the 4th century B.C., a dithyrambic measure, irregular
+  and wild, was introduced and enjoyed considerable vogue. It has indeed
+  been freely adopted by numerous poets from that early date down to the
+  present day; but since the 2nd century B.C. it has been displaced from
+  pre-eminence by the seven-word and five-word measures which are now,
+  after much refinement, the accepted standards for Chinese poetry. The
+  origin of the seven-word metre is lost in remote antiquity; the
+  five-word metre was elaborated under the master-hand of Mei Shêng, who
+  died 140 B.C. Passing over seven centuries of growth, we reach the
+  T'ang dynasty, A.D. 618-905, the most brilliant epoch in the history
+  of Chinese poetry. These three hundred years produced an
+  extraordinarily large number of great poets, and an output of verse of
+  almost incredible extent. In 1707 an anthology of the T'ang poets was
+  published by Imperial order; it ran to nine hundred books or sections,
+  and contained over forty-eight thousand nine hundred separate poems. A
+  copy of this work is in the Chinese department of the University
+  Library at Cambridge.
+
+  It was under the T'ang dynasty that a certain finality was reached in
+  regard to the strict application of the tones to Chinese verse. For
+  the purposes of poetry, all words in the language were ranged under
+  one or the other of two tones, the _even_ and the _oblique_, the
+  former now including the two even tones, of which prior to the 11th
+  century there was only one, and the latter including the rising,
+  sinking and entering tones of ordinary speech. The incidence of these
+  tones, which may be roughly described as sharps and flats, finally
+  became fixed, just as the incidence of certain feet in Latin metres
+  came to be governed by fixed rules. Thus, reading downward from right
+  to left, as in Chinese, a five-word stanza may run:
+
+    Sharp      Flat       Flat       Sharp
+    sharp      flat       flat       sharp
+    flat       sharp      flat       sharp
+      o          o          o          o
+    flat       sharp      sharp      flat
+    sharp      flat       sharp      flat
+
+  A seven-word stanza may run:
+
+    Flat       Sharp      Sharp
+    flat       sharp      sharp      flat
+    sharp      flat       flat       sharp
+    sharp      flat       flat       sharp
+      o          o          o          o
+    flat       sharp      flat       flat
+    flat       sharp      sharp      flat
+    sharp      flat       sharp      sharp
+
+  The above are only two metres out of many, but enough perhaps to give
+  to any one who will read them with a pause or quasi-caesura, as marked
+  by o in each specimen, a fair idea of the rhythmic lilt of Chinese
+  poetry. To the trained ear, the effect is most pleasing; and when this
+  scansion, so to speak, is united with rhyme and choice diction, the
+  result is a vehicle for verse, artificial no doubt, and elaborate, but
+  admirably adapted to the genius of the Chinese language. Moreover, in
+  the hands of the great poets this artificiality disappears altogether.
+  Each word seems to slip naturally into its place; and so far from
+  having been introduced by violence for the ends of prosody, it appears
+  to be the very best word that could have been chosen, even had there
+  been no trammels of any kind, so effectually is the art of the poet
+  concealed by art. From the long string of names which have shed lustre
+  upon this glorious age of Chinese poetry, it may suffice for the
+  present purpose to mention the following, all of the very first rank.
+
+  Mêng Hao-jan, A.D. 689-740, failed to succeed at the public
+  competitive examinations, and retired to the mountains where he led
+  the life of a recluse. Later on, he obtained an official post; but he
+  was of a timid disposition, and once when the emperor, attracted by
+  his fame, came to visit him, he hid himself under the bed. His
+  hiding-place was revealed by Wang Wei, a brother poet who was present.
+  The latter, A.D. 699-759, in addition to being a first-rank poet, was
+  also a landscape-painter of great distinction. He was further a firm
+  believer in Buddhism; and after losing his wife and mother, he turned
+  his mountain home into a Buddhist monastery. Of all poets, not one has
+  made his name more widely known than Li Po, or Li T'ai-po, A.D.
+  705-762, popularly known as the Banished Angel, so heavenly were the
+  poems he dashed off, always under the influence of wine. He is said to
+  have met his death, after a tipsy frolic, by leaning out of a boat to
+  embrace the reflection of the moon. Tu Fu, A.D. 712-770, is generally
+  ranked with Li Po, the two being jointly spoken of as the chief poets
+  of their age. The former had indeed such a high opinion of his own
+  poetry that he prescribed it for malarial fever. He led a chequered
+  and wandering life, and died from the effects of eating roast beef and
+  drinking white wine to excess, immediately after a long fast. Po
+  Chü-i, A.D. 772-846, was a very prolific poet. He held several high
+  official posts, but found time for a considerable output of some of
+  the finest poetry in the language. His poems were collected by
+  Imperial command, and engraved upon tablets of stone. In one of them
+  he anticipates by eight centuries the famous ode by Malherbe, _À Du
+  Perrier, sur la mort de sa fille_.
+
+  The T'ang dynasty with all its glories had not long passed away before
+  another imperial house arose, under which poetry flourished again in
+  full vigour. The poets of the Sung dynasty, A.D. 960-1260, were many
+  and varied in style; but their work, much of it of the very highest
+  order, was becoming perhaps a trifle more formal and precise. Life
+  seemed to be taken more seriously than under the gay and
+  pleasure-loving T'angs. The long list of Sung poets includes such
+  names as Ss[)u]-ma Kuang, Ou-yang Hsiu and Wang An-shih, to be
+  mentioned by and by, the first two as historians and the last as
+  political reformer. A still more familiar name in popular estimation
+  is that of Su Tung-p'o, A.D. 103-1101, partly known for his romantic
+  career, now in court favour, now banished to the wilds, but still more
+  renowned as a brilliant poet and writer of fascinating essays.
+
+  The Mongols, A.D. 1260-1368, who succeeded the Sungs, and the Mings
+  who followed the Sungs and bring us down to the year 1644, helped
+  indeed, especially the Mings, to swell the volume of Chinese verse,
+  but without reaching the high level of the two great poetical periods
+  above-mentioned. Then came the present dynasty of Manchu Tatars, of
+  whom the same tale must be told, in spite of two highly-cultured
+  emperors, K'ang Hsi and Ch'ien Lung, both of them poets and one of
+  them author of a collection containing no fewer than 33,950 pieces,
+  most of which, it must be said, are but four-line stanzas, of no
+  literary value whatever. It may be stated in this connexion that
+  whereas China has never produced an epic in verse, it is not true that
+  all Chinese poems are quite short, running only to ten or a dozen
+  lines at the most. Many pieces run to several hundred lines, though
+  the Chinese poet does not usually affect length, one of his highest
+  efforts being the four-line stanza, known as the "stop-short," in
+  which "the words stop while the sense goes on," expanding in the mind
+  of the reader by the suggestive art of the poet. The "stop-short" is
+  the converse of the epigram, which ends in a satisfying turn of
+  thought to which the rest of the composition is intended to lead up;
+  it aims at producing an impression which, so far from being final, is
+  merely the prelude to a long series of visions and of feelings. The
+  last of the four lines is called the "surprise line"; but the
+  revelation it gives is never a complete one: the words stop, but the
+  sense goes on. Just as in the pictorial art of China, so in her
+  poetic art is suggestiveness the great end and aim of the artist.
+  Beginners are taught that the three canons of verse composition are
+  lucidity, simplicity and correctness of diction. Yet some critics have
+  boldly declared for obscurity of expression, alleging that the
+  piquancy of a thought is enhanced by its skilful concealment. For the
+  foreign student, it is not necessary to accentuate the obscurity and
+  difficulty even of poems in which the motive is simple enough. The
+  constant introduction of classical allusions, often in the vaguest
+  terms, and the almost unlimited licence as to the order of words,
+  offer quite sufficient obstacles to easy and rapid comprehension.
+  Poetry has been defined by one Chinese writer as "clothing with words
+  the emotions which surge through the heart." The chief moods of the
+  Chinese poet are a pure delight in the varying phenomena of nature,
+  and a boundless sympathy with the woes and sufferings of humanity.
+  Erotic poetry is not absent, but it is not a feature proportionate in
+  extent to the great body of Chinese verse; it is always restrained,
+  and never lapses from a high level of purity and decorum. In his love
+  for hill and stream which he peoples with genii, and for tree and
+  flower which he endows with sentient souls, the Chinese poet is
+  perhaps seen at his very best; his views of life are somewhat too
+  deeply tinged with melancholy, and often loaded with an overwhelming
+  sadness "at the doubtful doom of human kind." In his lighter moods he
+  draws inspiration, and in his darker moods consolation from the
+  wine-cup. Hard-drinking, not to say drunkenness, seems to have been
+  universal among Chinese poets, and a considerable amount of talent has
+  been expended upon the glorification of wine. From Taoist, and
+  especially from Buddhist sources, many poets have obtained glimpses to
+  make them less forlorn; but it cannot be said that there is any
+  definitely religious poetry in the Chinese language.
+
+_History._--One of the labours undertaken by Confucius was connected
+with a series of ancient documents--that is, ancient in his day--now
+passing under a collective title as _Shu Ching_ (or _Shoo King_), and
+popularly known as the Canon, or Book, of History. Mere fragments as
+some of these documents are, it is from their pages of unknown date that
+we can supplement the pictures drawn for us in the Odes, of the early
+civilization of China. The work opens with an account of the legendary
+emperor Yao, who reigned 2357-2255 B.C., and was able by virtue of an
+elevated personality to give peace and happiness to his "black-haired"
+subjects. With the aid of capable astronomers, he determined the summer
+and winter solstices, and calculated approximately the length of the
+year, availing himself, as required, of the aid of an intercalary month.
+Finally, after a glorious reign, he ceded the throne to a man of the
+people, whose only claim to distinction was his unwavering practice of
+filial piety. Chapter ii. deals with the reign, 2255-2205 B.C., of this
+said man, known in history as the emperor Shun. In accordance with the
+monotheism of the day, he worshipped God in heaven with prayer and burnt
+offerings; he travelled on tours of inspection all over his then
+comparatively narrow empire; he established punishments, to be tempered
+with mercy; he appointed officials to superintend forestry, care of
+animals, religious observances, and music; and he organized a system of
+periodical examinations for public servants. Chapter iii. is devoted to
+details about the Great Yü, who reigned 2205-2197 B.C., having been
+called to the throne for his engineering success in draining the empire
+of a mighty inundation which early western writers sought to identify
+with Noah's Flood. Another interesting chapter gives various
+geographical details, and enumerates the articles, gold, silver, copper,
+iron, steel, silken fabrics, feathers, ivory, hides, &c., &c., brought
+in under the reign of the Great Yü, as tribute from neighbouring
+countries. Other chapters include royal proclamations, speeches to
+troops, announcements of campaigns victoriously concluded, and similar
+subjects. One peculiarly interesting document is the Announcement
+against Drunkenness, which seems to have been for so many centuries a
+national vice, and then to have practically disappeared as such. For the
+past two or three hundred years, drunkenness has always been the
+exception rather than the rule. The Announcement, delivered in the 12th
+century B.C., points out that King Wên, the founder of the Chou dynasty,
+had wished for wine to be used only in connexion with sacrifices, and
+that divine favours had always been liberally showered upon the people
+when such a restriction had been observed. On the other hand, indulgence
+in strong drink had invariably attracted divine vengeance, and the fall
+and disruption of states had often been traceable to that cause. Even
+on sacrificial occasions, drunkenness is to be condemned. "When,
+however, you high officials and others have done your duty in
+ministering to the aged and to your sovereign, you may then eat to
+satiety and drink to elevation." The Announcement winds up with an
+ancient maxim, "Do not seek to see yourself reflected in water, but in
+others,"--whose base actions should warn you not to commit the same;
+adding that those who after a due interval should be unable to give up
+intemperate habits would be put to death. It is worth noting, in
+concluding this brief notice of China's earliest records, that from
+first to last there is no mention whatever of any distant country from
+which the "black-haired people" may have originally come; no vestige of
+any allusion to any other form of civilization, such as that of
+Babylonia, with its cuneiform script and baked-clay tablets, from which
+an attempt has been made to derive the native-born civilization of
+China. A few odd coincidences sum up the chief argument in favour of
+this now discredited theory.
+
+    Annals of the Lu state.
+
+  The next step lands us on the confines, though scarcely in the domain,
+  of history properly so called. Among his other literary labours,
+  Confucius undertook to produce the annals of Lu, his native state; and
+  beginning with the year 722 B.C., he carried the record down to his
+  death in 479, after which it was continued for a few years, presumably
+  by Tso-ch'iu Ming, the shadowy author of the famous Commentary, to
+  which the text is so deeply indebted for vitality and illumination.
+  The work of Confucius is known as the _Ch'un Ch'iu_, the Springs and
+  Autumns, q.d. Annals. It consists of a varying number of brief entries
+  under each year of the reign of each successive ruler of Lu. The
+  feudal system, initiated more than four centuries previously, and
+  consisting of a number of vassal states owning allegiance to a central
+  suzerain state, had already broken hopelessly down, so far as
+  allegiance was concerned. For some time, the object of each vassal
+  ruler had been the aggrandizement of his own state, with a view either
+  to independence or to the hegemony, and the result was a state of
+  almost constant warfare. Accordingly, the entries in the _Ch'un Ch'iu_
+  refer largely to covenants entered into between contracting rulers,
+  official visits from one to another of these rulers, their births and
+  deaths, marriages, invasions of territory, battles, religious
+  ceremonies, &c., interspersed with notices of striking natural
+  phenomena such as eclipses, comets and earthquakes, and of important
+  national calamities, such as floods, drought and famine. For instance,
+  Duke Wên became ruler of Lu in 625 B.C., and under his 14th year, 612
+  B.C., we find twelve entries, of which the following are specimens:--
+
+  2. In spring, in the first month, the men of the Chu State invaded our
+  southern border.
+
+  3. In summer, on the I-hai day of the fifth month, P'an, Marquis of
+  the Ch'i State, died.
+
+  5. In autumn, in the seventh month, there was a comet, which entered
+  Pei-ton ([Greek: abgd] in Ursa Major).
+
+  9. In the ninth month, a son of the Duke of Ch'i murdered his ruler.
+
+  Entry 5 affords the earliest trustworthy instance of a comet in China.
+  A still earlier comet is recorded in what is known as The Bamboo
+  Annals, but the genuineness of that work is disputed.
+
+  It will be readily admitted that the _Ch'un Ch'iu_, written throughout
+  in the same style as the quotations given, would scarcely enable one
+  to reconstruct in any detail the age it professes to record. Happily
+  we are in possession of the _Tso Chuan_, a so-called commentary,
+  presumably by some one named Tso, in which the bald entries in the
+  work of Confucius are separately enlarged upon to such an extent and
+  with such dramatic brilliancy that our commentary reads more like a
+  prose epic than "a treatise consisting of a systematic series of
+  comments or annotations on the text of a literary work." Under its
+  guidance we can follow the intrigues, the alliances, the treacheries,
+  the ruptures of the jealous states which constituted feudal China; in
+  its picture pages we can see, as it were with our own eyes,
+  assassinations, battles, heroic deeds, flights, pursuits and the
+  sufferings of the vanquished from the retribution exacted by the
+  victors. Numerous wise and witty sayings are scattered throughout the
+  work, many of which are in current use at the present day.
+
+
+    The Historical Record.
+
+  History as understood in Europe and the west began in China with the
+  appearance of a remarkable man. Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, who flourished
+  145-87 B.C., was the son of an hereditary grand astrologer, also an
+  eager student of history and the actual planner of the great work so
+  successfully carried out after his death. By the time he was ten years
+  of age, Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien was already well advanced with his studies;
+  and at twenty he set forth on a round of travel which carried him to
+  all parts of the empire. Entering the public service, he was employed
+  upon a mission of inspection to the newly-conquered regions of
+  Ss[)u]ch'uan and Yünnan; in 110 B.C. his father died, and he stepped
+  into the post of grand astrologer. After devoting some time and energy
+  to the reformation of the calendar, he took up the work which had
+  been begun by his father and which was ultimately given to the world
+  as the _Shih Chi_, or Historical Record. This was arranged under five
+  great headings, namely, (l) Annals of Imperial Reigns, (2)
+  Chronological Tables, (3) Monographs, (4) Annals of Vassal Princes,
+  and (5) Biographies.
+
+
+    Burning of the Books.
+
+  The Historical Record begins with the so-called Yellow Emperor, who is
+  said to have come to the throne 2698 B.C. and to have reigned a
+  hundred years. Four other emperors are given, as belonging to this
+  period, among whom we find Yao and Shun, already mentioned. It was
+  China's Golden Age, when rulers and ruled were virtuous alike, and all
+  was peace and prosperity. It is discreetly handled in a few pages by
+  Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, who passes on to the somewhat firmer but still
+  doubtful ground of the early dynasties. Not, however, until the Chou
+  dynasty, 1122-255 B.C., had held sway for some three hundred years can
+  we be said to have reached a point at which history begins to separate
+  itself definitely from legend. In fact, it is only from the 8th
+  century before Christ that any trustworthy record can be safely dated.
+  With the 3rd century before Christ, we are introduced to one of the
+  feudal princes whose military genius enabled him to destroy beyond
+  hope of revival the feudal system which had endured for eight hundred
+  years, and to make himself master of the whole of the China of those
+  days. In 221 B.C. he proclaimed himself the "First Emperor," a title
+  by which he has ever since been known. Everything, including
+  literature, was to begin with his reign; and acting on the advice of
+  his prime minister, he issued an order for the burning of all books,
+  with the exception only of works relating to medicine, divination and
+  agriculture. Those who wished to study law were referred for oral
+  teaching to such as had already qualified in that profession. To carry
+  out the scheme effectively, the First Emperor made a point of
+  examining every day about 120 lb weight of books, in order to get rid
+  of such as he considered to be useless; and he further appointed a
+  number of inspectors to see that his orders were carried out. The
+  result was that about four hundred and sixty scholars were put to
+  death for having disobeyed the imperial command, while many others
+  were banished for life. This incident is known as the Burning of the
+  Books; and there is little doubt that, but for the devotion of the
+  literati, Chinese literature would have had to make a fresh start in
+  212 B.C. As it was, books were bricked up in walls and otherwise
+  widely concealed in the hope that the storm would blow over; and this
+  was actually the case when the Ch'in (Ts'in) dynasty collapsed and the
+  House of Han took its place in 206 B.C. The Confucian books were
+  subsequently recovered from their hiding-places, together with many
+  other works, the loss of which it is difficult now to contemplate.
+  Unfortunately, however, a stimulus was provided, not for the recovery,
+  but for the manufacture of writings, the previous existence of which
+  could be gathered either from tradition or from notices in the various
+  works which had survived. Forgery became the order of the day; and the
+  modern student is confronted with a considerable volume of literature
+  which has to be classified as genuine, doubtful, or spurious,
+  according to the merits of each case. To the first class belongs the
+  bulk, but not all, of the Confucian Canon; to the third must be
+  relegated such books as the _Tao Tê Ching_, to be mentioned later on.
+
+  Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, dying in 87 B.C., deals of course only with the
+  opening reigns of the Han dynasty, with which he brings to a close the
+  first great division of his history. The second division consists of
+  chronological tables; the third, of eight monographs on the following
+  topics: (1) Rites and Ceremonies, (2) Music, (3) Natural Philosophy,
+  (4) The Calendar, (5) Astronomy, (6) Religion, (7) Water-ways, and (8)
+  Commerce. On these eight a few remarks may not be out of place, (1)
+  The Chinese seem to have been in possession, from very early ages, of
+  a systematic code of ceremonial observances, so that it is no surprise
+  to find the subject included, and taking an important place, in
+  Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien's work. The _Li Chi_, or Book of Rites, which now
+  forms part of the Confucian Canon, is however a comparatively modern
+  compilation, dating only from the 1st century B.C. (2) The
+  extraordinary similarities between the Chinese and Pythagorean systems
+  of music force the conclusion that one of these must necessarily have
+  been derived from the other. The Jesuit Fathers jumped to the
+  conclusion that the Greeks borrowed their art from the Chinese; but it
+  is now common knowledge that the Chinese scale did not exist in China
+  until two centuries after its appearance in Greece. The fact is that
+  the ancient Chinese works on music perished at the Burning of the
+  Books; and we are told that by the middle of the 2nd century B.C. the
+  hereditary Court music-master was altogether ignorant of his art. What
+  we may call modern Chinese music reached China through Bactria, a
+  Greek kingdom, founded by Diodotus in 256 B.C., with which intercourse
+  had been established by the Chinese at an early date. (3) The term
+  Natural Philosophy can only be applied by courtesy to this essay,
+  which deals with twelve bamboo tubes of varying lengths, by means of
+  which, coupled with the twenty-eight zodiacal constellations and with
+  certain calendaric accords, divine communication is established with
+  the influences of the five elements and the points of the compass
+  corresponding with the eight winds. (4) In this connexion, it is worth
+  noting that in 104 B.C. the Chinese first adopted a cycle of nineteen
+  years, a period which exactly brings together the solar and the lunar
+  years; and further that this very cycle is said to have been
+  introduced by Meton, 5th century B.C., and was adopted at Athens about
+  330 B.C., probably reaching China, via Bactria, some two centuries
+  afterwards. (5) This chapter deals specially with the sun, moon and
+  five planets, which are supposed to aid in the divine government of
+  mankind. (6) Refers to the solemn sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, as
+  performed by the emperor upon the summit of Mt. T'ai in Shan-tung. (7)
+  Refers to the management of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow river, so often
+  spoken of as "China's Sorrow," and also of the numerous canals with
+  which the empire is intersected. (8) This chapter, which treats of the
+  circulation of money, and its function in the Chinese theory of
+  political economy, is based upon the establishment in 110 B.C. of
+  certain officials whose business it was to regularize commerce. It was
+  their duty to buy up the chief necessaries of life when abundant and
+  when prices were in consequence low, and to offer these for sale when
+  there was a shortage and when prices would otherwise have risen
+  unduly. Thus it was hoped that a stability in commercial transactions
+  would be attained, to the great advantage of the people. The fourth
+  division of the _Shih Chi_ is devoted to the annals of the reigns of
+  vassal princes, to be read in connexion with the imperial annals of
+  the first division. The final division, which is in many ways the most
+  interesting of all, gives biographical notices of eminent or notorious
+  men and women, from the earliest ages downwards, and enables us to
+  draw conclusions at which otherwise it would have been impossible to
+  arrive. Confucius and Mencius, for instance, stand out as real
+  personages who actually played a part in China's history; while all we
+  can gather from the short life of Lao Tz[)u], a part of which reads
+  like an interpolation by another hand, is that he was a more or less
+  legendary individual, whose very existence at the date usually
+  assigned to him, 7th and 6th centuries B.C., is altogether doubtful.
+  Scattered among these biographies are a few notices of frontier
+  nations; e.g. of the terrible nomads known as the Hsiung-nu, whose
+  identity with the Huns has now been placed beyond a doubt.
+
+  Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien's great work, on which he laboured for so many vears
+  and which ran to five hundred and twenty-six thousand five hundred
+  words, has been described somewhat at length for the following reason.
+  It has been accepted as the model for all subsequent dynastic
+  histories, of which twenty-four have now been published, the whole
+  being produced in 1747 in a uniform edition, bound up (in the
+  Cambridge Library) in two hundred and nineteen large volumes. Each
+  dynasty has found its historian in the dynasty which supplanted it;
+  and each dynastic history is notable for the extreme fairness with
+  which the conquerors have dealt with the vanquished, accepting without
+  demur such records of their predecessors as were available from
+  official sources. The T'ang dynasty, A.D. 618-906, offers in one sense
+  a curious exception to the general rule. It possesses two histories,
+  both included in the above series. The first of these, now known as
+  the Old T'ang History, was ultimately set aside as inaccurate and
+  inadequate, and a New T'ang History was compiled by Ou-yang Hsiu, a
+  distinguished scholar, poet and statesman of the 11th century.
+  Nevertheless, in all cases, the scheme of the dynastic history has,
+  with certain modifications, been that which was initiated in the 1st
+  century B.C. by Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien.
+
+
+    The Mirror of History.
+
+  The output of history, however, does not begin and end with the
+  voluminous records above referred to, one of which, it should be
+  mentioned, was in great part the work of a woman. History has always
+  been a favourite study with the Chinese, and innumerable histories of
+  a non-official character, long and short, complete and partial,
+  political and constitutional, have been showered from age to age upon
+  the Chinese reading world. Space would fail for the mere mention of a
+  tithe of such works; but there is one which stands out among the rest
+  and is especially enshrined in the hearts of the Chinese people. This
+  is the _T'ung Chien_, or Mirror of History, so called because "to view
+  antiquity as though in a mirror is an aid in the administration of
+  government." It was the work of a statesman of the 11th century, whose
+  name, by a coincidence, was Ss[)u]-ma Kuang. He had been forced to
+  retire from office, and spent nearly all the last sixteen years of his
+  life in historical research. The Mirror of History embraces a period
+  from the 5th century B.C. down to A.D. 960. It is written in a
+  picturesque style; but the arrangement was found to be unsuited to the
+  systematic study of history. Accordingly, it was subjected to
+  revision, and was to a great extent reconstructed by Chu Hsi, the
+  famous commentator, who flourished A.D. 1130-1200, and whose work is
+  now regarded as the standard history of China.
+
+_Biography._--In regard to biography, the student is by no means limited
+to the dynastic histories. Many huge biographical collections have been
+compiled and published by private individuals, and many lives of the
+same personages have often been written from different points of view.
+There is nothing very much by which a Chinese biography can be
+distinguished from biographies produced in other parts of the world. The
+Chinese writer always begins with the place of birth, but he is not so
+particular about the year, sometimes leaving that to be gathered from
+the date of death taken in connexion with the age which the person may
+have attained. Some allusion is usually made to ancestry, and the steps
+of an official career, upward by promotion or downward by disgrace, are
+also carefully noted.
+
+_Geography and Travel._--There is a considerable volume of Chinese
+literature which comes under this head; but if we exclude certain brief
+notices of foreign countries, there remains nothing in the way of
+general geography which had been produced prior to the arrival of the
+Jesuit Fathers at the close of the 16th century. Up to that period
+geography meant the topography of the Chinese empire; and of
+topographical records there is a very large and valuable collection.
+Every prefecture and department, some eighteen hundred in all, has each
+its own particular topography, compiled from records and from tradition
+with a fullness that leaves nothing to be desired. The buildings,
+bridges, monuments of archaeological interest, &c., in each district,
+are all carefully inserted, side by side with biographical and other
+local details, always of interest to residents and often to the outside
+public. An extensive general geography of the empire was last published
+in 1745; and this was followed by a chronological geography in 1794.
+
+
+  Fa Hsien.
+
+The Chinese have always been fond of travel, and hosts of travellers
+have published notices, more or less extensive, of the different parts
+of the empire, and even of adjacent nations, which they visited either
+as private individuals or, in the former case, as officials proceeding
+to distant posts. With Buddhism came the desire to see the country which
+was the home of the Buddha; and several important pilgrimages were
+undertaken with a view to bring back images and sacred writings to
+China. On such a journey the Buddhist priest, Fa Hsien, started in A.D.
+399; and after practically walking the whole way from central China,
+across the desert of Gobi, on to Khoten, and across the Hindu Kush into
+India, he visited many of the chief cities of India, until at length
+reaching Calcutta he took ship, and after a most adventurous voyage, in
+the course of which he remained two years in Ceylon, he finally arrived
+safely, in A.D. 414, with all his books, pictures, and images, at a spot
+on the coast of Shan-tung, near the modern German port of Kiao-chow.
+
+
+  Hsüan Tsang.
+
+Another of these adventurous priests was Hsüan Tsang (wrongly, Yüan
+Chwang), who left China on a similar mission in 629, and returned in
+645, bringing with him six hundred and fifty-seven Buddhist books,
+besides many images and pictures, and one hundred and fifty relics. He
+spent the rest of his life in translating, with the help of other
+learned priests, these books into Chinese, and completed in 648 the
+important record of his own travels, known as the Record of Western
+Countries.
+
+
+  Lao Tz[)u].
+
+_Philosophy._--Even the briefest _résumé_ of Chinese philosophical
+literature must necessarily include the name of Lao Tz[)u], although his
+era, as seen above, and his personality are both matters of the vaguest
+conjecture. A number of his sayings, scattered over the works of early
+writers, have been pieced together, with the addition of much
+incomprehensible jargon, and the whole has been given to the world as
+the work of Lao Tz[)u] himself, said to be of the 6th century B.C.,
+under the title of the _Tao Tê Ching_. The internal evidence against
+this book is overwhelming; e.g. one quotation had been detached from the
+writer who preserved it, with part of that writer's text clinging to
+it--of course by an oversight. Further, such a treatise is never
+mentioned in Chinese literature until some time after the Burning of the
+Books, that is, about four centuries after its alleged first appearance.
+Still, after due expurgation, it forms an almost complete collection of
+such apophthegms of Lao Tz[)u] as have come down to us, from which the
+reader can learn that the author taught the great doctrine of
+Inaction--Do nothing, and all things will be done. Also, that Lao Tz[)u]
+anticipated the Christian doctrine of returning good for evil, a
+sentiment which was highly reprobated by the practical mind of
+Confucius, who declared that evil should be met by justice. Among the
+more picturesque of his utterances are such paradoxes as, "He who knows
+how to shut, uses no bolts; yet you cannot open. He who knows how to
+bind uses no ropes; yet you cannot untie"; "The weak overcomes the
+strong; the soft overcomes the hard," &c.
+
+
+    Chuang Tz[)u].
+
+  These, and many similar subtleties of speech, seem to have fired the
+  imagination of Chuang Tz[)u], 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., with the
+  result that he put much time and energy into the glorification of Lao
+  Tz[)u] and his doctrines. Possessed of a brilliant style and a master
+  of irony, Chuang Tz[)u] attacked the schools of Confucius and Mo Ti
+  (see below) with so much dialectic skill that the ablest scholars of
+  the age were unable to refute his destructive criticisms. His pages
+  abound in quaint anecdotes and allegorical instances, arising as it
+  were spontaneously out of the questions handled, and imparting a
+  lively interest to points which might otherwise have seemed dusty and
+  dull. He was an idealist with all the idealist's hatred of a
+  utilitarian system, and a mystic with all the mystic's contempt for a
+  life of mere external activity. Only thirty-three chapters of his work
+  now remain, though so many as fifty-three are known to have been still
+  extant in the 3rd century; and even of these, several complete
+  chapters are spurious, while in others it is comparatively easy to
+  detect here and there the hand of the interpolator. What remains,
+  however, after all reductions, has been enough to secure a lasting
+  place for Chuang Tz[)u] as the most original of China's philosophical
+  writers. His book is of course under the ban of heterodoxy, in common
+  with all thought opposed to the Confucian teachings. His views as
+  mystic, idealist, moralist and social reformer have no weight with the
+  aspirant who has his way to make in official life; but they are a
+  delight, and even a consolation, to many of the older men, who have no
+  longer anything to gain or to lose.
+
+
+    Confucius.
+
+  Confucius, 551-479 B.C., who imagined that his Annals of the Lu State
+  would give him immortality, has always been much more widely
+  appreciated as a moralist than as an historian. His talks with his
+  disciples and with others have been preserved for us, together with
+  some details of his personal and private life; and the volume in which
+  these are collected forms one of the Four Books of the Confucian
+  Canon. Starting from the axiomatic declaration that man is born good
+  and only becomes evil by his environment, he takes filial piety and
+  duty to one's neighbour as his chief themes, often illustrating his
+  arguments with almost Johnsonian emphasis. He cherished a shadowy
+  belief in a God, but not in a future state of reward or punishment for
+  good or evil actions in this world. He rather taught men to be
+  virtuous for virtue's sake.
+
+
+    Mencius.
+
+    Mo Ti.
+
+    Yang Chu.
+
+    Hsün Tz[)u].
+
+    Yang Hsiung.
+
+  The discourses of Mencius, who followed Confucius after an interval of
+  a hundred years, 372-289 B.C., form another of the Four Books, the
+  remaining two of which are short philosophical treatises, usually
+  ascribed to a grandson of Confucius. Mencius devoted his life to
+  elucidating and expanding the teachings of the Master; and it is no
+  doubt due to him that the Confucian doctrines obtained so wide a
+  vogue. But he himself was more a politician and an economist (see
+  below) than a simple preacher of morality; and hence it is that the
+  Chinese people have accorded to him the title of The Second Sage. He
+  is considered to have effectually "snuffed out" the heterodox school
+  of Mo Ti, a philosopher of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. who
+  propounded a doctrine of "universal love" as the proper foundation for
+  organized society, arguing that under such a system all the calamities
+  that men bring upon one another would altogether disappear, and the
+  Golden Age would be renewed. At the same time Mencius exposed the
+  fallacies of the speculations of Yang Chu, 4th century B.C., who
+  founded a school of ethical egoism as opposed to the exaggerated
+  altruism of Mo Ti. According to Mencius, Yang Chu would not have
+  parted with one hair of his body to save the whole world, whereas Mo
+  Ti would have sacrificed all. Another early philosopher is Hsün
+  Tz[)u], 3rd century B.C. He maintained, in opposition to Mencius, who
+  upheld the Confucian dogma, and in conformity with Christian doctrine,
+  that the nature of man at his birth is evil, and that this condition
+  can only be changed by efficient moral training. Then came Yang
+  Hsiung, 53-18 B.C., who propounded an ethical criterion midway between
+  the rival positions insisted on by Mencius and Hsün Tz[)u], teaching
+  that the nature of man at birth is neither good nor evil, but a
+  mixture of both, and that development in either direction depends
+  wholly upon circumstances.
+
+
+    Huai-nan Tz[)u].
+
+  There is a voluminous and interesting work, of doubtful age, which
+  passes under the title of _Huai-nan Tz[)u]_, or the Philosopher of
+  Huai-nan. It is attributed to Liu An, prince of Huai-nan, who died 122
+  B.C., and who is further said to have written on alchemy; but alchemy
+  was scarcely known in China at the date of his death, being introduced
+  about that time from Greece. The author, whoever he may have been,
+  poses as a disciple of Lao Tz[)u]; but the speculations of Lao Tz[)u],
+  as glorified by Chuang Tz[)u], were then rapidly sinking into vulgar
+  efforts to discover the elixir of life. It is very difficult in many
+  cases of this kind to decide what books are, and what books are not,
+  partial or complete forgeries. In the present instance, the aid of the
+  _Shuo Wên_, a dictionary of the 1st century A.D. (see below), may be
+  invoked, but not in quite so satisfactory a sense as that in which it
+  will be seen lower down to have been applied to the _Tao Tê Ching_.
+  The _Shuo Wên_ contains a quotation said to be taken from _Huai-nan
+  Tz[)u]_; but that quotation cannot be found in the work under
+  consideration. It may be argued that the words in question may have
+  been taken from another work by the same author; but if so, it becomes
+  difficult to believe that a book, more than two hundred years old,
+  from which the author of the _Shuo Wên_ quoted, should have been
+  allowed to perish without leaving any trace behind. China has produced
+  its Bentleys in considerable numbers; but almost all of them have
+  given their attention to textual criticism of the Confucian Canon, and
+  few have condescended to examine critically the works of heterodox
+  writers. The foreign student therefore finds himself faced with many
+  knotty points he is entirely unable to solve.
+
+
+    Wang Ch'ung.
+
+  Of Wang Ch'ung, a speculative and materialistic philosopher, A.D.
+  27-97, banned by the orthodox for his attacks on Confucius and
+  Mencius, only one work has survived. it consists of eighty-four essays
+  on such topics as the nature of things, destiny, divination, death,
+  ghosts, poisons, miracles, criticisms of Confucius and Mencius,
+  exaggeration, sacrifice and exorcism. According to Wang Ch'ung, man,
+  endowed at birth sometimes with a good and sometimes with an evil
+  nature, is informed with a vital fluid, which resides in the blood and
+  is nourished by eating and drinking, its two functions being to
+  animate the body and keep in order the mind. It is the source of all
+  sensation, passing through the blood like a wave. When it reaches the
+  eyes, ears and mouth, the result is sight, hearing and speech
+  respectively. Disturbance of the vital fluid leads to insanity.
+  Without the fluid, the body cannot be maintained; without the body,
+  the fluid loses its vitality. Therefore, argues Wang Ch'ung, when the
+  body perishes and the fluid loses its vitality, each being dependent
+  on the other, there remains nothing for immortality in a life beyond
+  the grave. Ghosts he held to be the hallucinations of disordered
+  minds, and miracles to be natural phenomena capable of simple
+  explanations. His indictments of Confucius and Mencius are not of a
+  serious character; though, as regards the former, it must be borne in
+  mind that the Chinese people will not suffer the faintest aspersion on
+  the fair fame of their great Sage. It is related in the _Lun Yü_ that
+  Confucius paid a visit to the notoriously immoral wife of one of the
+  feudal nobles, and that a certain disciple was "displeased" in
+  consequence, whereupon the Master swore, saying, "If I have done any
+  wrong, may the sky fall and crush me!" Wang Ch'ung points out that the
+  form of oath adopted by Confucius is unsatisfactory and fails to carry
+  conviction. Had he said, "May I be struck dead by lightning!" his
+  sincerity would have been more powerfully attested, because people are
+  often struck dead by lightning; whereas the fall of the sky is too
+  remote a contingency, such a thing never having been known to happen
+  within the memory of man. As to Mencius, there is a passage in his
+  works which states that a thread of predestination runs through all
+  human life, and that those who accommodate themselves will come off
+  better in the end than those who try to oppose; it is in fact a
+  statement of the [Greek: ouk uper moron] principle. On this Wang
+  Ch'ung remarks that the will of God is consequently made to depend on
+  human actions; and he further strengthens his objection by showing
+  that the best men have often fared worst. For instance, Confucius
+  never became emperor; Pi Kan, the patriot, was disembowelled; the bold
+  and faithful disciple, Tz[)u] Lu, was chopped into small pieces.
+
+
+    Book of Changes.
+
+  But the tale of Chinese philosophers is a long one. It is a department
+  of literature in which the leading scholars of all ages have mostly
+  had something to say. The great Chu Hsi, A.D. 1130-1200, whose fame is
+  chiefly perhaps that of a commentator and whose monument is his
+  uniform exegesis of the Confucian Canon, was also a voluminous writer
+  on philosophy. He took a hand in the mystery which surrounds the _I
+  Ching_ (or _Yih King_), generally known as the Book of Changes, which
+  is held by some to be the oldest Chinese work and which forms part of
+  the Confucian Canon. It is ascribed to King Wên, the virtual founder
+  of the Chou dynasty, 1122-249 B.C., whose son became the first
+  sovereign and posthumously raised his father to kingly rank. It
+  contains a fanciful system of divination, deduced originally from
+  eight diagrams consisting of triplet combinations of a line and a
+  broken line, either one of which is necessarily repeated twice, and in
+  two cases three times, in the same combination. Thus there may be
+  three lines [Illustration], or three broken lines [Illustration], and
+  other such combinations as [Illustration] and [Illustration].
+  Confucius declared that he would like to give another fifty years to
+  the elucidation of this puzzling text. Shao Yung, A.D. 1011-1077,
+  sought the key in numbers: Ch'êng I., A.D. 1033-1107, in the eternal
+  fitness of things. "But Chu Hsi alone," says a writer of the 17th
+  century, "was able to pierce through the meaning and appropriate the
+  thoughts of the inspired man who composed it." No foreigner, however,
+  has been able quite to understand what Chu Hsi did make of it, and
+  several have gone so far as to set all native interpretations aside in
+  favour of their own. Thus, the _I Ching_ has been discovered by one to
+  be a calendar of the lunar year; by another, to contain a system of
+  phallic worship; and by a third, to be a vocabulary of the language of
+  a tribe, whose very existence had to be postulated for the purpose.
+
+
+    Kuan Chung.
+
+  _Political Economy._--This department of literature has been by no
+  means neglected by Chinese writers. So early as the 7th century B.C.
+  we find Kuan Chung, the prime minister of the Ch'i state, devoting his
+  attention to economic problems, and thereby making that state the
+  wealthiest and the strongest of all the feudal kingdoms. Beginning
+  life as a merchant, he passed into the public service, and left behind
+  him at death a large work, parts of which, as we now possess it, may
+  possibly have come direct from his own hand, the remainder being
+  written up at a later date in accordance with the principles he
+  inculcated. His ideal State was divided into twenty-one parts, fifteen
+  of which were allotted to officials and agriculturists, and six to
+  manufacturers and traders. His great idea was to make his own state
+  self-contained; and accordingly he fostered agriculture in order to be
+  independent in time of war, and manufactures in order to increase his
+  country's wealth in time of peace. He held that a purely agricultural
+  population would always remain poor; while a purely manufacturing
+  population would risk having its supplies of raw material cut off in
+  time of war. He warmly encouraged free imports as a means of enriching
+  his countrymen, trusting to their ability, under these conditions, to
+  hold their own against foreign competition. He protected capital, in
+  the sense that he considered capitalists to be necessary for the
+  development of commerce in time of peace, and for the protection of
+  the state in time of war.
+
+  Mencius (see above) was in favour of heavily taxing merchants who
+  tried to engross for the purpose of regrating, that is, to buy up
+  wholesale for the purpose of retailing at monopoly prices; he was in
+  fact opposed to all trusts and corners in trade. He was in favour of a
+  tax to be imposed upon such persons as were mere consumers, living
+  upon property which had been amassed by others and doing no work
+  themselves. No tax, however, was to be exacted from property-owners
+  who contributed by their personal efforts to the general welfare of
+  the community. The object of the tax was not revenue, but the
+  prevention of idleness with its attendant evil consequences to the
+  state.
+
+
+    Wang An-shih.
+
+  Wang An-shih, the Reformer, or Innovator, as he has been called,
+  flourished A.D. 1021-1086. In 1069 he was appointed state councillor,
+  and forthwith entered upon a series of startling reforms which have
+  given him a unique position in the annals of China. He established a
+  state monopoly in commerce, under which the produce of a district was
+  to be used first for the payment of taxes, then for the direct use of
+  the district itself, and the remainder was to be purchased by the
+  government at a cheap rate, either to be held until there was a rise
+  in price, or to be transported to some other district in need of it.
+  The people were to profit by fixity of prices and escape from further
+  taxation; and the government, by the revenue accruing in the process
+  of administration. There was also to be a system of state advances to
+  cultivators of land; not merely to the needy, but to all alike. The
+  loan was to be compulsory, and interest was to be paid on it at the
+  rate of 2% per month. The soil was to be divided into equal areas and
+  taxed according to its fertility in each case, without reference to
+  the number of inhabitants contained in each area. All these, and other
+  important reforms, failed to find favour with a rigidly conservative
+  people, and Wang An-shih lived long enough to see the whole of his
+  policy reversed.
+
+
+    Sun-Tz[)u].
+
+  _Military Writers._--Not much, relatively speaking, has been written
+  by the Chinese on war in general, strategy or tactics. There is,
+  however, one very remarkable work which has come down to us from the
+  6th century B.C., as to the genuineness of which there now seems to be
+  no reasonable doubt. A biographical notice of the author, Sun Wu, is
+  given in the _Shih Chi_ (see above), from which we learn that "he knew
+  how to handle an army, and was finally appointed General." His work,
+  entitled the _Art of War_, is a short treatise in thirteen chapters,
+  under the following headings: "Laying Plans," "Waging War," "Attack by
+  Stratagem," "Tactical Dispositions," "Energy," "Weak Points and
+  Strong," "Manoeuvring," "Variation of Tactics," "The Army on the
+  March," "Terrain," "The Nine Situations," "The Attack by Fire," and
+  "The Use of Spies." Although the warfare of Sun Wu's day was the
+  warfare of bow and arrow, of armoured chariots and push of pike,
+  certain principles inseparably associated with successful issue will
+  be found enunciated in his work. Professor Mackail, in his _Latin
+  Literature_ (p. 86), declares that Varro's _Imagines_ was "the first
+  instance in history of the publication of an illustrated book." But
+  reference to the Art Section of the history of the Western Han
+  dynasty, 206 B.C.-A.D. 25, will disclose the title of fifteen or
+  sixteen illustrated books, one of which is Sun Wu's _Art of War_.
+
+
+    Hsü Kuang-ch'i.
+
+  _Agriculture._--In spite of the high place accorded to agriculturists,
+  who rank second only to officials and before artisans and traders, and
+  in spite of the assiduity with which agriculture has been practised in
+  all ages, securing immunity from slaughter for the ploughing ox--what
+  agricultural literature the Chinese possess may be said to belong
+  entirely to modern times. Ch'ên Fu of the 12th century A.D. was the
+  author of a small work in three parts, dealing with agriculture,
+  cattle-breeding and silkworms respectively. There is also a well-known
+  work by an artist of the early 13th century, with forty-six woodcuts
+  illustrating the various operations of agriculture and weaving. This
+  book was reprinted under the emperor K'ang Hsi, 1662-1723, and new
+  illustrations with excellent perspective were provided by Chiao
+  Ping-chên, an artist who had adopted foreign methods as introduced by
+  the famous Jesuit, Matteo Ricci. The standard work on agriculture,
+  entitled _Nung Chêng Ch'üan Shu_, was compiled by Hsü Kuang-ch'i,
+  1562-1634, generally regarded as the only influential member of the
+  mandarinate who has ever become a convert to Christianity. It is in
+  sixty sections, the first three of which are devoted to classical
+  references. Then follow two sections on the division of land, six on
+  the processes of husbandry, none on hydraulics, four on agricultural
+  implements, six on planting, six on rearing silkworms, four on trees,
+  one on breeding animals, one on food and eighteen on provision against
+  a time of scarcity.
+
+
+    Pên Ts'no.
+
+  _Medicine and Therapeutics._--The oldest of the innumerable medical
+  works of all descriptions with which China has been flooded from time
+  immemorial is a treatise which has been credited to the Yellow Emperor
+  (see above), 2698-2598 B.C. It is entitled _Plain Questions of the
+  Yellow Emperor_, or _Su Wên_ for short, and takes the form of
+  questions put by the emperor and answered by Earl Ch'i, a minister,
+  who was himself author of the _Nei Ching_, a medical work no longer in
+  existence. Without accepting the popular attribution of the _Su Wên_,
+  it is most probable that it is a very old book, dating back to several
+  centuries before Christ, and containing traditional lore of a still
+  more remote period. The same may be said of certain works on cautery
+  and acupuncture, both of which are still practised by Chinese doctors;
+  and also of works on the pulse, the variations of which have been
+  classified and allocated with a minuteness hardly credible. Special
+  treatises on fevers, skin-diseases, diseases of the feet, eyes, heart,
+  &c., are to be found in great quantities, as well as veterinary
+  treatises on the treatment of diseases of the horse and the domestic
+  buffalo. But in the whole range of Chinese medical literature there is
+  nothing which can approach the _Pên Ts'ao_, or _Materia Medica_,
+  sometimes called the Herbal, a title (i.e. _Pên Ts'ao_) which seems to
+  have belonged to some book of the kind in pre-historic ages. The work
+  under consideration was compiled by Li Shih-chên, who completed his
+  task in 1578 after twenty-six years' labour. No fewer than eighteen
+  hundred and ninety-two species of drugs, animal, vegetable and
+  mineral, are dealt with, arranged under sixty-two classes in sixteen
+  divisions; and eight thousand one hundred and sixty prescriptions are
+  given in connexion with the various entries. The author professes to
+  quote from the original _Pên Ts'ao_, above mentioned; and we obtain
+  from his extracts an insight into some curious details. It appears
+  that formerly the number of recognized drugs was three hundred and
+  sixty-five in all, corresponding with the days of the year. One
+  hundred and twenty of these were called _sovereigns_ (cf. a sovereign
+  prescription); and were regarded as entirely beneficial to health,
+  taken in any quantity or for any time. Another similar number were
+  called _ministers_; some of these were poisonous, and all had to be
+  used with discretion. The remaining one hundred and twenty-five were
+  _agents_; all very poisonous, but able to cure diseases if not taken
+  in over-doses. The modern _Pên Ts'ao_, in its sixteen divisions, deals
+  with drugs classed under water, fire, earth, minerals, herbs, grain,
+  vegetables, fruit, trees, clothes and utensils, insects, fishes,
+  crustacea, birds, beasts and man. In each case the proper name of the
+  drug is first given, followed by its explanation, solution of doubtful
+  points, correction of errors, means of identification by taste, use in
+  prescriptions, &c. The work is fully illustrated, and there is an
+  index to the various medicines, classed according to the complaints
+  for which they are used.
+
+  _Divination, &c._--The practice of divination is of very ancient date
+  in China, traceable, it has been suggested, back to the Canon of
+  Changes (see above), which is commonly used by the lettered classes
+  for that purpose. A variety of other methods, the chief of which is
+  astrology, have also been adopted, and have yielded a considerable
+  bulk of literature. Even the officially-published almanacs still mark
+  certain days as suitable for certain undertakings, while other days
+  are marked in the opposite sense. The spirit of Zadkiel pervades the
+  Chinese empire. In like manner, geomancy is a subject on which many
+  volumes have been written; and the same applies to the pseudo sciences
+  of palmistry, physiognomy, alchemy (introduced from Greek sources) and
+  others.
+
+  _Painting._--Calligraphy, in the eyes of the Chinese, is just as much
+  a fine art as painting; the two are, in fact, considered to have come
+  into existence together, but as might be expected the latter occupies
+  the larger space in Chinese literature, and forms the subject of
+  numerous extensive works. One of the most important of these is the
+  _Hsüan Ho Hua P'u_, the author of which is unknown. It contains
+  information concerning two hundred and thirty-one painters and the
+  titles of six thousand one hundred and ninety-two of their pictures,
+  all in the imperial collection during the dynastic period _Hsüan Ho_,
+  A.D. 1119-1126, from which the title is derived. The artists are
+  classified under one of the following ten headings, supposed to
+  represent the line in which each particularly excelled: Religion,
+  Human Figures, Buildings, Barbarians (including their Animals),
+  Dragons and Fishes, Landscape, Animals, Flowers and Birds, The Bamboo,
+  Vegetables and Fruits.
+
+  _Music._--The literature of music does not go back to a remote period.
+  The Canon of Music, which was formerly included in the Confucian
+  Canon, has been lost for many centuries; and the works now available,
+  exclusive of entries in the dynastic histories, are not older than the
+  9th century A.D., to which date may be assigned the _Chieh Ku Lu_, a
+  treatise on the deerskin drum, said to have been introduced into China
+  from central Asia, and evidently of Scythian origin. There are several
+  important works of the 16th and 17th centuries, in which the history
+  and theory of music are fully discussed, and illustrations of
+  instruments are given, with measurements in each case, and the special
+  notation required.
+
+  _Miscellaneous._--Under this head may be grouped a vast number of
+  works, many of them exhaustive, on such topics as archaeology, seals
+  (engraved), numismatics, pottery, ink (the miscalled "Indian"),
+  mirrors, precious stones, tea, wine, chess, wit and humour, even
+  cookery, &c. There is, indeed, hardly any subject, within reasonable
+  limits, which does not find some corner in Chinese literature.
+
+
+    Lung Wei Pi Shu.
+
+  _Collections_.--Reprints of miscellaneous books and pamphlets in a
+  uniform edition, the whole forming a "library," has long been a
+  favourite means of disseminating useful (and other) information. Of
+  these, the _Lung Wei Pi Shu_ may be taken as a specimen. In bulk it
+  would be about the equivalent of twenty volumes, 8vo, of four hundred
+  pages to each. Among its contents we find the following. A handbook of
+  phraseology, with explanations; a short account of fabulous regions to
+  the N., S., E. and W.; notes on the plants and trees of southern
+  countries; biographical sketches of ninety-two wonderful personages;
+  an account of the choice of an empress, with standard measurements of
+  the height, length of limb, &c., of the ideal woman; "Pillow Notes" (a
+  term borrowed by the Japanese), or jottings on various subjects,
+  ranging from the Creation to an account of Fusang, a country where the
+  trees are thousands of feet high and of vast girth, thus supporting
+  the California, as opposed to the Mexico, identification of Fusang;
+  critiques on the style of various poets, and on the indebtedness of
+  each to earlier writers; a list of the most famous bronze vessels cast
+  by early emperors, with their dimensions, inscriptions, &c.; a
+  treatise on the bamboo; a list of famous swords, with dates of forging
+  and inscriptions; an account of the old Mongol palace, previous to its
+  destruction by the first Ming emperor; notes on the wild tribes of
+  China; historical episodes; biographical notices of one hundred and
+  four poets of the present dynasty; notes on archaeological,
+  supernatural and other topics, first published in the 9th century;
+  notes for bibliophiles on the care of books, and on paper, ink,
+  pictures and bric-à-brac; a collection of famous criminal cases; night
+  thoughts suggested by a meteor. Add to the above, numerous short
+  stories relating to magic, dreams, bilocation, and to almost every
+  possible phase of supernatural manifestation, and the reader will have
+  some idea of what he may expect in an ordinary "library" of a popular
+  character. It must always be remembered that with the Chinese, style
+  is of paramount importance. Documents, the subject-matter of which
+  would be recognized to be of no educative value, would still be
+  included, if written in a pleasing style, such as might be serviceable
+  as a model.
+
+  _Individual Authors_.--In a similar manner it has always been
+  customary for relatives or friends, sometimes for the trade, to
+  publish the "complete works" of important and often unimportant
+  writers; usually, soon after death. And as literary distinction has
+  hitherto almost invariably led to high office under the state, the
+  collected works of the great majority of authors open with selected
+  Memorials to the Throne and other documents of an official character.
+  The public interest in these may have long since passed away; but they
+  are valued by the Chinese as models of a style to be imitated, and the
+  foreign student occasionally comes across papers on once burning
+  questions arising out of commercial or diplomatic intercourse with
+  western nations. Then may follow--the order is not always the
+  same--the prefaces which the author contributed from time to time to
+  the literary undertakings of his friends. Preface-writing is almost a
+  department of Chinese literature. No one ever thinks of publishing a
+  book without getting one or more of his capable associates to provide
+  prefaces, which are naturally of a laudatory character, and always
+  couched in highly-polished and obscure terms, the difficulty of the
+  text being often aggravated by a fanciful and almost illegible script.
+  Prefaces written by emperors, many examples of which may be seen, are
+  of course highly esteemed, and are generally printed in coloured ink.
+  The next section may comprise biographical notices of eminent men and
+  women, or of mere local celebrities, who happened to die in the
+  author's day. Then will follow Records, a title which covers
+  inscriptions carved on the walls of new buildings, or on memorial
+  tablets, and also notes on pictures which the author may have seen,
+  places which he may have visited, or allegorical incidents which he
+  may have imagined. Then come disquisitions, or essays on various
+  subjects; researches, being short articles of archaeological interest;
+  studies or monographs; birthday congratulations to friends or to
+  official colleagues; announcements, as to deities, a cessation of
+  whose worship is threatened if the necessary rain or fair weather be
+  not forthcoming; funeral orations, letters of condolence, &c. The
+  above items will perhaps fill half a dozen volumes; the remaining
+  volumes, running to twenty or thirty in all, as the case may be, will
+  contain the author's poetry, together with his longer and more serious
+  works. The essential of such a collection is, in Chinese eyes, its
+  completeness.
+
+
+  San Kuo Chih.
+
+  Hung Lou Mêng.
+
+  Liao Chai.
+
+_Fiction_.--Although novels are not regarded as an integral part of
+literature proper, it is generally conceded that some novels may be
+profitably studied, if for no other reason, from the point of view of
+style. With the novel, however, we are no longer on perfectly safe
+ground in regard to that decency which characterizes, as has been above
+stated, the vast mass of Chinese literature. Chinese novels range, in
+this sense, from the simplest and most unaffected tale of daily life,
+down to low--not the lowest--depths of objectionable pornography. The
+_San Kuo Chih_, an historical romance based upon a period of disruption
+at the close of the 2nd century A.D., is a delightful book, packed with
+episodes of battle, heroism, self-sacrifice, skilful strategy, and all
+that goes to make up a stirring picture of strenuous times. Its author,
+who might almost have been Walter Scott, cannot be named for certain;
+but the work itself probably belongs to the 13th century, a date at
+which the novel begins to make its appearance in China. Previous to that
+time, there had been current an immense quantity of stories of various
+kinds, but nothing like a novel, as we understand the term. From the
+13th century onwards, the growth of the novel was continuous; and
+finally, in the 17th century, a point was reached which is not likely to
+be surpassed. The _Hung Lou Mêng_, the author of which took pains, for
+political reasons, to conceal his identity, is a creation of a very high
+order. Its plot is intricate and original, and the _dénouement_
+startlingly tragic. In the course of the story, the chief clue of which
+is love, woven in with intrigue, ambition, wealth, poverty, and other
+threads of human life, there occur no fewer than over four hundred
+characters, each one possessed of a distinctive personality drawn with
+marvellous skill. It contains incidents which recall the licence
+tolerated in Fielding; but the coarseness, like that of Fielding, is
+always on the surface, and devoid of the ulterior suggestiveness of the
+modern psychological novel. But perhaps no work of fiction has ever
+enjoyed such vogue among literary men as a collection of stories, some
+graceful, some weird, written in 1679 by P'u Sungling, a disappointed
+candidate at the public examinations. This collection, known as the
+_Liao Chai_, is exceedingly interesting to the foreign student for its
+sidelights on folklore and family life; to the native scholar, who
+professes to smile at the subject-matter as beyond the pale of genuine
+literature, it is simply invaluable as an expression of the most
+masterly style of which his language is capable.
+
+
+  Hsi Hsiang Chi.
+
+_Drama._--Simultaneously with the appearance of the novel, stage-plays
+seem to have come into existence in China. In the earliest ages there
+were set dances by trained performers, to the accompaniment of music and
+singing; and something of the kind, more or less ornate as regards the
+setting, has always been associated with solemn and festive occasions.
+But not until the days of the Mongol rule, A.D. 1260-1368, can the drama
+proper be said to have taken root and flourished in Chinese soil. The
+probability is that both the drama and the novel were introduced from
+Central Asia in the wake of the Mongol conquerors; the former is now
+specially essential to the everyday happiness of the Chinese people, who
+are perhaps the most confirmed playgoers in the world. There is an
+excellent collection of one hundred plays of the Mongol dynasty, with an
+illustration to each, first published in 1615; there is also a further
+large collection, issued in 1845, which contains a great number of plays
+arranged under sixty headings, according to the style and purport of
+each, besides many others. There is one famous play of the Mongol period
+which deals largely in plot and passion, and is a great favourite with
+the educated classes. It is entitled _Hsi Hsiang Chi_, or the Story of
+the Western Pavilion; and as if there was a doubt as to the reception
+which would be accorded to the work, a minatory sentence was inserted in
+the prolegomena: "If any one ventures to call this book indecent, he
+will certainly have his tongue torn out in hell." So far as the written
+play is concerned, its language is altogether unobjectionable; on the
+stage, by means of gag and gesture, its presentation is often unseemly
+and coarse. What the Chinese playgoer delights in, as an evening's
+amusement, is a succession of plays which are more of the nature of
+sketches, slight in construction and generally weak in plot, some of
+them based upon striking historical episodes, and others dealing with a
+single humorous incident.
+
+  _Dictionaries._--The _Erh Ya_, or Nearing the Standard, is commonly
+  classed as a dictionary, and is referred by native scholars generally
+  to the 12th century B.C. The entries are arranged under nineteen
+  heads, to facilitate reference, and explain a large number of words
+  and phrases, including names of beasts, birds, plants and fishes. The
+  work is well illustrated in the large modern edition; but the actual
+  date of composition is an entirely open question, and the insertion of
+  woodcuts must necessarily belong to a comparatively late age (see
+  _Military Writers_).
+
+
+    Shuo Wên.
+
+  With the _Shuo Wên_, or Explanation of Written Words, we begin the
+  long list of lexicographical works which constitute such a notable
+  feature in Chinese literature. A scholar, named Hsü Shên, who died
+  about A.D. 120, made an effort to bring together and analyse all the
+  characters it was possible to gather from the written language as it
+  existed in his own day. He then proceeded to arrange these
+  characters--about ten thousand in all--on a system which would enable
+  a student to find a given word without having possibly to search
+  through the whole book. To do this, he simply grouped together all
+  such as had a common part, more or less indicative of the meaning of
+  each, much as though an English dictionary were to consist of such
+  groups as
+
+    Dog-days
+    Dog-kennel
+    Dog-collar
+    Dog-meat
+    Dog-nap
+
+  and so on.
+
+    Horse-collar
+    Horse-flesh
+    Horse-back
+    Horse-fly
+    Horse-chestnut
+
+  and so on.
+
+  Hsü Shên selected five hundred and forty of these common parts, or
+  Radicals (see _Language_), a number which, as will be seen later on,
+  was found to be cumbrously large; and under each Radical he inserted
+  all the characters belonging to it, but with no particular order or
+  arrangement, so that search was still, in many cases, quite a
+  laborious task. The explanations given were chiefly intended to
+  establish the pictorial origin of the language; but whereas no one now
+  disputes this as a general conclusion, the steps by which Hsü Shên
+  attempted to prove his theory must in a large number of instances be
+  dismissed as often inadequate and sometimes ridiculous. Nevertheless,
+  it was a great achievement; and the _Shuo Wên_ is still indispensable
+  to the student of the particular script in vogue a century or two
+  before Christ. It is also of value in another sense. It may be used,
+  with discretion, in testing the genuineness of an alleged ancient
+  document, which, if an important or well-known document before the age
+  of Hsü Shên, would not be likely to contain characters not given in
+  his work. Under this test the _Tao Tê Ching_, for instance, breaks
+  down (see _Huai-nan Tz[)u]_).
+
+  Passing over a long series of dictionaries and vocabularies which
+  appeared at various dates, some constructed on Hsü Shên's plan, with
+  modifications and improvements, and others, known as phonetic
+  dictionaries, arranged under the finals according to the Tones, we
+  come to the great standard lexicon produced under the auspices, and
+  now bearing the name of the emperor K'ang Hsi, A.D. 1662-1723.
+
+
+    Phonetic dictionaries.
+
+  But before proceeding, a rough attempt may be made to exhibit in
+  English terms the principle of the phonetic as compared with the
+  radical dictionary described above. In the spoken language there would
+  occur the word _light_, the opposite of dark, and this would be
+  expressed in writing by a certain symbol. Then, when it became
+  necessary to write down _light_, the opposite of heavy, the result
+  would be precisely what we see in English. But as written words
+  increased, always with a limited number of vocables (see _Language_),
+  this system was found to be impracticable, and Radicals were inserted
+  as a means of distinguishing one kind of _light_ from another, but
+  without altering the original sound. Now, in the phonetic dictionary
+  the words are no longer arranged in such groups as
+
+    Sun-light
+    Sun-beam
+    Sun-stroke
+    Sun-god, &c.
+
+  according to the Radicals, but in such groups as
+
+    Sun-light
+    Moon-light
+    Foot-light
+    Gas-light, &c.
+
+  according to the phonetics, all the above four being pronounced simply
+  _light_, without reference to the radical portion which guides towards
+  the limited sense of the term. So, in a phonetic dictionary, we should
+  have such a group as
+
+    Brass-bound
+    Morocco-bound
+    Half-bound
+    Spell-bound
+    Homeward-bound
+    Wind-bound
+
+  and so on, all the above six being pronounced simply _bound_. To
+  return to "K'ang Hsi," as the lexicon in question is familiarly
+  styled, the total number of characters given therein amounts to over
+  forty-four thousand, grouped no longer under the five hundred and
+  forty Radicals of Hsü Shên, but under the much more manageable number
+  of two hundred and fourteen, as already used in earlier dictionaries.
+  Further, as the groups of characters would now be more than four times
+  as large as in the _Shuo Wên_, they were subdivided under each Radical
+  according to the number of strokes in the other, or phonetic part of
+  the character. Thus, adopting letters as strokes, for the purpose of
+  illustration, we should have "dog-nap" in the group of Radical "dog"
+  and three strokes, while "dog-days" and "dog-meat" would both be found
+  under Radical "dog" with four strokes, and so on. The two hundred and
+  fourteen Radicals are themselves arranged in groups according to the
+  number of strokes; so that it is not a very arduous task to turn up
+  ordinary characters in a Chinese dictionary. Finally, although Chinese
+  is a monosyllabic and non-alphabetic language, a method has been
+  devised, and has been in use since the 3rd century A.D., by which the
+  sound of any word can be indicated in a dictionary otherwise than by
+  simply quoting a word of similar sound, which of course may be equally
+  unknown to the searcher. Thus, the sound of a word pronounced _ching_
+  can be exhibited by selecting two words, one having the initial _ch_,
+  and the other a final _ing_. E.g. the sound _ching_ is given as _chien
+  ling_; that is _ch[ien l]ing = ching_.
+
+  _The Concordance._--Considering the long unbroken series of years
+  during which Chinese literature has always, in spite of many losses,
+  been steadily gaining in bulk, it is not astonishing to find that
+  classical, historical, mythological and other allusions to personages
+  or events of past times have also grown out of all proportion to the
+  brain capacity even of the most brilliant student. Designed especially
+  to meet this difficulty, there are several well-known handbooks,
+  elementary and advanced, which trace such allusions to their source
+  and provide full and lucid explanations; but even the most extensive
+  of these is on a scale incommensurate with the requirements of the
+  scholar. Again, it is due to the emperor K'ang Hsi that we possess one
+  of the most elaborate compilations of the kind ever planned and
+  carried to completion. The _P'ei Wên Yün Fu_, or Concordance to
+  Literature, is a key, not only to allusions in general, but to all
+  phraseology, including allusions, idiomatic expressions and other
+  obscure combinations of words, to be found in the classics, in the
+  dynastic histories, and in all poets, historians, essayists, and
+  writers of recognized eminence in their own lines. No attempt at
+  explanation is given; but enough of the passage, or passages, in which
+  the phrase occurs, is cited to enable the reader to gather the meaning
+  required. The trouble, of course, lies with the arrangement of these
+  phrases in a non-alphabetic language. Recourse has been had to the
+  Rhymes and the five Tones (see _Language_); and all phrases which end
+  with the same word form one of a number of groups which appear under
+  the same Rhyme, the Rhymes themselves being distributed over five
+  Tones. Thus, to find any phrase, the first point is to discover what
+  is its normal Rhyme; the next is to ascertain the Tone of that Rhyme.
+  Then, under this Tone-group the Rhyme-word will be found, and under
+  the Rhyme-word group will be found the final word of the phrase in
+  question. It will now only remain to run through this last group of
+  phrases, all of which have this same final word, and the search--so
+  vast is the collection--will usually yield a satisfactory result. The
+  _P'ei Wên Yün Fu_ runs of course to many volumes; a rough estimate
+  shows it to contain over fifteen million words.
+
+
+    Yuan Lo Ta Tien.
+
+  _Encyclopaedias._--In their desire to bring together condensed, yet
+  precise, information on a large variety of subjects, the Chinese may
+  be said to have invented the encyclopaedia. Though not the earliest
+  work of this kind, the _T'ai P'ing Yü Lan_ is the first of any great
+  importance. It was produced towards the close of the 10th century
+  A.D., under the direct supervision of the emperor, who is said to have
+  examined three sections every day for about a year, the total number
+  of sections being one thousand in all, arranged under fifty-five
+  headings. Another similar work, dealing with topics drawn from the
+  lighter literature of China, is the _T'ai P'ing Kuang Chi_, which was
+  issued at about the same date as the last-mentioned. Both of these,
+  and especially the former, have passed through several editions. They
+  help to inaugurate the great Sung dynasty, which for three centuries
+  to follow effected so much in the cause of literature. Other
+  encyclopaedias, differing in scope and in plan, appeared from time to
+  time, but it will be necessary to concentrate attention upon two only.
+  The third emperor of the Ming dynasty, known as Yung Lo, A.D.
+  1403-1425, issued a commission for the production of a work on a scale
+  which was colossal even for China. His idea was to collect together
+  all that had ever been written in the four departments of (1) the
+  Confucian Canon, (2) History, (3) Philosophy and (4) General
+  Literature, including astronomy, geography, cosmogony, medicine,
+  divination, Buddhism, Taoism, arts and handicrafts; and in 1408 such
+  an encyclopaedia was laid before the Throne, received the imperial
+  approval and was named _Yung Lo Ta Tien_, or The Great Standard of
+  Yung Lo. To achieve this, 3 commissioners, with 5 directors, 20
+  sub-directors and a staff of 2141 assistants, had laboured for the
+  space of five years. Its contents ran to no fewer than 22,877 separate
+  sections, to which must be added an index filling 60 sections. Each
+  section contained about 20 leaves, making a total of 917,480 pages for
+  the whole work. Each page consisted of sixteen columns of characters
+  averaging twenty-five to each column, or a total of 366,992,000
+  characters, to which, in order to bring the amount into terms of
+  English words, about another third would have to be added. This
+  extraordinary work was never printed, as the expense would have been
+  too great, although it was actually transcribed for that purpose; and
+  later on, two more copies were made, one of which was finally stored
+  in Peking and the other, with the original, in Nanking. Both the
+  Nanking copies perished at the fall of the Ming dynasty; and a similar
+  fate overtook the Peking copy, with the exception of a few odd
+  volumes, at the siege of the legations in 1900. The latter was bound
+  up in 11,100 volumes, covered with yellow silk, each volume being 1
+  ft. 8 in. in length by 1 ft. in breadth, and averaging over ½ in. in
+  thickness. This would perhaps be a fitting point to conclude any
+  notice of Chinese encyclopaedias, but for the fact that the work of
+  Yung Lo is gone while another encyclopaedia, also on a huge scale,
+  designed and carried out sonic centuries later, is still an important
+  work of reference.
+
+
+    T'u Shu.
+
+  The _T'u Shu Chi Ch'êng_ was planned, and to a great extent made
+  ready, under instructions from the emperor K'ang Hsi (see above), and
+  was finally brought out by his successor, Yung Chêng, 1723-1736.
+  Intended to embrace all departments of knowledge, its contents were
+  distributed over six leading categories, which for want of better
+  equivalents may be roughly rendered by (l) Heaven, (2) Earth, (3) Man,
+  (4) Arts and Sciences, (5) Philosophy and (6) Political Science. These
+  were subdivided into thirty-two classes; and in the voluminous index
+  which accompanies the work a further attempt was made to bring the
+  searcher into still closer touch with the individual items treated.
+  Thus, the category Heaven is subdivided into four classes,
+  namely--again, for want of better terms--(_a_) The Sky and its
+  Manifestations, (_b_) The Seasons, (_c_) Astronomy and Mathematics and
+  (_d_) Natural Phenomena. Under these classes come the individual
+  items; and here it is that the foreign student is often at a loss. For
+  instance, class _a_ includes Earth, in its cosmogonic sense, as the
+  mother of mankind; Heaven, in its original sense of God; the Dual
+  Principle in nature; the Sun, Moon and Stars; Wind; Clouds; Rainbow;
+  Thunder and Lightning; Rain; Fire, &c. But Earth is itself a
+  geographical category; and all strange phenomena relating to many of
+  the items under class _a_ are recorded under class _d_. Category No.
+  6, marked as Political Science, contains such classes as Ceremonial,
+  Music and Administration of Justice, alongside of Handicrafts, making
+  it essential to study the arrangement carefully before it is possible
+  to consult the work with ease. Such preliminary trouble is, however,
+  well repaid, the amount of information given on any particular subject
+  being practically coextensive with what is known about that subject.
+  The method of presenting such information, with variations to suit the
+  nature of the topics handled, is to begin with historical excerpts,
+  chronologically arranged. These are usually followed by sometimes
+  lengthy essays dealing with the subject as a theme, taken from the
+  writings of qualified authors, and like all the other entries, also
+  chronologically arranged. Then come elegant extracts in prose and
+  verse, in all of which the subject may be simply mentioned and not
+  treated as in the essays. After these follow minor notices of
+  incidents, historical and otherwise, and all kinds of anecdotes,
+  derived from a great variety of sources. Occasionally, single poetical
+  lines are brought together, each contributing, some thought or
+  statement germane to the subject, expressed in elegant or forcible
+  terms; and also, wherever practicable, biographies of men and women
+  are inserted.
+
+  Chronological and other tables are supplied where necessary, as well
+  as a very large number of illustrations, many of these being
+  reproductions of woodcuts from earlier works. It is said that the _T'u
+  Shu Chi Ch'êng_ was printed from movable copper type cast by the
+  Jesuit Fathers employed by the emperor K'ang Hsi at Peking; also that
+  only a hundred copies were struck off, the type being then destroyed.
+  An 8vo edition of the whole encyclopaedia was issued at Shanghai in
+  1889; this is bound up in sixteen hundred and twenty-eight handy
+  volumes of about two hundred pages each. A copy of the original
+  edition stands on the shelves of the British Museum, and a translation
+  of the Index has recently been completed.
+
+_Manuscripts and Printing._--At the conclusion of this brief survey of
+Chinese literature it may well be asked how such an enormous and
+ever-increasing mass has been handed down from generation to generation.
+According to the views put forth by early Chinese antiquarians, the
+first written records were engraved with a special knife upon bamboo
+slips and wooden tablets. The impracticability of such a process, as
+applied to books, never seems to have dawned upon those writers; and
+this snowball of error, started in the 7th century, long after the knife
+and the tablet had disappeared as implements of writing, continued to
+gather strength as time went on. Recent researches, however, have placed
+it beyond doubt that when the Chinese began to write in a literary
+sense, as opposed to mere scratchings on bones, they traced their
+characters on slips of bamboo and tablets of wood with a bamboo pencil,
+frayed at one end to carry the coloured liquid which stood in the place
+of ink. The knife was used only to erase. So things went on until about
+200 B.C., when it would appear that a brush of hair was substituted for
+the bamboo pencil; after which, silk was called into requisition as an
+appropriate vehicle in connexion with the more delicate brush. But silk
+was expensive and difficult to handle, so that the invention of paper in
+A.D. 105 by a eunuch, named Ts'ai Lun, came as a great boon, although it
+seems clear that a certain kind of paper, made from silk floss, was in
+use before his date. However that may be, from the 1st century onwards
+the Chinese have been in possession of the same writing materials that
+are in use at the present day.
+
+In A.D. 170, Ts'ai Yung, who rose subsequently to the highest offices of
+state, wrote out on stone in red ink the authorized text of the Five
+Classics, to be engraved by workmen, and thus handed down to posterity.
+The work covered forty-six huge tablets, of which a few fragments are
+said to be still in existence. A similar undertaking was carried out in
+837, and the later tablets are still standing at a temple in the city of
+Hsi-an Fu, Shensi. With the T'ang dynasty, rubbings of famous
+inscriptions, wherein the germ of printing may be detected, whether for
+the style of the composition or for the calligraphic excellence of the
+script, came very much into vogue with scholars and collectors. It is
+also from about the same date that the idea of multiplying on paper
+impressions taken from wooden blocks seems to have arisen, chiefly in
+connexion with religious pictures and prayers. The process was not
+widely applied to the production of books until the 10th century, when
+in A.D. 932 the Confucian Canon was printed for the first time. In 981
+orders were issued for the _T'ai P'ing Kuang Chi_, an encyclopaedia
+extending to many volumes (see above) to be cut on blocks for printing.
+Movable types of baked clay are said to have been invented by an
+alchemist, named Pi Shêng, about A.D. 1043; and under the Ming dynasty,
+1368-1644, these were made first of wood, and later of copper or lead,
+but movable types have never gained the favour accorded to
+block-printing, by means of which most of China's great typographical
+triumphs have been achieved. The process is, and always has been, the
+same all over China. Two consecutive pages of a book, separated by a
+column containing the title, number of section, and number of leaf, are
+written out and pasted face downwards on a block of wood (_Lindera
+tz[)u]-mu_, Hemsl.). This paper, where not written upon, is cut away
+with sharp tools, leaving the characters in relief, and of course
+backwards, as in the case of European type. The block is then inked, and
+an impression is taken off, on one side of the paper only. This sheet is
+then folded down the middle of the separating column above mentioned, so
+that the blank halves come together, leaving two pages of printed matter
+outside; and when enough sheets have been brought together, they are
+stabbed at the open ends and form a volume, to be further wrapped in
+paper or pasteboard, and labelled with title, &c. It is almost
+superfluous to say that the pages of a Chinese book must not be cut.
+There is nothing inside, and, moreover, the column bearing the title and
+leaf-number would be cut through. The Chinese newspapers of modern times
+are all printed from movable types, an ordinary fount consisting of
+about six to seven thousand characters.
+
+  See J. Legge, _The Chinese Classics_ (1861-1872); A. Wylie, _Notes on
+  Chinese Literature_ (1867); E. Chavannes, _Mémoires historiques_
+  (1895-1905); H.A. Giles, _Chuang Tz[)u]_ (1889), _A Chinese
+  Biographical Dictionary_ (1898), and _A History of Chinese Literature_
+  (1901); A. Forke, _Lun-Hêng_ (1907); F. Hirth, _The Ancient History of
+  China_ (1908); L. Giles, _Sun Tz[)u]_ (1910).    (H. A. GI.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] As to the origin of the names China and Cathay (the medieval
+    name) see below § _History_. According to one theory the name China
+    is of Malay origin, designating originally the region now called
+    Indo-China, but transferred in early times to China proper. By the
+    Chinese the country is often called _Shih-pa-shêng_, "the Eighteen
+    Provinces," from the number of its great territorial divisions. It
+    is also called _Chung-kwo_, "the Middle Kingdom," properly used of
+    the central part of China, and _Hwa-kwo_, "the Flowery Kingdom."
+
+  [2] A Chinese mile, _li_, or _le_ = 0.36 English mile.
+
+  [2] For the Grand Canal the chief authority is Dominique Gandar, S.J.,
+    "Le Canal Impérial. Étude historique et descriptive," _Variétés
+    sinologiques_ No. 4 (Shanghai, 1903); see also Stenz, "Der
+    Kaiserkanal," in _Beiträgen zur Kolonialpolitik_, Band v. (Berlin,
+    1903-1904), and the works of Ney Elias, Sir J.F. Davis, A.
+    Williamson, E.H. Parker and W.R. Carles.
+
+  [4] Nevertheless there is considerable local traffic. The transit
+    trade with Shan-tung, passing the Chin-kiang customs and using some
+    250 m. of the worst part of the canal, was valued in 1905 at
+    3,331,000 taels.
+
+  [5] The portion of the wall which abutted on to the sea has been
+    destroyed.
+
+  [6] See the _Geog. Jnl._ (Feb. and March 1907). For a popular
+    account of the wall, with numerous photographs, see _The Great Wall
+    of China_ (London, 1909), by W.E. Giel, who in 1908 followed its
+    course from east to west. Consult also A. Williamson, _Journey in
+    North China_ (London, 1870); Martin, "La Grande Muraille de la
+    Chine," _Revue scientifique_ (1891).
+
+  [7] For Shanghai the figures are compiled from twenty-six years'
+    observations. See _China Sea Directory_, vol. iii. (4th ed., 1904)
+    p. 660.
+
+  [8] The thermometer registered 23° F. in January 1893, on the river
+    28 m. below Canton. This is the lowest reading known. Ibid, pp.
+    104-105.
+
+  [9] See W.W. Rockhill, _Inquiry into the Population of China_
+    (Washington, 1904).
+
+  [10] For a bibliography of works relating to the aboriginal races of
+    China see Richard's _Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire_
+    (1908 ed.), pp. 371-373.
+
+  [11] Evidences of the social changes taking place in China are to be
+    found in the strong movement for the education of girls, and in the
+    formation of societies, under official patronage, to prevent the
+    binding of women's feet.
+
+  [12] It must be remembered that there is great variety in the
+    costumes worn in the various provinces. The particulars here given
+    are of the most general styles of dress.
+
+  [13] Richard's _Comprehensive Geography_, &c. (1908 edition), pp.
+    340-341.
+
+  [14] Otherwise Ab[=u] Ja'far Ibn Mahommed al-Mans[=u]r (see CALIPHATE,
+    C. § 2).
+
+  [15] For a summary of Chang Chih-tung's treatise, see _Changing
+    China_ (1910 edition), chap. xxii.
+
+  [16] It was announced in June 1910 that the throne had approved a
+    recommendation of the Board of Education that English should be the
+    official language for scientific and technical education, and that
+    the study of English should be compulsory in all provincial
+    scientific and technical schools.
+
+  [17] See _The Times_ of the 19th of February and the 3rd of May 1910.
+
+  [18] Another peculiarity of loess in China is that it lends itself
+    readily to the excavation of dwellings for the people. In many
+    places whole villages live in cave dwellings dug out in the vertical
+    wall of loess. They construct spiral staircases, selecting places
+    where the ground is firm, and excavate endless chambers and recesses
+    which are said to be very comfortable and salubrious.
+
+  [19] See J. Edkins, _The Poppy in China_, and H.B. Morse, _The Trade
+    and Administration of the Chinese Empire_, chap. xi.
+
+  [20] Richard's _Comprehensive Geography, &c._ (1908 edition), p. 144.
+
+  [21] In the 18th century foreign trade was restricted to Canton. In
+    the 17th century, however, the Dutch traded to Formosa and Amoy, and
+    the English to Amoy also. The Portuguese traded with Canton as early
+    as 1517. For the early intercourse between Portugal and China see
+    the introductory chapter in Donald Ferguson's _Letters from
+    Portuguese Captives in Canton_ (Bombay, 1902).
+
+  [22] From _The Statesman's Year Book_, 1910 edition.
+
+  [23] See _The Times_ of the 28th of March 1910.
+
+  [24] See Morse, _op. cit._ chap. x.
+
+  [25] The maritime customs had established a postal service for its
+    own convenience in 1861, and it first gave facilities to the general
+    public in 1876. An organized service for the conveyance of
+    government despatches has existed in China for many centuries, and
+    the commercial classes maintain at their own expense a system
+    ("letter hongs") for the transmission of correspondence.
+
+  [26] For the causes leading to this movement and the progress of
+    reform see § _History_.
+
+  [27] For recent authoritative accounts of the government of China
+    see H.B. Morse, _The Trade and Administration of the Chinese
+    Empire_, chap. iii.; Richard's _Comprehensive Geography_, &c., Bk.
+    I. § v., and _The Statesman's Year Book_.
+
+  [28] The empress-consort is chosen by the emperor from a number of
+    girls selected by his ministers from the families of Manchu nobles.
+    From the same candidates the emperor also selects
+    secondary-empresses (usually not more than four). Concubines, not
+    limited in number, are chosen from the daughters of Manchu nobles
+    and free-men. All the children are equally legitimate.
+
+  [29] Recent emperors have been children at accession and have been
+    kept in seclusion.
+
+  [30] See "Democratic China" in H.A. Giles, _China and the Chinese_.
+
+  [31] W.F. Mayers, _The Chinese Government_ (1878).
+
+  [32] This body is superseded by the Imperial Senate summoned to meet
+    for the first time on the 3rd of October 1910.
+
+  [33] Yamên is the name given to the residences of all high
+    officials. Tsung-li Yamên = the bureau for managing each (foreign)
+    kingdom's affairs.
+
+  [34] An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a naval and military
+    advisory board. Up to that time the navy was controlled by the
+    viceroys at Canton, Nanking, Fu-chow and Tientsin; the viceroys at
+    Canton and Tientsin being ministers superintendent of the southern
+    and northern ports respectively.
+
+  [35] Thus in 1910 Prince Ching, president of the grand council, was,
+    for the third time, impeached by censors, being denounced as an "old
+    treacherous minister," who filled the public service with a crowd of
+    men as unworthy as himself. The censor who made the charge was
+    stripped of his office (see _The Times_ of the 30th of March 1910).
+
+  [36] For details of local government see Richard's _Comprehensive
+    Geography_, 1908 edition, pp. 301 et seq.
+
+  [37] Morse, op. cit., 1908 edition, p. 76
+
+  [38] See _The Times_ of the 28th of February 1910.
+
+  [39] See _The Statesman's Year-Book_ (1910 edition).
+
+  [40] A few of the old native customs stations, which are deemed
+    perquisites of the imperial court, may also be excepted, as, for
+    instance, the native custom-house at Canton, Hwei Kwan on the Grand
+    Canal, and various stations in the neighbourhood of Peking.
+
+  [41] The production of a budget in 1915 was promised in one of the
+    reform edicts of 1908.
+
+  [42] In this article the tael used as a standard is the Haikwan (i.e.
+    customs) tael, worth about 3s. It fluctuates with the value of
+    silver.
+
+  [43] Roughly £43,000,000.
+
+  [44] _Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire_ (1910), p. 118.
+
+  [45] Temporary reductions are granted in provinces affected by
+    rebellion, drought or flood.
+
+  [46] Information as to what extent the expenses of the new army and
+    navy are met by the central government is lacking.
+
+  [47] To meet the expenditure on interest and redemption of the
+    indemnities for the Boxer outrages the Peking government required
+    the provincial authorities to increase their annual remittances by
+    taels 18,700,000 during the years 1902-1910.
+
+  [48] It must be remembered that the Haikwan tael is here indicated.
+
+  [49] See Morse's _Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire_,
+    chap. ix.
+
+  [50] A supplementary exchange of notes of the same date excepted
+    from the scope of this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang
+    extension which had already been conceded to the Hongkong & Shanghai
+    Bank.
+
+  [51] The religious aspect of the Boxer movement gave it strength.
+    Its disciples believed that the spirits which defended China were
+    incensed by the introduction of Western methods and ideals. Many of
+    them believed themselves to be invulnerable to any Western weapon.
+    (See Lord W. Cecil, _Changing China_, 1910, ch. i.)
+
+  [52] The diary of a Manchu noble printed in _China under the Empress
+    Dowager_ (1910) by J.O. Bland and E. Backhouse throws light on the
+    subject. It was to Jung-Lu, father-in-law of Prince Chin, that the
+    legations owed their escape from extermination.
+
+  [53] It was at this time (July 17th) that the intense anxiety of the
+    civilized world with regard to the fate of the besieged reached its
+    culminating point. Circumstantial accounts of the fall of the
+    legations and the massacre of their inmates were circulated in
+    Shanghai and found general credence. It was not till near the end of
+    the month that an authentic message from the American minister
+    proved these fears to be premature.
+
+  [54] In negotiating this agreement Lord Salisbury appears to have
+    been largely influenced by the aggressive features of Russia's
+    action in North China, while Germany appears to have been actuated
+    by a desire to forestall isolated action by Great Britain in the
+    Yangtsze basin. In Germany the agreement was known as the Yangtsze
+    Agreement. Great Britain held, however, that it applied equally to
+    Manchuria.
+
+  [55] Liu Kun-yi died in 1902. In the same year died Tao-mu, the
+    viceroy of Canton. In these men China lost two of her most capable
+    and enlightened officials.
+
+  [56] Prince Chun was born in 1882. He was the first member of the
+    imperial family to be sent on a foreign mission.
+
+  [57] Tung Fu-hsiang died in 1908. A sum of some £80,000 belonging to
+    him, and left in the provincial treasury, was appropriated for works
+    of public utility (see _The Times_, April 9th, 1910).
+
+  [58] Lord W. Cecil, op. cit. p. 9.
+
+  [59] This institution was nominally a private concern which financed
+    the Manchurian railway, but it acted as part of the Russian
+    government machinery. The existence of the contract of the 27th of
+    August 1896 was frequently denied until expressly admitted by the
+    Russo-Chinese agreement of the 8th of April 1902.
+
+  [60] On the 8th of October the Russian troops had been withdrawn
+    from Mukden, but they reoccupied the town on the 28th of the same
+    month, Admiral Alexeiev, the viceroy of the Far East, alleging that
+    the inertia of the Chinese officials seriously hindered the work of
+    extending civilization in Manchuria.
+
+  [61] The form of outrage, probably the first of its kind in China,
+    was itself a symptom of the changed times. The bomb injured Prince
+    Tsai Tse and another commissioner, and the departure of the
+    commission was consequently delayed some months.
+
+  [62] In 1907 further commissions were appointed, on the initiative
+    of Yuan Shih-kai, to study specifically the constitutions of Great
+    Britain, Germany and Japan.
+
+  [63] This department was organized at Shanghai in 1854. The Taiping
+    rebels being in possession of the native city, the collection of
+    customs dues, especially on foreign ships, was placed in the hands
+    of foreigners. This developed into a permanent institution, the
+    European staff being mainly British.
+
+  [64] The British official view, as stated in parliament on the 27th
+    of April 1910, was that the changes resulting from the creation of
+    the Board of Control had, so far, been purely departmental changes
+    of form, and that the position of the inspector-general remained
+    unaltered.
+
+  [65] See _The Times_ of the 21st of April and 11th of May 1910.
+
+  [66] A chest contained from 135 lb to 160 lb.
+
+  [67] A picul = 133-1/2 lb.
+
+  [68] _Changing China_, p. 118.
+
+  [69] See _The Times_ of 7th and 8th of March and 8th of April 1910.
+
+  [70] The first recorded importation of morphia into China was in
+    1892, and it is suggested that it was first used as an anti-opium
+    medicine. Morphia-taking, however, speedily became a vice, and in
+    1902 over 195,000 oz. of morphia were imported (enough for some
+    300,000,000 injections). To check the evil the Chinese government
+    during 1903 imposed a tax of about 200% _ad valorem_, with the
+    result that the imports declared to the customs fell in 1905 to 54
+    oz. only. The falling off was explained "not by a diminished demand,
+    but by smuggling" (Morse's _Trade and Administration of the Chinese
+    Empire_, p. 351).
+
+  [71] A regulation by the ministry of education, dated the 14th of
+    January 1910, ordered that no girl should be admitted to school
+    dressed in foreign clothes or with unnatural (i.e. bound) feet.
+
+  [72] For the growth of the education movement see _The Times_, 4th
+    of September 1909.
+
+  [73] The Dalai Lama left Peking in December 1908 on his return to
+    Lhassa, which he reached in November 1909. Differences had arisen
+    between him and the Chinese government, which sought to make the
+    spiritual as well as the temporal power of the Dalai Lama dependent
+    on his recognition by the emperor of China. Early in 1910 the Dalai
+    Lama, in consequence of the action of the Chinese amban in Lhassa,
+    fled from that city and sought refuge in India.
+
+  [74] Chang Chih-tung died in October 1909. He was a man of considerable
+    ability, and one whose honesty and loyalty had never been doubted. He
+    was noted as an opponent of opium smoking, and for over thirty years
+    had addressed memorials to the throne against the use of the drug.
+
+  [75] See _The Times_ of the 7th of September 1909.
+
+  [76] Proposals made early in 1910 by the American secretary of state
+    for the neutralization of the Manchurian railway received no
+    support.
+
+  [77] By a convention signed on July 4th, 1910, Russia and Japan agreed
+    to "maintain and respect" the _status quo_ in Manchuria.
+
+  [78] See the _Quinzaine coloniale_ of the 10th of December 1909.
+
+  [79] See _The Times_ of the 20th of January 1910.
+
+  [80] See for the prospects of reform _The Times_ of 30th May 1910.
+
+  [81] _La Sculpture sur pierre en Chine ait temps des deux dynasties
+    Han_ (Paris, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+CHINA, the common name for ware made of porcelain, given because it came
+from China, where the first vitrified, translucent, white ware was
+produced. The Portuguese or Italians gave it the name of "porcelain"
+(q.v.). English usage was influenced by India and the East, where the
+Persian _ch[=i]n[=i]_ was widely prevalent as the name of the ware. This
+is seen also in some of the earlier forms and pronunciations, e.g.
+_chiney_, _cheney_, and later _chaney_ (see CERAMICS; and for
+"china-clay" KAOLIN).
+
+
+
+
+CHINANDEGA, or CHINENDEGA, the capital of the department of Chinandega
+in western Nicaragua, 10 m. N.N.E. of the seaport of Corinto by the
+Corinto-Managua railway. Pop. (1900) about 12,000. Chinandega is the
+centre of a fertile corn-producing district, and has a large transit
+trade owing to its excellent situation on the chief Nicaraguan railway.
+Its manufactures include coarse cloth, pottery and Indian feather
+ornaments. Cotton, sugar-cane and bananas are cultivated in the
+neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+CHI-NAN FU, the capital of Shan-tung, China, in 36° 40' N., 117° 1' E.
+Pop. about 100,000. It is situated in one of the earliest settled
+districts of the Chinese empire. The city, which lies in the valley of
+the present channel of the Yellow river (Hwang-Ho), and about 4 m. south
+of the river, is surrounded by a triple line of defence. First is the
+city wall, strongly built and carefully guarded, outside this a granite
+wall, and beyond this again a mud rampart. Three springs outside the
+west gate throw up streams of tepid water to a height of about 2 ft.
+This water, which is highly prized for its healing qualities, fills the
+moat and forms a fine lake in the northern quarter of the city.
+
+Chi-nan Fu was formerly famous for its manufacture of silks and of
+imitation precious stones. It is now the chief commercial entrepôt of
+Western Shan-tung but no longer a manufacturing centre. A highway
+connects it with the Yellow river, and it is joined by a railway 280 m.
+long to Kiaochow. The city has a university for instruction on Western
+lines, and an efficient military school. American Presbyterians began
+mission work in the city in 1873; it is also the see of a Roman Catholic
+bishop.
+
+
+
+
+CHINCHA ISLANDS, three small islands in the Pacific Ocean, about 12 m.
+from the coast of Peru (to which country they belong), opposite the town
+of Pisco, and 106 m. distant from Callao, in 13° 38' S., 76° 28' W. The
+largest of the group, known as the North Island or Isla del Norte, is
+only four-fifths of a mile in length, and about a third in breadth. They
+are of granitic formation, and rise from the sea in precipitous cliffs,
+worn into countless caves and hollows, which furnish convenient
+resting-places for the sea-fowl. Their highest points attain an
+elevation of 113 ft. The islands have yielded a few remains of the
+Chincha Indian race. They were formerly noted for vast deposits of
+guano, and its export was begun by the Peruvian government in 1840. The
+supply, however, was exhausted in 1874. In 1853-1854 the Chincha Islands
+were the chief object in a contest known as the Guano War between
+President Echenique and General Castilla; and in April 1864 they were
+seized by the Spanish rear-admiral Pinzon in order to bring the Peruvian
+government to apologize for its treatment of Spanish immigrants.
+
+
+
+
+CHINCHEW, or CHINCHU, the name usually given in English charts to an
+ancient and famous port of China in the province of Fu-kien, of which
+the Chinese name is _Ch'üanchow-fu_ or _Ts'üanchow-fu_. It stands in 24°
+57' N., 118° 35' E. The walls have a circuit of 7 or 8 m., but embrace
+much vacant ground. The chief exports are tea and sugar, tobacco,
+china-ware, nankeens, &c. There are remains of a fine mosque, founded by
+the Arab traders who resorted thither. The English Presbyterian Mission
+has had a chapel in the city since about 1862. Beyond the northern
+branch of the Min (several miles from the city) there is a suburb called
+Loyang, approached by the most celebrated bridge in China.
+
+Ch'üanchow, owing to the obstruction of its harbour by sand banks, has
+been supplanted as a port by Amoy, and its trade is carried on through
+the port of Nganhai. It is still, however, a large and populous city. It
+was in the middle ages the great port of Western trade with China, and
+was known to the Arabs and to Europeans as _Zait[=u]n_ or _Zayton_, the
+name under which it appears in Abulfeda's geography and in the Mongol
+history of Rash[=i]ddud[=i]n, as well as in Ibn Batuta, Marco Polo and
+other medieval travellers. Some argument has been alleged against the
+identity of Zayton with Ch'üanchow, and in favour of its being rather
+Changchow (a great city 60 m. W.S.W. of Ch'üanchow), or a port on the
+river of Changchow near Amoy. "Port of Zayton" may have embraced the
+great basin called Amoy Harbour, the chief part of which lies within the
+_Fu_ or department of Ch'üanchow; but there is hardly room for doubt
+that the Zayton of Marco Polo and Abulfeda was the Ch'üanchow of the
+Chinese. Ibn Batuta informs us that a rich silk texture made here was
+called _Zait[=u]niya_; and there can be little doubt that this is the
+real origin of the word "Satin," _Zettani_ in medieval Italian,
+_Aceytuni_ in Spanish.
+
+
+
+
+CHINCHILLA, a small grey hopping rodent mammal (_Chinchilla lanigera_),
+of the approximate size of a squirrel, inhabiting the eastern slopes of
+the Andes in Chile and Bolivia, at altitudes between 8000 and 12,000 ft.
+It typifies not only the genus _Chinchilla_, but the family
+_Chinchillidae_, for the distinctive features of which see RODENTIA. The
+ordinary chinchilla is about 10 in. in length, exclusive of the long
+tail, and in the form of its head somewhat resembles a rabbit. It is
+covered with a dense soft fur ¾ in. long on the back and upwards of an
+inch in length on the sides, of a delicate French grey colour, darkly
+mottled on the upper surf ace and dusky white beneath; the ears being
+long, broad and thinly covered with hair. Chinchillas live in burrows,
+and these subterranean dwellings undermine the ground in some parts of
+the Chilean Andes to such an extent as to cause danger to travellers on
+horseback. They associate in communities, forming their burrows among
+loose rocks, and coming out to feed in the early morning and towards
+sunset. They feed chiefly on roots and grasses, in search of which they
+often travel considerable distances; and when eating they sit on their
+haunches, holding their food in their fore-paws. The Indians in hunting
+them employ the grison (_Galictis vittata_), a member of the weasel
+family, which is trained to enter the crevices of the rocks where the
+chinchillas lie concealed during the day. The fur (q.v.) of this rodent
+was prized by the ancient Peruvians, who made coverlets and other
+articles with the skin, and at the present day the skins are exported in
+large numbers to Europe, where they are made into muffs, tippets and
+trimmings. That chinchillas have not under such circumstances become
+rare, if not extinct, is owing to their extraordinary fecundity, the
+female usually producing five or six young twice a year. They are docile
+in disposition, and thus well fitted for domestication. The Peruvian
+chinchilla (_C. brevicaudata_) is larger, with relatively shorter ears
+and tail; while still larger species constitute the genus _Lagidium_,
+ranging from the Andes to Patagonia, and distinguished by having four in
+place of five front-toes, more pointed ears, and a somewhat differently
+formed skull. (See also VISCACHA).    (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHINDE, a town of Portuguese East Africa, chief port for the Zambezi
+valley and British Central Africa, at the mouth of the Chinde branch of
+the Zambezi, in 18° 40´ S., 36° 30´ E. Pop. (1907) 2790, of whom 218
+were Europeans. Large steamers are unable to cross the bar, over which
+the depth of water varies from 10 to 18 ft. Chinde owes its existence to
+the discovery in 1889 that the branch of the river on the banks of which
+it is built is navigable from the ocean (see ZAMBEZI). The Portuguese in
+1891 granted on lease for 99 years an area of 5 acres--subsequently
+increased to 25--to the British government, on which goods in transit to
+British possessions could be stored duty free. This block of land is
+known as the British Concession, or British Chinde. The prosperity of
+the town largely depends on the transit trade with Nyasaland and North
+East Rhodesia. There is also a considerable export from Portuguese
+districts, sugar, cotton and ground nuts being largely cultivated in the
+Zambezi valley, and gold and copper mines worked.
+
+
+
+
+CHINDWIN, a river of Burma, the largest tributary of the Irrawaddy, its
+entire course being in Burmese territory. It is called Ningthi by the
+Manipuris. The Chindwin is formed by the junction of the Tanai, the
+Tawan and the Tarôn or Turông, but it is still uncertain which is the
+main stream. The Tanai has hitherto been looked on as the chief source.
+It rises in about 25° 30´ N. and 97° E., on the Shwedaung-gyi peak of
+the Kumôn range, 12 m. N. of Mogaung, and flows due N. for the first
+part of its course until it reaches the Hukawng valley, when it turns to
+the W. and flows through the middle of the plain to the end of the
+valley proper. There it curves round to the S., passes through the Tarôn
+or Turông valley, takes the name of the Chindwin, and maintains a
+general southerly course until it enters the Irrawaddy, after flowing
+through the entire length of the Upper and Lower Chindwin districts, in
+about 21° 30´ N. and 95° 15´ E. Its extreme outlets are 22 m. apart, the
+interval forming a succession of long, low, partially populated islands.
+The most southerly mouth of the Chindwin is, according to tradition, an
+artificial channel, cut by one of the kings of Pag[=a]n. It was choked
+up for many centuries until in 1824 it was opened out by an exceptional
+flood. The Tanai (it is frequently called Tanaikha, but _kha_ is merely
+the Kachin word for river), as long as it retains that name, is a swift,
+clear river, from 50 to 300 yds. wide and from 3 to 15 ft. deep. The
+river is navigated by native boats in the Hukawng valley, but launches
+cannot come up from the Chindwin proper because of the reefs below Taro.
+
+  The Tarôn, Turông or Towang river seems to be the real main source of
+  the Chindwin. It flows into the Hukawng valley from the north, and has
+  a swift current with a succession of rapids. Its sources are in the
+  hills to the south of Sadiya, rising from 10,000 to 11,000 ft. above
+  sea-level. It flows through a deep valley, with a general E. and W.
+  direction, as far as its junction with the Loglai. It then turns S.,
+  and after draining an intricate system of hills, breaks into the
+  Hukawng valley a few miles N. of Saraw, and joins or receives the
+  Tanai about 10 m. above Kintaw village. Except the Tanai, the chief
+  branches of the Upper Chindwin rise in mountains that are covered at
+  least with winter snows. Below the Hukawng valley the Chindwin is
+  interrupted at several places by fails or transverse reefs. At the
+  village of Haksa there is a fall, which necessitates transhipment from
+  large boats to canoes. Not far below this the Uyu river comes in on
+  the left bank at Homalin, and from this point downwards the steamers
+  of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company ply for the greater part of the
+  year. The Uyu flows through a fertile and well-cultivated valley, and
+  during the rainy season it is navigable for a distance of 150 m. from
+  its mouth by steamers of light draught. Ordinarily regular steam
+  communication with Homalin ceases in the dry weather, but from Kindat,
+  nearly 150 m. below it, there are weekly steamers all the year round.
+  Below Kindat the only considerable affluent of the Chindwin is the
+  Myit-tha, which receives the Chin hills drainage. The Chindwin rises
+  considerably during the rains, but in March and April it is here and
+  there so shallow as to make navigation difficult even for small steam
+  launches. Whirlpools and narrows and shifting sandbanks also give some
+  trouble, but much has been done to improve navigation since the
+  British annexation. Kindat, the headquarters of the Upper Chindwin
+  district, and Mônywa of the Lower, are on the banks of the river.
+     (J. G. SC.)
+
+
+
+
+CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER, two districts in the Sagaing division of
+Upper Burma. Upper Chindwin has an area of 19,062 sq. m., and a
+population, according to the census of 1901, of 154,551. Lower Chindwin
+has an area of 3480 sq. m., and a population of 276,383. Upper Chindwin
+lies to the north of the lower district, and is bounded on the N. by the
+Chin, N[=a]ga and Kachin hills; on the E. they are bounded by the
+Myitkyina, Katha and Shwebo districts; Lower Chindwin is bounded on the
+S. by the Pakôkku and Sagaing districts; and both districts are bounded
+on the W. by the Chin hills, and by Pakôkku on the southern stretch. The
+western portion of both districts is hilly, and the greater part of
+Upper Chindwin is of the same character. Both have valuable teak
+forests. The total rainfall averages in Lower Chindwin 27 and in Upper
+Chindwin 60 in. Coal exists in extensive fields, but these are not very
+accessible. Rice forms the great crop, but a certain amount of til-seed
+and of indigo is also cultivated. Kindat, a mere village, is the
+headquarters of the upper district, and Mônywa, with a population of
+7869, of the lower. Both are on the Chindwin river, and are served by
+the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. Alôn, close to Mônywa,
+and formerly the headquarters, is the terminus of the railway from
+Sagaing westwards, which was opened in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+CHINESE PAVILLON, TURKISH CRESCENT, TURKISH JINGLE, or JINGLING JOHNNY
+(Fr. _chapeau chinois_; Ger. _türkischer Halbmond, Schellenbaum_; Ital.
+_cappello chinese_), an instrument of percussion of indefinite
+sonorousness, i.e. not producing definite musical tones. The _chapeau
+chinois_ was formerly an adjunct in military bands, but never in the
+orchestra, where an instrument of somewhat similar shape, often confused
+with it and known as the _Glockenspiel_ (q.v.), is occasionally called
+into requisition. The Chinese pavilion consists of a pole about 6 ft.
+high terminating in a conical metal cap or pavilion, hung with small
+jingling bells and surmounted by a crescent and a star. Below this
+pavilion are two or more metal bands forming a fanciful double crescent
+or squat lyre, likewise furnished with tiny bells. The two points of the
+crescent are curved over, ending in fanciful animal heads from whose
+mouths hang low streaming tails of horse-hair. The Chinese pavilion is
+played by shaking or waving the pole up and down and jingling the bells,
+a movement which can at best be but a slow one repeated once or at most
+twice in a bar to punctuate the phrases and add brilliancy to the
+military music. The Turkish crescent or "jingling Johnny," as it was
+familiarly called in the British army bands, was introduced by the
+Janissaries into western Europe. It has fallen into disuse now, having
+been replaced by the glockenspiel or steel harmonica. Edinburgh
+University possesses two specimens.[1] In the 18th century at
+Bartholomew Fair one of the chief bands hired was one well known as
+playing in London on winter evenings in front of the Spring-Garden
+coffee house and opposite Wigley's. This band consisted of a double
+drum, a Dutch organ (see BARREL-ORGAN), a tambourine, a violin, pipes
+and the Turkish jingle.[2] (K.S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Captain C.R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of Musical
+    Instruments_ (London, 1891), p. 233.
+
+  [2] See Hone's _Everyday Book_, i. 1248.
+
+
+
+
+CHINGFORD, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary division of
+Essex, England, 10½ m. N. of London (Liverpool Street station) by the
+Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4373. It lies between the river Lea
+and the western outskirts of Epping Forest. The church of All Saints has
+Early English and Perpendicular remains. Queen Elizabeth's or Fair Mead
+hunting lodge, a picturesque half-timbered building, is preserved under
+the Epping Forest Preservation Act. A majestic oak, one of the finest
+trees in the Forest, stands near it. Buckhurst Hill (an urban district;
+pop. 4786) lies to the N.E.
+
+
+
+
+CHINGLEPUT, or CHENGALPAT, a town and district of British India, in the
+Madras presidency. The town, situated 36 m. by rail from Madras, had a
+population in 1901 of 10,551. With Chandragiri in North Arcot,
+Chingleput was once the capital of the Vijayanagar kings, after their
+overthrow by the Mussulmans at Talikota in 1565. In 1639 a chief,
+subject to these kings, granted to the East India Company the land on
+which Fort St George now stands. The fort built by the Vijayanagar kings
+in the 16th century was of strategic importance, owing to its swampy
+surroundings and the lake that flanked its side. It was taken by the
+French in 1751, and was retaken in 1752 by Clive, after which it proved
+invaluable to the British, especially when Lally in his advance on
+Madras left it unreduced in his rear. During the wars of the British
+with Hyder Ali it withstood his power, and afforded a refuge to the
+natives; and in 1780, after the defeat of Colonel W. Baillie, the army
+of Sir Hector Munro here found refuge. The town is noted for its
+manufacture of pottery, and carries on a trade in rice.
+
+The DISTRICT OF CHINGLEPUT surrounds the city of Madras, stretching
+along the coast for about 115 m. The administrative headquarters are at
+Saidapet. Area, 3079 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 1,312,122, showing an increase
+of 9% in the decade. Salt is extensively manufactured all along the
+coast. Cotton and silk weaving is also largely carried on, and there are
+numerous indigo vats, tanneries and an English cigar factory.
+
+CHIN HILLS, a mountainous district of Upper Burma. It lies on the border
+between the Lushai districts of Eastern Bengal and Assam and the plains
+of Burma, and has an area of 8000 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Assam and
+Manipur, S. by Arakan, E. by Burma, and W. by Tippera and the Chittagong
+hill tracts. The Chins, Lushais and Kukis are to the north-east border
+of India what the Pathan tribes are to the north-west frontier. In 1895
+the Chin Hills were declared a part of the province of Burma, and
+constituted a scheduled district which is now administered by a
+political officer with headquarters at Falam. The tract forms a
+parallelogram 250 m. from N. to S. by 100 to 150 m. wide. The country
+consists of a much broken and contorted mass of mountains, intersected
+by deep valleys. The main ranges run generally N. to S., and vary in
+height from 5000 to 9000 ft., among the most important being the Letha
+or Tang, which is the watershed between the Chindwin and Manipur rivers;
+the Imbukklang, which divides the Sokte tribe from the Whenchs and sheds
+the water from its eastern slopes into Upper Burma and that from its
+western slopes into Arakan; and the Rong-klang, which with its
+prolongations is the main watershed of the southern hills, its eastern
+slopes draining into the Myittha and thus into the Chindwin, while the
+western fall drains into the Boinu river, which winding through the
+hills discharges itself eventually in the Bay of Bengal. The highest
+peak yet discovered is the Liklang, between Rawywa and Lungno, some 70
+m. S. of Haka (nearly 10,000 ft.).
+
+  It is supposed that the Kukis of Manipur, the Lushais of Bengal and
+  Assam, and the Chins originally lived in Tibet and are of the same
+  stock; their form of government, method of cultivation, manners and
+  customs, beliefs and traditions all point to one origin. The slow
+  speech, the serious manner, the respect for birth and the knowledge of
+  pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous
+  method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the
+  clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body,
+  mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of
+  combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy
+  discouragement and panic in defeat, are common traits. The Chins,
+  Lushais and Kukis were noted for the secrecy of their plans, the
+  suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed in retreating
+  to their fastnesses. After committing a raid they have been known to
+  march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a meal or
+  sleeping, so as to escape from any parties which might follow them.
+  The British, since the occupation of Upper Burma, have been able to
+  penetrate the Chin-Lushai country from both sides at once. The
+  pacification of the Chin Hills is a triumph for British
+  administration. Roads, on which Chin coolies now readily work, have
+  been constructed in all directions. The rivers have been bridged; the
+  people have taken up the cultivation of English vegetables, and the
+  indigenous districts have been largely developed. The Chin Hills had a
+  population (1901 census) of 87,189, while the Chins in Burma totalled
+  179,292. The Pakôkku Chin Hills, which form a separate tract, have an
+  area of 2260 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 13,116.    (J. G. SC.)
+
+
+
+
+CHINKIANG, or CHEN-KIANG-FU, a treaty port of China, in the province of
+Kiang-su, on the Yangtsze-kiang above Shanghai, from which it is distant
+160 m. It is in railway communication both with Shanghai and Nanking (40
+m. distant), and being at the point where the Grand Canal running N. and
+S. intersects the Yangtsze, which runs E. and W., is peculiarly well
+situated to be a commercial entrepôt. The total value of exports and
+imports for 1904 was £4,632,992; estimated pop. 168,000. In the war of
+1842 it yielded to the British only after a desperate resistance. It was
+laid waste by the T'aip'ing rebels in 1853, and was recaptured by the
+imperial forces in 1858.
+
+
+
+
+CHINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894-95). The causes of this conflict arose out of
+the immemorial rivalry of China and Japan for influence in Korea. In the
+16th century a prolonged war in the peninsula had ended with the failure
+of Japan to make good her footing on the mainland--a failure brought
+about largely by lack of naval resources. In more modern times (1875,
+1882, 1884) Japan had repeatedly sent expeditions to Korea, and had
+fostered the growth of a progressive party in Seoul. The difficulties of
+1884 were settled between China and Japan by the convention of Tientsin,
+wherein it was agreed that in the event of future intervention each
+should inform the other if it were decided to despatch troops to the
+peninsula. Nine years later the occasion arose. A serious rebellion
+induced the Korean government to apply for military assistance from
+China. Early in June 1894 a small force of Chinese troops were sent to
+Asan, and Japan, duly informed of this action, replied by furnishing her
+minister at Seoul with an escort, rapidly following up this step by the
+despatch of about 5000 troops under Major-General Oshima. A complicated
+situation thus arose. Chinese troops were present in Korea by the
+request of the government to put down rebellion. The Japanese controlled
+the capital, and declined to recognize Korea as a tributary of China.
+But she proposed that the two powers should unite to suppress the
+disturbance and to inaugurate certain specified reforms. China
+considered that the measures of reform must be left to Korea herself.
+The reply was that Japan considered the government of Korea "lacking in
+some of the elements which are essential to responsible independence."
+By the middle of July war had become inevitable unless the Peking
+government were willing to abandon all claims over Korea, and as Chinese
+troops were already in the country by invitation, it was not to be
+expected that the shadowy suzerainty would be abandoned.
+
+At Seoul the issue was forced by the Japanese minister, who delivered an
+ultimatum to the Korean government on the 20th of July. On the 23rd the
+palace was forcibly occupied. Meanwhile China had despatched about 8000
+troops to the Yalu river. The outbreak of war thus found the Japanese
+in possession of Seoul and ready to send large forces to Korea, while
+the Chinese occupied Asan (about 40 m. south of the capital), and had a
+considerable body of troops in Manchuria in addition to those despatched
+to the Yalu river. To Japan the command of the sea was essential for the
+secure transport and supply of her troops. Without it the experience of
+the war of the 16th century would be repeated. China, too, could only
+utilize overland routes to Korea by submitting to the difficulties and
+delays entailed. To both powers the naval question was thus important.
+
+  By the time war was finally declared (August 1) hostilities had
+  already begun. On the 25th of July Oshima set out from Seoul to attack
+  the Chinese at Asan. On the 29th he won a victory at Söng-hwan, but
+  the Chinese commander escaped with a considerable part of his forces
+  by a detour to Ping-Yang (Phyong-Yang). Meanwhile a portion of the
+  Japanese fleet had encountered some Chinese warships and transports
+  off Phung-Tao, and scored an important success, sinking, amongst other
+  vessels, the transport "Kowshing" (July 25). The loss of more than
+  1000 Chinese soldiers in this vessel materially lightened Oshima's
+  task. The intention of the Chinese to crush their enemies between
+  their forces at Asan and Ping-Yang was completely frustrated, and the
+  Japanese obtained control of all southern Korea.
+
+  Reinforcements from Japan were now pouring into Korea, in spite of the
+  fact that the rival navies had not yet tried conclusions, and General
+  Nozu, the senior Japanese officer present, soon found himself in a
+  position to move on Ping-Yang. Three columns converged upon the place
+  on the 15th of September, and in spite of its strong walls carried it,
+  though only after severe fighting.
+
+  Nearly all the troops on either side had been conveyed to the scene of
+  war by sea, though the decisive contest for sea supremacy was still to
+  be fought. The Chinese admiral Ting with the Northern Squadron (which
+  alone took part in the war) had hitherto remained inactive in
+  Wei-hai-wei, and on the other side Vice-Admiral Ito's fleet had not
+  directly interfered with the hostile transports which were reinforcing
+  the troops on the Yalu. But two days after the battle of Ping-Yang,
+  Ting, who had conveyed a large body of troops to the mouth of the
+  Yalu, encountered the Japanese fleet on his return journey off
+  Hai-Yang-Tao on the 17th of September. The heavy battleships
+  "Chen-Yuen" and "Ting-Yuen" constituted the strongest element of the
+  Chinese squadron, for the Japanese, superior as they were in every
+  other factor of success, had no vessels which could compare with these
+  in the matter of protection. Ting advanced in a long irregular line
+  abreast; the battleships in the centre, the lighter vessels on the
+  wings. Ito's fast cruisers steamed in line ahead against the Chinese
+  right wing, crushing their weaker opponents with their fire. In the
+  end the Chinese fleet was defeated and scattered, but the two heavy
+  battleships drew off without serious injury. This battle of the Yalu
+  gave Japan command of the sea, but Ito continued to act with great
+  caution. The remnants of the vanquished fleet took refuge in Port
+  Arthur, whence after repairs Ting proceeded to Wei-hai-wei.
+
+  The victory of Ping-Yang had cleared Korea of the Chinese troops, but
+  on the lower Yalu--their own frontier--large forces threatened a
+  second advance. Marshal Yamagata therefore took the offensive with his
+  1st army, and on the 24th and 25th of October, under great
+  difficulties--though without serious opposition from the enemy--forced
+  the passage of the river and occupied Chiulien-cheng. Part of the
+  Chinese force retired to the north-east, part to Feng-hwang-cheng and
+  Hsiu-yuen (Siu-Yen). The Japanese 1st army advanced several columns
+  towards the mountains of Manchuria to secure its conquests and prepare
+  for a future advance. General Tachimi's brigade occupied
+  Feng-hwang-cheng on the 29th of October. On the 7th of November a
+  column from the Yalu took Takushan, and a few days later a converging
+  attack from these two places was made upon Hsiu-yuen, which was
+  abandoned by the Chinese. Meanwhile Tachimi, skirmishing with the
+  enemy on the Mukden and Liao-Yang roads, found the Chinese in force. A
+  simultaneous forward move by both sides led to the action of
+  Tsao-ho-ku (November 30), after which both sides withdrew--the Chinese
+  to the line of the mountains covering Hai-cheng, Liao-Yang and Mukden,
+  with the Tatar general Ikotenga's force, 14,000 strong, on the
+  Japanese right north-east of Feng-hwang-cheng; and the Japanese to
+  Chiulien-cheng, Takushan and Hsiu-yuen. The difficulties of supply in
+  the hills were almost insurmountable, and no serious advance was
+  intended by the Japanese until January 1895, when it was to be made in
+  co-operation with the 2nd army. This army, under Marshal Oyama, had
+  been formed in September and at first sent to Chemulpo as a support to
+  the forces under Yamagata; but its chief task was the siege and
+  capture of the Chinese fortress, dockyard and arsenal of Port Arthur.
+
+  The Liao-Tong peninsula was guarded by the walled city of Kinchow and
+  the forts of Ta-lien-wan (Dalny under the Russian régime, and Tairen
+  under the Japanese) as well as the fortifications around Port Arthur
+  itself. On the 24th of October the disembarkation of the 2nd army
+  began near Pi-tsze-wo, and the successive columns of the Japanese
+  gradually moved towards Kinchow, which was carried without difficulty
+  on the 6th of November. Even less resistance was offered by the modern
+  forts of Ta-lien-wan. The Japanese now held a good harbour within a
+  few miles of the main fortress. Here they landed siege artillery, and
+  on the 17th of November the advance was resumed. The attack was made
+  on the 19th at dawn. Yamaji's division (Nogi's and Nishi's brigades)
+  after a trying night march assaulted and carried the western defences
+  and moved upon the town. Hasegawa in the centre, as soon as Yamaji
+  began to appear in rear of his opponents in the northern forts, pushed
+  home his attack with equal success, and by 3 P.M. practically all
+  resistance was at an end. The Japanese paid for this important success
+  with but 423 casualties. Meanwhile the Chinese general Sung, who had
+  marched from Hai-cheng to engage the 2nd army, appeared before
+  Kinchow, where he received on the 22nd a severe repulse at the hands
+  of the Japanese garrison. Marshal Oyama subsequently stationed his
+  advanced guard towards Hai-cheng, the main body at Kinchow, and a
+  brigade of infantry at Port Arthur. Soon after this overtures of peace
+  were made by China; but her envoy, a foreigner unfurnished with
+  credentials, was not received by the Tokyo government.
+
+  The Japanese 1st army (now under General Nozu) at Antung and
+  Feng-hwang-cheng prepared, in spite of the season, to move across the
+  mountains, and on the 3rd of December General Katsura left Antung for
+  Hai-cheng. His line of march was by Hsi-mu-cheng, and strong flank
+  guards followed parallel routes on either side. The march was
+  accomplished safely and Hai-cheng occupied on the 13th of December. In
+  the meantime Tachimi had moved northward from Feng-hwang-cheng, in
+  order to distract the attention of the Chinese from Hai-cheng, and
+  there were some small engagements between this force and that of
+  Ikotenga, who ultimately retired beyond the mountains to Liao-Yang.
+  Sung had already left Kai-ping to secure Hai-cheng when he heard of
+  the fall of that place; his communications with Ikotenga being now
+  severed, he swerved to the north-west and established a new base at
+  Niu-chwang. Once on his new line Sung moved upon Hai-cheng. As it was
+  essential that he should be prevented from joining forces with
+  Ikotenga, General Katsura marched out of Hai-cheng to fight him. At
+  Kang-wang-tsai (December 19th) the Chinese displayed unusual
+  steadiness, and it cost the Japanese some 343 casualties to dislodge
+  the enemy. The victors returned to Hai-cheng exhausted with their
+  efforts, but secure from attack for some time to come. The advanced
+  troops of the 2nd army (Nogi's brigade) were now ready to advance, and
+  only the Kai-ping garrison (left behind by Sung) barred their junction
+  with Katsura. At Kai-ping (January 10th) the resistance of the Chinese
+  was almost as steady as at Kang-wang-tsai, and the Japanese lost 300
+  killed and wounded in their successful attack. In neither of these
+  actions was the defeated force routed, nor did it retire very far. On
+  the 17th of January and again on the 22nd Ikotenga attacked Hai-cheng
+  from the north, but was repulsed.
+
+  Meanwhile the 2nd army, still under Oyama, had undertaken operations
+  against Wei-hai-wei, the second great fortress and dockyard of
+  northern China, where Admiral Ting's squadron had been refitting since
+  the battle of the Yalu; and it was hoped that both armies would
+  accomplish their present tasks in time to advance in the summer
+  against Peking itself. On the 18th of January a naval demonstration
+  was made at Teng-chow-fu, 70 m. west of Wei-hai-wei, and on the 19th
+  the Japanese began their disembarkation at Yung-cheng Bay, about 12 m.
+  from Wei-hai-wei. The landing was scarcely opposed, and on the 26th
+  the Japanese advance was begun. The south-eastern defences of
+  Wei-hai-wei harbour were carried by the 6th division, whilst the 2nd
+  division reached the inner waters of the bay, driving the Chinese
+  before them. The fleet under Ito co-operated effectively. On the night
+  of the 4th-5th of February the Chinese squadron in harbour was
+  attacked by ten torpedo boats. Two boats were lost, but the
+  armour-clad "Ting-Yuen" was sunk. On the following night a second
+  attack was made, and three more vessels were sunk. On the 9th the
+  "Ching-Yuen" was sunk by the guns in one of the captured forts. On the
+  12th Admiral Ting wrote to Admiral Ito offering to surrender, and then
+  took poison, other officers following his example. Wei-hai-wei was
+  then dismantled by the Japanese, who recovered the remnant of the
+  Chinese squadron, including the "Chen Yuen," and the 2nd army
+  concentrated at Port Arthur for the advance on Peking.
+
+  While this campaign was in progress the Chinese despatched a second
+  peace mission, also with defective credentials. The Japanese declined
+  to treat, and the mission returned to China. In February the Chinese
+  made further unsuccessful attacks on Hai-cheng. Yamaji near Kai-ping
+  fought a severe action on the 21st, 22nd and 23rd of February at
+  Taping-shan against a part of Sung's army under General Ma-yu-kun.
+  This action was fought with 2 ft. of snow on the ground, the
+  thermometer registering zero F., and no less than 1500 cases of
+  frost-bite were reported. It was the intention of General Nozu, after
+  freeing the Hai-cheng garrison from Ikotenga, to seize Niu-chwang
+  port. Two divisions converged on An-shan-chan, and the Chinese,
+  threatened in front and flank, retired to Liao-Yang. Meanwhile two
+  more attacks on Hai-cheng had been repulsed. The 3rd and 5th divisions
+  then moved on Niu-chwang, and Yamaji's 1st division at Kai-ping joined
+  in the advance. The column from An-shan-chan stormed Niu-chwang, which
+  was obstinately defended, and cost the stormers nearly 400 men. All
+  three divisions converged on Niu-chwang port (Ying-kow), and the
+  final engagement took place at Tien-chwang-tai, which was captured on
+  the 9th of March. The Chinese forces in Manchuria being thoroughly
+  broken and dispersed, there was nothing to prevent the Japanese from
+  proceeding to the occupation of Peking, since they could, after the
+  break-up of the ice, land and supply large forces at Shan-hai-kwan,
+  within 170 m. of the capital. Two more Japanese divisions were sent
+  out, with Prince Komatsu as supreme commander. Seven divisions were at
+  Port Arthur ready to embark, when negotiations were reopened. Li
+  Hung-Chang proceeded to Shimonoseki, where the treaty was signed on
+  the 17th of April 1895. An expedition was sent towards the end of
+  March to the Pescadores, and later the Imperial Guard division was
+  sent to Formosa.
+
+  It is impossible to estimate the Chinese losses in the war. The
+  Japanese lost 4177 men by death in action or by sickness, and 56,862
+  were wounded or disabled by sickness, exclusive of the losses in the
+  Formosa and Pescadores expeditions. Nearly two-thirds of these losses
+  were incurred by the 1st army in the trying winter campaign in
+  Manchuria.
+
+  The most important works dealing with the war are: Vladimir,
+  _China-Japan War_ (London, 1896); Jukichi Inouye, _The Japan-China
+  War_ (Yokohama, &c., 1896); du Boulay, _Epitome of the China-Japanese
+  War_ (London, 1896), the official publication of the British War
+  Office; Atteridge, _Wars of the Nineties_, pp. 535-636 (London, 1899);
+  von Kunowski and Fretzdorff, _Der japanisch-chinesische Krieg_
+  (Leipzig, 1895); von Müller, _Der Krieg zwischen China und Japan_
+  (Berlin, 1895); Bujac, _Précis de quelques campagnes contemporaines:
+  II. La Guerre sino-japonaise_ (Paris and Limoges).
+
+
+
+
+CHINON, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Vienne, 32m. S.W.
+of Tours on the State railway. Pop. (1906) 4071. Chinon lies at the foot
+of the rocky eminence which is crowned by the ruins of the famous
+castle. Its narrow, winding streets contain many houses of the 15th and
+16th centuries. The oldest of its churches, St Mexme, is in the
+Romanesque style, but only the façade and nave are left. The church of
+St Etienne dates from the 15th century, that of St Maurice from the
+12th, 15th and 16th centuries. The castle, which has undergone
+considerable modern restoration, consists of three portions. That to the
+east, the Château de St Georges, built by Henry II. of England, has
+almost vanished, only the foundation of the outer wall remaining. The
+Château du Milieu (11th to 15th centuries) comprises the keep, the
+Pavilion de l'Horloge and the Grand Logis, in the principal apartment of
+which the first meeting between Joan of Arc and Charles VII. took place.
+Of the Château du Coudray, which is separated by a moat from the Château
+du Milieu, the chief remains are the Tour du Moulin (10th century) and
+two less ancient towers. A statue of Rabelais, who was born in the
+vicinity of the town, stands on the river-quay. Chinon has trade in
+wheat, brandy, red wine and plums. Basket and rope manufacture, tanning
+and cooperage are among its industries. Chinon (Caïno) existed before
+the Roman occupation of Gaul, and was from early times an important
+fortress. It was occupied by the Visigoths, and subsequently, after
+forming part of the royal domain, came to the counts of Touraine and
+from them to the counts of Anjou. Henry II. often resided in the castle,
+and died there. The place was taken by Philip Augustus in 1205 after a
+year's siege.
+
+
+
+
+CHINOOK, a tribe of North American Indians, dwelling at the mouth of the
+Columbia river, Washington. They were fishermen and traders, and used
+huge canoes of hollowed cedar trunks. The tribe is practically extinct,
+but the name survives in the trade language known as "Chinook jargon."
+This has been analysed as composed of two-fifths Chinook, two-fifths
+other Indian tongues, and the rest English and Canadian French; but the
+proportion of English has tended to increase. The Chinookan linguistic
+family includes a number of separate tribes.
+
+The name CHINOOK is also applied to a wind which blows from W. or N.
+over the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it descends as a dry wind
+warm in winter and cool in summer (cf. _Föhn_). It is due to a cyclone
+passing northward, and continues from a few hours to several days. It
+moderates the climate of the eastern Rockies, the snow melting quickly
+on account of its warmth and vanishing on account of its dryness, so
+that it is said to "lick up" the snow from the slopes.
+
+  See Gill, _Dictionary of Chinook Jargon_ (Portland, Ore., 1891); Boas,
+  "Chinook Texts," in _Smithsonian Report_, Bureau of Ethnology
+  (Washington, 1894); J.C. Pilling, "Bibliography of Chinookan
+  Languages," _Smithsonian Report_, Bureau of Ethnology (Washington,
+  1893); Horatio Hale, _Manual of Oregon Trade Language_ (London, 1890);
+  G.C. Shaw, _The Chinook Jargon_ (Seattle, 1909); _Handbook of American
+  Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CHINSURA, a town of British India, on the Hugli river, 24 m. above
+Calcutta, formerly the principal Dutch settlement in Bengal. The Dutch
+erected a factory here in 1656, on a healthy spot of ground, much
+preferable to that on which Calcutta is situated. In 1759 a British
+force under Colonel Forde was attacked by the garrison of Chinsura on
+its march to Chandernagore, but in less than half an hour the Dutch were
+entirely routed. In 1795, during the Napoleonic wars, the settlement was
+occupied by a British garrison. At the peace of 1814 it was restored to
+the Dutch. It was among the cessions in India made by the king of the
+Netherlands in 1825 in exchange for the British possessions in Sumatra.
+Hugli College is maintained by government; and there are a number of
+schools, several of which are carried on by Scottish Presbyterian
+missionaries. Chinsura is included in the Hugli municipality.
+
+
+
+
+CHINTZ, a word derived from the Hindu _ch[=i]nt_, spotted or variegated.
+This name was given to a kind of stained or painted calico produced in
+India. It is now applied to a highly glazed printed calico, commonly
+made in several colours on a light ground and used for bed hangings,
+covering furniture, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHIOGGIA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
+Venice, from which it is 18½ m. S. by sea. Pop. (1901) 21,384 (town),
+31,218 (commune). It is inhabited mostly by fishermen, and is situated
+upon an island at the S. end of the lagoons. It is traversed by one main
+canal, La Vena. The peculiar dialect and customs of the inhabitants
+still survive to some extent. It is of earlier origin than Venice, and
+indeed is probably identical with the Roman Portus Aedro, or Ebro,
+though its name is derived from the Roman Fossa Claudia, a canalized
+estuary which with the two mouths of the Meduacus (Brenta) went to form
+the harbour. In 672 it entered the league of the cities of the lagoons,
+and recognized the authority of the doge. In 809 it was almost destroyed
+by Pippin, but in 1110 was made a city, remaining subject to Venice,
+whose fortunes it thenceforth followed. It was captured after a
+determined resistance by the Genoese in 1379, but recovered in 1380.
+Chioggia is connected by rail with Rovigo, 35 m. to the south-west.
+   (T. AS.)
+
+_Naval War of Chioggia (1378-80)._--The naval war of 1378-1380, carried
+on by Venice against the Genoese and their allies, the lord of Carrara
+and the king of Hungary, is of exceptional interest as one in which a
+superior naval power, having suffered disaster in its home waters, and
+having been invaded, was yet able to win in the end by holding out till
+its squadrons in distant seas could be recalled for its defence.
+
+  When the war began in the spring of 1378, Venice was mainly concerned
+  for the safety of its trading stations in the Levant and the Black
+  Sea, which were exposed to the attacks of the Genoese. The more
+  powerful of the two fleets which it sent out was despatched into the
+  eastern Mediterranean under Carlo Zeno, the bailiff and captain of
+  Negropont. A smaller force was sent to operate against the Genoese in
+  the western Mediterranean, and was placed under the command of Vettor
+  Pisani. The possessions of Venice on the mainland, which were then
+  small, were assailed by Francesco Carrara and the Hungarians. Her only
+  ally in the war, Bernabó Visconti of Milan, gave her little help on
+  this side, but his mercenaries invaded the territory of Genoa. The
+  danger on land seemed trifling to Venice so long as she could keep the
+  sea open to her trade and press the war against the Genoese in the
+  Levant.
+
+  During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were carried
+  out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the Genoese
+  stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their squadrons
+  to action on the 30th of May 1378 off Punta di Anzio to the south of
+  the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in a gale by 10
+  Venetian against 11 Genoese galleys. The Genoese admiral, Luigi de'
+  Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and others were wrecked.
+  Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for Famagusta in Cyprus,
+  then held by Genoa. If Pisani had directed his course to Genoa itself,
+  which was thrown into a panic by the defeat at Anzio, it is possible
+  that he might have dictated peace, but he thought his squadron too
+  weak, and preferred to follow the Genoese galleys which had fled to
+  Famagusta. During the summer of 1378 he was employed partly in
+  attacking the enemy in Cyprus, but mainly in taking possession of the
+  Istrian and Dalmatian towns which supported the Hungarians from fear
+  of the aggressive ambition of Venice. He was ordered to winter on the
+  coast of Istria, where his crews suffered from exposure and disease.
+  Genoa, having recovered from the panic caused by the disaster at
+  Anzio, decided to attack Venice at home while the best of her ships
+  were absent with Carlo Zeno. She sent a strong fleet into the Adriatic
+  under Luciano Doria. Pisani had been reinforced early in the spring of
+  1378, but when he was sighted by the Genoese fleet of 25 sail off Pola
+  in Istria on the 7th of May, he was slightly outnumbered, and his
+  crews were still weak. The Venetian admiral would have preferred to
+  avoid battle, and to check an attack on Venice itself, by threatening
+  the Genoese fleet from his base on the Istrian coast. He was forced
+  into battle by the commissioner (_proveditore_) Michael Steno, who as
+  agent of the senate had authority over the admiral. The Venetians were
+  defeated with the loss of all their galleys except six. Luciano Doria
+  fell in the battle, and the Genoese, who had suffered severely, did
+  not at once follow up their success. On the arrival of his successor,
+  Pietro Doria, with reinforcements, they appeared off the Lido, the
+  outer barrier of the lagoon of Venice, in July, and in August they
+  entered on a combined naval and military attack on the city, in
+  combination with the Carrarese and the Hungarians. The Venetians had
+  closed the passages through the outer banks except at the southern
+  end, at the island of Brondolo, and the town of Chioggia. The barrier
+  here approaches close to the mainland, and the position facilitated
+  the co-operation of the Genoese with the Carrarese and Hungarians, but
+  Chioggia is distant from Venice, which could only be reached along the
+  canals across the lagoon. The Venetians had taken up the buoys which
+  marked the fairway, and had placed a light squadron on the lagoon. The
+  allies, after occupying the island of Brondolo, attacked, and on the
+  13th of August took the town of Chioggia with its garrison of 3000
+  men.
+
+  There appeared to be nothing to prevent the enemy from advancing to
+  the city of Venice except the difficult navigation of the lagoon. The
+  senate applied for peace, but when the Genoese replied that they were
+  resolved to "bit and bridle the horses of Saint Mark" the Venetians
+  decided to fight to the end. Vettor Pisani, who had been imprisoned
+  after the defeat at Pola, but who possessed the confidence of the
+  people and the affection of the sailors, was released and named
+  commander-in-chief against the wish of the aristocracy. Under his
+  guidance the Venetians adopted a singularly bold and ingenious policy
+  of offensive defence. The heavy Genoese vessels were much hampered by
+  the shallow water and intricate passages through the lagoon. By taking
+  advantage of their embarrassment and his own local knowledge, Pisani
+  carried out a series of movements which entirely turned the tables on
+  the invaders. Between the 23rd and 25th of August he executed a
+  succession of night attacks, during which he sank vessels laden with
+  stores not only in the canals leading through the lagoon to Venice,
+  but in the fairways leading from Chioggia to the open sea round both
+  ends of the island of Brondolo. The Genoese were thus shut in at the
+  very moment when they thought they were about to besiege Venice.
+  Pisani stationed the galleys under his command in the open sea outside
+  Brondolo, and during the rest of the year blockaded the enemy closely.
+  The distress of the Venetians themselves was great, but the Doge
+  Andrea Contarini and the nobles set an example by sharing the general
+  hardships, and taking an oath not to return to Venice till they had
+  recovered Chioggia. Carlo Zeno had long since been ordered to return,
+  but the slowness and difficulty of communication and movement under
+  14th century conditions delayed his reappearance. The besiegers of
+  Chioggia were at the end of their powers of endurance, and Pisani had
+  been compelled to give a promise that the siege would be raised, when
+  Zeno's fleet reached the anchorage off Brondolo on the 1st of January
+  1380. The attack on Chioggia was now pressed with vigour. The Genoese
+  held out resolutely in the hope of relief from home. But the resources
+  of Genoa had been taxed to fit out the squadrons she had already sent
+  to sea. It was not until the 12th of May 1380 that her admiral, Matteo
+  Maruffo, was able to reach the neighbourhood of Brondolo with a
+  relieving force. By this time the Venetians had recovered the island,
+  and their fleet occupied a fortified anchorage from which they refused
+  to be drawn. Maruffo could do nothing, and on the 24th of June 1380
+  the defenders of Chioggia surrendered. The crisis of the war was past.
+  Venice, being now safe at home, recovered the command of the sea, and
+  before the close of the year was able to make peace as a conqueror.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--S. Romanin, _Storia documentata di Venezia_ (Venice,
+  1855); W.C. Hazlitt, _History of the Venetian Republic_ (London,
+  1860); Horatio F. Brown, _Venice_ (London, 1893). (D.H.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIOS, an island on the west coast of Asia Minor, called by the Greeks
+Chios ([Greek: Chios, 's tê Chio]) and by the Turks Saki Adasi; the soft
+pronunciation of [CHI] before [iota] in modern Greek, approximating to
+_sh_, caused [Greek: Chio] to be Italianized as Scio. It forms, with the
+islands of Psara, Nikaria, Leros, Calymnus and Cos, a sanjak of the
+Archipelago vilayet. Chios is about 30 m. long from N. to S., and from 8
+to 15 m. broad; pop. 64,000. It well deserves the epithet "craggy"
+([Greek: paipaloessa]) of the Homeric hymn. Its figs were noted in
+ancient times, but wine and gum mastic have always been the most
+important products. The climate is healthy; oranges, olives and even
+palms grow freely. The wine grown on the N.W. coast, in the district
+called by Strabo Ariusia, was known as _vinum Arvisium_. Early in the
+7th century B.C. Glaucus of Chios discovered the process of welding iron
+([Greek: kollêsis]: see J.G. Frazer's _Pausanias_, note on x. 16. 1,
+vol. v. pp. 313-314), and the iron stand of a large crater whose parts
+were all connected by this process was constructed by him, and preserved
+as one of the most interesting relics of antiquity at Delphi. The long
+line of Chian sculptors (see GREEK ART) in marble bears witness to the
+fame of Chian art. In literature the chief glory of Chios was the school
+of epic poets called Homeridae, who helped to create a received text of
+Homer and gave the island the reputation of being the poet's birthplace.
+The chief town, Chios (pop. 16,000), is on the E. coast. A theatre and a
+temple of Athena Poliuchus existed in the ancient city. About 6 m. N. of
+the city there is a curious monument of antiquity, commonly called "the
+school of Homer"; it is a very ancient sanctuary of Cybele, with an
+altar and a figure of the goddess with her two lions, cut out of the
+native rock on the summit of a hill. On the west coast there is a
+monastery of great wealth with a church founded by Constantine IX.
+Monomachus (1042-1054). Starting from the city and encompassing the
+island, one passes in succession the promontory Posidium; Cape Phanae,
+the southern extremity of Chios, with a harbour and a temple of Apollo;
+Notium, probably the south-western point of the island; Laii, opposite
+the city of Chios, where the island is narrowest; the town Bolissus (now
+Volisso), the home of the Homerid poets; Melaena, the north-western
+point; the wine-growing district Ariusia; Cardamyle (now Cardhamili);
+the north-eastern promontory was probably named Phlium, and the
+mountains that cross the northern part of the island Pelinaeus or
+Pellenaeus.
+
+  The history of Chios is very obscure. According to Pherecydes, the
+  original inhabitants were Leleges, while according to other accounts
+  Thessalian Pelasgi possessed the island before it became an Ionian
+  state. The name Aethalia, common to Chios and Lemnos in very early
+  times, suggests the original existence of a homogeneous population in
+  these and other neighbouring islands. Oenopion, a mythical hero, son
+  of Dionysus or of Rhadamanthus, was an early king of Chios. His
+  successor in the fourth generation, Hector, united the island to the
+  Ionian confederacy (Pausan. vii. 4), though Strabo (xiv. p. 633)
+  implies an actual conquest by Ionian settlers. The regal government
+  was at a later time exchanged for an oligarchy or a democracy. The
+  names of two tyrants, Amphiclus and Polytecnus, are mentioned. The
+  products of the island were largely exported on the ships of Miletus,
+  with which city Chios formed a close mercantile alliance in opposition
+  to the rival league of Phocaea and Samos. Similar commercial
+  considerations determined the Chians in their attitude towards the
+  Persian conquerors: in 546 they submitted to Cyrus as eagerly as
+  Phocaea resisted him; during the Ionian revolt their fleet of 100 sail
+  joined the Milesians in offering a desperate opposition at Lade (494).
+  The island was subsequently punished with great rigour by the
+  Persians. The Chian ships, under the tyrant Strattis, served in the
+  Persian fleet at Salamis. After its liberation in 479 Chios joined the
+  Delian League and long remained a firm ally of the Athenians, who
+  allowed it to retain full autonomy. But in 413 the island revolted,
+  and was not recaptured. After the Peloponnesian War it took the first
+  opportunity to renew the Athenian alliance, but in 357 again seceded.
+  As a member of the Delian League it had regained its prosperity, being
+  able to equip a fleet of 50 or 60 sail. Moreover, it was reputed one
+  of the best-governed states in Greece, for although it was governed
+  alternately by oligarchs and democrats neither party persecuted the
+  other severely. It was not till late in the 4th century that civil
+  dissension became a danger to the state, leaving it a prey to Idrieus,
+  the dynast of Caria (346), and to the Persian admiral Memnon (333).
+  During the Hellenistic age Chios maintained itself in a virtually
+  independent position. It supported the Romans in their Eastern wars,
+  and was made a "free and allied state." Under Roman and Byzantine rule
+  industry and commerce were undisturbed, its chief export at this time
+  being the Arvisian wine, which had become very popular. After
+  temporary occupations by the Seljuk Turks (1089-1092) and by the
+  Venetians (1124-1125, 1172, 1204-1225), it was given in fief to the
+  Genoese family of Zaccaria, and in 1346 passed definitely into the
+  hands of a Genoese _maona_, or trading company, which was organized in
+  1362 under the name of "the Giustiniani." This mercantile brotherhood,
+  formerly a privileged class, alone exploited the mastic trade; at the
+  same time the Greeks were allowed to retain their rights of
+  self-government and continued to exercise their industries. In 1415
+  the Genoese became tributary to the Ottomans. In spite of occasional
+  secessions which brought severe punishment upon the island (1453,
+  1479), the rule of the Giustiniani was not abolished till 1566. Under
+  the Ottoman government the prosperity of Chios was hardly affected.
+  But the island underwent severe periods of suffering after its capture
+  and reconquest from the Florentines (1595) and the Venetians
+  (1694-1695), which greatly reduced the number of the Latins. Worst of
+  all were the massacres of 1822, which followed upon an attack by some
+  Greek insurgents executed against the will of the natives. In 1881
+  Chios was visited by a very severe earthquake in which over 5600
+  persons lost their lives and more than half the villages were
+  seriously damaged. The island has now recovered its prosperity. There
+  is a harbour at Castro, and steam flour-mills, foundries and tanneries
+  have been established. Rich antimony and calamine mines are worked by
+  a French undertaking, and good marble is quarried by an Italian
+  company.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Strabo xiv. pp. 632 f.; Athenaeus vi. 265-266; Herodotus
+  i. 160-165, vi. 15-31; Thucydides viii. 14-61; _Corpus Inscr.
+  Atticarum_, iv. (2), pp. 9, 10; H. Houssaye in _Revue des deux
+  mondes_, xlvi. (1876), pp. 1 ff.; T. Bent in _Historical Review_
+  (1889), pp. 467-480; Fustel de Coulanges, _L'Île de Chio_ (ed.
+  Jullian, Paris, 1893); for coinage, B.V. Head, _Historia numorum_
+  (Oxford, 1887), pp. 513-515, and NUMISMATICS: _Greek_.     (E. GR.;
+  M. O. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS (d. 1779), the most famous of English cabinetmakers.
+The materials for the biography of Chippendale are exceedingly scanty,
+but he is known to have been the son of Thomas Chippendale I., and is
+believed to have been the father of Thomas Chippendale III. His father
+was a cabinet-maker and wood-carver of considerable repute in Worcester
+towards the beginning of the 18th century, and possibly he originated
+some of the forms which became characteristic of his son's work. Thus a
+set of chairs and settees was made, apparently at Worcester, for the
+family of Bury of Knateshill, at a period when the great cabinetmaker
+could have been no more than a boy, which are practically identical with
+much of the work that was being turned out of the family factory as late
+as the 'sixties of the 18th century. Side by side with the Queen Anne or
+early Georgian feeling of the first quarter of the 18th century we find
+the interlaced splats and various other details which marked the
+Chippendale style. By 1727 the elder Chippendale and his son had removed
+to London, and at the end of 1749 the younger man--his father was
+probably then dead--established himself in Conduit Street, Long Acre,
+whence in 1753 he removed to No. 60 St Martin's Lane, which with the
+addition of the adjoining three houses remained his factory for the rest
+of his life. In 1755 his workshops were burned down; in 1760 he was
+elected a member of the Society of Arts; in 1766 his partnership with
+James Ranni was dissolved by the latter's death.
+
+It has always been exceedingly difficult to distinguish the work
+executed in Chippendale's factory and under his own eye from that of the
+many copyists and adapters who throughout the second half of the 18th
+century--the golden age of English furniture--plundered remorselessly.
+Apart from his published designs, many of which were probably never made
+up, we have to depend upon the very few instances in which his original
+accounts enable us to earmark work which was unquestionably his. For
+Claydon House, the seat of the Verneys in Buckinghamshire, he executed
+much decorative work, and the best judges are satisfied that the Chinese
+bedroom there was designed by him. At Harewood House, the seat of the
+earl of Harewood in Yorkshire, we are on firmer ground. The house was
+furnished between 1765 and 1771, and both Robert Adam and Chippendale
+were employed upon it. Indeed, there is unmistakable evidence to show
+that certain work, so closely characteristic of the Adams that it might
+have been assigned to them without hesitation, was actually produced by
+Chippendale. This may be another of the many indications that
+Chippendale was himself an imitator, or it may be that Adam, as
+architect, prescribed designs which Chippendale's cabinetmakers and
+carvers executed. Chippendale's bills for this Adam work are still
+preserved. Stourhead, the famous house of the Hoares in Wiltshire,
+contains much undoubted Chippendale furniture, which may, however, be
+the work of Thomas Chippendale III.; at Rowton Castle, Shropshire,
+Chippendale's bills as well as his works still exist.
+
+Our other main source of information is _The Gentleman and Cabinet
+Maker's Director_, which was published by Thomas Chippendale in 1754.
+This book, the most important collection of furniture designs issued up
+to that time in England, contains one hundred and sixty engraved plates,
+and the list of subscribers indicates that the author had acquired a
+large and distinguished body of customers. The book is of folio size;
+there was a second edition in 1759, and a third in 1762.
+
+In the rather bombastic introduction Chippendale says that he has been
+encouraged to produce the book "by persons of distinction and taste, who
+have regretted that an art capable of so much perfection and refinement
+should be executed with so little propriety and elegance." He has some
+severe remarks upon critics, from which we may assume that he had
+already suffered at their hands. Perhaps, indeed, Chippendale may have
+been hinted at in the caustic remarks of Isaac Ware, surveyor to the
+king, who bewailed that it was the misfortune of the world in his day
+"to see an unmeaning scrawl of C's inverted and looped together, taking
+the place of Greek and Roman elegance even in our most expensive
+decorations. It is called French, and let them have the praise of it!
+The Gothic shaft and Chinese bell are not beyond nor below it in
+poorness of imitation." It is the more likely that these barbs were
+intended for Chippendale, since he was guilty not only of many essays in
+Gothic, but of a vast amount of work in the Chinese fashion, as well as
+in the flamboyant style of Louis XV. The _Director_ contains examples of
+each of the manners which aroused the scorn of the king's surveyor.
+Chippendale has even shared with Sir William Chambers the obloquy of
+introducing the Chinese style, but he appears to have done nothing worse
+than "conquer," as Alexandre Dumas used to call it, the ideas of other
+people. Nor would it be fair to the man who, whatever his occasional
+extravagances and absurdities, was yet a great designer and a great
+transmuter, to pretend that all his Chinese designs were contemptible.
+Many of them, with their geometrical lattice-work and carved tracery,
+are distinctly elegant and effective. Occasionally we find in one piece
+of furniture a combination of the three styles which Chippendale most
+affected at different periods--Louis XV., Chinese and Gothic--and it
+cannot honestly be said that the result is as incongruous as might have
+been expected. Some of his most elegant and attractive work is derived
+directly from the French, and we cannot doubt that the inspiration of
+his famous ribbon-backed chair came directly from some of the more
+artistic performances in rococo.
+
+The primary characteristic of his work is solidity, but it is a solidity
+which rarely becomes heaviness. Even in his most lightsome efforts, such
+as the ribbon-backed chair, construction is always the first
+consideration. It is here perhaps that he differs most materially from
+his great successor Sheraton, whose ideas of construction were eccentric
+in the extreme. It is indeed in the chair that Chippendale is seen at
+his best and most characteristic. From his hand, or his pencil, we have
+a great variety of chairs, which, although differing extensively in
+detail, may be roughly arranged in three or four groups, which it would
+sometimes be rash to attempt to date. He introduced the cabriole leg,
+which, despite its antiquity, came immediately from Holland; the claw
+and ball foot of ancient Oriental use; the straight, square,
+uncompromising early Georgian leg; the carved lattice-work Chinese leg;
+the pseudo-Chinese leg; the fretwork leg, which was supposed to be in
+the best Gothic taste; the inelegant rococo leg with the curled or
+hoofed foot; and even occasionally the spade foot, which is supposed to
+be characteristic of the somewhat later style of Hepplewhite. His
+chair-backs were very various. His efforts in Gothic were sometimes
+highly successful; often they took the form of the tracery of a church
+window, or even of an ovalled rose window. His Chinese backs were
+distinctly geometrical, and from them he would seem to have derived some
+of the inspiration for the frets of the glazed book-cases and cabinets
+which were among his most agreeable work. The most attractive feature of
+Chippendale's most artistic chairs--those which, originally derived from
+Louis Quinze models, were deprived of their rococo extravagances--is the
+back, which, speaking generally, is the most elegant and pleasing thing
+that has ever been done in furniture. He took the old solid or slightly
+pierced back, and cut it up into a light openwork design exquisitely
+carved--for Chippendale was a carver before everything--in a vast
+variety of designs ranging from the elaborate and extremely elegant, if
+much criticized, ribbon back, to a comparatively plain but highly
+effective splat. His armchairs, however, often had solid or stuffed
+backs. Next to his chairs Chippendale was most successful with settees,
+which almost invariably took the shape of two or three conjoined chairs,
+the arms, backs and legs identical with those which he used for single
+seats. He was likewise a prolific designer and maker of book-cases,
+cabinets and escritoires with doors glazed with fretwork divisions. Some
+of those which he executed in the style which in his day passed for
+Gothic are exceedingly handsome and effective. We have, too, from his
+hand many cases for long clocks, and a great number of tables, some of
+them with a remarkable degree of Gallic grace. He was especially
+successful in designing small tables with fretwork galleries for the
+display of china. His mirrors, which were often in the Chinese taste or
+extravagantly rococo, are remarkable and characteristic. In his day the
+cabinetmaker still had opportunities for designing and constructing the
+four-post bedstead, and some of Chippendale's most graceful work was
+lavished upon the woodwork of the lighter, more refined and less
+monumental four-poster, which, thanks in some degree to his initiative,
+took the place of the massive Tudor and the funereally hung Jacobean
+bed. From an organ case to a washhand-stand, indeed, no piece of
+domestic furniture came amiss to this astonishing man, and if sometimes
+he was extravagant, grotesque or even puerile, his level of achievement
+is on the whole exceedingly high.
+
+Since the revival of interest in his work he has often been criticized
+with considerable asperity, but not always justly. Chippendale's work
+has stood the supreme test of posterity more completely than that of any
+of his rivals or successors; and, unlike many men of genius, we know him
+to have been warmly appreciated in his lifetime. He was at once an
+artist and a prosperous man of business. His claims to distinction are
+summed up in the fact that his name has by general consent been attached
+to the most splendid period of English furniture.
+
+Chippendale was buried on the 13th of November 1779, apparently at the
+church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and administration of his intestate
+estate was granted to his widow Elizabeth. He left four children, Thomas
+Chippendale III., John, Charles and Mary. He was one of the assignees in
+bankruptcy of the notorious Theresa Cornelys of Soho Square, of whom we
+read in Casanova and other scandalous chronicles of the time. Thomas
+Chippendale III. succeeded to the business of his father and
+grandfather, and for some years the firm traded under the style of
+Chippendale & Haig. The factory remained in St Martin's Lane, but in
+1814 an additional shop was opened at No. 57 Haymarket, whence it was in
+1821 removed to 42 Jermyn Street. Like his father, Thomas Chippendale
+III. was a member of the Society of Arts; and he is known to have
+exhibited five pictures at the Royal Academy between 1784 and 1801. He
+died at the end of 1822 or the beginning of 1823.    (J. P. -B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIPPENHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham
+parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94 m. W. of London by the
+Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5074. Chippenham is governed by a
+mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 361 acres. It lies in a
+hollow on the south side of the Upper Avon, here crossed by a
+picturesque stone bridge of 21 arches. St Andrew's church, originally
+Norman of the 12th century, has been enlarged in different styles. A
+paved causeway running for about 4 m. between Chippenham Cliff and Wick
+Hill is named after Maud Heath, said to have been a market-woman, who
+built it in the 15th century, and bequeathed an estate for its
+maintenance. After the decline of its woollen and silk trades,
+Chippenham became celebrated for grain and cheese markets. There are
+also manufactures of broadcloth, churns, condensed milk,
+railway-signals, guns and carriages; besides bacon-curing works, flour
+mills, tanneries and large stone quarries. Bowood, the seat of the
+marquess of Lansdowne, is 3-1/2 m. S.E. of Chippenham. Lanhill barrow,
+or Hubba's Low, 2-1/2 m. N.W., is an ancient tomb containing a
+_kistvaen_ or sepulchral chamber of stone; it is probably British,
+though tradition makes it the grave of Hubba, a Danish leader.
+
+Chippenham (_Chepeham, Chippeham_) was the site of a royal residence
+where in 853 Æthelwulf celebrated the marriage of his daughter
+Æthelswitha with Burhred, king of Mercia. The town also figured
+prominently in the Danish invasion of the 9th century, and in 933 was
+the meeting-place of the witan. In the Domesday Survey Chippenham
+appears as a crown manor and is not assessed in hides. The town was
+governed by a bailiff in the reign of Edward I., and returned two
+members to parliament from 1295, but it was not incorporated until 1553,
+when a charter from Mary established a bailiff and twelve burgesses and
+endowed the corporation with certain lands for the maintenance of two
+parliamentary burgesses and for the repair of the bridge over the Avon.
+In 1684 this charter was surrendered to Charles II., and in 1685 a new
+charter was received from James II., which was shortly abandoned in
+favour of the original grant. The Representation Act of 1868 reduced the
+number of parliamentary representatives to one, and the borough was
+disfranchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The derivation of
+Chippenham from _cyppan_, to buy, implies that the town possessed a
+market in Saxon times. When Henry VII. introduced the clothing
+manufacture into Wiltshire, Chippenham became an important centre of the
+industry, which has lapsed. A prize, however, was awarded to the town
+for this commodity at the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+
+
+
+
+CHIPPEWA[1] FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Chippewa county,
+Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, about 100 m. E. of St Paul,
+Minnesota, and 12 m. N.E. of Eau Claire, Wisconsin. Pop. (1890) 8670;
+(1900) 8094; (1910, census) 8893. It is served by the Minneapolis, St
+Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago,
+Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by the electric line to Eau Claire.
+The first settlement on the site was made in 1837; and the city was
+chartered in 1870.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the Chippewa Indians see OJIBWAY, of which the word is a
+    popular adaptation.
+
+
+
+
+CHIPPING CAMPDEN, a market town in the northern parliamentary division
+of Gloucestershire, England, on the Oxford and Worcester line of the
+Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1542. It is picturesquely situated
+towards the north of the Cotteswold hill-district. The many interesting
+ancient houses afford evidence of the former greater importance of the
+town. The church of St James is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a
+number of brasses of the 15th and 16th centuries and several notable
+monumental tombs. A ruined manor house of the 16th century and some
+almshouses complete, with the church, a picturesque group of buildings;
+and Campden House, also of the 16th century, deserves notice.
+
+Apart from a medieval tradition preserved by Robert de Brunne that it
+was the meeting-place of a conference of Saxon kings, the earliest
+record of Campden (_Campedene_) is in Domesday Book, when Earl Hugh is
+said to hold it, and to have there fifty villeins. The number shows that
+a large village was attached to the manor, which in 1173 passed to Hugh
+de Gondeville, and about 1204 to Ralph, earl of Chester. The borough
+must have grown up during the 12th century, for both these lords granted
+the burgesses charters which are known from a confirmation of 1247,
+granting that they and all who should come to the market of Campedene
+should be quit of toll, and that if any free burgess of Campedene should
+come into the lord's amerciament he should be quit for 12d. unless he
+should shed blood or do felony. Probably Earl Ralph also granted the
+town a portman-mote, for the account of a skirmish in 1273 between the
+men of the town and the county mentions a bailiff and implies the
+existence of some sort of municipal government. In 1605 Campedene was
+incorporated, but it never returned representatives to parliament.
+Camden speaks of the town as a market famous for stockings, a relic of
+that medieval importance as a mart for wool that had given the town the
+name of Chipping.
+
+
+
+
+CHIPPING NORTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Banbury
+parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, 26 m. N.W. of Oxford by
+a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3780. It lies on the
+steep flank of a hill, and consists mainly of one very wide street. The
+church of St Mary the Virgin, standing on the lower part of the slope,
+is a fine building of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, the
+hexagonal porch and the clerestory being good examples of the later
+style. The town has woollen and glove factories, breweries and an
+agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 2456 acres. Chipping Norton (_Chepyngnorton_) was
+probably of some importance in Saxon times. At the Domesday Survey it
+was held in chief by Ernulf de Hesding; it was assessed at fifteen
+hides, and comprised three mills. It returned two members to parliament
+as a borough in 1302 and 1304-1305, but was not represented after this
+date, and was not considered to be a borough in 1316. The first and only
+charter of incorporation was granted by James I., in 1608; it
+established a common council consisting of 2 bailiffs and 12 burgesses;
+a common clerk, 2 justices of the peace, and 2 serjeants-at-mace; and a
+court of record every Monday. In 1205 William Fitz-Alan was granted a
+four days' fair at the feast of the Invention of the Cross; and in 1276
+Roger, earl of March, was granted a four days' fair at the feast of St
+Barnabas. In the reign of Henry VI. the market was held on Wednesday,
+and a fair was held at the Translation of St Thomas Becket. These
+continued to be held in the reign of James I., who annulled the former
+two fairs, and granted fairs at the feasts of St Mark, St Matthew, St
+Bartholomew, and SS. Simon and Jude.
+
+
+
+
+CHIQUITOS (Span, "very small"), a group of tribes in the province of
+Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, and between the head waters of the
+rivers Mamoré and Itenez. When their country was first invaded they fled
+into the forests, and the Spaniards, coming upon their huts, the
+doorways of which are built excessively low, supposed them to be dwarfs:
+hence the name. They are in fact well formed and powerful, of middle
+height and of an olive complexion. They are an agricultural people, but
+made a gallant resistance to the Spaniards for nearly two centuries. In
+1691, however, they made the Jesuit missionaries welcome, and rapidly
+became civilized. The Chiquito language was adopted as the means of
+communication among the converts, who soon numbered 50,000, representing
+nearly fifty tribes. Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 the
+Chiquitos became decadent, and now number short of 20,000. Their houses,
+regularly ranged in streets, are built of adobes thatched with coarse
+grass. They manufacture copper boilers for making sugar and understand
+several trades, weave ponchos and hammocks and make straw hats. They are
+fond of singing and dancing, and are a gentle-mannered and hospitable
+folk. The group is now divided into forty tribes.
+
+
+
+
+CHIROMANCY (from Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, and [Greek: manteia],
+divination), the art of telling the character or fortune of persons by
+studying the lines of the palms of the hands (see PALMISTRY).
+
+
+
+
+CHIRON, or CHEIRON, in Greek mythology, one of the Centaurs, the son of
+Cronus and Philyra, a sea nymph. He dwelt at the foot of Mount Pelion,
+and was famous for his wisdom and knowledge of the healing art. He
+offers a remarkable contrast to the other Centaurs in manners and
+character. Many of the most celebrated heroes of Greece were brought up
+and instructed by him (Apollodorus iii. 10. 13). Accidentally pierced by
+a poisoned arrow shot by Heracles, he renounced his immortality in
+favour of Prometheus, and was placed by Zeus among the stars as the
+constellation _Sagittarius_ (Apollodorus ii. 5; Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 414).
+In a Pompeian wall-painting he is shown teaching Achilles to play the
+lyre.
+
+  See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_ and W.H. Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+CHIROPODIST (an invented word from Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, and [Greek:
+pous], foot), properly one who treats the ailments of the hands and
+feet, or is consulted as to keeping them in good condition; the use of
+the word is now restricted, however, to the care of the toes,
+"manicurist" having been invented for the corresponding attentions to
+the fingers. The word was first introduced in 1785, by a "corncutter" in
+Davies Street, London.
+
+
+
+
+CHIROPTERA (Greek for "hand-wings"), an order of mammals containing the
+bats, all of which are unique in the class in possessing the power of
+true flight, and have their fore-limbs specially modified for this
+purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Skeleton and Wing-Membranes of the Noctule Bat
+(_Pipistrellus noctula_).
+
+  c, Clavicle.
+  h, Humerus.
+  r, Radius.
+  u, Ulna.
+  d1, First digit.
+  d2, d3, d4, d5, Other digits of the fore-limb
+      supporting wm, the wing-membrane.
+  m, m, Metacarpal bones.
+  ph1, First phalanx.
+  ph2, Second phalanx.
+  ph3, Third phalanx.
+  am, Antebrachial membrane.
+  f, Femur.
+  t, Tibia.
+  fb, Fibula.
+  c, Calcar supporting im, the interfemoral membrane.
+  pcb, Post-calcaneal lobe.]
+
+The mammals comprised in this order are at once distinguished by the
+possession of true wings; this peculiarity being accompanied by other
+modifications of bodily structure having relation to aerial locomotion.
+Thus, in direct contrast to all other mammals, in which locomotion is
+chiefly effected by action from behind, and the hind-limbs consequently
+greatly preponderate in size over the fore, in the Chiroptera the
+fore-limbs, being the agents in propelling the body forward during
+flight, immensely exceed the short and weak hinder extremities. The
+thorax, giving origin to the great muscles which sustain flight, and
+containing the proportionately large lungs and heart, is remarkably
+capacious; and the ribs are flattened and close together; while the
+shoulder-girdle is greatly developed in comparison with the weak pelvis.
+The fore-arm (fig. 1) consists of a rudimentary ulna, a long curved
+radius, and a carpus of six bones supporting a thumb and four elongated
+fingers, between which, the sides of the body, and the hinder
+extremities a thin expansion of skin, the wing-membrane, is spread. The
+knee is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind-limb,
+outwards by the wing-membrane; an elongated cartilaginous process (the
+calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from the inner side of
+the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports part of the posterior
+margin of an accessory membrane of flight, extending from the tail or
+posterior extremity of the body to the hind-limbs, and known as the
+interfemoral membrane. The penis is pendent; the testes are abdominal
+or inguinal; the teats, usually two in number, thoracic; the uterus is
+simple or with more or less long cornua; the placenta discoidal and
+deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend backwards
+over the cerebellum. The teeth comprise incisors, canines, premolars and
+molars; and the dental formula never exceeds i. 2/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/8, m.
+3/3; total 38. Despite the forward position of the teats, which is
+merely an adaptive feature, bats are evidently mammals of low
+organization, and are most nearly related to the Insectivora.
+
+In consequence of the backward direction of the knee, a bat, when placed
+on the ground, rests on all fours, having the knees directed upwards,
+while the foot is rotated forwards and inwards on the ankle. Walking is
+thus a kind of shuffle; but, notwithstanding a general belief, bats can
+take wing from the walking posture.
+
+The bones of the skeleton are characterized by their slenderness and the
+great size of the medullary canals in those of the extremities. The
+vertebral column is short, and the vertebrae differ but slightly in
+number and form throughout the group. The general number of dorso-lumbar
+vertebrae is 17, whereof 12 are dorsal; the cervical vertebrae are
+broad, but short. Except in fruit-bats (_Pteropodidae_), the vertebrae,
+from the third cervical backwards, are devoid of spinous processes. From
+the first dorsal to the last lumbar the vertebral column forms a single
+curve, most pronounced in the lumbar region. The bodies of the vertebrae
+are but slightly movable on each other, and in old individuals become
+partially welded. The caudal vertebrae are cylindrical bones without
+processes; their number and length varying in allied species. The
+development of these vertebrae is correlated with habits, the long tail
+in the insectivorous species supporting and controlling the position of
+the interfemoral membrane which aids bats in their doubling motions when
+in pursuit of insects by acting as a rudder, and assists them in the
+capture of the larger insects. In the fruit-bats this is not required,
+and the tail is rudimentary or absent. In all bats the presternum has a
+prominent keel for the attachment of the great pectoral muscles.
+
+The shape of the skull varies greatly; but post-orbital processes are
+developed only in some _Pteropodidae_ and a few _Nycteridae_ and
+_Emballonuridae_; in _Pteropus leucopterus_ alone does a process from
+the zygomatic arch meet the post-orbital so as to complete the orbital
+ring. Zygomatic arches, though slender, are present in all except in
+some of the species of _Phyllostomatidae_.
+
+The milk-teeth differ from those of all other mammals in that they are
+unlike those of the permanent series. They are slender, with pointed
+recurved cusps, and are soon shed, but exist for a short time with the
+permanent teeth. In the _Rhinolophidae_ the milk-teeth are absorbed
+before birth. The permanent teeth exhibit great variety, sometimes even
+in the same family, as in _Phyllostomatidae_, whilst in other families,
+as _Rhinolophidae_, the resemblance between the dentition of species
+differing in many respects is remarkable. In all they are provided with
+well-developed roots, and their crowns are acutely tuberculate, with
+more or less well-defined W-shaped cusps, in the insectivorous species,
+or variously hollowed out or longitudinally grooved in the frugivorous
+kinds.
+
+The shoulder-girdle varies but slightly, the clavicle being long, strong
+and curved; and the scapula large, oval and triangular, with a long
+curved coracoid process. The humerus, though long, is scarcely
+two-thirds the length of the radius; and the rudimentary ulna is welded
+with the radius. A sesamoid bone exists in the tendon of the triceps
+muscle. The upper row of the carpus consists of the united scaphoid,
+lunar and cuneiform bones.
+
+The "hand" has five digits, the first, fourth and fifth of which consist
+each of a metacarpal and two phalanges; but in the second and third the
+number of phalanges is different in certain families. The first digit
+terminates in a claw, most developed in the frugivorous species, in most
+of which the second digit is also clawed, although in other bats this
+and the remaining digits are unarmed.
+
+In the weak pelvis the ilia are long and narrow, while in most species
+the pubes of opposite sides are loosely united in front in males, and
+widely separated in females; in the _Rhinolophidae_ alone they form a
+symphysis. Only in the _Molossinae_ is there a well-developed fibula; in
+the rest this bone is either very slender or cartilaginous and
+ligamentous in its upper third, or reduced to a small bony process
+above the heel, or absent. The foot consists of a short tarsus, and of
+slender, laterally compressed toes, with much-curved claws.
+
+Although the brain is of a low type, probably no animals possess so
+delicate a sense of touch as Chiroptera. In ordinary bats tactile organs
+exist, not only in the bristles on the sides of the muzzle, but in the
+sensitive structures forming the wing-membranes and ears, while in many
+species leaf-like expansions surrounding the nasal apertures or
+extending backwards behind them are added. These nose-leaves are made up
+partly of the extended and thickened integument of the nostrils, and
+partly of the glandular eminences occupying the sides of the muzzle, in
+which in other bats the sensitive bristles are implanted.
+
+In no mammals are the ears so developed or so variable in form; in most
+insectivorous species they are longer than the head, while in the
+long-eared bat their length nearly equals that of the head and body. The
+form is characteristic in each of the families; in most the "earlet," or
+tragus, is large, in some cases extending nearly to the outer margin of
+the conch; its office appears to be to intensify and prolong the waves
+of sound by producing undulations in them. In the _Rhinolophidae_, the
+only family of insectivorous bats wanting the tragus, the auditory
+bullae reach their greatest size, and the nasal appendages their highest
+development. In frugivorous bats the ear is simple and but slightly
+variable. In all bats the ears are extremely mobile, each independently
+at will.
+
+The oesophagus is narrow, especially in blood-sucking vampires. The
+stomach presents two types of structure, corresponding respectively to
+the two divisions of the order, Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera; in
+the former the pyloric extremity is, with one exception, elongated and
+folded upon itself, in the latter simple; an exceptional type is met
+with in the blood-suckers, where the cardiac extremity is elongated,
+forming a long appendage. The intestine is comparatively short, varying
+from one and a half to four times the length of the head and body;
+longest in the frugivorous, shortest in the insectivorous species. In
+_Rhinopoma_ and _Megaderma_ a small caecum has been found. The liver is
+characterized by the great size of the left lateral lobe, which
+occasionally equals half that of the whole organ; the right and left
+lateral fissures are usually very deep; in Megachiroptera the spigelian
+lobe is, with one exception, ill defined or absent, and the caudate is
+generally large; but in Microchiroptera the former lobe is large, while
+the caudate is small. The gall-bladder is generally well developed.
+
+In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of slender,
+long, cylindrical bones connecting the basi-hyoid with the skull, while
+the pharynx is short, and the larynx shallow with feebly developed vocal
+cords, and guarded by a short pointed epiglottis. In the African
+epauletted bats, _Epomophorus_, the pharynx is long and capacious, the
+aperture of the larynx far removed from the fauces, and, opposite to it,
+opens a canal, leading from the nasal chambers, and extending along the
+back of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls are
+ossified; the hyoids are unconnected, except by muscle with the skull;
+while the cerato-hyals and epi-hyals are cartilaginous and expanded,
+entering into the formation of the walls of the pharynx, and (in males
+of some species) supporting the orifices of a pair of air-sacs
+communicating with the pharynx (fig. 2).
+
+The extent and shape of the wings generally depend on the form of the
+bones of the fore-limbs, and on the presence or absence of the tail. The
+wings consist of an "antebrachial membrane," which extends from the
+point of the shoulder along the humerus and more or less of the fore-arm
+to the base of the thumb, the metacarpal bone of which is partially or
+wholly included in it; the "wing-membrane" spread out between the
+elongated fingers, and extending along the sides of the body to the
+posterior extremities, generally reaching to the feet; and the
+"interfemoral membrane," the most variable of all, which is supported
+between the extremity of the body, the legs and the calcar (fig. 1). The
+antebrachial and wing membranes are most developed in species fitted
+only for aerial locomotion which when at rest hang with the body
+enveloped in the wings; but in the _Emballonuridae_, and also in the
+_Molossinae_, which are the best fitted for terrestrial progression, the
+antebrachial membrane is reduced to a small size, and not developed
+along the fore-arm, leaving the thumb quite free, while the
+wing-membrane is narrow and folded in repose under the forearm. The
+relative development of the interfemoral membrane has been referred to
+in connexion with the caudal vertebrae. Its small size in the
+frugivorous and blood-sucking species, which do not require it, is
+easily understood. Scent-glands and pouches opening on the surface of
+the skin are developed in many species, but in most cases more so in
+males than in females (fig. 3). As rule, bats produce only a single
+offspring at a birth, which for some time is carried about by the female
+parent clinging to the fur of her breast; but certain North American
+bats commonly give birth to three or four young ones at a time, which
+are carried about in the same manner.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Head and Neck of _Epomophorus franqueti_ (adult
+male). From Dobson. The anterior (_a.ph.s_) and posterior (_p.ph.s_)
+pharyngeal sacs are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the
+points where they communicate with the pharynx; _s_, thin membranous
+partition in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of
+opposite sides; _s.m_, sterno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior
+from the posterior sac.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Frontal Sac and Nose-Leaf in Male and Female
+Masked Bat (_Phyllorhina larvata_). From Dobson.]
+
+Bats are divisible into two suborders, Megachiroptera and
+Microchiroptera.
+
+
+  _Megachiroptera_.
+
+    Fruit-eating bats.
+
+  The first of these comprises the fruit-eating species, which are
+  generally of large size, with the crowns of the cheek-teeth smooth and
+  marked with a longitudinal groove. The bony palate is continued behind
+  the last molar, narrowing slowly backwards; there are three phalanges
+  in the index finger, the third phalange being terminated generally by
+  a claw; the sides of the ear form a ring at the base; the tail, when
+  present, is inferior to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane;
+  the pyloric extremity of the stomach is generally much elongated; and
+  the spigelian lobe of the liver is ill-defined or absent, while the
+  caudate is well developed. This group is limited to the tropical and
+  sub-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.
+
+  All the members of this suborder are included in the single family
+  _Pteropodidae_, the first representatives of which are the African
+  epauletted bats, forming the genus _Epomophorus_. In this the dental
+  formula is _i._ 2/2 (or ½), _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ ½. Tail short or
+  absent, when present free from the interfemoral membrane; second
+  finger with a claw; premaxillae united in front. The species are
+  strictly limited to Africa south of the Sahara, and are distinguished
+  by the large and long head, expansible and often folded lips, and the
+  white tufts of hair on the margins of the ears. The males are provided
+  with glandular pouches, situated in the skin of the side of the neck
+  near the point of the shoulder, which are rudimentary or absent in
+  females. In the males they are lined with glandular membrane, from
+  which long coarse yellowish hairs project to form conspicuous
+  epaulet-like tufts on the shoulders. The males often have a pair of
+  air-sacs extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath the
+  integument of the neck, in the position shown in fig. 2. These bats
+  appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which their
+  voluminous lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow without
+  loss. The huge and ugly West African hammer-headed bat, _Hypsignathus
+  monstrosus_, represents an allied genus distinguished by the absence
+  of shoulder-pouches, and the presence of leaf-like expansions of skin
+  on the front of the muzzle, and of distinct cusps on the outer sides
+  of the cheek-teeth. The great majority of the bats of this group,
+  commonly known as "flying-foxes," are included in the typical genus
+  _Pteropus_, of which the dental formula is _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._
+  3/3, _m._ 2/3. All are of large size, and the absence of a tail, the
+  long pointed muzzle, and the woolly fur covering the neck render their
+  recognition easy. One of the species, _P. edulis_, inhabiting Java,
+  measures 5 ft. across the fully extended wings, and is the largest
+  member of the order.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Head of a Flying-Fox or Fruit-Bat (_Pteropus
+  personatus_). From Gray.]
+
+  The range of the genus extends from Madagascar through the Seychelles
+  to India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Japan, New Guinea,
+  Australia and Polynesia. Although two species inhabit the Comoro
+  Islands, scarcely 200 m. from the mainland, not one is found in
+  Africa; while the common Indian species is closely allied to the
+  Madagascar flying-fox. The Malay Archipelago and Australia form the
+  headquarters of these bats, which in some places occur in countless
+  multitudes. The colonies exhale a strong musky odour, and when awake
+  the occupants utter a loud incessant chatter. Wallace's fruit-bat of
+  Celebes and Macassar has been made the type of a separate genus, as
+  _Styloctenium wallacei_. In _Roussettus_ (or _Cynonycteris_) the
+  dentition is as in _Pteropus_, but the tail is short, and the fur of
+  the nape of the neck not different from that of the back: its
+  distribution accords with that of _Pteropus_, except that it includes
+  Africa and does not reach farther east than New Ireland. _R.
+  aegyptiacus_ inhabits the chambers of the Great Pyramid and other
+  deserted buildings in Egypt, and is probably the species figured in
+  Egyptian frescoes. _Boneia_, with two species, from Celebes, differs
+  in having only two upper incisors. _Harpyionycteris_ and
+  _Scotonycteris_, respectively from the Philippines and West Africa,
+  are represented by a single species each; but of _Cynopterus_, which
+  is mainly confined to the Indo-Malay countries, there are some
+  half-score different kinds. The dentition is _i._ 2/[2 or 1], _c._
+  1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3, the muzzle is shorter than in _Roussettus_,
+  with the upper lip grooved in front as in _Pteropus_, while the tail
+  and fur resemble those of the former genus. These bats are extremely
+  voracious, a specimen of the Indian _C. marginatus_ having eaten a
+  banana twice its own weight in three hours. Among several Austro-Malay
+  genera, such as _Ptenochirus_ and _Balionycteris_, the tube-nosed bats
+  of the genus _Gelasinus_ (or _Harpyia_) are remarkable for the
+  conformation of the nostrils (fig. 5). _Cephalotes_, with one species,
+  ranging from Celebes to the Solomon group, has the dentition _i._ 1/1,
+  _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ 2/3, premaxillae not united in front,
+  nostrils simple, muzzle short, index finger without a claw, tail
+  short. As in _Gelasinus_, the wing-membrane arises from the middle
+  line of the back, to which it is attached by a longitudinal thin
+  process of skin; the wings are naked, but the back covered with hair.
+  _Leipenyx_ is an allied West African genus with one species.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Head of Papuan Tube-Nosed Bat (_Gelasinus
+  major_). From G.E. Dobson.]
+
+  The foregoing belong to the typical subfamily _Pteropodinae_, while
+  the remainder represent a second group, _Carponycterinae_ (or
+  _Macroglossinae_), characterized by having the facial part of the
+  skull produced, the molar teeth narrow, and scarcely raised above the
+  gum, and the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior
+  third, and armed with long recurved papillae near the tip. The single
+  representative of the first genus, _Notopteris macdonaldi_, inhabiting
+  Fiji, New Guinea and the New Hebrides, is distinguished from other
+  bats of this family by the length of its tail, which is nearly as long
+  as the forearm. The dentition is _i._ 2/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._
+  2/2, while the index finger has no claw, and the wings arise from the
+  spine. _Eonycteris_, with the dentition _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3,
+  _m._ 2/3, is also represented by a single species, _E. spelaea_, from
+  Tenasserim, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, which has
+  somewhat the appearance of a _Roussettus_, but the absence of a claw
+  in the index finger and the presence of the characteristic tongue and
+  teeth at once distinguish it. _Carponycteris_ (_Macroglossus_) and
+  _Melonycteris_, the former with several and the latter with a single
+  species, are closely allied Indo-Malay and Papuan genera, the index
+  finger in both having a claw, but the number of the teeth being the
+  same as in _Eonycteris_. _C. minimus_ is the smallest known species of
+  the suborder, much smaller than the serotine bat of Europe, with the
+  fore-arm scarcely longer than that of the long-eared bat. It is nearly
+  as common in certain parts of Burma as _Cynopterus marginatus_, and
+  extends eastwards through the Malay Archipelago as far as New Ireland,
+  where it is associated with _Melonycteris melanops_, distinguished by
+  its larger size and the total absence of the tail. An allied small
+  _Carpopycteris_ inhabits India. _Trygenycteris_ (_Megaloglossus_)
+  _woermanni_, of West Africa, is the only member of the group occurring
+  west of the Himalaya. _Callinycteris_ of Celebes, with the dentition
+  _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/2, _m._ 3/3, has a short tail and no
+  index-claws, while _Nesonycteris_ of the Solomons, with the dentition
+  _i._ 2/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3, differs by the absence of the
+  tail.
+
+
+  _Microchiroptera._
+
+    Insect-eating bats.
+
+  The second and larger suborder, the Microchiroptera, includes all the
+  insectivorous species, the majority of which are of relatively small
+  size as compared with the Megachiroptera. In these bats, with a few
+  specialized exceptions, the crowns of the cheek-teeth are surmounted
+  by sharp cusps, divided by transverse grooves. In the skull the bony
+  palate narrows abruptly and is not continued backwards laterally
+  behind the last molar; there is one rudimentary phalange (rarely two
+  or none) in the index finger, which is never terminated by a claw; the
+  outer and inner sides of the ear commence interiorly from separate
+  points of origin; the tail, when present, is contained in the
+  interfemoral membrane, or appears on its upper surface; the stomach,
+  except in the blood-sucking group, is simple; and the spigelian lobe
+  of the liver large, and the caudate generally small.
+
+  The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in genera (to say
+  nothing of species) that only some of the more important types can be
+  mentioned.
+
+  Brief references have already been made to the manner in which in many
+  or most of these bats the tail aids in the capture of prey. From the
+  observations of C. Oldham, it appears that these bats, when walking,
+  carry the tail downwards and forwards, so that the membrane connecting
+  this organ with the hind-legs forms a kind of pouch or bag. If a large
+  insect be encountered the bat seizes it with a snatch, and slightly
+  spreading its folded wings and pressing them on the ground in order to
+  steady itself, brings its feet forwards so as to increase the capacity
+  of the tail-pouch, into which, by bending its neck and thrusting its
+  head beneath the body, it pushes the insect. Although the latter,
+  especially if large, will often struggle violently, when once in the
+  pouch it but rarely escapes, from which it is subsequently extracted
+  and devoured. It is assumed that the same method of capture is
+  employed when on the wing; and a naturalist who has observed the
+  long-eared bat picking moths off willows states that the bat always
+  hovers when taking off the moth, and bends up the tail so as to form a
+  receptacle for the insect as it drops.
+
+  In the _Rhinolophidae_, Horse-shoe and Leaf-nosed bats of the Old
+  World, the nose-leaf is developed and surrounds the nasal apertures,
+  which are situated in a depression on the upper surface of the muzzle
+  so as to look upwards; the ears are large and generally separate,
+  without trace of a tragus or earlet; the premaxillae are rudimentary,
+  suspended from the nasal cartilages, and support a single pair of
+  small incisors; the molars have acute W-shaped cusps; the skull is
+  large, and the nasal bones which support the nose-leaf much expanded
+  vertically and laterally. In females a pair of teat-like appendages
+  are found in front of the pubis; and the long tail extends to the
+  margin of the interfemoral membrane. The middle finger has two
+  phalanges, but the index is rudimentary. The fibula is rudimentary.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Head of Mitred Horseshoe Bat (_Rhinolophus
+  mitratus_). From Dobson.]
+
+  The _Rhinolophidae_ are the most highly organized of insectivorous
+  bats, in which the osseous and cutaneous systems reach the fullest
+  development. Compared with theirs, the bones of the extremities and
+  the wings of other bats appear coarsely formed, and their teeth seem
+  less perfectly fitted to crush the hard bodies of insects. The
+  complicated nasal appendages reach their highest development, and the
+  differences in their form afford characters in the discrimination of
+  the species, which resemble one another closely in dentition and the
+  colour of the fur.
+
+  In the first subfamily, _Rhinolophinae_, the first toe has two, and
+  the other toes three phalanges each; and the ilio-pectineal spine is
+  not connected by bone with the antero-inferior surface of the ilium.
+  In the horseshoe bats, _Rhinolophus_, the dentition is i. 1/2, c. 1/1,
+  p. 2/3, m. 3/8, the nose-leaf has a central process behind and between
+  the nasal orifices, with the posterior extremity lanceolate, and the
+  antitragus large. Among the numerous forms _R. luctus_ is the largest,
+  and inhabits elevated hill-tracts in India and Malaysia; _R.
+  hipposiderus_ of Europe, extending into south England and Ireland, is
+  one of the smallest; and _R. ferrum-equinum_ represents the average
+  size of the species, which are mainly distinguished from one another
+  by the form of the nose-leaf. The last-named species extends from
+  England to Japan, and southward to the Cape of Good Hope, but is
+  represented by a number of local races. When sleeping, the horseshoe
+  bats, at least in some instances, suspend themselves head downwards,
+  with the wings wrapped round the body after the manner of fruit bats.
+  The posture of ordinary bats is quite different, and while the lesser
+  horseshoe (_R. hipposiderus_) alights from the air in an inverted
+  position, other bats, on first coming to rest, do so with the head
+  upwards, and then reverse their position.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Head of Squirrel Leaf-Bat (_Phyllorhina
+  calcarata_). From Dobson.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Head of Persian Leaf-Bat. (_Triaenops
+  persicus_). From Dobson.]
+
+  In the second subfamily, _Hippo-siderinae_ (formerly called
+  _Phyllorhinae_), the toes are equal and include two phalanges each,
+  while the ilio-pectineal spine is united by a bony isthmus with a
+  process derived from the antero-inferior surface of the ilium.
+  _Hipposiderus, Clöeotis, Rhinonycteris, Triaenops, Anthops_ and
+  _Coelops_ represent this subfamily. _Hipposiderus_ (_Phyllorhina_),
+  with many species, ranging over Asia, Africa and Australasia, and the
+  dental formula i. 1/2, c. 1/1, p. 2/2, or 1/2, m. 3/3, differs from
+  _Rhinolophus_ in the form of the nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate
+  behind (fig. 6), and is unprovided with a central process covering the
+  nostrils; the largest species, _H. armiger_, appears to be the most
+  northerly, having been taken at Amoy in China, and in the Himalaya at
+  an elevation of 5500 ft. Many are provided with a frontal sac behind
+  the nose-leaf, rudimentary in females (see fig. 7), which can be
+  everted at pleasure; the sides of this sac secrete a waxy substance,
+  and its extremity supports a tuft of straight hairs. _Rhinonycteris_,
+  represented by _R. aurantia_ from Australia, and _Triaenops_. by _T.
+  persicus_ from Persia and other species from Africa and Madagascar,
+  are closely allied genera. _Triaenops_ (fig. 8) is characterized by
+  the remarkable form of its nasal appendages and ears, and the presence
+  of a bony projection from the upper extremity of the second phalange
+  of the fourth finger. _Coelops_ (_C. Frithi_), from the Bengal
+  Sanderbans, Java and Siam is distinguished by the peculiar form of its
+  nose-leaf and the length of the metacarpal bone of the index finger,
+  as well as by the shortness of the calcar and interfemoral membrane.
+  _Clöeotis_ is represented by a single East African species, and
+  _Anthops_ by one from the Solomon Islands characterized by the
+  nose-leaf covering the whole front of the face.
+
+
+    False vampires.
+
+  The next family, _Nycteridae_, which is also Old World, is a small
+  one, nearly allied to the last, in which it is included by Prof. Max
+  Weber as a subfamily under the name of _Myadermatinae_. It differs by
+  the presence of a small tragus in the ears, which are united at their
+  bases; and by the nasal chamber not being inflated. The premaxillae
+  are either small and separated in front, or rudimentary; and the first
+  phalange of the middle finger when in repose is laid back on the
+  metacarpus. There are only pectoral teats.
+
+  Of the two genera, _Megaderma_, as represented by the five species of
+  false vampires, is distinguished by the absence of ossified
+  premaxillae and upper incisors (i. 0/2, p. (2 or 1)/2), the
+  cylindrical narrow muzzle surmounted by an erect nose-leaf the base of
+  which conceals the nasal orifices, the immense joined ears with large
+  bifid tragus, and the great extent of the interfemoral membrane, in
+  the base of which the short tail is concealed. _M. gigas_ (fig. 9),
+  from central Queensland, is the largest species of the genus, and of
+  the suborder. _M. lyra_, common in India (fore-arm 2.7 in.), has been
+  caught in the act of sucking the blood, while flying, from a small bat
+  which it afterwards devoured. The range of the genus includes Africa,
+  the Indo-Malay countries and Australasia. _Nycteris_, which is common
+  to Africa and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, has ossified
+  premaxillae and upper incisors (_i._ 2/3, _p._ 1/2), and a long tail;
+  but lacks a nose-leaf. As in _Megaderma_, the frontal bones are deeply
+  hollowed and expanded laterally, the muzzle presents a similar
+  cylindrical form, and the lower jaw also projects; but, instead of a
+  nose-leaf, the face is marked by a deep longitudinal sharp-edged
+  groove extending from the nostrils to the band connecting the base of
+  the large ears; the sides of this depression being margined as far
+  back as the eyes by small horizontal cutaneous appendages. With the
+  exception of _N. javanica_, the species are limited to Africa.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--The False Vampire (_Megaderma gigas_). From
+  Dobson.]
+
+
+    Vampires.
+
+  According to the classification followed by Dr G.E. Dobson, the
+  extensive family of New World bats known as _Phyllostomatidae_ was
+  widely sundered from the two preceding groups; but in Prof. Max
+  Weber's system they are placed next one another--an arrangement which
+  has the great advantage of bringing together all the bats furnished
+  with nose-leaves. It is indeed probable that the vampires, as the
+  members of the present family may be collectively termed, are the New
+  World representatives of the Old World _Rhinolophidae_ and
+  _Nycteridae_.
+
+  The _Phyllostomatidae_ are characterized by the presence of a
+  nose-leaf, or of lappets on the chin, but the nostrils are not
+  directed upwards. The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal cavity form
+  simple plates (much as in the two preceding families). The premaxillae
+  are always well developed, with their palatal portions forming a
+  suture and denning the boundaries of distinct palatine foramina (in
+  place of being rudimentary, as in _Nycteridae_ and _Rhinolophidae_).
+  The large ears have a tragus. The middle finger has three phalanges,
+  and the index one. There is an incomplete fibula. The tail may be
+  either long or short. Generally the dentition is _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1,
+  _p._ 2/3, _m._ 3/3.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Head of Blainville's Vampire (_Mormops
+  blainvillei_). From Dobson.]
+
+  All the bats of this family may be readily recognized by the presence
+  of a well-developed third phalange in the middle finger, associated
+  either with a distinct nose-leaf, or with central upper incisors, or
+  with both. Unlike the _Rhinolophidae_, their eyes are generally large
+  and the tragus is well developed, maintaining almost the same form
+  throughout the species, however much the other parts of the body may
+  vary. Their fur is of a dull colour, and the face and back are often
+  marked with white streaks. A few species, probably all those with the
+  tail and interfemoral membrane well developed, feed principally on
+  insects, while the greater number of the species of the groups
+  _Vampyreae_ and _Glossophageae_ appear to live on a mixed diet of
+  insects and fruits, and the _Desmodonteae_, of which two species are
+  known, are true blood-suckers, and have their teeth and intestinal
+  tract specially modified in accordance with their habits. The group is
+  practically limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of Central
+  and South America, although one species of _Otopterus_ reaches
+  California. In the first subfamily, _Mormopsinae_ (_Lobostominae_),
+  the nostrils open by simple apertures at the extremity of the muzzle
+  in front, not margined by a distinct nose-leaf; while, in
+  compensation, the chin is furnished with expanded leaf-like
+  appendages. The tail is short. It includes two genera. In
+  _Chilonycteris_ the crown of the head is moderately elevated above the
+  face-line, and the basi-cranial axis is almost in the same plane as
+  the facial, while in _Mormops_ (fig. 10) the crown of the head is
+  greatly elevated above the face-line, and the basi-cranial axis is
+  nearly at right angles to the facial; _i._ 2/2, _p._ 2/3, in both
+  genera. As regards the species of _Chilonycteris_, the most striking
+  feature is the occurrence of a rufous and a dark brown phase in each.
+  In some the two phases are very marked, but in others they are
+  connected by intermediate shades. Here may be mentioned the two
+  species of tropical American hare-lipped bats, forming the genus
+  _Noctilio_, which presents characters common to this and the following
+  family, to which latter it is often referred. The typical _N.
+  leporinus_ is a bat of curious aspect, with strangely folded lips,
+  erect skin-processes on the chin, and enormous feet and claws. The two
+  middle incisors are close together, and so large as to conceal the
+  small outer ones, while in the lower jaw there are but two small
+  incisors; the premolars numbering 1/2. These bats live near the coast,
+  and feed on small crabs and fishes.
+
+  Most of the remaining members of the family are included in the
+  subfamily _Phyllostomatinae_, characterized by the presence of a
+  distinct nose-leaf and the warty chin. The clitoris is imperforate,
+  whereas it is perforated in the _Mormopsinae_. The incisors are
+  generally 2/2 (occasionally 2/1), and the molars well developed. The
+  subfamily is divided into a number of groups or sections. The first of
+  them, the _Vampyreae_, is characterized as follows: Muzzle long and
+  narrow in front, the distance between the eyes generally less than
+  (rarely equal to) that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle;
+  nose-leaf horseshoe-shaped in front, lanceolate behind; interfemoral
+  membrane well developed; tail generally distinct, rarely absent; inner
+  margin of the lips not fringed; _i._ 2/2 or 2/1, _p._ 2/2 or 2/3;
+  molars with W-shaped cusps, usually well developed.
+
+  Nearly all the _Vampyreae_ appear to be insectivorous, so that the
+  term cannot be considered indicative of habits; but a few, if not all,
+  probably supplement their insect diet with fruit. _Vampyrus spectrum_
+  (the largest bat in the New World) is said to be wholly frugivorous,
+  and _Otopterus waterhousei_ appears to prey occasionally on smaller
+  bats. The genera may be arranged in two subgroups according as the
+  tail is produced to the margin of the interfemoral membrane or
+  perforates it to appear on its upper surface. In the first division
+  are included three genera, _Lonchorhina_, _Otopterus_ (or _Macrotus_)
+  and _Dolichophyllum_ (or _Macrophyllum_), the first represented by _L.
+  aurita_, characterized by an extraordinary long nose-leaf, and
+  peculiarly large ears and tragus. In the second subsection are
+  included _Vampyrus_, _Chrotopterus_, _Tonatia_ (_Lophostoma_)
+  _Micronycteris_, _Glyphonycteris_, _Trachyops_, _Phylloderma_,
+  _Phyllostoma_, _Anthorhina_ (_Tylostoma_), _Mimon_, _Hemiderma_
+  (_Carollia_) and _Rhinophylla_; all, with the exception of the last,
+  distinguished chiefly by the form of the skull and the presence or
+  absence of the second lower premolar. _Phyllostoma hastatum_, next in
+  point of size to _Vampyrus spectrum_, is a well-known species in South
+  America; _P. elongatum_ (fig. 11) differs in its smaller size and
+  larger nose-leaf. _Hemiderma brevicauda_, a small species, closely
+  resembles _Glossophaga soricina_, and forms a connecting link between
+  this and the next group. _Rhinophylla pumilio_ is the smallest species
+  of the family; further distinguished by the absence of a tail, the
+  narrowness of its molars, which do not form W-shaped cusps, and the
+  small size of the last upper molar, characters connecting it and the
+  group with the _Stenodermateae_. Both in _Hemiderma_ and _Rhinophylla_
+  the zygomatic arch is incomplete.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Head of Lesser Javelin Vampire (_Phyllostoma
+  elongatura_).]
+
+  The next subsection, _Glossophageae_, presents the following
+  distinctive features: Muzzle long and narrow; tongue long and
+  extensible, attenuated towards the tip, and beset with long filiform
+  recurved papillae; lower lip with a wide groove above, and in front
+  margined by small warts; nose-leaf small; tail short or none; _i._
+  2/2, _p._ 2/3 or 3/3 or 2/2, _m._ 3/3 or 2/3 or 2/2; teeth narrow;
+  molars with narrow W-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent;
+  lower incisors small or deciduous. The species included in this group
+  represent some ten genera, distinguished principally by differences in
+  the form and number of the teeth, and the presence or absence of the
+  zygomatic, arch of the skull. In _Glossophaga_ and _Phyllonycteris_
+  the upper incisors form a continuous row between the canines. In
+  _Monophyllus_ and _Leptonycteris_ (_Ischnoglossa_) they are separated
+  into pairs by a narrow interval in front; while in _Lonchoglossa_,
+  _Glossonycteris_ and _Choeronycteris_ they are widely separated and
+  placed in pairs near the canines. In the first four of these genera
+  the lower incisors are present (at least to a certain age), in the
+  last three they are deciduous even in youth. The zygomatic arch is
+  wanting in _Phyllonycteris_, _Glossonycteris_ and _Choeronycteris_.
+  The typical species is _Glossophaga soricina_, which, as already
+  mentioned, closely resembles _Hemiderma brevicauda_, both in form
+  and dentition. Its long brush-tipped tongue (which it possesses in
+  common with other species of the group) is used to lick out the pulpy
+  contents of fruits having hard rinds. The food of the species of this
+  group appears to consist of both fruit and insects, and the long
+  tongue may be used for extracting the latter from the deep corollas of
+  flowers. Other genera are _Lonchophylla_, _Rhithronycteris_,
+  _Hylonycteris_ and _Lychonycteris_, each with a single species (in
+  1904).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Head of Long-tongued Vampire (_Choeronycteris
+  mexicana_), showing brush-tipped tongue. From Dobson.]
+
+  The third group, _Stenodermateae_, presents the following
+  characteristics:--Muzzle very short and generally broad in front, the
+  distance between the eyes nearly always exceeding (rarely equalling)
+  the distance from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; nose-leaf
+  short, horseshoe-shaped in front, lanceolate behind (except in
+  _Brachyphylla_ and _Centurio_); interfemoral membrane concave behind;
+  tail none; inner margin of the lips fringed with conical papillae;
+  _i._ 2/2 or 2/1, _p._ 2/2, _m._ 3/3 or 2/3 or 2/2; cheek-teeth broad
+  (except in _Sturnira_), molars with concave or flat crowns margined
+  externally by raised cutting-edges. Although the _Stenodermateae_ are
+  generally easily distinguished from the _Vampyreae_ by the shortness
+  and breadth of the muzzle and the form of the cheek-teeth, certain
+  species of the latter resemble the former in external appearance,
+  agreeing almost absolutely in the form of the nose-leaf, the ears and
+  the tragus, and the warts on the chin. These resemblances show that,
+  while the form of the teeth and jaws has become modified to suit the
+  food, the external characters have remained much the same, and
+  indicate the common origin of the two sections. The food of these bats
+  appears to be wholly or in great part fruit. The species are divided
+  into some eleven genera, mostly distinguished by the form of the skull
+  and teeth. _Artibeus_ includes the frugivorous _A. perspicillatus_.
+  _Stenoderma achradophilum_, found in Jamaica and Cuba, with the last,
+  from which it is scarcely distinguishable externally except by its
+  much smaller size, differs in the absence of the horizontal plate of
+  the premaxillae on the palate. _Sturnira lilium_, while agreeing with
+  these in the form of the nose-leaf and ears, differs from all the
+  species of the family in its longitudinally-grooved molars, which
+  resemble those of the _Pteropodidae_ more closely than those of any
+  other bats; and the presence of tufts of long differently-coloured
+  hairs over glands in the sides of the neck is another character in
+  common with that group. _Centurio senex_ (fig. 13) is the type of a
+  small genus distinguished from _Stenoderma_ and other genera of this
+  group by the absence of a distinct nose-leaf. Some naturalists make
+  this genus the type of a distinct subgroup, _Centurioneae_. Up to 1904
+  the genera, exclusive of _Centurio_, included in the _Stenodermateae_
+  were _Artibeus_ (with several sub-genera), _Vampyrops_ (also with
+  subgenera), _Mesophylla_, _Chiroderma_, _Stenoderma_ (with 3
+  subgenera), _Ectophylla_, _Ametrida_ (with 2 sub-genera), _Pygoderma_,
+  _Sturnira_ and _Brachyphylla_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Head of Masked Vampire (_Centurio senex_).
+  From Dobson.]
+
+  The third subfamily, _Desmodontieae_, is represented only by the
+  blood-sucking bats, and distinguished by having _i._ ½, of which the
+  upper pair are cutting, the rudimentary molars, the very short
+  interfemoral membrane, and the blood-sucking habit. They are further
+  characterized as follows: Muzzle short and conical; nose-leaf
+  distinct; _p._ 2/3, _m._ 1/1 or 0/0; upper incisors occupying the
+  whole space between the canines; premolars narrow, with sharp-edged
+  longitudinal crowns; molars rudimentary or absent; stomach elongated,
+  and intestiniform. There are two genera, _Desmodus_, without calcar or
+  molars, and _Diphylla_, with a short calcar and a single rudimentary
+  molar on each side--restricted to Central and South America. _Desmodus
+  rufus_, the commoner species, is a little larger than the noctule bat,
+  and abundant in certain parts of South America, where it is
+  troublesome owing to its attacks upon domestic animals, sucking their
+  blood and leaving them weakened from repeated bleedings. (See
+  VAMPIRE.)
+
+
+    Free-tailed bats.
+
+  The fourth family of bats, unlike any of the three previous ones, has
+  a cosmopolitan distribution. These free-tailed bats, as they are
+  conveniently called, constituting the family _Emballonuridae_, present
+  the following distinctive features. The nostrils are of normal form
+  and without a nose-leaf. The premaxillae have their palatal portion
+  imperfectly developed, and united by a slender process with the
+  maxillae. The ears are large, with a small tragus. The middle finger
+  has two phalanges, and the index generally a single one. The fibula is
+  incomplete. The tail is generally short, and always partly free from
+  the interfemoral membrane. There is generally only a single pair of
+  upper incisors, separated by gaps from the canines, and from one
+  another in the middle line.
+
+  The distinctive feature of these bats is the free tail-tip, which
+  pierces the interfemoral membrane to appear on its upper surface, and
+  may project beyond its margin. As a rule, these bats may also be
+  recognized by the peculiar form of the muzzle, which is obliquely
+  truncated, the nostrils projecting more or less in front beyond the
+  lower lip, by the first phalange of the middle finger being folded in
+  repose forwards on the upper surface of the metacarpal bone, and by
+  the upper incisors. Although cosmopolitan, these bats rarely extend
+  north or south of the thirtieth parallels of latitude.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ear of _Emballonura raffrayana_. From
+  Dobson.]
+
+  The family may be divided into two subfamilies, of which the
+  _Emballonurinae_ is characterized by the incomplete premaxillae, the
+  presence of only one phalange in the index finger, and the short tail.
+  The dental formula is generally _i._ 1/3 (sometimes 2/3 or 1/2), _c._
+  1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ 3/3. This subfamily may be further subdivided into
+  subgroups or sections of which the first, _Embalionurae_, is
+  characterized by the slender tail perforating the interfemoral
+  membrane, so as to appear on its upper surface; the legs long, with a
+  slender fibula; the incisors weak; and the premolars 2/2. The typical
+  genus _Emballonura_ presents the following features: _i._ 2/3,
+  extremity of the muzzle more or less produced beyond the lower lip,
+  forehead flat. The genus contains several species, inhabiting islands
+  from Madagascar through the Malay Archipelago and Siam to the
+  Navigator Islands. _Coleura_, with _i._ 1/3, the extremity of the
+  muzzle broad, and the forehead concave, has two species from East
+  Africa and the Seychelles. _Rhynchonycteris_ is distinguished from
+  _Coleura_ by the produced extremity of the muzzle. The single species,
+  _R. naso_, from Central and South America, is common in the vicinity
+  of streams, where it is usually found during the day resting on the
+  vertical faces of rocks, or on trunks of trees growing over water; it
+  escapes notice owing to the greyish colour of the fur of the body and
+  of small tufts on the antebrachial membrane counterfeiting the
+  weathered surfaces of rocks and bark. As evening approaches it appears
+  on the wing, flying close to the water. _Saccopteryx_ has _i._ 1/3 and
+  the antibrachial membrane with a pouch opening on its upper surface;
+  it contains several species from Central and South America. This sac
+  is developed only in the male and in the female is rudimentary. In
+  adult males a valvular longitudinal opening occupies the upper surface
+  of the membrane leading into a small pouch, the interior of which is
+  lined with a glandular membrane secreting an unctuous reddish
+  substance with a strong ammoniacal odour. Allied genera are the
+  tropical American _Peropteryx_ and the Brazilian _Cormura_. The
+  various species of tomb-bats (_Taphozous_) inhabit the tropical and
+  subtropical parts of all the eastern hemisphere except Polynesia, and
+  are distinguished by the cartilaginous premaxillaries, the deciduous
+  pair of upper incisors, and the presence of only two pairs of lower
+  incisors. Most of the species have a glandular sac (fig. 15) between
+  the angles of the lower jaw, more developed in males than in females,
+  in some species absent in the latter. An open throat-sac is wanting in
+  _T. melanopogon_, but about its position are the openings of small
+  pores, the secretion from which probably causes the hairs to grow
+  long, forming the black beard found in many males. The three tropical
+  American white bats, _Diclidurus_, with _i._ 1/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/2,
+  _m._ 3/3, resemble _Taphozous_ in the form of the head and ears, but,
+  besides other characters, differ from all other bats in possessing a
+  pouch, opening off the centre of the interior surface of the
+  interfemoral membrane; the extremity of the tail enters this, and
+  perforates its base.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Heads of Tomb-Bat (_Taphozous longimanus_),
+  showing relative development of throat-sacs in male and female. From
+  Dobson.]
+
+  The second subfamily of the _Emballonuridae_, _Rhinopomatinae_, is
+  represented only by the genus _Rhinopoma_, with several species
+  ranging from Egypt through Arabia to India, Burma and Sumatra. The
+  premaxillae (fig. 16) are complete; the index finger has two
+  phalanges; the tail is very long and mouselike; and the dental formula
+  _i._ 1/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 1/2, _m._ 2/3. Dr G.E. Dobson has remarked
+  that these mouse-tailed bats might be elevated to the rank of a
+  family, for it is difficult to determine their affinities, a kind of
+  cross relationship attaching them to the _Nycteridae_ on the one hand
+  and to the _Emballonuridae_ on the other. These bats, distinguished
+  from all other Microchiroptera by the presence of two phalanges in the
+  index finger and the long and slender tail projecting far beyond the
+  narrow interfemoral membrane, inhabit the subterranean tombs in Egypt
+  and deserted buildings generally from north-east Africa to Burma and
+  Sumatra.
+
+
+    Typical bats.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Skull of Mouse-tailed Bat (_Rhinopoma
+  microphyllum_). X2. (From Dobson.)]
+
+  The last group, according to the system adopted by Prof. Max Weber, is
+  that of the _Vespertilionidae_, which includes such typical bats as
+  the pipistrelle, the noctule, and the long-eared species. By Mr G.S.
+  Miller[1] the first section of the family--_Natalinae_--is regarded as
+  of family rank, while the last section, or _Molossinae_, is included
+  by Dr G.E. Dobson in the _Emballonuridae_, from the typical forms of
+  which its members differ widely in tail-structure. In this extended
+  sense the family, which has a cosmopolitan distribution, may be
+  defined as follows:--The nostrils are normal and without a nose-leaf.
+  The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal chamber are involuted. The
+  palatine processes of the premaxillae do not form a suture. The ear is
+  mostly large, with a tragus. The middle finger (except in
+  _Thyroptera_) has two phalanges. The fibula is usually rudimentary.
+  The tail is long and does not perforate the interfemoral membrane. The
+  incisors are generally 2/3 or 1/2, but may be reduced to 1/1 in the
+  _Molossinae_.
+
+  In the first subfamily, _Natalinae_, which is exclusively tropical
+  American, the other upper incisors are separated from one another and
+  from the canines; palatine processes of the premaxillae are at least
+  partially developed; and the dental formula is _i._ 2/3, _c._ 1/1,
+  _p._ {2 or 3}/3, _m._ 3/3. In general appearance these bats recall the
+  more typical _Vespertilionidae_, although the form of the muzzle is
+  suggestive of the _Mormopsinae_ among the _Phyllostomatidae_. Again,
+  while the form of the skull is vespertilione, the relation of the
+  vomer to the front end of the premaxillae is of the phyllostomine
+  type. The molars and incisors are likewise vespertilione, whereas the
+  premolars are as distinctly phyllostomine. Finally, while the third,
+  or middle, finger normally has two phalanges, as in typical
+  _Vespertilionidae_, the second of these is elongated and in
+  _Thyroptera_ divided into two, as in _Phyllostomatidae_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Head of _Chilonatalus micropus_. x2. (From
+  Dobson.)]
+
+  The first two genera, _Furipterus_ and _Amorphochilus_, each have a
+  single species, the latter being distinguished from the former by the
+  wide separation of the nostrils and the backward prolongation of the
+  palate. In both the crown of the head is elevated, the thumb and first
+  phalange of the middle finger are very short, and the premolars are
+  2/3. The same elevation of the crown characterizes the genera
+  _Natalus_ and _Chilonatalus_ (fig. 17), in which the premolars are
+  3/3: in general appearance these bats are very like the Old World
+  vespertilionine genus _Cerivoula_, except for the short triangular
+  tragus. Lastly, _Thyroptera_ includes two species distinguished by an
+  additional phalange in the middle finger and by accessory
+  clinging-organs attached to the extremities. In _Thyroptera tricolor_,
+  _i._ 2/3, _p._ 3/3, from Brazil, these have the appearance of small,
+  circular, stalked, hollow disks (fig. 18), resembling miniature
+  sucking-cups of cuttle-fishes, and are attached to the inferior
+  surfaces of the thumbs and the soles of the feet. By their aid the bat
+  is able to maintain its hold when creeping over smooth vertical
+  surfaces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Suctorial Disks in _Thyroptera tricolor_,
+  _a_, side, and _b_, concave surface, of thumb disk; _c_, foot with
+  disk, and calcar with projections (all much enlarged). (From Dobson.)]
+
+  The second or typical subfamily, _Vespertilioninae_, includes all the
+  remaining members of the family with the exception of the aberrant
+  _Molossinae_. The upper incisors are in proximity to the canines; the
+  premaxillae widely separated; the ears medium or large; the dental
+  formula is _i._ 2/3 (or 1/3), _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3 (2/3, 2/2, or 1/2),
+  _m._ 3/3; and the fibula very small and imperfect. All the members of
+  this large cosmopolitan group are closely allied, and differ chiefly
+  by external characters. They may be divided into subgroups. In the
+  first of these, the _Plecoteae_, of which the long-eared bat
+  (_Plecotus auritus_) is the type, the crown of the head is but
+  slightly raised above the face-line, the upper incisors are close to
+  the canines, and the nostrils are margined behind by grooves an the
+  upper surface of the muzzle, or by rudimentary nose-leaves; the ears
+  being generally very large and united. Of the six genera, _Plecotus_,
+  with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/3, has three species:--one the long-eared
+  European bat referred to above; _P. macrotis_, restricted to North
+  America, is distinguished by the great size of the glandular
+  prominences of the sides of the muzzle, which meet in the centre above
+  and behind the nostrils; the third species being also American. The
+  second, _Barbastella_, with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/2, distinguished by its
+  dentition and by the outer margin of the ear being carried forwards
+  above the mouth and in front of the eye, includes the European
+  barbastelle bat, _B. barbastellus_, and _B. darjelingensis_ from the
+  Himalaya. _Otonycteris_, _i._ 1/3, _pm._, 1/2, connecting this group
+  with the _Vespertilioneae_, is represented by _O. hemprichii_, from
+  North Africa and the Himalaya, and an Arabian species. The next two
+  genera are distinguished by the presence of a rudimentary nose-leaf:
+  _Nyctophilus_, _i._ 1/3, _p._ 1/2, with three species from
+  Australasia; and _Antrozous_, _i._ 1/2, _p._ 1/2, distinguished from
+  all the other members of the subfamily by having but two lower
+  incisors, and from other _Plecoteae_ by the separate ears; the two
+  species inhabit California. The sixth genus, _Euderma_, is also
+  represented by a Californian species.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Head of _Scotophilus emarginatus_. (From
+  Dobson.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Head of _Cerivoula hardwickei_. (From
+  Dobson.)]
+
+  The second group _Vespertilioneae_, with about thirteen genera,
+  includes the great majority of the species; and a large number of
+  these may be classed under _Vespertilio_, which is divisible into
+  subgenera, differing from one another in the number of premolars, and
+  often ranked as separate genera. One group is represented by _V._
+  (_Histiolus_) _magellanicus_, a species remarkable for its extreme
+  southern range, its relatives being also South American. A second
+  group, with _p._ 1/2, includes the British serotine, _V._
+  (_Eptesicus_) _serotinus_, of Europe and northern Asia, and
+  represented in North America by the closely allied _V._ (_E._)
+  _fuscus_. In the typical group, which includes the Old World _V.
+  murinus_, one species, _V. borealis_, ranges to the Arctic circle. The
+  European noctule, _V._ (_Pierygistes_) _noctula_, and Leisler's bat,
+  _V._ (_P._) _leisleri_, represent another group; and the common
+  pipistrelle, _V._ (_Pipistrellus_) _pipistrellus_, yet another, with
+  _p._ 2/2. The only other group that need be mentioned is one
+  represented by the North American _V._ (_Lasionycteris_)
+  _noctivagans_, with _p._ 2/3. The African _Läephotes_, the Chinese
+  _Ia_, and the Papuan _Philetor_ are allied genera, each with a single
+  species. _Chalinolobus_ and _Glauconycteris_ have the same general
+  dental character as _Vespertilio_, but are distinguished by the
+  presence of a lobe projecting from the lower lip near the gape; the
+  former, with _p._ 2/2, is represented by five Australasian species,
+  one of which extends into New Zealand; while the latter, with _p._
+  1/2, is African. The species of _Glauconycteris_ are noticeable for
+  their peculiarly thin membranes traversed by distinct reticulations
+  and parallel lines. _Scotophilus_, with _i._ 1/3, _p._ 1/2, includes
+  several species, restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions of
+  the eastern hemisphere, though widely distributed within these limits.
+  These bats, though approaching certain species of _Vespertilio_ in
+  many points, are distinguished by the single (in place of two) pair of
+  unicuspidate upper incisors separated by a wide space and placed close
+  to the canines, by the small transverse first lower premolar crushed
+  in between the canine and second premolar, and, generally, by their
+  conical, nearly naked, muzzles and thick leathery membranes. _S.
+  temmincki_ is the commonest bat in India, and appears often before the
+  sun has touched the horizon. _S. gigas_, from equatorial Africa, is
+  the largest species. _Nycticejus_, with the same dental formula as
+  _Scotophilus_, is distinguished, by the first lower premolar not being
+  crushed in between the adjoining teeth, and the comparatively greater
+  size of the last upper molar. It includes only the North American _N.
+  humeralis_ (_crepuscularis_), a bat scarcely larger than the
+  pipistrelle. The hairy-membraned bats of the genus _Lasiurus_
+  (_Atalapha_), with _i._ 1/3, _p._ 2/2 or 1/2, are also limited to the
+  New World, and generally characterized by the interfemoral membrane
+  being more or less covered with hair and by the peculiar form of the
+  tragus, which is expanded above and abruptly curved inwards. In those
+  species which have two upper premolars the first is extremely small
+  and internal to the tooth-row. The genus, which is divided into
+  _Lasiurus_ proper and _Dasypterus_, is further characterized by the
+  presence of four teats in the female, and by the general production
+  of three or four offspring at a birth. _Rhogëessa_ and _Tomopeas_ are
+  allied tropical American types. _Murina_, with the subgenus
+  _Harpiocephalus_, has _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/2, and includes several small
+  bats distinguished by the prominent tube-like nostrils and hairy
+  interfemoral membrane. _M. suilla_, from Java, the Malay and
+  neighbouring islands, is a well-known species, and the closely allied
+  _M. hilgendorfi_ is from Japan. The remaining species are from the
+  Himalaya, Tibet and Ceylon; and apparently restricted to the
+  hill-tracts of the countries in which they are found. Next to
+  _Vespertilio_ the genus _Myotis_ (divisible into several subgenera),
+  with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 3/3, includes the largest number of species, and
+  has rather a wider geographical distribution in both hemispheres, one
+  species being recorded from the Navigator Islands. The species may be
+  recognized by the peculiar character of the pairs of upper incisors on
+  each side, the cusps of which diverge from each other, by the large
+  number of premolars, of which the second upper is always small, and by
+  the oval elongated ear and narrow tragus. The British _M. bechsteini_
+  and _M. nattereri_ are examples of this group. _Cerivoula_
+  (_Kerivoula_), which also has _p._ 3/3, is distinguished by the
+  parallel upper incisors and the large second upper premolar. There are
+  numerous African and Indo-Malayan species, of which _C. picta_, from
+  India and Indo-Malay, is characterized by its brilliant orange fur,
+  and membranes variegated with orange and black. The genus includes
+  delicately formed insectivorous, tropical, forest-haunting bats, whose
+  colouring approximates them to the ripe bananas among which they often
+  pass the daytime.
+
+  Another subgroup, _Minioptereae_, is represented solely by the genus
+  _Miniopterus_, with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/3. The incisors are separated
+  from one another in front and from the canines; the first phalange of
+  the middle finger is very short, the crown of the head elevated, and
+  the tail long. The genus is represented by some half-dozen Old World
+  species, among which the typical _M. schreibersi_ ranges from Europe,
+  southern Asia, and Africa to Japan and Australasia.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Head of Mastiff-bat (_Molossus glaucinus_).
+  (From Dobson.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Head of _Nyctinomops macrotis_. (From
+  Dobson.)]
+
+  The last subfamily is that of the _Molossinae_, included by Dobson in
+  the family _Emballonuridae_. In this group the premaxillae are in
+  contact or but very slightly separated; the ears are large, with the
+  tragus small; the dental formula is _i._ 1/1 (1/2 or 1/3), _c._ 1/1,
+  _p._ 1/2 (2/2), _m._ 3/3; and the fibula is strongly developed. In
+  their blunt muzzles and many other features these bats undoubtedly
+  resemble the _Emballonuridae_, from the typical members of which they
+  differ by the production of the thick tail far beyond the margin of
+  the interfemoral membrane. They are further characterized by their
+  broad and stout feet, in which the first, and in most cases also the
+  fifth, toe is thicker than the rest, and furnished with long bent
+  hairs; and by the presence of callosities at the base of the thumbs,
+  and a single pair of large upper incisors occupying the centre of the
+  space between the canines. The feet are free from the wing-membrane,
+  which folds up under the fore-arm and legs; the interfemoral membrane
+  is retractile, being movable backwards and forwards along the tail;
+  this power of varying its superficial extent confers on these bats
+  great dexterity in changing the direction of flight. All are able to
+  walk or crawl well, and spend much of their time on trees. The genus
+  _Chiromeles_, with _i._ 1/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 1/2, _m._ 3/3, the first
+  hind-toe much larger than and separate from the others, and the widely
+  sundered ears, is represented by _C. torquata_, a large bat of
+  peculiar aspect, inhabiting the Indo-Malay countries. This species is
+  nearly naked, a collar only of thinly spread hairs half surrounding
+  the neck, and is remarkable for its enormous throat-sac and
+  nursing-pouches. The former consists of a semicircular fold of skin
+  forming a pouch round the neck beneath, concealing the orifices of
+  subcutaneous pectoral glands which discharge an oily fluid of
+  offensive smell. The nursing-pouch is formed on each side by an
+  extension of a fold of skin from the side of the body to the inferior
+  surfaces of the humerus and femur. In the anterior part of this pouch
+  the teat is placed. The typical genus _Molossus_ (fig. 21) includes
+  the mastiff-bats, characterized by the dental formula _i._ 1/1 or 1/2,
+  _p._ 1/2 or 2/2; and by the upper incisors being close together in
+  front. The genus is restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions
+  of the New World. _M. obscurus_, a small species common in tropical
+  America, inhabits the hollow trunks of palms and other trees and the
+  roofs of houses. The males and females live apart (as is the case in
+  most if not all bats). In West Africa the mastiff-bats are represented
+  by _Eomops_, with one species; while _Nyctinomops_ includes a number
+  of tropical American species more nearly related to the next genus, in
+  which some of them (fig. 22) were formerly included. The widely spread
+  _Nyctinomus_, with _i._ 1/3 or 1/2, _p._ 2/2 or 1/2, and the upper
+  incisors separate in front, includes numerous species inhabiting the
+  tropical and subtropical parts of both hemispheres. The lips of the
+  bats of this genus are even more expansible than in _Molossus_, in
+  many of the species (fig. 22) showing vertical wrinkles. _N.
+  toeniotis_ (or _cestonii_), one of the largest species, alone extends
+  into Europe, as far north as Switzerland. _N. johorensis_, from the
+  Malay Peninsula, is remarkable for the extraordinary form of its ears.
+  _N. brasiliensis_ is common in tropical America, and extends as far
+  north as California.
+
+
+    Myzopoda and Mystacops.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Thumb and leg and foot of New Zealand bat
+  (_Mystacops tuberculatus_), enlarged. (From Dobson.)]
+
+  Here may be conveniently noticed two very rare and aberrant bats,
+  _Myzopoda_ (or _Myxopoda_) _aurita_ of Madagascar, and _Mystacops_ (or
+  _Mystacina_) _tuberculatas_ of New Zealand, the latter of which is
+  believed to be well-nigh, if not entirely, exterminated. Their
+  systematic position and affinities are somewhat uncertain; but in the
+  opinion of O. Thomas[2] the former should typify a separate family,
+  _Myzopodidae_, in which the latter may also find a place. From all
+  other bats _Myzopoda_ is distinguished by the presence of a peculiar
+  mushroom-shaped organ at the base of the large ear, and by the union
+  of the tragus with the latter, on the inner base of which it forms a
+  small projection. There are three phalanges in the middle finger; and
+  the whole inferior surface of the thumb supports a large sessile
+  horseshoe-shaped adhesive pad, with the circular margin directed
+  forwards and notched along its edge, while a smaller pad occupies part
+  of the sole of the hind-foot. Mr Thomas regards this bat as related on
+  the one hand to the subfamily _Mormopsinae_ of the _Phyllostomatidae_,
+  and on the other to the _Natalinae_ among the _Vespertilionidae_; both
+  these groups being regarded by him as of family rank.
+
+  _Mystacops_ resembles _Myzopoda_ in having three phalanges to the
+  middle finger, but differs in that the tail perforates the
+  interfemoral membrane to appear on its upper surface in the manner
+  characteristic of the _Emballonuridae_. The greater part of the
+  wing-membrane is exceedingly thin, but a narrow portion along the
+  fore-arm, the sides of the body, and the legs, is thick and leathery,
+  and beneath this thickened portion the wings are folded. Other
+  peculiarities of structure are found in the form of the claws of the
+  thumbs and toes, each of which has a small heel projecting from its
+  concave surface near the base, also in the sole of the foot and
+  inferior surface of the leg, as shown in fig. 23. The plantar surface,
+  including the toes, is covered with soft and very lax, deeply wrinkled
+  skin, and each toe is marked by a central longitudinal groove with
+  short grooves at right angles to it. The lax wrinkled integument is
+  continued along the inferior flattened surface of the ankle and leg.
+  These peculiarities appear to be related to climbing habits in the
+  species.
+
+
+_Extinct Bats_.
+
+Palaeontology tells us nothing with regard to the origin of the
+Chiroptera, all the known fossil species, some of which date back to the
+Oligocene, being more or less closely allied to existing types, and
+therefore of comparatively little interest. The origin of the order from
+primitive insectivorous mammals must have taken place at least as early
+as the Lower Eocene. It is, however, noteworthy that several of the
+earlier extinct species appear to be related to the _Rhinolophidae_,
+which is the most generalized family of the order. Remains of
+_Pteropodidae_ belonging to existing genera occur in the caves of
+tropical countries in the eastern hemisphere; and the skeleton of an
+extinct generic type, _Archaeopteropus_, has been obtained from the
+Miocene lignite of Italy, which indicates a form to a certain extent
+transitional in character between typical fruit-bats and the
+insectivorous bats. The tail, for instance, which in most modern
+fruit-bats is rudimentary, with only three or four vertebrae, in the
+fossil has eight complete vertebrae; while the teeth of the extinct
+form are distinctly cusped. Whether, however, the tail is longer than in
+the existing _Notopteris_ of Fiji and New Guinea, or whether the molars
+are more distinctly cusped than is the case with the Solomon Island
+_Pteropus_ (_Pteralopex_), is not stated. Still, the fact that the
+Miocene fruit-bat does show certain signs of approximation to the
+insectivorous (and more generalized) section of the order is of
+interest. Of the Oligocene forms, _Pseudorhinolophus_ of Europe is
+apparently a member of the _Rhinolophidae_; but the affinities of
+_Alastor_ and _Vespertiliavus_, which are likewise European, are more
+doubtful, although the latter may be related to _Taphozous_. The North
+American _Vespertilio_ (_Vesperugo_) _anemophilus_ and the European _V.
+aquensis_ and _V. parisiensis_ are, on the other hand, members of the
+_Vespertilionidae_, the last being apparently allied to the serotine
+(_V. serotinus_).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The above article is based to some extent on the article
+  in the 9th edition of this work by G.E. Dobson, whose British Museum
+  "Catalogue" is, however, now obsolete. Professor H. Winge's
+  "Jordfundae og nulevende Flagermus (Chiroptera)," published in _E.
+  Mus. Lundi_ (Copenhagen, 1892), contains much valuable information;
+  and for _Pteropodidae_ Dr P. Matschie's _Megachiroptera_ (Berlin,
+  1899), should be consulted. For the rest the student must refer to
+  namerous papers by G.M. Allen, K. Andersen, F.A. Jentink, G.S. Miller,
+  T.S. Palmer, A.G. Rehn, O. Thomas and others, in various English and
+  American zoological serials, all of which are quoted in the volumes of
+  the _Zoological Record_.    (R. L.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vol. xii. (1899).
+
+  [2] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, 1904), vol. ii.
+
+
+CHIRU, a graceful Tibetan antelope (_Pantholops Hodgsoni_), of which the
+bucks are armed with long, slender and heavily-ridged horns of an
+altogether peculiar type, while the does are hornless. Possibly this
+handsome antelope may be the original of the mythical unicorn, a single
+buck when seen in profile looking exactly as if it had but one long
+straight horn. Although far from uncommon, chiru are very wary, and
+consequently difficult to approach. They are generally found in small
+parties, although occasionally in herds. They inhabit the desolate
+plateau of Tibet, at elevations of between 13,000 and 18,000 ft., and,
+like all Tibetan animals, have a firm thick coat, formed in this
+instance of close woolly hair of a grey fawn-colour. The most peculiar
+feature about the chiru is, however, its swollen, puffy nose, which is
+probably connected with breathing a highly rarefied atmosphere. A second
+antelope inhabiting the same country as the chiru is the goa (_Gazella
+picticaudata_), a member of the gazelle group characterized by the
+peculiar form of the horns of the bucks and certain features of
+coloration, whereby it is markedly distinguished from all its kindred
+save one or two other central Asian species. The chiru, which belongs to
+the typical or antilopine section of antelopes, is probably allied to
+the saiga.    (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHIRURGEON, one whose profession it is to cure disease by operating with
+the hand. The word in its original form is now obsolete. It derives from
+the Mid. Eng. _cirurgien_ or _sirurgien_, through the Fr. from the Gr.
+[Greek: cheirourgos], one who operates with the hand (from [Greek:
+cheir], hand, [Greek: ergon], work); from the early form is derived the
+modern word "surgeon." "Chirurgeon" is a 16th century reversion to the
+Greek origin. (See SURGERY.)
+
+
+
+
+CHISEL (from the O. Fr. _cisel_, modern _ciseau_, Late Lat. _cisellum_,
+a cutting tool, from _caedere_, to cut), a sharp-edged tool for cutting
+metal, wood or stone. There are numerous varieties of chisels used in
+different trades; the carpenter's chisel is wooden-handled with a
+straight edge, transverse to the axis and bevelled on one side; stone
+masons' chisels are bevelled on both sides, and others have oblique,
+concave or convex edges. A chisel with a semicircular blade is called a
+"gouge." The tool is worked either by hand-pressure or by blows from a
+hammer or mallet. The "cold chisel" has a steel edge, highly tempered to
+cut unheated metal. (See TOOL.)
+
+
+
+
+CHISLEHURST, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parliamentary division
+of Kent, England, 11-1/4 m. S.E. of London, by the South-Eastern &
+Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 7429. It is situated 300 ft. above
+sea-level, on a common of furze and heather in the midst of picturesque
+country. The church of St Nicholas (Perpendicular with Early English
+portions, but much restored) has a tomb of the Walsingham family, who
+had a lease of the manor from Elizabeth; Sir Francis Walsingham, the
+statesman, being born here in 1536. Another statesman of the same age,
+Sir Nicholas Bacon, was born here in 1510. Near the church is an ancient
+cockpit. The mortuary chapel attached to the Roman Catholic church of St
+Mary was built to receive the body of Napoleon III., who died at Camden
+Place in 1873; and that of his son was brought hither in 1879. Both were
+afterwards removed to the memorial chapel at Farnborough in Hampshire.
+Camden Place was built by William Camden, the antiquary, in 1609, and in
+1765 gave the title of Baron Camden to Lord Chancellor Pratt. The house
+was the residence not only of Napoleon III., but of the empress Eugénie
+and of the prince imperial, who is commemorated by a memorial cross on
+Chislehurst Common. The house and grounds are now occupied by a golf
+club. There are many villa residences in the neighbourhood of
+Chislehurst.
+
+
+
+
+CHISWICK, an urban district in the Ealing parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, suburban to London, on the Thames, 7½ m. W. by S. of
+St Paul's cathedral. Pop. (1901) 29,809. The locality is largely
+residential, but there are breweries, and the marine engineering works
+of Messrs Thornycroft on the river. Chiswick House, a seat of the duke
+of Devonshire, is surrounded by beautiful grounds; here died Fox (1806)
+and Canning (1827). The gardens near belonged till 1903 to the Royal
+Horticultural Society. The church of St Nicholas has ancient portions,
+and in the churchyard is the tomb of William Hogarth the painter, with
+commemorative lines by David Garrick. Hogarth's house is close at hand.
+Chiswick Hall, no longer extant, was formerly a country seat for the
+masters and sanatorium for the scholars of Westminster school. Here in
+1811 the Chiswick Press was founded by Charles Whittingham the elder, an
+eminent printer (d. 1840).
+
+
+
+
+CHITA, a town of east Siberia, capital of Transbaikalia, on the Siberian
+railway, 500 m. E. of Irkutsk, on the Chita river, half a mile above its
+confluence with the Ingoda. Pop. (1883) 12,600; (1897) 11,480. The
+Imperial Russian Geographical Society has a museum here. Several of the
+palace revolutionaries, known as Decembrists, were banished to this
+place from St Petersburg in consequence of the conspiracy of December
+1825. The inhabitants support themselves by agriculture and by trade in
+furs, cattle, hides and tallow bought from the Buriats, and in
+manufactured wares imported from Russia and west Siberia.
+
+
+
+
+CHITALDRUG, a district and town in the native state of Mysore, India.
+The district has an area of 4022 sq. m. and a population (1901) of
+498,795. It is distinguished by its low rainfall and arid soil. It lies
+within the valley of the Vedavati or Hagari river, mostly dry in the hot
+season. Several parallel chains of hills, reaching an extreme height of
+3800 ft., cross the district; otherwise it is a plain. The chief crops
+are cotton and flax; the chief manufactures are blankets and cotton
+cloth. The west of the district is served by the Southern Mahratta
+railway. The largest town in the district is Davangere (pop. 10,402).
+The town of CHITALDRUG, which is the district headquarters (pop. 1901,
+5792), was formerly a military cantonment, but this was abandoned on
+account of its unhealthiness. It has massive fortifications erected
+under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sahib towards the close of the 18th century;
+and near it on the west are remains of a city of the 2nd century A.D.
+
+
+
+
+CHITON, the name[1] given to fairly common littoral animals of rather
+small size which belong to the phylum Mollusca, and, in the possession
+of a radula in the buccal cavity, resemble more especially the
+Gastropoda. Their most important characteristic in comparison with the
+latter is that they are, both in external and internal structure,
+bilaterally symmetrical. The dorsal integument or mantle bears, not a
+simple shell, but eight calcareous plates in longitudinal series
+articulating with each other. The ventral surface forms a flat creeping
+"foot," and between mantle and foot is a pallial groove in which there
+is on each side a series of gills. Originally the Chitons were placed
+with the limpets, _Patella_, in Cuvier's _Cyclobranchia_, an order of
+the Gastropoda. In 1876 H. von Jhering demonstrated the affinities of
+_Neomenia_ and _Chaetoderma_, vermiform animals destitute of shell, with
+the Chitons, and placed them all in a division of worms which he named
+Amphineura. The discovery by A.A.W. Hubrecht in 1881 of a typical
+molluscan radula and odontophore in a new genus _Proneomenia_, allied to
+_Neomenia_, showed that the whole group belonged to the Mollusca. E. Ray
+Lankester (_Ency. Brit._, 9th ed., 1883) placed them under the name
+Isopleura as a subclass of Gastropoda. Paul Pelseneer (1906) raised the
+group to the rank of a class of Mollusca, under von Jhering's name
+Amphineura.
+
+The Amphineura are divided into two orders: (1) the Polyplacophora, or
+Chitons; (2) the Aplacophora, or forms without shells, _Neomenia_,
+_Chaetoderma_ and their allies.
+
+Order I.--POLYPLACOPHORA
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Three views of Chiton.
+
+  A. Dorsal view of _Chiton Wosnessenksii_, Midd., showing the eight
+  shells. (After Middendorf.)
+
+  B. View from the pedal surface of a species of Chiton from the Indian
+  Ocean, _p_, foot; _o_, mouth (at the other end of the foot is seen the
+  anus raised on a papilla); _kr_, oral fringe; _br_, the numerous
+  ctenidia (branchial plumes); spreading beyond these, and all round the
+  animal, is the mantle-skirt. (After Cuvier.)
+
+  C. The same species of Chiton, with the shells removed and the dorsal
+  integument reflected, _b_, buccal mass; _m_, retractor muscles of the
+  buccal mass; _ov_, ovary; _od_, oviduct; _i_, coils of intestines;
+  _ao_, aorta; _c'_, left auricle; _c_, ventricle.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pallial eye and aesthetes of _Acanthopleura
+spiniger_ (Moseley).]
+
+Each of the eight valves of the shell is made up of two distinct
+calcareous layers: (a) an outer or upper called the tegmentum, which is
+visible externally; (b) a deeper layer called articulamentum which is
+porcellaneous, quite compact, and entirely covered by the tegmentum. In
+the lower forms the two layers are coextensive and have smooth edges,
+but in the higher forms the articulamentum projects laterally beyond and
+beneath the tegmentum into the substance of the mantle. These
+projections are termed insertion plates; they are usually slit or
+notched to form teeth, the edges of which may be smooth and sharp, or
+may be crenulated. The anterior margin of each valve except the first is
+provided with two projections called sutural laminae which underlie the
+posterior margin of the preceding valve.
+
+[Illustration: From Lankester, _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+FIG. 3.--Ventral aspect of three species of Polyplacophora showing
+position of gills.
+
+  A. _Lepidopleurus benthus_.
+
+  B. _Boreochiton cinereus_.
+
+  C. _Schizochiton incisus_. _a_, anus; _f_, foot; _g_, gills; _m_,
+  mouth; _pa_, mantle; _pa'_, anal lobe of mantle; _ps_, pallial slit;
+  _te_, pallial tentacles.]
+
+The tegmentum is formed by the fold of mantle covering the edge of the
+articulamentum, and extends over the latter from the sides. It is the
+first part of the shell formed in development. The tegmentum is much
+reduced in _Acanthochiton_, and absent in the adult _Cryptochiton_. The
+tegmentum is pierced by numerous vertical ramified canals which contain
+epithelial papillae of the epidermis. These papillae form pallial
+sense-organs, containing nerve-end bulbs, covered by a dome of cuticle,
+and innervated from the pallial nerve-cords. They are termed according
+to their size, micraesthetes and megalaesthetes. In the common species
+of _Chiton_ and many others of the family _Chitonidae_ the
+megalaesthetes are developed into definite eyes, the most complicated of
+which have retina, pigment within the eye, cornea and crystalline lens
+(intra-pigmental eyes) (fig. 2). The eyes are arranged in rows running
+diagonally from the median anterior beak of each valve to its lateral
+borders There may be only one such row on either side, or many rows. In
+some species the total number present amounts to thousands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagrams of the alimentary canal of Amphineura
+(from Hubrecht).]
+
+  A. Neomenia and Proneomenia.
+  B. Chaetoderma.
+  C.  Chiton.
+  _o_, Mouth.
+  _a_, Anus.
+  _d_, Alimentary canal.
+  _l_, Liver (digestive gland).]
+
+  _Branchiae._--The series of gills may extend the whole length of the
+  body in the pallial groove, or may be confined to the posterior end.
+  Each gill has the structure of a typical molluscan ctenidium,
+  consisting of an axis bearing an anterior and posterior row of
+  filaments or lamellae. The gills are thus metamerically repeated;
+  there may be from four to eighty pairs, but there is often a numerical
+  asymmetry on the two sides. The largest pair of branchiae is placed
+  immediately behind the renal openings and corresponds to the single
+  pair of other molluscs, the organs being repeated anteriorly only
+  (Metamacrobranchs) or anteriorly and posteriorly (Mesomacrobranchs).
+
+  _Intestine._--The digestive tube in the Polyplacophora, which are
+  herbivorous, is longer than the body, and thrown into a few coils, the
+  anus being median and posterior. The mouth leads into the buccal
+  cavity, on the ventral side of which opens the radular caecum. Each
+  transverse row of teeth of the radula contains 17 teeth, one of which
+  is median, while the second and the fifth on each side are enlarged.
+  Two pairs of glands open into the buccal cavity, and at the junction
+  of pharynx and oesophagus is another pair called the sugar glands. The
+  stomach is surrounded by the liver or digestive gland, consisting of
+  two lobes which are symmetrical in the young animals, but in the adult
+  the right lobe is anterior and smaller.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Diagrams of the excretory and reproductive
+  organs of Amphineura (after Hubrecht).
+
+    A, Chaetoderma.
+    B, Neomenia.
+    C, Proneomenia.
+    D, Chiton.
+    O, Ovary.
+    P, Pericardium.
+    N, Nephridium.
+    u, External aperture of nephridium.
+    g, External aperture of the genital duct of Chiton.
+    r, Rectum.
+    Cl, Cloacal or pallial chamber of Neomeniae and Chaetoderma.
+    Br, Ctenidia (branchial plumes).]
+
+  _Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs._--As in other molluscs the
+  coelom is represented by a large pericardial cavity, situated above
+  the intestine posteriorly, and a generative sac which is single and
+  median and situated in front of the pericardium, except in the
+  _Nuttalochiton hyadesi_, where the gonads are in a similar position,
+  but are paired. The excretory organs are coelomoducts with an internal
+  ciliated opening into the pericardium and an opening to the exterior.
+  Both the openings are close together, the external opening being just
+  in front of the principal gill near the posterior end of the body. The
+  renal tube is doubled on itself, its middle part where the bend occurs
+  being situated more or less anteriorly. The excretory surface is
+  increased by numerous ramified caeca which extend beneath the body
+  wall laterally and ventrally, and open into the tube (fig. 6). The
+  sexes are distinct, and the ovary is frequently greenish in colour,
+  the testis red. The gonad is transversely wrinkled and lies between
+  the aorta and the intestine, extending from the pericardium to the
+  anterior end of the body. A simple gonaduct on each side arises from
+  the gonad near its posterior end and passes first forwards, then
+  backwards, and lastly outwards to the external opening in the pallial
+  groove, anterior to the renal aperture. There may be from one to nine
+  gills between the genital and renal pores.
+
+  _Heart and Vascular System._--The heart is enclosed in the
+  pericardium, and consists of a median elongated ventricle and a pair of
+  lateral auricles, so that the structure somewhat resembles that in
+  the Lamellibranchiata. The openings of the auricles into the
+  ventricle vary in different forms. In many of the lower forms
+  (_Lepidopleuridae, Mopalidae, Ischnochitonidae_) the opening on each
+  side is single and anterior. In the true _Chitonidae_ there are generally
+  two apertures on each side, and in two species three or four, another
+  instance of the tendency to metameric repetition in the group.
+  The auricles are connected with one another posteriorly behind the
+  ventricle. The ventricle leads into a single anterior median aorta.
+  As in other molluscs, the arteries do not extend far, but lead into
+  inter-visceral blood-spaces. The venous blood is conducted from
+  the tissues to a large sinus on either side above the pallial groove,
+  and from this sinus passes to the gills by an afferent vessel in each
+  gill on the internal or pedal margin of the axis. The oxygenated
+  blood is carried from each gill by an efferent vessel on the external
+  or pallial side of the axis to another longitudinal vessel which leads
+  to the auricle on each side.
+
+  [Illustration: After Haller (_Arbeiten zool. Instit._), Vienna, 1882.
+
+  FIG. 6.--Dissection of the renal organs (nephridia) of _Chiton siculus._
+
+    F,  Foot.
+    L, Edge of the mantle not removed in the front part of the specimen.
+    s.o., Oesophagus.
+    af, Anus.
+    gg, Genital duct.
+    go, External opening of the same.
+    eg, Stem of the nephridium leading to no, its external aperture.
+    nk, Reflected portion of the nephridial stem.
+    ng, Fine caeca of the nephridium, which are seen ramifying
+         transversely over the whole inner surface of the pedal muscular
+         mass.]
+
+  _Nervous System._--There are no well-marked specialized ganglia in the
+  central nervous system, nerve-cells being distributed uniformly along
+  the cords. There are two pairs of longitudinal cords, a pedal pair
+  situated ventrally and united beneath the intestine by numerous
+  commissures, and a pallial pair situated laterally and continuous with
+  one another above the rectum (fig. 7). The four cords are all
+  connected anteriorly with the cerebral commissure which lies above the
+  buccal mass anteriorly. From the points where the cords meet the
+  cerebral commissure, arise on each an anterior labial commissure and a
+  stomatogastric commissure. The letter bears two ganglion swellings,
+  the buccal ganglia. The labial commissure gives off a subradular
+  commissure which also bears two ganglia, these being in close relation
+  to a special sense-organ called the subradular organ, an epithelial
+  projection with nerve-endings, lying in front of the radula and
+  probably gustatory in function. One osphradium or branchial olfactory
+  organ is usually present on each side, on either side of the anus on
+  the inner wall of the mantle, near the base of the last gill. In
+  _Lepidopleuridae_ an osphradium occurs at the base of each gill. The
+  sense organs of the shell-valves have already been described.
+
+  _Development._--The eggs may be laid separately invested by a
+  chitinous envelope, or as in _Ischnochiton magdalenensis_ they may
+  form strings containing nearly 200,000 eggs, or the ova may be
+  retained in the pallial groove and undergo development there, as in
+  _Chiton polii_ and _Hemiarthrum setulosum_. One species
+  _Callistochiton viviparus_ is viviparous and its ova develop without a
+  larval stage in the maternal oviduct. Segmentation is total and at
+  first regular, and is followed by invagination, the blastopore passing
+  to the position of the future mouth. By the development of a ciliated
+  ring just in front of the mouth the embryo becomes a trochosphere. In
+  the centre of the praeoral lobe is a tuft of cilia. Just behind the
+  ciliated ring is a pair of larval eyes which disappear in the adult;
+  these correspond to the cephalic eyes of Lamellibranchs. An ectodemic
+  invagination forms a large mucous gland on the foot, which is more or
+  less atrophied in adult life. The gonads originate by proliferation of
+  the anterior wall of the pericardium. The shell-valves arise as
+  transverse thickenings of the dorsal cuticle behind the ciliated ring,
+  the tegmentum being the first part formed.
+
+
+  _Classification_.
+
+  [Illustration: After Hubrecht, loc. cit.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Diagrams of the nervous system of Amphineura.
+
+    A, Proneomenia.
+    B, Neomenia.
+    C, Chaetoderma.
+    D, Chiton.
+    c, Cerebral ganglia.
+    s, Sublingual ganglia.
+    v, Pedal (ventral) nerve-cord.
+    l, Visceral (lateral) nerve-cord.
+    pc. Post-anal junction of the visceral nerve-cords.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Gegenbaur, _Elements of Comp.  Anatomy._
+
+  FIG. 8.--Anterior part of the nervous system of _Chiton cinereus_,
+  in more detail.
+
+    B, Buccal ganglia (concerned with the odontophore).
+    C, Cerebral nerve-mass.
+    P, Pedal ganglion and commencement of pedal nerve-cord.
+    pl, Visceral nerve-cord. The sublingual ganglia are not lettered.]
+
+  Suborder I. EOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry.--Tegmentum coextensive with
+  articulamentum, or the latter projecting in smooth unslit plates.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Lepidopleuridae._--Terminal margins of end valves never
+    elevated; form oval or oblong. _Lepidopleurus cancellatus_, Sow.
+    North Atlantic and Mediterranean; various abyssal species. _Hanleya
+    hanleyi_, Bean, north Atlantic. _Hemiarthrum Microplax_. The extinct
+    _Gryptochitonidae_, Pilsbry, with other Palaeozoic genera, narrow
+    and elongated in form with terminal margins of end valves elevated,
+    belong to this group.
+
+  Suborder II. MESOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry.--Insertion plates well developed
+  and slit.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Ischnochitonidae._--All the valves with slits, and the
+    inner layer well covered by the outer.
+
+      Subfam. 1. _Ischnochitoninae._--No shell-eyes: sutural laminae
+      separated; slits in the valves 1-7 do not correspond with the ribs
+      of the tegmentum. _Ischnochiton, Trachydermon, Chaetopleura,
+      Stenoplax, Stenoradsia_.
+
+      Subfam. 2. _Callochitoninae._ With shell-eyes and united sutural
+      laminae. _Callochiton laevis_, North Atlantic and Mediterranean.
+
+      Subfam. 3. _Callistoplacinae._ No shell-eyes, slits in the valves
+      1-7 corresponding with the ribs of the tegmentum. _Callistochiton_
+      (viviparous). _Nuttalochiton._
+
+    Fam. 3. _Mopaliidae._ Each intermediate valve with a single slit;
+    girdle hairy. _Mopalia, Placiphorella, Plaxiphora, Placophoropsis._
+
+    Fam. 4. _Acanthochitonidae._ Valves immersed in the girdle, with
+    small tegmentum. _Acanthochiton_ (A_. fascicularis_, North Atlantic
+    and Mediterranean). _Spongiochiton, Katharina, Amicula, Cryptochiton_
+    (_C. stelleri_, arctic).
+
+    Fam. 5. _Cryptoplacidae._ Vermiform, with thick girdle and small
+    valves; insertion and sutural plates strongly drawn forward, sharp
+    and smooth. _Cryptoplax, Choneplax._
+
+  Suborder III. TELEOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry.--All the valves, or at least
+  the seven anterior, with insertion plates cut into teeth by slits.
+
+    Fam. 6. _Chitonidae._ Characters of the suborder.
+
+      Subfam. 1. _Chitoninae._ No extra-pigmental eyes; insertion plates
+      with pectinations between the fissures. _Chiton, Eudoxochiton,
+      Trachyodon, Radsia._
+
+      Subfam. 2. _Toniciinae._ Extra-pigmental shell-eyes. _Tonicia,
+      Acanthopleura, Enoplochiton, Onithochiton, Schizochiton, Lorica,
+      Loricella, Liolophura._
+
+
+ Order 2.--APLACOPHORA, von Jhering.
+
+_Chaetoderma_ was first described by S. Lovén, in 1841, and was for a
+long time believed to be a Gephyrean worm. _Neomenia_, mentioned first
+by Michael Sars in 1868 under the name _Solenopus_, was afterwards
+included among the Opisthobranchs by J. Koren and D.C. Danielssen. C.
+Gegenbaur placed the two genera in a division of Vermes which he called
+Solenogastres.
+
+The chief points in which the Aplacophora differ from the Polyplacophora
+are: (1) they are worm-like in shape; (2) there is no distinct foot, and
+the mantle bears no shell-valves, but only numerous calcareous spicules;
+(3) the digestive tube is straight.
+
+_Neomenia_ and its allies are marine animals living at depths of 15 to
+800 fathoms on soft muddy ground; they are found crawling on corals and
+hydrozoa, on which they feed. The British genera are: _Neomenia,
+Rhopalomenia_ and _Myzomenia_. They have been taken in nearly all seas
+except the South Atlantic and S.E. and N.W. Pacific. About forty species
+are known. _Chaetoderma_, of which nine species have been described, has
+similar habits and distribution, but feeds chiefly on Protozoa. The
+order Aplacophora is divided into two suborders.
+
+  Suborder I. NEOMENIOMORPHA.--Aplacophora with a distinct longitudinal
+  ventral groove; bisexual with paired genital glands and no distinct
+  liver. The whole of the skin except the ventral groove corresponds to
+  the mantle of _Chiton_. The cuticle, in some species very thick,
+  contains numerous spicules which are long, hollow and calcified; they
+  are secreted by epithelial papillae. In some species there are also
+  sensory papillae comparable to the aesthetes of Chitons. A small
+  longitudinal projection in the ventral groove represents the foot.
+  Into the groove open mucous glands, a large one anteriorly and another
+  opening into a posteriorly cloacal, branchial cavity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Neomenia carinata_, Tullberg (after Tullberg).
+
+    A, Lateral view.
+    B, Ventral view.
+    C, Dorsal view.
+    D, Ventral view of a more extended specimen.
+    a, Anterior.
+    b, Posterior extremity.
+    c, Furrow, in which the narrow foot is concealed.]
+
+  _Branchiae._--In _Neomeniidae_ and most of the _Parameniidae_ there is
+  a circlet of gills on the inner walls of the cloacal chamber. These
+  gills are simple folds or laminae of the body wall. In other species
+  they are absent.
+
+  _Intestine._---The mouth opens into a muscular pharynx lined by a
+  thick cuticle. Into the pharyngeal cavity open salivary glands and
+  radular sac. The former are paired and ventral, and open on a
+  subradular prominence. In some species there is a second dorsal pair.
+  _Neomenia_ and other genera have no salivary glands.
+
+  The radula when present comprises several transverse rows of teeth,
+  and each transverse row may have several teeth (polystichous), two
+  teeth (distichous), or one tooth (monostichous). It is a curious fact
+  that in the original type _Neomenia_ the radula is entirely absent, as
+  it likewise is in several genera of _Proneomeniidae_. The oesophagus
+  is short and leads into a long, straight stomach, provided with
+  numerous symmetrical lateral caeca. The stomach opens into a short
+  straight rectum which opens into the branchial chamber.
+
+  _Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs._--The coelom differs from that
+  of the Chitons in the fact that the cavities of the genital organs are
+  continuous with it, and in the fact that there is only one pair of
+  coelomoducts resembling the renal organs of Chitons, but serving also
+  as genital ducts. The gonads are paired and hermaphrodite, they form a
+  pair of anterior prolongations of the pericardium, extending nearly to
+  the anterior end of the body. Ova are developed on the median,
+  spermatozoa on the outer wall of each genital tube. The pericardium is
+  ciliated internally on its dorsal and lateral walls. The urino-genital
+  tubes arise from the posterior angles of the pericardium, pass first
+  forwards, then backwards, and unite to open by a common opening into
+  the cloaca below the anus except in _Strophomenia_, where the openings
+  are separate. Usually each tube is provided with caecal appendages on
+  its proximal portion, and these serve as vesiculae seminales, while
+  the distal portion is enlarged and glandular and secretes the
+  egg-shell.
+
+  _Heart and Vascular System._--There is a heart in the pericardium
+  consisting of a median ventricle attached, except in _Neomenia_, to
+  the dorsal wall of the pericardium, and in _Neomenia_ a pair of
+  auricular ducts returning blood from the gills to the ventricle. The
+  aorta is not independent as in Chitons, but is a sinus like the other
+  channels of the circulation. A single median ventral sinus passes
+  backwards to the gills or cloaca. The blood is coloured red by
+  haemoglobin in blood corpuscles.
+
+  _Nervous System._--Ganglionic enlargements are more conspicuous than
+  in the Chitons. In front of the buccal mass is a median cerebral
+  ganglion. From this pass off two pairs of cords, the pleural and
+  pedal, in _Proneomenia_ separate from their origin, in _Neomenia_
+  united at first and diverging at a pleural ganglion. The pedal cords
+  anteriorly form a pair of pedal ganglia united by a thick commissure.
+  The supra-rectal commissure may be present and bear an ovoid ganglion;
+  or may be wanting. With regard to sense organs the epithelial papillae
+  of the mantle have been mentioned. There is also in some genera a
+  median retractile sensory papilla on the dorsal posterior surface
+  above the rectum, not covered by the cuticle.
+
+  _Development_ has only been described in _Myzomenia banyulensis_, by
+  G. Pruvot. It closely resembles in the early stages that of Chitons.
+  The external surface of the trochosphere is formed of a number of
+  ciliated test-cells. The ectoderm behind the ciliated ring develops
+  spicules, and the post-oral region of the larva elongates. Later the
+  ciliated ring or velum disappears and seven imbricated calcareous
+  plates, made up of flattened spicules, are formed on the dorsal
+  surface. This appears to indicate that the Neomeniomorpha are
+  descended from _Chiton_-like ancestors, and that they have lost their
+  shell valves.
+
+    _Classification of the_ NEOMENIOMORPHA.--Fam. 1. _Lepidomeniidae._
+    Slender, tapering behind, with subventral cloacal orifice; thin
+    cuticle without papillae; flattened spicules; no gills.
+    _Lepidomenia, Ismenia, Ichthyodes, Stylomenia, Dondersia,
+    Nematomenia, Myzomenia, M. banyulensis_, Mediterranean and Plymouth.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Neomeniidae._ Short, truncate in front and behind; cloacal
+    orifice transverse; gills present; rather thin cuticle; no radula.
+    _Neomenia_ (_N. carinata_, N. Atlantic and N. and N.W. Scotland),
+    _Hemimenia_.
+
+    Fam. 3. _Proneomeniidae._ Elongated, cylindrical, rounded at both
+    ends; thick cuticle with acicular spicules; radula polystichous or
+    wanting. _Proneomenia, Amphimenia, Echinomenia, Rhopalomenia_ (_R.
+    aglaopheniae_, Mediterranean and Plymouth), _Notomenia, Pruvotia,
+    Strophomenia_.
+
+    Fam. 4. _Parameniidae._ Short and truncated in front; thick cuticle,
+    often without papillae; gills and radula present. _Paramenia,
+    Macellomenia, Pararhopalia, Dinomenia, Cyclomenia, Proparamenia,
+    Uncimenia, Kruppomenia._
+
+  Suborder II. CHAETODERMOMORPHA.--Aplacophora without distinct ventral
+  groove, with single median unisexual gonad, with differentiated
+  hepatic sac, and with cloacal chamber furnished with two bipectinate
+  gills. There are only two genera in this suborder: _Chaetoderma_, and
+  _Limifossor_ from Alaska. The characters therefore are very uniform.
+  The body is worm-like and cylindrical, the posterior half a little
+  thicker than the anterior; the posterior extremity forms the enlarged
+  funnel-like branchial or cloacal chamber. The anterior extremity is
+  also somewhat enlarged. The whole surface is uniformly covered with
+  short compressed calcareous spicula embedded in the cuticle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Chaetoderma nitidulum_, Lovén (after Graff).
+  The cephalic enlargement is to the left, the anal chamber (reduced
+  pallial chamber, containing the concealed pair of ctenidia) to the
+  right.]
+
+  _Branchiae._--The single pair of branchiae are placed symmetrically
+  right and left of the anus, and each has the structure of a ctenidium
+  bearing a row of lamellae on each side as in the Polyplacophora.
+
+  _Intestine._--The mouth is anterior, terminal and crescentic, and
+  beneath it is a rounded ventral shield. On the floor of the pharynx or
+  buccal mass is a rudimentary radula, which in many species consists of
+  a single large tooth, bearing two small teeth or a row of teeth. In
+  other species the radula is more of the usual type consisting of
+  several transverse rows of two or three teeth each. Two pairs of
+  salivary glands open into the buccal cavity. The digestive tube is
+  straight and simple, wider in its anterior part, into which opens the
+  duct of the hepatic caecum (fig. 4, B). The latter extends backwards
+  on the ventral side of the intestine.
+
+  _Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs._--These are closely similar in
+  their relations to those of the Neomeniomorpha. The chief difference
+  is that the gonad or generative portion of the coelom is single and
+  median, opening into the pericardium by a single posterior aperture.
+  The excretory organs or coelomoducts arise from the posterior corners
+  of the pericardium, run forwards and then backwards to open by
+  separate apertures lateral to the gills (fig. 5, A). There are no
+  accessory generative organs.
+
+  _The heart and vascular system_ are similar to those of the
+  Neomeniomorpha, the only important differences being that the
+  ventricle is nearly free in the pericardial cavity, and that the
+  latter is traversed by the retractor muscles of the gills.
+
+  _Nervous System._--There are two closely connected cerebral ganglia,
+  from which arise the usual two pairs of nerve cords. Pallial and pedal
+  on each side are closer together than in the other groups, and
+  posteriorly they unite into a supra-rectal cord provided with a median
+  ganglionic enlargement (fig. 7, C). A small stomatogastric commissure
+  bearing two small ganglia arises from the cerebral ganglia and
+  surrounds the oesophagus.
+
+  The development is at present entirely unknown.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Amphineura._
+
+The most important theoretical question concerning the Amphineura is how
+far do they represent the original condition of the ancestral mollusc?
+That is to say, we have to inquire which of their structural features is
+primitive and which modified. Their bilateral symmetry is obviously to
+be regarded as primitive, and the nervous system shows an original
+condition from which that of the asymmetrical twisted Gastropods can be
+derived. But in many other features both external and internal the three
+principal divisions differ so much from one another that we have to
+consider in the case of each organ-system which condition is the more
+primitive. According to Paul Pelseneer the Polyplacophora are the most
+archaic, the Aplacophora being specialized in (1) the great reduction of
+the foot, (2) the disappearance of the shell (_Cryploplax_ among the
+Polyplacophora showing both reductions in progress), (3) the
+disappearance of the radula. But it is a widely recognized principle of
+morphology that a much modified animal is by no means modified to the
+same degree in all its organs. A form which is primitive on the whole
+may show a more advanced stage of evolution in some particular system of
+organs than another animal which is on the whole more highly developed
+and specialized. Thus the independent metamerism of certain organs in
+the Chitons is not primitive but acquired within the group: e.g. the
+shell valves and the ctenidia. And although embryology seems to prove
+that the Neomeniomorphs are derived from forms with a series of
+shell-valves, nevertheless it seems probable that the calcareous
+spicules which alone are present in adult Aplacophora preceded the solid
+shell in evolution.
+
+It is held by some morphologists that the mollusc body is unsegmented,
+and therefore is to be compared to a single segment of a Chaetopod or
+Arthropod. In this case there should be only one pair of coelomoducts in
+the adult, the pair of true nephridia which should also occur being
+represented by the larval nephridia. There should also be only a single
+coelom, or a pair of lateral coelomic cavities. On this view then the
+Aplacophora are more primitive than the Polyplacophora in the relations
+of coelom, gonad and coelomoducts; and the genital ducts of the Chitons
+have arisen either by metameric repetition within the group, or by the
+gradual loss of an original connexion between the generative sac and the
+renal tube, as in Lamellibranchs and Gastropods, the generative sac
+acquiring a separate duct and opening to the exterior on each side.
+
+  LITERATURE.--A. Sedgwick, "On certain Points in the Anatomy of
+  Chiton," _Proc. R. Soc. Lond._ xxxiii., 1881; J. Blumrich, "Das
+  Integument der Chitonen," _Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool._ lii., 1891; A.C.
+  Haddon, "Report on the Polyplacophora," _Challenger Reports. Zool._
+  pt. xliii., 1886; H.N. Moseley, "On the presence of Eyes in the Shells
+  of certain Chitonidae, and on the structure of these Organs," _Quart.
+  Journ. Mic. Sci._ new ser. xxv., 1885; A.A.W. Hubrecht, "Proneomenia
+  Sluiteri," _Nied. Arch. f. Zool._ Suppl. 1., 1881; A. Kowalewsky and
+  A.F. Marion, "Contr. à l'histoire des Solenogastres ou Aplacophores,"
+  _Ann. Mus. Marseille, Zool._ iii., 1887; A. Kowalewsky, "Sur le genre
+  Chaetoderma," _Arch. de zool. expér_. (3) ix., 1901; P. Pelseneer,
+  "Mollusca," _Treatise on Zoology_, edited by E. Ray Lankester, pt. v.,
+  1906; E. Ray Lankester, "Mollusca," in the 9th ed. of this
+  Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much indebted.    (J. T. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Gr. [Greek: chitôn] was a garment in the shape of a loose
+    tunic, varying at different periods: see COSTUME: _Greek_.
+
+
+
+
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 2
+       "Chicago, University of" to "Chiton"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 20, 2010 [EBook #31329]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME VI SLICE II<br /><br />
+Chicago, University of to Chiton</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 180%;">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CHILPERIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CHICANE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CHILTERN HILLS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CHICHELEY, HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CHILTERN HUNDREDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CHICHEN-ITZA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CHILWA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CHIMAERA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CHICHESTER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CHIMAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CHICKAMAUGA CREEK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CHIME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CHICKASAWS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CHIMERE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CHICKASHA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CHIMESYAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CHICKEN-POX</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CHIMKENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CHICLANA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CHIMNEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CHICOPEE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CHIMNEYPIECE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CHICORY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CHIMPANZEE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CHIDAMBARAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CHINA</a> (country)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CHIEF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CHINA</a> (porcelain)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CHIEMSEE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CHINANDEGA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CHIENG MAI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CHI-NAN FU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CHIERI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CHINCHA ISLANDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CHIETI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CHINCHEW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CHI-FU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CHINCHILLA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CHIGI-ALBANI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CHINDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CHIGWELL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CHINDWIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CHIH-LI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CHIHUAHUA</a> (state of Mexico)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CHINESE PAVILLON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CHIHUAHUA</a> (city of Mexico)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CHINGFORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CHILAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CHINGLEPUT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CHILBLAINS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CHIN HILLS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CHILD, SIR FRANCIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CHINKIANG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CHINO-JAPANESE WAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CHILD, SIR JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CHINON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CHILD, SIR JOSIAH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CHINOOK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CHILD, LYDIA MARIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CHINSURA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CHILD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CHINTZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CHILDEBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CHIOGGIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CHILDERIC</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CHIOS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CHIPPENHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CHIPPEWA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CHILDRENITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CHIPPING CAMPDEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CHILDREN&rsquo;S COURTS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CHIPPING NORTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CHILDREN&rsquo;S GAMES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CHIQUITOS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CHIROMANCY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CHILE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CHIRON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CHILEAN CIVIL WAR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CHIROPODIST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CHIROPTERA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CHILIASM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CHIRU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CHILL�N</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CHIRURGEON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CHILLIANWALLA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CHISEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CHILLICOTHE</a> (city in Missouri, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CHISLEHURST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CHILLICOTHE</a> (city in Ohio, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CHISWICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CHITA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CHILOÉ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CHITALDRUG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CHILON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CHITON</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span>, one of the great educational
+institutions of the United States, established under Baptist
+auspices in the city of Chicago, and opened in 1892.<a name="FnAnchor_1a" id="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Though
+the president and two-thirds of the trustees are always Baptists,
+the university is non-sectarian except as regards its divinity
+school. An immense ambition and the extraordinary organizing
+ability shown by its first president, William R. Harper, determined
+and characterized the remarkable growth of the university&rsquo;s
+first decade of activity. The grounds include about 140
+acres. Of these about 60 acres&mdash;given in part by Marshall
+Field and laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted&mdash;border the
+Midway Plaisance, connecting Washington and Jackson parks.
+On these grounds the main part of the university stands. The
+buildings are mostly of grey limestone, in Gothic style, and
+grouped in quadrangles. The Mitchell tower is a shortened
+reproduction of Magdalen tower, Oxford, and the University
+Commons, Hutchinson Hall, is a duplicate of Christ Church hall,
+Oxford. Dormitories accommodate about a fifth of the students.
+The quadrangles include clubs, dining halls, dormitories,
+gymnasiums, assembly halls, recitation halls, laboratories and
+libraries. In the first college year, 1892-1893, there were 698
+students; in that of 1907-1908 there were 5038,<a name="FnAnchor_2a" id="FnAnchor_2a" href="#Footnote_2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> of whom 2186
+were women. There are faculties of arts, literature, science,
+divinity,<a name="FnAnchor_3a" id="FnAnchor_3a" href="#Footnote_3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> medicine (organized in 1901), law (1902), education,
+and commerce and administration. The astronomical department,
+the Yerkes Observatory, is located on William&rsquo;s Bay,
+Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, about 65 m. from Chicago. It has the
+largest refracting telescope in the world (clear aperture 40 in.,
+focal length about 61 ft.). The Chicago Institute, founded and
+endowed by Mrs Anita McCormick Blaine as an independent
+normal school, became a part of the university in 1901. The
+school of education, as a whole, brings under university influence
+hundreds of children from kindergarten age upwards to young
+manhood and womanhood, apart from the university classes
+proper. Chicago was the second university of the country
+to give its pedagogical department such scope in the union
+of theory and practice. The nucleus of the library (450,000
+volumes in 1908) was purchased in Berlin soon after the university&rsquo;s
+organization, in one great collection of 175,000 volumes.
+Scholarly research has been fostered in every possible way, and
+the university press has been active in the publication of various
+departmental series and the following periodicals:&mdash;<i>Biblical
+World</i>, <i>American Journal of Theology, American Journal of
+Semitic Languages and Literatures, American Journal of Sociology,
+Journal of Political Economy, Modern Philology, Classical
+Philology, Classical Journal, Journal of Geology, Astrophysical
+Journal, Botanical Gazette, Elementary School Teacher and
+School Review.</i> The courses in the College of Commerce and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span>
+Administration link the university closely with practical life.
+In extension work the university has been active from the
+beginning, instruction being given not only by lectures but by
+correspondence (a novel and unique feature among American
+universities); in the decade 1892-1902, 1715 persons were
+prepared by the latter method for matriculation in the university
+(11.6% of the total number of matriculants in the decade).
+Extension lectures were given in twenty-two states. At Chicago
+the work of the university is continuous throughout the year:
+the  &ldquo;summer quarter&rdquo; is not as in other American schools a
+supplement to the teaching year, but an integral part; and it
+attracts the teachers of the middle western states and of the
+south. In the work of the first two years, known together as
+the Junior College, men and women are in the main given separate
+instruction; but in the Senior College years unrestricted co-education
+prevails. Students are mainly controlled by self-government
+in small groups (&ldquo;the house system&rdquo;). Relations
+with  &ldquo;affiliated&rdquo; (private) colleges and academies and  &ldquo;co-operating&rdquo;
+(public) high-schools also present interesting features.</p>
+
+<p>The value of the property of the university in 1908 was about
+$25,578,000. Up to the 30th of June 1908 it had received from
+gifts actually paid $29,651,849, of which $22,712,631 were given
+by John D. Rockefeller.<a name="FnAnchor_4a" id="FnAnchor_4a" href="#Footnote_4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The value of buildings in 1908 was
+$4,508,202, of grounds $4,406,191, and of productive funds
+$14,186,235. Upon the death of President Harper, Harry Pratt
+Judson (b. 1849), then head professor of political science and
+dean of the faculties of arts, became acting president, and on
+the 20th of January 1907 he was elected president.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Decennial Publications</i> of the University (since 1903), especially
+vol. i. for details of history and administration.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1a" id="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A small Baptist college of the same name&mdash;-established in 1855
+on land given by S.A. Douglas&mdash;went out of existence in 1886.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2a" id="Footnote_2a" href="#FnAnchor_2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> If, however, the total is reckoned on the basis of nine months
+of residence the figure for 1907-1908 would be 3202.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3a" id="Footnote_3a" href="#FnAnchor_3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Divinity School has a graduate department and three
+under-graduate departments, doing work in English, in Danish and
+Norwegian, and in Swedish.  Allied with the Divinity School of the
+University is the &ldquo;Disciples&rsquo; Divinity House&rdquo; (1894), a theological
+school of the Disciples of Christ.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4a" id="Footnote_4a" href="#FnAnchor_4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The words &ldquo;founded by John D. Rockefeller&rdquo; follow the title
+of the university on all its letterheads and official documents.
+Mr Rockefeller would not allow his name to be a part of the title,
+nor has he permitted the designation of any building by his name.
+President Harper was selected by him to organize the university,
+and it was his will that the president and two-thirds of the trustees
+should be &ldquo;always&rdquo; Baptists. President Harper more than once
+stated most categorically that contrary to prevalent beliefs no donor
+of funds to the university &ldquo;has ever (1902) by a single word or act
+indicated his dissatisfaction with the instruction given to students
+in the university, or with the public expression of opinion made by
+any officer of the university&rdquo;; and certainly so far as the public
+press reveals, no other university of the country has had so many
+professors who have in various lines, including economics, expressed
+radical views in public.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICANE<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span>, the pettifogging subterfuge and delay of sharp
+law-practitioners, also any deliberate attempt to gain unfair
+advantage by petty tricks. A more common English form of
+the word is &ldquo;chicanery.&rdquo; &ldquo;Chicane&rdquo; is technically used also
+as a term in the game of bridge for the points a player may score
+if he holds no trumps. The word is French, derived either from
+<i>chaug&#257;n</i>, Persian for the stick used in the game of &ldquo;polo,&rdquo; still
+played on foot and called <i>chicane</i> in Languedoc (the military use
+of <i>chicaner</i>, to take advantage of slight variations in ground,
+suits this derivation), or from <i>chic</i>, meaning little or petty, from
+the Spanish <i>chico</i>, small, which appears in the phrase &ldquo;<i>chic à
+chic</i>,&rdquo; little by little.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICHELEY, HENRY<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1364-1443), English archbishop,
+founder of All Souls College, Oxford, was born at Higham Ferrers,
+Northamptonshire, in 1363 or 1364. Chicheley told the pope in
+1443, in asking leave to retire from the archbishopric, that he
+was in his eightieth year. He was the third and youngest son
+of Thomas Chicheley, who appears in 1368 in still extant town
+records of Higham Ferrers as a suitor in the mayor&rsquo;s court, and
+in 1381-1382, and again in 1384-1385, was mayor: in fact, for a
+dozen years he and Henry Barton, school master of Higham
+Ferrers grammar school, and one Richard Brabazon, filled the
+mayoralty in turns. His occupation does not appear; but his
+eldest son, William, is on the earliest extant list (1373) of the
+Grocers&rsquo; Company, London. On the 9th of June 1405 Chicheley
+was admitted, in succession to his father, to a burgage in Higham
+Ferrers. His mother, Agnes Pincheon, is said to have been of
+gentle birth. There is therefore no foundation in fact for the
+silly story (copied into the <i>Diet. Nat. Biog.</i> from a local historian,
+J. Cole, Wellingborough, 1838) that Henry Chicheley was picked
+up by William of Wykeham when he was a poor ploughboy
+&ldquo;eating his scanty meal off his mother&rsquo;s lap,&rdquo; whatever that
+means. The story was unknown to Arthur Duck, fellow of All
+Souls, who wrote Chicheley&rsquo;s life in 1617. It is only the usual
+attempt, as in the cases of Whittington, Wolsey and Gresham,
+to exaggerate the rise of a successful man. The first recorded
+appearance of Henry Chicheley himself is at New College, Oxford,
+as Checheley, eighth among the undergraduate fellows, in July
+1387, in the earliest extant hall-book, which contains weekly
+lists of those dining in Hall. It is clear from Chicheley&rsquo;s position
+in the list, with eleven fellows and eight scholars, or probationer-fellows,
+below him, that this entry does not mark his first appearance
+in the college, which had been going on since 1375 at least,
+and was chartered in 1379. He must have come from Winchester
+College in one of the earliest batches of scholars from that college,
+the sole feeder of New College, not from St John Baptist College,
+Winchester, as guessed by Dr William Hunt in the <i>Dict. Nat.
+Biog.</i> (and repeated in Mr Grant Robertson&rsquo;s <i>History of All
+Souls College</i>) to cover the mistaken supposition that St Mary&rsquo;s
+College was not founded till 1393. St Mary&rsquo;s College was in
+fact formally founded in 1382, and the school had been going on
+since 1373 (A.F. Leach, <i>History of Winchester College</i>), while no
+such college as St John&rsquo;s College at Winchester ever existed.</p>
+
+<p>Chicheley appears in the Hall-books of New College up to the
+year 1392/93, when he was a B.A. and was absent for ten weeks
+from about the 6th of December to the 6th of March, presumably
+for the purpose of his ordination as a sub-deacon, which was
+performed by the bishop of Derry, acting as suffragan to the
+bishop of London. He was then already beneficed, receiving a
+royal ratification of his estate as parson of Llanvarchell in the
+diocese of St Asaph on the 20th of March 1391/92 (<i>Cal. Pat.
+Rolls</i>). In the Hall-book, marked 1393/94, but really for 1394/95,
+Chicheley&rsquo;s name does not appear. He had then left Oxford
+and gone up to London to practise as an advocate in the principal
+ecclesiastical court, the court of arches. His rise was
+rapid. Already on the 8th of February 1395/96 he was on a
+commission with several knights and clerks to hear an appeal
+in a case of <i>John Molton, Esquire v. John Shawe, citizen of London</i>,
+from Sir John Cheyne, kt., sitting for the constable of England in
+a court of chivalry. Like other ecclesiastical lawyers and civil
+servants of the day; he was paid with ecclesiastical preferments.
+On the 13th of April 1396 he obtained ratification of the parsonage
+of St Stephen&rsquo;s, Walbrook, presented on the 30th of March
+by the abbot of Colchester, no doubt through his brother Robert,
+who restored the church and increased its endowment. In 1397
+he was made archdeacon of Dorset by Richard Mitford, bishop
+of Salisbury, but litigation was still going on about it in the papal
+court till the 27th of June 1399, when the pope extinguished the
+suit, imposing perpetual silence on Nicholas Bubwith, master of
+the rolls, his opponent. In the first year of Henry IV. Chicheley
+was parson of Sherston, Wiltshire, and prebendary of Nantgwyly
+in the college of Abergwilly, North Wales; on the 23rd of February
+1401/2, now called doctor of laws, he was pardoned for
+bringing in, and allowed to use, a bull of the pope &ldquo;providing&rdquo;
+him to the chancellorship of Salisbury cathedral, and canonries
+in the nuns&rsquo; churches of Shaftesbury and Wilton in that
+diocese; and on the 9th of January 1402/3 he was archdeacon
+of Salisbury. This year his brother Robert was senior sheriff of
+London. On the 7th of May 1404, Pope Boniface IX. provided
+him to a prebend at Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held
+prebends at Salisbury, Lichfield, St Martin&rsquo;s-le-Grand and
+Abergwyly, and the living of Brington. On the 9th of January
+1405 he found time to attend a court at Higham Ferrers and be
+admitted to a burgage there. In July 1405 Chicheley began a
+diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman pope Innocent
+VII., who was professing his desire to end the schism in the
+papacy by resignation, if his French rival at Avignon would do
+likewise. Next year, on the 5th of October 1406, he was sent
+with Sir John Cheyne to Paris to arrange a lasting peace and
+the marriage of Prince Henry with the French princess Marie,
+which was frustrated by her becoming a nun at Poissy next year.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span>
+In 1406 renewed efforts were made to stop the schism, and
+Chicheley was one of the envoys sent to the new pope Gregory
+XII. Here he utilized his opportunities. On the 31st of August
+1407 Guy Mone (he is always so spelt and not Mohun, and was
+probably from one of the Hampshire Meons; there was a John
+Mone of Havant admitted a Winchester scholar in 1397), bishop
+of St David&rsquo;s, died, and on the 12th of October 1407 Chicheley
+was by the pope provided to the bishopric of St David&rsquo;s. Another
+bull the same day gave him the right to hold all his benefices
+with the bishopric.</p>
+
+<p>At Siena in July 1408 he and Sir John Cheyne, as English
+envoys, were received by Gregory XII. with special honour,
+and Bishop Repingdon of Lincoln, ex-Wycliffite, was one of the
+new batch of cardinals created on the 18th of September 1408,
+most of Gregory&rsquo;s cardinals having deserted him. These,
+together with Benedict&rsquo;s revolting cardinals, summoned a general
+council at Pisa. In November 1408 Chicheley was back at
+Westminster, when Henry IV. received the cardinal archbishop
+of Bordeaux and determined to support the cardinals at Pisa
+against both popes. In January 1409 Chicheley was named with
+Bishop Hallum of Salisbury and the prior of Canterbury to
+represent the Southern Convocation at the council, which opened
+on the 25th of March 1409, arriving on the 24th of April.
+Obedience was withdrawn from both the existing popes, and
+on the 26th of June a new pope elected instead of them.
+Chicheley and the other envoys were received on their return
+as saviours of the world; though the result was summed up by
+a contemporary as trischism instead of schism, and the Church
+as giving three husbands instead of two. Chicheley now became
+the subject of a leading case, the court of king&rsquo;s bench deciding,
+after arguments reheard in three successive terms, that he could
+not hold his previous benefices with the bishopric, and that, spite
+of the maxim <i>Papa potest omnia</i>, a papal bull could not supersede
+the law of the land (<i>Year-book</i> ii. H. iv. 37, 59, 79). Accordingly
+he had to resign livings and canonries wholesale (April 28, 1410).
+As, however, he had obtained a bull (August 20, 1409) enabling
+him to appoint his successors to the vacated preferments,
+including his nephew William, though still an undergraduate
+and not in orders, to the chancellorship of Salisbury, and a
+prebend at Lichfield, he did not go empty away. In May 1410
+he went again on an embassy to France; on the 11th of
+September 1411 he headed a mission to discuss Henry V.&rsquo;s
+marriage with a daughter of the duke of Burgundy; and he was
+again there in November. In the interval Chicheley found time
+to visit his diocese for the first time and be enthroned at St
+David&rsquo;s on the 11th of May 1411. He was with the English
+force under the earl of Arundel which accompanied the duke of
+Burgundy to Paris in October 1411 and there defeated the
+Armagnacs, an exploit which revealed to England the weakness
+of the French. On the 30th of November 1411 Chicheley, with
+two other bishops and three earls and the prince of Wales, knelt
+to the king to receive public thanks for their administration.
+That he was in high favour with Henry V. is shown by his being
+sent with the earl of Warwick to France in July 1413 to conclude
+peace. Immediately after the death of archbishop Arundel he
+was nominated by the king to the archbishopric, elected on the
+4th of March, translated by papal bull on the 28th of April, and
+received the pall without going to Rome for it on the 24th
+of July.</p>
+
+<p>These dates are important as they help to save Chicheley from
+the charge, versified by Shakespeare (<i>Henry V.</i> act i. sc. 2)
+from Hall&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle</i>, of having tempted Henry V. into the
+conquest of France for the sake of diverting parliament from
+the disendowment of the Church. There is no contemporary
+authority for the charge, which seems to appear first in Redman&rsquo;s
+rhetorical history of Henry V., written in 1540 with an eye
+to the political situation at that time. As a matter of fact, the
+parliament at Leicester, in which the speeches were supposed
+to have been made, began on the 30th of April 1414 before
+Chicheley was archbishop. The rolls of parliament show that he
+was not present in the parliament at all. Moreover parliament
+was so far from pressing disendowment that on the petition of
+the Commons it passed a savage act against the heresies
+&ldquo;commonly called Lollardry&rdquo; which &ldquo;aimed at the destruction of
+the king and all temporal estates,&rdquo; making Lollards felons and
+ordering every justice of the peace to hunt down their schools,
+conventicles, congregations and confederacies.</p>
+
+<p>In his capacity of archbishop, Chicheley remained what he
+had always been chiefly, the lawyer and diplomatist. He was
+present at the siege of Rouen, and the king committed to him
+personally the negotiations for the surrender of the city in
+January 1419 and for the marriage of Katherine. He crowned
+Katherine at Westminster (20th February 1421), and on the 6th
+of December baptized her child Henry VI. He was of course a
+persecutor of heretics. No one could have attained or kept the
+position of archbishop at the time without being so. So he
+presided at the trial of John Claydon, Skinner and citizen of
+London, who after five years&rsquo; imprisonment at various times
+had made public abjuration before the late archbishop, Arundel,
+but now was found in possession of a book in English called
+<i>The Lanterne of Light</i>, which contained the heinous heresy that
+the principal cause of the persecution of Christians was the
+illegal retention by priests of the goods of this world, and that
+archbishops and bishops were the special seats of antichrist.
+As a relapsed heretic, he was &ldquo;left to the secular arm&rdquo; by
+Chicheley. On the 1st of July 1416 Chicheley directed a half-yearly
+inquisition by archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On the
+12th of February 1420 proceedings were begun before him
+against William Taylor, priest, who had been for fourteen years
+excommunicated for heresy, and was now degraded and burnt
+for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to saints,
+but only to God. A striking contrast was exhibited in October
+1424, when a Stamford friar, John Russell, who had preached
+that any religious <i>potest concumbere cum muliere</i> and not mortally
+sin, was sentenced only to retract his doctrine. Further persecutions
+of a whole batch of Lollards took place in 1428. The records
+of convocation in Chicheley&rsquo;s time are a curious mixture of
+persecutions for heresy, which largely consisted in attacks on
+clerical endowments, with negotiations with the ministers of the
+crown for the object of cutting down to the lowest level the
+clerical contributions to the public revenues in respect of their
+endowments. Chicheley was tenacious of the privileges of his
+see, and this involved him in a constant struggle with Henry
+Beaufort, bishop of Winchester. In 1418, while Henry V.
+was alive, he successfully protested against Beaufort&rsquo;s being
+made a cardinal and legate <i>a latere</i> to supersede the legatine
+jurisdiction of Canterbury. But during the regency, after Henry
+VI.&rsquo;s accession, Beaufort was successful, and in 1426 became
+cardinal and legate. This brought Chicheley into collision with
+Martin V. The struggle between them has been represented
+as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the encroachments of
+the papacy on the Church of England. In point of fact it was
+almost wholly personal, and was rather an incident in the
+rivalry between the duke of Gloucester and his half-brother,
+Cardinal Beaufort, than one involving any principle. Chicheley,
+by appointing a jubilee to be held at Canterbury in 1420, &ldquo;after
+the manner of the Jubilee ordained by the Popes,&rdquo; threatened
+to divert the profits from pilgrims from Rome to Canterbury.
+A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on the 19th
+of March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated &ldquo;to
+ensnare simple souls and extort from them a profane reward,
+thereby setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the
+Roman pontiff, to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted
+by God&rdquo; (<i>Cal. Pap. Reg.</i> vii. 12). Chicheley also incurred the
+papal wrath by opposing the system of papal provision which
+diverted patronage from English to Italian hands, but the
+immediate occasion was to prevent the introduction of the bulls
+making Beaufort a cardinal. Chicheley had been careful enough
+to obtain &ldquo;Papal provisions&rdquo; for himself, his pluralities, his
+bishopric and archbishopric.</p>
+
+<p>But, after all, it is not as archbishop or statesman, persecutor,
+papalist or antipapalist that Chicheley is remembered, but
+for his educational foundations. He endowed a hutch, <i>i.e.</i> chest or
+loan-fund for poor scholars at New College, and another for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span>
+university of Oxford at large. He founded no less than three
+colleges, two at Oxford, one at Higham Ferrers, while there is
+reason to believe that he suggested and inspired the foundation
+of Eton and of King&rsquo;s College. His first college at Oxford, in
+perishing, gave birth to St John&rsquo;s College, which now holds its
+site. This was St Bernard&rsquo;s College, founded by Chicheley
+under licence in mortmain in 1437 for Cistercian monks, on the
+model of Gloucester Hall and Durham College for the southern
+and northern Benedictines. Nothing more than a site and
+building was required by way of endowment, as the young
+monks, who were sent there to study under a provisor, were
+supported by the houses of the order to which they belonged.
+The site was five acres, and the building is described in the
+letters patent &ldquo;as a fitting and noble college mansion in honour
+of the most glorious Virgin Mary and St Bernard in Northgates
+Street outside the Northgate of Oxford.&rdquo; It was suppressed
+with the Cistercian abbeys in 1539, and granted on the 11th of
+December 1546 to Christ Church, Oxford, who sold it to Sir
+Thomas Pope in 1553 for St John&rsquo;s College.</p>
+
+<p>The college at Higham Ferrers was a much earlier design.
+On the 2nd of May 1422 Henry V., in right of the duchy of
+Lancaster, &ldquo;hearing that Chicheley inflamed by the pious
+fervour of devotion intended to enlarge divine service and other
+works of piety at Higham Ferrers, in consideration of his fruitful
+services, often crossing the seas, yielding to no toils, dangers or
+expenses ... especially in the conclusion of the present final
+peace with our dearest father the king of France,&rdquo; granted for
+300 marks (£200) licence to found, on three acres at Higham
+Ferrers, a perpetual college of eight chaplains and four clerks,
+of whom one was to teach grammar and the other song ... &ldquo;and
+six choristers to pray for himself and wife and for Henry IV.
+and his wife Mary ... and to acquire the alien priory of
+Merseye in Essex late belonging to St Ouen&rsquo;s, Rouen,&rdquo; as
+endowment. A papal bull having also been obtained, on the 28th of
+August 1425, the archbishop, in the course of a visitation of
+Lincoln diocese, executed his letters patent founding the college,
+dedicating it to the Virgin, St Thomas à Becket and St Edward
+the Confessor, and handed over the buildings to its members, the
+vicar of Higham Ferrers being made the first master or warden.
+He further endowed it in 1434 with lands in Bedfordshire and
+Huntingdonshire, and his brothers, William and Robert, gave
+some houses in London in 1427 and 1438. The foundation was
+closely modelled on Winchester College, with its warden and
+fellows, its grammar and song schoolmasters, but a step in
+advance was made by the masters being made fellows and so
+members of the governing body. Attached was also a bede or
+almshouse for twelve poor men. Both school and almshouse had
+existed before, and this was merely an additional endowment.
+The whole endowment was in 1535 worth some £200 a year, about
+a fifth of that of Winchester College. Unfortunately, All Souls
+being a later foundation, the college at Higham Ferrers was not
+affiliated to it, and so fell with other colleges not part of the
+universities. On the 18th of July 1542 it was surrendered to
+Henry VIII., and its possessions granted to Robert Dacres on
+condition of maintaining the grammar school and paying the
+master £10 a year, the same salary as the headmasters of Winchester
+and Eton, and maintaining the almshouse. Both still
+exist, but the school has been deprived of its house, and the
+Fitzwilliam family, who now own the lands, still continue to pay
+only £10 a year.</p>
+
+<p>All Souls College was considerably later. The patent for it,
+dated 20th of May 1438, is for a warden and 20 scholars, to be
+called &ldquo;the Warden and College of the souls of all the faithful
+departed,&rdquo; to study and pray &ldquo;for the soul of King Henry VI.
+and the souls of Henry V., Thomas, duke of Clarence, and all
+the dukes, earls, barons, knights, squires and other nobles and
+subjects of our father who during the time and in the service
+of our father and ourselves ended their lives in the wars of the
+kingdom of France, and for the souls of all the faithful departed.&rdquo;
+For this, the king granted Berford&rsquo;s Hall, formerly Charleston&rsquo;s
+Inn, which Chicheley&rsquo;s trustees had granted to him so as to
+obtain a royal grant and indefeasible title. Richard Andrews,
+the king&rsquo;s secretary, like Chicheley himself a scholar of
+Winchester and fellow of New College, was named as first warden.
+A papal bull for the college was obtained on the 21st of June
+1439; and further patents for endowments from the 11th of
+May 1441 to the 28th of January 1443, when a general confirmation
+charter was obtained, for which £1000 (£30,000 at least of
+our money) was paid. It is commonly represented that the
+endowment was wholly derived from alien priories bought by
+Chicheley from the crown. In truth, not so large a proportion
+of the endowment of All Souls was derived from this source as
+was that of New College. The only alien priories granted were
+Abberbury in Oxfordshire, Wedon Pinkney in Northamptonshire,
+Romney in Kent, and St Clare and Llangenith in Wales,
+all very small affairs, single manors and rectories, and these
+did not form a quarter of the whole endowment. The rest,
+particularly the manor of Edgware, which made the fortune of
+the college, was bought from private owners. Early in 1443 the
+college was opened by Chicheley with four bishops in state.
+The statutes, not drawn up until the end of April 1443, raised
+the number of the college to forty. Like the college buildings,
+they are almost an exact copy of those of New College, <i>mutatis
+mutandis</i>. The college is sometimes described as being different
+from other colleges in being merely a large chantry to pray for
+the souls of the dead warriors. But it was no more a chantry
+than the other colleges, all of which, like the monasteries and
+collegiate churches, were to pray for their founders&rsquo; and other
+specified souls. Indeed, All Souls was more of a lay foundation
+than its model. For while at New College only twenty out of
+seventy fellows were to study law instead of arts, philosophy and
+theology, at All Souls College sixteen were to be &ldquo;jurists&rdquo;
+and only twenty-four &ldquo;artists&rdquo;; and while at New College
+there were ten chaplains and three clerks necessarily, at All
+Souls the number was not defined but left optional; so that
+there are now only one chaplain and four bible clerks.</p>
+
+<p>Ten days after he sealed the statutes, on the 12th of April
+1443, Chicheley died and was buried in Canterbury cathedral
+on the north side of the choir, under a fine effigy of himself
+erected in his lifetime. There is what looks like an excellent
+contemporary portrait in one of the windows of All Souls College,
+which is figured in the <i>Victoria County History</i> for Hampshire,
+ii. 262.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. F. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICHEN-ITZA<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chichen</span>, an ancient ruined city of
+Yucatan, Mexico, situated 22 m. W. of Valladolid. The name
+is derived from that of the Itza, a tribe of the great Mayan
+stock, which formerly inhabited the city, and <i>chichen</i>, having
+reference probably to two wells or pools which doubtless originally
+supplied the inhabitants with water and are still in existence.
+The history of the city is unknown, though it is regarded as probable
+that it preserved its independence long after the Spaniards
+had taken possession of the rest of the district. The area covered
+by the ruins is approximately 1 sq. m., and other remains are
+found in the neighbouring forest. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>: <i>Archaeology</i>.)</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span>,
+<span class="sc">Baron</span> (1563-1625), lord-deputy of Ireland, second son of Sir
+John Chichester of Raleigh, Devonshire, by Gertrude, daughter
+of Sir William Courtenay of Powderham, was born at Raleigh
+in May 1563, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford.
+He commanded a ship against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and
+is said to have served under Drake in his expedition of 1595.
+Having seen further service abroad, he was sent to Ireland at
+the end of 1598, and was appointed by the earl of Essex to the
+governorship of Carrickfergus. When Essex returned to England,
+Chichester rendered valuable service under Mountjoy in the
+war against the rebellious earl of Tyrone, and in 1601 Mountjoy
+recommended him to Cecil in terms of the highest praise as the
+fittest person to be entrusted with the government of Ulster.
+On the 15th of October 1604 Chichester was appointed lord-deputy
+of Ireland. He announced his policy in a proclamation
+wherein he abolished the semi-feudal rights of the native Irish
+chieftains, substituting for them fixed dues, while their tenants
+were to become dependent &ldquo;wholly and immediately upon his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span>
+majesty.&rdquo; Tyrone and other Irish clan chieftains resented this
+summary interference with their ancient social organization,
+and their resistance was strengthened by the ill-advised measures
+against the Roman Catholics which Chichester was compelled
+to take by the orders of the English ministers. He himself was
+moderate and enlightened in his views on this matter, and it
+was through his influence that the harshness of the anti-Catholic
+policy was relaxed in 1607. Meantime his difficulties with the
+Irish tribal leaders remained unsolved. But in 1607, by &ldquo;the
+flight of the Earls&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">O&rsquo;neill</a></span>), he was relieved of the presence
+of the two formidable Ulster chieftains, the earls of Tyrone and
+Tyrconnell. Chichester&rsquo;s policy for dealing with the situation
+thus created was to divide the lands of the fugitive earls among
+Irishmen of standing and character; but the plantation of
+Ulster as actually carried out was much less favourable and
+just to the native population than the lord-deputy desired.
+In 1613 Chichester was raised to the peerage as Baron Chichester
+of Belfast, and in the following year he went to England to give
+an account of the state of Ireland. On his return to Ireland he
+again attempted to moderate the persecuting policy against
+the Irish Catholics which he was instructed to enforce; and
+although he was to some extent successful, it was probably
+owing to his opposition to this policy that he was recalled in
+November 1614. The king, however, told him &ldquo;You may rest
+assured that you do leave that place with our very good grace
+and acceptation of your services&rdquo;; and he was given the post
+of lord-treasurer of Ireland. After living in retirement for some
+years, Chichester was employed abroad in 1622; in the following
+year he became a member of the privy council. He died on the
+19th of February 1625 and was buried at Carrickfergus.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Chichester married Lettice, daughter of Sir John Perrot
+and widow of Walter Vaughan of Golden Grove. He had no
+children, and his title became extinct at his death. The heir
+to his estates was his brother Sir Edward Chichester (d. 1648),
+governor of Carrickfergus, who in 1625 was created Baron
+Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of Carrickfergus.
+This nobleman&rsquo;s eldest son Arthur (1606-1675), who distinguished
+himself as Colonel Chichester in the suppression of the rebellion
+of 1641, was created earl of Donegall in 1647, and was succeeded
+in his titles by his nephew, whose great-grandson, Arthur, 5th
+earl of Donegall, was created Baron Fisherwick in the peerage
+of Great Britain (the other family titles being in the peerage of
+Ireland) in 1790, and earl of Belfast and marquess of Donegall
+in the peerage of Ireland in 1791. The present marquess of
+Donegall is his descendant.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S.R. Gardiner in <i>Dict. Nat. Biog</i>. and <i>History of England,
+1603-1642</i> (London, 1883); Fynes Moryson, <i>History of Ireland,
+1599-1603</i> (Dublin, 1735).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J .M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICHESTER<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>, a city and municipal borough in the Chichester
+parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 69 m. S.S.W. from
+London by the London, Brighton &amp; South Coast railway. Pop.
+(1901) 12,224. It lies in a plain at the foot of a spur of the South
+Downs, a mile from the head of Chichester Harbour, an inlet
+of the English Channel. The cathedral church of the Holy
+Trinity was founded towards the close of the 11th century, after
+the see had been removed to Chichester from Selsey in 1075.
+The first church was consecrated in 1108, but fires in 1114 and
+1187 caused building to continue steadily until the close of the
+13th century. Bishop Ralph Luffa (1091-1123) was the first
+great builder, and was followed by Seffrid II. (1180-1204).
+Norman work appears in the nave (arcade and triforium), choir
+(arcade) and elsewhere; but there is much very beautiful
+Early English work, the choir above the arcade and the eastern
+part being especially fine. The nave is remarkable in having
+double aisles on each side, the outer pair being of the 13th century.
+The church is also unique among English cathedrals in the
+possession of a detached campanile, a massive and beautiful
+Perpendicular structure with the top storey octagonal. The
+principal modern restorations are the upper part of the north-west
+tower, which copies the Early English work of that on the
+south-west; and the fine central tower and spire, which had
+been erected at different periods in the 14th century, but collapsed,
+doing little damage to the fabric, in 1861. Under the
+direction of Sir Gilbert Scott and others they were reconstructed
+with scrupulous care in preserving the original plan. The Lady
+chapel at the east end is in the main early Decorated, but greatly
+restored; the library is a fine late Norman vaulted room; the
+cloisters are Perpendicular and well restored; and the bishop&rsquo;s
+palace retains an Early English chapel. The cathedral is 393 ft.
+long within, 131 ft. across the transepts, and 90 ft. across the
+nave with its double aisles. The height of the spire is 277 ft.</p>
+
+<p>At the junction of the four main streets of the town stands
+the market cross, an exquisite octagonal structure in ornate
+Perpendicular style, built by Bishop Story, c. 1500, perhaps the
+finest of its kind in the United Kingdom. The hospital of St
+Mary was founded in the 12th century, but the existing buildings
+are in a style transitional from Early English to Decorated.
+Its use as an almshouse is maintained. Other ancient buildings
+are the churches of St Olave, in the construction of which Roman
+materials were used; and of St Andrew, where is the tomb of
+the poet William Collins, whose memorial with others by the
+sculptor Flaxman is in the cathedral; the Guildhall, formerly
+a Grey Friars&rsquo; chapel, of the 13th century; the Canon Gate
+leading into the cathedral close; and the Vicars College. The
+city retains a great part of its ancient walls, which have a circuit
+of about a mile and a half, and, at least in part, follow the line
+of Roman fortifications. The principal modern buildings,
+besides churches and chapels, are the council house, corn
+exchange, market house, and museum of the Chichester Literary
+Society. The grammar school was founded in 1497 by Bishop
+Story. There is a large cattle market, and the town has a considerable
+agricultural trade, with breweries and tanneries. A
+canal connects with Chichester Harbour. The diocese includes
+the whole county of Sussex except a few parishes, with very
+small portions of Kent and Surrey. The municipal borough is
+under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area,
+1538 acres.</p>
+
+<p>The Romano-British town on this site was perhaps Regnum
+or Regni. Many inscriptions, pottery, coins, &amp;c., have been
+found, and part of the medieval walls contain a Roman cave.
+An interesting inscription from this site is preserved at Goodwood.
+Situated on one Roman road in direct connexion with London
+and another leading from east to west, Chichester (<i>Cissaceaster</i>,
+<i>Cicestre</i>) remained of considerable importance under the South
+Saxon kings. In 967 King Edgar established a mint here.
+Though Domesday Book speaks of one hundred and forty-two
+burgages in Chichester and a charter of Henry I. mentions the
+borough, the earliest extant charter is that granted by Stephen,
+confirming to the burgesses their customs and rights of the
+borough and gild merchant as they had them in the time of his
+grandfather. This was confirmed by Henry II. Under Henry
+III. the fee farm rent was £38: 10s., but this was reduced by a
+charter of 10 Edward II. to £36, the customs of wool, hides and
+skins being reserved to the king. Edward III. directed that
+the Sussex county court should be held at Chichester, and this
+was confirmed in the following year. Confirmations of the
+previous charters were also granted by Edward III., Richard II.,
+Henry VI., Edward IV., and Henry VII, who gave the mayor
+and citizens cognizance of all kinds of pleas of assize touching
+lands and hereditaments of freehold tenure. A court leet, court
+of record and bailiffs&rsquo; court of liberties still exist. The charters
+were also confirmed by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Philip and
+Mary, and Elizabeth. In 1604 the city was incorporated under
+a mayor and aldermen. Since 1295, when it first returned a
+member, Chichester has been regularly represented in parliament.
+Throughout the middle ages Chichester was a place of great
+commercial importance, Edward III. establishing a wool staple
+here in 1348. Fairs were granted by Henry I. and Henry VII,
+Fuller mentions the Wednesday market as being famous for
+corn, while Camden speaks of that on Saturday as the greatest
+for fish in the county. The markets and a fair on the 20th of
+October are still held.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Sussex</i>; Alexander Hay, <i>History of
+Chichester</i> (Chichester, 1804).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICKAMAUGA CREEK<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span>, a small tributary of the Tennessee
+river, which it joins near Chattanooga, Tennessee, U.S.A. It
+gives its name to the great battle of Chickamauga in the American
+Civil War, fought on the 19-20th of September 1863, between
+the Federal army of the Cumberland under Major-General
+W.S. Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General
+Braxton Bragg. For the general operations of Rosecrans&rsquo; army
+in 1863 see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span>. A successful war of man&oelig;uvre
+had brought the army of the Cumberland from Murfreesboro
+to Decherd, Tenn., and Bragg&rsquo;s army lay on the Tennessee at
+and above Chattanooga. Rosecrans was expected by the enemy
+to man&oelig;uvre so as to gain touch with the Union forces in the
+upper Tennessee valley, but he formed an entirely different plan
+of operations. One part of the army demonstrated in front of
+Chattanooga, and the main body secretly crossed the river about
+Stevenson and Bridgeport (September 4th). The country was
+mountainous, the roads few and poor, and the Federals had to
+take full supplies of food, forage and ammunition with them,
+but Rosecrans was an able commander, his troops were in good
+hands, and he accepted the risks involved. These were intensified
+by the want of good maps, and, in the event, at one moment the
+army was placed in a position of great danger. A corps under A.
+McD. McCook moved south-eastward across the ridges to Alpine,
+another under Thomas marched via Trenton on McLemore&rsquo;s
+Cove. The presence of Federal masses in Lookout Valley caused
+Bragg to abandon Chattanooga at once, and the object of the
+man&oelig;uvre was thus accomplished; but owing to the want of
+good maps the Union army was at the same time exposed to
+great danger. The head of Thomas&rsquo;s column was engaged at
+Dug Gap, on the 11th, against the flank guard of Bragg&rsquo;s army,
+and at the time McCook was far away to the south, and Crittenden&rsquo;s
+corps, which had occupied Chattanooga on the 9th, was
+also at a distance. Thomas was isolated, but Rosecrans, like
+every other commander under whom he served, placed unbounded
+confidence in his tenacity, and if Bragg was wrong in
+neglecting to attack him on the 14th, subsequent events went far
+to disarm criticism. By the 18th of September Rosecrans had
+at last collected his army on Chickamauga Creek covering Chattanooga.
+But Bragg had now received heavy reinforcements,
+and lay, concentrated for battle, on the other side of the Creek.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:700px; height:505px"
+     src="images/img130.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The terrain of the battle of Chickamauga (19th-20th of
+September) had little influence on its course. Both armies lay
+in the plain, the two lines roughly parallel. Bragg&rsquo;s intention
+was to force his attack home on Rosecrans&rsquo; left wing, thus cutting
+him off from Chattanooga and throwing him back into the
+mountain country whence he had come. On the 19th a serious
+action took place between the Confederate right and Rosecrans&rsquo;
+left under Thomas. On the 20th the real battle began. The
+Confederates, in accordance with Bragg&rsquo;s plans, pressed hard
+upon Thomas, to whom Rosecrans sent reinforcements. One
+of the divisions detached from the centre for this purpose was
+by inadvertence taken out of the first line, and before the gap
+could be filled the Confederate central attack, led by Longstreet
+and Hood, the fighting generals of Lee&rsquo;s army, and carried out by
+veteran troops from the Virginian battlefields, cut the Federal
+army in two. McCook&rsquo;s army corps, isolated on the Federal
+right, was speedily routed, and the centre shared its fate.
+Rosecrans himself was swept off the field in the rout of half of his
+army. But Thomas was unshaken. He re-formed the left wing
+in a semicircle, and aided by a few fresh brigades from Rossville,
+resisted for six hours the efforts of the whole Confederate army.
+Rosecrans in the meantime was rallying the fugitives far to the
+rear near Chattanooga itself. The fury of Bragg&rsquo;s assault spent
+itself uselessly on the heroic divisions under Thomas, who
+remained on the field till night and then withdrew in good order
+to Rossville. Here he remained on the 21st, imposing respect
+upon the victors. On the 22nd Rosecrans had re-established
+order, and Thomas fell back quietly to Chattanooga, whither
+Bragg slowly pursued. For the subsequent events of the campaign
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chattanooga</a></span>. The losses in the battle bear witness to a
+severity in the fighting unusual even in the American Civil War.
+Of 70,000 Confederates engaged at least 18,000 were killed and
+wounded, and the Federals lost 16,000 out of about 57,000.
+The battlefield has been converted into a national park, and was
+used during the Spanish American War (1898) as a place of
+mobilization for the U.S. volunteers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICKASAWS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span>, a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean
+stock, now settled in the western part of Oklahoma.
+Their former range was northern Mississippi and portions of
+Tennessee. According to their own tradition and the evidence
+of philology, they are closely connected with the Creeks and
+Choctaws; and they believe that they emigrated with these
+tribes from the west, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the
+district that now forms the north-east part of the state of that
+name. Here they were visited by De Soto in 1540. From the
+first they were hostile to the French colonists. With the English,
+on the other hand, their relations were more satisfactory. In
+1786 they made a treaty with the United States; and in 1793
+they assisted the whites in their operations against the Creeks.
+In the early years of the 19th century part of their territory
+was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion of the tribe
+migrated to Arkansas; and in 1832-1834, the remainder,
+amounting to about 3600, surrendered to the United States the
+6,442,400 acres of which they were still possessed, and entered
+into a treaty with the Choctaws for incorporation with that tribe.
+In 1855, however, they effected a separation of this union, with
+which they had soon grown dissatisfied, and by payment to
+the Choctaws of $150,000 obtained a complete right to their
+present territory. In the Civil War they joined the Confederates
+and suffered in consequence; but their rights were restored by
+the treaty of 1865. In 1866 they surrendered 7,000,000 acres;
+and in 1873 they adopted their former slaves. They had an
+independent government consisting of a governor, a senate,
+and a house of representatives; but tribal government virtually
+ceased in 1906. The Chickasaws of pure or mixed blood numbered
+4826 in 1900, and with the fully admitted &ldquo;citizens,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the
+freed slaves and adopted whites, the whole nation amounted to
+some 10,000.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICKASHA<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Grady county,
+Oklahoma, U.S.A., near the Washita river, about 45 m. S.S.W.
+of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1900) 3209; (1907) 7862, including
+1643 negroes; (1910) 10,320. Chickasha is served by the St Louis
+&amp; San Francisco, the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific and the
+Oklahoma Central railways. It is the trade centre of a very
+fertile section of the Washita Valley, whose principal products
+are Indian corn, cotton, fruits and vegetables and live-stock.
+The city has various manufactures, including flour, cotton-seed
+oil, lumber, furniture and farm implements. Chickasha was
+founded in 1892 and was chartered as a city in 1899.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICKEN-POX<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (Syn. <i>varicella</i>, a Low Latin diminutive of
+<i>variola</i>), a specific contagious disease characterized by an
+eruption of vesicles in the skin. The disease usually occurs in
+epidemics, and is one of childhood, the patients being generally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span>
+between two and six years old. The incubation period is from
+ten to fifteen days; there are practically no prodromal symptoms,
+the only indication being a slight amount of fever for some
+twenty-four hours, after which the eruption makes its appearance.
+A number of raised red papules appear on the trunk, either on
+the back or chest; in from twelve to twenty-four hours these
+develop into tense vesicles filled with a clear fluid, which in
+another thirty-six hours or so becomes opalescent. During the
+fourth day these vesicles dry and shrivel up, and the scabs fall
+off, leaving as a rule no scar. Fresh spots appear during the first
+three days, so that at the end of that time they can be seen
+in all stages of growth and decay. The eruption is most marked
+on the chest, but it also occurs on the face and limbs, and on the
+mucous membrane of the mouth and palate. The temperature
+begins to fall after the appearance of the rash, but a certain slight
+amount may persist after the disappearance of all symptoms.
+It rarely rises above 102 F. The disease runs a very favourable
+course in the majority of cases, and after effects are rare. One
+attack does not confer immunity, and in numerous cases one
+individual has had three attacks. The diet should be light,
+and the patient should be prevented from scratching the spots,
+which would lead to ulceration and scarring. After the first
+few days there is no necessity to confine the patient to bed.
+In the large majority of cases, it is easy to distinguish the disease
+from smallpox, but in certain patients it is very difficult. The
+chief points in the differential diagnosis are as follows. (1) In
+chicken-pox the rash is distributed chiefly on the trunk, and
+less on the limbs. (2) Some of the vesicles are oval, whereas in
+smallpox they are always hemispherical. They are also more
+superficial, and have not at the outset the hard shotty feeling
+of the more virulent disease. (3) The vesicles attain their full
+growth within twelve to twenty-four hours. (4) The pustules
+are usually monocular. (5) There is no prodromal period.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICLANA<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chiclana de la Frontera</span>, a town of southern
+Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Cadiz.
+Pop. (1900) 10,868. Chiclana occupies a fertile valley, watered
+by the river Lirio, and sheltered, on the north and south, by
+low hills covered with vines and plantations. It faces the gulf
+of Cadiz, 3 m. W., and, from its mild climate and pleasant
+surroundings, is the favourite summer residence of the richer
+Cadiz merchants; its hot mineral springs also attract many
+visitors. In the neighbourhood are the Roman ruins of Chiclana
+la Vieja, the town of Medina Sidonia (<i>q.v.</i>), and, about 5 m. S.,
+the battlefield of Barrosa, where the British under Sir Thomas
+Graham (Lord Lynedoch) defeated the French under Marshal
+Victor, on the 5th of March 1811.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICOPEE<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
+situated on the E. side of the Connecticut river, at the mouth
+of the Chicopee river, immediately N. of Springfield. Pop.
+(1890) 14,050; (1900) 19,167, of whom 8139 were foreign-born;
+(1910, census) 25,401. Chicopee is served by the Boston &amp;
+Maine railway. The city, which has an area of about 25
+sq. m., contains five villages. Chicopee Center, Chicopee Falls,
+Willimansett, Fairview and Aldenville. Chicopee Falls lies on
+both sides of the Chicopee river, which falls some 70 ft. in less
+than 3 m. and furnishes valuable power for manufactories. The
+most important products are cotton goods (two large factories
+having, together, about 200,000 spindles), fire-arms (especially
+the Stevens rifles), tools, rubber and elastic goods, sporting
+goods, swords, automobiles and agricultural implements. Here,
+too, is a bronze statuary foundry, in which some of the finest
+monuments, bronze doors, &amp;c., in the country have been cast,
+including the doors of the Capitol at Washington. The bronze
+casting industry here was founded by Nathan Peabody Ames
+(1803-1847), who was first a sword-maker and in 1836 began
+the manufacture of cannon and church bells. The total value
+of the city&rsquo;s factory product in 1905 was $7,715,653, an increase
+of 43.2% in five years. There is a public library. The
+municipality owns and operates the water-works system and the
+electric lighting plant. Chicopee was settled about 1638, was
+set off from Springfield as an independent township in 1848,
+and was chartered as a city in 1890. Chicopee Falls was the
+home of Edward Bellamy. The name of the city is an Indian
+word meaning &ldquo;cedar-tree&rdquo; or &ldquo;birch-bark place.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHICORY<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>. The chicory or succory plant, <i>Cichorium Intybus</i>
+(natural order, Compositae), in its wild state is a native of Great
+Britain, occurring most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by
+road-sides. It has a long fleshy tap-root, a rigid branching hairy
+stem rising to a height of 2 or 3 ft.&mdash;the leaves around the base
+being lobed and toothed, not unlike those of the dandelion.
+The flower heads are of a bright blue colour, few in number, and
+measure nearly an inch and a half across. Chicory is cultivated
+much more extensively on the continent of Europe&mdash;in Holland,
+Belgium, France and Germany&mdash;than in Great Britain; and
+as a cultivated plant it has three distinct applications. Its roots
+roasted and ground are used as a substitute for, adulterant of,
+or addition to coffee; both roots and leaves are employed as
+salads; and the plant is grown as a fodder or herbage crop
+which is greedily consumed by cattle. In Great Britain it is
+chiefly in its first capacity, in connexion with coffee, that chicory
+is employed. A large proportion of the chicory root used for
+this purpose is obtained from Belgium and other neighbouring
+continental countries; but a considerable quantity is cultivated
+in England, chiefly in Yorkshire. For the preparation of chicory
+the older stout white roots are selected, and after washing they
+are sliced up into small pieces and kiln-dried. In this condition
+the material is sold to the chicory roaster, by whom it is roasted
+till it assumes a deep brown colour; afterwards when ground
+it is in external characteristics very like coffee, but is destitute
+of its pleasing aromatic odour. Neither does the roasted chicory
+possess any trace of the alkaloid caffeine which gives their
+peculiar virtues to coffee and tea. The fact, however, that for
+over a hundred years it has been successfully used as a substitute
+for or recognized addition to coffee, while in the meantime
+innumerable other substances have been tried for the same purpose
+and abandoned, indicates that it is agreeable and harmless.
+It gives the coffee additional colour, bitterness and body. It is at
+least in very extensive and general use; and in Belgium especially
+its infusion is largely drunk as an independent beverage.</p>
+
+<p>The blanched leaves are much esteemed by the French as a
+winter salad known by the name of <i>Barbe de capucin</i>. When
+intended for winter use, chicory is sown in May or June, commonly
+in drills, and the plants are thinned out to 4 in. apart. If at
+first the leaves grow very strong, they are cut off, perhaps in
+the middle of August, about an inch from the ground, so as to
+promote the production of new leaves, and check the formation
+of flower-stems. About the beginning of October the plants
+are raised from the border, and all the large leaves cut off; the
+roots are also shortened, and they are then planted pretty closely
+together in boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when
+needful. When frost comes on, the boxes are protected by any
+kind of litter and haulm. As the salad is wanted, they are removed
+into some place having a moderately increased temperature,
+and where there is no light. Each box affords two crops
+of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for cutting when
+about 6 in. long. Another mode of obtaining the young leaves
+of this plant in winter is to sow seeds in a bed of light rich mould,
+or in boxes in a heat of from 55° to 60°, giving a gentle watering
+as required. The leaves will be fit to be cut in a fortnight after
+sowing, and the plants will afford a second crop.</p>
+
+<p>In Belgium a variety of chicory called <i>Witloef</i> is much preferred
+as a salad to the French <i>Barbe de capucin</i>. The seeds
+are sown and the plants thinned out like those of the ordinary
+sort. They are eventually planted in light soil, in succession,
+from the end of October to February, at the bottom of trenches
+a foot or more in depth, and covered over with from 2 to 3 ft.
+of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks, according to
+the heat applied, the heads are fit for use and should be cut
+before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced
+in frames on a mild hot-bed, or in a mushroom-house, in the same
+way as sea-kale. In Belgium the fresh roots are boiled and eaten
+with butter, and throughout the Continent the roots are stored
+for use as salads during winter.</p>
+
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Endive</a></span> (<i>Cichorium endivia</i>).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIDAMBARAM<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chedumbrum</span>, a town of British India,
+in the South Arcot district of Madras, 7 m. from the coast and
+151 m. S. of Madras by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,909. The pagodas
+at Chidambaram are the oldest in the south of India, and portions
+of them are gems of art. Here is supposed to have been the
+northern frontier of the ancient Chola kingdom, the successive
+capitals of which were Uriyur on the Cauvery, Combaconum
+and Tanjore. The principal temple is sacred to Siva, and is
+said to have been rebuilt or enlarged by a leper emperor, who
+came south on a pilgrimage and was cured by bathing in the
+temple tank; upwards of 60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every
+December. It contains a &ldquo;hall of a thousand pillars,&rdquo; one of
+numerous such halls in India, the exact number of pillars in
+this case being 984; each is a block of solid granite, and the
+roof of the principal temple is of copper-gilt. Three hundred
+of the highest-caste Brahmins live with their families within
+the temple enclosure.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIEF<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>chef</i>, head, Lat. <i>caput</i>), the head or upper
+part of anything, and so, in heraldry, the upper part of the
+escutcheon, occupying one-third of the whole. When applied
+to a leading personage, a head man or one having the highest
+authority, the term chief or chieftain (Med. Lat. <i>capitanus</i>,
+O. Fr. <i>chevetaine</i>) is principally confined to the leader of a clan or
+tribe. The phrase &ldquo;in chief&rdquo; (Med. Lat. <i>in capite</i>) is used in
+feudal law of the tenant who holds his fief direct from the lord
+paramount (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIEMSEE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span>, also called <span class="sc">Bayrisches Meer</span>, the largest lake in
+Bavaria, lying on a high plateau 1600 ft. above the sea, between
+the rivers Inn (to which it drains through the Alz) and Salzach.
+With a length of 6 and a breadth of 9 m., it has an area of about
+33 sq. m., and contains three islands, Herrenwörth, Frauenwörth
+and Krautinsel. The first, which has a circumference of 6&frac12; m.
+and is beautifully wooded, is remarkable for the romantic castle
+which Louis II. of Bavaria erected here. It was the seat of a
+bishop from 1215 to 1805, and until 1803 contained a Benedictine
+monastery. The shores of the lake are flat on the north and south
+sides, but its other banks are flanked by undulating hills, which
+command beautiful and extensive views. The waters are clear
+and it is well stocked with trout and carp; but the fishing rights
+are strictly preserved. Steamers ply on the lake, and the railway
+from Rosenheim to Salzburg skirts the southern shores.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIENG MAI<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span>, the capital of the Lao state of the same name
+and of the provincial division of Siam called Bayap, situated in
+99° 0&prime; E., 18° 46&prime; N. The town, enclosed by massive but decaying
+walls, lies on the right bank of the river Me Ping, one of the
+branches of the Me Nam, in a plain 800 ft. above sea-level,
+surrounded by high, wooded mountains. It has streets intersecting
+at right angles, and an enceinte within which is the palace
+of the Chao, or hereditary chief. The east and west banks of the
+river are connected by a fine teak bridge. The American Presbyterian
+Mission, established here in 1867, has a large number of
+converts and has done much good educational work. Chieng
+Mai, which the Burmese have corrupted into Zimmé, by which
+name it is known to many Europeans, has long been an important
+trade centre, resorted to by Chinese merchants from the north
+and east, and by Burmese, Shans and Siamese from the west and
+south. It is, moreover, the centre of the teak trade of Siam, in
+which many Burmese and several Chinese and European firms
+are engaged. The total value of the import and export trade
+of the Bayap division amounts to about £2,500,000 a year. The
+Siamese high commissioner of Bayap division has his headquarters
+in Chieng Mai, and though the hereditary chief continues
+as the nominal ruler, as is also the case in the other Lao states
+of Nan, Prè, Lampun, Napawn Lampang and Tern, which make
+up the division, the government is entirely in the hands of that
+official and his staff. The government forest department,
+founded in 1896, has done good work in the division, and the
+conservator of forests has his headquarters in Chieng Mai.
+The headquarters of an army division are also situated here.
+A British consul resides at Chieng Mai, where, in addition to the
+ordinary law courts, there is an international court having
+jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties.
+The population, about 20,000, consists mainly of Laos, with many
+Shans, a few Burmese, Chinese and Siamese and some fifty
+Europeans. Hill tribes (Ka) inhabit the neighbouring mountains
+in large numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Chieng Mai was formerly the capital of a united Lao kingdom,
+which, at one time independent, afterwards subject to Burma
+and then to Siam, and later broken up into a number of states, has
+finally become a provincial division of Siam. In 1902 a rising
+of discontented Shans took place in Bayap which at one time
+seemed serious, several towns being attacked and Chieng Mai
+itself threatened. The disturbance was quelled and the malcontents
+eventually hunted out, but not without losses which included
+the commissioner of Prè and a European officer of gendarmerie.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIERI<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the
+province of Turin, 13 m. S.E. by rail and 8 m. by road from the
+town of Turin. Pop. (1901) 11,929 (town), 13,803 (commune).
+Its Gothic cathedral, founded in 1037 and reconstructed in 1405,
+is the largest in Piedmont, and has a 13th century octagonal
+baptistery. Chieri was subject to the bishop of Turin in the 9th
+and 10th centuries, it became independent in the 11th century.
+In 1347 it submitted voluntarily to Count Amedeus VI. of Savoy
+to save itself from the marquis of Monferrato, and finally came
+under the dominion of Savoy in the 16th century. In 1785 it
+was made into a principality of the duke of Aosta. It was an
+early centre of trade and manufacture; and in the middle of
+the 15th century produced about 100,000 pieces of cotton
+goods per annum.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Cibrario, <i>Delle storie di Chieri</i> (Turin, 1855).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIETI<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span>, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province
+of Chieti, and the seat of an archbishop, 140 m. E.N.E. of Rome
+by rail, and 9 m. W. of Castellammare Adriatico. Pop. (1901)
+26,368. It is situated at a height of 1083 ft. above sea-level,
+3 m. from the railway station, from which it is reached by an
+electric tramway. It commands a splendid view of the Apennines
+on every side except the east, where the Adriatic is seen. It is
+an active modern town, upon the site of the ancient <i>Teate
+Marrucinorum</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), with woollen and cotton manufactories
+and other smaller industries. The origin of the see of Chieti dates
+from the 4th century, S. Justinus being the first bishop. The
+cathedral has been spoilt by restoration, and the decoration of
+the exterior is incomplete; the Gothic campanile of 1335 is,
+however, fine. The cathedral possesses two illuminated missals.
+Close by is the town hall, which contains a small picture gallery,
+in which, in 1905, was held an important exhibition of ancient
+Abruzzese art. The de Laurentiis family possesses a private
+collection of some importance. To the north of Chieti is the
+octagonal church of S. Maria del Tricaglio, erected in 1317, which
+is said (without reason) to stand upon the site of a temple of
+Diana. The order of the Theatines, founded in 1524, takes its
+name from the city. Under the Lombards Chieti formed part
+of the duchy of Benevento; it was destroyed by Pippin in 801,
+but was soon rebuilt and became the seat of a count. The
+Normans made it the capital of the Abruzzi.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHI-FU<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Chefoo</span>, or <span class="sc">Yen-t&lsquo;ai</span> (as it is called by the natives),
+a seaport of northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf
+of Chih-li, in the province of Shan-tung, near the mouth of the
+Yi-ho, about 30 m. E. of the city of Têng-chow-fu. It was
+formerly quite a small place, and had only the rank of an unwalled
+village; but it was chosen as the port of Têng-chow, opened
+to foreign trade in 1858 by the treaty of Tientsin, and it is now
+the residence of a Tao-t&lsquo;ai, or intendant of circuit, the centre of
+a gradually increasing commerce, and the seat of a British
+consulate, a Chinese custom-house, and a considerable foreign
+settlement. The native town is yearly extending, and though
+most of the inhabitants are small shop-keepers and coolies of the
+lowest class, the houses are for the most part well and solidly
+built of stone. The foreign settlement occupies a position
+between the native town and the sea, which neither affords a
+convenient access for shipping nor allows space for any great
+extension of area. Its growth, however, has hitherto been
+steady and rapid. Various streets have been laid out, a large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span>
+hotel erected for the reception of the visitors who resort to the
+place as a sanatorium in summer, and the religious wants of the
+community are supplied by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant
+church. Though the harbour is deep and extensive, and possessed
+of excellent anchorage, large vessels have to be moored at a
+considerable distance from the shore. Chi-fu has continued to
+show fair progress as a place of trade, but the total volume is
+inconsiderable, having regard to the area it supplies. In 1880
+the total exports and imports were valued at £2,724,000, in
+1899 they amounted to £4,228,000, and in 1904 to £4,909,908.
+In 1895 there entered the port 905 vessels representing a tonnage
+of 835,248 tons, while in 1905 the number of vessels had risen to
+1842, representing a tonnage of 1,492,514 tons. The imports
+are mainly woollen and cotton goods, iron and opium, and the
+exports include bean cake, bean oil, peas, raw silk, straw-braid,
+walnuts, a coarse kind of vermicelli, vegetables and dried fruits.
+Communication with the interior is only by roads, which are
+extremely defective, and nearly all the traffic is by pack animals.
+From its healthy situation and the convenience of its anchorage,
+Chi-fu has become a favourite rendezvous for the fleets of the
+European powers in Chinese waters, and consequently it has
+at times been an important coaling station. It lies in close
+proximity to Korea, Port Arthur and Wei-hai-Wei, and it
+shared to some extent in the excitement to which the military
+and naval operations in these quarters gave rise. The Chi-fu
+convention was signed here in 1876 by Sir Thomas Wade and
+Li-Hung-Chang.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIGI-ALBANI<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span>, the name of a Roman princely family of
+Sienese extraction descended from the counts of Ardenghesca.
+The earliest authentic mention of them is in the 13th century,
+and they first became famous in the person of Agostino Chigi
+(d. 1520), an immensely rich banker who built the palace and
+gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by
+Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments;
+Pope Julius II. made him practically his finance minister and
+gave him the privilege of quartering his own (Della Rovere)
+arms with those of the Chigi. Fabio Chigi, on being made pope
+(Alexander VII.) in 1655, conferred the Roman patriciate on his
+family, and created his nephew Agostino prince of Farnese and
+duke of Ariccia, and the emperor Leopold I. created the latter
+<i>Reichsfürst</i> (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in 1659. In
+1712 the family received the dignity of hereditary marshals of
+the Church and guardians of the conclaves, which gave them a
+very great importance on the death of every pope. On the
+marriage in 1735 of another Agostino Chigi (1710-1769) with
+Giulia Albani, heiress of the Albani, a Venetian patrician family,
+said to be of Albanian origin, her name was added to that of Chigi.
+The family owns large estates at Siena.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i>, vol. iii. (Berlin,
+1868); <i>Almanach de Gotha</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIGWELL<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span>, a parish and residential district in the Epping
+parliamentary division of Essex, England; with stations
+(Chigwell Lane and Chigwell) on two branches of the Great
+Eastern railway, 12 m. N.E. from London. Pop. (1901) 2508.
+The old village church of St Mary, principally Perpendicular,
+has a Norman south door. The village lies in a branch of the
+Roding valley, fragments of Hainault Forest lying to the south
+and east, bordering the village of Chigwell Row. The village of
+Chigwell appears in the Domesday survey. The pleasant scenery
+of the neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers both of
+visitors and of residents from London, is described in Dickens&rsquo;s
+novel, <i>Barnaby Rudge</i>, and the King&rsquo;s Head Inn, Dickens&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Maypole,&rdquo; still stands. The old grammar school, founded by
+Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (d. 1631), whose fine
+memorial brass is in St Mary&rsquo;s church, has become one of the
+minor modern institutions of the English public school type.
+William Penn attended school at Chigwell from his home at Wanstead.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIH-LI<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (&ldquo;Direct Rule&rdquo;), the metropolitan province of
+China, in which is situated Peking, the capital of the empire.
+It contains eleven prefectural cities, and occupies an area of
+58,950 sq. m. The population is 29,400,000, the vast majority
+of whom are resident in the plain country. This province forms
+part of the great delta plain of China proper, 20,000 sq. m. of
+which are within the provincial boundaries; the remainder of
+the territory consists of the mountain ranges which define its
+northern and western frontier. The plain of Chih-li is formed
+principally by detritus deposited by the Pei-ho and its tributary
+the Hun-ho (&ldquo;muddy river&rdquo;), otherwise known as the Yung-ting-ko,
+and other streams having their sources in mountains of
+Shan-si and other ranges. It is bounded E. by the Gulf of
+Chih-li and Shan-tung, and S. by Shan-tung and Ho-nan. The
+proportion of Mahommedans among the population is very
+large. In Peking there are said to be as many as 20,000 Mahommedan
+families, and in Pao-ting Fu, the capital of the province,
+there are about 1000 followers of the prophet. The extremes of
+heat and cold in Chih-li are very marked. During the months of
+December, January and February the rivers are frozen up, and
+even the Gulf of Chih-li is fringed with a broad border of ice.
+There are four rivers of some importance in the province: the
+Pei-ho, with the Hun-ho, which rises in the mountains in Mongolia
+and, flowing to the west of Peking, forms a junction with the
+Pei-ho at Tientsin; the Shang-si-ho, which rises in the mountains
+on the north of the province of Shan-si, and takes a south-easterly
+course as far as the neighbourhood of Ki Chow, from which point
+it trends north-east and eventually joines the Hun-ho some 15 m.
+above Tientsin; the Pu-to-ho, which rises in Shan-si, and after
+running a parallel course to Shang-si-ho on the south, empties
+itself in the same way into the Hun-ho; and the Lan-ho, which
+rises in Mongolia, enters the province on the north-east after
+passing to the west of Jehol, passes the city of Yung-p&lsquo;ing Fu
+in its course (which is south-easterly) through Chih-li, and from
+thence winds its way to the north-eastern boundary of the Gulf
+of Chih-li. The province contains three lakes of considerable
+size. The largest is the Ta-lu-tsze Hu, which lies in 37° 40&prime; N.
+and 115° 20&prime; E.; the second in importance is one which is
+situated to the east of Pao-ting Fu; and the third is the Tu-lu-tsze
+Hu, which lies east by north of Shun-te Fu. Four high
+roads radiate from Peking, one leading to Urga by way of
+Süan-hwa Fu, which passes through the Great Wall at Chang-kiu
+K&lsquo;ow; another, which enters Mongolia through the Ku-pei K&lsquo;ow
+to the north-east, and after continuing that course as far as
+Fung-ning turns in a north-westerly direction to Dolonnor; a
+third striking due east by way of T&lsquo;ung-chow and Yung-p&lsquo;ing Fu
+to Shan-hai Kwan, the point where the Great Wall terminates
+on the coast; and a fourth which trends in a south-westerly
+direction to Pao-ting Fu and on to T&lsquo;ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si.
+The mountain ranges to the north of the province abound with
+coal, notably at Chai-tang, T&lsquo;ai-gan-shan, Miao-gan-ling, and
+Fu-tao in the Si-shan or Western Hills. &ldquo;At Chai-tang,&rdquo; wrote
+Baron von Richthofen, &ldquo;I was surprised to walk over a regular
+succession of coal-bearing strata, the thickness of which, estimating
+it step by step as I proceeded gradually from the lowest to
+the highest strata, exceeds 7000 ft.&rdquo; The coal here is anthracite,
+as is also that at T&lsquo;ai-gan-shan, where are found beds of greater
+value than any in the neighbourhood of Peking. In Süan-hwa
+Fu coal is also found, but not in such quantities as in the places
+above named. Iron and silver also exist in small quantities in
+different parts of the province, and hot and warm springs are
+very common at the foot of the hills along the northern and
+western edges of the province. The principal agricultural products
+are wheat, kao-liang, oats, millet, maize, pulse and
+potatoes. Fruits and vegetables are also grown in large
+quantities. Of the former the chief kinds are pears, apples,
+plums, apricots, peaches, persimmons and melons. Tientsin is
+the Treaty Port of the province.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIHUAHUA<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span>, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded
+N. and N.E. by the United States (New Mexico and Texas),
+E. by Coahuila, S. by Durango, and W. by Sinaloa and Sonora.
+Pop. (1895) 260,008; (1900) 327,784. Area, 87,802 sq. m.
+The surface of the state is in great part an elevated plateau,
+sloping gently toward the Rio Grande. The western side, however,
+is much broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which
+form elevated valleys of great fertility. An arid sandy plain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span>
+extending from the Rio Grande inland for 300 to 350 m. is quite
+destitute of vegetation where irrigation is not used. There is
+little rainfall in this region and the climate is hot and dry. The
+more elevated plateaus and valleys have the heavier rainfall,
+but the average for the state is barely 39 in.; an impermeable
+clay substratum prevents its absorption by the soil, and the
+bare surface carries it off in torrents. The great Bolsón de
+Mapimí depression, in the S.E. part of the state, was once
+considered to be an unreclaimable desert, but experiments with
+irrigation have shown its soil to be highly fertile, and the conversion
+of the narrow valleys of the sierras on the west into
+irrigation reservoirs promises to reclaim a considerable part of
+its area. The only river of consequence is the Conchos, which
+flows north and north-east into the Rio Grande across the whole
+length of the state. In the north there are several small streams
+flowing northward into lakes. Agriculture has made little
+progress in Chihuahua, and the scarcity of water will always
+be a serious obstacle to its development outside the districts
+where irrigation is practicable. The climate and soil are favourable
+to the production of wheat, Indian corn, beans, indigo,
+cotton and grapes, from which wine and brandy are made.
+The principal grape-producing district is in the vicinity of
+Ciudad Juárez. Stock-raising is an important industry in the
+mountainous districts of the west, where there is excellent
+pasturage for the greater part of the year. The principal industry
+of the state, however, is mining&mdash;its mineral resources
+including gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead and coal. The
+silver mines of Chihuahua are among the richest in Mexico, and
+include the famous mining districts of Batopilas, Chihuahuilla,
+Cosihuiriachic, Jesús María, Parral, and Santa Eulalia or
+Chihuahua el Viejo. There are more than one hundred of these
+mines, and the total annual yield at the end of the 19th century
+was estimated at $4,500,000. The state is traversed from
+north to south by the Mexican Central railway, and there are
+short branches to some of the mining districts.</p>
+
+<p>Chihuahua originally formed part of the province of Nueva
+Viscaya, with Durango as the capital. In 1777 the northern
+provinces, known as the Provincias Internas, were separated
+from the viceroyalty, and in 1786 the provinces were reorganized
+as intendencias, but Chihuahua was not separated from Durango
+until 1823. An effort was made to overthrow Spanish authority
+in 1810, but its leader Hidalgo and two of his lieutenants were
+captured and executed, after which the province remained
+passive until the end of the struggle. The people of the state
+have been active partizans in most of the revolutionary outbreaks
+in Mexico, and in the war of 1862-66 Chihuahua was loyal to
+Juárez. The principal towns are the capital Chihuahua, El
+Parral, 120 m. S.S.E. of the state capital, in a rich mining district
+(pop. 14,748 in 1900), Ciudad Juárez and Jimenez, 120 m. S.E.
+of Chihuahua (pop. 5881 in 1900).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIHUAHUA<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>, a city of Mexico, capital of the above state,
+on the Chihuahua river, about 1000 m. N.W. of Mexico City
+and 225 m. S. by E. of El Paso. Pop. (1895) 18,279; (1900)
+30,405. The city stands in a beautiful valley opening northward
+and hemmed in on all other sides by spurs of the Sierra Madre.
+It is 4635 ft. above sea-level, and its climate is mild and healthy.
+The city is laid out regularly, with broad streets, and a handsome
+plaza with a monument to Hidalgo and his companions of the
+revolution of 1810, who were executed here. The most noteworthy
+of its public buildings is the fine old parish church of
+San Francisco, begun in 1717 and completed in 1789, one of the
+best specimens of 18th-century architecture in Mexico. It was
+built, it is said, with the proceeds of a small tax on the output of
+the Santa Eulalia mine. Other prominent buildings are the
+government palace, the Porfirio Diaz hospital, the old Jesuit
+College (now occupied by a modern institution of the same
+character), the mint, and an aqueduct built in the 18th century.
+Chihuahua is a station on the Mexican Central railway, and has
+tramways and telephones. Mining is the principal occupation
+of the surrounding district, the famous Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua
+el Viejo mines being about 12 m. from the city. Next in importance
+is agriculture, especially fruit-growing. Manufacturing
+is making good progress, especially the weaving of cotton fabrics
+by modern methods. The manufacture of cotton and woollen
+goods are old industries in Chihuahua, but the introduction of
+American skill and capital toward the end of the 19th century
+placed them on an entirely new footing. The manufacture
+of gunpowder for mining operations is another old industry.</p>
+
+<p>Chihuahua was founded between 1703 and 1705 as a mining
+town, and was made a villa in 1715 with the title San Felipe el
+Real de Chihuahua. Because of the rich mines in its vicinity
+it soon became one of the most prosperous towns in northern
+Mexico, although the state was constantly raided by hostile
+Indians. In 1763 it had a population of nearly 5000. The war
+of independence was followed by a period of decline, owing to
+political disorder and revolution, which lasted until the presidency
+of General Porfirio Diaz. In the war between Mexico and the
+United States, Chihuahua was captured on the 1st of March
+1847, by Colonel A.W. Doniphan, and again on the 7th of March
+by General Price. In 1864 President Juárez made the city his
+provisional capital for a short time.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILAS<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span>, a hill village in the North-West Frontier Province
+of India. It is dominated by a fort on the left bank of the
+Indus, about 50 m. below Bunji, 4100 ft. above sea-level. It
+was occupied by a British force early in 1893, when a determined
+attack was made on the place by the Kohistanis from the Indus
+valley districts to the south-west, aided by contingents from
+Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus. Its
+importance consists in its position with reference to the Kashmir-Gilgit
+route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected with
+Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its
+command of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit
+from the Punjab frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil
+pass. By the Kashmir route Gilgit is 400 m. from the rail-head
+at Rawalpindi. The Kagan route would bring it 100 m. nearer,
+but the unsettled condition of the country through which the
+road passes has been a bar to its general use.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILBLAINS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Kibe</span>; <i>Erythema pernio</i>), a mild form of
+frostbite, affecting the fingers or toes and other parts, and causing
+a painful inflammatory swelling, with redness and itching of
+the affected part. The chief points to be noticed in its aetiology
+are (1) that the lesions occur in the extremities of the circulation,
+and (2) that they are usually started by rapid changes from
+heat to cold or vice versa. The treatment is both general and
+local. In the general treatment, if a history of blanching fingers
+(fingers or hands going &ldquo;dead&rdquo;) can be obtained, the chilblains
+may be regarded as mild cases of Raynaud&rsquo;s disease, and these
+improve markedly under a course of nitrites. Cardiac tonics are
+often helpful, especially in those cases where there is some
+attendant lesion of the heart. But the majority of cases improve
+wonderfully on a good course of a calcium salt, <i>e.g.</i> calcium
+lactate or chloride; fifteen grains three times a day will answer
+in most cases. The patient should wash in soft tepid water, and
+avoid extremes of heat and cold. In the local treatment, two
+drugs are of great value in the early congestive stage&mdash;ichthyol
+and formalin. Ichthyol, 10 to 20% in lanoline spread on linen
+and worn at night, often dispels an attack at the beginning.
+Formalin is equally efficacious, but requires more skill in its use.
+It can be used as an ointment, 10 to 50% for delicate skins, stronger
+for coarser skins. It should be replaced occasionally by lanoline.
+If the stage of ulceration has been reached, a paste made from
+the following prescription, spread thickly on linen and frequently
+changed, soon cures:&mdash;Hydrarg. ammoniat. gr. v., ichthyol
+&#625;x, pulveris zinci oxidi &#658;iv, vaseline &#8485;ss.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILD, SIR FRANCIS<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1642-1713), English banker, was a
+Wiltshire man, who, having been apprenticed to a goldsmith,
+became himself a London goldsmith in 1664. In 1671 he married
+Elizabeth (d. 1720), daughter of another goldsmith named
+William Wheeler (d. 1663), and with his wife&rsquo;s stepfather,
+Robert Blanchard (d. 1681), took over about the same time the
+business of goldsmiths hitherto carried on by the Wheelers.
+This was the beginning of Child&rsquo;s Bank. Child soon gave up
+the business of a goldsmith and confined himself to that of a
+banker. He inherited some wealth and was very successful in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span>
+business; he was jeweller to the king, and lent considerable
+sums of money to the government. Being a freeman of the city
+of London, Child was elected a member of the court of common
+council in 1681; in 1689 he became an alderman, and in the
+same year a knight. He served as sheriff of London in 1691
+and as lord mayor in 1699. His parliamentary career began
+about this time. In 1698 he was chosen member of parliament
+for Devizes and in 1702 for the city of London, and was again
+returned for Devizes in 1705 and 1710. He died on the 4th of
+October 1713, and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Sir
+Francis, who was a benefactor to Christ&rsquo;s hospital, bought
+Osterley Park, near Isleworth, now the residence of his
+descendant the earl of Jersey.</p>
+
+<p>Child had twelve sons. One, Sir Robert, an alderman, died
+in 1721. Another, Sir Francis (c. 1684-1740), was lord mayor
+of London in 1732, and a director of the East India Company.
+He was chosen member of parliament for the city of London in
+1722, and was member for Middlesex from 1727 until his death.
+After the death of the younger Sir Francis at Fulham on the
+20th of April 1740 the banking business passed to his brother
+Samuel, and the bank is still owned by his descendants, the
+principal proprietor being the earl of Jersey. Child&rsquo;s Bank was
+at first conducted at the Marygold, next Temple Bar in Fleet
+Street, London; and the present bank occupies the site formerly
+covered by the Marygold and the adjacent Devil tavern.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1825-1896), American scholar and
+educationist, was born in Boston on the 1st of February 1825.
+He graduated at Harvard in 1846, taking the highest rank in his
+class in all subjects; was tutor in mathematics in 1846-1848;
+and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in history, political
+economy and English. After two years of study in Europe, in
+1851 he succeeded Edward T. Channing as Boylston professor
+of rhetoric, oratory and elocution. Child studied the English
+drama (having edited <i>Four Old Plays</i> in 1848) and Germanic
+philology, the latter at Berlin and Göttingen during a leave of
+absence, 1849-1853; and he took general editorial supervision
+of a large collection of the British poets, published in Boston in
+1853 and following years. He edited Spenser (5 vols., Boston,
+1855), and at one time planned an edition of Chaucer, but contented
+himself with a treatise, in the <i>Memoirs of the American
+Academy of Arts and Sciences</i> for 1863, entitled &ldquo;Observations
+on the Language of Chaucer&rsquo;s Canterbury Tales,&rdquo; which did
+much to establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation and
+scansion as now generally understood. His largest undertaking,
+however, grew out of an original collection, in his British Poets
+series, of <i>English and Scottish Ballads</i>, selected and edited by
+himself, in eight small volumes (Boston, 1857-1858). Thenceforward
+the leisure of his life&mdash;much increased by his transfer,
+in 1876, to the new professorship of English&mdash;was devoted to
+the comparative study of British vernacular ballads. He accumulated,
+in the university library, one of the largest folklore
+collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than printed
+sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all
+other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative
+hearing to popular versions still surviving. At last his final
+collection was published as <i>The English and Scottish Popular
+Ballads</i>, at first in ten parts (1882-1898), and then in five
+quarto volumes, which remain the authoritative treasury of their
+subject. Professor Child worked&mdash;and overworked&mdash;to the last,
+dying in Boston on the 11th of September 1896, having completed
+his task save for a general introduction and bibliography.
+A sympathetic biographical sketch was prefixed to the work by
+his pupil and successor George L. Kittredge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILD, SIR JOHN<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (d. 1690), governor of Bombay, and in fact
+if not in name the first governor-general of the British settlements
+in India, was born in London. He was sent as a little boy to his
+uncle, the chief of the factory at Rajapur; and in 1682 was
+appointed chief of the East India Company&rsquo;s affairs at Surat
+and Bombay, while at the same time his brother, Sir Josiah
+Child (<i>q.v.</i>), was governor of the company at home. The two
+brothers showed themselves strong men and guided the affairs
+of the company through the period of struggle between the
+Moguls and Mahrattas. They have been credited by history
+with the change from unarmed to armed trade on the part of the
+company; but as a matter of fact both of them were loth to
+quarrel with the Mogul. War broke out with Aurangzeb in 1689,
+but in the following year Child had to sue for peace, one of the
+conditions being that he should be expelled from India. He
+escaped this expulsion by his death in 1690.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILD, SIR JOSIAH<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1630-1699), English merchant,
+economist and governor of the East India Company, was born in
+London in 1630, the second son of Richard Child, a London
+merchant of old family. After serving his apprenticeship in
+the business, to which he succeeded, he started on his own account
+at Portsmouth, as victualler to the navy under the Commonwealth,
+when about twenty-five. He amassed a comfortable
+fortune, and became a considerable stock-holder in the East India
+Company, his interest in India being accentuated by the fact
+that his brother John (<i>q.v.</i>) was making his career there. He
+was returned to parliament in 1659 for Petersfield; and in later
+years sat for Dartmouth (1673-1678) and for Ludlow (1685-1687).
+He was made a baronet in 1678. His advocacy, both by
+speech and by pen, under the pseudonym of Philopatris, of the
+East India Company&rsquo;s claims to political power, as well as to
+the right of restricting competition with its trade, brought him
+to the notice of the shareholders, and he became a director in
+1677, and, subsequently, deputy-governor and governor. In
+this latter capacity he was for a considerable time virtually the
+sole ruler of the company, and directed its policy as if it were his
+own private business. He and his brother have been credited
+with the change from unarmed to armed traffic; but the actual
+renunciation of the Roe doctrine of unarmed traffic by the
+company was resolved upon in January 1686, under Governor
+Sir Joseph Ash, when Child was temporarily out of office. He
+died on the 22nd of June 1699. Child made several important
+contributions to the literature of economics; especially <i>Brief
+Observations concerning Trade and the Interest of Money</i> (1668),
+and <i>A New Discourse of Trade</i> (1668 and 1690). He was a
+moderate in those days of the &ldquo;mercantile system,&rdquo; and has
+sometimes been regarded as a sort of pioneer in the development
+of the free-trade doctrines of the 18th century. He made various
+proposals for improving British trade by following Dutch example,
+and advocated a low rate of interest as the &ldquo;<i>causa causans</i>
+of all the other causes of the riches of the Dutch people.&rdquo; This
+low rate of interest he thought should be created and maintained
+by public authority. Child, whilst adhering to the doctrine of
+the balance of trade, observed that a people cannot always sell
+to foreigners without ever buying from them, and denied that
+the export of the precious metals was necessarily detrimental.
+He had the mercantilist partiality for a numerous population,
+and became prominent with a new scheme for the relief and
+employment of the poor; it is noteworthy also that he advocated
+the reservation by the mother country of the sole right of trade
+with her colonies. Sir Josiah Child&rsquo;s eldest son, Richard, was
+created Viscount Castlemain in 1718 and earl of Tylney in 1731.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Macaulay, <i>History of England</i>, vol. iv.;
+R. Grant, <i>Sketch of the History of the East India Company</i> (1813);
+D. Macpherson, <i>Annals of Commerce</i> (1805);
+B. Willson, <i>Ledger and Sword</i> (1903).</p>
+<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILD, LYDIA MARIA<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1802-1880), American author, was
+born at Medford, Massachusetts, on the 11th of February 1802.
+She was educated at an academy in her native town and by her
+brother Convers Francis (1795-1863), a Unitarian minister and
+from 1842 to 1863 Parkman professor in the Harvard Divinity School.
+Her first stories, <i>Hobomok</i> (1824) and <i>The Rebels</i> (1825),
+were popular successes. She was a schoolmistress until 1828,
+when she married David Lee Child (1794-1874), a brilliant but
+erratic Boston lawyer and journalist. From 1826 to 1834 she
+edited <i>The Juvenile Miscellany</i>, the first children&rsquo;s monthly
+periodical in the United States. About 1831 both she and her
+husband began to identify themselves with the anti-slavery
+cause, and in 1833 she published <i>An Appeal for that Class of
+Americans called Africans</i>, a stirring portrayal of the evils of
+slavery, and an argument for immediate abolition, which had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span>
+a powerful influence in winning recruits to the anti-slavery cause.
+Henceforth her time was largely devoted to the anti-slavery
+cause. From 1840 to 1844, assisted by her husband, she edited
+the <i>Anti-Slavery Standard</i> in New York City. After the Civil War she
+wrote much in behalf of the freedmen and of Indian rights.
+She died at Wayland, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October
+1880. In addition to the books above mentioned, she wrote many
+pamphlets and short stories and <i>The (American) Frugal Housewife</i>
+(1829), one of the earliest American books on domestic
+economy, <i>The Mother&rsquo;s Book</i> (1831), a pioneer cook-book
+republished in England and Germany, <i>The Girls&rsquo; Own Book</i>
+(1831), <i>History of Women</i> (2 vols., 1832), <i>Good Wives</i> (1833),
+<i>The Anti-Slavery Catechism</i> (1836), <i>Philothea</i> (1836), a
+romance of the age of Pericles, perhaps her best book, <i>Letters from New
+York</i> (2 vols., 1843-1845), <i>Fact and Fiction</i> (1847), <i>The Power
+of Kindness</i> (1851), <i>Isaac T. Hopper: a True Life</i> (1853), <i>The
+Progress of Religious Ideas through Successive Ages</i> (3 vols., 1855),
+<i>Autumnal Leaves</i> (1857), <i>Looking Toward Sunset</i> (1864), <i>The
+Freedman&rsquo;s Book</i> (1865), <i>A Romance of the Republic</i> (1867),
+and <i>Aspirations of the World</i> (1878).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Letters of Lydia Maria Child, with a Biographical Introduction
+by J.G. Whittier</i> (Boston, 1883); and a chapter in T.W.
+Higginson&rsquo;s <i>Contemporaries</i> (Boston, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILD<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span>, the common term for the offspring of human beings,
+generally below the age of puberty; the term is the correlative
+of &ldquo;parent,&rdquo; and applies to either sex, though some early dialectical
+uses point to a certain restriction to a girl. The word is
+derived from the A.S. <i>cild</i>, an old Teutonic word found in English
+only, in other Teutonic languages <i>kind</i> and its variants being used,
+usually derived from the Indo-European root <i>ken</i>, seen in Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="genos">&#947;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, Lat. <i>genus</i>, and Eng. &ldquo;kin&rdquo;; <i>cild</i> has been
+held to be a modification of the same root, but the true root is
+<i>kilth</i>, seen in Goth. <i>kilthei</i>, womb, an origin which appears
+in the expressions &ldquo;child-birth,&rdquo; &ldquo;to be with child,&rdquo; and the like; the
+plural in A.S. was <i>cild</i>, and later <i>cildru</i>, which in northern
+M.E. became <i>childre or childer</i>, a form dialectically extant, and in
+southern English <i>childeren</i> or <i>children</i> (with the plural
+termination -en, as in &ldquo;brethren&rdquo;). There are several particular uses of
+&ldquo;child&rdquo; in the English version of the Bible, as of a young man in the
+&ldquo;Song of the three holy children,&rdquo; of descendants or members
+of a race, as in &ldquo;children of Abraham,&rdquo; and also to express
+origin, giving a description of character, as &ldquo;children of darkness.&rdquo;
+During the 13th and 14th centuries &ldquo;child&rdquo; was used,
+in a sense almost amounting to a title of dignity, of a young man
+of noble birth, probably preparing for knighthood. In the
+<i>York Mysteries</i> of about 1440 (quoted in the <i>New English
+Dictionary</i>) occurs &ldquo;be he churl or child,&rdquo; obviously referring
+to gentle birth, cf. William Bellenden&rsquo;s translation (1553) of
+Livy (ii. 124) &ldquo;than was in Rome ane nobill childe ... namit
+Caius Mucius.&rdquo; The spelling &ldquo;childe&rdquo; is frequent in modern
+usage to indicate its archaic meaning. Familiar instances are
+in the line of an old ballad quoted in <i>King Lear</i>, &ldquo;childe Roland
+to the dark tower came,&rdquo; and in Byron&rsquo;s <i>Childe Harold</i>. With
+this use may be compared the Spanish and Portuguese <i>Infante</i>
+and <i>Infanta</i>, and the early French use of <i>Valet</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Child-study.</i>&mdash;The physical, psychological and educational
+development of children, from birth till adulthood, has provided
+material in recent years for what has come to be regarded as
+almost a distinct part of comparative anthropological or sociological
+science, and the literature of adolescence (<i>q.v.</i>) and of
+&ldquo;child-study&rdquo; in its various
+aspects has attained considerable
+proportions. In England
+the British Child Study
+Association was founded in
+1894, its official organ being
+the <i>Paidologist</i>, while similar
+work is done by the Childhood
+Society, and, to a certain
+extent, by the Parents&rsquo;
+National Educational Union
+(which issues the <i>Parents&rsquo; Review</i>).
+In America, where specially valuable work has
+been done, several universities have encouraged the study
+(notably Chicago, while under the auspices of Professor John
+Dewey); and Professor G. Stanley Hall&rsquo;s initiative has
+led to elaborate inquiries, the principal periodical for the
+movement being the <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>. The impetus to this
+study of the child&rsquo;s mind and capacities was given by the classic
+work of educationists like J.A. Comenius, J.H. Pestalozzi, and
+F.W.A. Froebel, but more recent writers have carried it
+much further, notably W.T. Preyer (<i>The Mind of the Child</i>, 1881),
+whose psychological studies stamp him as one of the chief
+pioneers in new methods of investigation. Other authorities of
+first-rate importance (their chief works only being given here) are
+J. Sully (<i>Studies of Childhood</i>, 1896), Earl Barnes (<i>Studies in
+Education</i>, 1896, 1902), J.M. Baldwin (<i>Mental Development in the
+Child and the Race</i>, 1895), Sigismund (<i>Kind und Welt</i>, 1897),
+A.F. Chamberlain (<i>The Child</i>, 1900), G. Stanley Hall
+(<i>Adolescence</i>, 1904; he had from 1882 been the leader in America of
+such investigations), H. Holman and R. Langdon Down (<i>Practical Child
+Study</i>, 1899), E.A. Kirkpatrick (<i>Fundamentals of Child-study</i>,
+1903), and Prof. Tracy of Toronto (<i>Psychology of Childhood</i>,
+5th ed., 1901); while among a number of contributions worth
+particular attention may be mentioned W.B. Drummond&rsquo;s excellent
+summary, <i>Introduction to Child Study</i> (1907), which deals
+succinctly with methods and results; Irving King&rsquo;s <i>Psychology
+of Child Development</i> (1906, useful for its bibliography); Prof.
+David R. Major&rsquo;s <i>First Steps in Mental Growth</i> (1906); and
+Miss M. Shinn&rsquo;s <i>Notes an the Development of a Child</i> (1893) and
+Mrs Louise E. Hogan&rsquo;s <i>Study of a Child</i> (1898), which are
+noteworthy among individual and methodical accounts of what
+children will do. In such books as those cited a great deal of
+important material has been collected and analysed, and a
+number of conclusions suggested which bear both on psychology
+and the science of education; but it must be borne in mind,
+as regards a great deal of the voluminous literature of the subject,
+that it is often more pertinent to general psychology and
+hygiene than to any special conclusions as to the essential nature
+of a child&mdash;whatever &ldquo;<i>a</i> child&rdquo; generically may be as the special
+object of a special science. The child, after all, is in a transition
+stage to an adult, and there is often a tendency in modern &ldquo;child
+students&rdquo; to interpret the phenomena exhibited by a particular
+child with a <i>parti pris</i>, or to exaggerate child-study&mdash;which is
+really interesting as providing the knowledge of growth towards
+full human equipment&mdash;as though it involved the discovery of
+some distinct form of animal, of separate value on its own account.</p>
+
+<p><i>Growth.</i>&mdash;Into the psychical characteristics and development
+of the child and all the interesting educational problems involved
+it is impossible to enter here, and reference must be made to the
+works cited above. But a knowledge of the more important
+features of normal physical development has a constant importance.
+Some of these, as matters of comparative physiology or
+pathology, are dealt with in other articles in this work. One of
+these chief matters of interest is weight and height, and this is
+naturally affected by race, nutrition and environment. But
+while the standard in different countries somewhat differs, the
+British average for healthy children may here be followed.
+At birth the average weight of a baby is a little over 7 &#8468; and the
+length about 20 in. The following are the averages for weight
+and height, taking the age in years of the child at the last
+birthday:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="data">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc ptb1" colspan="16"><i>Height, in inches.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Age.</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">1</td>  <td class="tcc allb">2</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">3</td>  <td class="tcc allb">4</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">5</td>  <td class="tcc allb">6</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">7</td>  <td class="tcc allb">8</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">9</td>  <td class="tcc allb">10</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">11</td>  <td class="tcc allb">12</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">13</td>  <td class="tcc allb">14</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">15</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Girls</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">28.7</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">32.5</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">35</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">38</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">40.5</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">42.8</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">44.5</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">46.6</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">48.7</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">51</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">53.1</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">55.6</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">57.7</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">59.8</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">60.9</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Boys</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">29</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">32.5</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">35</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">38</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">41</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">44</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">46</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">47</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">49</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">51.8</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">53.5</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">55</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">57</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">59.3</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">62</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc ptb1" colspan="16"><i>Weight, in pounds.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Age.</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">1</td>  <td class="tcc allb">2</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">3</td>  <td class="tcc allb">4</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">5</td>  <td class="tcc allb">6</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">7</td>  <td class="tcc allb">8</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">9</td>  <td class="tcc allb">10</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">11</td>  <td class="tcc allb">12</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">13</td>  <td class="tcc allb">14</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb">15</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Girls</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">19.8</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">25.5</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">30</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">34</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">39.2</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">41.7</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">47.5</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">52.1</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">55.5</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">62</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">68</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">76.4</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">87.2</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">96.7</td>  <td class="tcl rlb">102.7</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Boys</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">20.5</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">26.5</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">31.2</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">35</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">41.2</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">44.4</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">49.7</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">54.9</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">60.4</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">67.5</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">72</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">76.7</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">82.6</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">92</td>  <td class="tcl rlb bb">106</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children, Law Relating to</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children&rsquo;s Courts</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children&rsquo;s Games</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infant</a></span>; &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILDEBERT<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span>, the name of three Frankish kings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Childebert I.</span> (d. 558) was one of the four sons of Clovis.
+In the partition of his father&rsquo;s realm in 511 he received as his
+share the town of Paris, and the country to the north as far as
+the river Somme, and to the west as far as the English Channel,
+with the Armorican peninsula. In 524, after the murder of
+Chlodomer&rsquo;s children, Childebert annexed the cities of Chartres
+and Orleans. He took part in the various expeditions against
+the kingdom of Burgundy, and in 534 received as his share
+of the spoils of that kingdom the towns of Mâcon, Geneva and
+Lyons. When Vitiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence
+to the Franks in 535, the possession of Arles and Marseilles was
+guaranteed to Childebert by his brothers. Childebert also made
+a series of expeditions against the Visigoths of Spain; in 542 he
+took possession of Pampeluna with the help of his brother
+Clotaire I., and besieged Saragossa, but was forced to retreat.
+From this expedition he brought back to Paris a precious relic,
+the tunic of St Vincent, in honour of which he built at the gates
+of Paris the famous monastery of St Vincent, known later as St
+Germain-des-Prés. He died without issue in 558, and was
+buried in the abbey he had founded, where his tomb has been
+discovered.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Nouveaux documents sur le tombeau de Childebert à
+Saint-Germain-des-Prés,&rdquo; in the <i>Bulletin de la Société des
+Antiquaires</i> (1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Childebert II.</span> (570-595), king of Austrasia, was a son of
+Sigebert. When his father was assassinated in 575, Childebert
+was taken from Paris by Gundobald, one of his faithful <i>leudes</i>,
+to Metz, where he was recognized as sovereign. He was then
+only five years old, and during his long minority the power
+was disputed between his mother Brunhilda and the nobles.
+Chilperic, king at Paris, and King Gontran of Burgundy, sought
+alliance with Childebert, who was adopted by both in turn.
+But after the assassination of Chilperic in 584, and the dangers
+occasioned to the Frankish monarchy by the expedition of
+Gundobald in 585, Childebert threw himself unreservedly into
+the arms of Gontran. By the pact of Andelot in 587 Childebert
+was recognized as Gontran&rsquo;s heir, and with his uncle&rsquo;s help he
+quelled the revolts of the nobles and succeeded in seizing the
+castle of Woëwre. Many attempts were made on his life by
+Fredegond, who was anxious to secure Gontran&rsquo;s inheritance
+for her son Clotaire II. On the death of Gontran in 592 Childebert
+annexed the kingdom of Burgundy, and even contemplated
+seizing Clotaire&rsquo;s estates and becoming sole king of the Franks.
+He died, however, in 595. Childebert II. had had relations with
+the Byzantine empire, and fought in 585 in the name of the
+emperor Maurice against the Lombards in Italy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Childebert III.</span> was one of the last and feeblest of the
+Merovingians. A son of King Theuderich III., he succeeded
+his brother Clovis III. in 695, and reigned until 711.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See B. Krusch, &ldquo;Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Könige,&rdquo;
+in <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, xxii. 451-490.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. PF.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILDERIC<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>, the name of three Frankish kings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Childeric I.</span> (c. 437-481), king of the Salian Franks, succeeded
+his father Merwich (Merwing) as king about. 457. With his tribe
+he was established around the town of Tournai, on lands which
+he had received as a <i>foederatus</i> of the Romans, and for some time
+he kept the peace with his allies. About 463, in conjunction
+with the Roman general Egidius, he fought against the Visigoths,
+who hoped to extend their dominion along the banks of the Loire;
+after the death of Egidius he assisted Count Paul in attempting
+to check an invasion of the Saxons. Paul having perished in the
+struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from some Saxons, followed
+them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and massacred
+them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who
+wished to invade Italy. These are all the facts known about him.
+The stories of his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight
+years in Thuringia with King Basin and his wife Basine; of his
+return when a faithful servant advised him that he could safely
+do so by sending to him half of a piece of gold which he had broken
+with him; and of the arrival at Tournai of Queen Basine, whom
+he married, are entirely legendary. After the fall of the Western
+Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric regarded himself
+as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in 481
+and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis (<i>q.v.</i>), afterwards
+king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered in 1653, when
+numerous precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a
+figure of the king, were found.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Childeric II.</span> (c. 653-673), king of Austrasia, was a son of
+the Frankish king Clovis II., and in 660, although a child, was
+proclaimed king of Austrasia, while his brother, Clotaire III.,
+ruled over the rest of the dominions of Clovis. After the death
+of Clotaire in 670 he became ruler of the three Frankish kingdoms,
+Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, but soon quarrelled with
+some supporters in Neustria, and was assassinated whilst
+hunting. He was buried at St Germain near Paris.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Childeric III.</span> (d. c. 751), king of the Franks, was the last king
+of the Merovingian dynasty. The throne had been vacant for
+seven years when the mayors of the palace, Carloman and Pippin
+the Short, decided in 743 to recognize Childeric as king. We
+cannot say whose son he was, or what bonds bound him to the
+Merovingian family. He took no part in public business, which
+was directed, as before, by the mayors of the palace. When in
+747 Carloman retired into a monastery, Pippin resolved to take
+the royal crown for himself; taking the decisive step in 751
+after having received the celebrated answer of Pope Zacharias
+that it were better to name king him who possessed the power
+than him who possessed it not. Childeric was dethroned and
+placed in the monastery of St Omer; his son, Theuderich, was
+imprisoned at Saint-Wandrille.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Junghans, <i>Die Geschichte der fränkischen Könige Childerich
+und Clodovech</i> (Göttingen, 1857); J.J. Chiflet, <i>Anastasis Childerici I.
+Francorum regis</i> (Antwerp, 1655); J.B.D. Cochet, <i>Le Tombeau de
+Childeric I, roi des Francs</i> (Paris, 1859); and E. Lavisse, <i>Histoire
+de France</i>, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1827-1896), British
+statesman, was born in London on the 25th of June 1827. On
+leaving Cambridge he went out to Australia (1850), and became
+a member of the government of Victoria, but in 1857 returned
+to England as agent-general of the colony. Entering parliament
+in 1860 as Liberal member for Pontefract (a seat that he continued
+to hold till 1885), he became civil lord of the admiralty in
+1864, and in 1865 financial secretary to the treasury. Childers
+occupied a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone
+ministries. He was first lord of the admiralty from 1868 to 1871,
+and as such inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Ill-health
+compelled his resignation of office in 1871, but next year he
+returned to the ministry as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.
+From 1880 to 1882 he was secretary for war, a post he accepted
+somewhat unwillingly; and in that position he had to bear the
+responsibility for the reforms which were introduced into the
+war office under the parsimonious conditions which were then
+part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the Egyptian
+War occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy;
+and also the Boer War, in which he and his colleagues showed to
+less advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was chancellor of the
+exchequer, and the beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter
+year was the occasion of the government&rsquo;s fall. Defeated at
+the general election at Pontefract, he was returned as a Home
+Ruler (one of the few Liberals who adopted this policy before
+Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s conversion) in 1886 for South Edinburgh, and
+was home secretary in the ministry of 1886. When the first
+Home Rule bill was introduced he demurred privately to its
+financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his
+threat of resignation. He retired from parliament in 1892, and
+died on the 29th of January 1896, his last piece of work being
+the drafting of a report for the royal commission on Irish financial
+relations, of which he was chairman. Childers was a capable and
+industrious administrator of the old Liberal school, and he did his
+best, in the political conditions then prevailing, to improve the
+naval and military administration while he was at the admiralty
+and war office. His own bent was towards finance, but no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span>
+striking reform is associated with his name. His most ambitious
+effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of consols in 1884,
+but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the
+subsequent conversion in 1888.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Life</i> (1901) of Mr Childers, by his son, throws some interesting
+side-lights on the inner history of more than one Gladstonian cabinet.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1838-1876), English Oriental
+scholar, son of the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at
+Nice, was born in 1838. In 1860 he received an appointment in
+the civil service of Ceylon, which he retained until 1864, when
+he was compelled to return to England owing to ill-health. He
+had studied P&#257;li during his residence in Ceylon, under
+Yátrámullé Unnánsé, a learned Buddhist for whom he cherished
+a life-long respect, and he had gained an insight into the Sinhalese
+character and ways of thought. In 1869 he published the first
+P&#257;li text ever printed in England, and began to prepare a P&#257;li
+dictionary, the first volume of which was published in 1872, and
+the second and concluding volume in 1875. In the following
+year it was awarded the Volney prize by the Institute of France,
+as being the most important philological work of the year. He
+was a frequent contributor to the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
+Society, in which he published the <i>Mah&#257;-parinibb&#257;na Sutta</i>,
+the P&#257;li text giving the account of the last days of Buddha&rsquo;s
+life. In 1872 he was appointed sub-librarian at the India Office,
+and in the following year he became the first professor of P&#257;li
+and Buddhist literature at University College, London. He died
+in London on the 25th of July 1876.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>. English law has always
+in theory given to children the same remedies as to adults for
+ill-usage, whether by their parents or by others, and has never
+recognized the <i>patria potestas</i> as known to the earlier Roman
+law; and while powers of discipline and chastisement have been
+regarded as necessarily incident to paternal authority, the father
+is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done to them. The only
+points in which infancy created a defect in civil status were that
+infants were subject to the restraints on complete freedom of
+action involved in their being in the legal custody of the father,
+and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers
+and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in
+amount and severity to the nature of the fault committed and
+the age and mental capacity of the child punished. But the
+court of chancery, in delegated exercise of the authority of the
+sovereign as <i>parens patriae</i>, always asserted the right to take
+from parents, and if necessary itself to assume the wardship of
+children where parental rights were abused or serious cruelty
+was inflicted, the power being vested in the High Court of
+Justice. Abuse of the power of correction was regarded as
+giving a cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if
+attended by fatal results rendered the parent liable to indictment
+for murder or manslaughter.</p>
+
+<p>The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children
+undoubtedly changed considerably with the relaxation of the
+accepted standard of severity in domestic or scholastic discipline
+and with the growth of new ideas as to the duties of parents to
+children, which in their latest developments tend enormously
+to enlarge the parental duties without any corresponding increase
+of filial obligations.</p>
+
+<p>Starting from the earlier conception, which limited ill-treatment
+legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common
+law came to recognize criminal liability in cases where persons,
+bound under duty or contract to supply necessaries to a child,
+unable by reason of its tender years to provide for itself, wilfully
+neglected to supply them, and thereby caused the death of the
+child or injury to its health, although no actual assault had been
+committed. Questions have from time to time arisen as to what
+could be regarded as necessary within this rule; and quite apart
+from legislation, popular opinion has influenced courts of justice
+in requiring more from parents and employers than used to be
+required. But parliament has also intervened to punish
+abandonment or exposure of infants of under two years, whereby
+their lives are endangered, or their health has been or is likely
+to be permanently injured (Offences against the Person Act of
+1861, s. 27), and the neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or
+servants (same act, s. 26, and Conspiracy and Protection of
+Property Act 1875, s. 6). By the Poor Law Amendment Act
+1868, parents were rendered <i>summarily</i> punishable who wilfully
+neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid or
+lodging for their children under fourteen years of age in their
+custody, whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be
+seriously injured. This enactment (now superseded by later
+legislation) made no express exception in favour of parents who
+had not sufficient means to do their duty without resort to the
+poor law, and was construed as imposing criminal liability on
+parents whose peculiar religious tenets caused them advisedly
+to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick child.</p>
+
+<p>The chief progress in the direction of adequate protection for
+children prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the
+subject than in the institution of an effective system of police,
+whereby it became possible to discover and repress cruelty
+punishable under the ordinary law. It is quite inaccurate to
+say that children had very few rights in England, or that animals
+were better protected. But before the constitution of the present
+police force, and in the absence of any proper system of public
+prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless cases of neglect
+and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as nobody&rsquo;s
+business, because there was no person ready to undertake in
+the public interest the protection of the children of cruel or
+negligent parents. In 1889 a statute was passed with the special
+object of preventing cruelty to children. This act was superseded
+in 1894 by a more stringent act, which was repealed by the
+Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act 1904, in its turn superseded
+for the most part by the Children Act 1908, which introduced
+many new provisions in the law relating to children and specifically
+deals with the offence of &ldquo;cruelty&rdquo; to them. This offence
+can only be committed by a person over sixteen in respect of a
+child under sixteen of whom he has &ldquo;custody,&rdquo; &ldquo;charge&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;care.&rdquo; The act presumes that a child is in the custody of its
+parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent,
+or of its guardians or persons liable by law to maintain it; that
+it is in the charge of a person to whom the parent has committed
+such charge (<i>e.g.</i> a schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a
+person who has actual possession or control of it. Cruelty is
+defined as consisting in assault, ill-treatment (falling short of
+actual assault), neglect, abandonment or exposure of the child
+in a manner likely to cause <i>unnecessary</i> suffering or injury to
+health, including injury to or loss of sight, hearing or limb, or
+any organ of the body or any mental derangement; and the
+act or omission must be wilful, <i>i.e.</i> deliberate and intentional,
+and not merely accidental or inadvertent. The offence may be
+punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender
+may be sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was directly
+or indirectly interested in any sum of money payable on the
+death of the child, <i>e.g.</i> by having taken out a policy permitted
+under the Friendly Societies Acts. A parent or other person
+legally liable to maintain a child or young person will be deemed
+to have &ldquo;neglected&rdquo; him by failure to provide adequate food,
+clothing, medical aid, or lodging, or if in the event of inability
+to provide such food, &amp;c., by failure to take steps to procure the
+same under acts relating to the relief of the poor.</p>
+
+<p>These statutes overlap the common law and the statutes
+already mentioned. Their real efficacy lies in the main in the
+provisions which facilitate the taking of evidence of young
+children, in permitting poor law authorities to prosecute at the
+expense of the rates, and in permitting a constable on arresting
+the offender to take the child away from the accused, and the
+court of trial on conviction to transfer the custody of the child
+from the offender to some fit and willing person, including any
+society or body corporate established for the reception of poor
+children or for the prevention of cruelty to children. The provisions
+of the acts as to procedure and custody extend not only
+to the offence of cruelty but also to all offences involving bodily
+injury to a child under sixteen, such as abandonment, assault,
+kidnapping and illegally engaging a child in a dangerous public
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span>
+performance. The act of 1908 also makes an endeavour to
+check the heavy mortality of infants through &ldquo;overlaying,&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_1b" id="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+enacting that where it is proved that the death of an infant
+under three years of age was caused by suffocation whilst the
+infant was in bed with some other person over the age of sixteen,
+and that that person was at the time of going to bed under the
+influence of drink, that other person shall be deemed to have
+neglected the child in manner likely to cause injury to its
+health, as mentioned above. The acts have been utilized with
+great zeal and on the whole with much discretion by various
+philanthropic societies, whose members make it their business
+to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all classes
+in society, and particularly by the Society for the Prevention
+of Cruelty to Children, which is incorporated under royal charter
+of the 28th of May 1895, for the purposes <i>inter alia</i> of preventing
+the public and private wrongs of children, and the corruption
+of their morals and of taking action to enforce the laws for
+their protection.</p>
+
+<p>The act of 1908 enacted more stringent provisions against
+baby-farming (<i>q.v.</i>). The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897
+did not apply where only one child was taken, but now by the
+act of 1908, where a person undertakes for reward the nursing
+and maintenance of one or more infants under the age of <i>seven</i>
+years apart from their parents or having no parents, he must
+give notice in writing to the local authority within forty-eight
+hours from the reception of the child. If an infant is already
+in the care of a person without reward and he undertakes to
+continue the nursing for reward, such undertaking is a reception
+of the child. The notice to the local authority must state the
+name, sex, date and place of birth of the infant, the name and
+address of the person receiving the infant and of the person from
+whom the infant was received. Notice must also be given of
+any change of address of the person having the care of the infant,
+or of the death of the infant, or of its removal to the care of some
+other person, whose name and address must also be given. It
+is the duty of local authorities to provide for the carrying-out
+in their districts of that portion of the act which refers to nursing
+and maintenance of infants, to appoint infants&rsquo; protection
+visitors, to fix the number of infants which any person may
+retain for nursing, to remove infants improperly kept, &amp;c.
+Relatives or legal guardians of an infant who undertake its
+nursing and maintenance, hospitals, convalescent homes, or
+institutions, established for the protection and care of infants,
+and conducted in good faith for religious and charitable purposes,
+as well as boarding schools at which efficient elementary education
+is given, are exempt from the provisions of the act.</p>
+
+<p>The acts of 1904 and 1908 deal with many other offences in
+relation to children and young persons. The act of 1904 introduced
+restrictions on the employment of children which lie on
+the border land between cruelty and the regulation of child
+labour. It prohibits custodians of children from taking them,
+or letting them be, in the street or in public-houses to sing,
+play, perform or sell between 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> These provisions
+apply to boys under fourteen and girls under sixteen.
+There are further prohibitions (1) on allowing children under
+eleven to sing, play, perform or be exhibited for profit, or offer
+anything for sale in public-houses or places of public amusement
+at any hour without a licence from a justice, which is
+granted only as to children over ten and under stringent conditions;
+(2) on allowing children under sixteen to be trained as
+acrobats, contortionists, or circus performers, or for any dangerous
+performance; and the Children&rsquo;s Dangerous Performances Act
+1879, as amended in 1897, makes it an offence to employ a male
+young person under sixteen and a female under eighteen in a
+dangerous public performance.</p>
+
+<p>The act of 1908 renders liable to a fine not exceeding £25, or
+alternatively, or in addition thereto, imprisonment with or without
+hard labour for any term not exceeding three months, any
+custodian, &amp;c., of any child or young person who allows him to
+be in any street, premises or place for the purpose of begging
+or receiving alms, or of inducing the giving of alms, whether
+or not there is a pretence of singing, playing, performing or
+offering anything for sale. An important departure in the act
+of 1908 was the attempt to prevent the exposure of children
+to the risk of burning. Any custodian, &amp;c., of a child under
+seven who allows that child to be in a room Containing an open
+grate not sufficiently protected to guard against the risk of
+burning or scalding is liable on summary conviction to a fine
+not exceeding £10. Provision is made against allowing children
+between the ages of four and sixteen to be in brothels; it is also
+made a misdemeanour if any custodian, &amp;c., of a girl under
+sixteen causes or encourages her seduction or prostitution, and
+any person having the custody of a young girl may be bound
+over to exercise proper care if it is shown to the satisfaction of a
+court of summary jurisdiction, on the complaint of any person,
+that she is exposed to such risk.</p>
+
+<p>The act of 1908, following legislation in many parts of the
+United States and in some of the British colonies, places a penalty
+on selling tobacco to any person apparently under the age of
+sixteen, whether for his own use or not. It empowers constables
+and park keepers to seize tobacco in the possession of any
+person apparently under sixteen found smoking in any street
+or public place, as well as to search them; it also empowers
+a court, of summary jurisdiction to prevent automatic machines
+for the sale of tobacco being used by young persons. The act
+also contains useful provisions empowering the clearing of a
+court whilst a child or young person is giving evidence in certain
+cases (<i>e.g.</i> of decency or morality), and the forbidding children
+(other than infants in arms) being present in court during the
+trial of other persons; it places a penalty on pawnbrokers taking
+an article in pawn from children under fourteen; and on vagrants
+for preventing children above the age of five receiving education.
+It puts a penalty on giving intoxicating liquor to any child
+under the age of five, except upon the orders of a duly qualified
+medical practitioner, or in case of sickness, or other urgent
+cause; also upon any holder of the licence of any licensed
+premises who allows a child to be at any time in the bar of the
+licensed premises; or upon any person who causes or attempts
+to cause a child to be in the bar of licensed premises other than
+railway refreshment rooms or premises used for any purpose
+to which the holding of a licence is merely auxiliary, or where
+the child is there simply for the purpose of passing through to
+some other part of the premises. It makes provision for the
+safety of children at entertainments, and consolidates the law
+relating to reformatory and industrial schools, and to juvenile
+offenders (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Juvenile Offenders</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In the act of 1908, &ldquo;child&rdquo; is denned as a person under the
+age of fourteen years, and &ldquo;young person&rdquo; as a person who is
+fourteen years and upwards and under the age of sixteen years.
+The act applies to Scotland and Ireland. In the application of
+the act to Ireland exception is made relative to the exclusion
+of children from bars of licensed premises, in the case of a child
+being on licensed premises where a substantial part of the business
+carried on is a drapery, grocery, hardware or other business
+wholly unconnected with the sale of intoxicating liquor, and the
+child is there for the purpose of purchasing goods other than
+intoxicating liquor.</p>
+
+<p><i>British Possessions.</i>&mdash;Legislation much on the lines of the acts
+of 1889-1908 has been passed in many British possessions, <i>e.g.</i>
+Tasmania (1895, 1906), Queensland (1896, 1905), Jamaica
+(1896), South Australia (1899, 1904), New South Wales (1892
+and 1900), New Zealand (1906), Mauritius (1906), Victoria
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span>
+(1905,1906). In South Australia a State Children&rsquo;s Department
+has been created to care for and manage the property and persons
+of destitute and neglected children, and the officials of the
+council may act in cases of cruelty to children; the legislation
+of Victoria and Queensland is based on that of South Australia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children&rsquo;s Courts</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Education</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Labour Legislation</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. F. C.; T. A. I.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1b" id="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There has been some doubt as to whether it is more correct to
+say a person &ldquo;<i>overlays</i>&rdquo; or &ldquo;<i>overlies</i>&rdquo; a child, and the question
+came up in committee on the bill. According to Sir J.A.H. Murray
+(see Letter in <i>The Times</i>, 12th of May 1908) &ldquo;to lie,&rdquo; an intransitive
+verb, becomes transitive when combined with a preposition, <i>e.g.</i>
+a nurse lies over a child or overlies a child; &ldquo;to lay&rdquo; is the causal
+derivative of &ldquo;to lie,&rdquo; and is followed by two objects, <i>e.g.</i> to lay the
+table with a cloth, or to lay a cloth on the table; similarly, to overlay
+a surface with varnish, or to overlay a child with a blanket, or
+with the nurse&rsquo;s or mother&rsquo;s body. The instrument can be left
+unexpressed, and a person can be said to overlay a child, <i>i.e.</i> with
+her own body, a pillow, &amp;c. Thus, while &ldquo;overlie&rdquo; covers the case
+where the woman herself lies over the child, &ldquo;overlay&rdquo; is the more
+general word.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILDRENITE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span>, a rare mineral species; a hydrous basic
+aluminium iron phosphate, orthorhombic in crystallization.
+The ferrous oxide is in part replaced by manganous oxide and
+lime, and in the closely allied and isomorphous species eosphorite
+manganese predominates over iron. The general formula for
+the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH)<span class="sp">2</span>PO<span class="sp">4</span> + H<span class="sp">2</span>O. Childrenite
+is found only as small brilliant crystals of a yellowish-brown
+colour, somewhat resembling chalybite in general appearance.
+They are usually pyramidal in habit, often having the form of
+double six-sided pyramids with the triangular faces deeply
+striated parallel to their shorter edges. Hardness 4.5-5;
+specific gravity 3.18-3.24. The mineral, named after the
+zoologist and mineralogist J.G. Children (1777-1852), secretary
+of the Royal Society, was detected in 1823 on specimens obtained
+some years previously during the cutting of a canal near Tavistock
+in Devonshire. It has also been found in a few copper
+mines in Cornwall and Devonshire.</p>
+
+<p>Eosphorite occurs as crystals of prismatic habit with angles
+very nearly the same as those of childrenite. Unlike childrenite,
+it has a distinct cleavage in one direction, and often occurs in
+compact masses as well as in crystals. The colour is sometimes
+yellowish-white, but usually rose-pink, and on this account the
+mineral was named from <span class="grk" title="êosphoros">&#7968;&#969;&#963;&#966;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, dawn-bearer. Hardness 5;
+specific gravity 3.11-3.145. It was discovered in 1878 in a
+pegmatite-vein at Branchville, Connecticut, where it is associated
+with other rare manganese phosphates.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILDREN&rsquo;S COURTS<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Juvenile Courts</span>, a special
+system of tribunals for dealing with juvenile offenders, first
+suggested in the United States. The germ of such institutions
+was planted in Massachusetts in 1869, when a plan was introduced
+at Boston of hearing charges against children separately, and
+apart from the ordinary business of the lesser tribunals. No
+great progress was made in the development of the idea in
+Massachusetts, as the legal authorities were not fully convinced of
+the utility or need for a separate court so long as the children
+were kept strictly apart from adults, and this could be assured
+by a separate session. But the system of &ldquo;probation,&rdquo; by
+which children were handed over to the kindly care and guardianship
+of an appointed officer, and thus escaped legal repression,
+was created about the same time in Boston and produced
+excellent results. The probation officer is present at the judge&rsquo;s
+side when he decides a case, and is given charge of the offender,
+whom he takes by the hand, either at his parent&rsquo;s residence or
+at school, and continually supervises, having power if necessary
+to bring him again before the judge. The example of Massachusetts
+in due course influenced other countries, and especially
+the British colony of South Australia, where a State Children&rsquo;s
+Department was created at Adelaide in 1895, and three years
+later a juvenile court was opened there for the trial of persons
+under eighteen and was conducted with great success, though
+the system of probation officers was not introduced. A juvenile
+court was also established at Toronto (Canada) on the South
+Australian model.</p>
+
+<p>The movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very
+rapidly. In the United States Illinois was the first state to call
+a distinct children&rsquo;s court into existence, and Judge Richard
+Tuthill was the pioneer at Chicago, where the court was established
+in 1899. Many states followed suit, including New York,
+Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Kansas, Colorado,
+Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1906.
+In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the
+Society for the Protection of Children, there is a separate
+children&rsquo;s court with rooms attached, where the children for
+detention wait till they are brought in for trial. Brooklyn has
+also a children&rsquo;s court. In Pennsylvania, where the juvenile
+court was at first opposed as unconstitutional, the difficulty
+was met by first bringing the child before the magistrate in the
+police court, a course which (though followed by his transferring
+the case to the special court) perpetuated the very evils the children&rsquo;s
+court was intended to avoid; the work of probation was,
+however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by female officers.
+The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an especially
+appointed judge, and policemen act as probation officers to some
+extent. The court of Indianapolis, however, gained the reputation
+of being the most complete and perfect in the United States.
+It works with a large and highly efficient band of volunteer
+probation officers under a chief. The juvenile court of Denver,
+Colorado, attained remarkable results under Judge B. Lindsey,
+whose magnetic personality, wonderful comprehension of boy
+nature, and extraordinary influence over them achieved great
+results. The court meets once a fortnight, when fresh cases are
+tried and boys already on probation report themselves, often
+to the number of two hundred at a time. The latter appear
+before the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a
+sealed letter, and according to its purport receives praise or
+blame, or he may be committed to the Detention House. An
+efficient court was also constituted at Baltimore, Maryland, with
+a judge especially chosen to preside, probation being for fixed
+periods, varying from three months to three years, and children
+being brought back to the court for parole or discharge, or, if
+necessary, committal to the house of one of the philanthropic
+societies. In Washington, D.C., the system of having no
+distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was
+followed, and it was found that numbers of children came to the
+court for help and guidance, looking upon the judge for the time
+being as their friend and counsellor. Probation in this instance
+offered peculiar difficulties on account of the colour question,
+two-thirds of the children having negro blood and a white boy
+being always preferred for a vacant situation. Throughout,
+the action of juvenile courts in the United States has been to
+bring each individual into &ldquo;human touch&rdquo; with kindly helpful
+workers striving to lead the young idea aright and train it to
+follow the straight path. It was the result always of the effort
+of private persons and not due to government initiative, indeed
+the advocates and champions of the system only established it
+by overcoming strong opposition from the authorities.</p>
+
+<p>Progress in the same direction has been made in England.
+The home office had recommended London police magistrates
+to keep children&rsquo;s cases separate from those of adults; the
+same practice or something analogous obtained in many county
+boroughs, such as Bath, Birmingham, Bristol, Bolton, Bradford,
+Hull, Manchester, Walsall, Halifax and others, and the Children
+Act 1908 definitely established children&rsquo;s courts. This act
+enacted that courts of summary jurisdiction when hearing charges,
+&amp;c., against children or young persons should, unless the child
+or young person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different
+building or room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the
+court are held, or on different days or at different times. Furthermore,
+provision must be made for preventing persons apparently
+under the age of sixteen years whilst being conveyed to or from
+court, or whilst waiting before or after their attendance in court,
+from associating with adults, unless such adults are charged
+jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons other than
+members and officers of the court, the parties to the case, their
+solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the
+case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave
+of the court. Bona-fide press representatives are also excepted.
+The main object of the whole system is to keep the child, the
+embryotic offender who has probably erred from ignorance or
+the pressure of circumstances or misfortune, altogether free
+from the taint or contagion that attaches to criminal proceedings.
+The moral atmosphere of a legal tribunal is injurious to the
+youthful mind, and children who appear before a bench, whether
+as accused or as witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with
+legal processes.</p>
+
+<p>The most beneficial action of the children&rsquo;s court comes from
+its association with the system of personal guardianship and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span>
+close supervision exercised by the probation officers, official
+and voluntary. Where the intervention of the newly constituted
+tribunal can not only save the child from evil association
+when first arrested, but can rescue him without condemnation
+and committal to prison, its functions may be relied upon to
+diminish crime by cutting it off at the source. Much depends
+upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority.
+Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, firm,
+sympathetic, tactful and able to gain the confidence of those
+brought before him, he may do great good, by dealing with each
+individual and not merely with his offence, realizing that the
+court does not exist to condemn but to strengthen and give a
+fresh chance. Where the children&rsquo;s court is only a branch of the
+existing jurisdiction worked by the regular magistrate or
+judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen,
+the beneficial results are not so noticeable.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILDREN&rsquo;S GAMES<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span>. The study of traditional games has in
+recent years become an important branch of folklore research in
+England, and has contributed not a little towards elucidating
+many unrecorded facts in early history. These games may
+be broadly divided into two kinds&mdash;dramatic games, and games
+of skill and chance. These differ materially in their object.
+Games of skill and chance are played for the purpose of
+winning property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic
+games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided
+between boys&rsquo; games and girls&rsquo; games. Boys&rsquo; games are mostly
+of a contest character, girls&rsquo; of a more domestic type. The boys&rsquo;
+dramatic games have preserved some interesting beliefs and
+customs, but the tendency in these games, such as &ldquo;prisoner&rsquo;s
+base,&rdquo; has been to drop the words and tune and to preserve only
+that part (action) which tends best for exercise and use in school
+playgrounds. The girls&rsquo; singing-games have not developed on
+these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of their early
+characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune and
+action. The words, in verse, express ideas contained in customs
+not now in vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking
+place between men and women and between people of different
+villages. The tunes are simple, and the same tune is frequently
+used for different games. The actions are illustrative of the ideas
+to be expressed. The players represent various objects&mdash;animals,
+villages and people. The singing game is therefore not a game
+in the usual sense of the word. There is no element of
+&ldquo;gambling&rdquo; or playing &ldquo;to win&rdquo; in it&mdash;no one is richer or
+poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to play
+together. It is really a &ldquo;play,&rdquo; and has survived because
+it has handed down some instances of custom and belief which
+were deeply rooted and which made a strong appeal to the
+imagination of our ancestors. The singing games represent in
+dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances common
+to people in early stages of development. These dances celebrated
+events which served to bind the people together and to give them
+a common interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were
+dramatic in character, singing and action forming a part of them,
+and their performers were connected by ties of place or kindred.
+They are probably survivals of what we might call folk drama.
+In these times it was held imperative to perform religious
+ceremonies periodically; at sowing and harvesting to ensure
+good crops; in the care of cattle and on occasions of marriage,
+birth and death. These were matters affecting the welfare of
+the whole community. Events were celebrated with dance,
+song and feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected
+with some belief which rendered ceremony necessary.</p>
+
+<p>At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for
+their basis, but in process of time they became purely secular
+and were performed at certain seasons only, because it was the
+custom to do so. They then became recognized as beautiful
+or pleasing things in the life of the people, and so continued,
+altering somewhat in ideas but retaining their old dramatic
+forms. They were danced by old and young at festivals and
+holidays, these being held about the same time of year as
+that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been
+held.</p>
+
+<p>Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods,
+&ldquo;line&rdquo; and &ldquo;circle.&rdquo; These represent two of the early forms
+of dramatic action. The &ldquo;line&rdquo; form (two lines of players
+standing opposite each other having a space of ground between
+them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents two different
+and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest. This
+method is used in all cases where contest is involved. The
+&ldquo;circle&rdquo; form, on the other hand, where all players join hands,
+represents those occasions when all the people of one place were
+engaged in celebrating events in which all were interested. Thus
+games celebrating sowing and harvest, and those associated with
+love and marriage, are played in this form. Both these methods
+allow of development. The circle varies from examples where
+all perform the same actions and say the same words to that
+where two or more players have principal parts, the others
+only singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the
+singing has disappeared. The form or method of play and the
+actions constitute the oldest remaining parts of the game (the
+words being subject to alterations and loss through ignorance of
+their meaning), and it is to this form or method, the actions
+and the accompaniment of song, that they owe their survival,
+appealing as they do to the strong dramatic instinct of children
+and of uncultured folk.</p>
+
+<p>It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known
+singing games. In &ldquo;line&rdquo; form, a fighting game is &ldquo;We are the
+Rovers.&rdquo; The words tell us of two opposing parties fighting
+for their land; both sides alternately deride one another and end
+by fighting until one side is victorious. Two other &ldquo;line&rdquo;
+games, &ldquo;Nuts in May&rdquo; and &ldquo;Here come three dukes a-riding,&rdquo;
+are also games of contest, but not for territory. These show an
+early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by
+capture, and are played in &ldquo;line&rdquo; form because of the element
+of contest contained in the custom. Another form, the &ldquo;arch,&rdquo;
+is also used to indicate contest.</p>
+
+<p>Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest
+and marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and
+sanction by assembled friends. &ldquo;Oats and beans and barley&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Sally Water&rdquo; are typical of this form. The large majority
+of circle games deal with love or marriage and domestic life.
+The customs surviving in these games deal with tribal life and
+take us back to &ldquo;foundation sacrifice,&rdquo; &ldquo;well worship,&rdquo; &ldquo;sacredness
+of fire,&rdquo; besides marriage and funeral customs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Details may be found in the periodical publications of the Folk-lore
+Society, and particularly in the following works:&mdash;A.B.
+Gomme&rsquo;s <i>Traditional Games of Great Britain</i> (2 vols., Nutt, 1894-1898);
+Gomme&rsquo;s <i>Children&rsquo;s Singing Games</i> (Nutt, 1904.); Eckenstein&rsquo;s
+<i>Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes</i> (Duckworth, 1906);
+Maclagan, <i>Games of Argyllshire</i>, Folk-lore Society (1900); Newell&rsquo;s
+<i>Games of American Children</i> (Harper Bros., New York, 1884). In
+Mrs Gomme&rsquo;s <i>Traditional Games</i>, several versions of each game,
+together with a short account of the suggested origin and of the
+custom or belief indicated, are given for each game. In vol. ii. (pp.
+458-531) a memoir of the history of games is given, and the customs
+and beliefs which originated them, reviewing the whole subject from
+the anthropological point of view, and showing the place which
+games occupy among the evidences of early man. In Miss Eckenstein&rsquo;s
+comparative study of nursery rhymes suggested origins are
+given for many of these, and an attempt made to localize certain of
+the customs and events. In several of the publications of the Folk-lore
+Society local collections of games are given, all of which may
+be studied with advantage. Stubbes and other early writers give
+many instances of boys&rsquo; games in their days, many of which still
+exist. Tylor and other writers on anthropology, in dealing with
+savage custom, confirm the views here expressed. For nursery
+rhymes see Halliwell, <i>Nursery Rhymes</i> (1845), and Chambers&rsquo;s
+<i>Popular Rhymes</i> (first printed 1841, reprinted in 1870). The recently
+collected <i>Morris Dances</i> by Mr Cecil Sharp should also be
+consulted. One of the morris dances, bean-setting, evidently dealing
+with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while others
+indicating fighting or rivalry are danced in line form, each line dancing
+in circle before crossing over to the opposite, side, and thus
+conforming to the laws already shown to exist in the more ordinary
+game.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. B. G.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1829-1894), American publisher,
+was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 12th of May 1829.
+He was educated in the public schools, and after a brief term of
+service in the navy, he became in 1843 a clerk in a book-shop at
+Philadelphia. There, in 1847, he established an independent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span>
+book-shop, and two years later organized the publishing house of
+Childs &amp; Peterson. In 1864, with Anthony J. Drexel, he purchased
+the <i>Public Ledger</i>, at that time a little known newspaper;
+he completely changed its policy and methods, and made it
+one of the most influential journals in the country. He died at
+Philadelphia on the 3rd of February 1894. Childs was widely
+known for his public spirit and philanthropy. In addition to
+numerous private benefactions in educational and charitable
+fields, he erected memorial windows to William Cowper and
+George Herbert in Westminster Abbey (1877), and to Milton in
+St Margaret&rsquo;s, Westminster (1888), a monument to Leigh Hunt
+at Kensal Green, a Shakespeare memorial fountain at Stratford-on-Avon
+(1887), and monuments to Edgar Allan Poe and to
+Richard A. Proctor. He gave Woodland Cemetery to the
+Typographical Society of Philadelphia for a printers&rsquo; burial-ground,
+and with Anthony J. Drexel founded in 1892 a home for
+Union printers at Colorado Springs, Colorado.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Recollections</i> were published at Philadelphia in 1890.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILE<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chili</span> (derived, it is said, from the Quichua <i>chiri</i>,
+cold, or <i>tchili</i>, snow), a republic of South America, occupying the
+narrow western slope of the continent between Peru and its
+southern extremity. (For map see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argentina</a></span>.) It extends
+from the northern boundary of the province of Tacna, about
+17° 25&prime; S., to Cape Horn at the extreme southern point of the
+Fuegian archipelago in 55° 58&prime; 40&Prime; S., with an extreme meridian
+length of 2661 m., and with a coast line considerably exceeding
+that figure owing to a westward curve of about 3&frac12;° and an
+eastward trend south of 50° S. of nearly 8°. Its mainland width
+ranges from about 46 to 228 m., and its area, including the
+islands of the southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774
+sq. m., though the Gotha computation (1904) places it at 293,062
+sq. m. Chile is thus a ribbon-like strip of territory between the
+Andes and the Pacific, comparatively regular north of the 42nd
+parallel, but with an extremely ragged outline south of that line.
+It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W.
+by the Pacific. Its eastern boundary lines are described under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argentina</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bolivia</a></span>. The war of 1879-81 with Peru and
+Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-fourth
+her total area. By subsequent agreements the Bolivian department
+of the Literal, or Atacama, and the Peruvian department
+of Tarapacá, were formally ceded to Chile, and the northern
+frontier was removed to the river Camarones, which enters the
+Pacific at 19° 12&prime; S. Under the treaty of Ancon (20th October
+1883) Chile was to retain possession of the provinces of Tacna
+and Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of Moquegua
+for a period of ten years, and then submit &ldquo;to popular vote
+whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru.&rdquo; At the
+expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the
+agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible possession
+of the territory. This arbitrary retention of Tacna and
+Arica, which became the province of Tacna under Chilean
+administration, removed the frontier still farther north, to the
+river Sama, which separates that province from the remaining
+part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Starting from
+the mouth of that river, in 17° 57&prime; S., the disputed boundary
+follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in
+the Alto do Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the water
+parting to the Bolivian boundary line in the Cordillera Silillica.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Physiography.</i>&mdash;For purposes of general topographical description
+Chile may be divided into three regions: the desert region of the
+north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of
+Coquimbo and Llanquihue, and the heavily-forested rainy region
+south of lat. 41° S. The desert region is an elevated arid plateau
+descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it
+breaks down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft. From the
+sea this plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat
+topped hills closely following the coast line. The surface is made
+up of extensive plains covered with sand and deposits of alkaline
+salts, broken by ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs
+from the Andes, and by irregular lateral ranges in the vicinity of
+the main cordillera enclosing elevated saline plateaus. This region
+is rainless, barren and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vegetation
+except in some small river valleys where irrigation is possible,
+and on the slopes of some of the snow-covered peaks where the
+water from the melting snows nourishes a scanty and coarse vegetation
+before it disappears in the thirsty sands. It is very rich in
+mineral and saline deposits, however. The eastern parts of this
+region lie within the higher ranges of the Andes and include a large
+district awarded to Chile in 1899 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argentina</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Atacama</a></span>).
+This arid, bleak area is apparently a continuation southward of the
+great Bolivian <i>altaplanicie</i>, and is known as the Puna de Atacama.
+Its average elevation is estimated at 11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line
+of volcanoes crosses it from north to south, and extensive lava beds
+cover a considerable part of its surface. Large shallow saline lakes
+are also characteristic features of this region. From 28° S. the spurs
+from the cordillera toward the coast are more sharply defined and
+enclose deeper valleys, where the cultivation of the soil becomes
+possible, at first through irrigation and then with the aid of light
+periodical rains. The slopes of the Andes are precipitous, the
+general surface is rough, and in the north the higher ground and
+coast are still barren. Beginning with the province of Aconcagua
+the coast elevations crystallize into a range of mountains, the
+Cordillera Maritima, which follows the shore line south to the
+province of Llanquihue, and is continued still farther south by the
+mountain range of Chiloé and the islands of the western coast, which
+are the peaks of a submerged mountain chain. Lying between this
+coast range and the Andes is a broad valley, or plain, extending from
+the Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly
+over 620 m. with an average width of about 60 m. It is sometimes
+called the &ldquo;Vale of Chile,&rdquo; and is the richest and most thickly-populated
+part of the republic. It is a highly fertile region, is well
+watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate rainfall,
+and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great productiveness.
+It slopes toward the south, and its lower levels are
+filled with lakes and with depressions where lakes formerly existed.
+It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy
+tracts, as in Ñuble and Arauco; in the north very little natural
+forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the enclosing
+mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is heavier, the
+plain is well covered with forest. South of 41° S. the country is
+mountainous, heavily-forested and inhospitable. There are only
+a few scattered settlements within its borders, and a few nomadic
+tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast. The
+deeply-indented coast line is filled with islands which preserve
+the general outline of the continent southward to the Fuegian
+archipelago, the outside groups forming a continuation of the
+Cordillera Maritima. The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout
+this region, especially in the latitude of Chiloé, gives rise to a large
+number of rivers and lakes. Farther south this excessive precipitation
+is in the form of snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at
+a comparatively low level which in places discharge into the inlets
+and bays of the sea. The extreme southern part of this region
+extends eastward to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan,
+and includes the greater part of the large island of Tierra del Fuego
+with all the islands lying south and west of it. There are some
+comparatively level stretches of country immediately north of the
+Straits, partly forested and partly grassy plains, where sheep farming
+has been established with some degree of success, but the greater
+part of this extreme southern territory is mountainous, cold, wet
+and inhospitable. The perpetual snow-line here descends to 3500
+to 4000 ft. above sea-level, and the forest growth does not rise above
+an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft.</p>
+
+<p>It has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile
+comprise about twenty-five millions of acres (slightly over 39,000
+sq. m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area.
+<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span>
+The desert regions of the north include comparatively
+large areas of plains and gently sloping surfaces, traversed by
+ranges of barren hills. The remainder of the republic, probably
+more than three-fifths of its surface, is extremely mountainous.
+The western slopes of the Andes, with its spurs and lateral ranges,
+cover a broad zone on the eastern side of the republic, and the
+Cordillera Maritima covers another broad zone on its western side
+from about lat. 33° to the southern extremity of Chiloé, or below
+lat. 43°. This maritime range is traversed by several river valleys,
+some of which, like the Bio-Bio, are broad and have so gentle a slope
+as to be navigable. The Andes, however, present an unbroken
+barrier on the east, except at a few points in the south where the
+general elevation is not over 5000 to 6000 ft., and where some of the
+Chilean rivers, as the Palena and Las Heras, have their sources on its
+eastern side. From the 52nd to about the 31st parallel this great
+mountain system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes,
+apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes
+short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several
+parallel ranges appear on the Argentine side and one on the Chilean
+side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau.
+The Chilean lateral range, which extends from the 29th to the 19th
+parallels, traverses an elevated desert region and possesses several
+noteworthy peaks, among which are Cerro Bolson, 16,017 ft., and
+Cerro Dona Ines, 16,706 ft. It is broken to some extent in crossing
+the province of Antofagasta, the southern division being known
+as the Sierra de Huatacondo. At the southern frontier of Bolivia
+the main chain, which has served as the boundary line between
+Argentina and Chile, divides into two great ranges, the principal
+one continuing almost due north along the eastern side of the great
+Bolivian <i>alta-planicie</i>, and the other forming its western rim, where
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span>
+it is known as the Cordillera Silillica, and then following the trend
+of the coast north-westward into Peru becomes the Cordillera
+Occidental. The western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with
+short spurs enclosing deep valleys. The whole system is volcanic,
+and a considerable number of volcanoes are still intermittently
+active, noticeably in central and southern Chile. The culminating
+point of the Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of
+23,097 ft.</p>
+
+<p>In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation
+of these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined.
+The highest of these apparently detached groups are Mt. Macá (lat.
+45° S.), 9711 ft., and Mt. Arenales (about 47° S. lat.), 11,286 ft.
+Cathedral Peak on Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft.
+and the highest point on Taytao peninsula to 3937 ft. The coast
+range of central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating
+point in the province of Santiago being 7316 ft. Between central
+Chile and the northern desert region there is a highly mountainous
+district where distinct ranges or elongated spurs cross the republic
+from the Andes to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great
+beauty and fertility. The most famous of these is the &ldquo;Vale of
+Quillota&rdquo; between Valparaiso and Santiago. The Chilean Andes
+between Tacna and Valdivia are crossed by 24 passes, the majority
+of them at elevations exceeding 10,000 ft. The best-known of these
+is the Uspallata pass between Santiago and the Argentine city of
+Mendoza, 12,870 ft. above sea-level. The passes of central and
+southern Chile are used only in the summer season, but those of
+northern Chile are open throughout the whole year.</p>
+
+<p>The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively recent
+elevation still subject Chile, in common with other parts of the
+western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances.
+In some instances since European occupation, violent earthquake
+shocks have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of
+the coast. After the great earthquake of 1835 Captain Robert
+FitzRoy (1805-1865) of H.M.S. &ldquo;Beagle&rdquo; found putrid mussel-shells
+still adhering to the rocks 10 ft. above high water on the island
+of Santa Maria, 30 m. from Concepción, and Charles Darwin declares,
+in describing that disaster, that &ldquo;there can be no doubt that the land
+round the bay of Concepción was upraised two or three feet.&rdquo; These
+upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land
+sometimes settling back to its former position. This happened on the
+island of Santa Maria after 1835. The existence of sea-shells at
+elevations of 350 to 1300 ft. in other parts of the republic shows that
+these forces, supplemented by a gradual uplifting of the coast, have
+been in operation through long periods of time and that the greater
+part of central and southern Chile has been raised from the sea in
+this way. These earthquake shocks have two distinct characteristics,
+a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible, called a
+<i>temblor</i>, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a violent
+horizontal or rotary vibration, or motion, also repeated at frequent
+intervals, called a <i>terremoto</i>, which is caused by a fracture or
+displacement of the earth&rsquo;s strata at some particular point, and often
+results in considerable damage. When the earthquake occurs on the coast,
+or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves are sometimes formed,
+which cause even greater damage than the earthquake itself. Arica
+has been three times destroyed by tidal waves, and other small
+towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered similar disasters.
+Coquimbo was swept by a tidal wave in 1849, and Concepción and
+Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835. The great earthquake
+which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was
+not followed by a tidal wave. These violent shocks are usually
+limited to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may
+be felt at long distances from the centre of disturbance. In this
+respect Chile may be divided into at least four great earthquake
+areas, two in the desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and
+the fourth extending from Concepción to Chiloé. A study of Chilean
+earthquake phenomena, however, would probably lead to a division
+of southern Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas.</p>
+
+<p>The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of
+islands extending from Chiloé S. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which
+shows that they are in part the summits of a submerged
+<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span>
+mountain chain, a continuation southward of the Cordillera
+Maritima. Three groups of these islands, called the Chiloé,
+Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes, lie N. of the Taytao peninsula
+(lat. 45° 50&prime; to 46° 55&prime; S.), and with the mainland to the E. form the
+province of Chiloé. The largest of these is the island of Chiloé, which
+is inhabited. Some of the smaller islands of these groups are also
+inhabited, though the excessive rainfall of these latitudes and the
+violent westerly storms render them highly unfavourable for human
+occupation. Some of the smallest islands are barren rocks, but the
+majority of them are covered with forests. These archipelagoes are
+separated from the mainland in the north by the gulfs of Chacao
+(or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 m. wide, which appear to be a
+submerged part of the great central valley of Chile, and farther south
+by the narrower Moraleda channel, which terminates southward
+in a confusing network of passages between the mainland and the
+islands of the Chonos group. One of the narrow parts of the Chilean
+mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of this group,
+where the accidental juxtaposition of Magdalena island, which indents
+the continent over half a degree at this point, and the basin
+of Lake Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp
+wedge-shaped projection westward, narrows the distance between
+the two to about 26 m. The Taytao peninsula, incorrectly called
+the Tres Montes on some maps, is a westward projection of the
+mainland, with which it is connected by the narrow isthmus of Ofqui,
+over which the natives and early missionaries were accustomed to
+carry their boats between the Moraleda Channel and Gulf of Peñas.
+A short ship canal here would give an uninterrupted and protected
+inside passage from Chacao Channel all the way to the Straits of
+Magellan, a distance of over 760 m. A southern incurving projection
+of the outer shore-line of this peninsula is known as Tres
+Montes peninsula, the most southern point of which is a cape of the
+same name. Below the Taytao peninsula is the broad open Gulf
+of Peñas, which carries the coast-line eastward fully 100 m. and is
+noticeably free from islands. The northern entrance to Messier
+Channel is through this gulf. Messier, Pitt, Sarmiento and Smyth&rsquo;s
+Channels, which form a comparatively safe and remarkably picturesque
+inside route for small steamers, about 338 m. in length,
+separate another series of archipelagoes from the mainland. These
+channels are in places narrow and tortuous. Among the islands
+which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Azopardo
+(lying within Baker Inlet), Prince Henry, Campaña, Little
+Wellington, Great Wellington and Mornington (of the Wellington
+archipelago), Madre de Dios, Duke of York, Chatham, Hanover,
+Cambridge, Contreras, Rennell and the Queen Adelaide group of
+small barren rocks and islands lying immediately north of the
+Pacific entrance to the Straits of Magellan. The large number of
+English names on this coast is due to the fact that the earliest
+detailed survey of this region was made by English naval officers;
+the charts prepared from their surveys are still in use and form the
+basis of all subsequent maps. None of these islands is inhabited,
+although some of them are of large size, the largest (Great Wellington)
+being about 100 m. long. It has likewise been determined, since
+the boundary dispute with Argentina called attention to these territories
+and led to their careful exploration at the points in dispute,
+that Skyring Water, in lat. 53° S., opens westward into the Gulf
+of Xaultegua, which transforms Ponsonby Land and Cordoba (or
+Croker) peninsula into an island, to which the name of Riesco has
+been given. The existence of such a channel was considered probable
+when these inland waters were first explored in 1829 by Captain
+FitzRoy, but it was not discovered and surveyed until three-quarters
+of a century had elapsed. Belonging to the Fuegian group south
+of the Straits of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Ines, Clarence,
+Dawson, Londonderry, Hoste, Navarin and Wollaston islands, with
+innumerable smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores and
+filling the channels between them. Admirable descriptions of this
+inhospitable region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts of
+the globe, may be found in the <i>Narrative of the Surveying Voyages
+of His Majesty&rsquo;s Ships &ldquo;Adventure&rdquo; and &ldquo;Beagle&rdquo; between the years
+1826 and 1836</i> (3 vols., 1839).</p>
+
+<p>The western and larger part of Tierra del Fuego (<i>q.v.</i>) belongs to
+Chile. About 63 m. S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat. 56° 25&prime; S., is the
+Diego Ramirez group of small, rocky islands, the most southern
+possession of the republic. Its westernmost possessions are Sala-y-Gomez
+and Easter islands, the former in about 27° S., 105° W., and
+the latter, the easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, in 27° 6&prime; S.,
+109° 17&prime; W. Much nearer the Chilean coast (396 m.), lying between
+the 33rd and 34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan Fernandez
+group, and rising apparently from the same submerged
+plateau about 500 m. farther north of the latter are the rocky islets
+of San Ambrosio and San Felix, all belonging to Chile. North of
+Chiloé there are few islands in close proximity to the coast. The
+more important of these are La Mocha, off the southern coast of
+Arauco, in lat. 38° 20&prime; S., which is 8 m. long and rises to an elevation
+of 1240 ft. above the sea; Santa Maria, 30 m. south-west of Concepcion,
+which partially encloses the Bay of Arauco and is well
+cultivated; and Quiriquina, lying off the port of Talcahuano in the
+entrance to Concepción bay. There are a few barren islands on the
+desert coast, the largest of which are between Coquimbo and Caldera.
+Since the removal of their guano deposits they have become practically
+worthless, except where they serve to shelter anchorages.</p>
+
+<p>The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient in
+good harbours. Those of the desert region are only slight indentations
+in a remarkably uniform coast-line, sheltered on one side by a point of land, or small island. The landings
+<span class="sidenote">Harbours.</span>
+are generally dangerous because of the surf, and the anchorages are
+unsafe from storms on the unprotected side. Among the most
+frequented of these are Valparaiso, Coquimbo, Caldera, Iquique and
+Arica. There are some small harbours for coasting vessels of light
+draught along the coast of central Chile, usually at the partially
+obstructed mouths of the larger rivers, as San Antonio near the
+mouth of the Maipó, Constitución at the mouth of the Maule, and
+Llico on the outlet of Lake Vichuquen, but there is no harbour of
+importance until Conceptión (or Talcahuano) Bay is reached.
+There are three harbours on this bay, El Tomé, Penco and Talcahuano
+(<i>q.v.</i>), the last being the largest and best-protected port on
+the inhabited part of the Chilean coast. Immediately south of this
+bay is the large Bay of Arauco, into which the Bio-Bio river discharges,
+and on which, sheltered by the island of Santa Maria, are
+the ports of Coronel and Lota. The next important harbour is that
+of El Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia river and 15 m. below
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span>
+the city of Valdivia. The Bay of San Carlos on the northern coast
+of Chiloé, which opens upon the narrow Chacao channel, has the port
+of Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for
+vessels of light and medium draught. Inside the island of Chiloé
+the large gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado are well protected
+from the severe westerly storms of these latitudes, but they
+are little used because the approach through the Chacao channel is
+tortuous and only 2 to 3 m. wide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 m.
+wide and 150 m. long, are beset with small rocky islands. At the
+north end of the first is the Reloncavi, a large and nearly landlocked
+bay, on which stands Puerto Montt, the southern terminus of the
+Chilean central railway. The large Gulf of Peñas, south of Taytao
+peninsula, is open to the westerly storms of the Pacific, but it affords
+entrance to several natural harbours. Among these are the Gulfs
+of Tres Montes and San Estevan, and Tarn Bay at the entrance to
+Messier Channel. The next 300 m. of the Chilean coast contain
+numerous bays and inlets affording safe harbours, but the mainland
+and islands are uninhabited and the climate inhospitable. Behind
+Rennell Island in lat. 52° S., however, is a succession of navigable
+estuaries which penetrate inland nearly to the Argentine frontier.
+The central part of this group of estuaries is called Worsley Sound,
+and the last and farthest inland of its arms is Last Hope Inlet
+(Ultima Esperanza), on which is situated the Chilean agricultural
+colony of Puerto Consuelo. The Straits of Magellan, about 360 m. in
+length, lie wholly within Chilean territory. Midway of them is situated
+Punta Arenas, the most southern town and port of the republic.</p>
+
+<p>Except in the extreme south the hydrography of Chile is of the
+simplest description, all the larger rivers having their sources in the
+Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific. Their courses
+<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
+are necessarily short, and only a few have navigable
+channels, the aggregate length of which is only 705 m. Nearly all
+rivers in the desert region are lost in the sands long before reaching
+the coast. Their waterless channels are interesting, however, as evidence
+of a time when climatological conditions on this coast were
+different. The principal rivers of this region are Sama (which forms
+the provisional boundary line with Peru), Tacna, Camarones, Loa,
+Copiapó, Huasco, Elqui, Limari and Choapa. The Loa is the
+largest, having its sources on the slopes of the Cordillera south of
+the Minho volcano, between 21° and 21° 30&prime; S. lat., and flowing
+south on an elevated plateau to Chiuchiu, and thence west and
+north in a great curve to Quillaga, whence its dry channel turns
+westward again and reaches the Pacific in lat. 21° 28&prime; S., a few miles
+south of the small port of Huanillos. Its total length is estimated at
+250 m. The upper courses of the river are at a considerable elevation
+above the sea and receive a large volume of water from the Cordilleras.
+The water of its upper course and tributaries is sweet,
+and is conducted across the desert in pipes to some of the coast towns,
+but in its lower course, as in all the rivers of this region, it becomes
+brackish. The Copiapó, which once discharged into the sea, is now
+practically exhausted in irrigating a small fertile valley in which
+stands the city of that name. The Copiapó and Huasco have comparatively
+short courses, but they receive a considerable volume of
+water from the higher sierras. The latter is also used to irrigate a
+small, cultivated valley. The rivers of the province of Coquimbo&mdash;the
+Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa&mdash;exist under less arid
+conditions, and like those of the province of Aconcagua&mdash;the Ligua
+and Aconcagua&mdash;are used to irrigate a much larger area of cultivated
+territory. The central agricultural provinces are traversed by
+several important rivers, all of them rising on the western slopes of
+the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the lower coast range
+to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate the great
+central valley of Chile. These are the Maipó (Maypó or Maipú),
+Rapel, Mataquito, Maule, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Tolten, Valdivia
+or Calle-Calle, Bueno and Maullin. With the exception of the first
+three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are open
+only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their mouths.
+The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220 m., 100 of
+which are navigable. These rivers have been of great service in the
+agricultural development of this part of Chile, affording means of
+transportation where railways and highways were entirely lacking.
+Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers, whose economic value
+has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which flows through
+Santiago and enters the Maipó from the north; the turbulent
+Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro, which
+waters an extensive part of the province of Talca and enters the
+Maule from the north; the Ñuble, which rises in the higher Andes
+north of the peaks of Chillan and flows entirely across the province
+of Ñuble to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which
+rises in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about
+lat. 35° 30&prime; S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the
+Cautin, which rises in the north-east corner of Cautin and after a
+tortuous course westward nearly across that province forms the
+principal confluent of the Imperial. The unsettled southern regions
+of Chiloé (mainland) and Magallanes are traversed by a number of
+important rivers which have been only partially explored. They
+have their sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side
+of the line of highest summits. The Puelo has its origin in a lake of
+the same name in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through
+the Cordilleras into an estuary (Reloncavi Inlet) of the Gulf of
+Reloncavi at the northern end of the Gulf of Chacao. Its lower
+course is impeded in such a manner as to form three small lakes,
+called Superior, Inferior and Taguatagua. A large northern tributary
+of the Puelo, the Manso, has its sources in Lake Mascardi and
+other lakes and streams south-east of the Cerro Tronador, also in
+Argentina, and flows south-west through the Cordilleras to unite
+with the Puelo a few miles west of the 72nd meridian. The Reloncavi
+Inlet also receives the outflow of Lake Todos los Santos through
+a short tortuous stream called the Petrohue. The Comau Inlet and
+river form the boundary line between the provinces of Llanquihue
+and Chiloé, and traverse a densely wooded country in a north-westerly
+direction from the Andes to the north-eastern shore of the
+Gulf of Chacao. Continuing southward, the Yelcho is the next
+important river to traverse this region. It drains a large area of
+Argentine territory, where it is called the Rio Fetaleufu or Fetalauquen,
+its principal source being a large lake of the same name. It flows
+south-west through the Andes, and then north-west through Lake
+Yelcho to the Gulf of Corcovado. The Argentine colony of the 16th
+of October, settled principally by Welshmen from Chubut, is located
+on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in about lat. 43° S.
+The Palena is another river of the same character, having its source
+in a large frontier lake called General Paz and flowing for some
+distance through Argentine territory before crossing into Chile.
+It receives one large tributary from the south, the Roo Pico, and
+enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of the 44th
+parallel. The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an extensive
+Andean region between the 44th and 45th parallels and discharging
+into the Puyuguapi channel, which separates Magdalena island
+from the mainland. The Aisen also has its source in Argentine
+territory near the 46th parallel, and drains a mountainous region as
+far north as the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and
+discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in
+about lat. 45° 20&prime; S. The lower course of this river is essentially an
+inlet, and is navigable for a short distance. The next large river is
+the Las Heras, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos
+Aires and Pueyrredon, or Cochrane, find their way to the Pacific.
+Both of these large lakes are crossed by the boundary line. The
+Las Heras discharges into Martinez Inlet, the northern part of a large
+estuary called Baker or Calen Inlet which penetrates the mainland
+about 75 m. and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-east corner of the
+Gulf of Peñas. Azopardo (or Merino Jarpa) island lies wholly within
+this great estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands,
+called Baker Islands, which separate it from Messier Channel. The
+course of the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aires is south and south-west,
+the short range of mountains in which are found the Cerros
+San Valentin and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet. Baker
+Inlet also receives the waters of still another large Argentine-Chilean
+lake, San Martin, whose far-reaching fjord-like arms extend
+from lat. 49° 10&prime; to 48° 20&prime; S.; its north-west arm drains into the
+Tero, or La Pascua, river. Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply
+cut passage through the Andes, and the divide between its southern
+extremity (Laguna Tar) and Lake Viedma, which discharges through
+the Santa Cruz river into the Atlantic, is so slight as to warrant the
+hypothesis that this was once a strait between the two oceans.
+After a short north-westerly course the Toro discharges into Baker
+Inlet in lat. 48° 15&prime; S., long. 73° 24&prime; W. South of the Toro there are
+no large rivers on this coast, but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply
+into the mountains and bring away the drainage of their snow-capped,
+storm-swept elevations. A peculiar network of fjords and connecting
+channels terminating inland in a peculiarly shaped body of water
+with long, widely branching arms, called Worsley Sound, Obstruction
+Sound and Last Hope Inlet, covers an extensive area between the
+51st and 53rd parallels, and extends nearly to the Argentine frontier.
+It has the characteristics of a tidewater river and drains an extensive
+region. The sources of the Argentine river Coile are to be found
+among the lakes and streams of this same region, within Chilean
+territory. A noteworthy peculiarity of southern Chile, from the
+Taytao peninsula (about 46° 50&prime; S. lat.) to Tierra del Fuego, is the
+large number of glaciers formed on the western and southern slopes
+of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which discharge direct
+into these deeply cut estuaries. Some of the larger lakes of the
+Andes have glaciers discharging into them. The formation of these
+icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge direct
+into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found elsewhere
+in the same latitudes.</p>
+
+<p>The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are
+found chiefly in the southern half of the republic. In the north the
+only lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper
+<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span>
+saline  plateaus  between the 23rd and 28th  parallels.
+They are fed from the melting snows and periodical storms of the
+higher Andes, and most of them are completely dry part of the year.
+Their waters are saturated with saline compounds, which in some
+cases have considerable commercial value. In central Chile above
+the Bio-Bio river the lakes are small and have no special geographical
+interest, with the exception perhaps of the Laguna del Maule, in
+36° 7&prime; S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37° 20&prime;, which lie in the Andes
+near the Argentine frontier and are sources of the two rivers of the
+same names. Below the Bio-Bio river there is a line of large
+picturesque lakes extending from the province of Cautin, south through
+that of Llanquihue, corresponding in character and position to the
+dry lacustrine depressions extending northward in the same valley.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span>
+They lie on the eastern side near the Cordilleras, and serve the
+purpose of great reservoirs for the excessive precipitation of rain
+and snow on their western slopes. With one exception they all drain
+westward into the Pacific through short and partly navigable rivers,
+and some of the lakes are also utilized for steamship navigation.
+These lakes are Villarica on the southern frontier of Cautin, Rinihue
+and Ranco in Valdivia, and Puyehue, Rupanco, Llanquihue and
+Todos los Santos in Llanquihue. The largest of the number are Lakes
+Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an estimated area of 200
+sq. m. and the latter of 300 sq. m. Lake Todos los Santos is situated
+well within the Andean foothills north-east of Puerto Montt and at an
+elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that of the other lakes,
+Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level. The great Andean lakes of
+General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos Aires (in lat. 46° 30&prime; S.),
+Pueyrredon, or Cpchrane (47° 15&prime; S.) and San Martin (49° S.), lie
+partly within Chilean territory. In the extreme south are Lagoa
+Blanca, a large fresh-water lake in lat. 52° 30&prime; S., and two large
+inland salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called Otway Water and
+Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions
+which differ from each other in their geological structure. Along
+the coast lies a belt of granite and schist overlaid unconformably
+by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are
+formed chiefly of folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks
+of later date. The great longitudinal valley of Chile runs approximately,
+but only approximately, along the boundary between the
+two zones. Towards the north the coastal zone disappears beneath
+the sea and the Andean zone reaches to the shore. The ancient
+rocks which form the most characteristic feature of the former do
+indeed occur upon the coast of Peru, but in the north of Chile they
+are found only in isolated masses standing close to the shore or, as at
+Mejillones, projecting into the sea. South of Antofagasta the old
+rocks form a nearly continuous band along the coast, extending as
+far as Cape Horn and Staten Island, and occupying the greater part
+of the islands of southern Chile. Lithologically they are crystalline
+schists, together with granite, diorite, gabbro and other igneous rocks.
+They are known to be pre-Jurassic, but whether they are Palaeozoic
+or Archaean is uncertain. They are strongly folded and are overlaid
+unconformably by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. In the north
+both the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds of this zone are limited in
+extent, but towards the south Mesozoic beds, which are at least in part
+Cretaceous, form a band of considerable width. The Tertiary beds
+include both marine and terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly
+of Miocene and Pliocene age. The whole of the north part of Tierra
+del Fuego is occupied by plateaus of horizontal Tertiary strata.</p>
+
+<p>The Chilean Andes correspond with the Western Cordillera of
+Bolivia and Peru, and consist almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous
+beds, together with the products of the Tertiary eruptions.
+The Mesozoic beds are thrown into a series of parallel folds which run
+in the direction of the chain and which are generally free from any
+complications such as overthrusting or overfolding. The Cretaceous
+beds form a synclinal upon the eastern side of the chain (and, in
+general, beyond the Chilean boundary), while the Jurassic beds are
+thrown into a number of folds which form the axis and the western
+flank. Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other
+igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesozoic foundation
+rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later date. The Trias
+is known only at La Ternera near Copiapó, where coal-seams with
+Rhaetic plants have been found; but the rest of the Mesozoic series,
+from the Lias to the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented
+without a break of more than local importance. The deposits are
+marine, consisting mainly of sandstone and limestone, together with
+tuffs and conglomerates of porphyry and porphyrite. These porphyritic
+rocks form a characteristic feature of the southern Andes,
+and were at one time supposed to be metamorphic; but they are
+certainly volcanic, and as they contain marine fossils they must have
+been laid down beneath the sea. They are not confined to any one
+horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the Jurassic and occasionally
+also amongst the Cretaceous strata. They form, in fact, a special
+facies which may frequently be traced laterally into the more normal
+marine deposit of the same age. The fauna of the Mesozoic beds
+is very rich, and includes forms which are found in northern Europe,
+others which occur in central Europe, and others again which are
+characteristic of the Mediterranean region. It lends no support to
+Neumayr&rsquo;s theory of climatic zones. A large part of the chain is
+covered by the products of the great volcanoes which still form the
+highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes. The rocks are
+liparites, dacites, hornblende and pyroxene andesites. The recent
+lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are olivine-bearing
+hypersthene-andesite and basalt.<a name="FnAnchor_1c" id="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Climate</i>.&mdash;The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical
+heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low
+temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego
+and the southern coast. The high altitudes of the Andean region
+also introduce vertical zones of temperature, modified to some extent
+by the rainless plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall
+of the south. In general terms it may be said that the extremes of
+temperature are not so great as in corresponding latitudes of the
+northern hemisphere, because of the greater expanse of water in
+comparison with the land areas, the summers being cooler and the
+winters warmer. The cold antarctic, or Humboldt, current sweeps
+northward along the coast and greatly modifies the heat of the arid,
+tropical plateaus. The climate of northern and central Chile is
+profoundly affected by the high mountain barrier on the eastern
+frontier and by the broad treeless pampas of Argentina, which raise
+the easterly moisture-laden winds from the Atlantic to so high an
+elevation that they sweep across Chile without leaving a drop of
+rain. At very rare intervals light rains fall in the desert regions
+north of Coquimbo, but these are brought by the prevailing coast
+winds. With this exception these regions are the most arid on the
+face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical sun during the day
+and chilled at night by the proximity of snow-covered heights and a
+cold ocean current. Going south the temperature slowly falls and the
+rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided into a short
+rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season. At Copiapó, in
+27° 22&prime; S., 1300 ft. above the sea, the mean annual temperature is
+60° and the rainfall about 1 in., but at Coquimbo, in 29° 56&prime; S., the
+temperature is 59.2° and the rainfall 1&frac12; in. At Santiago, in 33° 27&prime;
+S., 1755 ft. above the sea, the mean temperature is 54° and the
+annual rainfall 16&frac12; in., though the latter varies considerably.
+The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21. At Talca,
+in 35° 36&prime; S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual temperature
+is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the rainfall has
+increased to 19.7 in. The long dry season of this region makes irrigation
+necessary, and vegetation has something of a subtropical
+appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37°. The
+climate is healthy and agreeable, though the death-rate among the
+common people is abnormally high on account of personal habits and
+unsanitary surroundings. In southern Chile the climate undergoes
+a radical change&mdash;the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a
+long rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall. The plains as well
+as the western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the rivers
+become torrents, and the sky is covered with heavy clouds a great
+part of the year. At Valdivia, in 39° 49&prime; S. and near the sea-level,
+the mean annual temperature is 52.9° and the annual rainfall 108
+to 115 in., with about 150 rainy days in the year. These meteorological
+conditions are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north
+end of the island of Chiloé, in 41° 46&prime; S., where the mean annual
+temperature is 50.7° and the annual rainfall 134 in. The equable
+character of the climate at this point is shown by the limited range
+between its summer and winter temperatures, the mean for January
+being 56.5° and the mean for July 45.9°. The almost continual
+cloudiness is undoubtedly a principal cause, not only of the low
+summer temperatures, but also of the comparatively high winter
+temperatures. Frosts are infrequent, and snow does not lie long.
+The climate is considered to be healthful notwithstanding the
+excessive humidity. The 600 m. of coast from the Chonos Archipelago
+south to the Fuegian islands have a climate closely approximating
+that of the latter. It is wet and stormy all the year through,
+though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and Valdivia.
+The line of perpetual snow, which is 6000 ft. above sea-level between
+lat. 41° and 43°, descends to 3500 (to 4000) ft. in Tierra del Fuego,
+affording another indication of the low maximum temperatures ruling
+during the summer. At the extreme south, where Chilean territory
+extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan,
+a new climatic influence is encountered in the warm equatorial
+current flowing down the east coast of South America, which gives
+to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that of the
+western shore. The Andes, although much broken in these latitudes,
+also exert a modifying influence on these eastern districts, sheltering
+them from the cold westerly storms and giving them a drier climate.
+This accounts for the surprising meteorological data obtained from
+Punta Arenas, in 53° 10&prime; S., where the mean annual temperature is
+43.2° and the annual rainfall only 22.5 in. Other observations reduce
+this annual precipitation to less than 16 in. According to observations
+made by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1901-1903), at Orange
+Bay, Hoste Island, in lat. 55° 31&prime; S., long. 68° 05&prime; W., which is more
+exposed to the westerly storms, the mean temperature for 11 months
+was 41.98° and the total precipitation (rain and snow) 53.1 in.
+The mean maximum temperature was 49.24°, and the mean minimum
+35.83°. The observations showed 284 days with rain or snow, of
+which 70 were with snow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and less
+interesting than those of Argentina and Brazil, but contains many
+peculiar genera and species. A classification of this flora necessitates
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span>
+its division into at least three general zones&mdash;the desert provinces
+of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south.
+The first is an arid desert absolutely barren along part of the coast,
+between Tacna and Copiapó, but with a coarse scanty vegetation
+near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes where
+moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the sand.
+In the valleys of the Copiapó and Huasco rivers a meagre vegetation
+is to be found near their channels, apart from what is produced by
+irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry river channels
+below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing southward
+into the province of Coquimbo a gradual change in the arid conditions
+may be observed. The higher summits of the Cordilleras afford a
+larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent are
+the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water
+supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an
+indication of what the coming season is to be. The arborescent
+growth near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are
+to be found the &ldquo;algarrobo&rdquo; (<i>Prosopis siliquastrum</i>) and &ldquo;chañar&rdquo;
+(<i>Gourliea chilensis</i>), but the only shrub to be found on the coast is a
+species of <i>Skytanthus</i>. Near the sierras where irrigation is possible,
+fruit-growing is so successful, especially the grape and fig, that the
+product is considered the best in Chile. In regard to the indigenous
+flora of this region John Ball<a name="FnAnchor_2c" id="FnAnchor_2c" href="#Footnote_2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> says: &ldquo;The species which grow here
+are the more or less modified representatives of plants which at
+some former period existed under very different conditions of life.&rdquo;
+Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a dwarfed species,
+and then a larger columnar form (<i>Cereus quisco</i>). The streams are
+fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields fill the irrigated
+valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better covered with a
+thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the streams,
+however, continue barren as far south as the transverse ranges of
+mountains across the province of Aconcagua.</p>
+
+<p>To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character
+between the northern and southern zones. It is much more than
+this, however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly
+its own. A large majority of the 198 genera peculiar to the South
+American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile.
+This zone extends from about the 30th to the 36th parallel, perhaps
+a little farther south to include some characteristic types. The
+evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south,
+and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a subtropical
+aspect. One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is
+the <i>peumo</i> (<i>Cryptocarya peumus</i>), whose dense evergreen foliage is
+everywhere conspicuous. The <i>quillay</i> (<i>Quillaja saponaria</i>) is another
+characteristic evergreen tree of this region, whose bark possesses
+saponaceous properties. In earlier times the coquito palm (<i>Jubaea
+spectabilis</i>) was to be found throughout this part of Chile, but it has
+been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine sap, from which
+a treacle was made. One of the most striking forest trees is the
+<i>pehuen</i> or Chilean pine (<i>Araucaria imbricata</i>), which often grows
+to a height of 100 ft. and is prized by the natives for its fruit. Three
+indigenous species of the beech&mdash;the <i>roble</i> (<i>Fagus obliqua</i>), <i>coyhue</i>
+(<i>F. Dombeyi</i>), and <i>rauli</i> (<i>F. procera</i>)&mdash;are widely diffused and highly
+prized for their wood, especially the first, which is misleadingly called
+<i>roble</i> (oak). Most of the woods used in construction and manufactures
+are found between the Bio-Bio river and the Taytao
+peninsula, among which are the <i>alerce</i> (<i>Fitzroya patagonica</i>), <i>ciprés</i>
+or Chiloé cypress (<i>Libocedrus tetragona</i>), the Chilean cypress (<i>L.
+Chilensis</i>), <i>lingue</i> (<i>Persea lingue</i>), laurel (<i>Laurus aromatica</i>), <i>avellano</i>
+(<i>Guevina avellana</i>), <i>luma</i> (<i>Myrtus luma</i>), <i>espino</i> (<i>Acacia cavenia</i>) and
+many others. Several exotic species have been introduced into this
+part of Chile, some of which have thriven even better than in their
+native habitats. Among these are the oak, elm, beech (<i>F. sylvatica</i>),
+walnut, chestnut, poplar, willow and eucalyptus. Through the
+central zone the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain
+slopes, but in the southern zone there are no plains, with the exception
+of small areas near the Straits of Magellan, and the forests are
+universal. In the variety, size and density of their growth these
+forests remind one of the tropics. They are made up, in great part,
+of the evergreen beech (<i>Fagus betuloides</i>), the deciduous antarctic
+beech (<i>F. antarctica</i>),<a name="FnAnchor_3c" id="FnAnchor_3c" href="#Footnote_3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and Winter&rsquo;s bark (<i>Drimys Winteri</i>), intermingled
+with a dense undergrowth composed of a great variety of
+shrubs and plants, among which are <i>Maytenus magellanica, Arbutus
+rigida, Myrtus memmolaria</i>, two or three species of <i>Berberis</i>, wild
+currant (<i>Ribes antarctica</i>), a trailing blackberry, tree ferns, reed-like
+grasses and innumerable parasites. On the eastern side of the
+Cordillera, in the extreme south, the climate is drier and open,
+and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping
+forests extend from an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft. down to the level
+of the sea. A peculiar vegetable product of this inclement region
+is a small globular fungus growing on the bark of the beech, which
+is a staple article of food among the Fuegians&mdash;probably the only
+instance where a fungus is the bread of a people.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally conceded that the potato originated in southern
+Chile, as it is found growing wild in Chiloé and neighbouring islands
+and on the adjacent mainland. The strawberry is also indigenous
+to these latitudes on both sides of the Andes, and Chile is credited
+with a species from which the cultivated strawberry derives some of
+its best qualities. Maize and quinoa (<i>Chenopodium quinoa</i>) were
+known in Chile before the arrival of Europeans, but it is not
+certain that they are indigenous. Species of the bean and pepper
+plant are also indigenous, and the former is said to have been
+cultivated by the natives. Among the many economic plants
+which have been introduced into Chile and have become important
+additions to her resources, the more prominent are wheat, barley,
+hemp and alfalfa (<i>Medicago sativa</i>), together with the staple European
+fruits, such as the apple, pear, peach, nectarine, grape, fig, olive
+and orange. The date-palm has also been introduced into the
+southern provinces of the desert region. Among the marine productions
+on the southern coast, a species of kelp, <i>Macrocystis pyrifera</i>,
+merits special mention because of its extraordinary length, its habit
+of clinging to the rocks in strong currents and turbulent seas, and
+its being a shelter for innumerable species of marine animals. Captain
+FitzRoy found it growing from a depth of 270 ft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;The fauna of Chile is comparatively poor, both in species
+and individuals. A great part of the northern deserts is as barren
+of animal life as of vegetation, and the dense humid forests of the
+south shelter surprisingly few species. There are no large mammals
+in all this extensive region except the Cetacea and a species of the
+<i>Phocidae</i> of southern waters. Neither are there any dangerous
+species of Carnivora, which are represented by the timid puma
+(<i>Felis concolor</i>), three species of wildcats, three of the fox, two of
+<i>Conepatus</i>, a weasel, sea-otter and six species of seal. The rodents
+are the most numerously represented order, which includes the <i>coypu</i>
+or nutria (<i>Myopotamus coypus</i>), the chinchilla (<i>Chinchilla laniger</i>),
+the tuco-tuco (<i>Ctenomys brasiliensis</i>), a rabbit, and 12 species of
+mice&mdash;in all some 12 genera and 25 species. The coypu, sometimes
+called the South American beaver, inhabits the river-banks, and is
+highly prized for its fur. It is also found along the river-courses
+of Argentina. The ruminants are represented by a few species only&mdash;the
+guanaco (<i>Auchenia huanaco</i>), <i>vicuna</i> (<i>A. vicugna</i>), <i>huemul</i> (<i>Cervus
+chilensis</i>), which appears on the Chilean escutcheon, and the <i>pudu</i>
+deer, a small and not very numerous species. There are two species
+of the Edentata, <i>Dasypus</i> and <i>Pichiciego</i>, the latter very rare, and
+one of the opossums. European animals, such as horses, cattle,
+sheep, swine and goats, have been introduced into the country and
+do well. Sheep-raising has also been inaugurated with some degree
+of success in the vicinity of the Straits of Magellan. The avifauna,
+with the exception of waterfowl, is also limited to comparatively
+few species. Birds of prey are represented by the condor, vulture,
+two species of the carrion-hawk (<i>Polyborus</i>), and owl. The Chilean
+slopes of the Andes appear to be a favourite haunt of the condor,
+where neighbouring stock-raisers suffer severe losses at times from
+its attacks. The <i>Insessores</i> are represented by a number of species.
+Parrots are found as far south as Tierra del Fuego, where Darwin
+saw them feeding on seeds of the Winter&rsquo;s bark. Humming-birds
+have a similar range on this coast, one species (<i>Mellisuga Kingii</i>)
+being quite numerous as far south as Tierra del Fuego. A characteristic
+genus is that of <i>Pteroptochus</i>, of which there are three or four
+species each characterized by some conspicuous peculiarity. These
+are <i>P. megapodius</i>, called <i>El Turco</i> by the natives, which is noticeable
+for its ungainly appearance and awkward gait; the <i>P. albicollis</i>,
+which inhabits barren hillsides and is called <i>tapacollo</i> from the manner
+of carrying its tail turned far forward over its back; the <i>P. rubecula</i>,
+of Chiloé, a small timid denizen of the gloomy forest, called the
+<i>cheucau</i> or <i>chuca</i>, whose two or three notes are believed by the
+superstitious natives to be auguries of impending success or disaster;
+and an allied species (<i>Hylactes Tarnii</i>, King) called the <i>guid-guid</i> or
+barking bird, whose cry is a close imitation of the yelp of a small dog.
+The southern coast and its inland waters are frequented by several
+species of petrel, among which are the <i>Procellaria gigantea</i>, whose
+strength and rapacity led the Spaniards to call it <i>quebranta huesos</i>
+(breakbones), the <i>Puffinus cinereus</i>, which inhabits the inland
+channels in large flocks, and an allied species (<i>Puffinuria Berardii</i>)
+which inhabits the inland sounds and resembles the auk in some
+particulars of habit and appearance. There are numerous species
+in these sheltered channels, inlets and sounds of geese, ducks, swans,
+cormorants, ibises, bitterns, red-beaks, curlew, snipe, plover and
+moorhens. Conspicuous among these are the great white swan
+(<i>Cygnus anatoides</i>), the black-necked swan (<i>Anser nigricollis</i>), the
+antarctic goose (<i>Anas antarctica</i>) and the &ldquo;race-horse&rdquo; or &ldquo;steamer
+duck&rdquo; (<i>Micropterus brachypterus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The marine fauna is less known than the others, but it is rich in
+species and highly interesting in its varied forms and characteristics.
+The northern coast has no sheltered waters of any considerable
+extent, and the shore slopes abruptly to a great depth, which gives
+it a marine life of no special importance. In the shoal waters about
+Juan Fernandez are found a species of codfish (possibly <i>Gadus
+macrocephalus</i>), differing in some particulars from the Newfoundland
+cod, and a large crayfish, both of which are caught for the Valparaiso
+market. The sheltered waters of the broken southern coast, however,
+are rich in fish and molluscs, especially in mussels, limpets and
+barnacles, which are the principal food resource of the nomadic
+Indian tribes of those regions. A large species of barnacle, <i>Balanus
+psittacus</i>, is found in great abundance from Concepción to Puerto
+Montt, and is not only eaten by the natives, by whom it is called
+<i>pico</i>, but is also esteemed a great delicacy in the markets of Valparaiso
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span>
+and Santiago. Oysters of excellent flavour are found in the sheltered
+waters of Chiloé. The Cetacea, which frequent these southern
+waters, are represented by four species&mdash;two dolphins and the sperm
+and right whale&mdash;and the <i>Phocidae</i> by six species, one of which
+(<i>Phoca lupina</i>) differs but little from the common seal. Another
+species (<i>Macrorhinus leoninus</i>), popularly known as the sea-elephant,
+is provided with short tusks and a short trunk and sometimes grows
+to a length of 20 ft. Still another species, the sea-lion (<i>Otaria jubata</i>),
+furnishes the natives of Tierra del Fuego with an acceptable article
+of food, but like the <i>Phoca lupina</i> it is becoming scarce.</p>
+
+<p>Of Reptilia Chile is singularly free, there being recorded only eleven
+species&mdash;five saurians, four ophidians, one frog and one toad&mdash;but
+a more thorough survey of the uninhabited territories of the
+south may increase this list. There are no alligators in the streams,
+and the tropical north has very few lizards. There are no poisonous
+snakes in the country, and, in a region so filled with lakes and rivers
+as the rainy south, only two species of batrachians. The insect life
+of these strangely associated regions is likewise greatly restricted by
+adverse climatic conditions, a considerable part of the northern
+desert being absolutely barren of animal and vegetable life, while the
+climate of Tierra del Fuego and the southern coast is highly unfavourable
+to terrestrial animal life, for which reason comparatively few
+species are to be found. Writing of a journey inland from Iquique,
+Charles Darwin says (<i>Journal of Researches, &amp;c.</i>, p. 444): &ldquo;Excepting
+the <i>Vultur aura</i>, ... I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor
+insect.&rdquo; Of his entomological collection in Tierra del Fuego, which
+was not large, the majority were of Alpine species. Moreover, he
+did not find a single species common to that island and Patagonia.
+These conditions subsist with but few modifications, if any, from the
+Straits northward to the 42nd parallel, the extreme humidity,
+abnormal rainfall and dark skies being unfavourable to the development
+of insect life, while the Andes interpose an impassable barrier
+to migration from the countries of the eastern coast. The only
+venomous species to be found in central Chile is that of a spider
+which frequents the wheat fields in harvest time.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The population of Chile is largely concentrated
+in the twelve agricultural provinces between and including
+Coquimbo and Concepción, though the next six provinces to the
+south, of more recent general settlement, have received some
+foreign immigrants, and are rapidly growing. In the desert
+provinces the population is limited to the mining communities,
+and to the ports and supply stations maintained for their support
+and for the transport, smelting and export of their produce.
+The province of Atacama has, in addition to its mining population,
+a considerable number of agriculturists located in a few
+irrigated river valleys, which class is largely increased in the
+adjoining province of Coquimbo. The more northern provinces,
+however, maintain their populations without the support of such
+small cultivated areas. In the southern territories unfavourable
+conditions of a widely different character prevail, and the
+population is restricted to a few small settlements and some
+nomadic tribes of Indians. Here, however, there are localities
+where settlements could be maintained by ordinary means and
+the population could be greatly increased. Since the census
+of 1895 the population of Punta Arenas has been largely increased
+by the discovery of gold in the vicinity. The twelve provinces
+first mentioned, which include the celebrated &ldquo;Vale of Chile,&rdquo;
+comprise only 17% of the area of the republic, but the census
+of 1895 showed that 72% of the total population was concentrated
+within their borders. The four desert provinces north
+of Coquimbo had only 8% of the total, and the seven provinces
+and one territory south of Concepción had 20%. According
+to the census of 1895 the total population was 2,712,145, to
+which the census officials added 10% to cover omissions. This
+shows an increase slightly over 7% for the preceding decennial
+period, the population having been returned as 2,527,320 in 1885.
+The census returns of 1875 and 1866 gave respectively 2,068,447
+and 2,084,943, showing an actual decrease in population.
+During these years Chile held the anomalous position of a country
+spending large sums annually to secure immigrants while at the
+same time her own labouring classes were emigrating by
+thousands to the neighbouring republics to improve their
+condition. Writing in 1879, a correspondent of <i>The Times</i><a name="FnAnchor_4c" id="FnAnchor_4c" href="#Footnote_4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+stated that this emigration then averaged 8000 a year, and in
+bad times had reached as many as 30,000 in one year. The
+condition of the Chilean labourer has been much improved since
+then, however, and Chile no longer suffers so serious a loss of
+population. In 1895, the foreigners included in the Chilean
+population numbered 72,812, of which 42,105 were European,
+29,687 American, and 1020 Asiatic, &amp;c. According to nationality
+there were 8269 Spanish, 7809 French, 7587 Italian, 7049
+German, 6241 British, 1570 Swiss, 1490 Austro-Hungarian,
+13,695 Peruvian, 7531 Argentine, 6654 Bolivian, 701 American
+(U.S.), 797 Chinese. According to residence, 1,471,792 were
+inhabitants of rural districts, and 1,240,353 of towns. The
+registration of births, marriages and deaths is compulsory since
+the 1st of January 1885, but the provisions of the law are
+frequently eluded. Notwithstanding the healthiness of the
+climate, the death-rate is high, especially in the large cities.
+In Santiago and Valparaiso the death-rate sometimes rises to
+42 and 60 per 1000, and infant mortality is very high, being
+73% of the births in some of the provincial towns. This
+unfavourable state of affairs is due to the poverty, ignorance
+and insanitary habits of the lower classes. The government has
+made repeated efforts to secure immigrants from Europe, but
+the lands set apart for immigrant settlers are in the forested
+provinces south of the Bio-Bio, where the labour and hardships
+involved in establishing a home are great, and the protection
+of the law against bandits and criminal assaults is weak. The
+Germans have indeed settled in many parts of these southern
+provinces since 1845, and by keeping together have succeeded
+in building up several important towns and a large number of
+prosperous agricultural communities. One German authority
+(Hüber) estimates the number of Germans in two of these provinces
+at 5000. The arrivals, however, have been on the whole
+discouragingly small, the total for the years 1901-1905 being
+only 14,000.</p>
+
+<p>Although Chileans claim a comparatively small admixture
+with the native races, it is estimated that the whites and creoles
+of white extraction do not exceed 30 to 40% of the population,
+while the <i>mestizos</i> form fully 60%. This estimate is unquestionably
+conservative, for there has been no large influx of European
+blood to counterbalance the race mixtures of earlier times.
+The estimated number of Indians living within the boundaries
+of Chile is about 50,000, which presumably includes the nomadic
+tribes of the Fuegian archipelago, whose number probably
+does not reach 5000. The semi-independent Araucanians,
+whose territory is slowly being occupied by the whites, are
+concentrated in the eastern forests of Bio-Bio, Malleco and
+Cautin, all that remains to them of the Araucania which they
+so bravely and successfully defended for more than three
+centuries. Their number does not much exceed 40,000, which
+is being steadily reduced by drunkenness and epidemic diseases.
+A small part of these Indians live in settled communities and
+include some very successful stock-raisers, but the greater part
+live apart from civilization. There are also some remnants of
+tribes in the province of Chiloé, which inhabit the island of that
+name, the Chonos and Guaytecas archipelagoes and the adjacent
+mainland, who have the reputation of being good boatmen and
+fishermen; and there are remnants of a people called Changos,
+on the desert coast, and traces of Calchaqui blood in the
+neighbouring Andean foothills.</p>
+
+<p>There is a wide difference in every respect between the upper
+or ruling class and the common people. The former includes
+the landed proprietors, professional men and a part of those
+engaged in commercial and industrial pursuits. These educated
+classes form only a small minority of the population. Many of
+them, especially the landed proprietors, are descendants of the
+original Spanish settlers and are celebrated for their politeness
+and hospitality. The political control of the republic was secured
+to them by the constitution of 1833. The common people were
+kept in ignorance and practically in a state of hopeless servitude.
+They were allowed to occupy small leaseholds on the large estates
+on condition of performing a certain amount of work for the
+landlord. Every avenue toward the betterment of their condition
+was practically closed. The condition of the itinerant
+labourers (<i>peons</i>) was still worse, the wages paid them being
+hardly sufficient to keep them from starvation. The Chilean
+<i>peon</i>, however, comes from a hardy stock, and has borne all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span>
+these hardships with a fortitude and patience which go far to
+counterbalance his faults. Recent reforms in education, &amp;c.,
+together with the growth of manufacturing industries, are
+slowly leading to improvements in the material condition of
+the common people.</p>
+
+<p>The political organization of the country has not been favourable
+to the development of artistic or scientific tastes, though
+Chile has produced political leaders, statesmen and polemical
+writers in abundance. Historical
+literature has been enriched by
+the works of Diego Barros Arana,
+Benjamin Vicuña Mackenna, Miguel
+Luis Amunátegui, Carlos Walker
+Martinez, and others. One of the
+earliest native histories of Chile
+was that of Abbé J. Ignacio
+Molina, an English translation of
+which has long been a recognized
+authority; it is full of errors,
+however, and should be studied
+only in connexion with modern
+standard works. Among these must
+be included Claude Gay&rsquo;s monumental
+work, <i>Historia General de
+Chile</i>, and Sir C.R. Markham&rsquo;s
+admirable studies on special parts
+of the subject. In science, nearly all the important work has
+been done by foreigners, among whom are Charles Darwin,
+Claude Gay, Eduard Pöppig, Rudolph A. Philippi and Hans
+Steffen, who deserves special mention for his excellent geographical
+work in the southern Andes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Divisions and Towns.</i>&mdash;Chile contains 23 provinces and one
+territory, which are subdivided into 75 departments, 855 subdelegations
+and 3068 districts. The territory north of the Bio-Bio was originally
+divided into 13 provinces, besides which the Spaniards held
+Chiloé, Juan Fernandez and Valdivia, the latter being merely a
+military outpost. During the years which have elapsed since the
+War of Independence the territory south of the Bio-Bio has been
+effectively occupied and divided into six provinces, Chiloé and the
+neighbouring islands and mainland to the east became a province,
+and four provinces in the northern deserts were acquired from
+Bolivia and Peru. In addition to this, Chile claimed Patagonia and
+the adjacent islands, and has finally secured not only the forested
+strip of territory west of the Andes, but also a large piece of the
+Patagonian mainland, south of lat. 52° S., the larger part of Tierra
+del Fuego, and all the western islands. This extensive region,
+comprising an area of 71,127 sq. m., has been provisionally organized
+as the territory of Magallanes. For a list of provinces, their areas,
+reduced from official returns, their populations, and the names and
+populations of their capitals, see the bottom of this page.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Provinces.</td>  <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Area.</td>
+    <td class="tcc tb bb rb2 lb" rowspan="2">Population.<br />Census 1895.</td>  <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Capitals.</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Population.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Census 1895.</td>  <td class="tcc allb">Est. 1902.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Tacna </td>  <td class="tcr rb">9,251</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">24,160</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Tacna</td>  <td class="tcr rb">9,418</td>  <td class="tcr rb">11,504</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Tarapacá</td>  <td class="tcr rb">18,131</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">89,751</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Iquique</td>  <td class="tcr rb">33,031</td>  <td class="tcr rb">42,788</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Antofagasta</td>  <td class="tcr rb">46,611</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">44,035</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Antofagasta</td>  <td class="tcr rb">13,530</td>  <td class="tcr rb">16,084</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Atacama</td>  <td class="tcr rb">30,729</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">59,713</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Copiapo</td>  <td class="tcr rb">9,301</td>  <td class="tcr rb">8,991</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Coquimbo</td>  <td class="tcr rb">13,461</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">160,898</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">La Serena</td>  <td class="tcr rb">15,712</td>  <td class="tcr rb">19,536</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Aconcagua</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,487</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">113,165</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">San Felipe</td>  <td class="tcr rb">11,313</td>  <td class="tcr rb">11,660</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Valparaiso</td>  <td class="tcr rb">1,953</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">220,756</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Valparaiso</td>  <td class="tcr rb">122,447</td>  <td class="tcr rb">142,282</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Santiago</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,665</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">415,636</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Santiago</td>  <td class="tcr rb">256,403</td>  <td class="tcr rb">332,059</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">O&rsquo;Higgins</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,342</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">85,277</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Rancagua</td>  <td class="tcr rb">6,665</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,133</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Colchagua</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,856</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">157,566</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">San Fernando</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,447</td>  <td class="tcr rb">8,164</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Curicó</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,978</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">103,242</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Curicó</td>  <td class="tcr rb">12,669</td>  <td class="tcr rb">14,340</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Talca</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,840</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">128,961</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Talca</td>  <td class="tcr rb">33,232</td>  <td class="tcr rb">42,766</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Lináres</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,942</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">101,858</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Lináres</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,331</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,256</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Maule</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,475</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">119,791</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Cauquenes</td>  <td class="tcr rb">8,574</td>  <td class="tcr rb">9,895</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Nuble</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,407</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">152,935</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Chillan</td>  <td class="tcr rb">28,738</td>  <td class="tcr rb">36,382</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Concepción </td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,252 </td>  <td class="tcr rb2">188,190</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Concepción</td>  <td class="tcr rb">39,837</td>  <td class="tcr rb">49,351</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Arauco</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,458</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">59,237 </td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Lebú</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,784</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,178</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Bio-Bio</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,246</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">88,749</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Los Angeles</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,868</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,777</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Malleco</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,973</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">98,032</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Angol</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,056</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,638</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Cautin</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,832</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">78,221</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Temuco</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,078</td>  <td class="tcr rb">9,699</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Valdivia</td>  <td class="tcr rb">8,649</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">60,687</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Valdivia</td>  <td class="tcr rb">8,060</td>  <td class="tcr rb">9,704</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Llanquihue</td>  <td class="tcr rb">45,515</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">78,315</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Puerto Montt</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,480</td>  <td class="tcr rb">4,140</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Chiloé</td>  <td class="tcr rb">8,593</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">77,750</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Ancud</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,182</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,787</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Magallanes (Ter.)<br />&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">71,127</td>  <td class="tcr rb2 bb">5,170</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Punta Arenas</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,227</td>  <td class="tcr rb">8,327</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">&emsp;Total, official</td>  <td class="tcr rb">307,774</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">2,712,145</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Total according to</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">&ensp;Gotha computation</td>  <td class="tcr rb">293,062</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">With 10% added for</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">&emsp;omissions</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">2,983,359</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Official estimate</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">&emsp;for 1902</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb2 bb">3,173,783</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>In addition to the provincial capitals there are few towns of importance.
+Among these may be mentioned:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb2 lb" colspan="2">Population.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Population.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">1895.</td>  <td class="tccm tb bb rb2 lb">Est. 1902.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">1895.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">Est. 1902.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Arica</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,853</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">2,824</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Parral</td>  <td class="tcr rb">8,586</td>  <td class="tcr rb">10,219</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Pisagua</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,635</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">4,720</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Constitución</td>  <td class="tcr rb">6,400</td>  <td class="tcr rb">6,453</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Taltal</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,834</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">6,574</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">San Carlos</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,051</td>  <td class="tcr rb">6,579</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Tocopilla</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,383</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">4,752</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Coronel</td>  <td class="tcr rb">4,575</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,959</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Vallenar</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,052</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">5,199</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Lota</td>  <td class="tcr rb">9,797</td>  <td class="tcr rb">...&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Coquimbo</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,322</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">8,165</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Talcahuano</td>  <td class="tcr rb">10,431</td>  <td class="tcr rb">13,499</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Ovalle</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,565</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">5,772</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">El Tomé</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,977</td>  <td class="tcr rb">6,189</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Los Andes (Santa Rosa)</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,504</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">6,854</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Arauco </td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,008</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,334</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Quillota</td>  <td class="tcr rb">9,621</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">9,876</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Cañete</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,552</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Vina del Mar</td>  <td class="tcr rb">10,651</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">...&ensp;</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Mulchen</td>  <td class="tcr rb">4,268</td>  <td class="tcr rb">4,332</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Melipilla</td>  <td class="tcr rb">4,286</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">5,023</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Traiguen</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,732</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,099</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Rengo</td>  <td class="tcr rb">6,463</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">7,232</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Victoria</td>  <td class="tcr rb">6,989</td>  <td class="tcr rb">10,002</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Vichuquen</td>  <td class="tcr rb">826</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">3,714</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">La Unión</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,830</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,908</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Molina</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,609</td>  <td class="tcr rb2">3,222</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb">Osorno</td>  <td class="tcr rb">4,667</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,888</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcr rb2 bb">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tcl rlb bb">Castro (Chiloé)</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">1,035</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">2,166</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The population is not concentrated in large cities, but is well
+distributed through the cultivated parts of the country. The large
+number of small towns, important as ports, market towns, or
+manufacturing centres, is a natural result. Many of the foregoing towns
+are only villages in size, but their importance is not to be measured
+in this way. Arica is one of the oldest ports on the coast, and has
+long been a favoured port for Bolivian trade because the passes
+through the Cordilleras at that point are not so difficult. Moreover,
+the railway from Arica to La Paz will still further add to its
+importance, though it may not greatly increase its population. Another
+illustration is that of Vichuquen, province of Curicó, situated on a
+tide-water lake on the coast, which is the centre of a large salt-making
+industry. Still another instance is that of Castro, the oldest
+settlement and former capital of Chiloé, which after a century of
+decay is increasing again through the efforts to develop the
+industries of that island.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Railway construction in Chile dates from 1850,
+when work was begun on a short line between Copiapó and the port
+of Caldera, in the Atacama desert region. Since then lines have
+been built by private companies from
+the coast at several points to inland
+mining centres. One of these, running
+from Antofagasta to the Caracoles
+district, was afterwards extended to
+Oruro, Bolivia, and has become a
+commercial route of international
+importance, with a total length of
+574 m., 224 of which are in Chile.
+It should be remembered that many
+of these railway enterprises of the
+desert region originated at a time when
+the territory belonged to Bolivia and
+Peru. The first railway to be
+constructed in central Chile was the
+government line from Valparaiso to
+Santiago, 115 m. in length, which
+was opened to traffic in 1863. About
+the same time the government began
+the construction of a longitudinal
+trunk line running southward from
+Santiago midway between the Andes
+and the Coast range, and connecting
+with all the provincial capitals and
+prominent ports. This is the only
+railway &ldquo;system&rdquo; it is possible for
+Chile to have. The civil war of 1891
+called attention to the need of a similar
+inland route through the northern
+provinces. A branch of the Valparaiso
+and Santiago line runs to Los Andes,
+and its extension across the Andes
+connects with the Argentine lines
+from Buenos Aires to Mendoza and
+the Chilean frontier&mdash;all sections
+together forming a transcontinental
+route about 850 m. in length. The
+Transandine section of this route
+crosses the Cordillera through the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span>
+Uspallata pass. A further Transandine scheme provides for a line
+through the Pino Hachado pass (38° 30&prime; to 39° S.), and the Argentine
+Great Southern Company obtained a concession in 1909 to extend its
+Neuquen line to the frontier of Chile. The railways of the republic
+had a total mileage at the end of 1906 of 2950 m., of which 1495 m.
+were owned by the state, and 1455 m. belonged to private companies.
+The private lines are located in the northern provinces and are for
+the most part built and maintained for the transportation of mining
+products and supplies.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to her railway lines Chile has about 21,000 m. of public
+roads of all descriptions, 135 m. of tramways, and 705 m. of navigable
+river channels, besides a very considerable mileage of lake and coast
+navigation. Telegraphic communication between all the important
+towns of the republic, initiated in 1855 with a line between Santiago
+and Valparaiso, is maintained by the state, which in 1903 owned
+9306 m. of line in a total of 11,080 m. Cable communication with
+Europe by way of Buenos Aires was opened in 1875, and is now
+maintained by means of two underground cables across the Andes,
+32 m. in length. A West Coast cable also connects with Europe and
+North American states by way of Panama. There were 15,853 m.
+of telephone wires in the republic in 1906, all the principal cities
+having an admirable service. Modern postal facilities date from
+1853. The Chilean post-office is administered by a director-general
+at Santiago, and has a high degree of efficiency and liberality, compared
+with those of other South American states. The postal rates
+are low, and newspapers and other periodical publications circulate
+free, as a means of popular instruction. The postal revenues for
+1904 amounted to 2,775,730 pesos and the expenditures to 2,407,753
+pesos. Chile is a member of the International Postal Union, and has
+arrangements with the principal commercial nations for the exchange
+of postal money values.</p>
+
+<p>The sea has been the only means of communication with distant
+parts of the country, and must continue to be the chief transportation
+route. There are said to be 56 ports on the Chilean coast,
+of which only 12 are prominent in foreign trade. Many of the so-called
+ports are only landing-places on an open coast, others are on
+shallow bays and obstructed river-mouths, and some are little-known
+harbours among the channels and islands of the south. The prosperity
+of Chile is intimately connected with her ocean-going trade,
+and no elaborate system of national railway lines and domestic
+manufactures can ever change this relationship. These conditions
+should have developed a large merchant marine, but the Chileans
+are not traders and are sailors only in a military sense. In 1905 their
+ocean-going merchant marine consisted of only 148 vessels, of which
+54 were steamers of 42,873 tons net, and 94 were sailing vessels of
+39,346 tons. Nineteen of the 54 steamers belonged to a subsidized
+national line whose West Coast service once extended to San Francisco,
+California, and a large part of the others belongs to a Lota
+coal-mining and copper-smelting company which employs them in
+carrying coal to the northern ports and bringing back metallic ores
+for smelting. The navigable rivers and inland lakes employ a number
+of small steamers. The foreign commerce of the republic is carried
+chiefly by foreign vessels, and the coasting trade is also open to them.
+Three or four foreign companies maintain a regular steamship service
+to Valparaiso and other Chilean ports. The shipping entries
+at all Chilean ports during the year 1904, both national and
+foreign, numbered 11,756, aggregating 17,723,138 tons, and the clearances
+11,689, aggregating 17,370,763 tons. Very nearly one-half this
+tonnage was British, a little over 18% German, and about 29%
+Chilean.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;In the aggregate, the commerce of Chile is large and
+important; in proportion to population it is exceeded among South
+American states only by Argentina, Uruguay and the Guianas.
+Unlike those states, it depends in great part on mining and its allied
+occupations. The values of imports and exports (including bullion,
+specie and re-exports) in pesos of 18d. during the five years 1901-
+1905 were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc">Imports.<br />pesos.</td> <td class="tcc">Exports.<br />pesos.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcc">139,300,766</td> <td class="tcc">171,844,976</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1902</td> <td class="tcc">132,428,204</td> <td class="tcc">185,879,965</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1903</td> <td class="tcc">149,081,524</td> <td class="tcc">210,442,144</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1904</td> <td class="tcc">164,874,928</td> <td class="tcc">232,493,598</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1905</td> <td class="tcc">188,596,418</td> <td class="tcc">265,209,192</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The principal imports comprise live animals, fish, coffee, maté
+(<i>Ilex paraguayensis</i>), tea, sugar, wood and its manufactures, structural
+iron and steel, hardware and machinery, railway and telegraph
+supplies, lime and cement, glass and earthenware, cotton, woollen
+and silk manufactures, coal, petroleum, paints, &amp;c. Import duties
+are imposed at the rates of 60, 35, 15, 5 and 25%, and certain
+classes of merchandise are admitted free. The higher rates are
+designed chiefly to protect national industries, while wines, liquors,
+cigars and tobacco are admitted at the lowest rate. The 25% rate
+covers all articles not mentioned in the schedules, which number 2260
+items. The duty free list includes raw cotton, certain descriptions
+of live animals, agricultural machinery and implements, metal wire,
+fire engines, structural iron and steel, and machinery in general.
+The tariff is nominally <i>ad valorem</i>, but as the rates are imposed on
+fixed official valuations it is essentially specific. The duties on
+imports in 1905 amounted to 91,321,860 pesos, and in 1906 to
+103,507,556 pesos. The principal exports are gold, silver, copper
+(bars, regulus and ores), cobalt and its ores, lead and its ores,
+vanadium ores, manganese, coal, nitrate of soda, borate of lime,
+iodine, sulphur, wheat and guano. Nitrate of soda forms from 70
+to 75% of the exports, and the royalty received from it is the
+principal source of national revenue, yielding about £4,000,000 per
+annum. In 1904 mineral products made up fully seven-eighths of
+the exports, while agricultural and pastoral products did not quite
+reach one-eighth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;According to the census returns about one-half the
+population of Chile lives in rural districts, and is engaged nominally
+in agricultural pursuits. What may be called central Chile is
+singularly well adapted to agriculture. The northern part of this
+region has a sub-tropical climate, light rainfall and a long, dry
+summer, but with irrigation it produces a great variety of products.
+Alfalfa, or lucerne (<i>Medicago sativa</i>), is grown extensively for
+shipment to the mining towns of the desert provinces. There were no
+less than 108,384 acres devoted to it in 1904, a considerable part of
+which was in the irrigated river valleys of Coquimbo and Aconcagua.
+Considerable attention is also given to fruit cultivation in these
+subtropical provinces, where the orange, lemon, fig, melon, pineapple
+and banana are produced with much success. Some districts,
+especially in Coquimbo, have gained a high reputation for the excellence
+of their preserved fruits. The vine is cultivated all the way
+from Atacama and Coquimbo, where excellent raisins are produced,
+south to Concepción, where some of the best wines of Chile are
+manufactured. In 1904 there were 93,370 acres devoted to grape
+production in this region, the product for that year being 30,184,704
+gallons of wine and 212,366 gallons of brandy. The universal
+beverage of the people&mdash;<i>chicha</i>&mdash;is made from Indian corn.
+Although wheat is produced in the northern part of this region, it
+is grown with greater success in the south, where the rainfall is
+heavier and the average temperature is lower. There were 1,044,025
+acres devoted to this cereal in 1903, which produced 17,910,614
+bushels, or an average of 17 bushels (of 60 lb) to the acre. In 1904
+the production was increased to 19,999,324 bushels, but in 1905 it
+fell off to 15,771,477 bushels. At one time Chile supplied Argentina
+and the entire West Coast as far north as California with wheat, but
+Argentina and California have become wheat producers and exporters,
+and Chile has been driven from all her old consuming
+markets. Great Britain is now her best customer, and Brazil takes
+a small quantity for milling mixtures. Chile has been badly handicapped
+by her crude methods of cultivation, but these are passing
+away and modern methods are taking their place. Formerly wheat
+was grown chiefly in the region of long rainless summers, and the
+ripened grain was thrown upon uncovered earth floors and threshed
+by horses driven about over the straw, but this antiquated process
+was not suited to the climate and enterprise of the more southern
+provinces, and the modern threshing-machine has been introduced.
+Barley is largely produced, chiefly for home consumption. Maize
+(Indian corn) is grown in every part of Chile except the rainy south
+where the grain cannot ripen, and is a principal article of food. The
+green maize furnishes two popular national dishes, <i>choclos</i> and
+<i>humitas</i>, which are eaten by both rich and poor. Potatoes also are
+widely cultivated, but the humid regions of the south, particularly
+from Valdivia to Chiloé, produce the greatest quantity. The total
+annual production exceeds three million bushels. The kidney bean
+(<i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i>) is another staple product in every part of the
+country, and is perhaps the most popular article of food among all
+classes of Chileans. Peas are largely cultivated south of the Maule.
+Walnuts have become another important product and are exported,
+the average annual produce being 48,000 to 50,000 bushels. The
+olive was introduced from Spain in colonial times and is widely
+distributed through the north central provinces, but its economic
+importance is not great. Of the European fruits introduced into
+the southern provinces, the apple has been the most successful.
+It grows with little care and yields even better than in its original
+home. The peach, apricot, plum, quince and cherry are also cultivated
+with success. Wild strawberries are found on both sides of
+the Andes; the cultivated varieties are unsurpassed, especially
+those of the province of Concepción.</p>
+
+<p>The pastoral industries of Chile have been developed chiefly for
+the home market. The climate is admirably suited to cattle-raising,
+as the winters are mild and pasture is to be found throughout the
+whole year, but the proximity of the Argentine pampas is fatal to
+its profitable development. The government has been trying to
+promote cattle-breeding by levying duties (as high as 16 pesos a
+head) on cattle imported from Argentina, but with no great success.
+The importation, which formerly numbered about 140,000 per annum,
+still numbers not far from 100,000 head. There are some districts
+in central Chile where cattle-raising is the principal occupation, but
+the long dry summers limit the pasturage on the open plains and
+prevent the development which perhaps would otherwise result.
+As in Argentina, beef is generally dried in the sun to make <i>charqui</i>
+(jerked beef), in which form it is exported to the desert provinces.
+Horse and mule breeding are carried on to a limited extent, and
+since the opening of the far South more attention has been given to
+sheep. Goats and swine are raised in small numbers on the large
+estates, but in Chiloé swine-raising is one of the chief occupations
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span>
+of the people. Some attention has been given to the production of
+butter and cheese, but the industry has attained no great importance.
+A new industry which has made noteworthy progress, however, is
+that of bee-keeping, which is greatly favoured by the mild climate
+and the long season and abundance of flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manufactures.</i>&mdash;The manufacturing interests of Chile have become
+influential enough to force a high tariff policy upon the country.
+They have been restricted principally to articles of necessity&mdash;food
+preparations, beverages, textiles and wearing apparel, leather and
+leatherwork, woodwork, pottery, chemicals, ironware, &amp;c. In earlier
+days, when Chile had less competition in the production of wheat,
+flour mills were to be found everywhere in the wheat-producing
+provinces, and flour was one of the leading exports. Concepción,
+Talca, and other provincial capitals developed important milling
+industries, which were extended to all the chief towns of the newer
+provinces south of the Bio-Bio. There are over 500 large flour mills
+in Chile, the greater part of which are equipped with modern
+roller-process machinery. The development of the coal deposits in the
+provinces of Concepción and Arauco has made possible other industries
+besides those of smelting mineral ores, and numerous small
+manufacturing establishments have resulted, especially in Santiago,
+Valparaiso, Copiapó and other places where no permanent water
+power exists. Tanning leather is an important industry, especially
+in the south, some of the Chilean trees, notably the <i>algarrobilla</i>
+(<i>Balsamocarpon brevifolium</i>) and <i>lingue</i> (<i>Persea lingue</i>)
+being rich in tannin. To provide a market for the leather produced,
+factories have been established for the manufacture of boots and shoes,
+harness and saddles, and under the protection of a high tariff are doing
+well. Brewing and distilling have made noteworthy progress, the domestic
+consumption of their products being very large. The breweries are
+generally worked by Germans and are situated chiefly in the south,
+though there are large establishments in Santiago and Valparaiso.
+Small quantities of their products are exported. Furniture and
+carriage factories, cooperages, and other manufactories of wood are
+numerous and generally prosperous. There are likewise a large
+number of factories for canning and preserving fruits and vegetables.
+Foundries and machine shops have been established, especially for
+the manufacture of railway material. The sugar beet has been
+added to the productions of Chile, and with it the manufacture on
+a small scale of beet sugar. There is one large refinery at Viña del
+Mar, however, which imports raw cane sugar from Peru for refining.
+The manufacture of textiles is carried on at Santiago and El Tomé,
+and numerous small factories are devoted to clothing of various
+descriptions. The great mining industries have led to a noteworthy
+development in the production of chemicals, and a considerable
+number of factories are engaged in the production of pharmaceutical
+preparations, perfumeries, soaps, candles, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mining</i>.&mdash;The most important of all the national industries,
+however, is that of mining. In 1903 there were 11,746 registered
+mines, on which mining dues were paid, the aggregate produce being
+valued at 178,768,170 pesos. These mines gave employment to
+46,592 labourers, of whom 24,445 were employed by the nitrate
+companies, 13,710 in various metalliferous mines, 6437 in coal
+mines, and 2000 in other mines. Gold is found in nearly all the
+provinces from Antofagasta to Concepción, and in Llanquihue,
+Chiloé and Magallanes territory, but the output is not large. There
+are a great many placer washings, among which are some extensive
+deposits near the Straits of Magellan. Silver is found principally
+on the elevated slopes and plateaus of the Andes in the desert
+provinces of the north. The second most important mining industry
+in Chile, however, is that of copper, which is found in the provinces of
+Antofagasta, Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Valparaiso, Santiago,
+O&rsquo;Higgins, Colchagua, Curicó and Talca, but the richest deposits
+are in the three desert provinces. Chile was once the largest producer
+of copper in the world, her production in 1860-1864 being
+rated at 60 to 67% of the total. Low prices afterwards caused a
+large shrinkage in the output, but she is still classed among the
+principal producers. Iron mining has never been developed in Chile,
+although extensive deposits are said to exist. Manganese ores are
+mined in Atacama and Coquimbo, and their export is large. The
+other metals reported in the official returns are lead, cobalt and
+vanadium, of which only small quantities are produced. Bolivian
+tin is exported from Chilean ports. Among the non-metallic minerals
+are nitrate of soda, borate of lime, coal, salt and sulphur, together
+with various products derived from these minerals, such as iodine,
+sulphuric acid, &amp;c. Guano is classed among the mineral products
+and still figures as an export, though the richest Chilean deposits
+were exhausted long before the war with Peru. Of non-metallic
+products nitrate of soda is by far the most important. Extensive
+deposits of the salt (called <i>caliche</i> in its crude, impure state) in
+the provinces of Tacna, Tarapacá, Antofagasta and Atacama owe their
+existence to the rainless character of the climate. Those of the
+first-named province have been discovered since the war between Chile
+and Peru, and have greatly extended the prospective life of the industry.
+The nitrate fields, which lie between 50 and 100 m. from
+the coast and at elevations exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level, have
+been officially estimated at 89,177 hectares (344 sq. m.) and to contain
+2316 millions of metric quintals (254,760,000 short tons). The
+first export of nitrates was in 1830, and in 1884 it reached an
+aggregate of 550,000 tons, and in 1905 of 1,603,140 tons. The latter
+figure is apparently about the production agreed upon between the
+Chilean government and the nitrate companies to prevent overproduction
+and a resulting decline in price. Nearly all the <i>oficinas</i>,
+or working plants, are owned and operated by British companies,
+and the railways of this desolate region are generally owned by the
+same companies and form a part of the working plant. Borate of
+lime also furnishes another important export, though a less valuable
+one than nitrate of soda. Extensive deposits of borax and common
+salt have been found in the same region, which with several other
+products of these saline deposits, such as iodine, add considerably
+to its exports. The coal deposits of Chile are found chiefly in the
+provinces of Concepción and Arauco, the principal mines being on
+the coast of the Bay of Arauco at Coronel and Lota. Coal is found
+also in Valdivia, on the island of Chiloé, and in the vicinity of Punta
+Arenas on the Straits of Magellan. Sulphur is found in the volcanic
+regions of the north, but the principal mines are in the provinces
+of Talca.</p>
+
+<p>The relative magnitude and value of these mineral products may
+be seen in the following abstract from the official returns of 1903:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Unit.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">Quantity.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Value pesos<br />(of 18d.).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Gold</td> <td class="tcc rb">grammes</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,424,625</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,745,115</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Silver</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,012,382</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,284,308</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Copper</td> <td class="tcc rb">kilogrs.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,923,132</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,438,397</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Lead</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,984</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,097</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Cobalt ore</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">284,990</td> <td class="tcr rb">99,695</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Lead and Vanadium ores</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Manganese ore</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,110,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">682,400</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Coal</td> <td class="tcc rb">tons</td> <td class="tcr rb">827,112</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,250,720</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Nitrates</td> <td class="tcc rb">metric quintals</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,449,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">140,102,012</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Iodine</td> <td class="tcc rb">kilogrs.</td> <td class="tcr rb">157,444</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,687,327</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Borates</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,878,913</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,363,048</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Salt</td> <td class="tcc rb">metric quintals</td> <td class="tcr rb">162,635</td> <td class="tcr rb">324,270</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcc rb">kilogrs.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,440,642</td> <td class="tcr rb">337,515</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Sulphuric acid</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,600,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">176,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Guano</td> <td class="tcc rb">metric quintals</td> <td class="tcr rb">111,335</td> <td class="tcr rb">267,466</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Various</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">kilogrs.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">200</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">800</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;Chile is a centralized republic, whose
+government is administered under the provisions of the constitution
+of 1833 and the amendments of the 9th of August 1888, the 11th
+of August 1890, the 20th of August 1890, the 22nd of December
+1891, and the 7th of July 1892. According to this constitution
+the sovereignty resides in the nation, but suffrage is restricted
+to married citizens over twenty-one and unmarried citizens over
+twenty-five years of age, not in domestic service, who can read
+and write, and who are the owners of real estate, or who have
+capital invested in business or industry, or who receive salaries
+or incomes proportionate in value to such real estate as investment;
+and as 75% of the population is classed as illiterate, and
+a great majority of the labouring classes is landless, badly paid,
+and miserably poor, it is apparent that political sovereignty
+in Chile is the well-guarded possession of a small minority. The
+dominant element in this minority is the rich landholding interest,
+and the constitution and the laws of the first half-century were
+framed for the special protection of that interest.</p>
+
+<p>The supreme powers of government are vested in three distinct
+branches&mdash;legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative
+power is exercised by a national congress, which consists of two
+chambers&mdash;-a senate of 32 members, and a chamber of deputies
+of 94 members. The membership of the lower house is in the
+proportion of one deputy for each 30,000 of the departmental
+population, and each fraction over 15,000; and the senate is
+entitled to one-third the membership of the chamber. The
+senators are elected by provinces and by a direct cumulative vote,
+and hold office for six years, one-half of the senate being renewed
+every three years. The deputies are elected by departments and
+by a direct cumulative vote, and hold office for three years.
+Both senators and deputies must have reached the age of thirty-six,
+must have a specified income, and are required to serve
+without salary. A permanent committee of 14 members represents
+the two chambers during the congressional recess and
+exercises certain supervisory and advisory powers in the
+administration of public affairs. Congress convenes each year on
+the 1st of June and sits until the 1st of September, but the
+president may prorogue an ordinary session for a period of 50
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span>
+days, and with the consent of the council of state may convene it
+in extraordinary session. Congress has the privilege of giving
+or withholding its confidence in the acts of the government.</p>
+
+<p>The executive is a president who is elected for a term of five
+years and is ineligible for the next succeeding term. He is chosen
+by electors, who are elected by departments in the manner
+prescribed for deputies and in the proportion of three electors for
+each deputy. These elections are held on the 25th of June in
+the last year of a presidential term, the electors cast their votes on
+the 25th of July, and the counting takes place in a joint session
+of the two chambers of congress on the 30th of August, congress
+in joint session having the power to complete the election when
+no candidate has been duly chosen by the electors. The formal
+installation of the president takes place on the 18th of September,
+the anniversary of the declaration of national independence.
+In addition to the prerogatives commonly invested in his office,
+the president is authorized to supervise the judiciary, to nominate
+candidates for the higher ecclesiastical offices, to intervene in
+the enforcement of ecclesiastical decrees, papal bulls, &amp;c., to
+exercise supervisory police powers, and to appoint the intendants
+of provinces and the governors of departments, who in turn
+appoint the sub-delegates and inspectors of subordinate political
+divisions. The president, who is paid £2250 per annum, must
+be native-born, not less than thirty years of age, and eligible
+for election to the lower house. He is assisted and advised by a
+cabinet of six ministers whose departments are: interior, foreign
+affairs, worship and colonization, justice and public instruction,
+war and marine, finance, industry and public works. In case
+of a vacancy in the presidential office, the minister of interior
+becomes the &ldquo;vice-president of the republic&rdquo; and discharges
+the duties of the executive office until a successor can be legally
+elected. A council of state of 12 members, consisting of the
+president, 6 members appointed by congress and 5 by the
+president, has advisory functions, and its approval is required
+in many executive acts and appointments.</p>
+
+<p>The provinces are administered by <i>intendentes</i>, and the departments
+by <i>gobernadores</i>, both appointees of the national executive.
+The sub-delegacies are governed by <i>sub-delegados</i> appointed by
+the governors, and the districts by <i>inspectores</i> appointed by the
+sub-delegates. Directly and indirectly; therefore, the administration
+of all these political divisions is in the hands of the president,
+who, in like manner, makes and controls the appointments of
+all judicial functionaries, subject, however, to receiving recommendations
+of candidates from the courts and to submitting
+appointments to the approval of the council of state. This gives
+the national executive absolute control of all administrative
+matters in every part of the republic. The police force also
+is a national organization under the immediate control of
+the minister of interior, and the public prosecutor in every
+department is a representative of the national government.
+There is no legislative body in any of these political divisions, nor
+any administrative official directly representing the people, with
+this exception: under the law of the 22nd of December 1891,
+municipalities, or communes, are created and invested with certain
+specified powers of local government affecting local police services,
+sanitation, local improvements, primary instruction, industrial
+and business regulations, &amp;c.; they are authorized to borrow
+money for sanitary improvements, road-making, education,
+&amp;c., and to impose certain specified taxes for their support;
+these municipalities elect their own <i>alcaldes</i>, or mayors, and
+municipal councils, the latter having legislative powers within
+the limits of the law mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Justice.</i>&mdash;The judicial power consists of a Supreme Court of Justice
+of seven members located in the national capital, which exercises
+supervisory and disciplinary authority over all the law courts of the
+republic; six courts of appeal, in Tacna, Serena, Valparaiso, Santiago,
+Talca and Concepción; tribunals of first instance in the department
+capitals; and minor courts, or justices of the peace, in the sub-delegacies
+and districts. The jury system does not exist in Chile,
+and juries are unknown except in cases where the freedom of the
+press has been abused. All trials, therefore, are heard by one or
+more judges, and appeals may be taken from a lower to a higher
+court. The government is represented in each department by a
+public prosecutor. The police officials, who are under the direct
+control of the minister of interior, also exercise some degree of judicial
+authority. This force is essentially military in its organization, and
+consisted in 1901 of 500 officers, 934 non-commissioned officers and
+5400 police soldiers. Small forces of local policemen are supported
+by various municipalities. The judges of the higher courts are appointed
+by the national executive, and those of the minor tribunals
+by the federal official governing the political division in which they
+are located.</p>
+
+<p><i>Army</i>.&mdash;For military purposes the republic is divided into five
+districts, the northern desert provinces forming the first, the central
+provinces as far south as the Bio-Bio the second and third, and the
+southern provinces and territory the fourth and fifth. Large sums
+of money have been expended in arms, equipment, guns and
+fortifications. The army is organized on the German model and has
+been trained by European officers who have been employed both
+for the school and regiment. Though the president and minister of
+war are the nominal heads of the army, its immediate direction is
+concentrated in a general staff comprising six service departments,
+at the head of which is a chief of staff. After the triumph of the
+revolutionists in the civil war of 1891, the army was reorganized
+under the direction of Colonel Emil Körner, an accomplished German
+officer, who subsequently served as chief of the general staff. In
+1904 the permanent force consisted of 12 battalions of infantry,
+6 regiments of cavalry, 4 regiments of mountain artillery, 1 regiment
+of horse artillery, 2 regiments of coast artillery, and 5 companies of
+engineers&mdash;aggregating 915 officers and 4757 men. To this nucleus
+were added 6160 recruits, the contingent for that year of young men
+twenty-one years of age compelled to serve with the colours. Under
+the law of the 5th of September 1900, military service is obligatory
+for all citizens between eighteen and forty-five years, all young men
+of twenty-one years being required to serve a certain period with the
+regular force. After this period they are transferred to the 1st
+reserve for 9 years, and then to the 2nd reserve. The military rifle
+adopted for all three branches of the service is the Mauser, 1895
+model, of 7 mm. calibre, and the batteries are provided with Krupp
+guns of 7 and 7.5 cm. calibre. Military instruction is given in a well-organized
+military school at Santiago, a war academy and a school
+of military engineering.</p>
+
+<p><i>Navy</i>.&mdash;The Chilean navy is essentially British in organization
+and methods, and all its best fighting ships were built in British
+yards. In 1906 the effective fighting force consisted of 1 battle
+ship, 2 belted cruisers, 4 protected cruisers, 3 torpedo gunboats, 6
+destroyers and 8 modern torpedo boats. In addition to these there
+are several inferior armed vessels of various kinds which bring the
+total up to 40, not including transports and other auxiliaries. The
+administration of the navy, under the president and minister of war
+and marine, is confided to a general naval staff, called the &ldquo;Direccion
+jeneral de la Armada,&rdquo; with headquarters at Valparaiso. Its duties
+also include the military protection of the ports, the hydrographic
+survey of the coast, and the lighthouse service. The <i>personnel</i> comprises
+about 465 officers, including those of the staff, and 4000 petty
+officers and men. There is a military port at Talcahuano, in Concepción
+Bay, strongly fortified, and provided with arsenal and repair
+shops, a large dry dock and a patent slip. The naval school, which
+occupies one of the noteworthy edifices of Valparaiso, is attended
+by 90 cadets and is noted for the thoroughness of its instruction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education</i>.&mdash;Under the old conservative régime very little was
+done for the public school outside the larger towns. As a large proportion
+of the labouring classes lived in the small towns and rural
+communities, they received comparatively little attention. The
+increasing influence of more liberal ideas greatly improved the
+situation with reference to popular education, and the government
+now makes vigorous efforts to bring its public school system within
+the reach of all. The constitution provides that free instruction
+must be provided for the people. School attendance is not compulsory,
+however, and the gain upon illiteracy (75%) appears to be
+very slow. The government also gives primary instruction to recruits
+when serving with the colours, which, with the increasing employment
+of the people in the towns, helps to stimulate a desire for
+education among the lower classes. Education in Chile is very
+largely under the control of the national government, the minister
+of justice and public instruction being charged with the direction of
+all public schools from the university down to the smallest and most
+remote primary school. The system includes the University of
+Chile and National Institute at Santiago, lyceums or high schools in
+all the provincial capitals and larger towns, normal schools at central
+points for the training of public school teachers, professional and
+industrial schools, military schools and primary schools. Instruction
+in all these is free, and under certain conditions text-books are
+supplied. In the normal schools, where the pupils are trained to
+enter the public service as primary teachers, not only is the tuition
+free, but also books, board, lodging and everything needed in their
+school work. The national university at Santiago comprises faculties
+of theology, law and political science, medicine and pharmacy,
+natural sciences and mathematics, and philosophy. The range of
+studies is wide, and the attendance large. The National Institute
+at Santiago is the principal high school of the secondary grade in
+Chile. There were 30 of these high schools for males and 12 for
+females in 1903, with an aggregate of 11,504 matriculated students.
+The normal schools for males are located at Santiago, Chillán and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span>
+Valdivia; and for females at La Serena, Santiago and Concepción.
+The mining schools at Copiapó, La Serena and Santiago had an
+aggregate attendance of 180 students in 1903, and the commercial
+schools at Iquique and Santiago an attendance of 214. The more
+important agricultural schools are located at Santiago, Chillán,
+Concepción and Ancud, the Quinta Normal de Agricultura in the
+national capital having a large attendance. The School of Mechanic
+Arts and Trades (<i>Escuela de Artes y Oficios</i>) of Santiago has a high
+reputation for the practical character of its instruction, in which
+it is admirably seconded by a normal handicraft school (Slöyd system)
+and a night school of industrial drawing in the same city, and professional
+schools for girls in Santiago and Valparaiso, where the
+pupils are taught millinery, dress-making, knitting, embroidery
+and fancy needlework. The government also maintains schools for
+the blind and for the deaf and dumb. The public primary schools
+numbered 1961 in 1903, with 3608 teachers, 166,928 pupils enrolled,
+and an average attendance of 108,582. The cost of maintaining
+these schools was 4,146,574 pesos, or an average of £2:17:3 per
+pupil in attendance. In addition to the public schools there are a
+Roman Catholic university at Santiago, which includes law and civil
+engineering among its regular courses of study; numerous private
+schools and seminaries of the secondary grade, with a total of 11,184
+students of both sexes in 1903; and 506 private primary schools, with
+an attendance of 29,684. The private schools usually conform to
+the official requirements in regard to studies and examinations,
+which facilitates subsequent admission to the university and the
+obtainment of degrees; probably they do better work than the
+public schools, especially in the German settlements of the southern
+provinces. A Consejo de Instrucción Pública (council of public
+instruction) of 14 members exercises a general supervision over the
+higher and secondary schools. There are schools of music and fine
+arts in Santiago. The national library at Santiago, with 116,300
+volumes in 1906, and the national observatory, are both efficiently
+administered. At the beginning of the 20th century there were 41
+public libraries in the republic, including public school collections,
+with an aggregate of 240,000 volumes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charities.</i>&mdash;According to the returns of 1903 there were 88 hospitals
+in the republic, which reported 79,051 admissions during the
+year, and had 6215 patients under treatment at its close; 628,536
+patients received gratuitous medical assistance at the public dispensaries
+during the year; there were 24 foundling hospitals with
+5570 children; and there were 3092 persons in the various <i>hospicios</i>
+or asylums, and 1478 in the imbecile asylums.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;The Roman Catholic religion is declared by the constitution
+to be the religion of the state, and the inaugural oath of
+the president pledges him to protect it. A considerable part of its
+income is derived from a subsidy included in the annual budget,
+which makes it a charge upon the national treasury like any other
+public service. The secular supervision of this service is entrusted
+to a member of the president&rsquo;s cabinet, known as the minister of
+worship and colonization. The executive and legislative powers
+intervene in the appointments to the higher offices of the Church.
+The greater part of the population remains loyal to the established
+faith. The law of 1865 gives the privilege of religious worship to
+other faiths, and the laws of 1883 made civil marriage and the civil
+registry of births, deaths and marriages obligatory, and secularized
+the cemeteries. Under the reform of 1865 full religious freedom
+is practically accorded, and it is provided that the services of religious
+organizations other than the Roman Catholic may be held in private
+residences or in edifices owned by private individuals or corporations.
+Of the 72,812 foreigners residing in Chile in 1895, about 16,000 were
+described as Protestants. Notwithstanding the opposition of some
+political elements to the Church, the Chileans themselves may all be
+classed as Roman Catholics. The ecclesiastical organization includes
+one archbishop, who resides at Santiago, three bishops residing at
+La Serena, Concepción and Ancud, and two vicars residing in Antofagasta
+and Tarapacá. These benefices are filled by appointments
+from lists of three prepared by the council of state and sent to Rome
+by the president, and in the case of an archbishop or bishop the
+appointment must also receive the approval of the Senate. The
+Chilean clergy are drawn very largely from the higher classes, and their
+social standing is much better than in many South American states.
+The Church also possesses much property of its own, and is therefore
+able to maintain itself on a comparatively small subsidy from the
+public treasury, which was 985,910 pesos (£73,943) in 1902. The
+Church maintains seminaries in all cathedral towns, and these also
+receive a subsidy from the government.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;For a long time Chile was considered one of the poorest
+states of Spanish America, but the acquisition of the rich mineral-producing
+provinces of the north, together with the development
+of new silver and copper mines in Atacama and Coquimbo, largely
+increased her revenues and enabled her to develop other important
+resources. During the decade 1831-1840 the annual revenues
+averaged about 2,100,000 pesos (of 48d.), which in the decade 1861-1870
+had increased to an average of only 8,200,000 pesos&mdash;and this
+during a period of considerable agricultural activity on account of
+wheat exports to California and Australia. After 1870 the revenues
+increased more rapidly owing to the development of new mining
+industries, the receipts in 1879 amounting to 15,300,000 pesos, and
+in 1882 to 28,900,000 pesos. The revenues from the captured
+Peruvian nitrate fields then became an important part of the national
+income, which ten years later (1902) reached an aggregate of
+138,507,178 pesos (of i8d.), of which 105,072,832 pesos were in gold.
+In 1906 the receipts from all sources were estimated at 149,100,000
+pesos, of which 62,200,000 pesos gold were credited to the tax on
+nitrate, 39,800,000 pesos gold to import duties, and 23,500,000 pesos
+currency to railway receipts. During these years of fiscal prosperity
+the country suffered much from financial crises caused by industrial
+stagnation, an excessive and depreciated paper currency and
+political disorder. To ensure an income that would meet its foreign
+engagements, the government collected the nitrate and iodine taxes
+and import duties in gold. As a considerable part of the expenditures
+were in gold, the practice was adopted of keeping the gold and currency
+accounts separate. In 1895 a conversion law was passed in which
+the sterling value of the peso was reduced to 18d., at which rate the
+outstanding paper should be redeemed. A conversion fund was also
+created, and, although the government afterwards authorized two
+more large issues, the beneficial effects of this law were so pronounced
+that the customs regulations were modified in 1907 to permit the payment
+of import duties in paper. The national revenue is derived chiefly
+from the nitrate taxes, customs duties, alcohol tax, and from railway,
+postal and telegraph receipts. There is no land tax, and licence or
+business taxes are levied by the municipalities for local purposes.
+The national expenditures are chiefly for the interest and amortization
+charges on the public debt, official salaries, military expenses
+in connexion with the army and navy, public works (including railway
+construction, port improvements, water and sewage works), the
+administration of the state railways, telegraph lines and post office,
+church subsidies, public instruction and foreign representation.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary and extraordinary receipts and expenditures for the
+five years 1899-1903, in gold and currency, in pesos of 18d., were as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Receipts, pesos.</td>
+    <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Expenditures, pesos.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Gold.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Paper.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Gold.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Paper.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc rlb"></td> <td class="tcr rb"></td>  <td class="tcr rb"></td>  <td class="tcr rb"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rlb">1899</td>  <td class="tcr rb">83,051,604</td>  <td class="tcr rb">45,239.970</td>  <td class="tcr rb">31,732,797</td>  <td class="tcr rb">76,749,793</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rlb">1900</td>  <td class="tcr rb">89,869,178</td>  <td class="tcr rb">46,515,102</td>  <td class="tcr rb">30,564,821</td>  <td class="tcr rb">82,143,742</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rlb">1901</td>  <td class="tcr rb">74,665,061</td>  <td class="tcr rb">35,394,434</td>  <td class="tcr rb">39,808,517</td>  <td class="tcr rb">91,087,171</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rlb">1902</td>  <td class="tcr rb">105,072,832</td>  <td class="tcr rb">33,434,346</td>  <td class="tcr rb">45,093,278<a name="FnAnchor_5c" id="FnAnchor_5c" href="#Footnote_5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td>  <td class="tcr rb">89,170,087<a href="#Footnote_5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rlb bb">1903</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">108,503,565</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">32,490,145</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">12,508,075</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">84,721,437</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>For 1906 the expenditures were fixed at 149,000,000 pesos, and the
+revenues were estimated to produce 149,100,000 pesos, which included
+62,200,000 pesos gold from nitrate taxes, 39,800,000 pesos
+gold and 200,000 pesos paper from import duties, 23,500,000 pesos
+paper from the state railways, 2,500,000 pesos paper from postal
+and telegraph receipts, and 15,000,000 pesos gold from loans. How
+the revenues are expended is shown in the estimates for 1907, in
+which the total expenditures were estimated at 134,830,532 pesos
+paper and 58,796,780 pesos gold, the principal appropriations being
+16,192,780  pesos paper and 99,733 gold for the war department,
+10,460.781  paper and 6,315,731 gold for the marine department,
+40,934,273 paper and 16,984,671 gold for railways, and 6,324,817
+paper for public works. In addition to these the budget of 1906
+provided for gold expenditures in 1907 of 7,000,000 pesos on sanitary
+works and 8,000,000 pesos on the Arica-La Paz railway. The custom
+of dividing receipts and expenditures into ordinary and extraordinary,
+of treating the receipts from loans as revenue, of adding six
+months to the fiscal year for closing up accounts, and of dividing
+receipts and expenditures into separate gold and currency accounts,
+leads to much confusion and complication in the returns, and is the
+cause of unavoidable discrepancies and contradictions.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1906 the external debt of the republic aggregated
+£21,700,000, including the loans of 1905 and 1906, amounting to
+£5,700.000, for sanitary works and railway construction. At the
+same time the internal debt was 107,000,000 pesos (£8,025,000),
+which increases the funded indebtedness to £29,725,000. Like
+Brazil, Chile has been careful to preserve her foreign credit, and
+though an average indebtedness of about £10 per capita may seem
+large for a nation with so much absolute poverty among its people,
+the government is finding no difficulty in negotiating new loans, the
+mineral resources of the country and the conservative instincts of
+the people being considered satisfactory guarantees. According to
+official returns, the real-estate valuations in 1903-1904 aggregated
+1,777,217,704 pesos, of which 1,020,609,215 pesos were in urban
+and 754,608,489 pesos in rural property. Of the total returned,
+1,775,217,704 is described as taxable, and 262,626,576 pesos as non-taxable.
+The large and steadily increasing receipts from import
+duties, amounting to 91,321,860 pesos in 1905, and 103,507,556 pesos
+in 1906, appears to indicate an encouraging state of prosperity in
+the country, although an average of 34&frac12; pesos a year (nearly
+£2 : 12s.), in addition to the increased prices paid for home manufactures,
+seems to be a very heavy indirect tax upon so poor a
+people.</p>
+
+<p><i>Currency.</i>&mdash;The monetary circulation in Chile consists almost
+wholly of paper currency, nominally based on a gold standard of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span>
+18d. per peso. The conversion law of 1895 made the currency
+convertible at this rate, although the gold peso was rated at 48d.
+previous to that date; but the financial crisis of 1898 caused the
+suspension of specie payments, and a forced issue of additional paper
+led to a further postponement of conversion and the prompt withdrawal
+of specie from circulation. The paper circulation consists
+of national and bank issues. The former owes its existence very
+largely to the war with Peru, the civil war of 1891, and the financial
+troubles of 1898. On the 1st of January 1890 the national issues
+stood at 22,487,916 pesos, and the bank issues at 16,679,790 pesos,
+making a total of 39,167,706 pesos currency in circulation. This
+total was largely increased by President Balmaceda in 1891. On
+the 31st of July 1898 the conversion of paper notes, under the law
+of 1st June 1895, was suspended, and the government issued
+27,989,929 pesos to the banks of issue, which was described as a loan
+at 2%, and raised their outstanding circulation to 40,723,089 pesos,
+and at the same time issued on its own account 17,693,890 pesos and
+assumed responsibility for 1,193,641 pesos which had been illegally
+put into circulation before 1896. This gave an aggregate registered
+circulation of 86,045,166 pesos in 1898. In 1904 another issue of
+30,000,000 pesos was authorized and the date of conversion was
+still further postponed, and in 1907 a more general act provided that
+the maximum paper circulation should not exceed 150,000,000 pesos
+of the value of 18d. per peso, and that new issues should be made
+only through the issue department and against deposits of gold,
+which deposits would be returned to depositors on the presentation
+of the currency issued. The redemption of this issue was guaranteed
+by a conversion fund of 100,000,000 pesos, and by an authorization
+to issue a loan of 50,000,000 pesos to redeem the balance, if
+necessary. The conversion fund under the act of 1895 stood at
+77,282,257 pesos (£5,796,170) on the 31st of May 1907. There are
+23 joint-stock banks of issue, with an aggregate registered capital
+of 40,689,665 pesos (£3,051,724). Their circulating notes are secured
+by deposits in the national treasury of gold, government notes and
+other approved securities. There is no state bank, though the Bank
+of Chile, with its numerous agencies and its paid-up capital of
+20,000,000 pesos, may be said to fill the place of such an institution.
+Besides these, there are four non-issue banks, two foreign banks and
+their agencies, and three mortgage banks, with agencies at the
+important provincial centres, which loan money on real-estate
+security and issue interest bearing hypothecary notes to bearer.
+There are 8 savings banks in the republic, whose aggregate deposits
+on the 31st of December 1906 were 14,799,728 pesos.</p>
+
+<p>The monetary unit, the gold peso, does not form a part of the actual
+coinage. The gold coins authorized by this law are the <i>condor</i> of
+20 pesos, the <i>medio condor</i>, or <i>doblon</i>, of 10 pesos, and the
+<i>escudo</i> of 5 pesos. The silver coins are the <i>peso</i> of 100
+centavos and its fractional parts of 20, 10 and 5 centavos. The bronze
+coins are of 2&frac12;, 2, 1, and &frac12; centavos.</p>
+
+<p>The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard
+in Chile, but the old Spanish standards are still widely used, especially
+in handling mining and farm produce. Nitrate of soda is estimated
+in Chilean quintals (101.41 lb) in the field, and metric quintals
+(220.46 lb) at the port of shipment. In silver and copper mining
+the <i>marc</i> (8 oz.) is commonly used in describing the richness of the
+ores. Farm produce is generally sold by the <i>arroba</i> or <i>fanega</i>;
+the <i>vara</i> is used in lineal measurement, and the <i>cuadra</i> is
+used by country people in land measurement.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div>
+
+
+<p class="center1 sc">History.</p>
+
+<p>Chile was the recognized name of the country from the
+beginning of its known history. The land was originally
+inhabited by tribes of Indians, who, though not mere savages,
+were far below the level of civilization distinguishing the races
+of Mexico and Peru. When the country first became known
+to the Spaniards in the 16th century the northern tribes were
+found to be more civilized and much more submissive than
+those of the south. The difference was no doubt due to the
+invasion and conquest of northern Chile in the 15th century by
+Yupanqui, Inca of Peru, grandfather of Atahualpa,
+<span class="sidenote">Inca conquest.</span>
+ruler of Peru at the time of its conquest by Pizarro.
+The dominion of the Incas in Chile was probably
+bounded by the Rapel river (lat. 34° 10&prime; S.), and, though their
+control of the country was slight, the Peruvian influence led to
+the introduction of a higher civilization, and, by weakening the
+power of the tribes, paved the way for the invasion of the
+Spaniards. Beyond the limits of the Inca conquest the Indians
+of Chile were distinguished by fierce independence of character
+and by their warlike qualities. Rude and ignorant as they were,
+they possessed a rough military organization; each community
+was led by its <i>ulmen</i> (chief), and in war the tribes fought together
+under an elected leader (<i>toqui</i>). The name of the Araucanians,
+the most powerful of the tribes, came to be applied to the whole
+confederation of Indians living south of the Bio-bio river.</p>
+
+<p>The first Spanish invasion of Chile took place in 1535, when
+Diego de Almagro, the companion and rival of Pizarro in the
+conquest of Peru, marched into Chile in search of gold.
+<span class="sidenote">Spanish invasions.</span>
+Disappointed in his quest, and meeting with obstinate
+resistance from the southern tribes, he returned to
+Peru with his whole force in 1538. In 1540 Pizarro sent Pedro
+de Valdivia to make a regular conquest and settlement of Chile.
+Valdivia founded Santiago, the present capital of Chile, in
+February 1541, and proceeded to build the towns of La Serena,
+Conceptión, Villarica, Imperial, Valdivia and Angol, in order
+to secure his hold on the country. But the Indians fought
+desperately for their independence, and in 1553 a general rising
+of the tribes ended in the defeat and death of Valdivia and in
+the destruction of most of his settlements. This was the
+beginning of nearly a century of continuous warfare. As there
+was no gold in the country the number of settlers was small,
+the loose tribal organization of the natives made it impossible
+to inflict a vital defeat on them, and the mountainous and
+thickly wooded country lent itself admirably to a warfare of
+surprises and ambuscades. General after general and army
+after army were despatched from Spain and Peru; Chile was
+given a government independent of the viceroy of Lima; attack
+after attack was made on the Indians, their lands were laid
+waste, and the struggle was conducted with merciless ferocity:
+all in vain. Settlements and forts were never free from assault
+and were taken and retaken; if one Indian army was destroyed
+another took its place, if one <i>toqui</i> was killed another was chosen;
+when defeated, the Indians retired to their forests, marshes and
+hills, recruited their forces, and fell on the pursuing Spaniards.
+In 1612 an attempt was made by a Jesuit missionary to negotiate
+a peace, but not till 1640 was the desperate struggle ended by
+the treaty of Quillin, which left the Indians all the land south
+of the Bio-bio river. Up to 1800 the peace was broken by three
+wars, in 1655, in 1723 and in 1766, the last ended by a treaty
+which actually gave the Araucanians the right to have a minister
+at Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>It was this constant warfare with the Indians and the necessity
+for hard continuous work, owing to the lack of precious metals
+in Chile, that no doubt helped to produce in the settlers the
+strength and hardihood of character that distinguishes the
+Chileans among South American races. But not unnaturally
+the material condition of the country was the reverse of
+prosperous. The expenditure far exceeded the revenue. The
+Indian warfare occupied nearly the whole attention of the
+governors and much of the time of the settlers. By the Spanish
+colonial system the development of manufactures was prohibited
+and the trade of the colony was limited not only to
+<span class="sidenote">Colonial system.</span>
+Spain but to the one port of Cadiz. Till the 18th
+century ships were not allowed to sail round Cape
+Horn, so that the Chileans had to trade indirectly through Peru
+and the Argentine. Agriculture was the one resource of the
+colony, and wheat was grown for export to Peru, but the land
+was concentrated in the hands of a few big landowners, and the
+cultivation of the vine and olive was forbidden. At the end of
+the 17th century Santiago was a town of poor one-storeyed houses
+and had only 8000 inhabitants; the other towns, Valparaiso,
+Concepción, La Serena, were only large villages. Books were
+not allowed to be imported, and education was limited to such
+as was given here and there by priests and monks. The Indians
+within the limits of the Spanish colony were treated like slaves,
+and horribly mutilated to prevent their escape; but at the
+same time a gradual fusion of races was taking place, and the
+Chilean peasant (<i>peon</i>) of to-day is as much of Indian as of
+Spanish descent. The Araucanians, however, continued to
+preserve their independence; they jealously resented the introduction
+of Spanish influence, and the missionary efforts of the
+Jesuits met with little success.</p>
+
+<p>During the 18th century the condition of the colony was
+improved in many ways. The Bourbon kings of Spain were
+more liberal in their colonial policy. Merchant-ships were
+allowed to sail direct to Chile, trade with France was sometimes
+permitted, and a large batch of hardy emigrants was sent out
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span>
+from the Biscay provinces of Spain. Freed from the preoccupation
+of the Indian wars, the governors gave more attention to
+the general welfare of the country: a university was started
+in Santiago in 1747, many towns were built about the same
+time, agriculture and industries were promoted and a coasting
+trade grew up. In 1778 Charles III. threw open all the ports of
+Spain to the colonies and allowed freedom of trade with France.
+But in general the administration of the colony was burdensome,
+oppressive and inefficient. The people had no voice in the
+government. Ruling with the help of the Royal Audience, the
+governor was absolute master of the country, and regulated
+the smallest details of life. Such time as the officials could spare
+from the main object of enriching themselves by extortion and
+corruption was given up to endless official and religious ceremonies
+and to petty disputes of etiquette and precedence. All the high
+posts and offices were filled by men sent from Spain, with the
+result that bitter jealousy reigned between them and the native-born
+colonists (<i>criollos</i>). The <i>criollos</i> as a rule filled the posts
+in the municipalities (<i>cabildos</i>), disposed of by sale, so that
+when the revolution broke out the <i>cabildos</i> naturally became
+the centres of the movement. As in all Spanish colonies, so in
+Chile, the Church played a large part in the public life. Chile
+was divided into the two bishoprics of Santiago and Concepción,
+and the Church managed to accumulate most of the wealth of
+the country. At the same time the monks and Jesuits did
+useful work in teaching industrial and agricultural arts, and in
+giving the people a certain degree of education; but the influence
+of the Church was used to bolster up the traditional narrow
+colonial system, and the constant quarrels between the clergy
+and the secular powers often threw the country into confusion.</p>
+
+<p>At the opening of the 19th century Chile was a colony whose
+resources had hardly been touched, with a population of about
+500,000 persons, of Spanish and mixed Spanish and Indian
+blood: a people endowed with the vigour of character bred by
+a mountainous country and a bracing climate and by a hard
+struggle for existence, but ignorant through lack of education,
+shut out by a narrow-minded commercial system from knowledge
+of the outside world, and destitute of the character-training
+that free institutions afford.</p>
+
+<p>The national independence of Chile dates from the second
+decade of the 19th century. The revolt of England&rsquo;s North
+American colonies, and the events of the French
+<span class="sidenote">Struggle for independence.</span>
+Revolution naturally suggested the idea of a struggle
+for independence to the Spanish colonists, and the
+deposition of Ferdinand VII. by Napoleon, and the
+ensuing disorganization of Spain, supplied the desired opportunity.
+In 1809 risings took place in Venezuela, in Ecuador, in Upper
+Peru and in the Argentine; the revolutionary fever spread
+to Chile, and on the 18th of September 1810 the <i>cabildo</i> of
+Santiago secured the resignation of the governor and vested his
+powers in an elected <i>Junta</i> (board) of seven members. This
+event was the beginning of the independence of Chile. But it
+was some time before independence was fully attained. The
+mass of the people were ignorant, intercourse between them was
+slight, and there was a strong section attached to the old régime.
+The party determined on independence was at first small, and
+compelled to conceal its aims till the ground had been prepared
+for open decisive action. Further, there were divisions between
+the patriots of Santiago and those of Concepción, and bitter
+jealousies between the leaders, the chief of whom were Juan
+Martinez de Rozas, José Miguel Carrera and Bernardo O&rsquo;Higgins.
+Owing to the apathy of the people and the enmities existing
+among the leaders, the Spanish forces, sent by the viceroy of
+Peru to crush the revolutionary movement, succeeded after two
+years&rsquo; indecisive fighting in completely defeating the patriots
+at Rancagua in 1814. For three years the Spaniards maintained
+their hold on Chile, ruling the country with tyrannical harshness,
+but in the spring of 1817 a patriot force which had been organized
+at Mendoza in the Argentine by José de San Martin, an Argentine
+officer, and by O&rsquo;Higgins, crossed the Andes and overwhelmed
+the royalists at the battle of Chacabuco. O&rsquo;Higgins was named
+director-general of Chile, while San Martin, realizing that the
+independence of each colony depended on the Spanish being
+expelled from the whole of South America, set about preparing
+an invasion of Peru. The viceroy of Lima made one more
+effort to uphold the power of Spain in Chile, but the army he
+despatched under Mariano Osorio, the victor of Rancagua, was
+decisively defeated at the river Maipo on the 3rd of April 1818.
+By this battle the independence of Chile, formally proclaimed by
+O&rsquo;Higgins in the previous February, was finally secured.</p>
+
+<p>The next few years witnessed the expulsion of the royalists
+from the south of Chile, the equipment of a small fleet, placed
+under the command of Manuel Blanco Encalada and
+<span class="sidenote">The republic.</span>
+Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald), and the invasion
+of Peru by San Martin with the help of the fleet,
+ending in the proclamation of Peruvian independence in 1821;
+though the Spanish power was not finally broken until Bolivar&rsquo;s
+victory at Ayacucho in 1824. Relieved from all fear of Spanish
+attacks from the north, the new republic of Chile entered upon
+a period of internal confusion and dissension bordering upon
+anarchy. As soon as the necessity for establishing a stable
+government arose the lack of training in self-government among
+the Chileans became painfully obvious. O&rsquo;Higgins as director-general,
+rightly perhaps, considered that firm orderly government
+was more important than the concession of liberal institutions,
+but his administration roused strong hostility, and in 1823 he was
+compelled to resign. From that date up to 1830 there were no
+less than ten governments, while three different constitutions
+were proclaimed. The nation was divided into small mutually
+hostile parties; there were ecclesiastical troubles owing to the
+hostility of the Church to the new republic; there were Indian
+risings in the south and royalist revolts in the island of Chiloé;
+the expenditure exceeded the revenue, and the employment
+of the old Spanish financial expedients naturally increased the
+general discontent. Up to 1830 the Liberal party, which favoured
+a free democratic régime, held the upper hand, but in that year
+the Conservatives, backed by a military rising led by General
+Joaquin Prieto, placed themselves in power after a sanguinary
+battle at Lircay. Prieto was elected president in 1831, and a new
+constitution was drafted and promulgated in 1833, which, with
+some modifications, remains the constitution of Chile at the
+present time. This constitution invested the executive with
+almost dictatorial powers, and the Conservatives entered upon
+a long term of office.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of the Conservative policy was to secure above all a
+strong administration; power was concentrated in the hands
+of a small circle; public liberties were restricted and all opposition
+crushed by force. Inaugurated under General Prieto&rsquo;s
+administration (1831-1841) by his able minister Diego Portales,
+this policy was continued by his successors General Manuel
+Bulnes (1841-1851) and Manuel Montt (1851-1861), each of
+whom like Prieto was elected to a double term of office. In
+spite of the discontent of the Liberals, the Conservative ascendancy
+secured a long period of firm stable government, which was
+essential to put an end to the confusion in public life and to give
+time for the people to awake to a fuller realization of the duties
+and responsibilities of national independence. The internal
+peace of the country was only disturbed three times, by Liberal
+risings in 1835, in 1851 and in 1859, all of which were crushed, but
+not without severe fighting. In 1836 Chile also became involved
+in a war with a confederation of Peru and Bolivia, which ended in
+the victory of Chile and the dissolution of the confederation.</p>
+
+<p>While refusing to allow the people any share in, or control
+over, the government, the Conservative leaders devoted themselves
+to improving the condition of the people and of the
+country, and under their firm rule Chile advanced rapidly in
+prosperity. The government established a department for
+education, a training college for teachers, and numerous schools
+and libraries; literary magazines were started and a school of
+art and an academy of music founded. By the consolidation
+of the foreign debt, by the regular payment of interest, by the
+establishment of several banks, and by the negotiation of
+commercial treaties, the financial position of the country was
+improved. Internal development was promoted by the working
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span>
+of the silver mines of Copiapo and the coal mines of Lota, by
+the building of railways and erection of telegraphs, and by the
+colonization of the rich Valdivia province with German settlers.</p>
+
+<p>The Straits of Magellan were occupied; under an American
+engineer, William Wheelwright, a line of steamers was started on
+the coast, and, by a wise measure allowing merchandise to be
+landed free of duty for re-exportation, Valparaiso became a
+busy port and trading centre; while the demand for food-stuffs
+in California and Australia, following upon the rush for gold,
+gave a strong impetus to agriculture. A code of law was drawn
+up and promulgated, and the ecclesiastical system was organized
+under an archbishop appointed by the pope. To Montt, as
+minister under Bulnes and afterwards as president, must be
+given the main credit for the far-seeing policy which laid the
+foundations of the prosperity of Chile; and though the administration
+was in many ways harsh and narrow, firm government,
+rather than liberty that would have tended to anarchy, was
+essential for the success of the young republic.</p>
+
+<p>After 1861, however, a Liberal reaction set in, aided by
+divisions in the Conservative party arising mainly over church
+questions. Montt&rsquo;s successors, José Joaquin Perez (1861-1871),
+Federico Errázuriz (1871-1876) and Anibal Pinto (1876-1881),
+abandoned the repressive policy of their predecessors, invited
+the co-operation of the Liberals, and allowed discontent to vent
+itself freely in popular agitation. Some democratic changes
+were made in the constitution, notably a law forbidding the
+re-election of a president, and the gradual and peaceful transition
+to a Liberal policy was a proof of the progress which the nation
+had made in political training. Outside the movement for constitutional
+reform, the most important internal question was the
+successful Liberal attack on the privileged position and narrow
+views of the Church, which led to the birth of a strong ultra-montane
+party among the clergy. The government continued to
+be animated by a progressive spirit: schools, railways, telegraphs
+were rapidly extended; a steamship mail service to Europe
+was subsidized, and the stability of the government enabled it
+to raise new foreign loans in order to extinguish the old high
+interest-bearing loans and to meet the expenses of public works.
+In 1877 a financial crisis occurred, met by the emission of paper
+money, but the depression was only temporary, and the country
+soon rallied from the effects.</p>
+
+<p>During this period there was desultory fighting with the
+Indians; there was a long boundary dispute with the Argentine,
+settled in 1880; and in 1865 Chilean sympathy with Peru in a
+quarrel with Spain led to a foolish war with Spain. The blockade
+of their ports and the bombardment of Valparaiso by a Spanish
+squadron impressed the Chileans with the necessity of possessing
+an adequate fleet to defend their long coast-line; and it was
+under President Errázuriz that the ships were obtained and the
+officers trained that did such good service in the great war with
+Peru. With a population of over two millions, a rapidly increasing
+revenue, ruled by a government that was firm and progressive
+and that enjoyed the confidence of all classes, Chile was well
+equipped for the struggle with Peru that began in 1879.</p>
+
+<p>The war of 1879-82 between Chile and Peru is the subject
+of a separate article (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chile-Peruvian War</a></span>). By the
+beginning of 1881 the war had reached a stage when
+<span class="sidenote">Close of the war with Peru.</span>
+the final struggle was close at hand. On the 13th of
+January of that year the Chilean forces under command
+of General Baquedano attacked the entrenched
+positions of the Peruvians at daybreak in the vicinity of Chorillos,
+a village some few miles from Lima, and forming the outer line
+of defence for the capital. After a stubborn fight the day ended
+in victory for the attacking forces; but the losses on both sides
+were great, and on the following day negotiations for peace were
+attempted by the representatives of the foreign powers in Lima,
+the object being to avoid, if possible, any further bloodshed.
+This attempt to end the conflict proved, however, abortive,
+and on the 15th of January at 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> hostilities recommenced in
+the neighbourhood of Miraflores. After severe fighting for some
+four hours the Chileans again proved victorious, and drove the
+Peruvians from the second line of defence back upon the city of
+Lima. Lima was now at the mercy of the Chileans, and on the
+17th of January a division of 4000 men of all arms, under the
+command of General Cornelio Saavedra, was sent forward to
+occupy the Peruvian capital and restore order within the town
+limits. A portion of the Chilean forces was shortly afterwards
+withdrawn from Peru, and the army of occupation remaining
+in the conquered country was in charge of Admiral Patricio
+Lynch, an officer who had been specially promoted for distinguished
+services during the war. President Anibal Pinto of
+Chile now set about to find means to conclude a treaty of peace
+with Peru, but his efforts in this direction were frustrated by
+the armed resistance offered in the country districts to the
+Chilean authorities by the remainder of the Peruvian forces
+under command of General Cáceres. So matters continued&mdash;
+the Chileans administering on the seaboard and in the principal
+towns, the Peruvians maintaining a guerilla warfare in the
+mountainous districts of the interior. In September 1881 the
+term of office of president Pinto expired, and he was succeeded
+in the post of chief executive of Chile by President Domingo
+Santa Maria. Ex-President Pinto died three years later in
+Valparaiso, leaving a memory respected and admired by all
+political parties in his country. The name of Pinto will always
+occupy a prominent place in the annals of Chilean history,
+not only because the war with Peru took place during his term
+of office, but also on account of the fact that it was largely due
+to the intelligent direction of all details by the president during
+the struggle that the Chilean arms proved so absolutely successful
+by land and sea.</p>
+
+<p>Señor Domingo Santa Maria, who now acceded to the presidency
+of Chile, was a Liberal in politics, and had previously
+held various important posts under the government.
+Under the rule of President Montt he had been an
+<span class="sidenote">President Santa Maria.</span>
+active member of the opposition and involved in
+various revolutionary conspiracies; for his participation
+in these plots he was at one time exiled from the country,
+but returned and received official employment under President
+Perez. The principal task confronting President Santa Maria
+on assuming the presidency was to negotiate a treaty of peace
+with Peru and provide for the evacuation of the Chilean army
+of occupation. The presence of the Peruvian general Cáceres
+and his forces in the interior of Peru prevented for some two
+years the formation of any Peruvian national administration
+in Lima with which the Chilean authorities could deal. In
+August of 1883 the Peruvians were defeated by the forces
+commanded by Admiral Lynch, and a government was then
+organized under the leadership of General Iglesias. A provisional
+treaty of peace was then drawn up and signed by General Iglesias
+and the Chilean representative, and this was finally ratified by
+the Chilean and Peruvian congresses respectively in April 1884.
+By the terms of this treaty Peru ceded to Chile unconditionally
+the province of Tarapacá, and the provinces of Tacna and Arica
+were placed under Chilean authority for the term of ten years,
+the inhabitants having then to decide by a general vote whether
+they remained a part of Chile or elected to belong once more to
+Peru. In the event of the decision being favourable to Peru a sum
+of 10,000,000 dollars was to be paid by Peru to Chile. On the
+ratification of this treaty the Chilean forces were immediately
+withdrawn from Lima and other points of occupation in Peruvian
+territory. The government of Bolivia also attempted to negotiate
+a treaty of peace with Chile in 1884, and for this purpose sent
+representatives to Santiago. No satisfactory terms, however,
+could be arranged, and the negotiations ended in only an armistice
+being agreed to, by which Chile remained in occupation of the
+Bolivian seaboard pending a definite settlement at some future
+period.</p>
+
+<p>The administration of President Santa Maria met with violent
+opposition from the Conservatives, who included the Clerical
+party in their ranks, and also from a certain section of the Liberals.
+The dislike of the Conservatives to President Santa Maria was
+occasioned by his introduction of the law of civil marriage, the
+civil registration of births and deaths, and the freeing of the
+cemeteries. Hitherto no marriage was legal unless celebrated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span>
+according to the rites of the Roman Catholic religion, and all
+registers of births and deaths were kept by the parish priests.
+Civil employees were now appointed under the new laws to attend
+to this work. Formerly the cemeteries were entirely under the
+control of the Church, and, with the exception of a few places
+specially created for the purpose, were reserved solely for the
+burial of Roman Catholics. Under the new regime these
+cemeteries were made common to the dead of all religions.
+Under President Perez, in 1865, a clause in the law of constitution
+had been introduced permitting the exercise of all creeds of
+religion, and this was now put into practice, all restrictions
+being removed. On several occasions, notably in 1882 and 1885,
+President Santa Maria used his influence in the elections of
+senators and deputies to congress for the purpose of creating
+a substantial majority in his favour. He was induced to take
+this course in consequence of the violent opposition raised in
+the chambers by the liberal policy he pursued in connexion
+with Church matters. This intervention caused great irritation
+amongst the Conservatives and dissentient Liberals, and the
+political situation on more than one occasion became so strained
+as to bring the country to the verge of armed revolution. No
+outbreak, however, took place, and in 1886 the five years of office
+for which President Santa Maria had been elected came to an
+end, and another Liberal, Señor José Manuel Balmaceda, then
+succeeded to power.</p>
+
+<p>The election of Balmaceda was bitterly opposed by the
+Conservatives and dissentient Liberals, but was finally successfully
+carried by the official influence exercised by
+President Santa Maria. On assuming office President
+<span class="sidenote">Balmaceda elected president.</span>
+Balmaceda endeavoured to bring about a reconciliation
+of all sections of the Liberal party in congress and so
+form a solid majority to support the administration, and to this
+end he nominated as ministers representatives of the different
+political groups. Six months later the cabinet was reorganized,
+and two most bitter opponents to the recent election of President
+Balmaceda were accorded portfolios. Believing that he had
+now secured the support of the majority in congress on behalf
+of any measures he decided to put forward, the new president
+initiated a policy of heavy expenditure on public works, the
+building of schools, and the strengthening of the naval and
+military forces of the republic. Contracts were given out to the
+value of £6,000,000 for the construction of railways in the
+southern districts; some 10,000,000 dollars were expended in
+the erection of schools and colleges; three cruisers and two
+sea-going torpedo boats were added to the squadron; the
+construction of the naval port at Talcahuano was actively pushed
+forward; new armament was purchased for the infantry and
+artillery branches of the army, and heavy guns were acquired
+for the purpose of permanently and strongly fortifying the
+neighbourhoods of Valparaiso, Talcahuano and Iquique. In
+itself this policy was not unreasonable, and in many ways
+extremely beneficial for the country. Unfortunately corruption
+crept into the expenditure of the large sums necessary to carry
+out this programme. Contracts were given by favour and not
+by merit, and the progress made in the construction of the new
+public works was far from satisfactory. The opposition in
+congress to President Balmaceda began to increase rapidly
+towards the close of 1887, and further gained ground in 1888.
+In order to ensure a majority favourable to his views, the
+president threw the whole weight of his official influence into
+the elections for senators and deputies in 1888; but many of
+the members returned to the chambers through this official
+influence joined the opposition shortly after taking their seats.
+In 1889 congress became distinctly hostile to the administration
+of President Balmaceda, and the political situation became grave,
+and at times threatened to involve the country in civil war.
+According to usage and custom in Chile, a ministry does not
+remain in office unless supported by a majority in the chambers.
+Balmaceda now found himself in the impossible position of being
+unable to appoint any ministry that could control a majority
+in the senate and chamber of deputies and at the same time be
+in accordance with his own views of the administration of public
+affairs. At this juncture the president assumed that the constitution
+gave him the power of nominating and maintaining
+in office any ministers he might consider fitting persons for the
+purpose, and that congress had no right of interference in the
+matter. The chambers were now only waiting for a suitable
+opportunity to assert their authority. In 1890 it was stated
+that President Balmaceda had determined to nominate and
+cause to be elected as his successor at the expiration of his term
+of office in 1891 one of his own personal friends. This question
+of the election of another president brought matters to a head,
+and congress refused to vote supplies to carry on the government.
+To avoid trouble Balmaceda entered into a compromise with
+congress, and agreed to nominate a ministry to their liking on
+condition that the supplies for 1890 were voted. This cabinet,
+however, was of short duration, and resigned when the ministers
+understood the full amount of friction between the president
+and congress. Balmaceda then nominated a ministry not in
+accord with the views of congress under Señor Claudio Vicuña,
+whom it was no secret that Balmaceda intended to be his
+successor in the presidential chair, and, to prevent any expression
+of opinion upon his conduct in the matter, he refrained from
+summoning an extraordinary session of the legislature for the
+discussion of the estimates of revenue and expenditure for 1891.
+When the 1st of January 1891 arrived, the president published
+a decree in the <i>Diario Oficial</i> to the effect that the budget of
+1890 would be considered the official budget for 1891. This act
+was illegal and beyond the attributes of the executive
+power. As a protest against the action of President
+<span class="sidenote">Revolution of 1891.</span>
+Balmaceda, the vice-president of the senate, Señor
+Waldo Silva, and the president of the chamber of deputies,
+Señor Ramon Barros Luco, issued a proclamation appointing
+Captain Jorje Montt in command of the squadron, and stating
+that the navy could not recognize the authority of Balmaceda
+so long as he did not administer public affairs in accordance
+with the constitutional law of Chile. The majority of the
+members of the chambers sided with this movement, and on the
+7th of January Señores Waldo Silva, Barros Luco and a number
+of senators and deputies embarked on board the Chilean warship
+&ldquo;Blanco Encalada,&rdquo; accompanied by the &ldquo;Esmeralda&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;O&rsquo;Higgins&rdquo; and other vessels, sailing out of Valparaiso harbour
+and proceeding northwards to Tarapaca to organize armed
+resistance against the president (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chilean Civil War</a></span>). It
+was not alone this action of Balmaceda in connexion with
+congress that brought about the revolution. He had alienated
+the sympathy of the aristocratic classes of Chile by his personal
+vanity and ambition. The oligarchy composed of the great
+landowners have always been an important factor in the political
+life of the republic; when President Balmaceda found that he
+was not a <i>persona grata</i> to this circle he determined to endeavour
+to govern without their support, and to bring into the administration
+a set of men who had no traditions and with whom his
+personality would be all-powerful. The Clerical influence was
+also thrown against him in consequence of his radical ideas in
+respect of Church matters.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately on the outbreak of the revolution President
+Balmaceda published a decree declaring Montt and his companions
+to be traitors, and without delay organized an army of
+some 40,000 men for the suppression of the insurrectionary
+movement. While both sides were preparing for extremities,
+Balmaceda administered the government under dictatorial
+powers with a congress of his own nomination. In June 1891
+he ordered the presidential election to be held, and Señor Claudio
+Vicuña was duly declared chosen as president of the republic for
+the term commencing in September 1891. The resources of
+Balmaceda were running short on account of the heavy military
+expenses, and he determined to dispose of the reserve of silver
+bullion accumulated in the vaults of the Casa de Moneda in
+accordance with the terms of the law for the conversion of the
+note issue. The silver was conveyed abroad in a British man-of-war,
+and disposed of partly for the purchase of a fast steamer
+to be fitted as an auxiliary cruiser and partly in payment for
+other kinds of war material.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span></p>
+
+<p>The organization of the revolutionary forces went on slowly.
+Much difficulty was experienced in obtaining the necessary arms
+and ammunition. A supply of rifles was bought in the United
+States, and embarked on board the &ldquo;Itata,&rdquo; a Chilean vessel
+in the service of the rebels. The United States authorities
+refused to allow this steamer to leave San Diego, and a guard
+was stationed on the ship. The &ldquo;Itata,&rdquo; however, slipped away
+and made for the Chilean coast, carrying with her the representatives
+of the United States. A fast cruiser was immediately
+sent in pursuit, but only succeeded in overhauling the rebel ship
+after she was at her destination. The &ldquo;Itata&rdquo; was then forced
+to return to San Diego without landing her cargo for the insurgents.
+The necessary arms and ammunition were arranged for
+in Europe; they were shipped in a British vessel, and transferred
+to a Chilean steamer at Fortune Bay, in Tierra del Fuego, close
+to the Straits of Magellan and the Falkland Islands, and thence
+carried to Iquique, where they were safely disembarked early in
+July 1891. A force of 10,000 men was now raised by the <i>junta</i>
+of the revolution, and preparations were rapidly pushed forward
+for a move to the south with the object of attacking Valparaiso
+and Santiago. Early in April a portion of the revolutionary
+squadron, comprising the &ldquo;Blanco Encalada&rdquo; and other ships,
+was sent to the southward for reconnoitring purposes and put
+into the port of Caldera. During the night of the 23rd of April,
+and whilst the &ldquo;Blanco Encalada&rdquo; was lying quietly at anchor,
+a torpedo boat called the &ldquo;Almirante Lynch,&rdquo; belonging to the
+Balmaceda faction, steamed into the bay of Caldera and discharged
+a torpedo at the rebel ship. The &ldquo;Blanco Encalada&rdquo;
+sank in a few minutes and 300 of her crew perished.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of August 1891 the rebel forces were embarked
+at Iquique (where a provisional government under Captain
+Jorje Montt had been set up), numbering in all about 9000 men,
+and sailed for the south. On the 20th of August the congressist
+army was disembarked at Quinteros, about 20 m. north of
+Valparaiso, and marched to Concon, where the Balmacedists
+were entrenched. A severe fight ensued, in which the troops
+of President Balmaceda were defeated with heavy loss. This
+reverse roused the worst passions of the president, and he ordered
+the arrest and imprisonment of all persons suspected of sympathy
+with the revolutionary cause. The population generally were,
+however, distinctly antagonistic to Balmaceda; and this feeling
+had become accentuated since the 17th of August 1891, on
+which date he had ordered the execution of a number of youths
+belonging to the military college at San Lorenzo on a charge of
+seditious practices. The shooting of these boys created a feeling
+of horror throughout the country, and a sensation of uncertainty
+as to what measures of severity might not be practised in the
+future if Balmaceda won the day. After the victory at Concon
+the insurgent army, under command of General Campos, marched
+in a southerly direction towards Viña del Mar, and thence to
+Placilla, where the final struggle in the conflict took place.
+Balmaceda&rsquo;s generals Barbosa and Alcérrica had here massed
+their troops in a strong position. The battle, on the 28th of
+August, resulted in victory for the rebels. Both the Balmacedist
+generals were killed and Valparaiso was at once occupied.
+<span class="sidenote">Defeat and suicide of Balmaceda.</span>
+Three days later the victorious insurgents entered
+Santiago and assumed the government of the republic.
+After the batile of Placilla it was clear to President
+Balmaceda that he could no longer hope to find a
+sufficient strength amongst his adherents to maintain himself in
+power, and in view of the rapid approach of the rebel army he
+abandoned his official duties to seek an asylum in the Argentine
+legation. The president remained concealed in this retreat until
+the 18th of September. On the evening of that date, when the
+term for which he had been elected president of the republic
+terminated, he committed suicide by shooting himself. The
+excuse for this act, put forward in letters written shortly before
+his end, was that he did not believe the conquerors would give
+him an impartial trial. The death of Balmaceda finished all
+cause of contention in Chile, and was the closing act of the most
+severe and bloodiest struggle that country had ever witnessed.
+In the various engagements throughout the conflict more than
+10,000 lives were lost, and the joint expenditure of the two
+governments on military preparations and the purchase of war
+material exceeded £10,000,000 sterling.</p>
+
+<p>An unfortunate occurrence soon after the close of the revolution
+brought strained relations for a short period between the governments
+of the United States and Chile. A number of men of the
+U.S.S. &ldquo;Baltimore&rdquo; having been given liberty on shore, an
+argument arose between some of them and a group of Chilean
+sailors in a drinking den in Valparaiso. Words led to blows.
+The Americans were badly handled, one of their number being
+killed and others severely hurt. The United States government
+characterized the affair as an outrage, demanding an indemnity
+as satisfaction. The Chilean authorities demurred at this
+attitude, and attempted to argue the matter. James G. Elaine,
+then secretary of state, refused peremptorily to listen to any
+explanations. In the end Chile paid an indemnity of $75,000
+as asked, but the affair left bad feeling in its train.</p>
+
+<p>The close of the revolution against Balmaceda left the government
+of Chile in the hands of the <i>junta</i> under whose guidance
+the military and naval operations had been organized.
+Admiral Jorje Montt had been the head of this
+<span class="sidenote">President Jorje Montt.</span>
+revolutionary committee, and he acted as president
+of the provisional government when the administration
+of the country changed hands after the victory of the Congressional
+party. An election was now immediately ordered for the
+choice of a president of the republic and for representatives in
+the senate and chamber of deputies. Admiral Montt, as head
+of the executive power, stanchly refused to allow official influence
+to be brought to bear in any way in the presidential campaign.
+The great majority of the voters, however, required no pressure
+to decide who was in their opinion the man most fitted to administer
+the affairs of the republic. For the first time in the
+history of Chile a perfectly free election was held, and Admiral
+Montt was duly chosen by a nearly unanimous vote to be chief
+magistrate for the constitutional term of five years. The senate
+and chamber of deputies were formally constituted in due course,
+and the government of the republic resumed normal conditions
+of existence. The new president showed admirable tact in dealing
+with the difficult problem he was called upon to face. Party
+feeling still ran high between the partisans of the two sides of the
+recent conflict. Admiral Montt took the view that it was politic
+and just to let bygones be bygones, and he acted conscientiously
+by this principle in all administrative measures in connexion
+with the supporters of the late President Balmaceda. Early in
+1892 an amnesty was granted to the officers of the Balmaceda
+régime, and they were freely permitted to return to Chile without
+any attempt being made to molest them. The first political act
+of national importance of the new government was the grant
+of control to the municipalities, which hitherto had possessed
+little power to direct local affairs, and were not even permitted
+to dispose of the municipal revenues to any important amount
+without first obtaining the consent of the central government.
+Almost absolute power was now given these corporations to
+manage their own concerns, and the organization of the police
+was placed in their hands; at a later period, however, it was
+found necessary to modify this latter condition.</p>
+
+<p>President Montt next turned his attention towards the
+question of how best to repair the damage occasioned to the
+country by eight months of civil warfare. The plan of public
+works authorized in 1887 was reconsidered, and the construction
+of portions of the various undertakings recommenced. The
+army and navy were reorganized. Additional instructors were
+brought from Germany, and all arms of the military service
+were placed on a thoroughly efficient footing in matters of drill
+and discipline. Several new and powerful cruisers were added
+to the navy, and the internal economy of this branch of the
+national defence was thoroughly inspected and many defects
+were remedied. President Montt then took in hand the question
+of a reform of the currency, the abolition of inconvertible paper
+money, and the re-establishment of a gold basis as the monetary
+standard of the republic. This reform of the currency became
+the keynote of the president&rsquo;s policy during the remainder of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span>
+his term of office. Great opposition was raised by the representatives
+of the debtor class in congress to the suppression of the
+inconvertible paper money, but in the end President Montt
+carried the day, and on the 11th of February 1895 a measure
+finally became law establishing a gold currency as the only legal
+tender in Chile. In July 1896 the Conversion Act was put in
+force, a dollar of 18d. being the monetary unit adopted. In 1895
+relations with the neighbouring republic of Argentina began to
+become somewhat strained in regard to the interpretation of the
+treaty concerning the boundary between the two countries.
+The treaties of 1881, 1893 and 1895 left doubts in the minds of
+both Chileans and Argentines as to the position of the frontier
+line. On the 17th of April 1896 another protocol was drawn
+up, by which the contending parties agreed to submit any differences
+to the arbitration of Great Britain, at the instance of one
+or both governments. President Montt had now fulfilled his
+term of office, and on the 18th of September 1896 he handed
+over the presidential power to his successor, Señor Federico
+Errázuriz, who had been duly elected in the month of June
+previously.</p>
+
+<p>The election for the position of president of the republic was
+closely contested in 1896 between Señor Errázuriz and Señor
+Reyes, and ended in the triumph of the former candidate
+by the narrow majority of one vote. The father
+<span class="sidenote">President Errázuriz.</span>
+of the new president had been chief magistrate of
+Chile from 1871 to 1876, and his administration had been one
+of the best the country had ever enjoyed; his son had therefore
+traditions to uphold in the post he was now called upon to fill.
+At the beginning of 1897 the public attention was absorbed by
+foreign political questions. The problems to be solved were the
+frontier difficulty with Argentina, the question of the possession
+of Tacna and Arica with Peru, and the necessity of fulfilling the
+obligation contracted with Bolivia to give that country a seaport
+on the Pacific coast. The treaty made in 1896 with the Argentine
+government, referring to the arbitration of disputed points concerning
+the boundary, became practically for the moment a dead
+letter, and both Argentines and Chileans began to talk openly
+of an appeal to arms to settle the matter once for all. The
+governments of both countries began to purchase large supplies
+of war material, and generally to make preparations for a possible
+conflict. In these circumstances no final settlement with Peru
+and Bolivia was possible, the authorities of those republics
+holding back to see the issue of the Chile-Argentine dispute, and
+Chile being in no position at the time to insist on any terms being
+arranged. So matters drifted until the beginning of 1898. In
+July of that year the crisis reached an acute stage. Both Chile
+and Argentina put forward certain pretensions to territory in the
+Atacama district to the north, and also to a section of Patagonia
+in the south. Neither side would give way, nor was any disposition
+exhibited to refer the matter to arbitration under the
+protocol of 1896. The cry of an acute financial crisis emanating
+from the fear of war with Argentina was now raised in Chile.
+The president was advised that the only way of averting the
+financial ruin of the banking institutions of the republic was to
+suspend the conversion law and lend from the national treasury
+inconvertible notes to the banks. Señor Errázuriz weakly gave
+way, and a decree was promulgated placing the
+<span class="sidenote">Crisis with Argentina.</span>
+currency once more on an inconvertible paper money
+basis until 1902. In August of 1898 the Chilean
+government determined to insist upon the terms of the
+protocol of 1896 being acted upon, and intimated to Argentina
+that they demanded the fulfilment of the clause relating to
+arbitration on disputed points. This was practically an ultimatum,
+and a refusal on the part of the Argentine government
+to comply with the terms of the 1896 agreement meant a declaration
+of war by Chile. For a few days the issue hung in the
+balance, and then the Argentine government accepted the
+provisions made in 1896 for arbitration. The dispute concerning
+the Atacama district was submitted to an arbitration tribunal,
+consisting of the representative of the United States in Argentina,
+assisted by one Argentine and one Chilean commissioner. This
+tribunal, after due investigation, gave their decision in April
+1899, and the verdict was accepted unreservedly by both governments.
+The dispute regarding the Patagonian territory was
+submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain, and a commission&mdash;consisting
+of Lord Macnaghten, Sir John Ardagh and Sir T.H.
+Holdich&mdash;was appointed in 1899 to hear the case.</p>
+
+<p>The Argentine difficulty was ended, but Chile still had to find
+a settlement with Peru and Bolivia. The treaty made with the
+former country in 1893 was not ratified, as it was thought to
+concede too much to Peru, and the subsequent <i>ad referendum</i>
+treaty was rejected on account of Peru claiming that only
+Peruvians, and not all residents, should have the right to vote
+in the plebiscite to be taken by the terms of the treaty of 1883
+for the possession of Tacna and Arica. By the terms of the
+armistice of 1883 between Chile and Bolivia, a three years&rsquo;
+notice had to be given by either government wishing to denounce
+that agreement. By the protocol of 1895 Chile agreed to give
+to Bolivia the port of Arica, or some other suitable position on
+the seaboard. On these lines a settlement was proposed. Vitor,
+a landing-place a little to the south of Arica, was offered by the
+Chilean government to Bolivia, but refused as not complying
+with the conditions stated in the protocol of 1895; the Bolivians
+furthermore preferred to wait and see if Arica was finally ceded
+by Peru to Chile, and if so to claim the fulfilment of the terms of
+the protocol.</p>
+
+<p>After the accession to office of President Errázuriz there was
+no stability of any ministry. Political parties in congress were
+so evenly balanced and so subdivided into groups that a vote
+against the ministry was easy to obtain, and the resignation of
+the cabinet immediately followed in accordance with the so-called
+parliamentary system in vogue in Chile. The president of the
+republic has no power to dissolve the chambers, to endeavour to
+remedy the evil by one or another political party obtaining a
+substantial working majority, but must wait to see the results
+of the triennial elections. As a consequence of these conditions
+Conservative, Liberal and coalition ministries held office at short
+intervals. These unsettled political circumstances checked any
+continuity of policy, and tended to block the passage of all useful
+legislation to help forward the economic development of the
+country and inhabitants; on the other hand, the financial
+situation was better by the end of 1899 than in the previous year,
+since all proposals for a fresh paper issue had been vetoed;
+and the elections for congress and municipal office at the opening
+of 1900 returned a majority favourable to a stable currency
+policy.</p>
+
+<p>In September 1900 a fresh outburst of hostile feeling against
+Chile was created in Argentina by a note addressed by the Chilean
+government to Bolivia, intimating that Chile was no longer
+inclined to hand over the port of Arica or any other port on the
+Pacific, but considered the time ripe for a final settlement of the
+questions connected with the Chilean occupation of Bolivian
+territory, which had now been outstanding for sixteen years.
+The foreign policy of Chile, as indicated by this note, was considered
+by Argentina to be grasping and unconciliatory, and there
+were rumours of an anti-Chilean South American federation.
+Chile disclaimed any aggressive intentions; but in December the
+Bolivian congress declined to relinquish their claim to a port,
+and refused to conclude a definite treaty of peace. The year
+closed with a frontier incident between Chile and Argentina
+in the disputed territory of Ultima Esperanza, where some
+Argentine colonists were ejected by Chilean police; but both
+governments signed protocols agreeing not to take aggressive
+action in consequence.</p>
+
+<p>At the opening of 1901 the country was chiefly interested in
+the forthcoming presidential election, for which the candidates
+were Don Pedro Montt (Conservative and Clerical)
+and Señor German Riesco (Liberal). The relations
+<span class="sidenote">President Riesco.</span>
+between President Errázuriz and congress became
+rather strained, owing to the former&rsquo;s inclination to retain in
+office a ministry on which congress had passed a vote of censure;
+but Errázuriz had been in ill-health for more than a year, and
+on the 1st of May he resigned, and died in July. At the ensuing
+election Riesco was elected president. The attitude of Chile
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span>
+towards the Pan-American Congress at Mexico became a matter
+of interest in the autumn, particularly in connexion with the
+proposal for compulsory arbitration between all American
+governments. The Chilean government made it quite clear that
+they would withdraw from the congress if this proposal was
+meant to be retroactive; and their unyielding attitude testified
+to the apprehensions felt by Chile concerning United States
+interference. In October the Chilean government announced
+that the contemplated conversion scheme, for which gold had
+been accumulated, would be postponed for two years (till October
+1903), the gold being held as a reserve fund pending the result
+of the arbitration over the Argentine frontier. This was generally
+considered to be a reasonable and statesmanlike course. Unfortunately,
+a recrudescence of the excitement over the boundary
+dispute was occasioned by the irritation created in Argentina
+by the fact that, pending a decision, Chile was constructing roads
+in the disputed territory. During December 1901 relations were
+exceedingly strained, and troops were called out on both sides.
+But at the end of the month it was agreed to leave the question
+to the British arbitrators, and the latter decided to send one of
+their number, Sir T.H. Holdich, to examine the territory.</p>
+
+<p>The survey occupied some eight months, and it was not until
+the autumn that Sir T.H. Holdich returned to England to make
+his report. The difficulty of ascertaining the true line
+watershed had been very great, but the result
+<span class="sidenote">Argentine boundary award.</span>
+was eminently successful. The award of King Edward
+was signed on the 20th of November 1902, and both
+parties to the litigation were satisfied. In order that future
+disputes might be amicably settled, a treaty was signed by
+which it was agreed that any question that might arise should be
+submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain or in default of
+that power to the Swiss Confederation. The removal of this
+source of irritation and the restoration of friendly relations
+between the two republics was a great relief to the finance of
+Chile. Had it not been for the political instability of the country,
+the effects of the diminution of expenditure on military and naval
+preparations would have effected a rapid improvement in its
+financial position. The constant change of ministry (there
+being no stable majority in the congress) prevented during 1903
+any settled policy, or that confidence in the government which
+is the basis of commercial prosperity. In 1904, however, both
+trade and revenue showed signs of improvement, and the sale
+of the warships &ldquo;Esmeralda&rdquo; and &ldquo;Chambuco&rdquo; for £1,000,000
+furnished a surplus, which was devoted to the improvement of
+the port of Valparaiso. This was the beginning of a period of
+steady industrial growth and development. The settlement of
+the long outstanding dispute with Bolivia in a treaty of peace
+signed on the 17th of October 1905 was very advantageous to
+both countries. By this treaty Bolivia ceded all claims to a
+seaport and strip of the coast, on condition that Chile constructed
+at her own charges a railway to Lapaz from the port of Arica,
+giving at the same time to Bolivia free transit across Chilean
+territory to the sea. A cash indemnity of £300,000 was also paid,
+and certain stipulations were made with regard to the construction
+of other railways giving access from Chile to the Bolivian
+interior.</p>
+
+<p>The prosperity of Chile was to suffer a rude shock. On the
+17th of August 1906 a terrible earthquake visited Valparaiso
+and the surrounding district. The town of Valparaiso
+was almost entirely destroyed, while Santiago and
+<span class="sidenote">Valparaiso earthquake.</span>
+other towns were severely shaken and suffered much
+damage. It was estimated that about 3000 persons
+were killed, a still larger number injured, and at least 100,000
+rendered homeless. The loss of property was enormous. The
+fire which broke out after the earthquake shock had subsided
+added to the horror of the catastrophe. Measures were, however,
+promptly taken for succouring the people, who had been driven
+from their homes, and the task of restoration was vigorously
+taken in hand. Before the end of the year the rebuilding of the
+city was rapidly progressing.</p>
+
+<p>In 1906 Señor Pedro Montt was elected president and entered
+upon his office on the 17th of September. The personality of
+the president, however, had become of much less importance in
+modern Chile than in earlier days. Up to 1870 the government
+was in the hands of a small oligarchy of Santiago
+<span class="sidenote">President Pedro Montt.</span>
+families, but the president enjoyed large powers
+of initiative. Nowadays the congress has virtually
+absorbed the executive power, with the result that the
+cabinet is often changed many times in one year. This prevents
+indeed any continuity of policy, for the majority in congress is
+perpetually fluctuating, and ministerial crises rapidly follow one
+another. Chile, however, except in the Balmacedist civil war,
+is happily distinguished by its freedom from revolution and
+serious political unrest. Its history in this respect is in marked
+contrast to that of the neighbouring South American states.
+The completion of the Trans-Andean railway between Valparaiso
+and Buenos Aires was bound to be of immense commercial and
+industrial value; and eventually the making of a longitudinal
+railway route uniting the nitrate province of the north with
+Santiago, and Santiago with Puerto Montt in the distant south,
+opened up further important prospects. Such a line of through
+communication, binding together the different provinces forming
+the long narrow strip of territory stretching along more than
+2000 m. of the Pacific littoral, could only be looked forward to,
+both politically and economically, as an inestimable benefit to
+the country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<i>General History</i>.&mdash;The most valuable authority
+is D. Barros Arana&rsquo;s <i>Historia jeneral de Chile</i> (15 vols., Santiago,
+1884), from the earliest days up to 1830. Smaller handbooks covering
+the whole period are: A.U. Hancock, a <i>History of Chile</i> (Chicago,
+1893), the only general history in English, and containing a bibliography;
+Gaspar Toro, <i>Compendio de la historia de Chile</i> (Santiago,
+1879), a good clear abstract of Chilean history; and F. Valdes
+Vergara, <i>Historia de Chile</i> (Valparaiso, 1898), written primarily
+for schools, but containing useful sketches of leading figures in Chilean
+history.</p>
+
+<p><i>Works on Special Periods</i>.&mdash;Colonial Period: M.L. Amunátequi,
+<i>Descubri miento y conquista de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1885), a valuable
+detailed account of the Spanish conquest; by same author, <i>Los
+Precursores de la independencia de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1870), a clear
+useful description of the evils of the Spanish colonial system;
+Horacio Lara, <i>Cronica de la Araucania</i> (Santiago, 1889), a history
+of the Araucanian Indians right up to recent dates; Abbé Eyzaguirre,
+<i>Histoire du Chili</i> (Lille, 1855), mainly dealing with the
+position of the Church during the colonial period. Perez Garcia&rsquo;s
+<i>Historia del reino de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1900), an old history by a
+Spanish officer written about 1780, and Molina&rsquo;s <i>History of Chili</i> in
+the English translation (London, 1809), will also be found useful.
+Useful material for research exists in J.T. Medina&rsquo;s <i>Coleccion de
+documentos para la historia de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1888), a collection
+of despatches and official documents; his <i>Cosas de la colonia</i>
+(Santiago, 1889), an accumulation of undigested information about
+life in the colonial period; and <i>Historiadores de Chile</i> (21 vols.,
+Santiago, 1861), a collection of ancient chronicles and official
+documents up to the early part of the 17th century.</p>
+
+<p><i>Revolutionary Period</i>.&mdash;A. Roldan, <i>Las Primeras Asambleas
+nacionales</i> (Santiago, 1890), an account of the struggles in the first
+national assemblies; A. Valdes, <i>Revolucion Chilena y campañas de
+la independencia</i> (Santiago, 1888), an account of the early fighting
+and rivalry of the revolutionary leaders; W. Pilling, <i>Emancipation
+of South America</i> (London, 1893), a translation of B. Mitre&rsquo;s life of
+San Martin, describing the fighting in the wars of independence;
+Lord Cochrane, <i>Narrative of Services in Chile, Peru and Brazil</i>
+(London, 1859), an autobiography describing the naval exploits that
+helped to secure the expulsion of the Spaniards; B. Vicuña
+Machenna, <i>Vida de O&rsquo;Higgins</i> (Santiago, 1882), giving a useful
+account of the revolutionary struggle and the main actors; and the
+same author&rsquo;s <i>Historia jeneral de la republica de Chile</i>, a collection
+of essays on the early republican history by various writers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Later History</i>.&mdash;R. Sotomayor Valdes, <i>Historia de Chili, 1831-1871</i>,
+a detailed account of the period (<span class="correction" title="amended from Sanitago">Santiago</span>, 1875); the same
+author&rsquo;s <i>Campaña del ejercito Chileno en 1837</i> (Santiago, 1896),
+describing the fighting of the first Peruvian War; B. Vicuña
+Machenna, <i>D. Diego Portales</i> (Valparaiso, 1863), a good account of
+the life and time of Portales, the famous minister of the Conservative
+party; P.B. Fiqueroa, <i>Historia de la revolution constituyente
+1858-59</i> (Santiago, 1889), an account of the revolution at the end of
+Montt&rsquo;s presidency; F. Fonch, <i>Chile in der Gegenwart</i> (Berlin, 1870),
+a description of Chile at the time; <i>Statement on Behalf of Chile</i> (in
+the Chilean-Argentine Boundary Arbitration) (6 vols., London,
+1901-1902); Sir Thomas Holdich, <i>Countries of the King&rsquo;s Award</i>
+(1904); Beltran y Rospido, <i>Los Pueblos hispano-americanos en el
+siglo XX.</i> (Madrid, 1904); P.F. Martin, <i>Through Five Republics of
+South America</i> (London, 1906); Wright, <i>The Republic of Chile</i>
+(London, 1905); G.F. Scott Elliot, <i>Chilé</i> (London, 1907); Sir W.M.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span>
+Conway, <i>Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego</i> (London, 1902); &ldquo;Chile-Argentine
+Arbitration&rdquo; in the <i>Geog. Journal</i> (January 1903);
+C.M. Pepper, <i>Panama to Patagonia</i> (London, 1907); C.E. Akers,
+<i>History of South America, 1854-1904</i> (London, 1904); M. Hume,
+<i>Lecture on the Republic of Chile</i> (London, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G. J. M.; C. E. A.; G. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1c" id="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See A. Pissis, &ldquo;Sur la constitution géologique de la chaîne
+des Andes entre le 16° et le 55° degré de latitude sud,&rdquo; <i>Ann.
+des mines</i>, ser. 7, vol. iii. (Mém.), 1873, pp. 402-426, pils. ix., x.;
+R.A. Philippi, <i>Die tertiären und quartären Versteinerungen Chiles</i>
+(Leipzig, 1887), (includes also descriptions of some Cretaceous
+fossils), and <i>Los Fósiles secondarios de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1899); Karl
+Burckhardt, &ldquo;Profils géologiques transversaux de la Cordillère
+argentino-chilienne. Stratigraphie et tectonique,&rdquo; <i>Anales Mus.
+La Plata</i>, 1900, and &ldquo;Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Jura- und Kreide-formation
+der Cordillere,&rdquo; <i>Palaeontographica</i>, vol. 1. (1903-1904)
+pp. 1-144, pls. i.-xvi.; see also a series of papers on South American
+geology by G. Steinmann and his collaborators in <i>Neues Jahrb, für
+Min.</i> Beil.-band viii. et seq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2c" id="Footnote_2c" href="#FnAnchor_2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Notes of a Naturalist in South America</i>, p. 134.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3c" id="Footnote_3c" href="#FnAnchor_3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Also classified as <i>Nothofagus</i> (Mirb.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4c" id="Footnote_4c" href="#FnAnchor_4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> A. Gallenga, <i>South America</i> (London, 1880), p. 181.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5c" id="Footnote_5c" href="#FnAnchor_5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The expenditures of 1902 are also given as 25,882,702 pesos gold,
+and 108,844,693 pesos currency.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILEAN CIVIL WAR<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1891). The Chilean civil war grew
+out of political dissensions between the president of Chile, J.M.
+Balmaceda, and his congress (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chile</a></span>: <i>History</i>), and began
+in January 1891. On the 6th, at Valparaiso, the political leaders
+of the Congressional party went on board the ironclad &ldquo;Blanco
+Encalada,&rdquo; and Captain Jorje Montt of that vessel hoisted a
+broad pennant as commodore of the Congressional fleet. Preparations
+had long been made for the naval <i>pronunciamento</i>, and in
+the end but few vessels of the Chilean navy adhered to the cause
+of the &ldquo;dictator&rdquo; Balmaceda. But amongst these were two
+new and fast torpedo gunboats, &ldquo;Almirante Condell&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Almirante Lynch,&rdquo; and in European dockyards (incomplete)
+lay the most powerful vessel of the navy, the &ldquo;Arturo Prat,&rdquo;
+and two fast cruisers. If these were secured by the Balmacedists
+the naval supremacy of the congress would be seriously
+challenged. For the present, and without prejudice to the future,
+command of the sea was held by Montt&rsquo;s squadron (January).
+The rank and file of the army remained faithful to the executive,
+and thus in the early part of the war the &ldquo;Gobernistas,&rdquo; speaking
+broadly, possessed an army without a fleet, the congress a
+fleet without an army. Balmaceda hoped to create a navy; the
+congress took steps to recruit an army by taking its sympathizers
+on board the fleet. The first shot was fired, on the 16th of
+January, by the &ldquo;Blanco&rdquo; at the Valparaiso batteries, and
+landing parties from the warships engaged small parties of
+government troops at various places during January and
+February. The dictator&rsquo;s principal forces were stationed in
+and about Iquique, Coquirabo, Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepción.
+The troops at Iquique and Coquimbo were necessarily
+isolated from the rest and from each other, and military operations
+began, as in the campaign of 1879 in this quarter, with a
+naval descent upon Pisagua followed by an advance inland to
+Dolores. The Congressional forces failed at first to make good
+their footing (16th-23rd of January), but, though defeated in
+two or three actions, they brought off many recruits and a
+quantity of munitions of war. On the 26th they retook Pisagua,
+and on the 15th of February the Balmacedist commander,
+Eulojio Robles, who offered battle in the expectation of receiving
+reinforcements from Tacna, was completely defeated on the old
+battlefield of San Francisco. Robles fell back along the railway,
+called up troops from Iquique, and beat the invaders at Haura
+on the 17th, but Iquique in the meanwhile fell to the Congressional
+fleet on the 16th. The Pisagua line of operations was at
+once abandoned, and the military forces of the congress were
+moved by sea to Iquique, whence, under the command of Colonel
+Estanislao Del Canto, they started inland. The battle of Pozo
+Almonte, fought on the 7th of March, was desperately contested,
+but Del Canto was superior in numbers, and Robles was himself
+killed and his army dispersed. After this the other Balmacedist
+troops in the north gave up the struggle. Some were driven
+into Peru, others into Bolivia, and one column made a laborious
+retreat from Calama to Santiago, in the course of which it twice
+crossed the main chain of the Andes.</p>
+
+<p>The Congressional <i>Junta de Gobierno</i> now established in Iquique
+prosecuted the war vigorously, and by the end of April the whole
+country was in the hands of the &ldquo;rebels&rdquo; from the Peruvian
+border to the outposts of the Balmacedists at Coquimbo and La
+Serena. The <i>Junta</i> now began the formation of a properly
+organized army for the next campaign, which, it was believed
+universally on both sides, would be directed against Coquimbo.
+But in a few months the arrival of the new ships from Europe
+would reopen the struggle for command of the sea; the <i>torpederas</i>
+&ldquo;Condell&rdquo; and &ldquo;Lynch&rdquo; had already weakened the Congressional
+squadron severely by sinking the &ldquo;Blanco Encalada&rdquo; in
+Caldera Bay (23rd of April), and the Congressional party could
+no longer aim at a methodical conquest of successive provinces,
+but was compelled to attempt to crush the dictator at a blow.
+Where this blow was to fall was not decided up to the last
+moment, but the instrument which was to deliver it was prepared
+with all the care possible under the circumstances. Del Canto
+was made commander-in-chief, and an ex-Prussian officer, Emil
+Körner, chief of staff. The army was organized in three brigades
+of all arms, at Iquique, Caldera and Vallenar. Körner superintended
+the training of the men, gave instruction in tactics to
+the officers, caused maps to be prepared, and in general took
+every precaution that his experience could suggest to ensure
+success. Del Canto was himself no mere figurehead, but a
+thoroughly capable leader who had distinguished himself at
+Tacna (1880) and Miraflores (1881), as well as in the present war.
+The men were enthusiastic, and the officers unusually numerous.
+The artillery was fair, the cavalry good, and the train and
+auxiliary services well organized. About one-third of the infantry
+were armed with the (Männlicher) magazine rifle, which now made
+its first appearance in war, the remainder had the Gras and other
+breech-loaders, which were also the armament of the dictator&rsquo;s
+infantry. Balmaceda could only wait upon events, but he prepared
+his forces as best he was able, and his <i>torpederas</i> constantly
+harried the Congressional navy. By the end of July Del Canto
+and Körner had done their work as well as time permitted, and
+early in August the troops prepared to embark, not for Coquimbo,
+but for Valparaiso itself.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition by sea was admirably managed, and Quinteros,
+N. of Valparaiso and not many miles out of range of its batteries,
+was occupied on the 20th of August 1891. Balmaceda was
+surprised, but acted promptly. The first battle was fought on
+the Aconcagua at Concon on the 21st. The eager infantry of the
+Congressional army forced the passage of the river and stormed
+the heights held by the Gobernistas, capturing 36 guns. The
+killed and wounded of the Balmacedists numbered 1600, and
+nearly all the prisoners, about 1500 men, enrolled themselves
+in the rebel army, which thus more than made good its loss of
+1000 killed and wounded. The victors pressed on towards
+Valparaiso, but were soon brought up by the strong fortified
+position of the Balmacedist general Barbosa at Viña del Mar,
+whither Balmaceda hurried up all available troops from Valparaiso
+and Santiago, and even from Concepción. Del Canto and Körner
+now resolved on a daring step. Supplies of all kinds were brought
+up from Quinteros to the front, and on the 24th of August the
+army abandoned its line of communications and marched inland.
+The flank march was conducted with great skill, little opposition
+was encountered, and the rebels finally appeared to the south-east
+of Valparaiso. Here, on the 28th, took place the decisive
+battle of La Placilla. Concon had been perhaps little more than
+the destruction of an isolated corps; the second battle was a fair
+trial of strength, for Barbosa was well prepared, and had under
+his command the greater part of the existing forces of the dictator.
+But the splendid fighting qualities of the Congressional troops
+and the superior generalship of their leaders prevailed in the
+end over every obstacle. The government army was practically
+annihilated, 941 men were killed, including Barbosa and his
+second in command, and 2402 wounded. The Congressional
+army lost over 1800 men. Valparaiso was occupied the same
+evening and Santiago soon afterwards. There was no further
+fighting, for so great was the effect of the battles of Concon and
+La Placella that even the Coquimbo troops surrendered without
+firing a shot.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Lieut. Sears and Ensign Wells, U.S.N., <i>The
+Chilian Revolution of 1891</i> (Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington,
+1893); <i>The Capture of Valparaiso, 1891</i> (Intelligence Department,
+War Office, London, 1892); Hermann Kunz, <i>Taktische Beispiele aus
+den Kriegen der neuesten Zeit; der Bürgerkrieg in Chile</i> (Berlin,
+1901); <i>Revista militar de Chile</i> (February-March 1892); Hugo
+Kunz, <i>Der Bürgerkrieg in Chile</i> (Vienna, 1892); <i>Militär Wochenblatt</i>
+(5th supplement, 1892); Sir W. Laird Clowes, <i>Four Modern Naval
+Campaigns</i> (London, 1902); <i>Proceedings of U.S. Naval Institute</i>
+(1894) (for La Placilla); and the military and naval periodicals of
+1892.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1879-1882). The proximate cause
+of this war was the seizure, by the authorities of Bolivia, of the
+effects of the Chilean Nitrate Company at Antofagasta, then
+part of the Bolivian province of Atacama. The first act of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span>
+hostility was the despatch of 500 soldiers to protect Chilean
+interests at Antofagasta. This force, under Colonel Sotomayor,
+landed and marched inland; the only resistance encountered
+was at Calama on the river Loa, where a handful of newly raised
+militia was routed (23rd March 1879). About the same time
+Chilean warships occupied Cobija and Tocapilla, and Sotomayor,
+after his victory at Calama, marched to the latter port. Bolivia
+had declared war on the 1st of March, but Peru not till the 5th
+of April: this delay gave the Chileans time to occupy every
+port on the Bolivian coast. Thus the Chilean admiral was able
+to proceed at once to the blockade of the southern ports of Peru,
+and in particular Iquique, where there took place the first naval
+action of the war. On the 21st of April the Chilean sloop
+&ldquo;Esmeralda&rdquo; and the gunboat &ldquo;Covadonga&rdquo;&mdash;both small and
+weak ships&mdash;engaged the Peruvian heavy ironclads &ldquo;Huascar&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Independencia&rdquo;; after a hot fight the &ldquo;Huascar&rdquo; under
+Miguel Grau sank the &ldquo;Esmeralda&rdquo; under Arturo Piat, who
+was killed, but Carlos Condell in the &ldquo;Covadonga&rdquo; manoeuvred
+the &ldquo;Independencia&rdquo; aground and shelled her into a complete
+wreck. The Chileans now gave up the blockade and concentrated
+all their efforts on the destruction of the &ldquo;Huascar,&rdquo;
+while the allies organized a field army in the neighbourhood
+of Tacna and a large Chilean force assembled at Antofagasta.</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th of October 1879 the &ldquo;Huascar&rdquo; was brought to
+action off Angamos by the &ldquo;Blanco Encalada,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Almirante
+Cochrane.&rdquo; Grau was outmatched as hopelessly and
+made as brave a fight as Prat at Iquique. Early in the action
+a shot destroyed the Peruvian&rsquo;s conning tower, killing Grau
+and his staff, and another entered her turret, killing the flag
+captain and nearly all the crew of the turret guns. When the
+&ldquo;Huascar&rdquo; finally surrendered she had but one gun left in
+action, her fourth commander and three-quarters of her crew
+were killed and wounded, and the steering-gear had been shot
+away. The Peruvian navy had now ceased to exist. The
+Chileans resumed the blockade, and more active operations were
+soon undertaken. The whole force of the allies was about
+20,000 men, scattered along the seaboard of Peru. The Chileans
+on the other hand had a striking force of 16,000 men in the
+neighbourhood of Antofagasta, and of this nearly half was
+embarked for Pisagua on the 26th of October. The expeditionary
+force landed, in the face of considerable opposition, on the
+2nd of November, and captured Pisagua. From Pisagua the
+Peruvians and Bolivians fell back along the railway to their
+reinforcements, and when some 10,000 men had been collected
+they moved forward to attack the Chilean position of San
+Francisco near Dolores station (19th November). In the end
+the Chileans were victorious, but their only material gain was
+the possession of Iquique and the retreat of the allies, who fell
+back inland towards Tarapacá. The tardy pursuit of the
+Chileans ended in the battle of Tarapacá on the 27th. In this
+the allies were at first surprised, but, rapidly recovering themselves,
+took the offensive, and after a murderous fight, in which
+more men were killed than were wounded, the Chileans suffered a
+complete defeat. For some inexplicable reason the allies made
+no use of their victory, continued to retreat and left the Chileans
+in complete possession of the Tarapacá region. With this
+the campaign of 1879 ended. Chile had taken possession of the
+Bolivian seaboard and of the Peruvian province of Tarapacá,
+and had destroyed the hostile navy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The objective of the Chileans in the second campaign was the
+province of Tacna and the field force of the allies at Tacna and Arica.
+The invasion was again carried out by sea, and 12,000 Chileans were
+landed at Pacocha (Ylo), far to the N. of Arica. Careful preparations
+were made for a desert march, and on the 12th of March 1880
+the advanced corps started inland for Moquegua, which was occupied
+on the 20th. Near Moquegua the Peruvians, some 2000 strong, took
+up an unusually strong position in the defile of Cuesta de los Angeles.
+But the great numerical superiority of the assailants enabled them
+to turn the flanks and press the front of the Peruvian position, and
+after a severe struggle the defence collapsed (March 22nd), In
+April the army began its advance southward from Moquegua to
+Tacna, while the Chilean warships engaged in a series of minor
+naval operations in and about the bay of Callao. Arica was also
+watched, and the blockade was extended north of Lima. The
+land campaign had ere this culminated in the battle of Tacna (May
+26th), in which the Chileans attacked at first in several disconnected
+bodies, and suffered severely until all their forces came on the field.
+Then a combined advance carried all before it. The allies engaged
+under General Narciso Campero, the new president of Bolivia, lost
+nearly 3000 men, and the Chileans, commanded by Manuel Baquedano,
+lost 2000 out of 8500 on the field. The defeated army was
+completely dissolved, and it only remained for the Chileans to march
+on Arica from the land side. The navy co-operated with its long-range
+guns, on the 7th of June a general assault was made, and before
+nightfall the whole of the defences were in the hands of the Chileans.
+Their second campaign had given them entire possession of another
+strip of Peru (from Pisagua to Ylo), and they had shown themselves
+greatly superior, both in courage and leadership, to their opponents.
+While the army prepared for the next campaign, the Chilean navy
+was active; the blockade became more stringent and several fights
+took place, in one of which the &ldquo;Covadonga&rdquo; was sunk; an expeditionary
+force about 3000 strong, commanded by Patricio Lynch,
+a captain in the Chilean navy, carried out successful raids at various
+places on the coast and inland.</p>
+
+<p>The Chilean army was reorganized during the summer, and prepared
+for its next operation, this time against Lima itself. General
+Baquedano was in command. The leading troops disembarked at
+Pisco on the 18th of November 1880, and the whole army was ready
+to move against the defences of Lima six weeks later. These defences
+consisted of two distinct positions, Chorrillos and Miraflores, the
+latter being about 4000 yds. outside Lima. The first line of defence
+was attacked by Baquedano on the 13th of January 1881. Reconnaissances
+proved that the Peruvian lines could not be turned, and
+the battle was a pure frontal attack. The defenders had 22,000 men
+in the lines, the Chileans engaged about 24,000. The battle of
+Chorrillos ended in the complete defeat of the Peruvians, less than a
+quarter of whose army rallied behind the Miraflores defences. The
+Chileans lost over 3000 men. Two days later took place the battle
+of Miraflores (January 15th). Here the defences were very strong,
+and the action began with a daring counter-attack by some Peruvians.
+Neither party had intended to fight a battle, for negotiations were in
+progress, but the action quickly became general. Its result was, as
+before, the complete dissolution of the defending army. Lima, incapable
+of defence, was occupied by the invaders on the 17th, and
+on the 18th Callao surrendered. The resistance of the Peruvians was
+so far broken that Chile left only a small army of occupation to deal
+with the remnants of their army. The last engagement took place
+at Caxacamara in September 1882, when the Peruvians won an
+unimportant success.</p>
+
+<p>See T. B. M. Mason, <i>The War on the Pacific Coast, 1879-1881</i>
+(U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1883); Captain
+Châteauminois (transl.), <i>Mémoire du Ministre de la Guerre du Chili
+sur la guerre Chilo-Péruvienne</i> (1882); Barros Arana, <i>Hist. de la
+guerre du Pacifique</i> (1884); Sir W. Laird Clowes, <i>Four Modern Naval
+Campaigns</i> (London, 1902); Anon., <i>Précis de la guerre du Pacifique</i>
+(Paris, 1886); Clements R. Markham, <i>The War between Peru and Chile</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILIASM<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="Chiliasmos, Chilioi">&#967;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#945;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;, &#967;&#943;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#953;</span>, a thousand), the
+belief that Christ will return to reign in the body for a thousand
+years, the doctrine of the Millennium (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILL�N<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span>, a city and the capital of the province of Ñuble,
+in the southern part of central Chile, 35° 56&prime; S., 71° 37&prime; W.,
+246 m. by rail S.S.W. of Santiago and about 56 m. direct (108 by
+rail) N.E. of Concepción. Pop. (1895) 28,738; (1902, official
+estimate) 36,382. Chillán is one of the most active commercial
+cities of central Chile, and is surrounded by a rich agricultural
+and grazing country. Chillán was founded by Ruiz de Gambôa
+in 1594. Its present site was chosen in 1836. The original site,
+known as Chillán Viejo, forms a suburb of the new city. The
+hot sulphur springs of Chillán, which were discovered in
+1795, are about 45 m. E.S.E. They issue from the flanks
+of the &ldquo;Volcan Viejo,&rdquo; about 7000 ft. above sea-level. The
+highest temperature of the water issuing from these springs is
+a little over 135°. The principal volcanoes of the Chillán
+group are the Nevado (9528 ft.) and the Viejo. After a repose
+of about two centuries the Nevado de Chillán broke out in
+eruption early in 1861 and caused great destruction. The
+eruption ceased in 1863, but broke out again in 1864.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILLIANWALLA<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span>, a village of British India in the Punjab,
+situated on the left bank of the river Jhelum, about 85 m. N.W.
+of Lahore. It is memorable as the scene of a battle on the 13th
+of January 1849, between a British force commanded by Lord
+Gough and the Sikh army under Sher Singh. The loss of the
+Sikhs was estimated at 4000, while that of the British in killed
+and wounded amounted to 2800, of whom nearly 1000 were
+Europeans and 89 were British and 43 native officers. An
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span>
+obelisk erected at Chillianwalla by the British government
+preserves the names of those who fell.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILLICOTHE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Livingston
+county, Missouri, U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state,
+on the Grand river, about 80 m. N.E. of Kansas City. Pop.
+(1890) 5717; (1900) 6905 (538 negroes); (1910) 6265. It is
+served by the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St Paul, the Wabash, and
+the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy railways. There are various
+manufactures. Coal and limestone are found in the vicinity,
+and much live stock is raised, wool and hides being shipped
+from Chillicothe. Chillicothe was settled about 1830, and the
+town was laid out in 1837 on land granted directly by the
+Federal government; it was incorporated in 1855.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILLICOTHE<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Ross county,
+Ohio, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Scioto river, on the Ohio &amp;
+Erie Canal, about 50 m. S. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 11,288;
+(1900) 12,976, of whom 986 were negroes, and 910 were foreign-born;
+(1910 census) 14,508. Chillicothe is served by the
+Baltimore &amp; Ohio South-Western (which has railway shops
+here), and other railways. The city has two parks. There are
+several ancient mounds in the vicinity. Chillicothe is built on a
+plain about 30 ft. above the river, in the midst of a fertile agricultural
+region, and has a large trade in grain and coal, and in
+manufactures. The value of the city&rsquo;s factory products increased
+from $1,615,959 in 1900 to $3,146,890 in 1905, or 94.7%.
+Chillicothe was founded in 1796, and was first incorporated in
+1802. In 1800-1803 it was the capital of the North-West
+Territory, and in 1803-1810 and 1812-1816 the capital of Ohio.
+Three Indian villages bore the name Chillicothe, each being in
+turn the chief town of the Chillicothe, one of the four tribal
+divisions of the Shawnee, in their retreat before the whites;
+the village near what is now Oldtown in Greene county was
+destroyed by George Rogers Clark in 1780; that in Miami
+county, where Piqua is now, was destroyed by Clark in 1782;
+and the Indian village near the present Chillicothe was destroyed
+in 1787 by Kentuckians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Henry Howe, <i>Historical Collections of Ohio</i> (Columbus, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1602-1644), English divine
+and controversialist, was born at Oxford in October 1602. In
+June 1618 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford,
+and was made a fellow of his college in June 1628. He had
+some reputation as a skilful disputant, excelled in mathematics,
+and gained some credit as a writer of verses. The marriage
+of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria of France had stimulated
+the propaganda of the Roman Catholic Church, and the Jesuits
+made the universities their special point of attack. One of
+them, &ldquo;John Fisher,&rdquo; who had his sphere at Oxford, succeeded
+in making a convert of young Chillingworth, and prevailed
+upon him to go to the Jesuit college at Douai. Influenced,
+however, by his godfather, Laud, then bishop of London, he
+resolved to make an impartial inquiry into the claims of the two
+churches. After a short stay he left Douai in 1631 and returned
+to Oxford. On grounds of Scripture and reason he at length
+declared for Protestantism, and wrote in 1634, but did not
+publish, a confutation of the motives which had led him over to
+Rome. This paper was lost; the other, on the same subject,
+was probably written on some other occasion at the request of
+his friends. He would not, however, take orders. His theological
+sensitiveness appears in his refusal of a preferment offered
+to him in 1635 by Sir Thomas Coventry, lord keeper of the great
+seal. He was in difficulty about subscribing the Thirty-nine
+Articles. As he informed Gilbert Sheldon, then warden of All
+Souls, in a letter, he was fully resolved on two points&mdash;that to
+say that the Fourth Commandment is a law of God appertaining
+to Christians is false and unlawful, and that the damnatory
+clauses in the Athanasian Creed are most false, and in a high
+degree presumptuous and schismatical. To subscribe, therefore,
+he felt would be to &ldquo;subscribe his own damnation.&rdquo; At this
+time his principal work was far towards completion. It was
+undertaken in defence of Dr Christopher Potter, provost of
+Queen&rsquo;s College in Oxford, who had for some time been carrying
+on a controversy with a Jesuit known as Edward Knott, but
+whose real name was Matthias Wilson. Potter had replied in
+1633 to Knott&rsquo;s <i>Charity Mistaken</i> (1630), and Knott retaliated
+with <i>Mercy and Truth</i>. This work Chillingworth engaged to
+answer, and Knott, hearing of his intention and hoping to bias
+the public mind, hastily brought out a pamphlet tending to show
+that Chillingworth was a Socinian who aimed at perverting not
+only Catholicism but Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury, was not a little solicitous
+about Chillingworth&rsquo;s reply to Knott, and at his request, as &ldquo;the
+young man had given cause why a more watchful eye should be
+held over him and his writings,&rdquo; it was examined by the vice-chancellor
+of Oxford and two professors of divinity, and published
+with their approbation in 1637, with the title <i>The Religion
+of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation</i>. The main argument
+is a vindication of the sole authority of the Bible in spiritual
+matters, and of the free right of the individual conscience to
+interpret it. In the preface Chillingworth expresses his new
+view about subscription to the articles. &ldquo;For the Church of
+England,&rdquo; he there says, &ldquo;I am persuaded that the constant
+doctrine of it is so pure and orthodox, that whosoever believes
+it, and lives according to it, undoubtedly he shall be saved,
+and that there is no error in it which may necessitate or warrant
+any man to disturb the peace or renounce the communion of it.
+This, in my opinion, is all intended by subscription.&rdquo; His
+scruples having thus been overcome, he was, in the following
+year (1638), promoted to the chancellorship of the church of
+Sarum, with the prebend of Brixworth in Northamptonshire
+annexed to it. In the great civil struggle he used his pen against
+the Scots, and was in the king&rsquo;s army at the siege of Gloucester,
+inventing certain engines for assaulting the town. Shortly
+afterwards he accompanied Lord Hopton, general of the king&rsquo;s
+troops in the west, in his march; and, being laid up with illness
+at Arundel Castle, he was there taken prisoner by the parliamentary
+forces under Sir William Waller. As he was unable to
+go to London with the garrison, he was conveyed to Chichester,
+and died there in January 1644. His last days were harassed
+by the diatribes of the Puritan preacher, Francis Cheynell.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides his principal work, Chillingworth wrote a number of
+smaller anti-Jesuit papers published in the posthumous <i>Additional
+Discourses</i> (1687), and nine of his sermons have been preserved. In
+politics he was a zealous Royalist, asserting that even the unjust and
+tyrannous violence of princes may not be resisted, although it might
+be avoided in terms of the instruction, &ldquo;when they persecute you in
+one city, flee into another.&rdquo; His writings long enjoyed a high popularity.
+The <i>Religion of Protestants</i> is characterized by much fairness
+and acuteness of argument, and was commended by Locke as a
+discipline of &ldquo;perspicuity and the way of right reasoning.&rdquo; The
+charge of Socinianism was frequently brought against him, but, as
+Tillotson thought, &ldquo;for no other cause but his worthy and successful
+attempts to make the Christian religion reasonable.&rdquo; His creed,
+and the whole gist of his argument, is expressed in a single sentence,
+&ldquo;I am fully assured that God does not, and therefore that men
+ought not to, require any more of any man than this, to believe the
+Scripture to be God&rsquo;s word, and to endeavour to find the true sense
+of it, and to live according to it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A <i>Life</i> by Rev. T. Birch was prefixed to the 1742 edition of
+Chillingworth&rsquo;s <i>Works</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILOÉ<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (from <i>Chile</i> and <i>hué</i>, &ldquo;part of Chile&rdquo;), a province of
+southern Chile, and also the name of a large island off the Chilean
+coast forming part of the province. The province, area 8593
+sq. m., pop. (1895) 77,750, is composed of three groups of islands,
+Chiloé, Guaitecas and Chonos, and extends from the narrow
+strait of Chacao in 41° 40&prime; S. to the peninsula of Taytao, about
+45° 45&prime; S. The population is composed mainly of Indians,
+distantly related to the tribes of the mainland, and mestizos.
+The capital of the province is Ancud or San Carlos, at the northern
+end of the island of Chiloé, on the sheltered bay of San Carlos,
+once frequented by whalers. It is the seat of a bishopric;
+pop. (1905) 3182. Other towns are Castro, the former capital,
+on the eastern shore of Chiloé, and the oldest town of the island
+(founded 1566), once the seat of a Jesuit mission, and Melinca
+on an island of the Guaitecas group.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The island of Chiloé, which lies immediately south of the province
+of Llanquihue, is a continuation of the western Chilean formation,
+the coast range appearing in the mountainous range of western Chiloé
+and the islands extending south along the coast. Between this coast
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span>
+range and the Andes, the gulfs of Chacao, or Ancud and Corcovado
+(average width, 30 m.) separate the island from the mainland. Chiloé
+has an extreme length north to south of about 118 m., and an average
+width of 35 to 40 m., with an area of about 4700 sq. m. There are
+several lakes on the island&mdash;Cucao, 12 m. long, being the largest,&mdash;and
+one small river, the Pudeto, in the northern part of the island,
+is celebrated as the scene of the last engagement in the war for independence,
+the Spanish retaining possession of Chiloé until 1826.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILON<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span>, of Sparta, son of Damagetus, one of the Seven
+Sages of Greece, flourished about the beginning of the 6th century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> In 560 (or 556) he acted as ephor, an office which he is
+even said to have founded. The tradition was that he died of
+joy on hearing that his son had gained a prize at the Olympic
+games. According to Chilon, the great virtue of man was
+prudence, or well-grounded judgment as to future events.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A collection of the sayings attributed to him will be found in
+F.W. Mullach, <i>Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum</i>, i.; see Herodotus
+i. 69; Diogenes Laertius i. 68; Pausanias iii. 16, x. 24.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILPERIC<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span>, the name of two Frankish kings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Chilperic I.</span> (d. 584) was one of the sons of Clotaire I. Immediately
+after the death of his father in 561 he endeavoured
+to take possession of the whole kingdom, seized the treasure
+amassed in the royal town of Berny and entered Paris. His
+brothers, however, compelled him to divide the kingdom with
+them, and Soissons, together with Amiens, Arras, Cambrai,
+Thérouanne, Tournai and Boulogne, fell to Chilperic&rsquo;s share,
+but on the death of Charibert in 567 his estates were augmented.
+When his brother Sigebert married Brunhilda, Chilperic also
+wished to make a brilliant marriage. He had already repudiated
+his first wife, Audovera, and had taken as his concubine a
+serving-woman called Fredegond. He accordingly dismissed
+Fredegond, and married Brunhilda&rsquo;s sister, Galswintha. But
+he soon tired of his new partner, and one morning Galswintha
+was found strangled in her bed. A few days afterwards Chilperic
+married Fredegond. This murder was the cause of long and
+bloody wars, interspersed with truces, between Chilperic and
+Sigebert. In 575 Sigebert was assassinated by Fredegond at
+the very moment when he had Chilperic at his mercy. Chilperic
+retrieved his position, took from Austrasia Tours and Poitiers
+and some places in Aquitaine, and fostered discord in the kingdom
+of the east during the minority of Childebert II. One
+day, however, while returning from the chase to the town of
+Chelles, Chilperic was stabbed to death.</p>
+
+<p>Chilperic may be regarded as the type of Merovingian
+sovereigns. He was exceedingly anxious to extend the royal
+authority. He levied numerous imposts, and his fiscal measures
+provoked a great sedition at Limoges in 579. He wished to
+bring about the subjection of the church, and to this end sold
+bishoprics to the highest bidder, annulled the wills made in
+favour of the bishoprics and abbeys, and sought to impose upon
+his subjects a rationalistic conception of the Trinity. He
+pretended to some literary culture, and was the author of some
+halting verse. He even added letters to the Latin alphabet,
+and wished to have the MSS. rewritten with the new characters.
+The wresting of Tours from Austrasia and the seizure of ecclesiastical
+property provoked the bitter hatred of Gregory of Tours,
+by whom Chilperic was stigmatized as the Nero and the Herod
+of his time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sérésia, <i>L&rsquo;Église et l&rsquo;État sous les rois francs au VIe siècle</i>
+(Ghent, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Chilperic II.</span> (d. 720) was the son of Childeric II. He
+became king of Neustria in 715, on which occasion he changed
+his name from Daniel to Chilperic. At first he was a tool in the
+hands of Ragenfrid, the mayor of the palace. Charles Martel,
+however, overthrew Ragenfrid, accepted Chilperic as king of
+Neustria, and, on the death of Clotaire IV., set him over the whole
+kingdom. The young king died soon afterwards.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. PF.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILTERN HILLS<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">The Chilterns</span>, a range of chalk hills
+in England, extending through part of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire
+and Bedfordshire. Running from S.W. to N.E., they
+form a well-marked escarpment north-westward, while the
+south-eastern slope is long. The name of Chilterns is applied
+to the hills between the Thames in the neighbourhood of Goring
+and the headwaters of its tributary the Lea between Dunstable
+and Hitchin, the crest line between these points being about
+55 m. in length. But these hills are part of a larger chalk system,
+continuing the line of the White Horse Hills from Berkshire,
+and themselves continued eastward by the East Anglian ridge.
+The greatest elevation of the Chilterns is found in the centre
+from Watlington to Tring, where heights from 800 to 850 ft.
+are frequent. Westward towards the Thames gap the elevation
+falls away but little, but eastward the East Anglian ridge does
+not often exceed 500 ft., though it continues the northward
+escarpment across Hertfordshire. There are several passes
+through the Chilterns, followed by main roads and railways
+converging on London, which lies in the basin of which these
+hills form part of the northern rim. The most remarkable
+passes are those near Tring, Wendover and Prince&rsquo;s Risborough,
+the floors of which are occupied by the gravels of former rivers.
+The Chilterns were formerly covered with a forest of beech,
+and there is still a local supply of this wood for the manufacture
+of chairs and other articles in the neighbourhood of Wycombe.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILTERN HUNDREDS<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span>. An old principle of English parliamentary
+law declared that a member of the House of Commons,
+once duly chosen, could not <i>resign</i> his seat. This rule was a
+relic of the days when the local gentry had to be compelled to
+serve in parliament. The only method, therefore, of avoiding
+the rule came to be by accepting an office of profit from the
+crown, a statute of 1707 enacting that every member accepting
+an office of profit from the crown should thereby vacate his seat,
+but should be capable of re-election, unless the office in question
+had been created since 1705, or had been otherwise declared to
+disqualify for a seat in parliament. Among the posts of profit
+held by members of the House of Commons in the first half of the
+18th century are to be found the names of several crown stewardships,
+which apparently were not regarded as places of profit
+under the crown within the meaning of the act of 1707, for no
+seats were vacated by appointment to them. The first instance
+of the acceptance of such a stewardship vacating a seat was in
+1740, when the house decided that Sir W.W. Wynn, on inheriting
+from his father, in virtue of a royal grant, the stewardship of the
+lordship and manor of Bromfield and Yale, had <i>ipso facto</i> vacated
+his seat. On the passing of the Place Act of 1742, the idea of
+utilizing the appointment to certain crown stewardships (possibly
+suggested by Sir W.W. Wynn&rsquo;s case) as a pretext for enabling a
+member to resign his seat was carried into practice. These
+nominal stewardships were eight in number, but only two survived
+to be used in this way in contemporary practice&mdash;those
+of the Chilterns and Northstead; and when a member wished
+to vacate his seat, he was accordingly spoken of as taking the
+Chiltern Hundreds.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, County Bucks.</i>&mdash;The
+Chiltern Hundreds formed a bailiwick of the ordinary type.
+They are situated on the Chiltern Hills, and the depredations of the
+bandits, who found shelter within their recesses, became at an early
+period so alarming that a special officer, known as the steward of the
+Chiltern Hundreds, was appointed for the protection of the inhabitants
+of the neighbouring districts. It is doubtful at what date
+the necessity for such an appointment disappeared, but the three hundreds
+of Stoke, Burnham and Desborough are still distinguished by
+the old name. The appointment of steward was first used for parliamentary
+purposes in  1750, the appointment being made by the
+chancellor of the exchequer (and at his discretion to grant or not),
+and the warrant bestowing on the holder &ldquo;all wages, fees, allowances
+and other privileges and pre-eminences.&rdquo; Up to the 19th century
+there was a nominal salary of 20s. attached to the post. It was laid
+down in 1846 by the chancellor of the exchequer that the Chilterns
+could not be granted to more than one person in the same day, but
+this rule has not been strictly adhered to, for on four occasions
+subsequent to 1850 the Chilterns were granted twice on the same day.
+The Chilterns might be granted to members whether they had taken
+the oath or not, or during a recess, though in this case a new writ
+could not be issued until the House met again. Each new warrant
+expressly revoked the grant to the last holder, the new steward
+retaining it in his turn until another should be appointed.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of East Hundred, or Hendred,
+Berks.</i>&mdash;This stewardship was first used for parliamentary purposes
+in 1763, and was in more or less constant use until 1840, after which
+it disappeared. This manor comprised copyholds, the usual courts
+were held, and the stewardship was an actual and active office, the
+duties being executed by a deputy steward. The manor was sold by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span>
+public auction in 1823 for £910, but in some manner the crown
+retained the right of appointing a steward for seventeen years after
+that date.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead, Yorkshire.</i>&mdash;This
+manor was crown property before 1750, but was in lease until
+1838. It has no copyhold lands, nor are there any records of manor
+courts. There are no traces of any profits having ever been derived
+from the office. It was used for parliamentary purposes in 1844 and
+subsequently.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Steward of the Manor of Hempholme, Yorkshire.</i>&mdash;This manor
+appears to have been of the same nature as that of Northstead. It
+was in lease until 1835. It was first used for parliamentary purposes
+in 1845 and was in constant use until 1865. It was sold in 1866.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Escheator of Munster.</i>&mdash;Escheators were officers commissioned
+to secure the rights of the crown over property which had legally
+escheated to it. In Ireland mention is made of escheators as early as
+1256. In 1605 the escheatorship of Ireland was split up into four,
+one for each province, but the duties soon became practically nominal.
+The escheatorship of Munster was first used for parliamentary purposes
+in the Irish parliament from 1793 to 1800, and in the united
+parliament (24 times for Irish seats and once for a Scottish seat) from
+1801 to 1820. After 1820 it was discontinued and finally abolished
+in 1838.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Steward of the Manor of Old Shoreham, Sussex.</i>&mdash;This manor
+belonged to the duchy of Cornwall, and it is difficult to understand
+how it came to be regarded as a crown appointment. It was first
+used for parliamentary purposes in 1756, and then, occasionally,
+until 1799, in which year it was sold by the duchy to the duke of
+Norfolk.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Steward of the Manor of Poynings, Sussex.</i>&mdash;This manor reverted
+to the crown on the death of Lord Montague about 1804, but was
+leased up to about 1835. It was only twice used for parliamentary
+purposes, in 1841 and 1843.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Escheator of Ulster.</i>&mdash;This appointment was used in the united
+parliament three times, for Irish seats only; the last time in 1819.</p>
+
+<p>See parliamentary paper&mdash;<i>Report from the Select Committee on
+House of Commons (Vacating of Seats)</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHILWA<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (incorrectly <span class="sc">Shirwa</span>), a shallow lake in south-east
+Africa, S.S.E. of Lake Nyasa, cut by 35°20&prime;E., and lying between
+15° and 15°35&prime;S. The lake is undergoing a process of desiccation,
+and in some dry seasons (as in 1879 and 1903) the &ldquo;open water&rdquo;
+is reduced to a number of large pools. Formerly the lake seems
+to have found an outlet northwards to the Lujenda branch of
+the Rovuma, but with the sinking of its level it is now
+separated from the Lujenda by a wooded ridge some 30 to 40 ft.
+above the surrounding plains. There are four islands, the
+largest rising 500 ft. above the water. The lake was discovered
+by David Livingstone in 1859 and was by him called Shirwa,
+from a mishearing of the native name.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIMAERA<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span>, in Greek mythology, a fire-breathing female
+monster resembling a lion in the fore part, a goat in the middle,
+and a dragon behind (<i>Iliad</i>, vi. 179), with three heads corresponding.
+She devastated Caria and Lycia until she was finally slain by
+Bellerophon (see H.A. Fischer, <i>Bellerophon</i>, 1851). The origin
+of the myth was the volcanic nature of the soil of Lycia (Pliny,
+<i>Nat. Hist.</i> ii. 110; Servius on <i>Aeneid</i>, vi. 288), where works
+have been found containing representations of the Chimaera
+in the simple form of a lion. In modern art the Chimaera is
+usually represented as a lion, with a goat&rsquo;s head in the middle
+of the back, as in the bronze Chimaera of Arezzo (5th century).
+The word is now used generally to denote a fantastic idea or
+fiction of the imagination.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIMAY<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span>, a town in the extreme south-east of the province of
+Hainaut, Belgium, dating from the 7th century. Pop. (1904)
+3383. It is more commonly spoken of as being in the district
+<i>entre Sambre et Meuse</i>. Owing to its proximity to the French
+frontier it has undergone many sieges, the last of which was in
+1640, when Turenne gave orders that it should be reduced to
+such ruin that it could never stand another. The town is chiefly
+famous for the castle and park that bear its name. Originally a
+stronghold of the Cröy family, it has passed through the
+D&rsquo;Arenbergs to its present owners, the princes of Caraman-Chimay.
+The castle, which before Turenne&rsquo;s order to demolish it possessed
+seven towers, has now only one in ruins, and a modern château
+was built in the Tudor style in the 18th century. This domain
+carried with it the right to one of the twelve peerages of Hainaut.
+Madame Tallien, daughter of Dr Cabarrus, the Lady of Thermidor,
+married as her second husband the prince de Chimay, and held
+her little court here down to her death in 1835. There is a
+memorial to her in the church, which also contains a fine monument
+of Phillippe de Cröy, chamberlain and comrade in arms of
+the emperor Charles V. John Froissart the chronicler died and
+was buried here. There is a statue in his honour on the Grand
+Place. Chimay is situated on a stream called the White Water,
+which in its lower course becomes the Viroin and joins the Meuse.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIME<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>, (1) (Probably derived from a mistaken separation
+into two words, <i>chimbe bell</i>, of <i>chymbal</i> or <i>chymbel</i>, the
+old form of &ldquo;cymbal,&rdquo; Lat. <i>cymbalum</i>), a mechanical arrangement by
+which a set of bells in a church or other tower, or in a clock, are
+struck so as to produce a sequence of musical sounds or a tune.
+For the mechanism of such an arrangement in a clock and in a
+set of bells, see the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clock</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bell</a></span>. The word is also
+applied to the tune thus played by the bells and also to the
+harmonious &ldquo;fall&rdquo; of verse, and so, figuratively, to any harmonious
+agreement of thought or action. (2) (From Mid. Eng. <i>chimb</i>,
+a word meaning &ldquo;edge,&rdquo; common in varied forms to Teutonic
+languages, cf. Ger. <i>Kimme</i>), the bevelled rim formed by the
+projecting staves at the ends of a cask.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIMERE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Lat. <i>chimera, chimaera</i>; O. Fr. <i>chamarre</i>, Mod. Fr.
+<i>simarre</i>; Ital. <i>zimarra</i>; cf. Span. <i>zamarra</i>, a sheepskin
+coat; possibly derived ultimately from Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheimerios">&#967;&#949;&#953;&#956;&#941;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;wintry,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> a winter overcoat), in modern English use the name of a
+garment worn as part of the ceremonial dress of Anglican bishops.
+It is a long sleeveless gown of silk or satin, open down the front,
+gathered in at the back between the shoulders, and with slits
+for the arms. It is worn over the rochet (<i>q.v.</i>), and its colour is
+either black or scarlet (convocation robes). By a late abuse the
+sleeves of the rochet were, from motives of convenience, sometimes
+attached to the chimere. The origin of the chimere has
+been the subject of much debate; but the view that it is a
+modification of the cope (<i>q.v.</i>) is now discarded, and it is practically
+proved to be derived from the medieval tabard (<i>tabardum,
+taberda</i> or <i>collobium</i>), an upper garment worn in civil life by all
+classes of people both in England and abroad. It has therefore
+a common origin with certain academic robes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Robes</a></span>,
+§ <i>Academic dress</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;chimere,&rdquo; which first appears in England in the
+14th century, was sometimes applied not only to the tabard
+worn over the rochet, but to the sleeved cassock worn under it.
+Thus Archbishop Scrope is described as wearing when on his way
+to execution (1405) a blue chimere with sleeves. But the word
+properly applies to the sleeveless tabard which tended to supersede,
+from the 15th century onwards, the inconvenient <i>cappa
+clausa</i> (a long closed cloak with a slit in front for the arms) as the
+out-of-doors upper garment of bishops. These chimeres, the
+colours of which (murrey, scarlet, green, &amp;c.) may possibly have
+denoted academical rank, were part of the civil costume of
+prelates. Thus in the inventory of Walter Skirlawe, bishop of
+Durham (1405-1406), eight chimeres of various colours are
+mentioned, including two for riding (<i>pro equitatura</i>). The
+chimere was, moreover, a cold weather garment. In summer its
+place was taken by the tippet.</p>
+
+<p>In the Anglican form for the consecration of bishops the newly
+consecrated prelate, hitherto vested in rochet, is directed to put
+on &ldquo;the rest of the episcopal habit,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the chimere. The robe
+has thus become in the Church of England symbolical of the
+episcopal office, and is in effect a liturgical vestment. The rubric
+containing this direction was added to the Book of Common
+Prayer in 1662; and there is proof that the development of the
+chimere into at least a choir vestment was subsequent to the
+Reformation. Foxe, indeed, mentions that Hooper at his
+consecration wore &ldquo;a long scarlet chymere down to the foot&rdquo;
+(<i>Acts and Mon.</i>, ed. 1563, p. 1051), a source of trouble to himself
+and of scandal to other extreme reformers; but that this was
+no more than the full civil dress of a bishop is proved by the
+fact that Archbishop Parker at his consecration wore surplice
+and tippet, and only put on the chimere, when the service was
+over, to go away in. This civil quality of the garment still
+survives alongside the other; the full dress of an Anglican prelate
+at civil functions of importance (<i>e.g.</i> in parliament, or at court)
+is still rochet and chimere.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The continental equivalent of the chimere is the <i>zimarra</i> or <i>simarre</i>,
+which is defined by foreign ecclesiologists (Moroni, Barbier de
+Montault) as a kind of <i>soutane</i> (cassock), from which it is distinguished
+by having a small cape and short, open arms (<i>manches-fausses</i>) reaching
+to the middle of the upper arm and decorated with buttons. In
+France and Germany it is fitted more or less to the figure; in Italy
+it is wider and falls down straight in front. Like the <i>soutane</i>, the
+<i>zimarra</i> is not proper to any particular rank of clergy, but in the case
+of bishops and prelates it is ornamented with red buttons and bindings.
+It never has a train (<i>cauda</i>). It is not universally worn, <i>e.g.</i> in
+Germany apparently only by prelates. G. Moroni identifies the <i>zimarra</i>
+with the <i>epitogium</i> which Domenico Magri, in his <i>Hierolexicon</i>
+(ed. 1677), calls the uppermost garment of the clergy, worn over the <i>soutane</i>
+(<i>toga</i>) instead of the <i>mantellum</i> (<i>vestis suprema clericorum loco
+pallii</i>), with a cross-reference to <i>Tabardum</i>, the &ldquo;usual&rdquo; upper
+garment (<i>pallium usuale</i>); and this definition is repeated in the 8th
+edition of the work (1732). From this it appears that so late as the
+middle of the 18th century the <i>zimarra</i> was still in common use as an
+out-of-doors overcoat. But, according to Moroni, by the latter half
+of the 19th century the <i>zimarra</i>, though still worn by certain civilians
+(<i>e.g.</i> notaries and students), had become in Italy chiefly the domestic
+garment of the clergy, notably of superiors, parish priests, rectors,
+certain regulars, priests of congregations, bishops, prelates and
+cardinals. It was worn also by the Roman senators, and is still worn
+by university professors. A black <i>zimarra</i> lined with white, and
+sometimes ornamented with a white binding and gold tassels, is worn
+by the pope.</p>
+
+<p>More analogous to the Anglican chimere in shape, though not in
+significance, is the purple <i>mantelletum</i> worn over the rochet by bishops,
+and by others authorized to wear the episcopal insignia, in presence
+of the pope or his legates. This symbolizes the temporary suspension
+of the episcopal jurisdiction (symbolized by the rochet) so long as the
+pope or his representative is present. Thus at the Curia cardinals and
+prelates wear the <i>mantelletum</i>, while the pope wears the <i>zimarra</i>,
+and the first act of the cardinal camerlengo after the pope&rsquo;s death is to
+expose his rochet by laying aside the <i>mantelletum</i>, the other cardinals
+following his example, as a symbol that during the vacancy of the
+papacy the pope&rsquo;s jurisdiction is vested in the Sacred College. On
+the analogy of the <i>mantelletum</i> certain Anglican prelates, American
+and colonial, have from time to time appeared in purple chimeres;
+which, as the Rev. N.F. Robinson justly points out, is a most unhappy
+innovation, since it has no historical justification, and its
+symbolism is rather unfortunate.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;See the <i>Report</i> of the sub-committee of Convocation
+on the ornaments of the church and its ministers, p. 31
+(London, 1908); the Rev. N.F. Robinson, &ldquo;The black chimere of
+Anglican Prelates: a plea for its retention and proper use,&rdquo; in
+<i>Transactions of the St Paul&rsquo;s Ecclesiological Soc.</i> vol. iv. pp. 181-220
+(London, 1898); Herbert Druitt, <i>Costume on Brasses</i> (London,
+1906); G. Moroni, <i>Dizionario dell&rsquo; erudizione storico-ecclesiastica</i>
+(Venice, 1861), vol. 103, s.v. &ldquo;Zimarra&rdquo;: X. Barbier de Montault,
+<i>Traité pratique de la construction, &amp;c., des églises</i>, ii. 538 (Paris,
+1878).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIMESYAN<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (<i>Tsimshian</i>), a tribe of North American Indians,
+now some 3000 in number, living around the mouth of the
+Skeena river, British Columbia, and on the islands near the
+coast. They are a powerfully built people, who tattoo and wear
+labrets and rings in noses and ears. They are skilful fishermen,
+and live in large communal houses. They are divided into
+clans and distinct social orders.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIMKENT<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span>, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of
+Syr-darya, 70 m. by rail N.N.E. of Tashkent. Pop. (1897)
+10,756, mostly Sarts. It occupies a strategical position at the
+west end of the valley between the Alexander range and the
+Ala-tau (or Talas-tau), at the meeting of commercial routes
+from (1) Vyernyi and Siberia beyond, from the north-east,
+(2) the Aral Sea and Orenburg (connected with it by rail since
+1905) to the north-west, and (3) Ferghana and Bokhara to the
+south. The citadel, which was stormed by the Russians in 1864,
+stands on high ground above the town, but is now in ruins.
+Chimkent is visited by consumptive patients who wish to try
+the koumiss cure. It has cotton mills and soap-works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIMNEY<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (through the Fr. <i>cheminée</i>, from <i>caminata</i>, sc.
+<i>camera</i>, a Lat. derivative of <i>caminus</i>, an oven or furnace), in
+architecture, that portion of a building, rising above the roof,
+in which are the flues conveying the smoke to the outer air.
+Originally the term included the fireplace as well as the chimney
+shaft. At Rochester Castle (1130) and Heddington, Essex,
+there were no external chimney shafts, and the flue was carried
+through the wall at some height above the fireplace. In the
+early examples the chimney shaft was circular, with one flue only,
+and was terminated with a conical cap, the smoke issuing from
+openings in the side, which at Sherborne Abbey (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1300)
+were treated decoratively. It was not till the 15th century that
+the smoke issued at the top, and later in the century that more
+than one flue was carried up in the same shaft. There are a few
+examples of the clustered shaft in stone, but as a rule they are
+contemporaneous with the general use of brick. The brick
+chimney shafts, of which there are fine specimens at Hampton
+Court, were richly decorated with chevrons and other geometrical
+patterns. One of the best examples is that at Thornton Castle,
+Gloucestershire.</p>
+
+<p>In the 15th and 16th centuries in France the chimney shaft
+was recognized as an important architectural feature, and was
+of considerable elevation in consequence of the great height of
+the roofs. In the château of Meillant (1503) the chimney shafts
+are decorated with angle buttresses, niches and canopies, in the
+late Flamboyant style; and at Chambord and Blois they are
+carved with pilasters and niches with panelling above, carved
+with the salamander and other armorial devices. In the Roman
+palaces they are sometimes masked by the balustrades, and
+(when shown) take the form of sepulchral urns, as if to disguise
+their real purpose. Though not of a very architectural character,
+the chimneys at Venice present perhaps the greatest variety of
+terminations, and as a rule the smoke comes out on the sides
+and not through the top.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Factory Chimneys</i>.&mdash;Chimneys, besides removing the products of
+combustion, also serve to provide the fire with the air requisite for
+burning the fuel. The hot air in the shaft, being lighter than the cold
+air outside it, tends to rise, and as it does so air flows in at the bottom
+to take its place. An ascending current is thus established in the
+chimney, its velocity, other things being equal, varying as the square
+root of the height of the shaft above the grate. The velocity also
+increases with increase of temperature in the gas column, but since
+the weight of each cubic foot grows less as the gases expand, the
+amount of smoke discharged by a chimney does not increase indefinitely
+with the temperature; a maximum is reached when the
+difference in temperature between the gases in the shaft and the outside
+air is about 600° F., but the rate of increase is very slow after the
+difference has passed about 300° F. In designing a chimney the
+dimensions (height and sectional area) have to be so proportioned to
+the amount of fuel to be burnt in the various furnaces connected
+with it that at the temperature employed the products of combustion
+are effectively removed, due allowance being made for the frictional
+retardation of the current against the sides of the flues and shafts
+and in passing through the fire. The velocity of the current in actual
+chimneys varies widely, from 3 or 4 to 50 or 60 ft. a second. Increased
+velocity, obtainable by increasing the height of the shaft, gives
+increased delivering capacity, but a speed of 10 or 12 ft. a second
+is regarded as good practice. Ordinary factory chimneys do not in
+general exceed 180 or 200 ft. in height, but in some cases, especially
+when, as in chemical works, they are employed to get rid of objectionable
+vapours, they have been made double that height, or even more.
+In section they are round, octagonal or square. The circular form
+offers the least resistance to wind pressure, and for a given height
+and sectional area requires less material to secure stability than the
+octagonal and still less than the square; on the other hand, there is
+more liability to cracking. Brick is the material commonly used, but
+many chimneys are now made of iron or steel. Reinforced concrete
+is also employed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIMNEYPIECE<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span>, the term given to the projecting hood which
+in medieval times was built over a fireplace to catch the smoke,
+and at a later date to the decorative framework, often carried
+up to the ceiling. &ldquo;Chimneypiece&rdquo; or &ldquo;mantelpiece&rdquo; is now
+the general term for the jambs, mantelshelf and external accessories
+of a fireplace. For many centuries the chimneypiece
+was the most ornamental and most artistic feature of a room,
+but as fireplaces have become smaller, and modern methods of
+heating have been introduced, its artistic as well as its practical
+significance has grown less.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Up to the 12th century rooms were warmed entirely by a hypocaust,
+or with braziers, or by fires on the hearth, the smoke finding
+its way up to a lantern in the roof. The earliest chimneypiece known
+is that in the King&rsquo;s House at Southampton, with Norman shafts in
+the joints carrying a segmental arch, which is attributed to the first
+half of the 12th century. At a later date, in consequence of the
+greater width of the fireplace, flat or segmental arches were thrown
+across and constructed with voussoirs, sometimes joggled, the thrust
+of the arch being resisted by bars of iron at the back. In domestic
+work of the 14th century the chimneypiece was greatly increased
+in order to allow of the members of the family sitting on either side
+of the fire on the hearth, and in these cases great beams of timber
+were employed to carry the hood; in such cases the fireplace was so
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span>
+deeply recessed as to become externally an important architectural
+feature, as at Haddon Hall. The largest chimneypiece existing is
+in the great hall of the Palais des Comtes at Poitiers, which is nearly
+30 ft. wide, having two intermediate supports to carry the hood;
+the stone flues are carried up between the tracery of an immense
+window above. In the early Renaissance style, the chimneypiece
+of the Palais de Justice at Bruges is a magnificent example; the
+upper portion, carved in oak, extends the whole width of the room,
+with statues of nearly life size of Charles V. and others of the royal
+family of Spain. The most prolific modern designer of chimneypieces
+was J.B. Piranesi, who in 1765 published a large series, on which at a
+later date the Empire style in France was based. In France the finest
+work of the early Renaissance period is to be found in the chimneypieces,
+which are of infinite variety of design.</p>
+
+<p>The English chimneypieces of the early 17th century, when the
+purer Italian style was introduced by Inigo Jones, were extremely
+simple in design, sometimes consisting only of the ordinary mantelpiece,
+with classic architraves and shelf, the upper part of the
+chimney breast being panelled like the rest of the room. In the
+latter part of the century the classic architrave was abandoned in
+favour of a much bolder and more effective moulding, as in the
+chimneypieces at Hampton Court, and the shelf was omitted.</p>
+
+<p>In the 18th century the architects returned to the Inigo Jones
+classic type, but influenced by the French work of Louis XIV. and
+XV. Figure sculpture, generally represented by graceful figures on
+each side, which assisted to carry the shelf, was introduced, and the
+overmantel developed into an elaborate frame for the family portrait
+over the chimneypiece. Towards the close of the 18th century the
+designs of the brothers Adam superseded all others, and a century
+later they came again into fashion. The Adam mantels are in wood
+enriched with ornament, cast in moulds, sometimes copied from the
+carved wood decoration of old times.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIMPANZEE<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (<i>Chimpanzi</i>), the vernacular name of the
+highest species of the man-like apes, forming the typical representatives
+of the genus <i>Anthropopithecus</i>. Chimpanzees, of
+which there appear to be at least two species, range through the
+tropical forest-zone of Africa from the west coast to Uganda.
+The typical <i>A. troglodytes</i> has been long known to European
+science, Dr Tyson, a celebrated surgeon and anatomist of his time,
+having dissected a young individual, and described it, as a pigmy
+or <i>Homo sylvestris</i>, in a book published in 1699. Of this baby
+chimpanzee the skeleton may be seen in the Natural History
+branch of the British Museum alongside the volume in which
+it is described. It was not, however, till 1788 that the chimpanzee
+received what is now recognized as a scientific name, having been
+christened in that year <i>Simia troglodytes</i> by the naturalist
+Johann Friedrich Gmelin. In his classification it was included
+in the same genus as the orang-utan; and it has recently been
+suggested that the name <i>Simia</i> pertains of right to the chimpanzee
+rather than to the orang-utan. Between the typical West
+African chimpanzee and the gorilla (<i>q.v.</i>) there is no difficulty
+in drawing a distinction; the difficulty comes in when we have
+to deal with the aberrant races, or species, of chimpanzee, some
+of which are so gorilla-like that it is by no means easy to determine
+to which group they really pertain. In height the adult
+male chimpanzee of the typical form does not exceed 5 ft., and the
+colour of the hair is a full black, while the skin, especially that of
+the face, is light-coloured; the ears are remarkably large and
+prominent, and the hands reach only a short distance below the
+knees. The head is rounded and short, without prominent beetling
+ridges above the eyes, or a strong crest along the middle line of
+the back of the skull; and the tusks of the old males are of no very
+great length and prominence. Moreover, there is no very marked
+difference in the size of the two sexes. Gentleness and docility
+are specially characteristic of the species, even when full-grown;
+while in the native state its habits are thoroughly arboreal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In central Africa the chimpanzees assume more or less marked
+gorilla-like traits. The first of these aberrant types is Schweinfurth&rsquo;s
+chimpanzee (<i>Anthropopithecus troglodytes schweinfurthi</i>), which inhabits
+the Niam-Niam country, and, although evidently belonging
+to the same species as the typical race, exhibits certain gorilla-like
+features. These traits are still more developed in the bald chimpanzee
+(<i>A. tschego</i>) of Loango, the Gabun, and other regions of
+French Congo, which takes its English name from the sparse covering
+of hair on the head. The most gorilla-like of all the races is, however,
+the kulu-kamba chimpanzee (<i>A. kulu-kamba</i>) of du Chaillu, which
+inhabits central Africa. The celebrated ape &ldquo;Mafuka,&rdquo; which lived
+in the Dresden zoological gardens during 1875, and came from Loango,
+was apparently a member of this species, although it was at one time
+regarded as a hybrid between a chimpanzee and a gorilla. These
+gorilla-like traits were still more pronounced in &ldquo;Johanna,&rdquo; a female
+chimpanzee living in Barnum &amp; Bailey&rsquo;s show in 1899, which has been
+described and figured by Dr A. Keith. The heavy ridges over the
+brow, originally supposed to be distinctive of the gorilla, are particularly
+well marked in &ldquo;Johanna,&rdquo; and they would doubtless be still
+more noticeable in the male of the same race, which seems to be
+undoubtedly du Chaillu&rsquo;s kulu-kamba. Still the large size and
+prominence of the ears proclaim that both &ldquo;Mafuka&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Johanna&rdquo; were chimpanzees and not gorillas. A gorilla-like
+feature in &ldquo;Johanna&rdquo; is, however, the presence of large folds at
+the sides (<i>ala</i>) of the nostrils, which are absent in the typical chimpanzee,
+but in the gorilla extend down to the upper lip. Chimpanzees
+exhibit great docility in confinement, where, however, they seldom
+survive for any great length of time. They likewise display a much
+higher degree of intelligence than any of the other man-like apes.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Primates</a></span>.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINA<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span>, a country of eastern Asia, the principal division of
+the Chinese empire. In addition to China proper the Chinese
+Empire includes Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and Sin-kiang
+(East Turkestan, Kulja, Dzungaria, &amp;c., <i>i.e.</i> all the Chinese
+dependencies lying between Mongolia on the north and Tibet on
+the south). Its most southern point is in 18° 50&prime; N.; its most
+northern in 53° 25&prime; N.; its most western in 74° E., and its most
+eastern in 135° E. It lies, however, mainly between 20° and
+50° N. and 80° and 130° E. It is considerably larger than the
+whole of Europe. Though its area has not been exactly ascertained
+the various estimates closely approximate, varying
+between 4,277,000 and 4,300,000 sq. m. It is bounded N.W.,
+N. and N.E. by Asiatic Russia, along a frontier extending some
+6000 m.; E. by Korea and those parts of the Pacific known as
+the Yellow Sea and China Sea; S. and S.W. by the China Sea,
+French Indo-China, Upper Burma and the Himalayan states.
+It is narrowest in the extreme west. Chinese Turkestan along
+the meridian of Kashgar (76° E.) has a breadth of but 250 m.
+It rapidly broadens and for the greater part of its area is over
+1800 m. across in a direct N. and S. line. Its greatest length is
+from the N.E. corner of Manchuria to the S.W. confines of Tibet,
+a distance of 3100 m. in a direct line. Its seaboard, about 5000
+m. following the indentations of the coast, is almost, wholly in
+China proper, but the peninsula of Liao-tung and also the western
+shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung are in Manchuria.</p>
+
+<p>China<a name="FnAnchor_1d" id="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> proper or the Eighteen Provinces (<i>Shih-pa-shêng</i>)
+occupies the south-eastern part of the empire. It is bounded N.
+by Mongolia, W. by Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. by Burma, S.
+by Tongking and the gulf of that name, S.E. by the South China
+Sea, E. by the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, Gulf of Chih-li
+and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 1,500,000 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p>This vast country is separated from the rest of continental
+Asia by lofty tablelands and rugged mountain ranges, which
+determine the general course&mdash;west to east&mdash;of its principal
+rivers. On the north and west the Mongolian and Tibetan
+tablelands present towards China steep escarpments across
+which are very few passes. On the S.W. and S., on the borders
+of Yun-nan, high mountains and deep valleys separate China
+from Burma and Tongking. On the narrow N.E. frontier the
+transition from the Manchurian plateau to the alluvial plain of
+northern China is not abrupt, but, before the advent of railways,
+Manchuria afforded few and difficult means of access to other
+regions. Thus China was almost cut off from the rest of the
+world save by sea routes.</p>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">I. The Country</p>
+
+<p>Western China consists of highlands often sparsely, and eastern
+China of lowlands densely peopled. Western China contains the
+only provinces where the population is under 100 per sq. m.
+From the Tibetan and Mongolian tablelands project mountain
+ranges which, ramifying over the western region, enclose elevated
+level tracts and lower basins and valleys. East of this mountainous
+region, which extends into central China and covers probably
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span>
+fully half of the kingdom, are, in the north a great alluvial plain
+and in the south a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill
+ranges of moderate elevation (see §§ <i>Mountains</i> and <i>Geology</i>).
+In north-eastern China there is only one mountain system, the
+group of hills&mdash;-highest peak 5060 ft.&mdash;-forming the Shan-tung
+peninsula. This peninsula was formerly an island, but has been
+attached to the mainland by the growth of the alluvial plain.
+Besides the broad division of the country into western and
+eastern China it may also be considered as divided into three
+regions by the basins of its chief rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow
+river) in the north, the Yangtsze-kiang in the centre, and the
+Si-kiang (West river) in the south. In the northern provinces of
+Kan-suh and Shen-si the basins of the Hwang-ho and Yangtsze-kiang
+are separated by a mountain chain with various names&mdash;
+the eastern termination of the Kuen-lun range of central Asia.
+These mountains, in China, attain, in the Tsing-ling Shan, a
+maximum elevation of 13,000 ft. East of Shen-si, in Ho-nan the
+Fu-niu-shan continue the range, but with decreasing elevation,
+and beyond this the deltaic plain is entered.</p>
+
+<p>The watershed between the Yangtsze-kiang and that of the
+Si-kiang is less clearly marked. It traverses the immense tableland
+which occupies a great part of the south-west provinces of
+Yun-nan and Kwei-chow and is continued eastward by the lower
+tableland of Kwang-si and the Nanshan hills (whose elevation
+seldom exceeds 6000 ft.). The basin of the Yangtsze-kiang forms
+the whole of central China. Its western border, in Sze-ch&lsquo;uen
+and Yun-nan, is wholly mountainous, with heights exceeding
+19,000 ft. Central Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, which is shut in by these mountains
+on the west, by the Yun-nan and Kwei-chow plateau on the
+south, by the Kiu-lung range on the north, and by highlands
+eastward (save for the narrow valley through which the Yangtsze-kiang
+forces its way), is a vast red sandstone tableland of about
+1600 ft. elevation. It is exceedingly fertile and supports a dense
+population. Eastward of Sze-ch&lsquo;uen the Yangtsze valley is
+studded with lakes. Finally it enters the deltaic plain. The
+basin of the Si-kiang fills the two southern provinces of Kwang-si
+and Kwang-tung and contains no very striking orographic
+features. It may be added that in the extreme S.W. portion of
+China is part of a fourth drainage area. Here the Mekong,
+Salween, Song-koi (Red river), &amp;c. flow south to Indo-China.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Coast</i>.&mdash;The coast-line, following all the minor indentations,
+is reckoned at over 4500 m.; if only the larger inlets and promontories
+be regarded, the coast-line is about 2150 m. in length.
+Its shape is that of a semicircle, with its most easterly point midway
+(30° N.) between its northern and southern extremities. At either
+end of this semicircular sweep lies a peninsula, and beyond the
+peninsula a gulf. In the north are the peninsula of Shan-tung and
+the gulf of Chih-li; in the south the Lien-chow peninsula and the
+gulf of Tongking. Due south of Lien-chow peninsula, separated
+rom it by a narrow strait, is Hai-nan, the only considerable island
+of China. From the northern point of the gulf of Chih-li to 30° N.,
+where is Hang-chow bay, the shores are flat and alluvial save where
+the Shan-tung peninsula juts out. Along this stretch there are few
+good natural harbours, except at the mouths of rivers and in the
+Shan-tung promontory; the sea is shallow and has many shoals.
+The waters bordering the coast of Chih-li are partly frozen in winter;
+at 10 m. from the shore the water is only 20 ft. deep. The proximity
+of Peking gives its few ports importance; that of Taku is at the
+mouth of the Peiho. In Shan-tung, deeply indented on its southern
+coast, are the ports of Chi-fu, Wei-hai-wei and Tsing-tao (the last in
+Kiao-chow bay). South of Shan-tung and north of the mouth of the
+Yangtsze huge sandbanks border the coast, with narrow channels
+between them and the shore. The estuary of the Yangtsze is 60 m.
+across; it contains islands and sandbanks, but there is easy access
+to Wusung (Shanghai) and other river ports. The bay of Hangchow,
+as broad at its entrance as the Yangtsze estuary, forms the
+mouth of the Tsien-tang-kiang. The Chusan and other groups of
+islands lie across the entrance of the bay.</p>
+
+<p>South of Hang-chow bay the character of the coast alters. In
+place of the alluvial plain, with flat, sandy and often marshy shores,
+the coast is generally hilly, often rocky and abrupt; it abounds
+in small indentations and possesses numerous excellent harbours;
+in this region are Fu-chow, Amoy, Swatow, Hongkong, Macao,
+Canton and other well-known ports. The whole of this coast is
+bordered by small islands. Formosa lies opposite the S.E. coast,
+the channel between it and Fu-kien province being about 100 m. wide.
+Formosa protects the neighbouring regions of China from the typhoons
+experienced farther north and farther south.</p>
+
+<p><i>Surface</i>.&mdash;-As already indicated, one of the most noticeable features
+in the surface of China is the immense deltaic plain in the north-eastern
+portion of the country, which, curving round the mountainous
+districts of Shan-tung, extends for about 700 m. in a southerly
+direction from the neighbourhood of Peking and varies
+<span class="sidenote">Deltaic Plain.</span>
+from 150 to 500 m. in breadth. This plain is the delta of
+the Yellow river and, to some extent, that of the Yangtsze-kiang
+also. Beginning in the prefecture of Yung-p&lsquo;ing Fu, in the
+province of Chih-li, its outer limit passes in a westerly direction as
+far as Ch&lsquo;ang-p&lsquo;ing Chow, north-west of Peking. Thence running
+a south-south-westerly course it passes westward of Chêng-ting Fu
+and Kwang-p&lsquo;ing Fu till it reaches the upper waters of the Wei river
+in Ho-nan. From this point it turns westward and crosses the
+Hwang-ho or Yellow river in the prefecture of Hwai-k&lsquo;ing. Leaving
+this river it takes a course a little to the east of south, and passing
+west of Ju-ning Fu, in the province of Ho-nan, it turns in a more
+easterly direction as far as Luchow Fu. From this prefecture an
+arm of the plain, in which lies the Chao Lake, stretches southward
+from the Hwai river to the Yangtsze-kiang, and trending eastward
+occupies the region between that river and Hangchow Bay. To the
+north of this arm rises a hilly district, in the centre of which stands
+Nanking. The greater part of this vast plain descends very gently
+towards the sea, and is generally below the level of the Yellow
+river, hence the disastrous inundations which so often accompany
+the rise of that river. Owing to the great quantity of soil which is
+brought down by the waters of the Yellow river, and to the absence
+of oceanic currents, this delta is rapidly increasing and the adjoining
+seas are as rapidly becoming shallower. As an instance, it is said
+that the town of P&lsquo;utai was one Chinese mile<a name="FnAnchor_2d" id="FnAnchor_2d" href="#Footnote_2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> west of the seashore
+in the year 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and in 1730 it was 140 m. inland, thus giving a
+yearly encroachment upon the sea of about 100 ft. Again, Sien-shwuy-kow
+on the Peiho was on the seashore in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500, and it is
+now about 18 m. inland.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the ranges connected with the mountain system of
+central Asia which enter the western provinces of China have been
+mentioned above, others may be indicated here. In the
+eastern portion of Tibet the Kuen-lun range throws off
+<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span>
+a number of branches, which spread first of all in a south-easterly
+direction and eventually take a north and south course,
+partly in the provinces of Sze-ch&lsquo;uen and Yun-nan, where they divide
+the beds of the rivers which flow into Siam and French Indo-China,
+as well as the principal northern tributaries of the Yangtsze-kiang.
+In the north-west, traversing the western portion of the province of
+Kan-suh, are parallel ranges running N.W. and S.E. and forming a
+prolongation of the northern Tibetan mountains. They are known
+as the Lung-shan, Richthofen and Nan-shan, and join on the south-east
+the Kuen-lun range. The Richthofen range (locally called
+Tien-shan, or Celestial Mountains) attains elevations of over 20,000 ft.
+Several of its peaks are snowclad, and there are many glaciers.
+Forming the northern frontier of the province of Sze-ch&lsquo;uen run the
+Min-shan and the Kiu-lung (or Po-mêng) ranges, which, entering China
+in 102° E., extend in a general easterly course as far as 112° E. in the
+province of Hu-peh. These ranges have an average elevation of
+8000 and 11,000 ft. respectively. In the south a number of parallel
+ranges spread from the Yun-nan plateau in an easterly direction as
+far as the province of Kwang-tung. Then turning north-eastward
+they run in lines often parallel with the coast, and cover large areas
+of the provinces of Fu-kien, Kiang-si, Cheh-kiang, Hu-nan and
+southern Ngan-hui, until they reach the Yangtsze-kiang; the valley
+of that river from the Tung-ting Lake to Chin-kiang Fu forming
+their northern boundary. In Fu-kien these hills attain the character
+of a true mountain range with heights of from 6500 to nearly 10,000
+ft. Besides the chief ranges there are the Tai-hang Mountains in
+Shan-si, and many others, among which may be mentioned the ranges&mdash;part
+of the escarpment of the Mongolian plateau&mdash;which form the
+northern frontier of Chih-li. Here the highest peak is Ta-kuang-ting-tzu
+(6500 ft.), about 300 m. N.N.E. of Peking and immediately
+north of Wei Ch&lsquo;ang (the imperial hunting grounds).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rivers and Canals.</i>&mdash;The rivers of China are very numerous and
+there are many canals. In the north the rivers are only navigable by
+small craft; elsewhere they form some of the most frequented
+highways in the country. The two largest rivers,
+<span class="sidenote">The Yellow River.</span>
+the Yangtsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho (Yellow river), are
+separately noticed. The Hwang-ho (length about 2400 m.) has
+only one important tributary in China, the Wei-ho, which rises in
+Kan-suh and flows through the centre of Shen-si. Below the
+confluence the Hwang-ho enters the plains. According to the Chinese
+records this portion of the river has changed its course nine times
+during 2500 years, and has emptied itself into the sea at different
+mouths, the most northerly of which is represented as having been
+in about 39° N., or in the neighbourhood of the present mouth of the
+Peiho, and the most southerly being that which existed before the
+change in 1851-1853, in 34° N. Owing to its small value as a navigable
+highway and to its propensity to inundate the regions in its
+neighbourhood, there are no considerable towns on its lower course.</p>
+
+<p>The Yangtsze-kiang is the chief waterway of China. The river,
+flowing through the centre of the country, after a course of 2900 m.,
+empties itself into the Yellow Sea in about 31° N. Unlike the
+Yellow river, the Yangtsze-kiang is dotted along its navigable
+portions with many rich and populous cities, among which are
+Nanking, An-ch&lsquo;ing (Ngank&lsquo;ing), Kiu-kiang, Hankow and I-ch&lsquo;ang.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span>
+From its mouth to I-ch&lsquo;ang, about 1000 m., the river is navigable by
+large steamers. Above this last-named city the navigation becomes
+<span class="sidenote">The Yangtsze-kiang.</span>
+impossible for any but light native craft or foreign vessels
+specially constructed for the navigation, by reason of
+the rapids which occur at frequent intervals in the deep
+mountain gorges through which the river runs between
+Kwei-chow and I-ch&lsquo;ang. Above Kwei-chow it receives from the
+north many tributaries, notably the Min, which water the low table-land
+of central Sze-ch&lsquo;uen. The main river itself has in this province
+a considerable navigable stretch, while below I-ch&lsquo;ang it receives the
+waters of numerous navigable affluents. The Yangtsze system is thus
+all important in the economic and commercial development of China.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most remarkable of the affluents of the Yangtsze is
+the Han-kiang or Han river. It rises in the Po-mêng mountains to
+the north of the city of Ning-kiang Chow in Shen-si. Taking a
+generally easterly course from its source as far as Fan-cheng, it
+from that point takes a more southerly direction and empties itself
+into the Yangtsze-kiang at Han-kow, &ldquo;the mouth of the Han.&rdquo;
+Here it is only 200 ft. wide, while higher up it widens to 2600 ft.
+It is navigable by steamers for 300 m. The summer high-water line
+is for a great part of its course, from I-ch&lsquo;eng Hien to Han-kow,
+above the level of its banks. Near Sien-t&lsquo;ao-chên the elevation of
+the plain above low water is no more than 1 ft., and in summer the
+river rises about 26 ft. above its lowest level. To protect themselves
+against inundations the natives have here, as elsewhere, thrown up
+high embankments on both sides of the river, but at a distance from
+the natural banks of about 50 to 100 ft. This intervening space is
+flooded every year, and by the action of the water new layers of
+sand and soil are deposited every summer, thus strengthening the
+embankments from season to season.</p>
+
+<p>The Hwai-ho is a large river of east central China flowing between
+the Hwang-ho and the Yangtsze-kiang. The Hwai-ho and its
+numerous affluents (it is said to have 72 tributaries) rise in Ho-nan.
+The main river flows through the centre of Ngan-hui, in which
+province it receives from the N.W. the Sha-ho, Fei-ho and other
+important affluents. Formerly it received through the Sha-ho part
+of the waters of the Hwang-ho. The Hwai-ho flows into the Hungtso
+lake, through which it feeds the Grand Canal, not far from the old
+course of the Hwang-ho, and probably at one time joined that river
+not far from its mouth. It has a length of about 800 m. and is navigable
+from the point where it leaves the hill country of Ho-nan to
+Lake Hungtso. It is subject to violent floods, which inundate the
+surrounding country for a distance of 10 to 20 m. Many of its
+tributaries are also navigable for considerable distances.</p>
+
+<p>Next in importance to the Yangtsze-kiang as a water highway is
+the Yun-ho, or, as it is generally known in Europe, the Grand Canal.
+This magnificent artificial river reaches from Hang-chow
+Fu in the province of Cheh-kiang to Tientsin in Chih-li,
+<span class="sidenote">Grand Canal.</span>
+where it unites with the Peiho, and thus may be said to
+extend to Tung-chow in the neighbourhood of Peking. According
+to the itineraries published by Père Gandar, the total length of the
+canal is 3630 <i>li</i>, or about 1200 m. A rough measurement, taking
+account only of the main bends of the canal, makes its length 850 m.
+After leaving Hang-chow the canal passes round the eastern border
+of the Tai-hu or Great Lake, surrounding in its course the beautiful
+city of Su-chow, and then trends in a generally north-westerly
+direction through the fertile districts of Kiang-su as far as Chin-kiang
+on the Yangtsze-kiang. In this, the southern section, the
+slope is gentle and water is plentiful (from 7 ft. at low water to 11 ft.,
+and occasionally 13 ft. at high water). Between Su-chow and Chin-kiang
+the canal is often over 100 ft. wide, and its sides are in many
+places faced with stone. It is spanned by fine stone bridges, and near
+its banks are many memorial arches and lofty pagodas. In the
+central portion of the canal, that is between Chin-kiang and Tsing-kiang-pu,
+at which latter place it crosses the dry channel which marks
+the course of the Yellow river before 1852, the current is strong and
+difficult to ascend in the upward (northern) journey. This part of
+the canal skirts several lakes and is fed by the Hwai-ho as it issues
+from the Hungtso lake. The country lying west of the canal is
+higher than its bed; while the country east is lower than the canal.
+The two regions are known respectively as Shang-ho (above the
+river) and Ssia-ho (below the river). Waste weirs opening on the
+Ssia-ho (one of the great rice-producing areas of China) discharge
+the surplus water in flood seasons. The northern and considerably
+the longest section of the canal extends from the old bed of the
+Yellow river to Tientsin. It largely utilizes existing rivers and
+follows their original windings. Between Tsing-kiang-pu and the
+present course of the Yellow river the canal trends N.N.W., skirting
+the highlands of Shan-tung. In this region it passes through a series
+of lagoons, which in summer form one lake&mdash;Chow-yang. North of
+that lake on the east bank of the canal, is the city of Tsi-ning-chow.
+About 25 m. N. of that city the highest level of the canal is reached
+at the town of Nan Wang. Here the river Wen enters the canal from
+the east, and about 30 m. farther N. the Yellow river is reached.
+On the west side of the canal, at the point where the Yellow river
+now cuts across it, there is laid down in Chinese maps of the 18th
+century a dry channel which is described as being that once followed
+by the Yellow river, <i>i.e.</i> before it took the channel it abandoned in
+1851-1853. The passage of the Yellow river to the part of the canal
+lying north of that stream is difficult, and can only be effected at
+certain levels of the river. Frequently the waters of the river are
+either too low or the current is too strong to permit a passage.
+Leaving this point the canal passes through a well-wooded and hilly
+country west of Tung-p&lsquo;ing Chow and east of Tung-ch&lsquo;ang Fu.
+At Lin-ching Chow it is joined at right angles by the Wei river
+in the midst of the city. Up to this point, <i>i.e.</i> from Tsing-kiang-pu
+to Lin-ching Chow, a distance of over 300 m., navigation is difficult
+and the water-supply often insufficient. The differences of level,
+20 to 30 ft., are provided for by barrages over which the boats&mdash;having
+discharged their cargo&mdash;are hauled by windlasses. Below
+the junction with the Wei the canal borrows the channel of the river
+and again becomes easily navigable. Crossing the frontier into
+Chih-li, between Te Chow and Tsang Chow, which it passes to the
+west, it joins the Peiho at Tientsin, after having received the waters
+of the Keto river in the neighbourhood of Tsing Hien.<a name="FnAnchor_3d" id="FnAnchor_3d" href="#Footnote_3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The most ancient part of the canal is the section between the
+Yangtsze and the Hwai-ho. This part is thought, on the strength
+of a passage in one of the books of Confucius, to have been built
+c. 486 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was repaired and enlarged in the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+The southern part, between the Yangtsze and Hang-chow, was built
+early in the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The northern part is stated to have
+been constructed in the three years 1280-1283. The northern portion
+of the canal is now of little use as a means of communication between
+north and south.<a name="FnAnchor_4d" id="FnAnchor_4d" href="#Footnote_4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It is badly built, neglected and charged with the
+mud-laden waters of the Yellow river. The &ldquo;tribute fleet&rdquo; bearing
+rice to Peking still uses this route; but the rice is now largely
+forwarded by sea. The central and southern portions of the canal
+are very largely used.</p>
+
+<p>The Peiho (length about 350 m.) is of importance as being the
+high waterway to Peking. Taking its rise in the Si-shan, or Western
+Mountains, beyond Peking, it passes the city of T&lsquo;sung-chow, the
+port of Peking, and Tientsin, where it meets the waters of the Hun-ho
+and empties itself into the gulf of Chih-li at the village of Taku.
+The Peiho is navigable for small steamers as far as Tientsin during
+the greater part of the year, but from the end of November to the
+beginning of March it is frozen up.</p>
+
+<p>In the southern provinces the Si-kiang, or Western river, is the
+most considerable. It has a length of over 1000 m. This river takes
+its rise in the prefecture of Kwang-nan Fu in Yun-nan,
+whence it reaches the frontier of Kwang-si at a distance
+<span class="sidenote">The Si-kiang.</span>
+of about 90 li from its source. Then trending in a north-easterly
+direction it forms the boundary between the two provinces
+for about 150 li. From this point it takes a generally south-easterly
+course, passing the cities of Tsien Chow, Fung-e Chow, Shang-lin
+Hien, Lung-ngan Hien, Yung-kang Chow and Nan-ning Fu to Yung-shan
+Hien. Here it makes a bend to the north-east, and continues
+this general direction as far as Sin-chow Fu, a distance of 800 li,
+where it meets and joins the waters of the Kien-kiang from the north.
+Its course is then easterly, and after passing Wu-chow Fu it crosses
+the frontier into Kwang-tung. In this part of its course it flows
+through a gorge 3 m. long and in places but 270 yds. in width.
+Both above and below this gorge it is 1 m. wide. Some 30 m. above
+Canton it divides into two main and several small branches. The
+northern branch, called Chu-kiang, or Pearl river, flows past Fat-shan
+and Canton and reaches the sea through the estuary called the
+Bocca Tigris or Bogue, at the mouth of which is the island of Hong-Kong.
+The southern branch, which retains the name of Si-kiang,
+reaches the sea west of Macao. Near the head of its delta the Si-kiang
+receives the Pei-kiang, a considerable river which flows through
+Kwang-tung in a general N. to S. direction. Like the Yangtsze-kiang
+the Si-kiang is known by various names in different parts of
+its course. From its source to Nan-ning Fu in Kwang-si it is called
+the Si-yang-kiang, or river of the Western Ocean; from Nan-ning
+Fu to Sin-chow Fu it is known as the Yu-kiang, or the Bending river;
+and over the remainder of its course it is recognized by the name of
+the Si-kiang, or Western river. The Si-kiang is navigable as far as
+Shao-king, 130 m., for vessels not drawing more than 15 ft. of water,
+and vessels of a light draught may easily reach Wu-chow Fu, in
+Kwang-si, which is situated 75 m. farther up. In winter the navigation
+is difficult above Wu-chow Fu. Above that place there is a
+rapid at low water, but navigation is possible to beyond Nan-ning Fu.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1" style="padding-bottom: 0;">
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Map">
+<tr><td><img style="border:0; width:375px; height:550px" src="images/img168a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td><img style="border:0; width:370px; height:550px" src="images/img168b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img168c.jpg">Click to see detailed left-side.</a><br />
+<a href="images/img168d.jpg">Click to see detailed right-side.</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Lakes.</i>&mdash;There are numerous lakes in the central provinces of
+China. The largest of these is the Tung-t&lsquo;ing in Hu-nan, which,
+according to the Chinese geographers, is upwards of 800 li, or 266 m.,
+in circumference. In native gazetteers its various portions are known
+under distinct names; thus it is said to include the Ts&lsquo;ing-ts&lsquo;ao, or
+Green Grass Lake; the Ung, or Venerable Lake; the Chih-sha, or
+Red Sand Lake; the Hwang-yih, or Imperial Post-house Lake;
+the Ngan-nan, or Peaceful Southern Lake; and the Ta-tung, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span>
+Great Deep Lake. In ancient times it went by the name of the
+Kiu-kiang Hu, or Lake of the Nine Rivers, from the fact that nine
+rivers flowed into it. Its chief affluents are the Siang-kiang, which
+rises in the highlands in the north of Kwang-si and flows in a general
+N.N.E. direction, and the Yuen-kiang, which flows N. and then E.
+from the eastern border of Kwei-chow. The lake is connected with
+the Yangtsze-kiang by two canals, the Taping and the Yochow Fu.
+In summer it is fed by the overflow from the Yangtsze-kiang; in
+winter it pours its waters into that river through the Yochow Fu
+canal. During the winter and spring the water of the lake is so low
+that the shallow portions become islands, separated by rivers such
+as the Siang and Yuen, and numberless streams; but in summer,
+owing to the rise in the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang, the whole basin
+of the lake is filled. It is then about 75 m. long and 60 m. broad.
+About 180 m. E. of the Tung-t&lsquo;ing lake is the Poyang lake, which
+occupies the low-lying part of the province of Kiang-si, and is
+connected with the Yangtsze by the Hu-kow canal. The Poyang lake
+is also subject to a wide difference between high and low water, but
+not quite to the same extent as the Tung-t&lsquo;ing lake, and its
+landmarks are more distinctly defined. It is about 90 m. long by 20
+broad. The T&lsquo;ai lake, in the neighbourhood of Su-chow Fu, is also
+celebrated for its size and the beauty of its surroundings. It is
+about 150 m. in circumference, and is dotted over with islands,
+on which are built temples for the devotees of religion, and
+summer-houses for the votaries of pleasure from the rich and voluptuous
+cities of Hang-chow and Su-chow. The boundary line between the
+provinces of Cheh-kiang and Kiang-su crosses its blue waters, and
+its shores are divided among thirteen prefectures. Besides these
+lakes there are, among others, two in Yun-nan, the Kun-yang-hai
+(Tien-chi) near Yun-nan Fu, which is 40 m. long and is connected
+with the Yangtsze-kiang by the Pu-to river, and the Erh-hai (Urh-hai)
+to the east of the city of Tali.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Great Wall.</i>&mdash;Along the northern provinces of Chih-li, Shan-si,
+Shen-si and Kan-suh, over 22° of longitude (98° to 120° E.), stretches
+the Great Wall of China, built to defend the country against foreign
+aggression. It was begun in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was repaired in
+the 15th century, and in the 16th century was extended by 300 m.
+Following the windings the wall is 1500 m. long. Starting near the
+seashore<a name="FnAnchor_5d" id="FnAnchor_5d" href="#Footnote_5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> at Shan-hai-kwan on the gulf of Liao-tung, where the
+Chinese and Manchurian frontiers meet, it goes eastward past Peking
+(which is about 35 m. to the south) and then trends S. and E. across
+Shan-si to the Hwang-ho. From the neighbourhood of Peking to
+the Hwang-ho there is an inner and an outer wall. The outer
+(northern) wall passes through Kalgan, thus guarding the pass
+into Mongolia. A branch wall separates the greater part of the
+western frontier of Chih-li from Shan-si. West of the Hwang-ho
+the Great Wall forms the northern frontier of Shen-si, and west of
+Shen-si it keeps near the northern frontier of Kan-suh, following
+for some distance in that province the north bank of the Hwang-ho.
+It ends at Kiayu-kwan (98° 14&prime;E.) just west of Su-chow. This part
+of the wall was built to protect the one main artery leading from
+central Asia to China through Kan-suh and Shen-si by the valley
+of the Wei-ho, tributary of the Hwang-ho. There is a branch wall
+in Kan-suh running west and south to protect the Tibetan frontier.
+The height of the wall is generally from 20 to 30 ft., and at intervals
+of some 200 yds. are towers about 40 ft. high. Its base is from
+15 to 25 ft. thick and its summit 12 ft. wide. The wall is carried
+over valleys and mountains, and in places is over 4000 ft. above
+sea-level. Military posts are still maintained at the chief gates or
+passes&mdash;at Shan-hai-kwan, the Kalgan pass, the Yenmun pass (at
+the N. of Shan-si) and the Kaiyu pass in the extreme west, through
+which runs the caravan route to Barkal in Turkestan. Colonel
+A.W.S. Wingate, who in the opening years of the 20th century
+visited the Great Wall at over twenty places widely apart and
+gathered many descriptions of it in other places, states that its
+position is wrongly shown &ldquo;on the maps of the day&rdquo; (1907) in a
+number of places; while in others it had ceased to exist, &ldquo;the only
+places where it forms a substantial boundary being in the valley
+bottoms, on the passes and where it crosses main routes. These
+remarks apply with particular force to the branch running south-west
+from the Nan-k&lsquo;ow pass and forming the boundary of Chih-li
+and Shan-si provinces.&rdquo; In Colonel Wingate&rsquo;s opinion the wall
+was originally built by degrees and in sections, not of hewn stone,
+but of round boulders and earth, the different sections being repaired
+as they fell into ruin. &ldquo;Only in the valley bottoms and on the
+passes was it composed of masonry or brickwork. The Mings
+rebuilt of solid masonry all those sections through which led a likely
+road for invading Tatars to follow, or where it could be seen at a
+distance from the sky-line.&rdquo; The building of the wall &ldquo;was a
+sufficiently simple affair,&rdquo; not to be compared with the task of
+building the pyramids of Egypt.<a name="FnAnchor_6d" id="FnAnchor_6d" href="#Footnote_6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate over so vast an area as China necessarily
+varies greatly. The southern parts of Yun-nan, Kwang-si and
+Kwang-tung (including the city of Canton) lie within the tropics.
+The northern zone (in which lies Peking) by contrast has a climate
+which resembles that of northern Europe, with winters of Arctic
+severity. The central zone (in which Shanghai is situated) has a
+generally temperate climate. But over both northern and central
+China the influence of the great plateau of Mongolia tends to establish
+uniform conditions unusual in so large an area. The prevailing winds
+during summer&mdash;the rainy season&mdash;are south-easterly, caused by
+heat and the ascending current of air over the sandy deserts of
+central Asia, thus drawing in a current from the Pacific Ocean.
+In the winter the converse takes place, and the prevailing winds,
+descending from the Mongolian plateau, are north and north-west,
+and are cold and dry. From October to May the climate of central
+China is bracing and enjoyable. The rainfall is moderate and regular.</p>
+
+<p>In northern China the inequalities both of temperature and rainfall
+are greater than in the central provinces. In the province of Chih-li,
+for example, the heat of summer is as intense as is the cold of winter.
+In summer the rains often render the plain swampy, while the dry
+persistent westerly winds of spring create dust storms (experienced
+in Peking from March to June). The rainfall is, however, uncertain,
+and thus the harvests are precarious. The provinces of Shan-tung
+and Shan-si are peculiarly liable to prolonged periods of drought,
+with consequent severe famines such as that of 1877-1878, when
+many millions died. In these regions the air is generally extremely
+dry, and the daily variations of temperature consequent on excessive
+radiation are much greater than farther south.</p>
+
+<p>Accurate statistics both of heat and rainfall are available from a
+few stations only. The rainfall on the southern coasts is said to be
+about 100 in. yearly; at Peking the rainfall is about 24 in. a year.
+In the coast regions the temperatures of Peking, Shanghai and
+Canton may be taken as typical of those of the northern, central
+and southern zones. In Peking (39° N.) the mean annual temperature
+is about 53° F., the mean for January 23°, for July 79°. In Shanghai
+(31° 11&prime; N.)<a name="FnAnchor_7d" id="FnAnchor_7d" href="#Footnote_7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the mean annual temperature is 59°, the mean for
+January 36.2°, for July 80.4°. In Canton (23° 15&prime; N.) the mean
+annual temperature is 70°, the mean for January 54°, for July 82°.
+The range of temperature, even within the tropics, is noteworthy.
+At Peking and Tientsin the thermometer in winter falls sometimes
+to 5° below zero and rises in summer to 105° (at Taku 107° has
+been recorded); in Shanghai in winter the thermometer falls to 18°
+and in summer rises to 102°. In Canton frost is said to have been
+recorded, but according to the <i>China Sea Directory</i> the extreme
+range is from 38° to 100°.<a name="FnAnchor_8d" id="FnAnchor_8d" href="#Footnote_8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The climate of Shanghai, which resembles,
+but is not so good as, that of the Yangtsze-kiang valley generally, is
+fairly healthy, but there is an almost constant excess of moisture.
+The summer months, July to September, are very hot, while snow
+usually falls in December and January.</p>
+
+<p>At Canton and along the south coast the hot season corresponds
+with the S.W. monsoon; the cool season&mdash;mid October to end of
+April&mdash;with the N.E. monsoon. Farther north, at Shanghai, the
+S.W. monsoon is sufficiently felt to make the prevailing wind in
+summer southerly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Provinces.</i>&mdash;China proper is divided into the following provinces:
+Cheh-kiang, Chih-li, Fu-kien, Ngan-hui (An-hui), Ho-nan, Hu-nan,
+Hu-peh, Kan-suh, Kiang-si, Kiang-su, Kwang-si, Kwang-tung,
+Kwei-chow, Shan-si, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Sze-ch&lsquo;uen and Yun-nan.
+See the separate notices of each province and the article on
+Shêng-king, the southern province of Manchuria.</p>
+<div class="author">(X.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Geology.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part
+of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and
+Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial
+origin. From the close of the Palaeozoic period down to the present
+day the greater part of the empire has been dry land, and it is only
+in the southern portion of Tibet and in the western Tian Shan that
+any evidence of a Mesozoic sea has yet been found. The geological
+sequence may be summarized as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Archean.</i>&mdash;Gneiss, crystalline schists, phyllites, crystalline
+limestones. Exposed in Liao-tung, Shan-tung, Shan-si, northern Chih-li
+and in the axis of the mountain ranges, <i>e.g.</i> the Kuen-lun and the
+ranges of southern China.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sinian.</i>&mdash;Sandstones, quartzites, limestones. Sometimes rests
+unconformably upon the folded rocks of the Archaen system; but
+sometimes, according to Lóczy, there is no unconformity. Covers
+a large area in the northern part of China proper; absent in the
+eastern Kuen-lun; occurs again in the ranges of S.E. China. In
+Liao-tung Cambrian fossils have been found near the summit of the
+series; they belong to the oldest fauna known upon the earth,
+the fauna of the <i>Olenellus</i> zone. It is, however, not improbable
+that in many places beds of considerably later date have been
+included in the Sinian system.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Ordovician.</i>&mdash;Ordovician fossils have been found in the Lung-shan,
+Kiang-su (about 50 m. east of Nan-king), in the south-west of
+Cheh-kiang and in the south-east of Yun-nan. Ordovician beds
+probably occur also in the Kuen-lun.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silurian.</i>&mdash;Limestones and slates with Silurian corals and other
+fossils have been found in Sze-ch&lsquo;uen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Devonian.</i>&mdash;Found in Kan-suh and in the Tsing-ling-shan, but
+becomes much more important in southern China. Occurs also on
+the south of the Tian-shan, in the Altyn-tagh, the Nan-shan and the
+western Kuen-lun.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carboniferous.</i>&mdash;Covers a large area in northern China, in the
+plateau of Shen-si and Shan-si, extending westwards in tongues
+between the folds of the Kuen-lun. In this region it consists of a
+lower series of limestones and an upper series of sandstones with
+seams of coal, which may perhaps be in part of Permian age. This is
+probably the most extensive coalfield in the world.</p>
+
+<p>In south China the whole series consists chiefly of limestones, and
+the coal seams are comparatively unimportant. Carboniferous beds
+are also found in the Tian-shan, the Nan-shan, Kan-suh, on the
+southern borders of the Gobi, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mesozoic.</i>&mdash;Marine Triassic beds containing fossils similar to those
+of the German Muschelkalk have been found by Lóczy near Chung-tien,
+on the eastern border of the Tibetan plateau. Elsewhere,
+however, the Mesozoic is represented chiefly by a red sandstone,
+which covers the greater part of Sze-ch&lsquo;uen and fills also a number
+of troughs amongst the older beds of southern China. No marine fossils
+are found in this sandstone, but remains of plants are numerous,
+and these belong to the Rhaetic, Lias and Lower Oolite. No
+Cretaceous beds are known in China excepting in S. Tibet (on the
+shores of the Tengri-nor) and in the western portion of the Tian-shan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cainozoic and Recent.</i>&mdash;No marine deposits of this age are known.
+Although the loess of the great plain and the sand of the desert are
+still in process of formation, the accumulation of these deposits
+probably began in the Tertiary period.</p>
+
+<p><i>Volcanic Rocks.</i>&mdash;Amongst the Archean rocks granitic and other
+intrusions are abundant, but of more modern volcanic activity the
+remains are comparatively scanty. In south China there is no evidence
+of Tertiary or Post-Tertiary volcanoes, but groups of volcanic
+cones occur in the great plain of north China. In the Liao-tung
+and Shan-tung peninsulas there are basaltic plateaus, and similar
+outpourings occur upon the borders of Mongolia. All these outbursts
+appear to be of Tertiary or later data.</p>
+
+<p><i>Loess.</i>&mdash;One of the most characteristic deposits of China is the
+loess, which not merely imparts to north China the physical character
+of the scenery, but also determines the agricultural products, the
+transport, and general economic life of the people of that part of
+the country. It is peculiar to north China and it is not found
+south of the Yangtsze. The loess is a solid but friable earth of
+brownish-yellow colour, and when triturated with water is not unlike
+loam, but differs from the latter by its highly porous and tubular
+structure. The loess soil is extremely favourable to agriculture.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Loess</a></span> and <i>infra, § Agriculture.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>The loess is called by the Chinese <i>Hwang-t&lsquo;u</i>, or yellow earth,
+and it has been suggested that the imperial title <i>Hwang-ti</i>, Yellow
+Emperor or Ruler of the Yellow, had its origin in the fact that the
+emperor is lord of the loess or yellow earth.</p>
+
+<p>Structurally, China proper may be divided into two regions,
+separated from each other by the folded range of the
+Tsing-ling-shan, which is a continuation of the folded belt of the
+Kuen-lun. North of this chain the Palaeozoic beds are
+<span class="sidenote">Structure.</span>
+in general nearly horizontal, and the limestones and sandstones of
+the Sinian and Carboniferous systems form an extensive plateau
+which rises abruptly from the western margin of the great plain of
+northern China. The plateau is deeply carved by the rivers which
+flow through it; and the strata are often faulted, but they are
+never sharply folded. South of the Tsing-ling-shan, on the other
+hand, the Palaeozoic beds are thrown into a series of folds running
+from W. 30° S. to E. 30° N., which form the hilly region of southern
+China. Towards Tongking these folds probably bend southwards
+and join the folds of Further India. Amongst these folded beds lie
+trough-like depressions filled with the Mesozoic red sandstone which
+lies unconformably upon the Palaeozoic rocks.</p>
+
+<p>The present configuration of China is due, in a very considerable
+degree, to faulting. The abrupt eastern edge of the Shan-si plateau,
+where it overlooks the great plain, is a line of fault, or rather a
+series of step faults, with the downthrow on the east; and von
+Richthofen has shown reason to believe that this line of faulting is
+continued far to the south and to the north. He believed also that
+the present coast-line of China has to a large extent been determined
+by similar faults with their downthrow on the east.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the structure of the central Asian plateau our knowledge
+is still incomplete. The great mountain chains, the Kuen-lun,
+the Nan-shan and the Tian-shan, are belts of folding; but the
+Mongolian Altai is a horst&mdash;a strip of ancient rock lying between
+two faults and with a depressed area upon each side. In the whole
+of this northern region faulting, as distinct from folding, seems to
+have played an important part. Along the southern margin of the
+Tian-shan there is a remarkable trough-like depression which appears
+to lie between two approximately parallel faults.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. La.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Fauna</i>.</p>
+
+<p>China lies within two zoological provinces or regions, its southern
+portion forming a part of the Oriental or Indian region and having a
+fauna close akin to that of the western Himalaya, Burma and Siam,
+whereas the districts to the north of Fu-chow and south of the
+Yangtsze-kiang lie within the eastern Holarctic (Palaearctic) region,
+or rather the southern fringe of the latter, which has been separated
+as the Mediterranean transitional region. Of these two divisions of
+the Chinese fauna, the northern one is the more interesting, since it
+forms the chief home of a number of peculiar generic types, and also
+includes types represented elsewhere at the present day (exclusive in
+one case of Japan) only in North America. The occurrence in China
+of these types common to the eastern and western hemispheres is
+important in regard to the former existence of a land-bridge between
+Eastern Asia and North America by way of Bering Strait.</p>
+
+<p>Of the types peculiar to China and North America the alligator
+of the Yangtsze-kiang is generically identical with its Mississippi
+relative. The spoon-beaked sturgeon of the Yangtsze and Hwang-ho
+is, however, now separated, as <i>Psephurus</i>, from the closely allied
+American <i>Polyodon</i>. Among insectivorous mammals the Chinese
+and Japanese shrew-moles, respectively forming the genera <i>Uropsilus</i>
+and <i>Urotrichus</i>, are represented in America by <i>Neurotrichus</i>. The
+giant salamander of the rivers of China and Japan and the Chinese
+mandarin duck are by some included in the same genera as their
+American representatives, while by others they are referred to genera
+apart. Whichever view we take does not alter their close relationship.
+One wapiti occurs on the Tibetan frontier, and others in Manchuria
+and Amurland.</p>
+
+<p>As regards mammals and birds, the largest number of generic and
+specific types peculiar to China are met with in Sze-ch&lsquo;uen. Foremost
+among these is the great panda (<i>Aeluropus melanoleucus</i>), representing
+a genus by itself, probably related to bears and to the true panda
+(<i>Aelurus</i>), the latter of which has a local race in Sze-ch&lsquo;uen. Next
+come the snub-nosed monkeys (<i>Rhinopithecus</i>), of which the typical
+species is a native of Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, while a second is found on the upper
+Mekong, and a third in the mountains of central China. In the Insectivora
+the swimming-shrew (<i>Nectogale</i>) forms another generic type
+peculiar to Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, which is also the sole habitat of the mole-like
+<i>Scaptochirus</i>, of <i>Uropsilus</i>, near akin to the Japanese <i>Urotrichus</i>, of
+<i>Scaptonyx</i>, which connects the latter with the moles (<i>Talpa</i>), and of
+<i>Neotetracus</i>, a relative of the Malay rat-shrews (<i>Gymnura</i>). Here also
+may be mentioned the raccoon-dog, forming the subgenus <i>Nyctereutes</i>,
+common to China and Japan. The Himalayan black and the Malay
+bear have each a local race in Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, where the long-haired
+Fontanier&rsquo;s cat (<i>Felis tristis</i>) and the Tibet cat (<i>F. scripta</i>) connect
+Indo-Malay species with the American ocelots, while the bay cat (<i>F.
+temmincki</i>), a Malay type, is represented by local forms in Sze-ch&lsquo;uen
+and Fu-chow. The Amurland leopard and Manchurian tiger likewise
+constitute local races of their respective species.</p>
+
+<p>Among ruminants, the Sze-ch&lsquo;uen takin represents a genus (<i>Budorcas</i>)
+found elsewhere in the Mishmi Hills and Bhutan, while serows
+(<i>Nemorhaedus</i>) and gorals (<i>Urotragus</i>), allied to Himalayan and
+Burmo-Malay types, abound. The Himalayan fauna is also represented
+by a race of the Kashmir hangul deer. Of other deer, the
+original habitat of Père David&rsquo;s milu (<i>Elaphurus</i>), formerly kept in
+the Peking park, is unknown. The sika group, which is peculiar to
+China, Japan and Formosa, is represented by <i>Cervus hortulorum</i> in
+Manchuria and the smaller <i>C. manchuricus</i> and <i>sika</i> in that province
+and the Yangtsze valley; while musk-deer (<i>Moschus</i>) abound in
+Kan-suh and Sze-ch&lsquo;uen. The small water-deer (<i>Hydropotes</i> or
+<i>Hydrelaphus</i>) of the Yangtsze valley represents a genus peculiar to
+the country, as do the three species of tufted deer (<i>Elaphodus</i>),
+whose united range extends from Sze-ch&lsquo;uen to Ning-po and I-ch&lsquo;ang.
+Muntjacs (<i>Cervulus</i>) are likewise very characteristic of the country,
+to which the white-tailed, plum-coloured species, like the Tenasserim
+<i>C. crinifrons</i>, are peculiar. The occurrence of races of the wapiti in
+Manchuria and Amurland has been already mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>To refer in detail to the numerous forms of rodents inhabiting China
+is impossible here, and it must suffice to mention that the flying-squirrels
+(<i>Pteromys</i>) are represented by a large and handsome species
+in Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, where is also found the largest kind of bamboo-rat
+(<i>Rhizomys</i>), the other species of which are natives of the western
+Himalaya and the Malay countries. Dwarf hamsters of the genus
+<i>Cricetulus</i> are natives of the northern provinces. In the extreme
+south, in Hai-nan, is found a gibbon ape (<i>Hylobates</i>), while langur
+(<i>Semnopithecus</i>) and macaque monkeys (<i>Macacus</i>) likewise occur in
+the south, one of the latter also inhabiting Sze-ch&lsquo;uen.</p>
+
+<p>To give an adequate account of Chinese ornithology would require
+space many times the length of this article. The gorgeous mandarin
+duck (<i>Aix galerita</i>) has already been mentioned among generic types
+common to America. In marked distinction to this is the number of
+species of pheasants inhabiting north-western China, whence the
+group ranges into the eastern Himalaya. Among Chinese species are
+two of the three species of blood-pheasants (<i>Ithagenes</i>), two tragopans
+(<i>Ceriornis</i> or <i>Tragopan</i>), a monal (<i>Lophophorus</i>), three out of the five
+species of <i>Crossoptilum</i>, the other two being Tibetan, two kinds of
+<i>Pucrasia</i>, the gorgeous golden and Amherst&rsquo;s pheasants alone representing
+the genus <i>Chrysolophus</i>, together with several species of the
+typical genus <i>Phasianus</i>, among which it will suffice to mention the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span>
+long-tailed <i>P. reevesi</i>. The Himalayan bamboo-partridges (<i>Bambusicola</i>)
+have also a Chinese representative. The only other large
+bird that can be mentioned is the Manchurian crane, misnamed
+<i>Grus japonensis</i>. Pigeons include the peculiar subgenus <i>Dendroteron</i>;
+while among smaller birds, warblers, tits and finches, all of an
+Eastern Holarctic type, constitute the common element in the avifauna.
+Little would be gained by naming the genera, peculiar or
+otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>China has a few peculiar types of freshwater tortoises, among
+which <i>Ocadia sinensis</i> represents a genus unknown elsewhere, while
+there is also a species of the otherwise Indian genus <i>Damonia</i>. The
+Chinese alligator, <i>Alligator sinensis</i>, has been already mentioned.
+Among lizards, the genera <i>Plestiodon</i>, <i>Mabuia</i>, <i>Tachydromus</i> and
+<i>Gecko</i>, of which the two latter are very characteristic of the Oriental
+region, range through China to Japan; and among snakes, the Malay
+python (<i>Python reticulatus</i>) is likewise Chinese. The giant salamander
+(<i>Cryptobranchus</i>, or <i>Megalobatrachus, maximus</i>) represents,
+as mentioned above, a type found elsewhere only in North America,
+while <i>Hynobius</i> and <i>Onychodactylus</i> are peculiar generic types of
+salamanders. Among fishes, it must suffice to refer to the spoon-beaked
+sturgeon (<i>Psephurus</i>) of the Yangtsze-kiang, and the numerous
+members of the carp family to be found in the rivers of China. From
+these native carp the Chinese have produced two highly coloured
+breeds, the goldfish and the telescope-eyed carp.</p>
+
+<p>Among the invertebrates special mention may be made of the great
+ailanthus silk-moth (<i>Attacus cynthia</i>) of northern China and Japan,
+and also of its Manchurian relative <i>A. pernyi</i>; while it may be added
+that the domesticated &ldquo;silkworm&rdquo; (<i>Bombyx mori</i>) is generally
+believed to be of Chinese origin, although this is not certain. Very
+characteristic of China is the abundance of handsomely coloured
+swallow-tailed butterflies of the family <i>Papilionidae</i>. The Chinese
+kermes (<i>Coccus sinensis</i>) is also worth mention, on account of it
+yielding wax. As regards land and freshwater snails, China exhibits
+a marked similarity to Siam and India; the two groups in which the
+Chinese province displays decided peculiarities of its own being <i>Helix</i>
+(in the wider sense) and <i>Clausilia</i>. There are, for instance, nearly
+half a score of subgenera of <i>Helix</i> whose headquarters are Chinese,
+while among these, forms with sinistral shells are relatively common.
+The genus <i>Clausilia</i> is remarkable on account of attaining a second
+centre of development in China, where its finest species, referable to
+several subgenera, occur. Carnivorous molluscs include a peculiar
+slug (<i>Rathouisia</i>) and the shelled genera <i>Ennea</i> and <i>Streptaxis</i>. In
+the western provinces species of <i>Buliminus</i> are abundant, and in the
+operculate group <i>Heudeia</i> forms a peculiar type akin to <i>Helicina</i>, but
+with internal foldings to the shell.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, it has to be mentioned that the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang
+are inhabited by a small jelly-fish, or medusa (<i>Limnocodium
+kawaii</i>), near akin to <i>L. sowerbii</i>, which was discovered in the hot-house
+tanks in the Botanical Gardens in the Regent&rsquo;s Park, London,
+but whose real home is probably the Amazon.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Flora</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetation of China is extremely rich, no fewer than 9000
+species of flowering plants having been already enumerated, of which
+nearly a half are endemic or not known to occur elsewhere. Whole
+provinces are as yet only partially explored; and the total flora is
+estimated to comprise ultimately 12,000 species. China is the continuation
+eastward of the great Himalayan mass, numerous chains of
+mountains running irregularly to the sea-board. Thousands of deep
+narrow valleys form isolated areas, where peculiar species have been
+evolved. Though the greater part of the country has long ago been
+cleared of its primeval forest and submitted to agriculture, there still
+remain some extensive forests and countless small woods in which
+the original flora is well preserved. Towards the north the vegetation
+is palaearctic, and differs little in its composition from that of
+Germany, Russia and Siberia. The flora of the western and central
+provinces is closely allied to that of the Himalayas and of Japan;
+while towards the south this element mingles with species derived
+from Indo-China, Burma and the plain of Hindostan. Above a certain
+elevation, decreasing with the latitude, but approximately 6000 ft. in
+the Yangtsze basin, there exist in districts remote from the traffic of
+the great rivers, extensive forests of conifers, like those of Central
+Europe in character, but with different species of silver fir, larch,
+spruce and Cembran pine. Below this altitude the woods are composed
+of deciduous and evergreen broad-leafed trees and shrubs,
+mingled together in a profusion of species. Pure broad-leafed forests
+of one or two species are rare, though small woods of oak, of alder
+and of birch are occasionally seen. There is nothing comparable to
+the extensive beech forests of Europe, the two species of Chinese
+beech being sporadic and rare trees. The heaths, <i>Calluna</i> and <i>Erica</i>,
+which cover great tracts of barren sandy land in Europe, are absent
+from China, where the Ericaceous vegetation is made up of numerous
+species of <i>Rhododendron</i>, which often cover vast areas on the mountain
+slopes. Pine forests occur at low levels, but are always small in
+extent.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of the vegetation is very different from that of
+the United States, which is comparable to China in situation and in
+extent. Though there are 60 species of oak in China, many with magnificent
+foliage and remarkable cupules, the red oaks, so characteristic
+of North America, with their bristle-pointed leaves, turning beautiful
+colours in autumn, are quite unknown. The great coniferous forest
+west of the Rocky Mountains has no analogue in China, the gigantic
+and preponderant Douglas fir being absent, while the giant <i>Sequoias</i>
+are represented only on a small scale by <i>Cryptomeria</i>, which attains
+half their height.</p>
+
+<p>Certain remnants of the Miocene flora which have disappeared
+from Europe are still conspicuous and similar in North America and
+China. In both regions there are several species of <i>Magnolia</i>; one
+species each of <i>Liriodendron, Liquidambar</i> and <i>Sassafras</i>; and curious
+genera like <i>Nyssa, Hamamelis, Decumaria</i> and <i>Gymnocladus</i>. The
+swamps of the south-eastern states, in which still survive the once
+widely spread <i>Taxodium</i> or deciduous cypress, are imitated on a
+small scale by the marshy banks of rivers near Canton, which are
+clad with <i>Glyptostrobus</i>, the &ldquo;water-pine&rdquo; of the Chinese. <i>Pseudolarix,
+Cunninghamia</i> and <i>Keteleeria</i> are coniferous genera peculiar to
+China, which have become extinct elsewhere. The most remarkable
+tree in China, the only surviving link between ferns and conifers,
+<i>Ginkgo biloba</i>, has only been seen in temple gardens, but may occur
+wild in some of the unexplored provinces. Its leaves have been
+found in the tertiary beds of the Isle of Mull.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the European genera occur in China, though there are
+curious exceptions like the plane tree, and the whole family of the
+<i>Cistaceae</i>, which characterize the peculiar <i>maquis</i> of the
+Mediterranean region. The rhododendrons, of which only four species are European,
+have their headquarters in China, numbering 130 species, varying in
+size from miniature shrubs 6 in. high to tall trees. <i>Lysimachia,
+Primula, Clematis, Rubus</i> and <i>Gentiana</i> have each a hundred species,
+extraordinary variable in habit, in size and in colour of the flowers.
+The ferns are equally polymorphic, numbering 400 species, and
+including strange genera like <i>Archangiopteris</i> and <i>Cheiropteris</i>,
+unknown elsewhere. About 40 species of bamboos have been distinguished;
+the one with a square stem from Fu-kien is the most curious.</p>
+
+<p>With a great wealth of beautiful flowering shrubs and herbaceous
+plants, the Chinese at an early period became skilled horticulturists.
+The emperor Wu Ti established in 111 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a botanic garden at
+Ch&lsquo;ang-an, into which rare plants were introduced from the west
+and south. Many garden varieties originated in China. The
+chrysanthemum, perhaps the most variable of cultivated flowers, is
+derived from two wild species (small and inconspicuous plants), and
+is mentioned in the ancient Chinese classics. We owe to the skill of
+the Chinese many kinds of roses, lilies, camellias and peonies; and
+have introduced from China some of the most ornamental plants in
+our gardens, as <i>Wistaria, Diervilla, Kerria, Incarvillea, Deutzia,
+Primula sinensis, Hemerocallis</i>, &amp;c. The peach and several oranges
+are natives of China. The varnish tree (<i>Rhus vernicifera</i>), from
+which lacquer is obtained; the tallow tree (<i>Sapium sebiferum</i>); the
+white mulberry, on which silkworms are fed; and the tea plant were
+all first utilized by the Chinese. The Chinese have also numerous
+medicinal plants, of which ginseng and rhubarb are best known.
+Nearly all our vegetables and cereals have their counterpart in China,
+where there are numerous varieties not yet introduced into Europe,
+though some, like the Soy bean, are now attracting great attention.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. He.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;L. Richard (S.J.), <i>Géographie de l&rsquo;empire de Chine</i>
+(Shanghai, 1905)&mdash;the first systematic account of China as a whole in
+modern times. The work, enlarged, revised and translated into
+English by M. Kennelly (S.J.), was reissued in 1908 as Richard&rsquo;s
+<i>Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies</i>.
+This is the standard authority for the country and gives for each
+section bibliographical notes. It has been used in the revision of the
+present article. Valuable information on northern, central and
+western China is furnished by Col. C.C. Manifold and Col. A.W.S.
+Wingate in the <i>Geog. Journ.</i> vol. xxiii. (1904) and vol. xxix. (1907).
+Consult also Marshall Broomhall (ed.), <i>The Chinese Empire: a
+General and Missionary Survey</i> (London, 1907); B. Willis, E. Blackwelder
+and others, <i>Research in China</i>, vol. i. part i. &ldquo;Descriptive
+Topography and Geology,&rdquo; part ii. &ldquo;Petrography and Zoology,&rdquo;
+and Atlas (Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1906-1907); Forbes
+and Hemsley, &ldquo;Enumeration of Chinese Plants,&rdquo; in <i>Journ.
+Linnean Soc. (Bot.)</i>, vols. xxiii. and xxxvi.; Bretschneider, <i>History
+of European Botanical Discoveries in China</i>; E. Tiessen, <i>China das
+Reich der achtzehn Provinzen</i>, Teil i. &ldquo;Die allgemeine Geographie
+des Landes&rdquo; (Berlin, 1902); and <i>The China Sea Directory</i> (published
+by the British Admiralty), a valuable guide to the coasts: vol. ii.
+(5th ed., 1906) deals with Hong-Kong and places south thereof, vol. iii.
+(4th ed., 1906, supp. 1907) with the rest of the Chinese coast; vol. i.
+(5th ed., 1906) treats of the islands and straits in the S.W. approach
+to the China Sea. Much of China has not been surveyed, but
+considerable progress has been made since 1900. <i>The Atlas of the
+Chinese Empire</i> (London, 1908), a good general atlas, which, however,
+has no hill shading, gives maps of each province on the scale of
+1:3,000,000. The preface contains a list of the best regional maps.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Journal af the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</i> contains
+papers on all subjects relating to China.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">II. The People</p>
+
+<p>China is noted for the density of its population, but no accurate
+statistics are forthcoming. The province of Shan-tung is reputed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span>
+to have a population of 680 per sq. m. The provinces of central
+China, in the basin of the Yangtsze-kiang&mdash;namely Sze-ch&lsquo;uen,
+Hu-peh, Ngan-hui, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang&mdash;contain
+<span class="sidenote">Population.</span>
+probably a third of thes total population, the density
+of the people in these provinces being represented
+as from 490 to 310 per sq. m. Ho-nan, which belongs partly to
+the basin of the Hwang-ho and partly to that of the Yangtsze-kiang,
+as well as the S.E. coast provinces of Fu-kien and Kwang-tung,
+are also densely peopled, Ho-nan being credited with 520
+persons per sq. m., Fu-kien with 490 and Kwang-tung with
+about 320.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Chinese government prints from time to time in the <i>Peking
+Gazette</i> returns of the population made by the various provincial
+authorities. The method of numeration is to count the households,
+and from that to make a return of the total inhabitants of each
+province. There would be no great difficulty in obtaining fairly
+accurate returns if sufficient care were taken. It does not appear,
+however, that much care is taken. Mr E.H. Parker published in the
+<i>Statistical Society&rsquo;s Journal</i> for March 1899 tables translated
+from Chinese records, giving the population from year to year between
+1651 and 1860. These tables show a gradual rise, though with many
+fluctuations, up till 1851, when the total population is stated to be
+432 millions. From that point it decreases till 1860, when it is put
+down at only 261 millions. The Chinese Imperial Customs put the
+total population of the empire in 1906 at 438,214,000 and that of
+China proper at 407,253,000. It has been held by several inquirers
+that these figures are gross over-estimates. Mr Rockhill, American
+minister at Peking (1905-1909), after careful inquiry<a name="FnAnchor_9d" id="FnAnchor_9d" href="#Footnote_9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> concluded
+that the inhabitants of China proper did not exceed, in 1904,
+270,000,000. Other competent authorities are inclined to accept
+the round figure of 400,000,000 as nearer the accurate number.
+Eleven cities were credited in 1908 with between 500,000 and
+1,000,000 inhabitants each, and smaller cities are very numerous,
+but the population is predominantly rural. In addition to the
+Chinese the population includes a number of aboriginal races such
+as the Lolos (<i>q.v.</i>), the Miaotsze (<i>q.v.</i>), the Ikias of Kwei-chow and
+Kwang-si, the Hakka, found in the south-east provinces, and the
+Hoklos of Kwang-tung province.<a name="FnAnchor_10d" id="FnAnchor_10d" href="#Footnote_10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a> The Manchus resident in China
+are estimated to number 4,000,000. According to the Imperial
+Customs authorities, the number of foreigners resident in China in
+1908 was 69,852. Of these 44,143 were Japanese, 9520 Russian,
+9043 British, 3637 German, 3545 American, 3353 Portuguese, 2029
+French, 554 Italian and 282 Belgian.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese are a colonizing race, and in Manchuria, Mongolia and
+Turkestan they have brought several districts under cultivation. In
+the regions where they settle they become the dominant
+race&mdash;thus southern Manchuria now differs little from a
+<span class="sidenote">Emigration.</span>
+province of China proper. In Indo-China, the Malay
+Peninsula and throughout the Far East Chinese are numerous as
+farmers, labourers and traders; in some places, such as Singapore,
+Chinese are among the principal merchants. This colonizing spirit
+is probably due more to the enterprise of the people than to the
+density of the population. There were Chinese settlements at places
+on the east coast of Africa before the 10th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Following
+the discovery of gold in California there was from 1850 onwards a
+large emigration of Chinese to that state and to other parts of America.
+But in 1879 Chinese exclusion acts were passed by the United States,
+an example followed by Australia, where Chinese immigration was
+also held to be a public danger. Canada also adopted the policy
+of excluding Chinese, but not before there had been a considerable
+immigration into British Columbia. Two factors, a racial and an
+economic, are at work to bring about these measures of exclusion.
+As indentured labourers Chinese have been employed in the West
+Indies, South America and other places (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coolie</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In addition to several million Chinese settlers in Manchuria, and
+smaller numbers in Mongolia, Turkestan and Tibet, it was estimated
+in 1908 that there were over 9,000,000 Chinese resident beyond the
+empire. Of these 2,250,000 were in Formosa, which for long formed
+a part of the empire, and over 6,000,000 in neighbouring regions of
+Asia and in Pacific Islands. In the West Indies (chiefly Cuba) the
+number of Chinese was estimated at 100,000, in South America
+(Brazil, Peru and Chile) at 72,000, in the United States at 150,000,
+in Canada at 12,000, and in Australia and New Zealand at 35,000.
+There are comparatively few Chinese in Japan (if Formosa be excepted)
+and Korea. The number is given in 1908 as 17,000 in Japan
+and 11,000 in Korea.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Social Life.</i></p>
+
+<p>The awakening of the East which has followed the Russo-Japanese
+War of 1904-5 has affected China also. It is too soon
+to say how far the influx of European ideas will be able to modify
+the immemorial customs and traditions of perhaps the most
+conservative people in the world; but the process has begun,
+and this fact makes it difficult to give a picture of Chinese habits
+and customs which shall be more than historical or provisional.
+Moreover, the difficulty of presenting a picture which shall be
+true of China as a whole is enhanced by the different characteristics
+observable in various regions of so vast a country. The
+Chinese themselves, until the material superiority of Western
+civilization forced them to a certain degree to conform to its
+standards, looked down from the height of their superior culture
+with contempt on the &ldquo;Western barbarians.&rdquo; Nor was their
+attitude wholly without justification. Their civilization was
+already old at a time when Britain and Germany were peopled
+by half-naked barbarians, and the philosophical and ethical
+principles on which it was based remain, to all appearances, as
+firmly rooted as ever. That these principles have, on the whole,
+helped to create a national type of a very high order few
+Europeans who know the Chinese well would deny. The Chinese
+are naturally reserved, earnest and good-natured; for the
+occasional outbursts of ferocious violence, notably against
+foreign settlements, are no index to the national character.
+There is a national proverb that &ldquo;the men of the Four Seas are
+all brothers,&rdquo; and even strangers can travel through the country
+without meeting with rudeness, much less outrage. If the
+Chinese character is inferior to the European, this inferiority lies
+in the fact that the Chinaman&rsquo;s whole philosophy of life disinclines
+him to change or to energetic action. He is industrious;
+but his industry is normally along the lines marked out by
+authority and tradition. He is brave; but his courage does
+not naturally seek an outlet in war. The jealously exclusive
+empire, into which in the 19th century the nations of the West
+forced an entrance, was organized for peace; the arts of war had
+been all but forgotten, and soldiers were of all classes the most
+despised.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The whole social and political organization of the Chinese is based,
+in a far more real sense than in the West, on the family. The supreme
+duty is that of the child to its parent; on this the whole Chinese
+moral system is built up. Filial piety, according to the teaching of
+Confucius, is the very foundation of society; the nation itself is
+but one great family, and the authority of the government itself is
+but an extension of the paternal authority, to which all its children
+are bound to yield implicit obedience. The western idea of the liberty
+and dignity of the individual, as distinct from the community to
+which he belongs, is wholly alien to the Chinese mind. The political
+unit in China is not the individual but the family, and the father of
+the family is supposed to be responsible for the qualities and views of
+all his kin. He is rewarded for their virtues, punished for their
+faults; the deserts of a son ennoble the father and all his ancestors,
+and conversely his crimes disgrace them.</p>
+
+<p>An outcome of this principle is the extraordinary importance in
+China of funeral rites, especially in the case of the father. The eldest
+son, now head of the family, or, failing him, his first-born or adopted
+son, fixes one of the three souls of the dead in the tablet commemorating
+his virtues, burns incense to his shade, and supplies him with
+paper money and paper representations of everything (clothes,
+servants, horses) that he may require in his journey to the other
+world. Mourning lasts for three years, during which the mourners
+wear white garments and abstain from meat, wine and public
+gatherings. Custom, too, dictates that wherever the Chinaman may
+die he must be brought back for burial to the place of his birth; one
+of the objects of the friendly societies is to provide funds to charter
+ships to transport home the bodies of those who have died abroad.
+Annually, in May, the white-clad people stream to the graves and
+mortuary temples with flowers, fruit and other offerings for the
+dead. Christian missionaries have found in this ancestor worship
+the most serious obstacle to the spread of a religion which teaches
+that the convert must, if need be, despise his father and his mother
+and follow Christ.</p>
+
+<p>The same elaborate ceremonialism that characterizes the Chinese
+funeral customs is found also in their marriage rites and the rules of
+their social intercourse generally. Confucius is reported to have said
+that &ldquo;all virtues have their source in etiquette,&rdquo; and the due
+observance of the &ldquo;ceremonial&rdquo; (<i>li</i>) in the fulfilling of social duties
+is that which, in Chinese opinion, distinguishes civilized from barbarous
+peoples. The Board of Rites, one of the departments of
+the central government, exists for the purpose of giving decisions in
+matters of etiquette and ceremony. As to marriage, the rule that the
+individual counts for nothing obtains here in its fullest significance.
+The breeding of sons to carry on the ancestral cult is a matter of
+prime importance, and the marriage of a young man is arranged at
+the earliest possible age. The bride and bridegroom have little voice
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span>
+in the matter, the match being arranged by the parents of the
+parties; the lifting of the bride&rsquo;s veil, so that the bridegroom may
+see her face, is the very last act of the long and complicated
+ceremony.</p>
+
+<p>In the traditional Chinese social system four classes are distinguished:
+the literary, the agricultural, the artisan and the
+trading class. Hereditary nobility, in the European sense, scarcely
+exists, and the possession of an hereditary title gives in itself no
+special privileges. Official position is more highly esteemed than
+birth and the bureaucracy takes the place of the aristocracy in the
+west. There are, nevertheless, besides personal decorations for
+merit, such as the yellow jacket, five hereditary rewards for merit;
+these last only for a fixed number of lives. A few Chinese families,
+however, enjoy hereditary titles in the full sense, the chief among
+them being the Holy Duke of Yen (the descendant of Confucius).
+The Imperial Clansmen consist of those who trace their descent
+direct from the founder of the Manchu dynasty, and are distinguished
+by the privilege of wearing a yellow girdle; collateral relatives
+of the imperial house wear a red girdle. Twelve degrees of nobility
+(in a descending scale as one generation succeeds another) are
+conferred on the descendants of every emperor; in the thirteenth
+generation the descendants of emperors are merged in the general
+population, save that they retain the yellow girdle. The heads of
+eight houses, the &ldquo;Iron-capped&rdquo; (or helmeted) princes, maintain
+their titles in perpetuity by rule of primogeniture in virtue of having
+helped the Manchu in the conquest of China. Imperial princes
+apart, the highest class is that forming the civil service. (See also
+§ <i>Government and Administration</i>.) The peasant class forms the bulk of
+the population. The majority of Chinese are small landowners; their
+standard of living is very low in comparison with European standards.
+This is in part due to the system of land tenure. A parent cannot,
+even if he wished to do so, leave all his land to one son. There must
+be substantially an equal division, the will of the father notwithstanding.
+As early marriages and large families are the rule, this
+process of continual division and subdivision has brought things down
+to the irreducible minimum in many places. Small patches of one-tenth
+or even one-twentieth of an acre are to be found as the
+estate of an individual landowner, and the vast majority of holdings
+run between one and three acres. With three acres a family is
+deemed very comfortable, and the possession of ten acres means
+luxury.</p>
+
+<p>The only class which at all resembles the territorial magnates of
+other countries is the class of retired officials. The wealth of an
+official is not infrequently invested in land, and consequently there
+are in most provinces several families with a country seat and the
+usual insignia of local rank and influence. On the decease of the
+heads or founders of such families it is considered dignified for the
+sons to live together, sharing the rents and profits in common. This
+is sometimes continued for several generations, until the country seat
+becomes an agglomeration of households and the family a sort of
+clan. A family of this kind, with literary traditions, and with the
+means to educate the young men, is constantly sending its scions
+into the public service. These in turn bring their earnings to
+swell the common funds, while the rank and dignity which they
+may earn add to the importance and standing of the group as a
+whole. The members of this class are usually termed the <i>literati</i> or
+gentry.</p>
+
+<p>The complex character of the Chinese is shown in various ways.
+Side by side with the reverence of ancestors the law recognizes the
+right of the parent to sell his offspring into slavery and among the
+poor this is not an uncommon practice, though in comparison with
+the total population the number of slaves is few. The kidnapping of
+children for sale as slaves is carried on, but there is no slave raiding.
+There are more female than male slaves; the descendants of male
+slaves acquire freedom in the fifth generation. While every Chinese
+man is anxious to have male children, girls are often considered
+superfluous.</p>
+
+<p>The position of women is one of distinct inferiority; a woman is
+always subject to the men of her family&mdash;before marriage to her
+father, during marriage to her husband, in widowhood to her son;
+these states being known as &ldquo;the three obediences.&rdquo; Sons who do
+not, however, honour their mothers outrage public opinion. Polygamy
+is tolerated, secondary wives being sometimes provided by the
+first wife when she is growing old. Secondary wives are subordinate
+to first wives. A wife may be divorced for any one of seven reasons.
+The sale of wives is practised, but is not recognized by law. Women
+of the upper classes are treated with much respect. The home of a
+Chinese man is often in reality ruled by his mother, or by his wife as
+she approaches old age, a state held in veneration. Chinese women
+frequently prove of excellent business capacity, and those of high
+rank&mdash;as the recent history of China has conspicuously proved&mdash;exercise
+considerable influence on public affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Deforming the feet of girls by binding and stopping their growth has
+been common for centuries. The tottering walk of the Chinese lady
+resulting from this deformation of the feet is the admiration of her
+husband and friends. Foot-binding is practised by rich and poor in all
+parts of the country, but is not universal. In southern and western
+China Hakka women and certain others never have their feet bound.
+It has been noted that officials (who all serve on the itinerary system)
+take for secondary wives natural-footed women, who are frequently
+slaves.<a name="FnAnchor_11d" id="FnAnchor_11d" href="#Footnote_11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Every child is one at birth, and two on what Europeans
+call its first birthday, the period of gestation counting as one year.</p>
+
+<p>In their social intercourse the Chinese are polite and ceremonious;
+they do not shake hands or kiss, but prostrations (kotowing),
+salutations with joined hands and congratulations are common. They
+have no weekly day of rest, but keep many festivals, the most
+important being that of New Year&rsquo;s Day. Debts are supposed to be
+paid before New Year&rsquo;s Day begins and for the occasion new clothes
+are bought. Other notable holidays are the Festival of the First
+Full Moon, the Feast of Lanterns and the Festival of the Dragon
+Boat. A feature of the festivals is the employment of thousands
+of lanterns made of paper, covered with landscapes and other scenes
+in gorgeous colours. Of outdoor sports kite-flying is the most
+popular and is engaged in by adults; shuttle-cock is also a favourite
+game, while cards and dominoes are indoor amusements. The
+theatre and marionette shows are largely patronized. The habit of
+opium smoking is referred to elsewhere; tobacco smoking is general
+among both sexes.</p>
+
+<p>Except in their head-dress and their shoes little distinction is made
+between the costumes of men and women.<a name="FnAnchor_12d" id="FnAnchor_12d" href="#Footnote_12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Both sexes wear a long
+loose jacket or robe which fits closely round the neck and has wide
+sleeves, and wide short trousers. Over the robe shorter jackets&mdash;often
+sleeveless&mdash;are worn, according to the weather. For winter
+wear the jackets are wadded, and a Chinaman will speak of &ldquo;a
+three, four or six coat cold day.&rdquo; A man&rsquo;s robe is generally longer
+than that of a woman. Petticoats are worn by ladies on ceremonial
+occasions and the long robe is removed when in the house. &ldquo;It is
+considered very unwomanly not to wear trousers, and very indelicate
+for a man not to have skirts to his coat.&rdquo; No Chinese woman ever
+bares any part of her body in public&mdash;even the hands are concealed
+in the large sleeves&mdash;and the evening dress of European ladies is
+considered indelicate; but Hakka women move about freely without
+shoes or stockings. A Chinese man will, however, in warm weather
+often strip naked to the waist. Coolies frequently go bare-legged;
+they use sandals made of rope and possess rain-coats made of palm
+leaves. The garments of the poorer classes are made of cotton,
+generally dyed blue. Wealthy people have their clothes made of silk.
+Skirts and jackets are elaborately embroidered. Costly furs and
+fur-lined clothes are much prized, and many wealthy Chinese have fine
+collections of furs. Certain colours may only be used with official
+permission as denoting a definite rank or distinction, <i>e.g.</i> the yellow
+jacket. The colours used harmonize&mdash;the contrasts in colour seen in
+the clothes of Europeans is avoided. Dark purple over blue are usual
+colour combinations. The mourning colour is white. Common shoes
+are made of cotton or silk and have thick felt soles; all officials wear
+boots of satin into which is thrust the pipe or the fan&mdash;the latter
+carried equally by men and women. The fan is otherwise stuck at
+the back of the neck, or attached to the girdle, which may also hold
+the purse, watch, snuff-box and a pair of chop-sticks.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly Chinese men let their hair grow sufficiently long to gather
+it in a knot at the top; on the conquest of the country by the Manchu
+they were compelled to adopt the queue or pigtail, which is often
+artificially lengthened by the employment of silk thread, usually
+black in colour. The front part of the head is shaved. As no
+Chinese dress their own hair, barbers are numerous and do a thriving
+trade. Women do not shave the head nor adopt the queue. Men
+wear in general a close-fitting cap, and the peasants large straw hats.
+Circular caps, larger at the crown than round the head and with an
+outward slope are worn in winter by mandarins, conical straw hats in
+summer. Women have elaborate head ornaments, decking their hair
+with artificial flowers, butterflies made of jade, gold pins and pearls.
+The faces of Chinese ladies are habitually rouged, their eyebrows
+painted. Pearl or bead necklaces are worn both by men and women.
+Officials and men of leisure let one or two finger nails grow long and
+protect them with a metal case.</p>
+
+<p>The staple food of the majority of the Chinese in the south and
+central provinces is rice; in the northern provinces millet as well
+as rice is much eaten. In separate bowls are placed morsels of pork,
+fish, chicken, vegetables and other relishes. Rice-flour, bean-meal,
+macaroni, and shell fish are all largely used. Flour balls cooked in
+sugar are esteemed. Beef is never eaten, but Mahommedans eat
+mutton, and there is hardly any limit to the things the Chinese use
+as food. In Canton dogs which have been specially fed are an article
+of diet. Eggs are preserved for years in a solution of salt, lime and
+wood-ash, or in spirits made from rice. Condiments are highly
+prized, as are also preserved fruits. Special Chinese dishes are
+soups made from sea-slugs and a glutinous substance found in
+certain birds&rsquo; nests, ducks&rsquo; tongues, sharks&rsquo; fins, the brains of
+chickens and of fish, the sinews of deer and of whales, fish with
+pickled fir-tree cones, and roots of the lotus lily. A kind of beer
+brewed from rice is a usual drink; <i>samshu</i> is a spirit distilled
+from the same grain and at dinners is served hot in small bowls. Excellent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span>
+native wines are made. The Chinese are, however, abstemious with
+regard to alcoholic liquors. Water is drunk hot by the very poor, as
+a substitute for tea. Tea is drunk before and after meals in cups
+without handle or saucer; the cups are always provided with a cover.
+Two substantial meals are taken during the day&mdash;luncheon and
+dinner; the last named at varying hours from four till seven o&rsquo;clock.
+At dinner a rich man will offer his guest twenty-four or more dishes
+(always a multiple of 4), four to six dishes being served at a time.
+Food is eaten from bowls and with chop-sticks (<i>q.v.</i>) and little
+porcelain spoons. Men dine by themselves when any guests are
+present; dinner parties are sometimes given by ladies to ladies.
+Chinese cookery is excellent; in the culinary art the Chinese are
+reputed to be second only to the French.</p>
+
+<p>Ethnologically the Chinese are classed among the Mongolian races
+(in which division the Manchus are also included), although they
+present many marked contrasts to the Mongols. The Tatars,
+Tibetans, Burmese, Shans, Manchu and other races&mdash;including the
+Arab and Japanese&mdash;have mingled with the indigenous population to
+form the Chinese type, while aboriginal tribes still resist the pressure
+of absorption by the dominant race (see ante, <i>Population</i>). The
+Chinese are in fact ethnically a very mixed people, and the pure
+Mongol type is uncommon among them. Moreover, natives of
+different provinces still present striking contrasts one to another,
+and their common culture is probably the strongest national link.
+By some authorities it is held that the parent stock of the Chinese
+came from the north-west, beyond the alluvial plain; others hold
+that it was indigenous in eastern China. Notwithstanding the
+marked differences between the inhabitants of different provinces
+and even between those living in the same province, certain features
+are common to the race. &ldquo;The stature is below the average and
+seldom exceeds 5 ft. 4 in., except in the North. The head is normally
+brachycephalic or round horizontally, and the forehead low and
+narrow. The face is round, the mouth large, and the chin small and
+receding. The cheek-bones are prominent, the eyes almond-shaped,
+oblique upwards and outwards, and the hair coarse, lank and invariably
+black. The beard appears late in life, and remains generally
+scanty. The eyebrows are straight and the iris of the eye is
+black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat. The hands and
+feet are disproportionately small, and the body early inclines to
+obesity. The complexion varies from an almost pale-yellow to a
+dark-brown, without any red or ruddy tinge. Yellow, however,
+predominates.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_13d" id="FnAnchor_13d" href="#Footnote_13d"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>
+
+<p>A few words may be added concerning the Manchus, who are the
+ruling race in China. Their ethnic affinities are not precisely known,
+but they may be classed among the Ural-Altaic tribes, although the
+term Ural-Altaic (<i>q.v.</i>) denotes a linguistic rather than a racial group.
+By some authorities they are called Tung-tatze, <i>i.e.</i> Eastern
+Tatars&mdash;-the Tatars of to-day being of true Mongol descent. Manchu is
+the name adopted in the 13th century by one of several tribes which
+led a nomadic life in Manchuria and were known collectively in the
+11th century as Nüchihs. Some authorities regard the Khitans
+(whence the European form Cathay), who in the 9th and 10th centuries
+dwelt in the upper Liao region, as the ancestors of this race.
+It was not until the 16th century that the people became known
+generally as Manchus and obtained possession of the whole of the
+country now bearing their name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manchuria</a></span>). They had then a
+considerable mixture of Chinese and Korean blood, but had developed
+a distinct nationality and kept their ancient Ural-Altaic language.
+In China the Manchus retained their separate nationality and
+semi-military organization. It was not until the early years of the 20th
+century that steps were officially taken to obliterate the distinction
+between the two races. The Manchus are a more robust race than the
+inhabitants of central and southern China, but resemble those of
+northern China save that their eyes are horizontally set. They are a
+lively and enterprising people, but have not in general the intellectual
+or business ability of the Chinese. They are courteous in their
+relations with strangers. The common people are frugal and
+industrious. The Manchu family is generally large. The women&rsquo;s
+feet are unbound; they twist their hair round a silver bangle placed
+cross-wise on the top of the head. The Manchus have no literature
+of their own, but as the language of the court Manchu has been
+extensively studied in China.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Sir John F. Davies, <i>China</i> (2 vols., London, 1857);
+É. Réclus, <i>The Universal Geography</i>, vol. vii.
+(Eng. trans. ed. by E.G. Ravenstein and A.H. Keane);
+É. and O. Réclus, <i>L&rsquo;Empire du milieu</i> (Paris, 1902);
+Sir R.K. Douglas, <i>Society in China</i> (London, 1895);
+J. Doolittle, <i>Social Life of the Chinese</i> (2 vols., New York, 1867);
+H.A. Giles, <i>China and the Chinese</i> (1902);
+E. Bard, <i>Les Chinois chez eux</i> (Paris, 1900);
+A.G. Jones, <i>Desultory Notes on Chinese Etiquette</i> (Shanghai, 1906);
+Mrs Archibald Little, <i>Intimate China</i> (London, 1899)
+and <i>The Land of the Blue Gown</i> (London, 1902);
+E.H. Parker, <i>John Chinaman and a Few Others</i> (London, 1901);
+J. Dyer-Ball, <i>Things Chinese</i> (Shanghai, 1903);
+Cheng Kitung, <i>The Chinese Painted by Themselves</i>
+(Eng. trans. by J. Millington, London, 1885);
+L. Richard, <i>Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire</i>
+(Shanghai, 1908).</p>
+<div class="author">(X.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Religion.</i></p>
+
+<p>The earliest traces of religious thought and practice in China
+point to a simple monotheism. There was a Divine Ruler of
+the universe, abiding on high, beyond the ken of man.
+This Power was not regarded as the Creator of the
+<span class="sidenote">The ancient faith.</span>
+human race, but as a Supreme Being to whom wickedness
+was abhorrent and virtuous conduct a source of
+joy, and who dealt out rewards and punishments with unerring
+justice, claiming neither love nor reverence from mankind. If
+a man did his duty towards his neighbour, he might pass his
+whole time on earth oblivious of the fact that such a Power was
+in existence; unless perchance he wished to obtain some good
+or attain some end, in which case he might seek to propitiate
+Him by sacrifice and prayer. There was no Devil to tempt man
+astray, and to rejoice in his fall; neither was there any belief
+that righteous behaviour in this world would lead at death to
+absorption in the Deity. To God, understood in this sense, the
+people gave the name <i>Tien</i>, which in the colloquial language
+was used of the sky; and when, in the first stages of the written
+character, it became necessary to express the idea of <i>Tien</i>, they
+did not attempt any vague picture of the heavens, but set down
+the rude outline of a man. Perhaps about this period the title
+<i>Shang Ti</i>, or Supreme Ruler, came into vogue as synonymous
+with <i>Tien</i>. But although the two terms were synonyms, and
+both may be equally rendered by &ldquo;God,&rdquo; there is nevertheless
+an important distinction to be observed, much as though <i>Tien</i>
+and <i>Shang Ti</i> were two Persons in one substance. <i>Tien</i> is far
+more an abstract Being, while <i>Shang Ti</i> partakes rather of the
+nature of a personal God, whose anthropomorphic nature is
+much more strongly accentuated. <i>Shang Ti</i> is described as
+walking and talking, as enjoying the flavour of sacrifices, as
+pleased with music and dancing in his honour, and even as taking
+sides in warfare; whereas <i>Tien</i> holds aloof, wrapped in an
+impenetrable majesty, an <i>ignotum pro mirifico</i>. So much for
+religion in primeval days, gathered scrap by scrap from many
+sources; for nothing like a history of religion is to be found in
+Chinese literature.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually to this monotheistic conception was added a worship
+of the sun, moon and constellations, of the five planets, and of
+such noticeable individual stars as (<i>e.g.</i>) Canopus, which is now
+looked upon as the home of the God of Longevity. Earth,
+too&mdash;Mother Earth&mdash;came in for her share of worship, indicated
+especially by the God of the Soil, and further distributed among
+rivers and hills. Wind, rain, heat, cold, thunder and lightning,
+as each became objects of desire or aversion, were invested with
+the attributes of deities. The various parts of the house&mdash;door,
+kitchen-stove, courtyard, &amp;c.&mdash;were also conceived of as sheltering
+some spirit whose influence might be benign or the reverse.
+The spirits of the land and of grain came to mean one&rsquo;s country,
+the commonwealth, the state; and the sacrifices of these spirits
+by the emperor formed a public announcement of his accession,
+or of his continued right to the throne. Side by side with such
+sacrificial rites was the worship of ancestors, stretching so far
+back that its origin is not discernible in such historical documents
+as we possess. In early times only the emperor, or the feudal
+nobles, or certain high officials, could sacrifice to the spirits
+of nature; the common people sacrificed to their own ancestors
+and to the spirits of their own homes. For three days before
+performing such sacrifices, a strict vigil with purification was
+maintained; and by the expiration of that time, from sheer
+concentration of thought, the mourner was able to see the spirits
+of the departed, and at the sacrifice next day seemed to hear their
+movements and even the murmur of their sighs. Ancestral
+worship in China has always been, and still is, worship in the
+strict sense of the term. It is not a memorial service in simple
+honour of the dead; but sacrifices are offered, and the whole
+ceremonial is performed that the spirits of former ancestors may
+be induced to extend their protection to the living and secure to
+them as many as possible of the good things of this world.</p>
+
+<p>For Confucianism, which cannot, strictly speaking, be classed
+as a religion, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Confucius</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Around the scanty utterances of Lao Tz&#365; or Lao-tsze (<i>q.v.</i>;
+see also § <i>Chinese Literature, §§ Philosophy</i>)
+an attempt was made by later writers to weave a scheme of thought which
+should serve to satisfy the cravings of mortals for some definite
+<span class="sidenote">Taoism.</span>
+solution of the puzzle of life. Lao Tz&#365; himself had enunciated
+a criterion which he called <i>Tao</i>, or the Way, from which is
+derived the word Taoism; and in his usual paradoxical style he had
+asserted that the secret of this Way, which was at the beginning
+apparently nothing more than a line of right conduct, could not possibly
+be imparted, even by those who understood it. His disciples, however, of
+later days proceeded to interpret the term in the sense of the Absolute,
+the First Cause, and finally as One, in whose obliterating unity all
+seemingly opposed conditions of time and space were indistinguishably
+blended. This One, the source of human life, was placed beyond
+the limits of the visible universe; and for human life to return
+thither at death and to enjoy immortality, it was only necessary to
+refine away all corporeal grossness by following the doctrines of Lao
+Tz&#365;. By and by, this One came to be regarded as a fixed point of
+dazzling luminosity in remote ether, around which circled for ever
+and ever, in the supremest glory of motion, the souls of those who
+had left the slough of humanity behind them. These transcendental
+notions were entirely corrupted at a very early date by the introduction
+of belief in an elixir of life, and later still by the practice of
+alchemistic experiments. Opposed by Buddhism, which next laid a
+claim for a share in the profits of popular patronage, Taoism rapidly
+underwent a radical transformation. It became a religion, borrowing
+certain ceremonial, vestments, liturgies, the idea of a hell, arrangement
+of temples, &amp;c., from its rival; which rival was not slow in returning
+the compliment. As Chu Hsi said, &ldquo;Buddhism stole the best
+features of Taoism; Taoism stole the worst features of Buddhism.
+It is as though one took a jewel from the other, and the loser
+recouped the loss with a stone.&rdquo; At the present day there is not
+much to choose between the two religions, which flourish peaceably
+together. As to their temples, priests and ceremonial, it takes an
+expert to distinguish one from the other.</p>
+
+<p>There is no trustworthy information as to the exact date at which
+Buddhism first reached China. It is related that the emperor Ming
+Ti (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 58-76) had a dream in which a golden man appeared
+to him, and this mysterious visitant was interpreted
+<span class="sidenote">Buddhism.</span>
+by the emperor&rsquo;s brother to be none other than Sh&#257;kyamuni Buddha,
+the far-famed divinity of the West. This shows that Buddhism must
+then have been known to the Chinese, at any rate by hearsay. The
+earliest alleged appearance of Buddhism in China dates from 217 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+when certain Shamans who came to proselytize were seized and
+thrown into prison. They escaped through the miraculous intervention
+of a golden man, who came to them in the middle of the night
+and opened their prison doors. Hsü Kuan, a writer of the Sung
+dynasty, quotes in his <i>Tung Chai Chi</i> passages to support the view
+that Buddhism was known in China some centuries before the reign
+of Ming Ti; among others, the following from the <i>Sui Shu Ching
+Chi Chih</i>: &ldquo;These Buddhist writings had long been circulated far
+and wide, but disappeared with the advent of the Ch&lsquo;in dynasty,&rdquo;
+under which (see § <i>Chinese Literature, §§ History</i>) occurred the
+Burning of the Books. It is, however, convenient to begin with the
+alleged dream of Ming Ti, as it was only subsequent to that date that
+Buddhism became a recognized religion of the people. It is certain
+that in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 65 a mission of eighteen members was despatched to
+Khotan to make inquiries on the subject, and that in 67 the mission
+returned, bringing Buddhist writings and images, and accompanied
+by an Indian priest, Kashiapmadanga, who was followed shortly
+afterwards by another priest, Gobharana. A temple was built for
+these two at Lo-yang, then the capital of China, and they settled
+down to the work of translating portions of the Buddhist scriptures
+into Chinese; but all that now remains of their work is the SÅ«tra of
+Forty-two Sections, translated by Kashiapmadanga. During the
+next two hundred and fifty years an unbroken line of foreign priests
+came to China to continue the task of translation, and to assist in
+spreading the faith. Such work was indeed entirely in their hands,
+for until the 4th century the Chinese people were prohibited from
+taking orders as priests; but by that date Buddhism had taken a
+firm hold upon the masses, and many Chinese priests were attracted
+towards India, despite the long and dangerous journey, partly to
+visit the birthplace of the creed and to see with their own eyes the
+scenes which had so fired their imaginations, and partly in the hope
+of adding to the store of books and images already available in China
+(see § <i>Chinese Literature, §§ Geography and Travel</i>). Still, the
+train of Indian missionaries, moving in the opposite direction, did not
+cease. In 401, Kumarajiva, the nineteenth of the Western Patriarchs
+and translator of the Diamond SÅ«tra, finally took up his residence
+at the court of the soi-disant emperor, Yao Hsing. In 405 he became
+State Preceptor and dictated his commentaries on the sacred books
+of Buddhism to some eight hundred priests, besides composing a
+<i>sh&#257;stra</i> on Reality and Semblance. Dying in 417, his body was
+cremated, as is still usual with priests, but his tongue, which had done
+such eminent service during life, remained unharmed in the midst of
+the flames. In the year 520 B&#333;dhidharma, or Ta-mo, as he is
+affectionately known to the Chinese, being also called the White
+Buddha, reached Canton, bringing with him the sacred bowl of the
+Buddhist Patriarchate, of which he was the last representative in the
+west and the first to hold office in the east. Summoned to Nanking,
+he offended the emperor by asserting that real merit lay, not in works,
+but solely in purity and wisdom combined. He therefore retired to
+Lo-yang, crossing the swollen waters of the Yangtsze on a reed, a
+feat which has ever since had a great fascination for Chinese painters
+and poets. There he spent the rest of his life, teaching that religion
+was not to be learnt from books, but that man should seek and find
+the Buddha in his own heart. Thus Buddhism gradually made its
+way. It had to meet first of all the bitter hostility of the Taoists;
+and secondly, the fitful patronage and opposition of the court.
+Several emperors and empresses were infatuated supporters of the
+faith; one even went so far as to take vows and lead the life of an
+ascetic, further insisting that to render full obedience to the Buddhist
+commandment, &ldquo;Thou shalt not kill,&rdquo; the sacrificial animals were to
+be made of dough. Other emperors, instigated by Confucian advisers,
+went to the opposite extreme of persecution, closed all religious
+houses, confiscated their property, and forced the priests and nuns to
+return to the world. From about the 11th century onwards Buddhism
+has enjoyed comparative immunity from attack or restriction, and it
+now covers the Chinese empire from end to end. The form under
+which it appears in China is to some extent of local growth; that is to
+say, the Chinese have added and subtracted not a little to and from
+the parent stock. The cleavage which took place under Kanishka,
+ruler of the Indo-Scythian empire, about the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>,
+divided Buddhism into the Mah&#257;y&#257;na, or Greater Vehicle, and the
+Hin&#257;y&#257;na, as it is somewhat contemptuously styled, or Lesser
+Vehicle. The latter was the nearer of the two to the Buddhism of
+Sh&#257;kyamuni, and exhibits rather the mystic and esoteric sides of the
+faith. The former, which spread northwards and on to Nepaul,
+Tibet, China, Mongolia and Japan, leaving southern India, Burma
+and Siam to its rival, began early to lean towards the deification of
+Buddha as a personal Saviour. New Buddhas and B&#333;dhisatvas were
+added, and new worlds were provided for them to live in; in China,
+especially, there was an enormous extension of the mythological
+element. In fact, the Mah&#257;y&#257;na system of Buddhism, inspired, as
+has been observed, by a progressive spirit, but without contradicting
+the inner significance of the teachings of Buddha, broadened its scope
+and assimilated other religio-philosophical beliefs, whenever this
+could be done to the advantage of those who came within its influence.
+Such is the form of this religion which prevails in China, of
+which, however, the Chinese layman understands nothing. He goes
+to a temple, worships the gods with prostrations, lighted candles,
+incense, &amp;c., to secure his particular ends at the moment; he may
+even listen to a service chanted in a foreign tongue and just as
+incomprehensible to the priests as to himself. He pays his fees and
+departs, absolutely ignorant of the history or dogmas of the religion
+to which he looks for salvation in a future state. All such knowledge,
+and there is now not much of it, is confined to a few of the more
+cultured priests.</p>
+
+<p>The 7th century seems to have been notable in the religious
+history of China. Early in that century, Mazdaism, or the religion
+of Zoroaster, based upon the worship of fire, was introduced
+<span class="sidenote">Mardaism.</span>
+into China, and in 621 the first temple under that
+denomination was built at Ch&lsquo;ang-an in Shensi, then the capital.
+But the harvest of converts was insignificant; the religion failed
+to hold its ground, and in the 9th century disappeared altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Mahommedans first settled in China in the Year of the Mission,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 628, under Wahb-Abi-Kabha, a maternal uncle of Mahomet,
+who was sent with presents to the emperor. Wahb-Abi-Kabha
+travelled by sea to Canton, and thence overland
+<span class="sidenote">Mahommedanism.</span>
+to Ch&lsquo;ang-an, the capital, where he was well received.
+The first mosque was built at Canton, where after several
+restorations, it still exists. Another mosque was erected in 742;
+but many of the Mahommedans went to China merely as traders,
+and afterwards returned to their own country. The true stock of
+the present Chinese Mahommedans was a small army of 4000 Arab
+soldiers sent by the caliph Abu Giafar<a name="FnAnchor_14d" id="FnAnchor_14d" href="#Footnote_14d"><span class="sp">14</span></a> in 755 to aid in putting down
+a rebellion. These soldiers had permission to settle in China, where
+they married native wives; and four centuries later, with the
+conquests of Jenghiz Khan, large numbers of Arabs penetrated
+into the empire and swelled the Mahommedan community. Its
+members are now indistinguishable from the general population;
+they are under no civic disabilities, and are free to open mosques
+wherever they please, so long as, in common with Buddhists and
+Taoists, they exhibit the tablet of the emperor&rsquo;s sovereignty in
+some conspicuous position.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 631 the Nestorians sent a mission to China and introduced
+Christianity under the name of the Luminous Doctrine.
+In 636 they were allowed to settle at Ch&lsquo;ang-an; and in
+638 an Imperial Decree was issued, stating that Olopun,
+<span class="sidenote">Nestorianism.</span>
+a Nestorian priest who is casually mentioned as a Persian,
+had presented a form of religion which his Majesty had carefully
+examined and had found to be in every way satisfactory, and that
+it would henceforth be permissible to preach this new doctrine within
+the boundaries of the empire. Further, the establishment of a
+monastery was authorized, to be served by twenty-one priests.
+For more than a century after this, Nestorian Christianity seems to
+have flourished in China. In 781 the famous Nestorian Tablet,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span>
+giving a rough outline of the object and scope of the faith, was set
+up at Ch&lsquo;ang-an (the modern Si-gan Fu), disappearing soon afterwards
+in the political troubles which laid the city in ruins, to be
+brought to light again in 1625 by Father Semedo, S.J. The genuineness
+of this tablet was for many years in dispute, Voltaire, Renan,
+and others of lesser fame regarding it as a pious Jesuit fraud; but
+all doubts on the subject have now been dispelled by the exhaustive
+monograph of Père Havret, S.J., entitled <i>La Stèle de Si-ngan</i>. The
+date of the tablet seems to mark the zenith of Nestorian Christianity
+in China; after this date it began to decay. Marco Polo refers
+to it as existing in the 13th century; but then it fades out of
+sight, leaving scant traces in Chinese literature of ever having
+existed.</p>
+
+<p>The Manichaeans, worshippers of the Chaldaean Mani or Man&#275;s,
+who died about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 274, appear to have found their way to China
+in the year 694. In 719 an envoy from Tokharestan
+reached Ch&lsquo;ang-an, bringing a letter to the emperor, in
+<span class="sidenote">Manichaeism.</span>
+which a request was made that an astronomer who
+accompanied the mission might be permitted to establish places of
+worship for persons of the Manichaean faith. Subsequently, a
+number of such chapels were opened at various centres; but little
+is known of the history of this religion, which is often confounded
+by Chinese writers with Mazdeism, the fate of which it seems to have
+shared, also disappearing about the middle of the 9th century.</p>
+
+<p>By &ldquo;the sect of those who take out the sinew,&rdquo; the Chinese refer
+to the Jews and their peculiar method of preparing meat in order
+to make it <i>kosher</i>. Wild stories have been told of their
+arrival in China seven centuries before the Christian era,
+<span class="sidenote">Judaism.</span>
+after one of the numerous upheavals mentioned in the Old Testament;
+and again, of their having carried the Pentateuch to China
+shortly after the Babylonish captivity, and having founded a
+colony in Ho-nan in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 72. The Jews really reached China for the
+first time in the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1163, and were permitted to open a
+synagogue at the modern K&lsquo;ai-fêng Fu in 1164. There they seem to
+have lived peaceably, enjoying the protection of the authorities
+and making some slight efforts to spread their tenets. There their
+descendants were found, a dwindling community, by the Jesuit
+Fathers of the 17th century; and there again they were visited in
+1850 by a Protestant mission, which succeeded in obtaining from
+them Hebrew rolls of parts of the Pentateuch in the square character,
+with vowel points. After this, it was generally believed that the
+few remaining stragglers, who seemed to be entirely ignorant of
+everything connected with their faith, had become merged in the
+ordinary population. A recent traveller, however, asserts that in
+1909 he found at K&lsquo;ai-fêng Fu a Jewish community, the members
+of which keep as much as possible to themselves, worshipping in
+secret, and preserving their ancient ritual and formulary.</p>
+
+<p>See H. Hackmann, <i>Buddhism as a Religion</i> (1910);
+H.A. Giles, <i>Religions of Ancient China</i> (1905);
+G. Smith, <i>The Jews at K&lsquo;ae-fung-foo</i> (1851);
+Dabry de Thiersant, <i>Le Mahométisme en Chine</i> (1878);
+P. Havret. S.J., <i>La Stèle chrétienne de Si-ngan-fou</i> (1895).</p>
+<div class="author">(H. A. Gi.)</div>
+
+<p>[Christian missions, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, are
+established in every province in China. Freedom to embrace the
+Christian faith has been guaranteed by the Chinese government
+since 1860, and as a rule the missionaries have free
+<span class="sidenote">Christian missions.</span>
+scope in teaching and preaching, though local disturbances
+are not infrequent. The number of members of the Roman Catholic
+Church in China was reckoned by the Jesuit fathers at Shanghai to
+be, in 1907, &ldquo;about one million&rdquo;; in the same year the Protestant
+societies reckoned in all 250,000 church members. By the Chinese,
+Roman Catholicism is called the &ldquo;Religion of the Lord of Heaven&rdquo;;
+Protestantism the &ldquo;Religion of Jesus.&rdquo; For the progress and effects of
+Christianity in China see § <i>History</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Missions</a></span>, § <i>China</i>. <span class="sc">Ed.</span>]</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Education and the Press.</i></p>
+
+<p>The educational system of China till nearly the close of the
+19th century was confined in its scope to the study of Chinese
+classics. Elementary instruction was not provided by the state.
+The well-to-do engaged private tutors for their sons; the poorer
+boys were taught in small schools on a voluntary basis. No
+curriculum was compulsory, but the books used and the programme
+pursued followed a traditional rule. The boys (there
+were no schools for girls) began by memorizing the classics for
+four or five years. Then followed letter-writing and easy
+composition. This completed the education of the vast majority
+of the boys not intended for the public service. The chief
+merit of the system was that it developed the memory
+and the imitative faculty. For secondary education somewhat
+better provision was made, practically the only method
+of attaining eminence in the state being through the schools
+(see § <i>Civil Service</i>). At prefectural cities and provincial
+capitals colleges were maintained at the public expense, and
+at these institutions a more or less thorough knowledge of
+the classics might be obtained. At the public examinations
+held periodically the exercises proposed were original poems
+and literary essays. Three degrees were conferred, <i>Siu-ts&lsquo;ai</i>
+(budding talent), <i>Chû-jên</i> (promoted scholar) and <i>Chin-shih</i>
+(entered scholar). The last degree was given to those who
+passed the final examination at Peking, and the successful candidates
+were also called metropolitan graduates.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first education on western lines was given by the Roman
+Catholic missionaries. In 1852 they founded a college for the
+education of native priests; they also founded and maintained many
+primary and some higher schools&mdash;mainly if not exclusively for the
+benefit of their converts. The Protestant missions followed the
+example of the Roman Catholics, but a new departure, which has had
+a wide success, was initiated by the American Protestant missionary
+societies in founding schools&mdash;primary and higher&mdash;and colleges in
+which western education was given equally to all comers, Christian
+or non-Christian. Universities and medical schools have also been
+established by the missionary societies. They also initiated a movement
+for the education of girls and opened special schools for their
+instruction.</p>
+
+<p>Missionary effort apart, the first step towards western education
+was the establishment of two colleges in 1861, one at Peking, the
+other at Canton in connexion with the imperial maritime customs.
+These institutions were known as T&lsquo;ung Wen Kwan, and were provided
+with a staff of foreign professors and teachers. These colleges
+were mainly schools of languages to enable young Chinese to qualify
+as interpreters in English, French, &amp;c. Similar schools were
+established at Canton, Fuchow and one or two other places, with but
+indifferent results. A more promising plan was conceived in 1880,
+or thereabouts, by the then viceroy of Nanking, who sent a batch of
+thirty or forty students to America to receive a regular training on
+the understanding that on their return they would receive official
+appointments. The promise was not kept. A report was spread that
+these students were becoming too much Americanized. They were
+hastily recalled, and when they returned they were left in obscurity.
+The next step was taken by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the
+Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95. The viceroy wrote a book, <i>China&rsquo;s
+Only Hope</i>, which he circulated throughout the empire, and in which
+he strongly advocated a reform of the traditional educational
+system. His scheme was to make Chinese learning the foundation
+on which a western education should be imparted.<a name="FnAnchor_15d" id="FnAnchor_15d" href="#Footnote_15d"><span class="sp">15</span></a> The book was
+one of the factors in the 1898 reform movement, and Chang Chih-tung&rsquo;s
+proposals were condemned when that movement was suppressed.
+But after the Boxer rising the Peking government adopted
+his views, and in 1902 regulations were issued for the reform of the
+old system of public instruction. A university on western lines was
+established in that year at Peking, the T&lsquo;ung Wen Kwan at
+the capital being incorporated in it. The new educational movement
+gained enormously in strength as the result of the Russo-Japanese
+War, and in 1906 a new system, theoretically almost
+perfect, was established. The new system comprises the study
+of the Chinese language, literature and composition, modern
+sciences, history and geography, foreign languages,<a name="FnAnchor_16d" id="FnAnchor_16d" href="#Footnote_16d"><span class="sp">16</span></a> gymnastics,
+drill and, in the higher grades, political economy, and civil and
+international law.</p>
+
+<p>By 1910 primary and secondary government schools and schools
+for special subjects (such as agriculture and engineering) had been
+established in considerable numbers. In every province an Imperial
+University was also established. The Imperial University at Peking
+now teaches not only languages and Chinese subjects but also law,
+chemistry, mathematics, &amp;c. A medical school was founded at
+Peking in 1906 through the energy of British Protestant missionaries,
+and is called the Union Medical College. When in 1908, the United
+States, finding that the indemnity for the Boxer outrages awarded her
+was excessive, agreed to forgo the payment of £2,500,000, China
+undertook to spend an equal amount in sending students to America.</p>
+
+<p>The general verdict of foreign observers on the working of the new
+system up to 1910 was that in many instances the teaching was
+ineffective, but there were notable exceptions. The best teachers,
+next to Europeans, were foreign or mission-trained Chinese. The
+Japanese employed as teachers were often ignorant of Chinese and
+were not as a rule very successful. (See further § <i>History</i>.) A
+remarkable indication of the thirst for western learning and culture
+was the translation into Chinese and their diffusion throughout
+the country of numerous foreign standard and other works, including
+modern fiction.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Peking Gazette</i>, which is sometimes called the oldest paper in
+the world, is not a newspaper in the ordinary sense, but merely a
+court gazette for publishing imperial decrees and such public
+documents as the government may wish to give out. It never contains
+original articles nor any discussion of public affairs. The first
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span>
+genuine native newspaper was published at Shanghai about 1870. It
+was termed the <i>Shen Pao</i> or <i>Shanghai News</i>, and was a
+<span class="sidenote">Native press.</span>
+Chinese speculation under foreign protection, the first editor being
+an Englishman. It was some years before it made much
+headway, but success came, and it was followed by various
+imitators, some published at Shanghai, some at other treaty ports
+and at Hong-Kong. In 1910 there were over 200 daily, weekly or
+monthly journals in China. The effect of this mass of literature on
+the public mind of China is of first-rate importance.</p>
+
+<p>The attitude of the central government towards the native
+press is somewhat undefined. Official registration of a newspaper is
+required before postal facilities are given. There are no press laws,
+but as every official is a law unto himself in these matters, there is
+nothing to prevent him from summarily suppressing an obnoxious
+newspaper and putting the editor in prison. The emperor, among other
+reform edicts which provoked the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 1898, declared
+that newspapers were a boon to the public and appointed one of them
+a government organ. The empress-dowager revoked this decree, and
+declared that the public discussion of affairs of state in the
+newspapers was an impertinence, and ought to be suppressed.
+Nevertheless the newspapers continued to flourish, and their outspoken
+criticism had a salutary effect on the public and on the government.
+The official classes seem to have become alarmed at the independent
+attitude of the newspapers, but instead of a campaign of suppression
+the method was adopted, about 1908, of bringing the vernacular
+press under official control. This was accomplished chiefly by the
+purchase of the newspapers by the mandarins, with the result that at
+the beginning of 1910 there was said to be hardly an independent
+native daily newspaper left in China. The use of government funds
+to subsidize or to purchase newspapers and thus to stifle or mislead
+public opinion provoked strong protests from members of the Nanking
+provincial council at its first sitting in the autumn of 1909. The
+appropriation by the Shanghai Taot&lsquo;ai of moneys belonging to the
+Huangpu conservancy fund for subsidizing papers led to his
+impeachment by a censor and to the return of the moneys.<a name="FnAnchor_17d" id="FnAnchor_17d" href="#Footnote_17d"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(X.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">III. Economics</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Agriculture and Industry.</i></p>
+
+<p>China is pre-eminently an agricultural country. The great
+majority of its inhabitants are cultivators of the soil. The
+holdings are in general very small, and the methods of farming
+primitive. Water is abundant and irrigation common over
+large areas. Stock-raising, except in Sze-ch&lsquo;uen and Kwang-tung,
+is only practised to a small extent; there are few large herds of
+cattle or flocks of sheep, nor are there any large meadows, natural
+or cultivated. In Sze-ch&lsquo;uen yaks, sheep and goats are reared
+in the mountains, and buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies on
+the plateau. Cattle are extensively reared in the mountainous
+districts of Kwang-tung. The camel, horse and donkey are
+reared in Chih-li. Forestry is likewise neglected. While the
+existing forests, found mainly in high regions in the provinces
+of Hu-nan, Fu-kien and Kwei-chow, are disappearing and timber
+has to be imported, few trees are planted. This does not apply
+to fruit trees, which are grown in great variety, while horticulture
+is also a favourite pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese farmer, if his methods be primitive, is diligent
+and persevering. In the richer and most thickly populated
+districts terraces are raised on the mountain sides, and even
+the tops of lofty hills are cultivated. The nature of the soil and
+means of irrigation as well as climate are determining factors in
+the nature of the crops grown; rice and cotton, for example,
+are grown in the most northern as well as the most southern
+districts of China. This is, however, exceptional and each climatic
+region has its characteristic cultures.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The loess soil (see § <i>Geology</i>) is the chief element in determining
+the agricultural products of north China. Loess soil bears excellent
+crops, and not merely on the lower grounds, but at
+altitudes of 6000 and 8000 ft. Wherever loess is found the
+<span class="sidenote">Soils.</span>
+peasant can live and thrive. Only one thing is essential, and that
+is the annual rainfall. As, owing to the porous nature of loess, no
+artificial irrigation is possible, if the rain fails the crops must
+necessarily fail. Thus seasons of great famine alternate with seasons of
+great plenty. It appears, also, that the soil needs little or no manuring
+and very little tillage. From its extremely friable nature it is
+easily broken up, and thus a less amount of labour is required than
+in other parts. The extreme porosity of the soil probably also
+accounts for the length of time it will go on bearing crops without
+becoming exhausted. The rainfall, penetrating deeply into the soil
+in the absence of stratification, comes into contact with the moisture
+retained below, which holds in solution whatever inorganic salts
+the soil may contain, and thus the vegetation has an indefinite store
+to draw upon.<a name="FnAnchor_18d" id="FnAnchor_18d" href="#Footnote_18d"><span class="sp">18</span></a></p>
+
+<p>There is no one dominant deposit in south China, where red
+sandstone and limestone formations are frequent. Cultivation here is
+not possible on the high elevations as in the north, but in the plains
+and river valleys the soil is exceedingly fertile, while the lower
+slopes of the mountains are also cultivated. In the north, moreover,
+but one crop, in general, can be raised in the year. In the centre
+two and sometimes three crops are raised yearly, and in the south,
+especially in the lower basin of the Si-kiang, three crops are normally
+gathered. In the north, too, the farmer has frequently to contend
+with drought or with rain or floods; in the central and southern
+regions the weather is more settled.</p>
+
+<p>In the north of China wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and maize
+are the staple crops. Beans and peas are also cultivated. Rice
+thrives in north-east Kan-suh, in some districts of Shan-si,
+in the extreme south of Shan-tung and in parts of
+<span class="sidenote">Distribution of crops.</span>
+the Wei-ho plain in Shen-si. Cotton is grown in Shen-si
+and Shan-tung. In Kan-suh and Shen-si two crops are
+raised in favoured localities, cereals in spring and cotton or rice in
+summer. Tobacco and the poppy are also grown in several of the
+northern provinces. Rhubarb and fruit trees are largely cultivated
+in the western part of north China.</p>
+
+<p>In the central provinces tea, cotton, rice and ramie fibre are the
+chief crops. Tea is most largely cultivated in Ngan-hui, Kiang-si,
+Hu-peh, Hu-nan, Sze-ch&lsquo;uen and Yun-nan. Cotton is chiefly grown
+in Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Hu-peh. The seed is sown in May and
+the crops gathered in September. The cotton is known as white
+and yellow, the white variety being the better and the most cultivated.
+The poppy is largely cultivated and, in connexion with the silk
+industry, the mulberry tree. The mulberry is found principally in
+the provinces of Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang. The central
+provinces are also noted for their gum-lac, varnish and tallow trees.</p>
+
+<p>The crops of the south-eastern provinces are much the same as
+those of the central provinces, but are predominantly rice, the
+sugar-cane, ground-nuts and cinnamon. Tea is the chief crop in Fu-kien.
+The sugar-cane is principally cultivated in Kwang-tung, Fu-kien
+and Sze-ch&lsquo;uen. In the south-western provinces the poppy, tea,
+tobacco and rice are the chief crops. Wheat, maize and barley are
+also largely raised.</p>
+
+<p>While rice does not, unlike tea and cotton, form the principal
+crop of any one province it is more universally cultivated than any
+other plant and forms an important item in the products of all the
+central and southern provinces. Regarding China as a whole it
+forms the staple product and food of the country. Two chief
+varieties are grown, that suited only to low-lying regions requiring
+ample water and the red rice cultivated in the uplands. Next to
+rice the most extensively cultivated plants are tea and cotton, the
+sugar-cane, poppy and bamboo. Besides the infinite variety of
+uses to which the wood of the bamboo is applied, its tender shoots
+and its fruit are articles of diet.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit is extensively cultivated throughout China. In the northern
+provinces the chief fruits grown are pears, plums, apples, apricots,
+peaches, medlars, walnuts and chestnuts, and in Kan-suh
+and Shan-tung the jujube (<i>q.v.</i>). Strawberries are an
+<span class="sidenote">Fruits.</span>
+important crop in Kan-suh. In Shan-si, S.W. Chih-li and Shan-tung
+the vine is cultivated; the grapes of Shan-si are reputed to produce
+the best wine of China. Oranges are also grown in favoured localities
+in the north. The chief fruits of the central and southern provinces
+are the orange, lichi, mango, persimmon, banana, vine and pineapple,
+but the fruits of the northern regions are also grown. The
+coco-nut and other palms flourish on the southern coast.</p>
+
+<p>As shown above, the poppy has been grown in almost every
+district of China. In 1906 it was chiefly cultivated in the
+following provinces: Yun-nan, Kwei-chow, Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, Kan-suh,
+Shen-si, Shan-si, Shan-tung, Ho-nan, Kiang-su (northern
+<span class="sidenote">The poppy.</span>
+part) and Cheh-kiang. The poppy is first mentioned in
+Chinese literature in a book written in the first half of the 8th
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and its medicinal qualities are referred to in the
+<i>Herbalist&rsquo;s Treasury</i> of 973. It was not then nor for centuries
+later grown in China for the preparation of opium.<a name="FnAnchor_19d" id="FnAnchor_19d" href="#Footnote_19d"><span class="sp">19</span></a> There is no
+evidence to show that the Chinese ever took opium in the shape of
+pills (otherwise than medicinally). The cultivation of the poppy for
+the manufacture of opium began in China in the 17th century, but it
+was not until after 1796, when the importation of foreign opium was
+declared illegal, that the plant was cultivated on an extensive scale.
+After 1906 large areas which had been devoted to the poppy were
+given over to other crops, in consequence of the imperial edict aimed
+at the suppression of opium-smoking (see § <i>History</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Mining.</i>&mdash;The mineral resources of China are great, but the
+government has shown a marked repugnance to allow foreigners
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span>
+to work mines, and the mineral wealth has been very inadequately
+exploited. Mining operations are controlled by the Board of
+Commerce. In 1907 this board drew up regulations respecting
+the constitution of mining and other companies. They contained
+many features against which foreign powers protested.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Coal, iron, copper and tin are the principal minerals found in
+China; there are also extensive deposits of coal and other minerals
+in Manchuria. In China proper the largest coal measures
+are found in Shan-si, Hu-nan, Kwei-chow and Sze-ch&lsquo;uen.
+<span class="sidenote">Coal.</span>
+There are also important coalfields in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shen-si,
+Ho-nan, Yun-nan, Hu-peh and Kwang-tung&mdash;and almost all of the
+seven other provinces have also coal measures of more or less value.
+The lack of transport facilities as well as the aversion from the
+employment of foreign capital has greatly hindered the development
+of mining. Numerous small mines have been worked for a long
+period by the natives in the province of Hu-nan. There are two
+principal local fields in this province, one lying in the basin of the
+Lei river and yielding anthracite, and the other in the basin of the
+Siang river yielding bituminous coal. Both rivers drain into the
+Yangtsze, and there is thus an easy outlet by water to Hankow.
+The quality of the coal, however, is inferior, as the stratification has
+been much disturbed, and the coal-seams have been in consequence
+crushed and broken. The largest coalfield in China lies in the province
+of Shan-si. Coal and iron have here been worked by the natives
+from time immemorial, but owing to the difficulty of transport they
+have attained only a limited local circulation. The whole of southern
+Shan-si, extending over 30,000 sq. m., is one vast coalfield, and
+contains, according to the estimate of Baron von Richthofen, enough
+coal to last the world at the present rate of consumption for several
+thousand years. The coal-seams, which are from 20 to 36 ft. in
+thickness, rest conformably on a substructure of limestone. The
+stratification is throughout undisturbed and practically horizontal.
+As the limestone bed is raised some 2000 ft. above the neighbouring
+plain the coal-seams crop out in all directions. Mining is thus carried
+on by adits driven into the face of the formation, rendering the
+mining of the coal extremely easy. The coalfield is divided into two
+by a mountain range of ancient granitic formation running north-east
+and south-west, termed the Ho-shan. It is of anterior date to
+the limestone and coal formations, and has not affected the uniformity
+of the stratification, but it has this peculiarity, that the coal
+on the east side is anthracite, and that on the west side is bituminous.
+A concession to work coal and iron in certain specified districts in
+this area was granted to a British company, the Peking Syndicate,
+together with the right to connect the mines by railway with water
+navigation. The syndicate built a railway in Shan-si from P&lsquo;ingyang
+to Tsi-chow-fu, the centre of a vast coalfield, and connected with
+the main Peking-Hankow line; lines to serve coal mines have also
+been built in Hu-nan and other provinces. The earliest in date was
+that to the K&lsquo;aip&lsquo;ing collieries in the east of the province of Chih-li,
+the railway connecting the mines with the seaport of Taku. The
+coal at K&lsquo;aip&lsquo;ing is a soft bituminous coal with a large proportion
+of dust. The output is about 1,500,000 tons per annum. A
+mine has also been opened in the province of Hu-peh, about 60 m.
+below Hankow, and near the Yangtsze, in connexion with iron-works.</p>
+
+<p>Iron ore of various qualities is found almost as widely diffused
+as coal. The districts where it is most worked at present lie within
+the coalfield of Shan-si, viz. at Tsi-chow-fu and P&lsquo;ing-ting-chow.
+The ore is a mixture of clay iron ore and
+<span class="sidenote">Iron.</span>
+spathic ore, together with limonite and hematite. It is found
+abundantly in irregular deposits in the Coal Measures, and is easily
+smelted by the natives in crucibles laid in open furnaces. This
+region supplies nearly the whole of north China with the iron required
+for agricultural and domestic use. The out-turn must be very
+considerable, but no data are available for forming an accurate
+estimate. The province of Sze-ch&lsquo;uen also yields an abundance of
+iron ores of various kinds. They are worked by the natives in
+numerous places, but always on a small scale and for local consumption
+only. The ores occur in the Coal Measures, predominant
+among them being a clay iron ore. Hu-nan, Fu-kien, Cheh-kiang and
+Shan-tung all furnish iron ores. Iron (found in conjunction with
+coal) is worked in Manchuria.</p>
+
+<p>Copper is found chiefly in the provinces of Kwei-chow and Yun-nan,
+where a rich belt of copper-bearing ores runs east and west across
+both  provinces, and including south Sze-ch&lsquo;uen. The
+chief centres of production are at the cities of Tung-ch&lsquo;uen-fu,
+<span class="sidenote">Copper, tin, &amp;c.</span>
+Chow-t&lsquo;ung and Ning-yuen. The mines are
+worked as a government monopoly, private mining being nominally
+prohibited. The output is considerable, but no statistics are published
+by government. Rich veins of copper ore are also worked
+near Kiu-kiang. Tin is mined in Yun-nan, the headquarters of the
+industry being the city of Meng-tsze, which since 1909 has been
+connected with Hanoi by railway. This is an important industry,
+the value of tin exported in 1908 being £600,000. Tin is also mined
+in Hai-nan and lead in Yun-nan. Antimony ore is exported from
+Hu-nan; petroleum is found in the upper Yangtsze region. Quicksilver
+is obtained in Kwei-chow. Salt is obtained from brine wells
+in Shan-si and Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, and by evaporation from sea water.
+Excellent kaolin abounds in the north-eastern part of Kiang-si, and
+is largely used in the manufacture of porcelain.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese government has opened small gold mines at Hai-nan,
+in which island silver is also found. A little gold-washing is done
+in the sandy beds of certain rivers, for instance, the Han
+river and the upper Yangtsze, above Su-chow (Suifu),
+<span class="sidenote">Precious metals.</span>
+which here goes by the name of the &ldquo;Goldsand&rdquo; river.
+The amount so extracted is extremely small and hardly pays the
+labour of washing, but the existence of gold grains points to a matrix
+higher up. The whole of south-western China has the reputation of
+being highly metalliferous. Gold is obtained in some quantities on
+the upper waters of the Amur river, on the frontier between China
+and Siberia. The washings are carried on by Chinese. Gold has
+also been found in quartz veins at P&lsquo;ing-tu, in Shan-tung, but hardly
+in paying quantities. There are silver mines in Yun-nan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manufactures.</i>&mdash;The  principal  native  manufactures  before  the
+competition of western nations made itself felt were&mdash;apart from
+the preparation of tea and other produce for the market&mdash;those
+of porcelain and silk. The silks and gauzes of Su-chow
+<span class="sidenote">Silk and porcelain.</span>
+and Nanking in the province of Kiang-su, and those
+of Hang-chow in Cheh-kiang, are highly esteemed throughout China.
+Silk-weaving is still carried on solely in native looms and chiefly in
+the cities named. The greater part of the silk spun is used in China,
+but a considerable export trade has grown up and 27% of the world&rsquo;s
+supply of raw silk is from China. The reeling of silk cocoons by
+steam-machinery is supplanting native methods. There are filatures
+for winding silk at Shanghai, Canton, Chifu and other cities.</p>
+
+<p>The most famous porcelain came from the province of Kiang-si,
+the seat of the industry being the city of King-te-chen. Imperial
+works were established here about the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000, and the finest
+porcelain is sent to Peking for the use of the emperor. At one time
+1,000,000 work-people were said to be employed, and the kilns
+numbered 600. The Taiping rebels destroyed the kilns in 1850.
+Some of them have been rebuilt. &ldquo;Activity begins to reign anew,
+but the porcelain turned out is far from equalling in colour and finish
+that of former times. At the present day King-te-chen has but 160
+furnaces and employs 160,000 workmen.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_20d" id="FnAnchor_20d" href="#Footnote_20d"><span class="sp">20</span></a> The common rice bowls
+sold throughout China are manufactured here. The value of the
+export sales is said to be about £500,000 yearly.</p>
+
+<p>The spinning and weaving of cotton on hand-looms is carried on
+almost universally. Besides that locally manufactured, the whole of
+the large import of Indian yarn is worked up into cloth by
+the women of the household. Four-fifths of the clothing
+<span class="sidenote">Cotton, &amp;c.</span>
+of the lower classes is supplied by this domestic industry.
+Of minor industries Indian ink is manufactured in Ngan-hui and Sze-ch&lsquo;uen,
+fans, furniture, lacquer ware and matting in Kwang-tung,
+dyes in Cheh-kiang and Chih-li, and varnished tiles in Hu-nan.
+Paper, bricks and earthenware are made in almost all the provinces.</p>
+
+<p>Of industries on a large scale&mdash;other than those indicated&mdash;the
+most important are cotton-spinning and weaving mills established
+by foreign companies at Shanghai. Permission to carry on this
+industry was refused to foreigners until the right was secured by
+the Japanese treaty following the war of 1894-95. Some native-owned
+mills had been working before that date, and were reported
+to have made large profits. Nine mills, with an aggregate of 400,000
+spindles, were working in 1906, five of them under foreign management.
+There are also four or five mills at one or other of the ports
+working 80,000 spindles more. These mills are all engaged in the
+manufacture of yarn for the Chinese market, very little weaving
+being done. Chinese-grown cotton is used, the staple of which is
+short; only the coarser counts can be spun.</p>
+
+<p>At certain large centres flour and rice mills have been erected and
+are superseding native methods of treating wheat and rice; at
+Canton there are sugar refineries. At Hanyang near Hankow are
+large iron-works owned by Chinese. They are supplied with ore from
+the mines at Ta-ye, 60 m. distant, and turn out (1909) about 300 steel
+rails a day.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Commerce</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign trade of China is conducted through the &ldquo;treaty
+ports,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> sea and river ports and a few inland cities which by the
+treaty of Nanking (1842) that of Tientsin (1860) and subsequent
+treaties have been thrown open to foreigners for purposes of trade.
+(The Nanking treaty recognized five ports only as open to foreigners&mdash;Canton,<a name="FnAnchor_21d" id="FnAnchor_21d" href="#Footnote_21d"><span class="sp">21</span></a>
+Amoy, Fu-chow, Ning-po and Shanghai.) These places are
+as follows, treaty ports in Manchuria being included: Amoy,
+Antung, Canton, Chang-sha, Dairen, Chin-kiang, Chinwantao,
+Ch&lsquo;ungk&lsquo;ing, Chifu, Fu-chow, Funing (Santuao), Hang-chow,
+Hankow, I-ch&lsquo;ang, Kang-moon, Kiao-chow, Kiu-kiang, K&lsquo;iung-chow,
+Kow-loon, Lappa, Lung-chow, Mengtsze, Mukden, Nanking, Nanning,
+Ning-po, Niu-chwang, Pakhoi, Sanshui, Shanghai, Shasi, Su-chow,
+Swatow, Szemao, Tatungkow, Tientsin, Teng-yueh, Wen-chow,
+Wu-chow, Wuhu, Yo-chow.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span>
+The progress of the foreign trade of China is set out in the following
+table. The values are given both in currency and sterling, but it
+is to be remarked that during the period when silver was falling,
+that is, from 1875 to 1893, the silver valuation represents much more
+accurately variations in the volume of trade than does the gold
+valuation. Gold prices fell continuously during this period, while
+silver prices were nearly constant. Since 1893 silver prices have
+tended to rise, and the gold valuation is then more accurate. The
+conversion from silver to gold is made at the rate of exchange of
+the day, and therefore varies from year to year.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Table of Imports and Exports, exclusive of Bullion.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Imports.</td>  <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Exports.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Value in<br />Taels.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">Equivalent in<br />Sterling.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">Value in<br />Taels.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">Equivalent in<br />Sterling.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr rlb">1875</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,344,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£19,903,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">77,308,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£23,193,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rlb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">84,803,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,618,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,899,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,206,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rlb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">113,082,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,213,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,695,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,980,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rlb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">154,685,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,136,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">154,964,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,181,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rlb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">189,991,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,498,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">170,743,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,612,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rlb">*1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">344,060,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,315,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">239,486,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,326,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr rlb bb">*1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">447,100,791</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">67,065,118</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">227,888,197</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">34,183,229</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>* This marked increase is partly owing to a more complete presentation
+of statistics; in 1903 an additional number of vessels were
+placed under the control of the imperial maritime customs.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2">In 1907 the net imports were valued at £67,664,222 and the exports
+at £42,961,863. In 1908 China suffered from the general depression
+in trade. In that year the imports were valued at £52,600,730, the
+exports at £36,888,050. The distribution of the trade among the
+various countries of the world is shown in the table which is given
+below. Hong-Kong is a port for trans-shipment. The imports
+into China from it come originally from Great Britain, India,
+Germany, France, America, Australia, the Straits Settlements, &amp;c.,
+and the exports from China to it go ultimately to the same countries.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Imports into China.</i> (000&rsquo;s omitted.)</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Imports from</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1875.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1880.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">1885.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1890.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1895.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1908.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6340</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6382</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6396</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6,357</td> <td class="tcr rb">£5,518</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,971</td> <td class="tcr rb">£9,647</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Hong-Kong</td> <td class="tcr rb">8282</td> <td class="tcr rb">8829</td> <td class="tcr rb">9404</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,615</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,331</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,240</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,033</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">India</td> <td class="tcr rb">4451</td> <td class="tcr rb">6039</td> <td class="tcr rb">4306</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,661</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,753</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,220</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,066</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Other British possessions</td> <td class="tcr rb">396</td> <td class="tcr rb">346</td> <td class="tcr rb">542</td> <td class="tcr rb">571</td> <td class="tcr rb">732</td> <td class="tcr rb">963</td> <td class="tcr rb">. . </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">304</td> <td class="tcr rb">351</td> <td class="tcr rb">884</td> <td class="tcr rb">949</td> <td class="tcr rb">827</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,538</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,499</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Continent of Europe (except Russia)</td> <td class="tcr rb">230</td> <td class="tcr rb">671</td> <td class="tcr rb">671</td> <td class="tcr rb">638</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,227</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,295</td> <td class="tcr rb">&dagger;3,332</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Russian Empire</td> <td class="tcr rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">231</td> <td class="tcr rb">309</td> <td class="tcr rb">302</td> <td class="tcr rb">422</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Japan</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">746</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1021</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1404</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,909</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,794</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,197</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Exports from China.</i> (000&rsquo;s omitted.)</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Exports to</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1875.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1880.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">1885.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1890.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1895.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1908.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr rb">£8749</td> <td class="tcr rb">£8125</td> <td class="tcr rb">£5864</td> <td class="tcr rb">£3383</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1718</td> <td class="tcr rb">£2,710</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,673</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Hong-Kong</td> <td class="tcr rb">3824</td> <td class="tcr rb">4844</td> <td class="tcr rb">4232</td> <td class="tcr rb">8507</td> <td class="tcr rb">5651</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,218</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,281</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">India</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">323</td> <td class="tcr rb">157</td> <td class="tcr rb">273</td> <td class="tcr rb">449</td> <td class="tcr rb">408</td> <td class="tcr rb">545</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Other British possessions</td> <td class="tcr rb">948</td> <td class="tcr rb">874</td> <td class="tcr rb">818</td> <td class="tcr rb">886</td> <td class="tcr rb">586</td> <td class="tcr rb">647</td> <td class="tcr rb">. .</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">2302</td> <td class="tcr rb">2906</td> <td class="tcr rb">2213</td> <td class="tcr rb">2109</td> <td class="tcr rb">2499</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,055</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,176</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Continent of Europe (except Russia)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2524</td> <td class="tcr rb">3760</td> <td class="tcr rb">1948</td> <td class="tcr rb">3004</td> <td class="tcr rb">3440</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,697</td> <td class="tcr rb">&dagger;7,128</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Russian Empire</td> <td class="tcr rb">1339</td> <td class="tcr rb">1260</td> <td class="tcr rb">1293</td> <td class="tcr rb">2288</td> <td class="tcr rb">2535</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,419</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,123</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Japan</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">586</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">642</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">398</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1248</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2408</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,320</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,949</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&dagger; Germany, France, Belgium and Italy only.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2">The chief imports are cotton goods, opium, rice and sugar, metals,
+oil, coal and coke, woollen goods and raw cotton, and fish. Cotton
+goods are by far the most important of the imports. They come
+chiefly from the United Kingdom, which also exports to China
+woollen manufactures, metals and machinery. China is next to
+India the greatest consumer of Manchester goods. The export of
+plain cotton cloths to China and Hong-Kong has for some years
+averaged 500,000,000 yds. per annum. The only competitor which
+Great Britain has in this particular branch of trade is the United
+States of America, which has been supplying China with increasing
+quantities of cotton goods. The value in sterling of the total imports
+into China from the United Kingdom long remained nearly constant,
+but inasmuch as the gold prices were falling the volume of the export
+was in reality steadily growing. The imports into England, however,
+of Chinese produce have fallen off, mainly because China tea has
+been driven out of the English market by the growth of the India
+and Ceylon tea trade, and also because the bulk of the China silk is
+now shipped directly to Lyons and other continental ports instead
+of to London, as formerly was the rule. The growth of the import of
+Indian yarn into China has been very rapid. In 1884 the import was
+35,000,000 &#8468; and in 1904 it reached 217,171,066 &#8468;. The imports
+into China from all countries for 1908 were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Opium</td> <td class="tcr">£4,563,000</td>
+    <td class="tcl">&emsp;Coal and coke</td> <td class="tcr">1,124,000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cotton goods</td> <td class="tcr">14,786,000</td>
+    <td class="tcl">&emsp;Oil, kerosene</td> <td class="tcr">2,666,000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Raw cotton</td> <td class="tcr">232,000</td>
+    <td class="tcl">&emsp;Rice</td> <td class="tcr">3,543,000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Woollen goods</td> <td class="tcr">717,000</td>
+    <td class="tcl">&emsp;Sugar</td> <td class="tcr">3,514,000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Metals</td> <td class="tcr">2,956,000</td>
+    <td class="tcl">&emsp;Fish, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr">1,028,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The principal exports from China are silk and tea. These two
+articles, indeed, up to 1880 constituted more than 80% of the whole
+export. Owing, however, mainly to the fall in silver, and partly also
+to cheap ocean freights, it has become profitable to place on the
+European market a vast number of miscellaneous articles of Chinese
+produce which formerly found no place in the returns of trade. The
+silver prices in China did not change materially with the fall in silver,
+and Chinese produce was thus able to compete favourably with the
+produce of other countries. The following table shows the relative
+condition of the export trade in 1880 and 1908:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Exports of</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1880.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">1908.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb"></td> <td class="tcr rb"></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Silk</td> <td class="tcr rb">£9,750,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£11,055,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Tea</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,774,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,384,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Miscellaneous</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,058,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,448,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">£25,582,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">£36,888,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the miscellaneous class the chief items of exports in 1908 were
+beans and beancake, £3,142,000; raw cotton, £1,379,000; hides,
+£1,028,000; straw braid, £1,002,000; furs and skin rugs, £760,000;
+paper, £458,000; and clothing, £177,000. Sugar, tobacco, mats
+and matting are also exported. The export of all cereals except
+pulse is forbidden. Of the tea exported in 1908 the greater part
+went to Russia and Siberia, the United States and Great Britain.
+There is a regular export of gold amounting on an average to about
+a million sterling per annum. A part of it would seem to be the
+hoardings of the nation brought out by the high price of gold in
+terms of silver, but a part is virgin
+gold derived from gold workings
+in Manchuria on the upper waters
+of the Amur river.</p>
+
+<p>Customs duty is levied on exports
+as well as imports, both
+being assessed at rates based on a
+nominal 5% ad val.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shipping and Navigation.</i>&mdash;Besides the over-sea trade China
+has a large coasting and river trade which is largely carried on
+by British and other foreign vessels. During the year 1908,
+207,605 vessels, of 83,991,289 tons (86,600 being steamers of
+77,955,525 tons), entered and cleared Chinese ports.<a name="FnAnchor_22d" id="FnAnchor_22d" href="#Footnote_22d"><span class="sp">22</span></a> Of these
+28,445 vessels of 34,405,761 tons were British; 33,539 of 11,998,588
+tons, Chinese vessels of foreign type; 103,124 of 4,947,272 tons,
+Chinese junks; 5496 vessels of 6,585,671 tons, German; 30,708
+of 18,055,138 tons, Japanese; 653 of 998,775 tons, American; 3901
+of 5,071,689 tons, French; 1033 of 980,635 tons, Norwegian.</p>
+
+<p>Of vessels engaged in the foreign trade only the entrances during
+the year numbered 38,556 of 12,187,140 tons, and the clearances
+36,602 of 12,057,126 tons. The nationality of the vessels (direct
+foreign trade) was mainly as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Nationality<br />1908.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Entrances.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Clearances.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">No.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tons.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">No.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tons.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">British</td>  <td class="tcr rb">4,569</td>  <td class="tcr rb">4,678,094</td>  <td class="tcr rb">4,614</td>  <td class="tcr rb">4,754,087</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">German</td>  <td class="tcr rb">891</td>  <td class="tcr rb">1,195,775</td>  <td class="tcr rb">928</td>  <td class="tcr rb">1,124,872</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Norwegian</td>  <td class="tcr rb">255</td>  <td class="tcr rb">254,211</td>  <td class="tcr rb">259</td>  <td class="tcr rb">255,295</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">French</td>  <td class="tcr rb">468</td>  <td class="tcr rb">629,680</td>  <td class="tcr rb">468</td>  <td class="tcr rb">616,883</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">American</td>  <td class="tcr rb">136</td>  <td class="tcr rb">440,602</td>  <td class="tcr rb">131</td>  <td class="tcr rb">439,947</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Japanese</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,187</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,587,818</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,046</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,461,132</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Chinese</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">29,775</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">2,001,872</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">27,888</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">1,915,258</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The tonnage of the Dutch, Austrian and Russian vessels cleared
+and entered was in each case between 102,000 and 127,000.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Communications.</i></p>
+
+<p>External communication is carried on by ancient caravan routes
+crossing Central Asia, by the trans-Siberian railway, which is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span>
+increasingly used for passenger traffic, but chiefly by steamship, the
+steamers being almost entirely owned by foreign companies. There is
+regular and rapid communication with Europe (via the Suez canal
+route) and with Japan and the Pacific coast of America. Other lines
+serve the African and the Australasian trade. The only important
+Chinese-owned steamers are those of the Chinese Merchants&rsquo; Steam
+Navigation Company, which has its headquarters at Shanghai.</p>
+
+<p>Internal communications are by river, canal, road and railway, the
+railways since the beginning of the 20th century having become a very
+important factor. In 1898 the Chinese government agreed that all
+internal waterways should be open to foreign and native steamers,
+and in 1907 there were on the registers of the river ports for inland
+water traffic 609 steamers under the Chinese flag and 255 under
+foreign flags.</p>
+
+<p><i>Railways.</i>&mdash;A short line of railway between Shanghai and Wusung
+was opened in 1875. The fate of this pioneer railway may be
+mentioned as an introduction to what follows. The railway was
+really built without any regular permission from the Chinese
+government, but it was hoped that, once finished and working, the
+irregularity would be overlooked in view of the manifest
+<span class="sidenote">The Pioneer Line destroyed.</span>
+benefit to the people. This might have been accomplished
+but for an unfortunate accident which happened on the
+line a few months after it was opened. A Chinaman was
+run over and killed, and this event, of course, intensified
+the official opposition, and indeed threatened to bring about a
+riot. The working of the line was stopped by order of the British
+minister, and thereupon negotiations were entered into with a view
+to selling the line to the Chinese government. A bargain was struck
+sufficiently favourable to the foreign promoters of the line, and it
+was further agreed that, pending payment of the instalments which
+were spread over a year, the line should continue to be worked by
+the company. The expectation was that when the officials once got
+the line into their own hands, and found it a paying concern, they
+would continue to run it in their own interest. Not so, however,
+did things fall out. The very day that the twelve months were
+up the line was closed; the engines were dismantled, the rails and
+sleepers were torn up, and the whole concern was shipped off to the
+distant island of Formosa, where carriages, axles and all the rest
+of the gear were dumped on the shore and left for the most part to
+disappear in the mud. The spacious area of the Shanghai station
+was cleared of its buildings, and thereon was erected a temple to
+the queen of heaven by way of purifying the sacred soil of China
+from such abomination. This put a stop for nearly twenty years
+to all efforts on the part of foreigners to introduce railways into
+China. The next step in railway construction was taken by the
+Chinese themselves, and on the initiative of Li Hung-chang.
+<span class="sidenote">China&rsquo;s first efforts.</span>
+In 1886 a company was formed under official
+patronage, and it built a short line, to connect the coal-mines
+of K&lsquo;aip&lsquo;ing in Chih-li with the mouth of the
+Peiho river at Taku. The government next authorized the formation
+of a Native Merchants&rsquo; Company, under official control, to build a
+line from Taku to Tientsin, which was opened to traffic in 1888.
+It was not, however, till nine years later, viz. in 1897, that the line
+was completed as far as Peking. A British engineer, Mr Kinder,
+was responsible for the construction of the railway. Meantime,
+however, the extension had been continued north-east along the
+coast as far as Shanhai-Kwan, and a farther extension subsequently
+connected with the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The money for
+these extensions was mostly found by the government, and the
+whole line is now known as the Imperial Northern railway. The
+length of the line is 600 m. Meanwhile the high officials of the empire
+had gradually been brought round to the idea that railway development
+was in itself a good thing. Chang Chih-tung, then viceroy of
+the Canton provinces, memorialized strongly in this sense, with the
+condition, however, that the railways should be built with Chinese
+capital and of Chinese materials. In particular, he urged the
+making of a line to connect Peking with Hankow for
+<span class="sidenote">The era of concessions.</span>
+strategic purposes. The government took him at his
+word, and he was transferred from Canton to Hankow,
+with authority to proceed forthwith with his railway.
+True to his purpose, he at once set to work to construct iron-works
+at Hankow. Smelting furnaces, rolling mills, and all the machinery
+necessary for turning out steel rails, locomotives, &amp;c., were erected.
+Several years were wasted over this preliminary work, and over
+£1,000,000 sterling was spent, only to find that the works after all
+were a practical failure. Steel rails could be made, but at a cost
+two or three times what they could be procured for in Europe.
+After the Japanese War the hope of building railways with Chinese
+capital was abandoned. A prominent official named Sheng Hsuan-hwai
+was appointed director-general of railways, and empowered to
+enter into negotiations with foreign financiers for the purpose of
+raising loans. It was still hoped that at least the main control
+would remain in Chinese hands, but the diplomatic pressure of
+France and Russia caused even that to be given up, and Great
+Britain insisting on equal privileges for her subjects, the future of
+railways in China remained in the hands of the various concessionaires.
+But after the defeat of Russia by Japan (1904-1905) the
+theory of the undivided Chinese control of railways was resuscitated.
+The new spirit was exemplified in the contracts for the financing
+and construction of three railways&mdash;the Canton-Kowloon line in
+1907, and the Tientsin-Yangtsze and the Shanghai-Hangchow-Ning-po
+lines in 1908. In the first of these instances the railway
+was mortgaged as security for the loan raised for its construction,
+and its finance and working were to be modelled on the arrangements
+obtaining in the case of the Imperial Northern railway, under which
+the administration, while vested in the Chinese government, was
+supervised by a British accountant and chief engineer. In the other
+two instances, however, no such security was offered; the Chinese
+government undertook the unfettered administration of the foreign
+capital invested in the lines, and the Europeans connected with
+these works became simply Chinese employés. Moreover, in 1908
+the Peking-Hankow line was redeemed from Belgian concessionaires,
+a 5% loan of £5,000,000 being raised for the purpose in London
+and Paris. In that year there was much popular outcry against
+foreign concessionaires being allowed to carry out the terms of their
+contract, and the British and Chinese corporation in consequence
+parted with their concession for the Su-chow, Ning-po and Hang-chow
+railway, making instead a loan of £1,500,000 to the ministry of
+communications for the provinces through which the line would run.
+A double difficulty was encountered in the construction and management
+of the railways; the reconciliation of the privileges accorded
+to foreign syndicates and governments with the &ldquo;Recovery of
+Rights&rdquo; campaign, and the reconciliation of the claims of the
+central government at Peking with the demands of the
+<span class="sidenote">Administration.</span>
+provincial authorities. As to the foreigners, Great
+Britain, France, Germany, the United States, Russia and
+Japan, all had claims and concessions, many of them conflicting;
+while as between Peking and the provinces there was a quarrel
+mainly concerned with the spoils and &ldquo;squeezes&rdquo; to be obtained
+by railway construction; in some instances the provinces proved
+more powerful than the central government, as in the case of the
+Su-chow-Ning-po line, and notably in the matter of the Tientsin-Pukau
+(Nanking) railway. In that case the provincial authorities
+overrode the central government, with the result that &ldquo;for wholesale
+jobbery, waste and mismanagement the enterprise acquired
+unenviable notoriety in a land where these things are generally
+condoned.&rdquo; The good record of one or two lines notwithstanding, the
+management of the railways under Chinese control had proved, up
+to 1910, inefficient and corrupt.<a name="FnAnchor_23d" id="FnAnchor_23d" href="#Footnote_23d"><span class="sp">23</span></a> Nevertheless, so great was the
+economic development following the opening of the line, that in
+Chinese hands the Peking-Hankow railway yielded a profit.</p>
+
+<p>The main scheme of the railway systems of China is simple. It
+consists of lines, more or less parallel, running roughly north and
+south, linked by cross lines with coast ports, or abutting
+on navigable rivers. One great east and west line will
+<span class="sidenote">The Railway systems.</span>
+run through central China, from Hankow to Sze-ch&lsquo;uen.
+Connexion with Europe is afforded by the Manchuria-trans-Siberia
+main line, which has a general east and west direction.
+From Harbin on this railway a branch runs south to Mukden, which
+since 1908 has become an important railway centre. Thence one
+line goes due south to Port Arthur; another south-east to An-tung
+(on the Yalu) and Korea; a third south and west to Tientsin and
+Peking. A branch from the Mukden-Tientsin line goes round the
+head of the Gulf of Liao-tung and connects Niu-chwang with the
+Mukden-Port Arthur line. By this route it is 470 m. from Peking
+to Niu-chwang.</p>
+
+<p>From Peking the trunk line (completed in 1905) runs south
+through the heart of China to Hankow on the Yangtsze-kiang.
+This section (754 m. long) is popularly known as &ldquo;the Lu-Han
+line,&rdquo; from the first part of the names of the terminal stations.
+The continuation south of this line from Hankow to Canton was in
+1910 under construction. Thus a great north and south connexion
+nearly 2000 m. long is established from Canton to Harbin. From
+Mukden southward the line is owned and worked by China.</p>
+
+<p>A railway (German concession) starts from Kiao-chow and runs
+westward through Shan-tung to Chinan Fu, whence an extension
+farther west to join the main Lu-Han line at Cheng-ting Fu in
+Chih-li was undertaken. Westward from Cheng-ting Fu a line
+financed by the Russo-Chinese Bank runs to T&lsquo;ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si.</p>
+
+<p>Another main north and south railway parallel to, but east of,
+the Lu-Han line and following more or less the route of the Grand
+Canal, is designed to connect Tientsin, Su-chow (in Kiang-su),
+Chin-kiang, Nanking, Shanghai, Hang-chow and Ning-po. The
+southern section (Nanking, Shanghai, &amp;c.) was open in 1909. This
+Tientsin-Ning-po railway connects at Chinan-Fu with the Shan-tung
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>A third north and south line starts from Kiu-Kiang on the Yangtsze
+below Hankow and traversing the centre of Kiang-si province will
+join the Canton-Hankow line at Shao-Chow in Kwang-tung province.
+The construction of the first section, Kiu-Kiang to Nanchang
+(76 m.), began in 1910.</p>
+
+<p>In southern China besides the main Canton to Hankow railway
+(under construction) a line (120 m. long) runs from Canton to
+Kowloon (opposite Hong-Kong), and there are local lines running
+inland from Swatow and Fuchow. The French completed in 1909
+a trunk line (500 m. long) from Haiphong in Tong King to Yun-nan Fu,
+the capital of Yun-nan, some 200 m. being in Chinese territory. The
+French hold concessions for railways in Kwang-si and Kwang-tung.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span>
+The British government has the right to extend the Burma railway
+system through Yun-nan and north to the Yangtsze.</p>
+
+<p>There are local lines in Hu-nan and Ho-nan which connect with
+the trunk line from Canton to Peking. The Peking-Kalgan line
+(122 m. long) is a distinct undertaking. The Chinese propose to
+continue it another 530 m. north-westward to Urga in Mongolia,
+and an eventual junction with the trans-Siberian railway in the
+neighbourhood of Lake Baikal is contemplated. This line would
+greatly shorten the distance between Moscow and Peking.</p>
+
+<p>In 1910 there were open for traffic in China (not reckoning the
+Russian and Japanese systems in Manchuria, <i>q.v.</i>) over 3000 m. of
+railway, and 1500 m. of trunk lines were under construction.</p>
+
+
+<p>China is traversed in all directions by roads. Very few are paved
+of metalled and nearly all are badly kept; speaking generally, the
+government spends nothing in keeping either the roads
+<span class="sidenote">Roads, rivers, and canals.</span>
+or canals in repair. The roads in several instances are
+subsidiary to the canals and navigable rivers as a means
+of communication. The ancient trade routes were twelve
+in number, viz.<a name="FnAnchor_24d" id="FnAnchor_24d" href="#Footnote_24d"><span class="sp">24</span></a>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">&ensp;1.  The West river route (W. from Canton).</p>
+<p>&ensp;2.  The Cheling Pass route (N.W. from Canton).</p>
+<p>&ensp;3.  The Meiling Pass route (N. from Canton).</p>
+<p>&ensp;4.  The Min river route (N.W. from Fu-chow).</p>
+<p>&ensp;5.  The Lower Yangtsze route (as far W. as Hu-peh and Hu-nan).</p>
+<p>&ensp;6.  The Upper Yangtsze route (from I&lsquo;chang to Sze-ch&lsquo;uen).</p>
+<p>&ensp;7.  The Kwei-chow route.</p>
+<p>&ensp;8.  The Han river route (Hankow to Shen-si).</p>
+<p>&ensp;9.  The Grand Canal (already described).</p>
+<p>10.  The Shan-si route.</p>
+<p>11.  The Kiakhta route.</p>
+<p>12.  The Manchurian route.</p>
+
+<p>Of the routes named, that by the West river commands the trade
+of Kwang-si and penetrates to Yun-nan (where it now has to meet
+the competition of the French railway from Tong King) and Kwei-chow.
+The Cheling Pass route from Canton is so named as it crosses
+that pass (1500 ft. high) to reach the water-ways of Hu-nan at Chen-chow
+on an affluent of the Siang, and thus connects with the Yangtsze.
+The trade of this route&mdash;whence in former times the teas of Hu-nan
+(Oonam) and Hu-peh (Oopaek) reached Canton&mdash;has been largely
+diverted via Shanghai and up the Yangtsze. The Canton-Hankow
+railway also supersedes it for through traffic. The route by the
+Meiling Pass (1000 ft. High) links Canton and Kiu-kiang. This route
+is used by the King-te Chen porcelain works to send, to Canton the
+commoner ware, there to be painted with florid and multicoloured
+designs. The Min river route serves mainly the province of Fu-kien.
+The Lower Yangtsze is a river route, now mainly served by steamers
+(though the salt is still carried by junks), and the Upper Yangtsze
+is a river route also, but much more difficult of navigation. The
+Kwei-chow route is up the river Yuen from Changte and the Tung-t&lsquo;ing
+lake. The Han river route becomes beyong Sing-nagn Fu a land
+route over the Tsingling mountains to the capital of Shen-si, and
+thence on to Kan-suh, Mongolia and Siberia. The Shan-si route from
+Peking, wholly by road, calls for no detailed account; the Manchurian
+route is now adequately served by railways. There remains
+the important Kiakhta route. From Peking it goes to Kalgan (this
+section is now served by a railway), whence the main route traverses
+Mongolia, while branches serve Shan-si, Shen-si, Kan-suh, Turkestan,
+&amp;c. By this route go the caravans bearing tea to Siberia and
+Russia. Other routes are from Yun-nan to Burma and from Sze-ch&lsquo;uen
+province to Tibet.</p>
+
+<p>The government maintains a number of courier roads, which,
+like the main trade roads, keep approximately to a straight line.
+These courier roads are sometimes cut in the steep sides of mountains
+or run through them in tunnels. They are, in the plains, 20 to 25 ft.
+wide and are occasionally paved. The chief courier roads starting
+from Peking go to Sze-chu&lsquo;en, Yun-nan, Kweilin (in Kwang-si),
+Canton and Fu-chow. Canals are numerous, especially in the deltas
+of the Yangtsze and Si-kiang.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre and south of China the roads are rarely more than
+5 ft. broad and wheeled traffic is seldom possible. Bridges are
+generally of stone, sometimes of wood; large rivers are crossed by
+bridges of boats. In the north carts drawn by ponies, mules or oxen
+are employed; in the centre and south passengers travel in sedan-chairs
+or in wheelbarrows, or ride on ponies. Occasionally the local
+authorities employ the corvée system to dig out the bed of a canal,
+but as a rule roads are left to take care of themselves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Posts and Telegraphs.</i>&mdash;Every important city is now connected
+by telegraph with the capital, and the service is reasonably efficient.
+In 1907 there were 25,913 m. of telegraph lines. Connexion is also
+established with the British lines in Burma and the Russian lines in
+Siberia. The Great Northern Telegraph Company (Danish) and the
+Eastern Extension Telegraph Company (British) connect Shanghai by
+cable with Hong-Kong, Japan, Singapore and Europe. An imperial
+<i>postal service</i> was established in 1896 under the general control of
+the maritime customs.<a name="FnAnchor_25d" id="FnAnchor_25d" href="#Footnote_25d"><span class="sp">25</span></a> By an edict of November 1906 the control
+of the postal services was transferred to the Board of Communication.
+The Post Office serves all the open ports, and every important city
+in the interior. There were in 1910 some 4000 native post-offices,
+employing 15,000 persons, of whom about 200 only were foreigners.
+The treaty powers however, still maintain their separate post offices
+at Shanghai, and several other treaty ports for the despatch and
+receipt of mails from Europe. During the years 1901-1908 mail
+matters increased from ten millions to two hundred and fifty-two
+millions of items; and the 250 tons of parcels handled to 27,155 tons.
+In postal matters China has adopted a most progressive attitude.
+The imperial post conforms in all respects to the universal Postal
+Union regulations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. J.; X.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1">IV. Government and Administration</p>
+
+<p>Changes in the traditional form of government in China&mdash;an
+autocracy based on parental rule&mdash;were initiated in 1905 when a
+commission was appointed to study the forms of government in
+other countries.<a name="FnAnchor_26d" id="FnAnchor_26d" href="#Footnote_26d"><span class="sp">26</span></a> On the 1st of September 1906 an imperial
+edict was issued in which the establishment of parliamentary
+institutions in China was foreshadowed. In 1907 an advisory
+council&mdash;as a sort of stepping-stone to representative government&mdash;was
+established by another edict. On the 27th of August
+1908 an edict announced the convocation of a parliament in
+the ninth year from that date. An edict of the 3rd of December
+1908 reaffirmed that of the 27th of August. An edict of the 31st
+of October 1909 fixed the classes from which an Imperial
+Assembly (or Senate) was to be selected, and an edict of the
+9th of May 1910 gave the names of the senators, all of whom
+had been nominated by the throne. The assembly as thus constituted
+consisted of 200 members drawn from eight classes: (1)
+princes and nobles of the imperial house&mdash;16 members; (2)
+Manchu and Chinese nobles&mdash;12 members; (3) princes and nobles
+of dependencies&mdash;14 members; (4) imperial clansmen other
+than those mentioned&mdash;6 members; (5) Peking officials&mdash;32
+members; (6) eminent scholars&mdash;10 members; (7) exceptional
+property owners&mdash;10 members; (8) representatives of provincial
+assemblies&mdash;100 members. The national assembly, which was
+opened by the regent on the 3rd of October 1910, thus contained
+the elements of a two-chambered parliament. The edict summoning
+the assembly contained the following exhortations:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The members should understand that this assemblage of the senate
+is an unprecedented undertaking in China and will be the forerunner
+of the creation of a parliament. They are earnestly desired
+to devote to it their patriotism and sincerity, to observe proper
+order, and to fulfil their duties in representing public opinion. Thus
+it is hoped that our sincere wish to effect constitutional reforms in
+their proper order and to aim at success may be duly satisfied.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Concurrently with these steps towards a fundamental alteration
+in the method of government, changes were made in
+many departments of the state, and an elective element was introduced
+into the provincial administrations. The old conception
+of government with such modifications as had been made up to
+1910 are set forth below.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The laws of the state prescribe the government of the country to
+be based on the government of the family.<a name="FnAnchor_27d" id="FnAnchor_27d" href="#Footnote_27d"><span class="sp">27</span></a> The emperor is the sole
+and supreme head of the state, his will being absolute
+alike in the highest affairs and in the humblest details of
+<span class="sidenote">The Chinese conception of government.</span>
+private life. The highest form of legislation was an
+imperial decree, whether promulgated in general terms or
+to meet a special case. In either form it was the law of
+the land, and no privilege or prescriptive right could be
+pleaded against it. All officers of state, all judges and magistrates,
+hold their offices entirely at the imperial pleasure.  They can be
+dismissed, degraded, punished, without reason assigned and without
+form of trial&mdash;even without knowing by whom or of what they are
+accused. The monarch has an advisory council, but he is not bound
+by its advice, nor need he pretend that he is acting by and with its
+advice and concurrence. This condition of affairs dates back to a
+primitive state of society, which probably existed among the Chinese
+who first developed a civilized form of government. That this
+system should have been maintained in China through many centuries
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span>
+is a fact into the causes of which it is worth while to inquire. We
+find it pictured in the records which make up the <i>Book of History</i>,
+and we find it enforced in the writings of the great apostle of patriarchal
+institutions, Confucius, and in all the other works which
+go to make up the Confucian Canon. The reverence with which
+these scriptures are viewed was the principal means of perpetuating
+the primitive form of Chinese imperialism. The contents of their
+pages formed the study of every schoolboy, and supplied the themes
+at the competitive examinations through which every one had to
+pass who sought an official career. Thus the mind of the nation
+was constantly and almost exclusively turned towards them, and
+their dogmas became part and parcel of the national training. The
+whole theory of government is the embodiment of parental love and
+filial piety. As the people are the children of the emperor, so is he
+the <i>T&lsquo;ien-tsze</i> or the Son of Heaven.</p>
+
+<p>In practice the arbitrary power of the emperor is tempered in
+several ways. Firstly, although the constitution conferred this
+absolute and unchecked power on the emperor, it was not
+for his gratification but that he might exercise it for the
+<span class="sidenote">The emperor.</span>
+good of his people. He rules by divine authority, and
+as the vicegerent of heaven upon earth. If he rules corruptly or
+unjustly, heaven will send disasters and calamity on the people as
+a reproof; if the rule becomes tyrannical, heaven may withdraw its
+favour entirely, and then rebellion may be justified. The Manchu
+dynasty came to the throne as foreign conquerors, nevertheless they
+base their right to rule, not on the power of the sword, but on divine
+approval. On this moral ground they claim the obedience of their
+subjects, and submit themselves to the corresponding obligations.
+The emperor, unless he has gained the throne by conquest, is selected
+by his predecessor or by the imperial family in conclave. He is
+usually a son (but seldom the eldest son) of his predecessor, and need
+not be the child of the empress-consort,<a name="FnAnchor_28d" id="FnAnchor_28d" href="#Footnote_28d"><span class="sp">28</span></a> though (other things being
+equal) a son of the empress is preferred. Failing a son another prince
+of the imperial house is chosen, the choice being properly among the
+princes of a generation below that of the preceding emperor, so that
+the new emperor may be adopted as the son of his predecessor, and
+perform for him the due ceremonies at the ancestral tablets. Apart
+from this ancestor-worship the emperor worships only at the Altar
+of Heaven, leaving Buddhism, Taoism, and any other form of worship
+to his subjects. The emperor&rsquo;s sacrifices and prayers to heaven are
+conducted with great parade and ceremony. The chief of these state
+observances is the sacrifice at the winter solstice, which is performed
+before sunrise on the morning of the 21st of December at the Temple
+of Heaven. The form of the altar is peculiar.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;It consists of a triple circular terrace, 210 ft. wide at the base,
+150 in the middle, and 90 at the top.... The emperor, with his
+immediate suite, kneels in front of the tablet of Shang-ti (The
+Supreme Being, or Heaven), and faces the north. The platform is
+laid with marble stones, forming nine concentric circles; the inner
+circle consists of nine stones, cut so as to fit with close edges round
+the central stone, which is a perfect circle. Here the emperor kneels,
+and is surrounded first by the circles of the terraces and their
+enclosing walls, and then by the circle of the horizon. He then seems
+to himself and to his court to be in the centre of the universe, and
+turning to the north, assuming the attitude of a subject, he acknowledges
+in prayer and by his position that he is inferior to heaven,
+and to heaven alone. Round him on the pavement are the nine
+circles of as many heavens, consisting of nine stones, then eighteen,
+then twenty-seven, and so on in successive multiples of nine till the
+square of nine, the favourite number of Chinese philosophy, is
+reached in the outermost circle of eighty-one stones.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On this occasion, also, a bullock of two years old, and without
+blemish, is offered as a whole burnt-offering in a green porcelain
+furnace which stands close beside the altar. The emperor&rsquo;s life is
+largely occupied with ceremonial observances, and custom ordains
+that except on state occasions he should not leave the walls of the
+palace.</p>
+
+<p>For his knowledge of public affairs the emperor is thus largely
+dependent upon such information as courtiers and high officers of
+state permit to reach him.<a name="FnAnchor_29d" id="FnAnchor_29d" href="#Footnote_29d"><span class="sp">29</span></a> The palace eunuchs have often exercised
+great power, though their influence has been less under the Manchus
+than was the case during previous dynasties. Though in theory the
+throne commands the services and money of all its subjects yet the
+crown as such has no revenues peculiarly its own. It is dependent
+on contributions levied through the high officials on the several
+provinces, subject always to the will of the people, and without their
+concurrence and co-operation nothing can be done.<a name="FnAnchor_30d" id="FnAnchor_30d" href="#Footnote_30d"><span class="sp">30</span></a> The power of
+the purse and the power of the sword are thus exercised mediately,
+and the autocratic power is in practice transferred to the general body
+of high functionaries, or to that clique which for the time being has
+the ear of the emperor, and is united enough and powerful enough
+to impose its will on the others.</p>
+
+<p>The functionaries who thus really wield the supreme power are
+almost without exception civil officials. Naturally the court has
+shown an inclination to choose Manchu rather than Chinese,
+but of late years this preference has become less marked,
+<span class="sidenote">China governed by its civil service.</span>
+and in the imperial appointments to provincial administrations
+the proportion of Manchus chosen was at the beginning
+of the 20th century not more than one-fifth of the
+whole number. The real reason for this change is the
+marked superiority of the Chinese, in whose hands the administration
+is stated to be safer for the Manchu dynasty. Practically all the
+high Chinese officials have risen through the junior ranks of the civil
+service, and obtained their high position as the reward&mdash;so it must
+be presumed&mdash;of long and distinguished public service.</p>
+
+<p>Through the weakness of some of the emperors the functions of
+the central  government gradually came to be to check the action
+of  the  provincial  governments  rather  than  assume  a
+direct initiative in the conduct of affairs. &ldquo;The central
+<span class="sidenote">Functions of the central government.</span>
+government may be said to criticize rather than to
+control the action of the provincial administrations,
+wielding, however, at all times the power of immediate
+removal from his post of any official whose conduct may
+be found irregular or considered dangerous to the stability of the
+state.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_31d" id="FnAnchor_31d" href="#Footnote_31d"><span class="sp">31</span></a> This was written in 1877, and since then the pressure of
+foreign nations has compelled the central government to assume
+greater responsibilities, and the empire is now ruled from Peking in
+a much more effective manner than was the case when Lord Napier in
+1834 could find no representative of the central government with
+whom to transact business.</p>
+
+<p>If the central authorities take the initiative, and issue orders to
+the provincial authorities, it, however, does not follow that they will
+be carried out. The orders, if unwelcome, are not directly disobeyed,
+but rather ignored, or specious pleas are put forward, showing the
+difficulty or impossibility of carrying them out at that particular
+juncture. The central government always wields the power of
+removing or degrading a recalcitrant governor, and no case has
+been known where such an order was not promptly obeyed. But
+the central government, being composed of officials, stand by
+their order, and are extremely reluctant to issue such a command,
+especially at the bidding of a foreign power. Generally the opinion
+of the governors and viceroys has great weight with the central
+government.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Ming dynasty the <i>Nuiko</i> or Grand Secretariat formed
+the supreme council of the empire. It is now of more honorific
+than actual importance. Active membership is limited
+to six persons, namely, four grand secretaries and two
+<span class="sidenote">Departments of the central administration.</span>
+assistant grand secretaries, half of whom, according to a
+general rule formerly applicable to nearly all the high
+offices in Peking, must be Manchu and half Chinese. It
+constitutes the imperial chancery or court of archives,
+and admission to its ranks confers the highest distinction
+attainable by Chinese officials, though with functions that are almost
+purely nominal. Members of the grand secretariat are distinguished
+by the honorary title of <i>Chung-t&lsquo;ang.</i> The most distinguished
+viceroys are usually advanced to the dignity of grand secretary while
+continuing to occupy their posts in the provinces. The best known
+of recent grand secretaries was Li Hung-chang.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Manchu dynasty the Grand Council (<i>Chün Chi Ch&lsquo;u</i>)
+became the actual privy council of the sovereign, in whose presence
+its members daily transacted the business of the state. This council
+is composed of a small knot of men holding various high offices in
+the government boards at Peking. The literal meaning of Chün
+Chi Ch&lsquo;u is &ldquo;place of plans for the army,&rdquo; and the institution derives
+its name from the practice established by the early emperors of the
+Manchu dynasty of treating public affairs on the footing of a military
+council. The usual time of transacting business is from 4 to 6 a.m.
+In addition to the grand council and the grand secretariat there were
+boards to supervise particular departments. By a decree of the 6th
+of November 1906 the central administration was remodelled, subsequent
+decrees making other changes. The administration in 1910
+was carried on by the following agencies:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>A. <i>Councils.</i>&mdash;(1)The grand council. Its title was modified in
+1906 and it is now known as the Grand Council of State Affairs or
+Privy Council. It has no special function, but deals with all matters
+of general administration and is presided over by the emperor (or
+regent). (2) The Grand Secretariat. This body gained no increase
+of power in 1906. (3) The advisory council or senate (<i>Tu Chêng
+Yuen</i>) created in 1907 and containing representatives of each
+province. It includes all members of the grand council and the
+grand secretariat and the heads of all the executive departments.<a name="FnAnchor_32d" id="FnAnchor_32d" href="#Footnote_32d"><span class="sp">32</span></a>
+The members of these three bodies form advisory cabinets to the
+emperor.</p>
+
+<p>B. <i>Boards.</i>&mdash;Besides boards concerned with the affairs of the court
+there were, before the pressure of foreign nations and the movement
+for reform caused changes to be made, six boards charged with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span>
+conduct of public affairs. They were: (1) <i>Li Pu</i>, the Board of Civil
+Appointments, controlling all appointments in the civil service from
+the rank of district magistrate upwards. (2) <i>Hu Pu</i>, the Board of
+Revenue, dealing with all revenues which reached the central
+government. (3) <i>Li Pu</i>, the Board of Ceremonies. (4) <i>Ping Pu</i>, the
+Board of War. It controlled the provincial forces. The Manchu
+forces were an independent organization attached to the palace.
+(5) <i>Hsing Pu</i>, the Board of Punishments. It dealt with the criminal
+law only, especially the punishment of officials guilty of
+malpractices. (6) <i>Kung Pu</i>, the Board of Works. Its work was
+limited to the control of the construction and repair of official
+residences.</p>
+
+<p>As rearranged and enlarged there are now the following boards,
+given in order of precedence:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1.  <i>Wai-wu Pu</i>.&mdash;This was established in 1901 in succession to the
+<i>Tsung-li Yamên</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_33d" id="FnAnchor_33d" href="#Footnote_33d"><span class="sp">33</span></a> which was created in 1861 after the Anglo-Chinese
+War in 1860 as a board for foreign affairs. Previous to that war, which
+established the right of foreign powers to have their representatives
+in Peking, all business with Western nations was transacted by
+provincial authorities, chiefly the viceroy at Canton. The only
+department at Peking which dealt specially with foreign affairs was
+the <i>Li Fan Yuen</i>, or board of control for the dependencies, which
+regulated the affairs of Mongolia, Tibet and the tributary states
+generally. With the advent of formally accredited ambassadors
+from the European powers something more than this was required,
+and a special board was appointed to discuss all questions with the
+foreign envoys. The number was originally four, with Prince Kung,
+a brother of the emperor Hien Fêng, at their head. It was subsequently
+raised to ten, another prince of the blood, Prince Ching,
+becoming president. The members were spoken of collectively as
+the prince and ministers. For a long time the board had no real
+power, and was looked on rather as a buffer between the foreign
+envoys and the real government. The importance of foreign affairs,
+however, especially since the Japanese War, identified the <i>Yamên</i>
+more with the grand council, several of the most prominent men being
+members of both. At the same time that the <i>Tsung-li Yamên</i> was
+created, two important offices were established in the provinces for
+dealing with foreign commercial questions, viz. the superintendencies
+of trade for the northern and southern ports. The negotiations connected
+with the Boxer outbreak proved so conclusively that the
+machinery to the <i>Tsung-li Yamên</i> was of too antiquated a nature to
+serve the new requirements, that it was determined to abolish the
+<i>Yamên</i> and to substitute for it a board (<i>Pu</i>) to be styled the <i>Wai-wu
+Pu</i>, or &ldquo;board of foreign affairs.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>2.  Board of Civil Appointments.</p>
+
+<p>3.  Board of Home Affairs.</p>
+
+<p>4.  Board of Finance and Paymaster General&rsquo;s Department.</p>
+
+<p>5.  Board of Ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p>6. Army Board or Ministry of War (instituted 1906).<a name="FnAnchor_34d" id="FnAnchor_34d" href="#Footnote_34d"><span class="sp">34</span></a></p>
+
+<p>7.  Board of Judicature.</p>
+
+<p>8.  Board of Agriculture, Works and Commerce (instituted 1903).</p>
+
+<p>9.  Board of dependencies.</p>
+
+<p>10.  Board of Education (instituted 1903).</p>
+
+<p>11.  Board of Communications (instituted 1906).</p>
+
+<p>Each board has one president and two vice-presidents, with the
+exception of the Wai-wu Pu, which has a comptroller-general and
+two presidents, and the Boards of War and Education, each of which
+has a comptroller-general in addition to the president. According
+to the decree of 1906 no distinction, in filling up the various boards,
+is to be made between Manchu and Chinese.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the boards named there are other departments of state,
+some of them not limited to any one branch of the public service.
+The more important are those that <span class="correction" title="amended from folllow">follow</span>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The Censorate (<i>Tu Ch&lsquo;a Yuen</i>).&mdash;An institution peculiar to China.
+The constitution provides a paid body of men whose duty it is to inform
+the emperor of all facts affecting the welfare of the people and
+the conduct of government, and in particular to keep an eye on the
+malfeasance of his officers. These men are termed <i>Yü shih</i> (imperial
+recorder), generally translated censors. Their office has existed since
+the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The body consists of two presidents, a Chinese
+and a Manchu, 24 supervising censors attached to the ministries at
+Peking, and 56 censors, divided into fifteen divisions, each division
+taking a particular province or area, so as to embrace the whole
+eighteen provinces, besides one metropolitan division. The censors
+are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even of the emperor
+himself; to censure the manner in which all other officials perform or
+neglect their duties and to denounce them to the throne. They
+receive appeals made to the emperor, either by the people against the
+officials or by subordinate officials against their superiors. They
+exercise, in accord with the Board of Justice, an oversight over all
+criminal cases and give their opinion whenever the death penalty is
+to be pronounced. They superintend the working of the different
+boards and are sometimes sent to various places as imperial inspectors,
+hence they are called <i>êrh mu kuan</i> (the eyes and ears of the
+emperor). The censors exercise their office at times with great
+boldness;<a name="FnAnchor_35d" id="FnAnchor_35d" href="#Footnote_35d"><span class="sp">35</span></a> their advice if unpalatable may be disregarded and the
+censor in question degraded. The system of the censorate lends itself
+to espionage and to bribery, and it is said to be more powerful for
+mischief than for good. With the growth in influence of the native
+press the institution appears to lose its <i>raison d&rsquo;être</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The grand court of revision (<i>Ta-li sze</i>) or Court of Cassation exercises,
+in conjunction with the Board of Justice and the Censorate, a
+general supervision over the administration of the criminal law.
+These bodies are styled collectively <i>San-fah sze</i> (the Three High
+Justices).</p>
+
+<p>The Hanlin College (<i>Hanlin Yuen</i>, literally Forest of Pencils) is
+composed of all the literate who have passed the palace examination
+and obtained the title of <i>Hanlin</i> or imperial academist. It has two
+chancellors&mdash;a Manchu and a Chinese. Its functions are of a purely
+literary character and it is of importance chiefly because the heads of
+the college, who are presumably the most eminent scholars of the
+empire, have the right of advising the throne on all public affairs,
+and are eligible as members of the grand council or of the Wai-wu
+Pu. The Chinese set fire to it during the fighting in Peking in June
+1900 in the hope of burning out the adjoining British legation.
+The whole of the library, containing some of the most valuable
+manuscripts in the world, was destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the eighteen provinces of China proper, the three provinces
+of Manchuria and the province of Sin-kiang are ruled by a viceroy
+placed over one, two and in one instance three provinces,
+or by a governor over a single province either under a
+<span class="sidenote">Provincial government.</span>
+viceroy or depending directly on the central government,
+the viceroy or the governor being held responsible to the
+emperor for the entire administration, political, judicial, military and
+fiscal. The most important viceroyalties are those of Chih-li, Liang-kiang
+and Liang-kwang. The viceroyalty of Liang-kiang comprises
+the provinces of Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Kiang-si. The viceroy
+resides at Nanking and hence is sometimes called the viceroy of
+Nanking. Similarly the viceroy of Liang-kwang (comprising the
+provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si) through having his residence
+at Canton is sometimes styled the viceroy of Canton. The three
+provinces adjoining the metropolitan province of Chih-li&mdash;Shan-tung,
+Shan-si and <span class="correction" title="amended from Hon-an">Ho-nan</span>&mdash;have no viceroys over them; seven provinces&mdash;including
+Chih-li&mdash;have no governors, the viceroy officiating as
+governor. In provinces where there are both a viceroy and a
+governor they act conjointly, but special departments are administered
+by the one rather than the other. The viceroy controls
+the military and the salt tax; the governor the civil service
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>The viceroy or governor is assisted by various other high officials,
+all of whom down to the district magistrate are nominated from
+Peking. The chief officials are the treasurer, the judicial commissioner
+or provincial judge, and the commissioner of education
+(this last post being created in 1903). The treasurer controls the
+finances of the whole province, receiving the taxes and paying the
+salaries of the officials. The judge, the salt commissioner, and the
+grain collector are the only other officials whose authority extends
+over the whole province. Each province is subdivided into prefectures
+ruled by prefects, and each prefecture into districts ruled
+by a district magistrate, <i>Chih-hsien</i>, the official through whom the
+people in general receive the orders of the government. Two or
+more prefectures are united into a <i>tao</i> or circuit, the official at the
+head of which is called a <i>Taot&lsquo;ai</i>. Each town and village has also
+its unofficial governing body of &ldquo;gentry.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_36d" id="FnAnchor_36d" href="#Footnote_36d"><span class="sp">36</span></a> The officials appointed
+from Peking hold office for three years, but they may be re-appointed
+once, and in the case of powerful viceroys they may hold office for
+a prolonged period. Another rule is that no official is ever appointed
+to a post in the province of his birth; a rule which, however, did
+not apply to Manchuria. The Peking authorities take care also in
+making the high appointments to send men of different political
+parties to posts in the same province.</p>
+
+<p>The edict of the 6th of November 1906 initiating changes in the
+central administration was accompanied by another edict outlining
+changes in the provincial government, and an edict of the 22nd of
+July 1908 ordered the election of provincial assemblies. The edict
+made it clear that the functions of the assemblies were to be purely
+consultative. The elections took place according to the regulations,
+the number of members allotted to each province varying from 30
+(Kirin province, Manchuria, and two others) to 140 in Chih-li. The
+franchise was restricted, but the returns for the first elections showed
+nearly 1000 voters for each representative. The first meetings of
+the assemblies were held in October 1909.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span></p>
+
+<p><i>The Civil Service.</i>&mdash;The bureaucratic element is a vital feature
+in the government of China, the holding of office being almost
+the only road to distinction. Officials are by the Chinese called
+collectively <i>Kwan</i> (rulers or magistrates) but are known to
+foreigners as mandarins (<i>q.v.</i>). The mandarins are divided into
+nine degrees, distinguished by the buttons worn on the top of
+their caps. These are as follows:&mdash;first and highest, a plain
+red button; second, a flowered red button; third, a transparent
+blue button; fourth, an opaque blue button; fifth, an uncoloured
+glass button; sixth, an opaque white shell button;
+seventh, a plain gilt button; eighth, a gilt button with flowers in
+relief; ninth, a gilt button with engraved flowers. The buttons
+indicate simply rank, not office. The peacock feathers worn in
+their hats are an order granted as reward of merit, and indicate
+neither rank nor office. The Yellow Jacket similarly is a decoration,
+the most important in China.</p>
+
+<p>The ranks of the civil service are recruited by means of examinations.
+Up to the beginning of 1906 the subjects in which candidates
+were examined were purely Chinese and literary with a
+smattering of history. In 1906 this system was modified and
+an official career was opened to candidates who had obtained
+honours in an examination in western subjects (see § <i>Education</i>).
+The old system is so closely identified with the life of China that
+some space must be devoted to a description of it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>As a general rule students preparing for the public examination
+read with private tutors. There were neither high schools nor universities
+where a regular training could be got. In most of the provincial
+capitals, and at some other places, there were indeed institutions
+termed colleges, supported to some extent from public funds,
+where advanced students could prosecute their studies; but before
+the movement initiated by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the
+China-Japan War of 1894, they hardly counted as factors in the
+national education. The private tutors, on the other hand, were
+plentiful and cheap. After a series of preliminary trials the student
+obtained his first qualification by examination held before the
+literary chancellor in the prefecture to which he belonged. This was
+termed the <i>Siuts&lsquo;ai</i>, or licentiate&rsquo;s degree, and was merely a qualification
+to enter for the higher examinations. The number of
+licentiate degrees to be given was, however, strictly limited; those
+who failed to get in were set back to try again, which they might do
+as often as they pleased. There was no limit of age. Those selected
+next proceeded to the great examination held at the capital of each
+province, once in three years, before examiners sent from Peking
+for the purpose. Here again the number who passed was strictly
+limited. Out of 10,000 or 12,000 competitors only some 300 or 350
+could obtain degrees. The others, as before, must go back and try
+again. This degree, termed <i>Chü jên</i>, or provincial graduate, was the
+first substantial reward of the student&rsquo;s ambition, and of itself
+qualified for the public service, though it did not immediately nor
+necessarily lead to active employment. The third and final examination
+took place at Peking, and was open to provincial graduates from
+all parts of the empire. Out of 6000 competitors entering for this
+final test, which was held triennially, some 325 to 350 succeeded in
+obtaining the degree of <i>Chin shih</i>, or metropolitan graduate. These
+were the finally selected men who became the officials of the empire.</p>
+
+<p>Several other doors were, however, open by which admission to the
+ranks of bureaucracy could be obtained. In the first place, to encourage
+scholars to persevere, a certain number of those who failed to
+reach the <i>chü jên</i>, or second degree, were allowed, as a reward of
+repeated efforts, to get into a special class from which selection for
+office might be made. Further, the government reserved to itself the
+right to nominate the sons and grandsons of distinguished deceased
+public servants without examination. And, lastly, by a system of
+&ldquo;recommendation,&rdquo; young men from favoured institutions or men
+who had served as clerks in the boards, might be put on the roster
+for substantive appointment. The necessities of the Chinese government
+also from time to time compelled it to throw open a still wider
+door of entry into the civil service, namely, admission by purchase.
+During the T&lsquo;aip&lsquo;ing rebellion, when the government was at its wits&rsquo;
+end for money, formal sanction was given to what had previously
+been only intermittently resorted to, and since then immense sums
+of money have been received by the sale of patents of rank, to secure
+either admission to office or more rapid promotion of those already
+employed. As a result of this policy, the country has been saddled
+with thousands of titular officials far in excess of the number of
+appointments to be given away. Deserving men were kept waiting
+for years, while inferior and less capable officials were pushed ahead,
+because they had money wherewith to bribe their way. Nevertheless
+the purchase system admitted into the service a number of men
+free from that bigoted adherence to Confucian doctrine which
+characterizes the literary classes, and more in touch with modern
+progress.</p>
+
+<p>All candidates who succeed in entering the official ranks are eligible
+for active employment, but as the number of candidates is far in
+excess of the number of appointments a period of weary waiting
+ensues. A few of the best scholars get admitted at once into the
+Hanlin college or into one or other of the boards at Peking. The rest
+are drafted off in batches to the various provinces to await their turn
+for appointment as vacancies occur. During this period of waiting
+they are termed &ldquo;expectants&rdquo; and draw no regular pay. Occasional
+service, however, falls in their way, as when they are commissioned
+for special duty in outlying districts, which they perform as <i>Wei
+yuens</i>, or deputies of the regular officials. The period of expectancy
+may be abridged by recommendation or purchase, and it is generally
+supposed that this last lever must invariably be resorted to to secure
+any lucrative local appointment. A poor but promising official is
+often, it is said, financed by a syndicate of relations and friends,
+who look to recoup themselves out of the customary perquisites
+which attach to the post. Appointments to the junior provincial
+posts are usually left to the provincial government, but the central
+government can always interfere directly. Appointments to the
+lucrative posts of customs, <i>taot&lsquo;ai</i>, at the treaty ports are usually
+made direct from Peking, and the officer selected is neither necessarily
+nor usually from the provincial staff. It would perhaps be safe to
+say that this appointment has hitherto always been the result of a
+pecuniary arrangement of greater or less magnitude.</p>
+
+<p>During the first five years (1906-1910) of the new method, by
+which candidates for the civil service were required, in addition to
+Chinese classics, to have a knowledge of western science,
+great efforts were made in several provinces to train up
+<span class="sidenote">Bribery and torture.</span>
+a better class of public official. The old system of administration
+had many theoretical excellencies, and there
+had been notable instances of upright administration, but the
+regulation which forbade a mandarin to hold any office for more than
+three years made it the selfish interest of every office-holder to get
+as much out of the people within his jurisdiction as he possibly
+could in that time. This corruption in high places had a thoroughly
+demoralizing effect. While among the better commercial classes
+Chinese probity in business relations with foreigners is proverbial,
+the people generally set little or no value upon truth, and this has
+led to the use of torture in their courts of justice; for it is argued
+that where the value of an oath is not understood, some other
+means must be resorted to to extract evidence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justice.</i>&mdash;The <i>Chih-Hsien</i> or district magistrate decides ordinary
+police cases; he is also coroner and sheriff, he hears suits for divorce
+and breach of promise, and is a court of first instance in all civil cases;
+&ldquo;the penalty for taking a case first to a higher court is fifty blows
+with the bamboo on the naked thigh.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_37d" id="FnAnchor_37d" href="#Footnote_37d"><span class="sp">37</span></a> Appeal from the <i>Hsien</i>
+court lies to the <i>Fu</i>, or prefectural court, and thence cases may be
+taken to the provincial judge, who signs death warrants, while there
+are final courts of appeal at Peking. Civil cases are usually settled
+by trade gilds in towns and by village elders, or by arbitration in
+rural districts. Reference has been made to the use of torture.
+Flogging is the only form of torture which has been allowed under
+the Manchus. The obdurate witness is laid on his face, and the
+executioner delivers his blows on the upper part of the thighs with
+the concave side of a split bamboo, the sharp edges of which mutilate
+the sufferer terribly. The punishment is continued until the
+man either supplies the evidence required or becomes insensible.
+Punishment by bamboo was formally abolished by imperial edict
+in 1905, and other judicial reforms were instituted. They remained
+largely inoperative, and even in Shanghai, under the eyes of foreign
+residents, gross cases of the infliction of torture occurred in 1909.<a name="FnAnchor_38d" id="FnAnchor_38d" href="#Footnote_38d"><span class="sp">38</span></a></p>
+
+<p>For capital offences the usual modes of inflicting the extreme
+penalty of the law are&mdash;in bad cases, such as parricides, &ldquo;cutting to
+pieces,&rdquo; and for less aggravated crimes either strangulation or
+decapitation. The culprit who is condemned to be &ldquo;cut to pieces&rdquo;
+is fastened to a cross, and while thus suspended cuts are made by the
+executioner on the fleshy parts of the body; and he is then beheaded.
+Strangulation is reserved for lesser degrees of guilt, it being considered
+a privilege to pass out of life with a whole body. When it has
+been granted to a criminal of rank thus to meet his end, a silken cord
+is sent to him at his own home. No explanatory message is considered
+necessary, and he is left to consummate his own doom.
+Popular sentiment regards decapitation as a peculiarly disgraceful
+mode of death. Constant practice makes the executioners wonderfully
+expert in the performance of their office. No block or resting-place
+for the head is used. The neck is simply outstretched to its
+full length by the aid of an assistant, and one blow invariably leaves
+the body headless.</p>
+
+<p>The laws are in accord with the principle which regards the
+family as a unit. Thus there is no bankruptcy law&mdash;if a debtor&rsquo;s own
+estate will not suffice to pay his debts the deficiency must
+be made good by his relatives; if a debtor absconds his
+<span class="sidenote">Consular jurisdiction.</span>
+immediate family are imprisoned. By analogy if one
+member of a party commits an offence and the guilty
+person cannot be detected, the whole party must suffer. Foreigners
+residing in China resented the application of this principle of law
+to themselves. As a result extra-territorial rights were sought by
+European powers. They were secured by Russia as early as 1689,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span>
+but it was not until 1843 that any other nation acquired them. In
+that year Great Britain obtained the right to try British subjects by
+its own consuls, a right secured in more explicit terms by the United
+States and France in 1844. Now eighteen powers, including Japan,
+have consular courts for the trial of their own subjects according to
+the laws of their native lands. Mixed courts have also been established,
+that is, a defendant is tried in the court of his own nationality,
+the court giving its decision under the supervision of a representative
+of the plaintiff&rsquo;s nationality. In practice the Chinese have seldom
+sent representatives to sit on the bench of consular courts, but, as the
+Europeans lack confidence in the administration of Chinese justice, no
+suit brought by a foreigner against a Chinese is decided without the
+presence of an assessor of the plaintiff&rsquo;s nationality.</p>
+
+<p><i>Defence.</i>&mdash;The Chinese constitution in the period before the
+reform edicts of 1905-1906 provided for two independent sets of
+military organizations&mdash;namely, the Manchu army and
+the several provincial armies. On the establishment
+<span class="sidenote">Army.</span>
+of the dynasty in 1644 the victorious troops, composed mainly of
+Manchus, but including also Mongols and Chinese, were permanently
+quartered in Peking, and constituted a hereditary national army.
+The force was divided into eight banners, and under one or other of
+these all Manchus and all the descendants of the members of other
+nationalities were enrolled. They form the bulk of the population
+of the &ldquo;Tatar city&rdquo; of Peking. Each adult male was by birth
+entitled to be enrolled as a soldier, and by virtue of his enrolment
+had a right to draw rations&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> his allowance of the tribute rice,
+whether on active service or not. Detachments from one or other
+of the banners were stationed as garrisons in the chief provincial
+centres, as at Canton, Fuchow and Hang-chow, &amp;c., and their
+descendants still occupy the same position. As a fighting force
+the Manchu garrisons both in the capital and in the provinces
+had long become quite effete. In the capital, however, the <i>élite</i> of
+the Manchu soldiery were formed into a special corps termed the
+Peking Field Force. Its nominal strength was 20,000, the men were
+armed and drilled after the European fashion, and fairly well paid.
+There were other corps of picked Manchus better paid and better
+armed than the ordinary soldier, and it was computed that in 1901
+the Manchu army in or near Peking could muster 40,000, all more
+or less efficient.</p>
+
+<p>The second organization was termed the army of the Green
+Standard, being the Chinese provincial forces. The nominal strength
+was from 20,000 to 30,000 for each province, or about 500,000 in all;
+the actual strength was about one-third of this. They were enrolled
+to keep the peace within their own province, and resembled a militia
+or local constabulary rather than a national army. They were
+generally poorly paid and equally badly drilled and armed.</p>
+
+<p>The only real fighting force which China possessed at the beginning
+of the 20th century was made up of certain special corps which were
+not provided for in the constitution, and consequently used to be
+termed <i>yung</i>, &ldquo;braves,&rdquo; or irregulars, but had acquired various
+distinctive names. They were enlisted by provincial governors, and
+all had some smattering of foreign drill. They were also fairly well
+paid and armed. After the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95 some
+of these corps were quartered near Peking and Tientsin, and came
+generally to be spoken of as the Army of the North.</p>
+
+<p>An imperial decree issued in 1901 after the Boxer rising ordered
+the reorganization of the military forces of the empire, and on provincial
+lines something was accomplished&mdash;especially in Chih-li
+under Yuan Shih-k&lsquo;ai, who practically created &ldquo;the Army of the
+North.&rdquo; It was not, however, until after the Russo-Japanese War
+that determined efforts were made to organize a national army on
+western lines; an army which should be responsible to the central
+government and not dependent upon the provincial administrations.
+A decree of 1905 provided (on paper) for training schools for officers
+in each of the provinces, middle grade military schools in selected
+provinces, and a training college and military high school in Peking.
+The Army Board was reorganized and steps taken to form a general
+staff. Considerable progress had been made by 1910 in the evolution
+of a body of efficient officers. In practice the administration remained
+largely provincial&mdash;for instance the armament of the troops
+was provided by the provincial governors and was far from uniform.
+The scheme<a name="FnAnchor_39d" id="FnAnchor_39d" href="#Footnote_39d"><span class="sp">39</span></a> contemplated the creation of a force about 400,000
+strong in 36 divisions and in two armies, the northern and the
+southern. Recruitment is on the voluntary principle, except in
+the case of the Manchus, who apparently enter the new army instead
+of the &ldquo;eight banners.&rdquo; The terms of service are three years with
+the colours, three in the reserve and four in the territorial army.
+The Japanese system of training is followed. Reservists are called
+out for 30 days every year and the territorialists for 30 days every
+other year.</p>
+
+<p>Up to 1909 six divisions and one mixed brigade of the northern
+army had been organized in Shan-tung, Chih-li and Ho-nan; elsewhere
+three divisions and six mixed brigades; total strength about
+60,000 with 350 guns. (These figures do not include all the provincial
+foreign trained troops.) The efficiency of the troops varied;
+the northern army was superior to the others in training and armament.
+About a third of the 60,000 men of the new army were in
+1909 stationed in Manchuria (See also § <i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>An imperial edict of the 15th of September 1907 reorganized the
+army of the Green Standard. It was placed under the control of
+the minister of war and formed in battalions and squadrons. The
+duty of the troops in peace time remained much as previously. In
+war they pass under the control of regular officers, though their use
+outside their own provinces does not seem to be contemplated.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese navy in 1909 consisted of the 4300 ton cruiser &ldquo;Hai
+Chi&rdquo; (two 8-in., ten 4.7-in. guns) of 24 knot original speed, three
+3000 ton cruisers, &ldquo;Hai Yung,&rdquo; &ldquo;Hai Schew&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Hai Shen&rdquo; (three 6-in., eight 4-in. guns) of 19.5 knot
+<span class="sidenote">Navy.</span>
+original speed, some modern gunboats built in Japan, a few
+miscellaneous vessels and some old torpedo boats. With the destruction
+of the northern fleet by the Japanese at the capture of Wei-hai-wei
+in 1895, the Chinese navy may be said to have ceased to exist.
+Previously it consisted of two divisions, the northern and southern,
+of which the former was by far the more formidable. The southern
+was under the control of the viceroy of Nanking, and took no part
+in the Chino-Japanese War. While the northern fleet was grappling
+in a death-struggle, the southern was lying snugly in the Yangtsze
+waters, the viceroy of Nanking apparently thinking that as the
+Japanese had not attacked him there was no reason why he should
+risk his ships.</p>
+
+<p><i>The New Scheme.</i>&mdash;An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a
+naval and military advisory board. Nimrod Sound, centrally
+situated on the coast of Cheh-kiang, was chosen as naval base, and
+four naval schools were ordered to be established; a navigation
+school at Chifu, an engineering school at Whampoa, a school for
+naval artificers at Fuchow, and a gunnery and musketry school at
+Nimrod Sound. A superior naval college was founded at Peking.
+The coast defences were placed under the control of the naval
+department, and the reorganization of the dockyards undertaken.
+During 1910 orders for cruisers were placed abroad.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arsenals and Dockyards.</i>&mdash;After the loss of Port Arthur, China
+possessed no dockyard which could dock vessels over 3000 tons.
+Many years ago the Chinese government established at Fuchow a
+shipbuilding yard, placing it in the hands of French engineers.
+Training schools both for languages and practical navigation were
+at the same time organized, and a training ship was procured and
+put under the command of a British naval officer. Some twenty-five
+or thirty small vessels were built in the course of as many years,
+but gradually the whole organization was allowed to fall into decay.
+Except for petty repairs this establishment was in 1909 valueless
+to the Chinese government. There were also small dockyards at
+Kiang-nan (near Shanghai), Whampoa and Taku. There are well-equipped
+arsenals at Shanghai and at Tientsin, but as they are both
+placed up shallow rivers they are useless for naval repairs. Both
+are capable of turning out heavy guns, and also rifles and ammunition
+in large quantities. There are also military arsenals at Nanking,
+Wuchang, Canton and Chêngtu.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forts.</i>&mdash;A great number of forts and batteries have been erected
+along the coast and at the entrance to the principal rivers. Chief
+among these, now that the Taku forts formerly commanding the
+entrance to Tientsin have been demolished, are the Kiangyin forts
+commanding the entrance to the Yangtsze, the Min forts at the
+entrance of the Fuchow river, and the Bogue forts at the entrance
+to the Canton river. These are supplied with heavy armament from
+the Krupp and Armstrong factories.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Finance.</i></p>
+
+<p>In fiscal matters, as for many other purposes, the Chinese
+empire is an agglomeration of a number of quasi-independent
+units. Each province has a complete administrative staff,
+collects its own revenue, pays its own civil service, and other
+charges placed upon it, and out of the surplus contributes
+towards the expenses of the imperial government a sum which
+varies with the imperiousness of the needs of the latter and with
+its own comparative wealth or poverty. The imperial government
+does not collect directly any part of the revenues, unless
+the imperial maritime customs be excepted, though these, too,
+pass through the books of the provincial authorities.<a name="FnAnchor_40d" id="FnAnchor_40d" href="#Footnote_40d"><span class="sp">40</span></a></p>
+
+<p>It has hitherto been extremely difficult to obtain anything
+like trustworthy figures for the whole revenue of China, for the
+reason that no complete statistics are published by the central
+government at Peking.<a name="FnAnchor_41d" id="FnAnchor_41d" href="#Footnote_41d"><span class="sp">41</span></a> The only available data are, first, the
+returns published by the imperial maritime customs for the duties
+levied on foreign trade; and, secondly, the memorials sent to
+Peking by the provincial authorities on revenue matters, certain
+of which are published from time to time in the <i>Peking Gazette</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span>
+These are usually fragmentary, being merely reports which the
+governor has received from his subordinates, detailing, as the case
+may be, the yield of the land tax or the likin for his particular
+district, with a dissertation on the causes which have made it
+more or less than for the previous period. Or the return may be
+one detailing the expenditure of such and such a department,
+or reporting the transmission of a sum in reply to a requisition
+of the board of revenue, with a statement of the source from
+which it has been met. It is only by collating these returns
+over a long period that anything like a complete statement can
+be made up. And even then these returns do not represent anything
+like the total of taxation paid by the people, but, as far
+as they go, they may be taken to represent the volume of taxation
+on which the Peking government can draw revenue.</p>
+
+<p>The following table, taken from a memorandum by Sir Robert
+Hart, dated the 25th of March 1901, shows the latest official
+estimate (up to 1910) of the revenue and expenditure of China:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Revenue.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Taels.<a name="FnAnchor_42d" id="FnAnchor_42d" href="#Footnote_42d"><span class="sp">42</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Land tax</td> <td class="tcr">26,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Provincial duties</td> <td class="tcr">1,600,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Provincial receipts (various)</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Grain commutation</td> <td class="tcr">3,100,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Salt gabelle</td> <td class="tcr">13,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Li-kin</td> <td class="tcr">16,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Native customs</td> <td class="tcr">2,700,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Maritime customs:&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;General cargo</td> <td class="tcr">17,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Foreign opium</td> <td class="tcr">5,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Native opium</td> <td class="tcr">1,800,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">88,200,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Expenditure.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Taels.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Provincial</td> <td class="tcr">20,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Military and naval</td> <td class="tcr">35,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Metropolitan</td> <td class="tcr">10,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bannermen (Manchu &ldquo;soldiers&rdquo;)</td> <td class="tcr">1,380,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Palace</td> <td class="tcr">1,100,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Customs</td> <td class="tcr">3,600,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Legations</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">River works</td> <td class="tcr">940,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Railways</td> <td class="tcr">800,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Loans</td> <td class="tcr">24,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Contingent reserve</td> <td class="tcr">3,300,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">101,120,000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>A calculation of revenue from all sources published by the
+Shanghai <i>Shen Pao</i> in 1908, apparently derived from official
+sources, gave a total revenue of 105,000,000 taels, or about
+15 million sterling. This sum is obviously less than the actual
+figures. In 1907 Mr H.B. Morse, commissioner of customs and
+statistical secretary in the inspectorate general of customs,
+drew up the following table based on the amounts presumed to
+be paid by the tax payer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="allb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imperial<br />Administration.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">Provincial<br />Administration.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">Local<br />Administration.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc rlb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tcc rb">Taels.</td>  <td class="tcc rb">Taels.</td>  <td class="tcc rb">Taels.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb">I.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Land Tax</td>  <td class="tcr rb">25,887,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">67,060,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">9,315,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb">II.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tribute</td>  <td class="tcr rb">7,420,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">15,582,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">2,300,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb">III.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Native Customs</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,790,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">1,290,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">249,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb">IV.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Salt Gabelle</td>  <td class="tcr rb">13,050,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">26,000,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">25,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb">V.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Miscellaneous</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,856,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">5,998,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">985,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb">VI.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Foreign Customs</td>  <td class="tcr rb">31,169,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,942,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">1,230,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb">VII.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Li-kin</td>  <td class="tcr rb">13,890,060</td>  <td class="tcr rb">22,502,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb">3,639,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rlb bb" colspan="2">Total</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">99,062,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">142,374,000</td>  <td class="tcr rb bb">42,718,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Mr Morse adds that the grand total shown, taels 284,150,000<a name="FnAnchor_43d" id="FnAnchor_43d" href="#Footnote_43d"><span class="sp">43</span></a>
+&ldquo;is an obviously insufficient sum on which to maintain the
+fabric of government in an empire like China, but it has been
+reached by calculations based on a few known facts and ... is
+offered as throwing some light on a subject veiled in obscurity.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_44d" id="FnAnchor_44d" href="#Footnote_44d"><span class="sp">44</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The service of the foreign debt, together with the pressure of
+other needs&mdash;such as the cost of education and the army&mdash;made
+more manifest than previously the chaos of the Chinese fiscal
+system. A scheme to reform the national finances was promulgated
+under an edict of the 11th of January 1909, but it did
+not appear to be of a practical character.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Sources of Revenue</i>. I. <i>Land Tax</i>.&mdash;In China, as in most oriental
+countries, the land has from time immemorial been the mainstay
+of the revenue. In the early years of the present dynasty there was
+levied along with the land tax a poll tax on all adult males, but in
+1712 the two were amalgamated, and the whole burden was thrown
+upon land, families not possessing land being thereafter exempted
+from taxation. At the same time it was decreed that the amount
+of the land tax as then fixed should be permanent and settled for all
+time coming. It would appear from the records that this promise
+has been kept as far as the central government has been concerned.
+In all its many financial difficulties it does not seem ever to have
+tried to increase the revenue by raising the land tax. The amount
+of tax leviable on each plot is entered on the title deed, and, once
+entered, it cannot be changed.<a name="FnAnchor_45d" id="FnAnchor_45d" href="#Footnote_45d"><span class="sp">45</span></a> The tax on almost all lands is thus
+stated to be so much in silver and so much in rice, wheat or whatever
+the principal crop may be. Except in two provinces, however,
+the grain tax is now commuted and paid in silver. The exceptions
+are Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang, which still send forward their taxes in
+grain. The value of the grain forwarded (generally called tribute
+rice) is estimated at taels 6,500,000. The total collection in silver,
+as reported by the responsible officials, amounts in round numbers
+to taels 25,000,000. The total yield of the land tax, therefore,
+is taels 31,500,000, or say £4,725,000. It will readily be granted
+that for such a large country as China this is a very insignificant
+one. In India the land tax yields about £20,000,000, and China
+has undoubtedly a larger cultivated area, a larger population,
+and soil that is on the whole more fertile; but it is certain that this
+sum by no means represents the amounts actually paid by the
+cultivators. It is the sum which the various magistrates and
+collectors have to account for and remit in hard cash. But as
+nothing is allowed them for the costs of collection, they add on a
+percentage beforehand to cover the cost. This they usually do by
+declaring the taxes leviable not in silver, but in copper &ldquo;cash&rdquo;,
+which indeed is the only currency that circulates in country places,
+and by fixing the rate of exchange to suit themselves. Thus while
+the market rate is, say, 1500 cash to the tael, they declare by general
+proclamation that for tax-paying purposes cash will be received at
+the rate of 3500 or 4000 to the tael. Thus while the nominal land
+tax in silver remains the same it is in effect doubled or trebled, and,
+what is worse, no return is made or account required of the extra
+sums thus levied. Each magistrate or collector is in effect a farmer.
+The sum standing opposite the name of his district is the sum
+which he is bound to return under penalty of dismissal, but all
+sums which he can scrape together over and above are the perquisites
+of office less his necessary expenses. Custom, no doubt, sets
+bounds to his rapacity. If he went too far he would provoke a riot;
+but one may safely say there never is any reduction, what change
+can be effected being in the upward direction. According to the
+best information obtainable a moderate estimate of the sums actually
+paid by the cultivators would give two shillings per acre. This on
+an estimate of the area under cultivation should give for the eighteen
+provinces £19,000,000 as being actually levied, or more than four
+times what is returned.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Salt Duty.</i>&mdash;The trade in salt is a government monopoly.
+Only licensed merchants are allowed to deal in it, and the import
+of foreign salt is forbidden by the treaties.   For the purpose of salt
+administration China is divided into seven or eight main circuits,
+each of which has its own sources of production. Each circuit has
+carefully defined boundaries, and salt produced in one circuit is not
+allowed to be consigned into or sold in another. There are great
+differences in price between the several circuits, but the consumer
+is not allowed to buy in the cheapest market. He can only buy
+from the licensed merchants in his own circuit, who in turn are
+debarred from procuring supplies except at the depot to which
+they belong. Conveyance from one circuit to another is deemed
+smuggling, and subjects the article to confiscation.</p>
+
+<p>Duty is levied under two heads, the first being a duty proper,
+payable on the issue of salt from the depot, and the second being
+likin levied on transit or at the place of destination. The two
+together amount on an average to about taels 1.50 per picul of
+133&frac12; &#8468; or 3s. 9d. per cwt. The total collection returned by the
+various salt collectorates amounts to taels 13,500,000 (£2,025,000)
+per annum. The total consumption of salt for all China is estimated
+at 25 million piculs, or nearly 1&frac12; million tons, which is at the rate
+of 9 &#8468; per annum per head of the population. If the above amount
+of taels 1.50 were uniformly levied and returned, the revenue would
+be 37&frac12; million taels instead of 13&frac12;. In this calculation, however,
+no allowance is made for the cost of collection.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Likin on General Merchandise</i>.&mdash;By the term likin is meant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span>
+a tax on inland trade levied while in transit from one district to
+another. It was originally a war tax imposed as a temporary
+measure to meet the military expenditure required by the T&lsquo;aip&lsquo;ing
+and Mahommedan rebellions of 1850-1870. It is now one of the
+permanent sources of income, but at the same time it is in form as
+objectionable as a tax can be, and is equally obnoxious to the native
+and to the foreign merchant. Tolls or barriers are erected at frequent
+intervals along all the principal routes of trade, whether by land or
+water, and a small levy is made at each on every conceivable
+article of commerce. The individual levy is small, but over a long
+transit it may amount to 15 or 20%. The objectionable feature is
+the frequent stoppages with overhauling of cargo and consequent
+delays. By treaty, foreign goods may commute all transit dues for
+a single payment of one-half the import tariff duty, but this stipulation
+is but indifferently observed. It must also be remembered, per
+contra, that dishonest foreign merchants will take out passes to cover
+<i>native-owned</i> goods. The difficulty in securing due observance of
+treaty rights lies in the fact that the likin revenue is claimed by the
+provincial authorities, and the transit dues when commuted belong
+to the central government, so that the former are interested in
+opposing the commutation by every means in their power. As
+a further means of neutralizing the commutation they have devised
+a new form of impost, viz. a terminal tax which is levied on the
+goods after the termination of the transit. The amount and frequency
+of likin taxation are fixed by provincial legislation&mdash;that is,
+by a proclamation of the governor. The levy is authorized in general
+terms by an imperial decree, but all details are left to the local
+authorities. The yield of this tax is estimated at taels 13,000,000
+(£l,950,000), a sum which probably represents one-third of what is
+actually paid by the merchants, the balance being costs of collection.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Imperial Maritime Customs</i>.&mdash;The  maritime customs is the
+one department of finance in China which is managed with probity
+and honesty, and this it owes to the fact that it is worked under
+foreign control. It collects all the duties leviable under the treaties
+on the foreign trade of China, and also all duties on the coasting
+trade so far as carried on by vessels of foreign build, whether Chinese
+or foreign owned. It does not control the trade in native craft, the
+so-called junk trade, the duties on which are still levied by the native
+custom-house officials. By arrangement between the British and
+Chinese governments the foreign customs levy at the port of entry
+a likin on Indian opium of taels 80 per chest, in addition to the tariff
+duty of taels 30. This levy frees the opium from any further duty on
+transit into the interior. The revenue of the maritime customs rose
+from taels 8,200,000 in 1865 to taels 35,111,000 in 1905.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Native Customs</i>,&mdash;The administration of the native customs
+continues to be similar to what prevailed in the maritime customs
+before the introduction of foreign supervision. Each collector is
+constituted a farmer, bound to account for a fixed minimum sum,
+but practically at liberty to retain all he may collect over and
+above. If he returns more he may claim certain honorary rewards
+as for extra diligence, but he generally manages to make out his
+accounts so as to show a small surplus, and no more. Only imperfect
+and fragmentary returns of the native collectorates have been
+published, but the total revenue accruing to the Chinese government
+from this source did not appear up to 1900 much to exceed two
+million taels (£300,000). In November 1901 native customs offices
+within 15 m. of a treaty port were placed under the control of the
+maritime customs, their revenues having been hypothecated for
+the service of the Boxer indemnity. The result was that the amount
+of the native customs collected by the commissioners of customs
+increased from taels 2,206,000 in 1902 to taels 3,699,000 in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Duty on Native Opium</i>.&mdash;The collection of the duty on opium
+is in the hands of the provincial officials, but they are required to
+rendera separate account of duty and likin collected on the drug,
+and to hold the sum at the disposal of the board of revenue at
+Peking. The annual import into China of Indian opium used
+to amount to about 50,000 chests, the exact amount of opium
+imported in 1904 being 54,750 piculs, on which the Chinese government
+received from duty and likin combined about 5&frac12; million taels
+(£825,000). The total amount of native-grown opium was estimated
+in 1901 at about 400,000 chests (53,000,000 lb), and if this were
+taxed at taels 60 per chest, which in proportion to its price was
+a similar rate to that levied on Indian opium, it should give a revenue
+of 24 million taels. Compared with this the sums actually levied,
+or at least returned by the local officials as levied, were insignificant.
+The returns gave a total levy for all the eighteen provinces of only
+taels 2,200,000 (£330,000). The anti-opium smoking campaign
+initiated by the Chinese government in 1905 affected the revenue
+both by the decreased importation of the drug and the decrease in
+the area under poppy cultivation in China. In 1908 the opium likin
+revenue had fallen to taels 3,800,000.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Miscellaneous</i>.&mdash;Besides the main and regular sources of income,
+the provincial officials levy sums which must in the aggregate
+amount to a very large figure, but which hardly find a place in the
+returns. The principal are land transfer fees, pawnbrokers&rsquo; and
+other licences, duties on reed flats, commutation of corvée and
+personal services, &amp;c. The fee on land transfers is 3%, and it could
+be shown, from a calculation based on the extent and value of the
+arable land and the probable number of sales, that this item alone
+ought to yield an annual return of between one and two millions
+sterling. Practically the whole of this is absorbed in office expenses.
+Under this heading should also be included certain items which
+though not deemed part of the regular revenue, have been so often
+resorted to that they cannot be left out of account. These are the
+sums derived from sale of office or of brevet rank, and the
+subscriptions and benevolences which under one plea or another the
+government succeeds in levying from the wealthy. Excluding these,
+the government is always ready to receive subscriptions, rewarding
+the donor with a grant of official rank entitling him to wear the
+appropriate &ldquo;button.&rdquo; The right is much sought after, and indeed there
+are very few Chinamen of any standing that are not thus decorated,
+for not only does the button confer social standing, but it gives the
+wearer certain very substantial advantages in case he should come
+into contact with the law courts. The minimum price for the lowest
+grade is taels 120 (£18), and more of course for higher grades. The
+proceeds of these sales go directly to the Peking government, and
+do not as a rule figure in the provincial returns. The total of the
+miscellaneous items accruing for the benefit of the government is
+estimated at taels 5,500,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Expenditure.</i>&mdash;In regard to expenditure a distinction has to be
+drawn between that portion of the revenue which is controlled by
+the central government, and that controlled by the several provincial
+authorities. As the provinces collect the revenue, and as the
+authorities there are held responsible for the peace, order and good
+government of their respective territories, it follows that the necessary
+expenses of the provinces form a sort of first charge on the revenue.
+(As the tables given show, the provinces spend the greater part of the
+revenue collected.) The board of revenue at Peking, which is charged
+with a general supervision of finance matters all over the empire,
+makes up at the end of the year a general estimate of the funds
+that will be required for imperial purposes during the ensuing year,
+and apportions the amount among the several provinces and the
+several collectorates in each province. The estimate is submitted
+to the emperor, and, when sanctioned, instructions are sent to all the
+viceroys and governors in that sense, who, in turn, pass them on to
+their subordinate officers. In ordinary times these demands do not
+materially vary from year to year, and long practice has created
+a sort of equilibrium between imperial and provincial demands.
+The remittances to the capital are, as a rule, forwarded with reasonable
+regularity, mostly in the form of hard cash. There is, however, a
+constant pull going on between Peking and the provinces&mdash;the
+former always asking for more, the latter resisting and pleading
+impecuniosity, yet generally able to find the amounts required.
+The expenses which the central government has to meet are:&mdash;(1)
+Imperial household; (2) pay of the Manchu garrison in and about
+Peking; (3) costs of the civil administration in the capital; (4)
+cost of the army so far as the expenses are not borne by the provinces;
+(5) naval expenses;<a name="FnAnchor_46d" id="FnAnchor_46d" href="#Footnote_46d"><span class="sp">46</span></a> (6) foreign loans&mdash;interest and
+sinking fund. To meet all these charges the Peking government
+for several years up to 1900 drew on the provinces for about taels
+20,000,000 (£3,000,000), including the value of the tribute rice,
+which goes to the support of the Manchu bannermen.<a name="FnAnchor_47d" id="FnAnchor_47d" href="#Footnote_47d"><span class="sp">47</span></a> No estimates
+are furnished of the sums allowed under such heading. The imperial
+household appears to receive in silver about taels 1,500,000 (£225,000)
+but it draws besides large supplies in kind from the provinces, <i>e.g.</i>
+silks and satins from the imperial factories at Su-chow and Hangchow,
+porcelain from the Kiang-si potteries, &amp;c., the cost of which is
+defrayed by the provinces. The imperial government has also at its
+disposal the revenue of the foreign customs. Prior to the Chino-Japanese
+war of 1894-95 this revenue, which, after allowing for the
+costs of collection, amounted to about 20,000,000 taels (£3,000,000),
+was nominally shared with the provinces in the proportion of four-tenths
+and six-tenths. The whole of the customs revenue is now
+pledged to foreign bondholders and absorbed by the service of the
+several loans. Besides supplying its own wants the imperial government
+has to provide for outlying portions of the empire which are
+unable to maintain themselves&mdash;(1) Manchuria, (2) Kan-suh and the
+central Asian dominion, (3) the south-western provinces of Yun-nan,
+Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. Manchuria, or, as it is termed, the
+north-east frontier defence, costs about taels 2,000,000 over and
+above its own resources. The central Asian territories constitute a
+drain on the imperial government of about taels 4,000,000 a year.
+This is met by subsidies from Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, Shan-si, Ho-nan and other
+wealthy provinces. Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si require aids
+aggregating taels 2,000,000 to keep things going.</p>
+
+<p><i>External Debt.</i>&mdash;Prior to the war with Japan in 1894 the foreign
+debt of China was almost nil. A few trifling loans had been
+contracted at 7 and 8%, but they had been punctually paid off, and
+only a fraction of one remained. The expenses of the war, however,
+and the large indemnity of taels 230,000,000 (£34,500,000) which
+Japan exacted, forced China for the first time into the European
+market as a serious borrower. The sum of £6,635,000 was raised in
+1894-1895 in four small loans at 6 or 7% interest. In 1895 a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span>
+Franco-Russian loan of fr. 440,000,000 (£15,820,000) was raised in
+Paris. Two Anglo-German loans, each of £16,000,000 (one in 1896,
+the other in 1898) were raised through the Hong Kong and Shanghai
+Bank. The Franco-Russian loan bears 4% interest, the first
+Anglo-German 5%, the second 4&frac12;%. The foreign loans contracted
+up to 1900 amounted altogether to £54,455,000. The charges for
+interest and sinking fund, which amounted to over £3,000,000, were
+secured on the revenue of the maritime customs, and on the likin
+taxes of certain specified provinces. The net income from these
+two sources amounted to over taels 24,000,000, equivalent at
+existing rate of exchange to £3,400,000, which was amply sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1899 and 1907 (both years inclusive) £12,200,000 was
+raised on loan for railway purposes. The charges on the first loan&mdash;for
+£2,300,000&mdash;were secured on the revenue of the Imperial
+Northern railway, the interest being 5%. The same interest was
+secured on the other loans, save one for £1,000,000 in which the
+Hong Kong government was concerned, which bears 4% interest.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign debt also includes the indemnities exacted in 1901
+by the powers for the Boxer outrages. These indemnities, secured
+on imperial revenue, are divided into five series amounting altogether
+to £67,500,000, the amount payable on these indemnities
+(at 4% interest) in 1907 being £2,824,425. The burden of meeting
+this amount was apportioned between the eighteen provinces&mdash;the
+sums allocated ranging from taels 2,500,000 for Kiang-su to taels
+300,000 for Kwei-chow. In 1909 the grand total of China&rsquo;s indebtedness
+exceeded £140,000,000 and the interest called for the payment
+of £7,427,450 in gold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Banks and Banking.</i>&mdash;Native banks for purposes of inland exchange
+are to be found in most large cities. They are private banks
+using their own capital, and seldom receiving deposits from the
+public. The best known are the Shan-si banks, which have branches
+all over the empire. They work on a small capital, seldom over
+£50,000 each, and do a small but profitable business by selling their
+drafts on distant places. None of them issues notes, although they
+are not debarred from doing so by law. They lend money on personal
+security, but do not advance against shipments of goods. In some
+places there are small local banks, usually called cash shops, which
+issue paper notes for small sums and lend money out on personal
+security. The notes never reach more than a very limited local
+circulation, and pass current merely on the credit of the institution.
+There is no law regulating the formation of banks or the issue of
+notes. <i>Pawnshops</i> occupy a prominent position in the internal
+economy of China. They lend on deposit of personality at very high
+rates, 18 and 24%, and they receive deposits of money from the
+public, usually allowing 6 to 10%. They are the real banks of
+deposit of the country, and the better class enjoy good credit.
+<i>Foreign Banks</i> do a large business at Shanghai and other treaty
+ports, and a <i>Government Bank</i> has been established at Peking.</p>
+
+<p><i>Currency.</i>&mdash;In the commercial treaty between Great Britain and
+China of 1902 China agreed to provide a uniform national coinage.
+An imperial decree of October 1908 commanded the introduction of
+a uniform tael currency; but another decree of May 1910 established
+a standard currency dollar weighing 72 candareens (a candareen is the
+100th part of the tael ounce) and subsidiary coins of fixed values in
+decimal ratio. This decree properly enforced would introduce a much
+needed stability into the monetary system of China.</p>
+
+<p>The actual currency (1910) consists of (l) <i>Silver</i>, which may be
+either uncoined ingots passing current by weight, or imported coins,
+Mexican dollars and British dollars; and (2) <i>Copper</i> &ldquo;cash,&rdquo; which
+has no fixed relation to silver. The standard is silver, the unit being
+the Chinese ounce or tael, containing 565 grains. The tael is not a
+coin, but a weight. Its value in sterling consequently fluctuates
+with the value of silver; in 1870 it was worth about 6s. 8d., in 1907
+it was worth 3s. 3d.<a name="FnAnchor_48d" id="FnAnchor_48d" href="#Footnote_48d"><span class="sp">48</span></a> The name given in China to uncoined silver
+in current use is &ldquo;sycee.&rdquo; It is cast for convenience sake into
+ingots weighing one to 50 taels. Its average fineness is 916.66
+per 1000. When foreign silver is imported, say into Shanghai, it
+can be converted into currency by a very simple process. The bars
+of silver are sent to a quasi-public office termed the &ldquo;Kung K&lsquo;u,&rdquo;
+or public valuers, and by them melted down and cast into ingots of
+the customary size. The fineness is estimated, and the premium or
+betterness, together with the exact weight, is marked in ink on
+each ingot. The whole process only occupies a few hours, and the
+silver is then ready to be put into use. The Kung K&lsquo;u is simply a
+local office appointed by the bankers of the place, and the weight
+and fineness are only good for that locality. The government takes
+no responsibility in the matter, but leaves merchants and bankers
+to adjust the currency as they please. For purposes of taxation
+and payment of duties there is a standard or treasury tael, which is
+about 10% heavier than the tael of commerce in use at Shanghai.
+Every large commercial centre has its own customary tael, the
+weight and therefore the value of which differ from that of every
+other. Silver dollars coined in Mexico, and British dollars coined
+in Bombay, also circulate freely at the open ports of trade and for
+some distance inland, passing at a little above their intrinsic value.
+Carolus dollars, introduced long ago and no longer coined, are
+retained in current use in several parts of the interior, chiefly the
+tea-growing districts. Being preferred by the people, and as the
+supply cannot be added to, they have reached a considerable
+premium above their intrinsic value. Provincial mints in Canton,
+Wuchang, and other places have issued silver coins of the same
+weight and touch as the Mexican dollar, but very few have gone into
+use. As they possess no privilege in debt-paying power over imported
+Mexican dollars there is no inducement for the people to take
+them up unless they can be had at a cheaper rate than the latter,
+and these are laid down at so small a cost above the intrinsic value
+that no profit is left to the mint. The coinage has in consequence
+been almost discontinued. Subsidiary coins, however, came largely
+into use, being issued by the local mints. One coin &ldquo;the hundredth
+part of a dollar&rdquo; proved very popular (the issue to the end of 1906
+being computed at 12,500,000,000), but at rates corresponding closely
+to the intrinsic value of the metal in it. The only coin officially
+issued by the government&mdash;up to 1910&mdash;was the so-called copper
+<i>cash</i>. It is a small coin which by regulation should weigh 1/16 of a
+tael, and should contain 50 parts of copper, 40 of zinc, and 10 of
+lead or tin, and it should bear a fixed ratio to silver of 1000 cash to
+one tael of silver. In practice none of these conditions was observed.
+Being issued from a number of mints, mostly provincial, the standard
+was never uniform, and in many cases debased. Excessive issues
+lowered the value of the coins, and for many years the average
+exchange was 1600 or more per tael. The rise in copper led to the
+melting down of all the older and superior coins, and as for the same
+reason coining was suspended, the result was an appreciation of the
+&ldquo;cash,&rdquo; so that a tael in 1909 exchanged for about 1220 cash or
+about 35 to a penny English. Inasmuch as the &ldquo;cash&rdquo; bore no
+fixed relation to silver, and was, moreover, of no uniform composition,
+it formed a sort of mongrel standard of its own, varying with the
+volume in circulation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G .J.; X.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">V. History</p>
+
+<p class="center1">(A)&mdash;<i>European Knowledge of China up to 1615.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>China as known to the Ancients.</i>&mdash;The spacious seat of ancient
+civilization which we call China has been distinguished by
+different appellations, according as it was reached by the southern
+sea-route or by the northern land-route traversing the longitude
+of Asia. In the former aspect the name has nearly always been
+some form of the name <i>Sin, Chin, Sinoe, China</i>. In the latter
+point of view the region in question was known to the ancients
+as the land of the <i>Seres</i>, to the middle ages as the empire of
+<i>Cathay</i>. The name of <i>Chin</i> has been supposed (doubtfully) to
+be derived from the dynasty of <i>Ts&lsquo;in</i>, which a little more than
+two centuries before the Christian era enjoyed a vigorous existence,
+uniting all the Chinese provinces under its authority, and
+extending its conquests far beyond those limits to the south and
+the west. The mention of the <i>Chinas</i> in ancient Sanskrit
+literature, both in the laws of Manu and in the Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata,
+has often been supposed to prove the application of the name
+long before the predominance of the Ts&lsquo;in dynasty. But the
+coupling of that name with the <i>Daradas</i>, still surviving as the
+people of Dardistan, on the Indus, suggests it as more probable
+that those <i>Chinas</i> were a kindred race of mountaineers, whose
+name as <i>Shinas</i> in fact likewise remains applied to a branch
+of the Dard races. Whether the <i>Sinim</i> of the prophet Isaiah
+should be interpreted of the Chinese is probably not susceptible
+of any decision; by the context it appears certainly to indicate
+a people of the extreme east or south. The name probably
+came to Europe through the Arabs, who made the <i>China</i> of the
+farther east into <i>Sîn</i>, and perhaps sometimes into <i>Thîn</i>. Hence
+the <i>Thîn</i> of the author of the <i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i>,
+who appears to be the first extant writer to employ the name
+in this form (<i>i.e.</i> assuming Max Müller&rsquo;s view that he belongs
+to the 1st century); hence also the <i>Sinae</i> and <i>Thinae</i> of Ptolemy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It has often indeed been denied that the Sinae of Ptolemy really
+represented the Chinese. But if we compare the statement of
+Marcianus of Heraclea (a mere condenser of Ptolemy), when he tells
+us that the &ldquo;nations of the Sinae lie at the extremity of the habitable
+world, and adjoin the eastern Terra Incognita,&rdquo; with that of Cosmas,
+who says, in speaking of <i>Tzinista</i>, a name of which no one can
+question the application to China, that &ldquo;beyond this there is neither
+habitation nor navigation&rdquo;&mdash;we cannot doubt the same region to
+be meant by both. The fundamental error of Ptolemy&rsquo;s conception
+of the Indian Sea as a closed basin rendered it <i>impossible</i> but that he
+should misplace the Chinese coast. But considering that the name of
+<i>Sin</i> has come down among the Arabs from time immemorial as
+applied to the Chinese, considering that in the work of Ptolemy this
+name certainly represented the farthest known East, and considering
+how inaccurate are Ptolemy&rsquo;s configurations and longitudes much
+nearer home, it seems almost as reasonable to deny the identity of
+his India with ours as to deny that his Sinae were Chinese.</p>
+
+<p>If we now turn to the <i>Seres</i> we find this name mentioned by classic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span>
+authors much more frequently and at an earlier date, for the passages
+of Eratosthenes (in Strabo), formerly supposed to speak of a parallel
+passing through <i>Thinae</i>&mdash;<span class="grk" title="Thinôn">&#948;&#953;&#940; &#920;&#953;&#957;&#8182;&#957;</span>&mdash;are now known to read correctly
+<span class="grk" title="di'Athênôn">&#948;&#953;&#8125;&#913;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#8182;&#957;</span>. The name <i>Seres</i> indeed is familiar to the Latin poets of the
+Augustan age, but always in a vague way, and usually with a general
+reference to Central Asia and the farther East. We find, however,
+that the first endeavours to assign more accurately the position of
+this people, which are those of Mela and Pliny, gravitate distinctly
+towards China in its northern aspect as the true ideal involved. Thus
+Mela describes the remotest east of Asia as occupied by the three
+races (proceeding from south to north), Indians, Seres and Scyths;
+just as in a general way we might still say that eastern Asia is
+occupied by the Indies, China and Tartary.</p>
+
+<p>Ptolemy first uses the names of <i>Sera</i> and <i>Serice</i>, the former for the
+chief city, the latter for the country of the Seres, and as usual defines
+their position with a precision far beyond what his knowledge
+justified&mdash;the necessary result of his system. Yet even his definition
+of Serice is most consistent with the view that this name indicated
+the Chinese empire in its northern aspect, for he carries it eastward
+to the 180th degree of longitude, which is also, according to his
+calculation, in a lower latitude the eastern boundary of the Sinae.</p>
+
+<p>Ammianus Marcellinus devotes some paragraphs to a description
+of the Seres and their country, one passage of which is startling at
+first sight in its seeming allusion to the Great Wall, and in this sense
+it has been rashly interpreted by Lassen and by Reinaud. But
+Ammianus is merely converting Ptolemy&rsquo;s dry tables into fine
+writing, and speaks only of an encircling rampart of mountains
+within which the spacious and happy valley of the Seres lies. It is
+true that Ptolemy makes his Serice extend westward to Imaus, <i>i.e.</i>
+to Pamir. But the Chinese empire <i>did</i> so extend at that epoch, and
+we find Lieut. John Wood in 1838 speaking of &ldquo;<i>China</i>&rdquo; as lying
+immediately beyond Pamir, just as the Arabs of the 8th century
+spoke of the country beyond the Jaxartes as &ldquo;<i>Sin</i>,&rdquo; and as Ptolemy
+spoke of &ldquo;<i>Serice</i>&rdquo; as immediately beyond Imaus.</p>
+
+<p>If we fuse into one the ancient notices of the Seres and their
+country, omitting anomalous statements and manifest fables, the
+result will be somewhat as follows: &ldquo;The region of the Seres is a
+vast and populous country, touching on the east the ocean and the
+limits of the habitable world, and extending west to Imaus and the
+confines of Bactria. The people are civilized, mild, just and frugal,
+eschewing collisions with their neighbours, and even shy of close
+intercourse, but not averse to dispose of their own products, of
+which raw silk is the staple, but which included also silk-stuffs, fine
+furs, and iron of remarkable quality.&rdquo; That is manifestly a definition
+of the Chinese.</p>
+
+<p>That Greek and Roman knowledge of the true position of so
+remote a nation should at best have been somewhat hazy is nothing
+wonderful. And it is worthy of note that the view entertained by
+the ancient Chinese of the Roman empire and its inhabitants, under
+the name of <i>Ta-thsin</i>, had some striking points of analogy to those
+views of the Chinese which are indicated in the classical descriptions
+of the Seres. There can be no mistaking the fact that in this case
+also the great object was within the horizon of vision, yet the details
+ascribed to it are often far from being true characteristics, being
+only the accidents of its outer borders.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Medieval Cathay.</i>&mdash;&rdquo;Cathay&rdquo; is the name by which the
+Chinese empire was known to medieval Europe, and it is in its
+original form (<i>Kitai</i>) that China is still known in Russia and to
+most of the nations of Central Asia. West of Russia this name
+has long ceased to be a geographical expression, but it is associated
+with a remarkable phase in the history of geography and
+commerce. The name first became known to Europe in the 13th
+century, when the vast conquests of Jenghiz Khan and his
+house drew a new and vivid attention to Asia. For some three
+centuries previously the northern provinces of China had been
+detached from indigenous rule, and subject to northern conquerors.
+The first of these foreign dynasties was of a race
+called <i>Khitán</i> issuing from the basin of the Sungari river, and
+supposed (but doubtfully) to have been of the blood of the
+modern Tunguses. The rule of this race endured for two centuries
+and originated the application of the name <i>Khitât</i> or <i>Khitâï</i> to
+northern China. The dynasty itself, known in Chinese history
+as <i>Liao</i>, or &ldquo;Iron,&rdquo; disappeared from China 1123, but the name
+remained attached to the territory which they had ruled.</p>
+
+<p>The Khitán were displaced by the Nüchih (<i>Nyûché</i> or <i>Chûrché</i>)
+race, akin to the modern Manchus. These reigned, under the
+title of <i>Kin</i>, or &ldquo;Golden,&rdquo; till Jenghiz and his Mongols invaded
+them in turn. In 1234 the conquest of the Kin empire was
+completed, and the dynasty extinguished under Ogdai (Ogotai),
+the son and successor of Jenghiz Khan. Forty years later, in
+the reign of Kublai, grandson and ablest successor of Jenghiz,
+the Mongol rule was extended over southern China (1276),
+which till then had remained under a native dynasty, the Sung,
+holding its royal residence in a vast and splendid city, now
+known as Hang-chow, but then as Ling-nan, or more commonly
+as <i>King-sze</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the court. The southern empire was usually
+called by the conquerors <i>Mantzi</i> (or as some of the old travellers
+write, <i>Mangi</i>), a name which western Asiatics seem to have
+identified with <i>Mâchîn</i> (from the Sanskrit <i>Mahâchîn</i>), one of
+the names by which China was known to the traders from
+Persian and Arabian ports.</p>
+
+<p>The conquests of Jenghiz and his successors had spread not
+only over China and the adjoining East, but westward also over
+all northern Asia, Persia, Armenia, part of Asia Minor and
+Russia, threatening to deluge Christendom. Though the Mongol
+wave retired, as it seemed almost by an immediate act of Providence,
+when Europe lay at its feet, it had levelled or covered
+all political barriers from the frontier of Poland to the Yellow
+Sea, and when western Europe recovered from its alarm, Asia
+lay open, as never before or since, to the inspection of Christendom.
+Princes, envoys, priests&mdash;half-missionary, half-envoy&mdash;visited
+the court of the great khan in Mongolia; and besides
+these, the accidents of war, commerce or opportunity carried
+a variety of persons from various classes of human life into the
+depths of Asia. &ldquo;&rsquo;Tis worthy of the grateful remembrance
+of all Christian people,&rdquo; says an able missionary friar of the next
+age (Ricold of Monte Croce), &ldquo;that just at the time when God
+sent forth into the Eastern parts of the world the Tatars to slay
+and to be slain, He also sent into the West his faithful and blessed
+servants, Dominic and Francis, to enlighten, instruct and
+build up in the faith.&rdquo; Whatever on the whole may be thought
+of the world&rsquo;s debt to Dominic, it is to the two mendicant
+orders, but especially to the Franciscans, that we owe a vast
+amount of information about medieval Asia, and, among other
+things, the first mention of <i>Cathay</i>. Among the many strangers
+who reached Mongolia were (1245-1247) John de Plano Carpini
+and (1253) William of Rubruk (Rubruquis) in French Flanders,
+both Franciscan friars of high intelligence, who happily have
+left behind them reports of their observations.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Carpini, after mentioning the wars of Jenghiz against the <i>Kitai</i>,
+goes on to speak of that people as follows: &ldquo;Now these <i>Kitai</i> are
+heathen men, and have a written character of their own... They
+seem, indeed, to be kindly and polished folks enough. They have
+no beard, and in character of countenance have a considerable
+resemblance to the Mongols&rdquo; [are <i>Mongoloid</i>, as our ethnologists
+would say], &ldquo;but are not so broad in the face. They have a peculiar
+language. Their betters as craftsmen in every art practised by man
+are not to be found in the whole world. Their country is very rich
+in corn, in wine, in gold and silver, in silk, and in every kind of
+produce tending to the support of mankind.&rdquo; The notice of Rubruk,
+shrewder and more graphic, runs thus: &ldquo;Farther on is Great
+Cathay, which I take to be the country which was anciently called
+the Land of the Seres. For the best silk stuffs are still got from
+them... The sea lies between it and India. Those Cathayans are
+little fellows, speaking much through the nose, and, as is general with
+all those eastern people, their eyes are very narrow. They are first-rate
+artists in every kind, and their physicians have a thorough knowledge
+of the virtues of herbs, and an admirable skill in diagnosis by
+the pulse... The common money of Cathay consists of pieces
+of cotton-paper, about a palm in length and breadth, upon which
+certain lines are printed, resembling the seal of Mangu Khan. They
+do their writing with a pencil, such as painters paint with, and a single
+character of theirs comprehends several letters, so as to form a whole
+word.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Here we have not only what is probably the first European notice
+of paper-money, but a <i>partial</i> recognition of the peculiarity of
+Chinese writing, and a perception that puts to shame the perverse
+boggling of later critics over the identity of these Cathayans with
+the Seres of classic fame.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But though these travellers saw Cathayans in the bazaars
+in the great khan&rsquo;s camps, the first actual visitors of Cathay
+itself were the Polo family, and it is to the book of Marco
+Polo&rsquo;s recollections mainly that Cathay owed the growing
+familiarity of its name in Europe during the 14th and 15th
+centuries. It is, however, a great mistake to suppose, as has
+often been assumed, that the residence of the Polos in that
+country remained an isolated fact. They were but the pioneers
+of a very considerable intercourse, which endured till the decay
+of the Mongol dynasty in Cathay, <i>i.e.</i> for about half a century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span></p>
+
+<p>We have no evidence that either in the 13th or 14th century
+Cathayans, <i>i.e.</i> Chinese, ever reached Europe, but it is possible
+that some did, at least in the former century. For, during the
+campaigns of Hulagu in Persia (1256-1265), and the reigns of
+his successors, Chinese engineers were employed on the banks
+of the Tigris, and Chinese astrologers and physicians could be
+consulted at Tabriz. Many diplomatic communications passed
+between the Hulaguid Ilkhans and the princes of Christendom.
+The former, as the great khan&rsquo;s liegemen, still received from
+him their seals of state; and two of their letters which survive
+in the archives of France exhibit the vermilion impressions of
+those seals in Chinese characters&mdash;perhaps affording the earliest
+specimen of that character which reached western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Just as the Polos were reaching their native city (1295), after
+an absence of a quarter of a century, the forerunner of a new
+series of travellers was entering southern China by way of the
+Indian seas. This was John of Monte Corvino, another Franciscan
+who, already some fifty years of age, was plunging single-handed
+into that great ocean of paganism to preach the gospel according
+to his lights. After years of uphill and solitary toil converts
+began to multiply; coadjutors joined him. The Papal See
+became cognizant of the harvest that was being reaped in the
+far East. It made Friar John archbishop in Cambaluc (or
+Peking), with patriarchal authority, and sent him batches of
+suffragan bishops and preachers of his own order. The Roman
+Church spread; churches and Minorite houses were established
+at Cambaluc, at Zayton or Tsuan-chow in Fu-kien, at Yang-chow
+and elsewhere; and the missions flourished under the
+smile of the great khan, as the Jesuit missions did for a time
+under the Manchu emperors three centuries and a half later.
+Archbishop John was followed to the grave, about 1328, by
+mourning multitudes of pagans and Christians alike. Several
+of the bishops and friars who served under him have left letters
+or other memoranda of their experience, <i>e.g.</i> Andrew, bishop
+of Zayton, John of Cora, afterwards archbishop of Sultania in
+Persia, and Odoric of Pordenone, whose fame as a pious traveller
+won from the <i>vox populi</i> at his funeral a beatification which
+the church was fain to seal. The only ecclesiastical narrative
+regarding Cathay, of which we are aware, subsequent to the time
+of Archbishop John, is that which has been gathered from the
+recollections of Giovanni de&rsquo; Marignolli, a Florentine Franciscan,
+who was sent by Pope Benedict XII. with a mission to the great
+khan, in return for one from that potentate which arrived at
+Avignon from Cathay in 1338, and who spent four years (1342-1346)
+at the court of Cambaluc as legate of the Holy See. These
+recollections are found dispersed incoherently over a chronicle
+of Bohemia which the traveller wrote by order of the emperor
+Charles IV., whose chaplain he was after his return.</p>
+
+<p>But intercourse during the period in question was not confined
+to ecclesiastical channels. Commerce also grew up, and flourished
+for a time even along the vast line that stretches from Genoa
+and Florence to the marts of Cheh-kiang and Fu-kien. The
+record is very fragmentary and imperfect, but many circumstances
+and incidental notices show how frequently the remote
+East was reached by European traders in the first half of the
+14th century&mdash;a state of things which it is very difficult to
+realize when we see how all those regions, when reopened to
+knowledge two centuries later, seemed to be discoveries as new
+as the empires which, about the same time, Cortes and Pizarro
+were conquering in the West.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>This commercial intercourse probably began about 1310-1320.
+John of Monte Corvino, writing in 1305, says it was twelve years
+since he had heard any news from Europe; the only Western
+stranger who had arrived in all that time being a certain Lombard
+chirurgeon (probably one of the <i>Patarini</i> who got hard measure at
+home in those days), who had spread the most incredible blasphemies,
+about the Roman Curia and the order of St Francis. Yet even on
+his first entrance to Cathay Friar John had been accompanied by one
+Master Peter of Lucolongo, whom he describes as a faithful Christian
+man and a great merchant, and who seems to have remained many
+years at Peking. The letter of Andrew, bishop of Zayton (1326),
+quotes the opinion of Genoese merchants at that port regarding a
+question of exchanges. Odoric, who was in Cathay about 1323-1327,
+refers for confirmation of the wonders which he related of the great
+city of Cansay (<i>i.e.</i> King-sze, or Hang-chow) to the many persons
+whom he had met at Venice since his return, who had themselves
+been witnesses of those marvels. And Marignolli, some twenty years
+later, found attached to one of the convents at Zayton, in Fu-kien, a
+<i>fondaco</i> or factory for the accommodation of the Christian merchants.</p>
+
+<p>But by far the most distinct and notable evidence of the importance
+and frequency of European trade with Cathay, of which silk
+and silk goods formed the staple, is to be found in the commercial
+hand-book (c. 1340) of Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a clerk and
+factor of the great Florentine house of the Bardi, which was brought
+to the ground about that time by its dealings with Edward III. of
+England. This book, called by its author <i>Libro di divisamenti di
+Paesi</i>, is a sort of trade-guide, devoting successive chapters to the
+various ports and markets of his time, detailing the nature of imports
+and exports at each, the duties and exactions, the local customs of
+business, weights, measures and money. The first two chapters of
+this work contain instructions for the merchant proceeding to Cathay;
+and it is evident, from the terms used, that the road thither was
+not unfrequently travelled by European merchants, from whom
+Pegolotti had derived his information. The route which he describes
+lay by Azov, Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar (on the Jaxartes), Almálik
+(Gulja in Ili), Kan-chow (in Kan-suh), and so to Hang-chow and
+Peking. Particulars are given as to the silver ingots which formed
+the currency of Tatary, and the paper-money of Cathay. That the
+ventures on this trade were not insignificant is plain from the example
+taken by the author to illustrate the question of expenses on the
+journey, which is that of a merchant investing in goods there to the
+amount of some £12,000 (<i>i.e.</i> in actual gold value, not as calculated
+by any fanciful and fallacious equation of values).</p>
+
+<p>Of the same remarkable phase of history that we are here considering
+we have also a number of notices by Mahommedan writers.
+The establishment of the Mongol dynasty in Persia, by which the
+great khan was acknowledged as lord paramount, led (as we have
+already noticed in part) to a good deal of intercourse. And some of
+the Persian historians, writing at Tabriz, under the patronage of the
+Mongol princes, have told us much about Cathay, especially Rashiduddin,
+the great minister and historian of the dynasty (died 1318).
+We have also in the book of the Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, who
+visited China about 1347-1348, very many curious and in great part
+true notices, though it is not possible to give credence to the whole of
+this episode in his extensive travels.</p>
+
+<p>About the time of the traveller first named the throne of the
+degenerate descendants of Jenghiz began to totter to its fall, and we
+have no knowledge of any Frank visitor to Cathay in that age later
+than Marignolli; missions and merchants alike disappear from the
+field. We hear, indeed, once and again of ecclesiastics despatched
+from Avignon, but they go forth into the darkness, and are heard
+of no more. Islam, with all its jealousy and exclusiveness, had
+recovered its grasp over Central Asia; the Nestorian Christianity
+which once had prevailed so widely was vanishing, and the new rulers
+of China reverted to the old national policy, and held the foreigner
+at arm&rsquo;s length. Night descended upon the farther East, covering
+Cathay with those cities of which the old travellers had told such
+marvels, Cambaluc and Cansay, Zayton and Chinkalan. And when
+the veil rose before the Portuguese and Spanish explorers of the 16th
+century, those names are heard no more. In their stead we have
+China, Peking, Hangchow, Chinchew, Canton. Not only were the old
+names forgotten, but the fact that those places had ever been known
+before was forgotten also. Gradually new missionaries went forth
+from Rome&mdash;Jesuits and Dominicans now; new converts were
+made, and new vicariates constituted; but the old Franciscan
+churches, and the Nestorianism with which they had battled, had
+alike been swallowed up in the ocean of pagan indifference. In time
+a wreck or two floated to the surface&mdash;a MS. Latin Bible or a piece
+of Catholic sculpture; and when the intelligent missionaries called
+Marco Polo to mind, and studied his story, one and another became
+convinced that Cathay and China were one.</p>
+
+<p>But for a long time all but a sagacious few continued to regard
+Cathay as a region distinct from any of the new-found Indies; whilst
+map-makers, well on into the 17th century, continued to represent it
+as a great country lying entirely to the north of China, and stretching
+to the Arctic Sea.</p>
+
+<p>It was Cathay, with its outlying island of Zipangu (Japan), that
+Columbus sought to reach by sailing westward, penetrated as he was
+by his intense conviction of the smallness of the earth, and of the vast
+extension of Asia eastward; and to the day of his death he was full
+of the imagination of the proximity of the domain of the great khan
+to the islands and coasts which he had discovered. And such imaginations
+are curiously embodied in some of the maps of the early 16th
+century, which intermingle on the same coast-line the new discoveries
+from Labrador to Brazil with the provinces and rivers of Marco Polo&rsquo;s
+Cathay.</p>
+
+<p>Cathay had been the aim of the first voyage of the Cabots in 1496,
+and it continued to be the object of many adventurous voyages by
+English and Hollanders to the N.W. and N.E. till far on in the 16th
+century. At least one memorable land-journey also was made by
+Englishmen, of which the exploration of a trade-route to Cathay
+was a chief object&mdash;that in which Anthony Jenkinson and the two
+Johnsons reached Bokhara by way of Russia in 1558-1559. The
+country of which they collected notices at that city was still known
+to them only as <i>Cathay</i>, and its great capital only as <i>Cambaluc</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span>
+Cathay as a supposed separate entity may be considered to come
+to an end with the journey of Benedict Goës, the lay-Jesuit. This
+admirable person was, in 1603, despatched through Central Asia by
+his superiors in India with the specific object of determining whether
+the Cathay of old European writers and of modern Mahommedans
+was or was not a distinct region from that China of which parallel
+marvels had now for some time been recounted. Benedict, as one
+of his brethren pronounced his epitaph, &ldquo;seeking Cathay found
+Heaven.&rdquo; He died at Suchow, the frontier city of China, but not
+before he had ascertained that China and Cathay were the same.
+After the publication of the narrative of his journey (in the <i>Expeditio
+Christiana apud Sinas</i> of Trigault, 1615) inexcusable ignorance
+alone could continue to distinguish between them, but such ignorance
+lingered many years longer.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Y.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1">(B)&mdash;<i>Chinese Origins.</i></p>
+
+<p>Chinese literature contains no record of any kind which
+might justify us in assuming that the nucleus of the nation
+may have immigrated from some other part of the world; and
+the several ingenious theories pointing to Babylonia, Egypt,
+India, Khotan, and other seats of ancient civilization as the
+starting-points of ethnical wanderings must be dismissed as
+untenable. Whether the Chinese were seated in their later
+homes from times immemorial, as their own historians assume,
+or whether they arrived there from abroad, as some foreign
+scholars have pretended, cannot be proved to the satisfaction
+of historical critics. Indeed, anthropological arguments seem
+to contradict the idea of any connexion with Babylonians,
+Egyptians, Assyrians, or Indians. The earliest hieroglyphics
+of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty (second
+millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), betray the Mongol character of the nation
+that invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye
+wherever it appears in an ideograph. In a pair of eyes as shown
+in the most ancient pictorial or sculptural representations in
+the west, the four corners may be connected by a horizontal
+straight line; whereas lines drawn through the eyes of one of the
+oldest Chinese hieroglyphics cross each other at a sharp angle,
+as shown in the accompanying diagrams:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm"><img style="border:0; width:180px; height:38px" src="images/img191b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td class="tccm"><img style="border:0; width:180px; height:138px" src="images/img191a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm f80">Chinese.</td>  <td class="tccm f80">Egyptian.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">This does not seem to speak for racial consanguinity any more
+than the well-known curled heads and bearded faces of Assyrian
+sculptures as compared to the straight-haired and almost beardless
+Chinese. Similarities in the creation of cultural elements may, it
+is true, be shown to exist on either side, even at periods when
+mutual intercourse was probably out of the question; but this
+may be due to uniformity in the construction of the human brain,
+which leads man in different parts of the world to arrive at
+similar ideas under similar conditions, or to prehistoric connexions
+which it is as impossible for us to trace now as is the origin of
+mankind itself. Our standpoint as regards the origin of the
+Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic. All we can do is
+to reproduce the tradition as it is found in Chinese literature.
+This tradition, as applying to the very earliest periods, may
+be nothing more than historical superstition, yet it has its
+historical importance. Supposing it were possible to prove
+that none of the persons mentioned in the Bible from Adam
+down to the Apostles ever lived, even the most sceptical critic
+would still have to admit that the history of a great portion of
+the human race has been materially affected by the belief in the
+examples of their alleged lives. Something similar may be said
+of the alleged earliest history of the Chinese with its model
+emperors and detestable tyrants, the accounts of which, whether
+based on reality or not, have exercised much influence on the
+development of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese have developed their theories of prehistoric life.
+Speculation as to the origin and gradual evolution of their
+civilization has resulted in the expression of views by authors
+who may have reconstructed their systems from remnants of
+ancestral life revealed by excavations, or from observation of
+neighbouring nations living in a state of barbarism. This may
+account for a good deal of the repetition found in the Chinese
+mythological and legendary narratives, the personal and chronological
+part of which may have been invented merely as a framework
+for illustrating social and cultural progress. The scene of
+action of all the prehistoric figures from P&lsquo;an-ku, the first human
+being, down to the beginning of real history has been laid in a
+part of the world which has never been anything but Chinese
+territory. P&lsquo;an-ku&rsquo;s epoch, millions of years ago, was followed
+by ten distinct periods of sovereigns, including the &ldquo;Heavenly
+emperors,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Terrestrial emperors,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Human
+emperors,&rdquo; the <i>Yu-ch&lsquo;au</i> or &ldquo;Nest-builders,&rdquo; and <i>Sui-jön</i>,
+the &ldquo;Fire Producer,&rdquo; the Prometheus of the Chinese, who
+borrowed fire from the stars for the benefit of man. Several
+of the characteristic phases of cultural progress and social
+organization have been ascribed to this mythological period.
+Authors of less fertile imagination refer them to later times,
+when the heroes of their accounts appear in shapes somewhat
+resembling human beings rather than as gods and demigods.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese themselves look upon Fu-hi as their first historical
+emperor; and they place his lifetime in the years 2852-2738 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Some accounts represent him as a supernatural being; and we
+see him depicted as a human figure with a fish tail something
+like a mermaid. He is credited with having established social
+order among his people, who, before him, had lived like animals
+in the wilds. The social chaos out of which Chinese society
+arose is described as being characterized by the absence of
+family life; for &ldquo;children knew only their mothers and not
+their fathers.&rdquo; Fu-hi introduced matrimony; and in so doing
+he placed man as the husband at the head of the family and
+abolished the original matriarchate. This quite corresponds
+with his views on the dualism in natural philosophy, of which
+he is supposed to have laid the germs by the invention of the
+so-called <i>pa-kua</i>, eight symbols, each consisting of three parallel
+lines, broken or continuous. The continuous lines represented
+the male element in nature; the broken ones, the female. It
+is characteristic that the same ruler who assigned to man his
+position as the head of the family is also credited with the
+invention of that natural philosophy of the &ldquo;male and female
+principles,&rdquo; according to which all good things and qualities
+were held to be male, while their less sympathetic opposites were
+female, such as heaven and earth, sun and moon, day and night,
+south and north. If these traditions really represent the oldest
+prehistoric creations of the popular mind, it would almost seem
+that the most ancient Chinese shared that naïve sentiment
+which caused our own forefathers to invent gender. The difference
+is that, with us, the conception survives merely in the
+language, where the article or suffixes mark gender, whereas
+with the Chinese, whose language does not express gender, it
+survives in their system of metaphysics. For all their attempts
+at fathoming the secrets of nature are based on the idea that
+male or female powers are inherent in all matter.</p>
+
+<p>To the same Emperor Fu-hi are ascribed many of the
+elementary inventions which raise man from the life of a brute
+to that of a social being. He taught his people to hunt, to fish,
+and to keep flocks; he constructed musical instruments, and
+replaced a kind of knot-writing previously in use by a system
+of hieroglyphics. All this cannot of course be considered as
+history; but it shows that the authors of later centuries who
+credited Fu-hi with certain inventions were not quite illogical
+in starting from the matriarchal chaos, after which he is said
+to have organized society with occupations corresponding to
+those of a period of hunting, fishing and herding. This period
+was bound to be followed by a further step towards the final
+development of the nation&rsquo;s social condition; and we find it
+quite logically succeeded by a period of agricultural life, personified
+in the Emperor, Shön-nung, supposed to have lived in the
+twenty-eighth century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His name may be freely translated
+as &ldquo;Divine Labourer&rdquo;; and to him the Chinese ascribe the
+invention of agricultural implements, and the discovery of the
+medicinal properties of numerous plants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span>
+The third historical emperor was Huang-ti, the &ldquo;Yellow
+emperor,&rdquo; according to the literal translation. Ssï-ma Ts&lsquo;ién,
+the Herodotus of the Chinese, begins his history with him; but
+Fu-hi and Shön-nung are referred to in texts much older than
+this historian, though many details relating to their alleged
+reigns have been added in later times. Huang-ti extended the
+boundaries of the empire, described as being originally confined
+to a limited territory near the banks of the Yellow river and the
+present city of Si-an-fu. Here were the sites of cities used as
+capitals of the empire under various names during long periods
+since remote antiquity. To Huang-ti, whose reign is said to have
+commenced in 2704 according to one source and in 2491 according
+to another, are ascribed most of the cultural innovations which
+historians were not able otherwise to locate within historical
+times. Under Huang-ti we find the first mention of a nation
+called the Hun-yü, who occupied the north of his empire and with
+whom he is represented to have engaged in warfare. The Chinese
+identify this name with that of the Hiung-nu, their old hereditary
+enemy and the ancestors of Attila&rsquo;s Huns. Even though the
+details of these legendary accounts may deserve little confidence,
+there must have been an old tradition that a nation called the
+Hun-yü, occupying the northern confines of China, were the
+ancestors of the Hiung-nu tribes, well known in historical times,
+a scion of whose great khans settled in territory belonging to the
+king of Sogdiana during the first century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, levied tribute from
+his neighbours, the Alans, and with his small but warlike horde
+initiated that era of migrations which led to the overrunning of
+Europe with Central-Asiatic Tatars.</p>
+
+<p>Fu-hi, Shön-nung and Huang-ti represent a group of rulers
+comprised by the Chinese under the name of <i>San-huang</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
+&ldquo;The Three Emperors.&rdquo; Although we have no reason to deny
+their existence, the details recorded concerning them contain
+enough in the way of improbabilities to justify us in considering
+them as mythical creations. The chronology, too, is apparently
+quite fictitious; for the time allotted to their reigns is much
+too long as a term of government for a single human life, and,
+on the other hand, much too short, if we measure it by the
+cultural progress said to have been brought about in it. Fu-hi&rsquo;s
+period of hunting life must have lasted many generations before
+it led to the agricultural period represented by the name Shön-nung;
+and this period in turn could not possibly have led within
+a little more than one hundred years to the enormous progress
+ascribed to Huang-ti. Under the latter ruler a regular board
+of historians is said to have been organized with Ts&lsquo;ang-kié
+as president, who is known also as Shi-huang, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;the Emperor
+of Historians,&rdquo; the reputed inventor of hieroglyphic writing
+placed by some authors into the Fu-hi period and worshipped as
+Tz&lsquo;ï-shön, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;God of writing,&rdquo; to the present day. Huang-ti
+is supposed to have been the first builder of temples, houses and
+cities; to have regulated the calendar, to which he added the
+intercalary month; and to have devised means of traffic by
+cars drawn by oxen and by boats to ply on the lakes and rivers
+of his empire. His wife, known as &ldquo;the lady of Si-ling,&rdquo; is
+credited with the invention of the several manipulations in the
+rearing of silkworms and the manufacture of silk. The invention
+of certain flutes, combined to form a kind of reed organ, led to a
+deeper study of music; and in order to construct these
+instruments with the necessary accuracy a system of weights and
+measures had to be devised. Huang-ti&rsquo;s successors, Shau-hau,
+Chuan-hü, and Ti-k&lsquo;u, were less prominent, though each of them
+had their particular merits.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Model Emperors.</i>&mdash;Most of the stories regarding the &ldquo;Three
+Emperors&rdquo; are told in comparatively late records. The <i>Shu-king</i>,
+sometimes described as the &ldquo;Canon of History,&rdquo; our oldest source of
+pre-Confucian history, supposed to have been edited by Confucius
+himself, knows nothing of Fu-hi, Shön-nung and Huang-ti; but it
+begins by extolling the virtues of the emperor <i>Yau</i> and his
+successor <i>Shun</i>. Yau and Shun are probably the most popular names
+in Chinese history as taught in China. Whatever good qualities may
+be imagined of the rulers of a great nation have been heaped upon
+their heads; and the example of their lives has at all times been held
+up by Confucianists as the height of perfection in a sovereign&rsquo;s
+character. Yau, whose reign has been placed by the fictitious standard
+chronology of the Chinese in the years 2357-2258, and about
+200 years later by the less extravagant &ldquo;Annals of the Bamboo
+Books,&rdquo; is represented as the patron of certain astronomers who had
+to watch the heavenly bodies; and much has been written about the
+reputed astronomical knowledge of the Chinese in this remote period.
+Names like Deguignes, Gaubil, Biot and Schlegel are among those of
+the investigators. On the other side are the sceptics, who maintain
+that later editors interpolated statements which could have been
+made only with the astronomical knowledge possessed by their own
+contemporaries. According to an old legend, Shun banished &ldquo;the
+four wicked ones&rdquo; to distant territories. One of these bore the name
+<i>T&lsquo;au-t&lsquo;ié</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Glutton&rdquo;; called also San-miau. <i>T&lsquo;au-t&lsquo;ié</i>
+is also the name of an ornament, very common on the surface of the most
+ancient bronze vessels, showing the distorted face of some ravenous
+animal. The San-miau as a tribe are said to have been the forefathers
+of the Tangutans, the Tibetans and the Miau-tz&lsquo;ï in the south-west of
+China. This legend may be interpreted as indicating that the
+non-Chinese races in the south-west have come to their present seats by
+migration from Central China in remote antiquity. During Yau&rsquo;s
+reign a catastrophe reminding one of the biblical deluge threatened
+the Chinese world. The emperor held his minister of works, Kun,
+responsible for this misfortune, probably an inundation of the Yellow
+river such as has been witnessed by the present generation. Its
+horrors are described with poetical exaggeration in the <i>Shu-king</i>.
+When the efforts to stop the floods had proved futile for nine years,
+Yau wished to abdicate, and he selected a virtuous young man of the
+name of Shun as his successor. Among the legends told about this
+second model emperor is the story that he had a board before his
+palace on which every subject was permitted to note whatever faults
+he had to find with his government, and that by means of a drum
+suspended at his palace gate attention might be drawn to any
+complaint that was to be made to him. Since Kun had not succeeded in
+stopping the floods, he was dismissed and his son Yü was appointed
+in his stead. Probably the waters began to subside of their own
+accord, but Yü has been praised up as the national hero who, by his
+engineering works, saved his people from utter destruction. His
+labours in this direction are described in a special section of the
+Confucian account known as <i>Yü-kung</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Tribute of Yü.&rdquo; Yü&rsquo;s
+merit has in the sequel been exaggerated so as to credit him with
+more than human powers. He is supposed to have cut canals through
+the hills, in order to furnish outlets to the floods, and to have
+performed feats of engineering compared to which, according to Von
+Richthofen, the construction of the St Gotthard tunnel without blasting
+materials would be child&rsquo;s play, and all this within a few years.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Hia Dynasty.</i>&mdash;As a reward for his services Yü was
+selected to succeed Shun as emperor. He divided the empire
+into nine provinces, the description of which in the <i>Yü-kung</i>
+chapter of the &ldquo;Canon of History&rdquo; bears a suspicious resemblance
+to later accounts. Yü&rsquo;s reign has been assigned to the years
+2205-2198, and the Hia Dynasty, of which he became the head,
+has been made to extend to the overthrow in 1766 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> of Kié,
+its eighteenth and last emperor, a cruel tyrant of the most
+vicious and contemptible character. Among the Hia emperors
+we find <i>Chung-k&lsquo;ang</i> (2159-2147), whose reign has attracted
+the attention of European scholars by the mention of an eclipse
+of the sun, which his court astronomers had failed to predict.
+European astronomers and sinologues have brought much
+acumen to bear on the problem involved in the <i>Shu-king</i> account
+in trying to decide which of the several eclipses known to have
+occurred about that time was identical with the one observed
+in China under Chung-k&lsquo;ang.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Shang, or Yin, Dynasty.</i>&mdash;This period, which preceded the
+classical Chóu dynasty, is made to extend from 1766 to 1122
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> We must now be prepared to see an energetic or virtuous
+ruler at the head of a dynasty and either a cruel tyrant or a
+contemptible weakling at the end of it. It seems natural that
+this should be so; but Chinese historians, like the writers of
+Roman history, have a tendency to exaggerate both good and
+bad qualities. Ch&lsquo;öng-tang, its first sovereign, is represented
+as a model of goodness and of humane feeling towards his
+subjects. Even the animal world benefited by his kindness,
+inasmuch as he abolished all useless torture in the chase. His
+great minister I Yin, who had greatly assisted him in securing
+the throne, served two of his successors. P&lsquo;an-köng (1401)
+and Wu-ting (1324) are described as good rulers among a somewhat
+indifferent set of monarchs. The Shang dynasty, like
+the Hia, came to an end through the reckless vice and cruelty
+of a tyrant (Chóu-sin with his consort Ta-ki). China had even
+in those days to maintain her position as a civilized nation by
+keeping at bay the barbarous nations by which she was surrounded.
+Chief among these were the ancestors of the Hiung-nu
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span>
+tribes, or Huns, on the northern and western boundaries. To
+fight them, to make pacts and compromises with them, and to
+befriend them with gifts so as to keep them out of the Imperial
+territories, had been the rôle of a palatinate on the western
+frontier, the duchy of Chóu, while the court of China with its
+vicious emperor gave itself up to effeminate luxury. Chóu-sin&rsquo;s
+evil practices had aroused the indignation of the palatine,
+subsequently known as Wön-wang, who in vain remonstrated
+with the emperor&rsquo;s criminal treatment of his subjects. The
+strength and integrity of Wön-wang&rsquo;s character had made him
+the corner-stone of that important epoch; and his name is one
+of the best known both in history and in literature. The courage
+with which he spoke his mind in rebuking his unworthy liege
+lord caused the emperor to imprison him, his great popularity
+alone saving his life. During his incarceration, extending over
+three years, he compiled the <i>I-king</i>, or &ldquo;Canon of Changes,&rdquo;
+supposed to be the oldest book of Chinese literature, and certainly
+the one most extensively studied by the nation. Wön-wang&rsquo;s
+son, known as Wu-wang, was destined to avenge his father and
+the many victims of Chóu-sin&rsquo;s cruelty. Under his leadership
+the people rose against the emperor and, with the assistance of
+his allies, &ldquo;men of the west,&rdquo; possibly ancestors of the Huns,
+overthrew the Shang dynasty after a decisive battle, whereupon
+Chóu-sin committed suicide by setting fire to his palace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chóu Dynasty.</i>&mdash;Wu-wang, the first emperor of the new
+dynasty, named after his duchy of Chóu on the western frontier,
+was greatly assisted in consolidating the empire by his brother,
+Chóu-kung, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;Duke of Chóu.&rdquo; As the loyal prime-minister
+of Wu-wang and his successor the duke of Chóu laid the foundation
+of the government institutions of the dynasty, which became
+the prototype of most of the characteristic features in Chinese
+public and social life down to recent times. The brothers and
+adherents of the new sovereign were rewarded with fiefs which
+in the sequel grew into as many states. China thus developed
+into a confederation, resembling that of the German empire,
+inasmuch as a number of independent states, each having its
+own sovereign, were united under one liege lord, the emperor,
+styled &ldquo;The Son of Heaven,&rdquo; who as high priest of the nation
+reigned in the name of Heaven. The emperor represented the
+nation in sacrificing and praying to God. His relations with his
+vassals and government officials, and those of the heads of the
+vassal states with their subjects as well as of the people among
+themselves were regulated by the most rigid ceremonial. The
+dress to be worn, the speeches to be made, and the postures
+to be assumed on all possible occasions, whether at court or in
+private life, were subject to regulations. The duke of Chóu,
+or whoever may have been the creator of this system, showed
+deep wisdom in his speculations, if he based that immutability
+of government which in the sequel became a Chinese characteristic,
+on the physical and moral immutability of individuals by
+depriving them of all spontaneous action in public and private
+life. Originally and nominally the emperor&rsquo;s power as the ruler
+over his vassals, who again ruled in his name, was unquestionable;
+and the first few generations of the dynasty saw no decline
+of the original strength of central power. A certain loyalty
+based on the traditional ancestral worship counteracted the
+desire to revolt. The rightful heir to the throne was responsible
+to his ancestors as his subjects were to theirs. &ldquo;We have to
+do as our ancestors did,&rdquo; the people argued; &ldquo;and since they
+obeyed the ancestors of our present sovereign, we have to be
+loyal to him.&rdquo; Interference with this time-honoured belief would
+have amounted to a rupture, as it were, in the nation&rsquo;s religious
+relations, and as long as the people looked upon the emperor as
+the Son of Heaven, his moral power would outweigh strong armies
+sent against him in rebellion. The time came soon enough when
+central power depended merely on this spontaneous loyalty.</p>
+
+<p>Not all the successors of Wu-wang profited by the lessons
+given them by past history. Incapacity, excessive severity and
+undue weakness had created discontent and loosened the
+relations between the emperor and his vassals. Increase in the
+extent of the empire greatly added to this decline of central
+power. For the emperor&rsquo;s own dominion was centrally situated
+and surrounded by the several confederate states; its geographical
+position prevented it from participating in the general
+aggrandisement of China, and increase in territory, population
+and prestige had become the privilege of boundary states.
+Tatar tribes in the north and west and the aboriginal Man
+barbarians in the south were forced by warfare to yield land,
+or enticed to exchange it for goods, or induced to mingle with
+their Chinese neighbours, thus producing a mixed population
+combining the superior intelligence of the Chinese race with the
+energetic and warlike spirit of barbarians. These may be the
+main reasons which gradually undermined the Imperial authority
+and brought some of the confederate states to the front, so as to
+overshadow the authority of the Son of Heaven himself, whose
+military and financial resources were inferior to those of several
+of his vassals. A few out of the thirty-five sovereigns of the
+Chóu dynasty were distinguished by extraordinary qualities.
+Mu-wang of the 10th century performed journeys far beyond
+the western frontier of his empire, and was successful in warfare
+against the Dog Barbarians, described as the ancestors of the
+Hiung-nu, or Huns. The reign of Süan-wang (827-782 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+was filled with warfare against the Tangutans and the Huns,
+called Hién-yün in a contemporaneous poem of the &ldquo;Book of
+Odes&rdquo;; but the most noteworthy reign in this century is that
+of the lascivious Yu-wang, the oppressiveness of whose
+government had caused a bard represented in the &ldquo;Book of Odes&rdquo;
+to complain about the emperor&rsquo;s evil ways. The writer of this
+poem refers to certain signs showing that Heaven itself is
+indignant at Yu-wang&rsquo;s crimes. One of these signs was an eclipse
+of the sun which had recently occurred, the date and month being
+clearly stated. This date corresponds exactly with August 29,
+776 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and astronomers have calculated that on that precise
+date an eclipse of the sun was visible in North China. This,
+of course, cannot be a mere accident; and since the date falls
+into the sixth year of Yu-wang&rsquo;s reign, the coincidence is bound
+to increase our confidence in that part of Chinese history.
+Our knowledge of it, however, is due to mere chance; for the
+record of the eclipse would probably not have been preserved
+until our days had it not been interpreted as a kind of <i>tekel
+upharsin</i> owing to the peculiarity of the political situation.
+It does not follow, therefore, as some foreign critics assume,
+that the historical period begins as late as Yu-wang&rsquo;s reign.
+China has no architectural witnesses to testify to her antiquity
+as Egypt has in her pyramids and temple ruins; but the sacrificial
+bronze vessels of the Shang and Chóu dynasties, with their
+characteristic ornaments and hieroglyphic inscriptions, seem
+to support the historical tradition inasmuch as natural development
+may be traced by the analysis of their artistic and paleographic
+phases. Counterfeiters, say a thousand years later,
+could not have resisted the temptation to introduce patterns and
+hieroglyphic shapes of later periods; and whatever bronzes have
+been assigned to the Shang dynasty, <i>i.e.</i> some time in the second
+millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, exhibit the Shang characteristics. The words
+occurring in their inscriptions, carefully collected, may be shown
+to be confined to ideas peculiar to primitive states of cultural
+life, not one of them pointing to an invention we may suspect
+to be of later origin. But, apart from this, it seems a matter
+of individual judgment how far back beyond that indisputable
+year 776 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a student will date the beginning of real history.</p>
+
+<p>In the 7th century central authority had declined to such
+an extent that the emperor was merely the nominal head of the
+confederation, the hegemony in the empire falling in turn to
+one of the five principal states, for which reason the Chinese
+speak of a period of the &ldquo;Five Leaders.&rdquo; The state of Ts&lsquo;i,
+corresponding to North Shan-tung, had begun to overshadow
+the other states by unprecedented success in economic enterprise,
+due to the prudent advice of its prime minister, the philosopher
+Kuan-tzï. Other states attained leadership by success in warfare.
+Among these leaders we see duke Mu of T&lsquo;sin (659 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a
+state on the western boundary which was so much influenced
+by amalgamation with its Hunnic neighbours that the purely
+Chinese states regarded it as a barbarian country. The emperor
+was in those days a mere shadow; several of his vassals had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span>
+grown strong enough to claim and be granted the title &ldquo;king,&rdquo;
+and they all tried to annihilate their neighbours by ruse in
+diplomacy and by force of arms, without referring to their
+common ruler for arbitration, as they were in duty bound. In
+this <i>bellum omnium contra omnes</i> the state of Ts&lsquo;in, in spite of
+repeated reverses, remained in possession of the field.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The period of this general struggle is spoken of by Chinese historians
+as that of &ldquo;The Contending States.&rdquo; Like that of the &ldquo;Five
+Leaders&rdquo; it is full of romance; and the examples of heroism,
+cowardice, diplomatic skill and philosophical equanimity which fill
+the pages of its history have become the subject of elegant literature
+in prose and poetry. The political development of the Chóu dynasty
+is the exact counterpart of that of its spiritual life as shown in the
+contemporaneous literature. The orthodox conservative spirit which
+reflects the ethical views of the emperor and his royal partisans is
+represented by the name Confucius (551-479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The great sage
+had collected old traditions and formulated the moral principles
+which had been dormant in the Chinese nation for centuries. His
+doctrines tended to support the maintenance of central power; so
+did those of other members of his school, especially Mencius. Filial
+love showed itself as obedience to the parents in the family and as
+loyalty to the emperor and his government in public life. It was the
+highest virtue, according to the Confucian school. The history of the
+nation as taught in the <i>Shu-king</i> was in its early part merely an
+illustration of Confucianist ideas about good and bad government.
+The perpetual advice to rulers was: &ldquo;Be like Yau, Shun and Yü,
+and you will be right.&rdquo; Confucianism was dominant during the
+earlier centuries of the Chóu dynasty, whose lucky star began to
+wane when doctrines opposed to it got the upper hand. The philosophical
+schools built up on the doctrines of Lau-tzï had in the course
+of generations become antagonistic, and found favour with those who
+did not endorse that loyalty to the emperor demanded by Mencius;
+so had other thinkers, some of whom had preached morals which
+were bound to break up all social relations, like the philosopher of
+egotism, Yang Chu, according to Mencius disloyalty personified and
+the very reverse of his ideal, the duke of Chóu. The egotism
+recommended by Yang Chu to the individual had begun to be practised
+on a large scale by the contending states, their governments and
+sovereigns, some of whom had long discarded Confucian rites under
+the influence of Tatar neighbours. It appears that the anti-Confucian
+spirit which paved the way towards the final extinction
+of Wu-wang&rsquo;s dynasty received its chief nourishment from the Tatar
+element in the population of the northern and western boundary
+states. Among these Ts&lsquo;in was the most prominent. Having placed
+itself in the possession of the territories of nearly all of the remaining
+states, Ts&lsquo;in made war against the last shadow emperor, Nan-wang
+who had attempted to form an alliance against the powerful usurper,
+with the result that the western part of the Chóu dominion was lost
+to the aggressor.</p>
+
+<p>Nan-wang died soon after (256 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and a relative whom he had
+appointed regent was captured in 249 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the king of Ts&lsquo;in
+put an end to this last remnant of the once glorious Chóu dynasty
+by annexing its territory. The king had already secured the possession
+of the Nine Tripods, huge bronze vases said to have been cast
+by the emperor Yü as representing the nine divisions of his empire
+and since preseryed in the treasuries of all the various emperors as a
+symbol of Imperial power. With the loss of these tripods Nan-wang
+had forfeited the right to call himself &ldquo;Son of Heaven.&rdquo; Another
+prerogative was the offering of sacrifice to Shang-ti, the Supreme
+Ruler, or God, with whom only the emperor was supposed to
+communicate. The king of Ts&lsquo;in had performed the ceremony as early
+as 253 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. H.*)</div>
+
+<p class="center1">(C)&mdash;<i>From the Ts&lsquo;in Dynasty to 1875.</i></p>
+
+<p>After the fall of the Chóu dynasty a kind of interregnum
+followed during which China was practically without an emperor.
+This was the time when the state of Ts&lsquo;in asserted
+itself as the leader and finally as the master of all the
+<span class="sidenote">Ts&lsquo;in dynasty 249-210 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span>
+contending states. Its king, Chau-siang, who died in
+251 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, though virtually emperor, abstained from
+adopting the imperial title. He was succeeded by his son,
+Hiao-wên Wang, who died after a three days&rsquo; reign. Chwan-siang
+Wang, his son and successor, was a man of no mark. He died
+in 246 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> giving place to Shi Hwang-ti, &ldquo;the first universal
+emperor.&rdquo; This sovereign was then only thirteen, but he
+speedily made his influence felt everywhere. He chose Hien-yang,
+the modern Si-gan Fu, as his capital, and built there a
+<span class="sidenote">Shi Hwang-ti.</span>
+magnificent palace, which was the wonder and admiration
+of his contemporaries. He abolished the feudal
+system, and divided the country into provinces over
+whom he set officers directly responsible to himself. He constructed
+roads through the empire, he formed canals, and erected
+numerous and handsome public buildings.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Having settled the internal affairs of his kingdom, he turned his
+attention to the enemies beyond his frontier. Chief among these
+were the Hiung-nu Tatars, whose attacks had for years disquieted
+the Chinese and neighbouring principalities. Against these foes he
+marched with an army of 300,000 men, exterminating those in the
+neighbourhood of China, and driving the rest into Mongolia. On his
+return from this campaign he was called upon to face a formidable
+rebellion in Ho-nan, which had been set on foot by the adherents
+of the feudal princes whom he had dispossessed. Having crushed the
+rebellion, he marched southwards and subdued the tribes on the
+south of the Nan-shan ranges, <i>i.e.</i> the inhabitants of the modern
+provinces of Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. The limits of
+his empire were thus as nearly as possible those of modern China
+proper. One monument remains to bear witness to his energy.
+Finding that the northern states of Ts&lsquo;in, Chao and Yen were
+building lines of fortification along their northern frontier for
+protection against the Hiung-nu, he conceived the idea of building one
+gigantic wall, which was to stretch across the whole northern limit
+of the huge empire from the sea to the farthest western corner of the
+modern province of Kan-suh. This work was begun under his
+immediate supervision in 214 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His reforming zeal made him
+unpopular with the upper classes. Schoolmen and pedants held up
+to the admiration of the people the heroes of the feudal times and
+the advantages of the system they administered. Seeing in this
+propaganda danger to the state Shi Hwang-ti determined to break
+once and for all with the past. To this end he ordered the destruction
+of all books having reference to the past history of the empire,
+and many scholars were put to death for failing in obedience to it.
+(See <i>infra § Chinese Literature, §§ History.</i>) The measure was
+unpopular and on his death (210 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) rebellion broke out. His
+son and successor Erh-shi, a weak and debauched youth, was
+murdered after having offered a feeble resistance to his enemies.
+His son Tsze-yung surrendered to Liu Pang, the prince of Han, one
+of the two generals who were the leaders of the rebellion. He afterwards
+fell into the hands of Hiang Yu, the other chieftain, who put
+him and his family and associates to death. Hiang Yu aspiring to
+imperial honours, war broke out between him and Liu Pang.
+After five years&rsquo; conflict Hiang Yu was killed in a decisive battle
+before Wu-kiang. Liu Pang was then proclaimed emperor (206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+under the title of Kao-ti, and the new line was styled the Han dynasty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Kao-ti established his capital at Lo-yang in Ho-nan, and
+afterwards removed it to Chang-an in Shen-si. Having founded
+his right to rebel on the oppressive nature of the laws
+promulgated by Shi Hwang-ti, he abolished the
+<span class="sidenote">Han dynasty 206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span>
+ordinances of Ts&lsquo;in, except that referring to the
+destruction of the books&mdash;for, like his great predecessor,
+he dreaded the influence exercised by the <i>literati</i>&mdash;and
+he exchanged the worship of the gods of the soil of Ts&lsquo;in for that
+of those of Han, his native state. His successor Hwei-ti (194-179
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), however, gave every encouragement to literature, and
+appointed a commission to restore as far as possible the texts
+which had been destroyed by Shi Hwang-ti. In this the commission
+was very successful. It was discovered that in many
+cases the law had been evaded, while in numerous instances
+scholars were found to write down from memory the text of
+books of which all copies had been destroyed, though in some
+cases the purity of the text is doubtful and in other cases there
+were undoubted forgeries. A period of repose was now enjoyed
+by the empire. There was peace within its borders, and its
+frontiers remained unchallenged, except by the Hiung-nu, who
+suffered many severe defeats. Thwarted in their attacks on
+China, these marauders attacked the kingdom of the Yueh-chi,
+which had grown up in the western extremity of Kan-suh, and
+after much fighting drove their victims along the T&lsquo;ien-shan-nan-lu
+to the territory between Turkestan and the Caspian Sea.
+This position of affairs suggested to the emperor the idea of
+forming an offensive and defensive alliance with the Yueh-chi
+against the Hiung-nu. With this object the general Chang
+K&lsquo;ien was sent as an ambassador to western Tatary. After
+having been twice imprisoned by the Hiung-nu he returned to
+China. Chang K&lsquo;ien had actually reached the court of the
+Yueh-chi, or Indo-Scythians as they were called owing to their
+having become masters of India later on, and paid a visit to the
+kingdom of Bactria, recently conquered by the Yueh-chi. His
+report on the several kingdoms of western Asia opened up a new
+world to the Chinese, and numerous elements of culture, plants
+and animals were then imported for the first time from the west
+into China. While in Bactria Chan K&lsquo;ien&rsquo;s attention was first
+drawn to the existence of India, and attempts to send expeditions,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span>
+though at first fruitless, finally led to its discovery. Under
+Wu-ti (140-86 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the power of the Hiung-nu was broken and
+eastern Turkestan changed into a Chinese colony, through which
+caravans could safely pass to bring back merchandise and art
+treasures from Persia and the Roman market. By the Hans the
+feudal system was restored in a modified form; 103 feudal
+principalities were created, but they were more or less under
+the jurisdiction of civil governors appointed to administer the
+thirteen <i>chows</i> (provinces) into which the country was divided.
+About the beginning of the Christian era Wang Mang rose in
+revolt against the infant successor of P&lsquo;ing-ti (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1), and in
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 9 proclaimed himself emperor. He, however, only gained
+the suffrages of a portion of the nation, and before long his
+oppressive acts estranged his supporters. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 23 Liu Siu,
+one of the princes of Han, completely defeated him. His head
+was cut off, and his body was torn in pieces by his own soldiery.</p>
+
+<p>Liu Siu, was proclaimed emperor under the title of Kwang-wu-ti,
+reigned from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 58 to 76. Having fixed on Lo-yang
+in Ho-nan as his capital, the line of which he was the
+first emperor became known as the Eastern Han
+<span class="sidenote">Eastern Han dynasty, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 23.</span>
+dynasty. It is also known as the Later Han dynasty.
+During the reign of his successor Ming-ti, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 65,
+Buddhism was introduced from India into China (see ante
+§ <i>Religion</i>). About the same time the celebrated general Pan
+Ch&lsquo;ao was sent on an embassy to the king of Shen-shen, a small
+state of Turkestan, near the modern Pidjan. Before long he
+added the states of Shen-shen, Khotan, Kucha and Kashgar as
+apanages to the Chinese crown, and for a considerable period the
+country enjoyed prosperity. The Han dynasty (including in
+the term the Eastern Han dynasty) has been considered the first
+national dynasty and is one of the most famous in China; nor
+has any ruling family been more popular. The Chinese, especially
+the northern Chinese, still call themselves &ldquo;the sons of
+Han.&rdquo; The wealth and trade as well as the culture of the
+country was greatly developed, and the competitive examinations
+for literary degrees instituted. The homogeneity of the
+nation was so firmly established that subsequent dissensions
+and conquests could not alter fundamentally the character of
+the nation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Towards the end of the 2nd century the power of the Eastern Hans
+declined. In 173 a virulent pestilence, which continued for eleven
+years, broke out. A magical cure for this plague was said to have
+been discovered by a Taoist priest named Chang Chio, who in a
+single month won a sufficiently large following to enable him to gain
+possession of the northern provinces of the empire. He was, however,
+defeated by Ts&lsquo;aou Ts&lsquo;aou, another aspirant to imperial
+honours, whose son, Ts&lsquo;aou P&lsquo;ei, on the death of Hien-ti (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 220),
+proclaimed himself emperor, adopting the title of Wei as the appellation
+<span class="sidenote">Wei dynasty.</span>
+of his dynasty. There were then, however, two other
+claimants to the throne, Liu Pei and Sun Ch&lsquo;üan, and the
+three adventurers agreed to divide the empire between
+them. Ts&lsquo;aou P&lsquo;ei, under the title of Wên-ti, ruled over the kingdom
+of Wei (220), which occupied the whole of the central and northern
+portion of China. Liu Pei established the Shuh Han dynasty in the
+modern province of Sze-ch&lsquo;uen (221), and called himself Chao-lieh-ti;
+and to Sun Ch&lsquo;üan fell the southern provinces of the empire,
+from the Yangtsze-kiang southwards, including the modern Tongking,
+which he formed into the kingdom of Wu with Nan-king for
+his capital, adopting for himself the imperial style of Ta-tê (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+222).</p>
+
+<p>China during the period of the &ldquo;Three Kingdoms&rdquo; was a house
+divided against itself. Liu Pei, as a descendant of the house of
+Han, looked upon himself as the rightful sovereign of
+the whole empire, and he despatched an army under
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Three kingdom&rdquo; period.</span>
+Chu-ko Liang to support his claims. This army was met
+by an Oppossing force under the Wei commander Sze-ma I,
+of whom Chinese historians say that &ldquo;he led armies like a god,&rdquo;
+and who, by adopting a Fabian policy, completely discomfited his
+adversary. But the close of this campaign brought no peace to the
+country. Wars became chronic, and the reins of power slipped out
+of the hands of emperors into those of their generals. Foremost
+among these were the members of the Sze-ma family of Wei. Sze-ma
+I left a son, Sze-ma Chao, scarcely less distinguished than himself,
+and when Sze-ma Chao died his honours descended to Sze-ma Yen,
+who deposed the ruling sovereign of Wei, and proclaimed himself
+emperor of China (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 265). His dynasty he styled the Western
+Tsin dynasty, and he adopted for himself the title of Wu-ti. The most
+noticeable event in this reign was the advent of the ambassadors of
+the emperor Diocletian in 284. For some years the neighbouring states
+appear to have transferred their allegiance from the house of Wei to
+that of Tsin. Wu-ti&rsquo;s successors proving, however, weak and incapable,
+the country soon fell again into disorder. The Hiung-nu renewed
+incursions into the empire at the beginning of the 4th
+<span class="sidenote">Western Tsin dynasty.</span>
+century, and in the confusion which followed, an adventurer
+named Liu Yuen established himself (in 311) as emperor,
+first at P&lsquo;ing-yang in Shan-si and afterwards in Lo-yang
+and Chang-an. The history of this period is very chaotic.
+Numerous states sprang into existence, some founded by the Hiung-nu
+and others by the Sien-pi tribe, a Tungusic clan, inhabiting a
+territory to the north of China, which afterwards established the
+Liao dynasty in China. In 419 the Eastern Tsin dynasty came to
+an end, and with it disappeared for nearly two hundred years all
+semblance of united authority. The country became divided into
+two parts, the north and the south. In the north four families
+reigned successively, two of which were of Sien-pi origin, viz. the Wei
+and the How Chow, the other two, the Pih Ts&lsquo;i and the How Liang,
+being Chinese. In the south five different houses supplied rulers,
+who were all of Chinese descent.</p>
+
+<p>This period of disorder was brought to a close by the establishment
+of the Suy dynasty (590). Among the officials of the ephemeral
+dynasty of Chow was one Yang Kien, who on his daughter
+becoming empress (578) was created duke of Suy. Two
+<span class="sidenote">Suy dynasty.</span>
+years later Yang Kien proclaimed himself emperor. The
+country, weary of contention, was glad to acknowledge his undivided
+authority; and during the sixteen years of his reign the
+internal affairs of China were comparatively peaceably administered.
+The emperor instituted an improved code of laws, and added 5000
+volumes to the 10,000 which composed the imperial library. Abroad,
+his policy was equally successful. He defeated the Tatars and
+chastised the Koreans, who had for a long period recognized Chinese
+suzerainty, but were torn by civil wars and were disposed to reject
+her authority. After his death in 604 his second son forced the heir
+to the throne to strangle himself, and then seized the throne. This
+usurper, Yang-ti, sent expeditions against the Tatars, and himself
+headed an expedition against the Uighurs, while one of his generals
+annexed the Lu-chu Islands to the imperial crown. During his
+reign the volumes in the imperial library were increased to 54,000,
+and he spent vast sums in erecting a magnificent palace at Lo-yang,
+and in constructing unprofitable canals. These and other extravagances
+laid so heavy a burden on the country that discontent began
+again to prevail, and on the emperor&rsquo;s return from a successful
+expedition against the Koreans, he found the empire divided into
+rebellious factions. In the troubles which followed General Li
+Yuen became prominent. On the death of the emperor by assassination
+this man set Kung-ti, the rightful heir, on the throne (617)
+until such time as he should have matured his schemes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Kung-ti was poisoned in the following year and Li Yuen
+proclaimed himself as Kao-tsu, the first emperor of the T&lsquo;ang
+dynasty. At this time the Turks were at the height of
+their power in Asia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turks</a></span>: <i>History</i>), and Kao-tsu
+<span class="sidenote">Tang dynasty.</span>
+was glad to purchase their alliance with money.
+But divisions weakened the power of the Turks, and T&lsquo;ai-tsung
+(reigned 627-650), Kao-tsu&rsquo;s son and successor, regained much of
+the position in Central Asia which had formerly been held by
+China. In 640 Hami, Turfan and the rest of the Turkish territory
+were again included within the Chinese empire, and four military
+governorships were appointed in Central Asia, viz. at Kucha,
+Khotan, Kharastan and Kashgar. At the same time the frontier
+was extended as far as eastern Persia and the Caspian Sea. So
+great was now the fame of China, that ambassadors from Nepal,
+Magadha, Persia and Constantinople (643) came to pay their
+court to the emperor. Under T&lsquo;ai-tsung there was national unity
+and peace, and in consequence agriculture and commerce as well
+as literature flourished. The emperor gave direct encouragements
+to the Nestorians, and gave a favourable reception to an
+embassy from Mahommed (see ante § <i>Religion</i>). On the accession
+of Kao-tsung (650) his wife, Wu How, gained supreme influence,
+and on the death of her husband in 683 she set aside his lawful
+successor, Chung-tsung, and took possession of the throne. This
+was the first occasion the country was ruled by a dowager
+empress. She governed with discretion, and her armies defeated
+the Khitán in the north-east and also the Tibetans, who had
+latterly gained possession of Kucha, Khotan and Kashgar. On
+her death, in 705, Chung-tsung partially left the obscurity in
+which he had lived during his mother&rsquo;s reign. But his wife,
+desiring to play a similar rôle to that enjoyed by her mother-in-law,
+poisoned him and set his son, Jui-tsung (710), on the throne.
+This monarch, who was weak and vicious, was succeeded by Yuen-tsung
+(713), who introduced reform into the administration and
+encouraged literature and learning. The king of Khokand
+applied for aid against the Tibetans and Arabs, and Yuen-tsung
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span>
+sent an army to his succour, but his general was completely
+defeated. During the disorder which arose in consequence of
+the invasion of the northern provinces by the Khitán, General
+An Lu-shan, an officer of Turkish descent, placed himself at the
+head of a revolt, and having secured Tung-kwan on the Yellow
+river, advanced on Chang-an. Thereupon the emperor fled, and
+placed his son, Su-tsung (756-762), on the throne. This
+sovereign, with the help of the forces of Khotan, Khokand and
+Bokhara, of the Uighurs and of some 4000 Arabs sent by the
+caliph Mansur, completely defeated An Lu-shan. During the
+following reigns the Tibetans made constant incursions into the
+western provinces of the empire, and T&lsquo;ai-tsung (763-780)
+purchased the assistance of the Turks against those intruders by
+giving a Chinese princess as wife to the khan.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At this epoch the eunuchs of the palace gained an unwonted degree
+of power, and several of the subsequent emperors fell victims to their
+plots. The T&lsquo;ang dynasty, which for over a hundred years had
+governed firmly and for the good of the nation, began to decline.
+The history of the 8th and 9th centuries is for the most part a
+monotonous record of feeble governments, oppressions and rebellions.
+Almost the only event worth chronicling is the iconoclastic policy of
+the emperor Wu-tsung (841-847). Viewing the increase of monasteries
+and ecclesiastical establishments as an evil, he abolished all temples,
+closed the monasteries and nunneries, and sent the inmates back to
+their families. Foreign priests were subjected to the same repressive
+legislation, and Christians, Buddhists and Magi were bidden to return
+whence they came. Buddhism again revived during the reign of the
+emperor I-tsung (860-874), who, having discovered a bone of
+Buddha, brought it to the capital in great state. By internal dissensions
+the empire became so weakened that the prince of Liang
+found no difficulty in gaining possession of the throne (907). He
+took the title of T&lsquo;ai-tsu, being the first emperor of the Later Liang
+dynasty. Thus ended the T&lsquo;ang dynasty, which is regarded as being
+the golden age of Chinese literature.</p>
+
+<p>Five dynasties, viz. the Later Liang, the Later T&lsquo;ang, the Later
+Tsin, the Later Han and the Later Chow, followed each other between
+the years 907 and 960. Though the monarchs of these lines nominally
+held sway over the empire, their real power was confined to very
+narrow limits. The disorders which were rife during the time when
+the T&lsquo;ang dynasty was tottering to its fall fostered the development
+of independent states, and so arose Liang in Ho-nan and Shan-tung,
+Ki in Shen-si, Hwai-nan in Kiang-nan, Chow in Sze-ch&lsquo;uen and parts
+of Shen-si and Hu-kwang, Wu-yu&#277; in Cheh-kiang, Tsu and King-nan
+in Hu-kwang, Ling-nan in Kwang-tung and the Uighurs in Tangut.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A partial end was made to this recognized disorganization
+when, in 960, General Chao Kw&lsquo;ang-yin was proclaimed by
+the army emperor in succession to the youthful
+Kung-ti, who was compelled to abdicate. The circumstances
+<span class="sidenote">Sung dynasty.</span>
+of the time justified the change. It required
+a strong hand to weld the empire together again, and to resist
+the attacks of the Khitán Tatars, whose rule at this period
+extended over the whole of Manchuria and Liao-tung. Against
+these aggressive neighbours T&lsquo;ai-tsu (<i>né</i> Chao Kw&lsquo;ang-yin)
+directed his efforts with varying success, and he died in 976,
+while the war was still being waged. His son T&lsquo;ai-tsung (976-997)
+entered on the campaign with energy, but in the end was compelled
+to conclude a peace with the Khitán. His successor,
+Chên-tsung (997-1022), paid them tribute to abstain from
+further incursions. Probably this tribute was not sent regularly;
+at all events, under Jên-tsung (1023-1064), the Khitán again
+threatened to invade the empire, and were only bought off
+by the promise of an annual tribute of taels 200,000 of silver,
+besides a great quantity of silken piece goods. Neither was this
+arrangement long binding, and so formidable were the advances
+made by the Tatars in the foilowing reigns, that Hwei-tsung
+(1101-1126) invited the Nüchih Tatars to expel the Khitán from
+Liao-tung. This they did, but having once possessed themselves
+of the country they declined to yield it to the Chinese, and the
+result was that a still more aggressive neighbour was established
+on the north-eastern frontier of China. The Nüchih or Kin,
+as they now styled themselves, overran the provinces of Chih-li,
+Shen-si, Shan-si and Ho-nan, and during the reign of Kao-tsung
+(1127-1163) they advanced their conquests to the line of the
+Yangtsze-kiang. From this time the Sung ruled only over
+southern China; while the Kin or &ldquo;Golden&rdquo; dynasty reign«d
+in the north. The Kin made Chung-tu, which occupied in part
+the site of the modern Peking, their usual residence. The Sung
+fixed their capital at Nanking and afterwards at Hangchow.
+Between them and the Kin there was almost constant war.</p>
+
+<p>During this period the Mongols began to acquire power in
+eastern Asia, and about the beginning of the 12th century the
+forces of Jenghiz Khan (<i>q.v.</i>) invaded the north-western
+frontier of China and the principality of Hia, which
+<span class="sidenote">Mongol invasion: 12th century.</span>
+at that time consisted of the modern provinces of
+Shen-si and Kan-suh. To purchase the good-will
+of the Mongols the king of Hia agreed to pay them a tribute,
+and gave a princess in marriage to their ruler. In consequence
+of a dispute with the Kin emperor Wei-shao Wang, Jenghiz
+Khan determined to invade Liao-tung. He was aided by the
+followers of the Khitán leader Yeh-lü Ts&lsquo;u-ts&lsquo;ai, and in alliance
+with this general he captured Liao-yang, the capital city.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>After an unsuccessful invasion of China in 1212, Jenghiz Khan
+renewed the attack in 1213. He divided his armies into four divisions,
+and made a general advance southwards. His soldiers swept
+over Ho-nan, Chih-li and Shan-tung, destroying upwards of ninety
+cities. It was their boast that a horseman might ride without
+stumbling over the sites where those cities had stood. Panic-stricken,
+the emperor moved his court from Chung-tu to K&lsquo;ai-fêng
+Fu, much against the advice of his ministers, who foresaw the
+disastrous effect this retreat would have on the fortunes of Kin.
+The state of Sung, which up to this time had paid tribute, now
+declined to recognize Kin as its feudal chief, and a short time afterwards
+declared war against its quondam ally. Meanwhile, in 1215,
+Yeh-lü Ts&lsquo;u-ts&lsquo;ai advanced into China by the Shan-hai Kwan, and
+made himself master of Peking, one of the few cities in Chih-li which
+remained to Kin. After this victory his nobles wished him to proclaim
+himself emperor, but he refused, being mindful of an oath
+which he had sworn to Jenghiz Khan. In 1216 Tung-kwan, a
+mountain pass on the frontiers of Ho-nan and Shen-si, and the scene
+of numerous dynastic battles (as it is the only gateway between
+north-eastern and north-western China), was taken by the invaders.
+As the war dragged on the resistance offered by the Kin grew weaker
+and weaker. In 1220 Chi-nan Fu, the capital of Shan-tung, was
+taken, and five years later Jenghiz Khan marched an army westward
+into Hia and conquered the forces of the king. Two years later
+(1227) Jenghiz Khan died.</p>
+
+<p>With the view to the complete conquest of China by the Mongols,
+Jenghiz declined to nominate either of the eldest two sons who had
+been born to his Chinese wives as his heir, but chose his third son
+Ogdai, whose mother was a Tatar. On hearing of the death of
+Jenghiz Khan the Kin sent an embassy to his successor desiring
+peace, but Ogdai told them there would be no peace for them until
+their dynasty should be overthrown. Hitherto the Mongols had been
+without any code of laws. But the consolidation of the nation by
+the conquests of Jenghiz Khan made it necessary to establish a
+recognized code of laws, and one of the first acts of Ogdai was to
+form such a code. With the help also of Yeh-lü Ts&lsquo;u-ts&lsquo;ai, he established
+custom-houses in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shan-si and Liao-tung;
+and for this purpose divided these provinces into ten departments.
+Meanwhile the war with the Kin was carried on with energy. In
+1230 Si-gan Fu was taken, and sixty important posts were captured.
+Two years later, Tu-lé, brother of Ogdai, took Fêng-siang Fu and
+Han-chung Fu, in the flight from which last-named place 100,000
+persons are said to have perished. Following the course of the river
+Han in his victorious career, this general destroyed 140 towns and
+fortresses, and defeated the army of Kin at Mount San-fêng.</p>
+
+<p>In 1232 the Mongols made an alliance with the state of Sung, by
+which, on condition of Sung helping to destroy Kin, Ho-nan was to
+be the property of Sung for ever. The effect of this
+coalition soon became apparent. Barely had the Kin
+<span class="sidenote">The Kin dynasty overthrown.</span>
+emperor retreated from K&lsquo;ai-fêng Fu to Ju-ning Fu in Ho-nan
+when the former place fell into the hands of the allies.
+Next fell Loyang, and the victorious generals then marched
+on to besiege Ju-ning Fu. The presence of the emperor gave energy
+to the defenders, and they held out until every animal in the city
+had been killed for food, until every old and useless person had
+suffered death to lessen the number of hungry mouths, until so many
+able-bodied men had fallen that the women manned the ramparts,
+and then the allies stormed the walls. The emperor burned himself
+to death in his palace, that his body might not fall into the hands of
+his enemies. For a few days the shadow of the imperial crown rested
+on the head of his heir Chang-lin, but in a tumult which broke out
+amongst his followers he lost his life, and with him ended the
+&ldquo;Golden&rdquo; dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the treaty between Ogdai and Sung, no sooner
+were the spoils of Kin to be divided than war broke out again
+between them, in prosecuting which the Mongol armies swept over
+the provinces of Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, Hu-kwang, Kiang-nan and Ho-nan,
+and were checked only when they reached the walls of Lu-chow Fu
+in Ngan-hui. Ogdai died in 1241, and was nominally succeeded by
+his grandson Cheliemên. But one of his widows, Tolickona, took
+possession of the throne, and after exercising rule for four years,
+established her son Kwei-yew as great khan. In 1248 his life was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span>
+cut short, and the nobles, disregarding the claims of Cheliemên,
+proclaimed as emperor Mangu, the eldest son of Tu-lé. Under this
+monarch the war against Sung was carried on with energy, and
+Kublai, outstripping the bounds of Sung territory, made his way
+into the province of Yun-nan, at that time divided into a number of
+independent states, and having attached them to his brother&rsquo;s
+crown he passed on into Tibet, Tongking and Cochin-China, and
+thence striking northwards entered the province of Kwang-si.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the death of Mangu in 1259 Kublai (<i>q.v.</i>) ascended the
+throne. Never in the history of China was the nation more
+illustrious, nor its power more widely felt, than under
+his sovereignty. During the first twenty years of
+<span class="sidenote">Kublai Khan emperior.</span>
+his reign Sung kept up a resistance against his
+authority. Their last emperor Ping-ti, seeing his
+cause lost, drowned himself in the sea. The Sung dynasty,
+which had ruled southern China 320 years, despite its misfortunes
+is accounted one of the great dynasties of China. During its
+sway arts and literature were cultivated and many eminent
+writers flourished. His enemies subdued, Kublai Khan in 1280
+assumed complete jurisdiction as emperor of China. He took
+the title of Shit-su and founded what is known as the Yuen
+dynasty. He built a new capital close to Chung-tu, which
+became known as Kaanbaligh (city of the khan), in medieval
+European chronicles, Cambaluc, and later as Peking. At this
+time his authority was acknowledged &ldquo;from the Frozen Sea,
+almost to the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of
+Hindustan, Arabia and the westernmost parts of Asia, all the
+Mongol princes as far as the Dnieper declared themselves his
+vassals, and brought regularly their tribute.&rdquo; It was during
+this reign that Marco Polo visited China, and he describes in
+glowing colours the virtues and glories of the &ldquo;great khan.&rdquo;
+His rule was characterized by discretion and munificence.
+He undertook public works, he patronized literature, and relieved
+the distress of the poor, but the Chinese never forgot that he
+was an alien and regarded him as a barbarian. He died unregretted
+in 1294. His son had died during his lifetime, and
+after some contention his grandson Timur ascended the throne
+under the title of Yuen-chêng. This monarch died in 1307 after
+an uneventful reign, and, as he left no son, Wu-tsung, a Mongol
+prince, became emperor. To him succeeded Jên-tsung in 1312,
+who made himself conspicuous by the honour he showed to the
+memory of Confucius, and by distributing offices more equally
+between Mongols and Chinese than had hitherto been done.
+This act of justice gave great satisfaction to the Chinese, and his
+death ended a peaceful and prosperous reign in 1320. At this
+time there appears to have been a considerable commercial
+intercourse between Europe and China. But after Jên-tsung&rsquo;s
+death the dynasty fell on evil days. The Mongols in adopting
+Chinese civilization had lost much of their martial spirit. They
+were still regarded as alien by the Chinese and numerous secret
+societies were formed to achieve their overthrow. Jên-tsung&rsquo;s
+successors were weak and incapable rulers, and in the person of
+Shun-ti (1333-1368) were summed up the vices and faults of
+his predecessors. Revolts broke out, and finally this descendant
+of Jenghiz Khan was compelled to fly before Chu Yüen-chang,
+the son of a Chinese labouring man. Deserted by his followers,
+he sought refuge in Ying-chang Fu, and there the last of the
+Yüen dynasty died. These Mongol emperors, whatever their
+faults, had shown tolerance to Christian missionaries and Papal
+legates (see <i>ante</i> § <i>The Medieval Cathay</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Chu Yüen-chang met with little opposition, more especially
+as his first care on becoming possessed of a district was to
+suppress lawlessness and to establish a settled government.
+In 1355 he captured Nanking, and proclaimed
+<span class="sidenote">Ming dynasty.</span>
+himself duke of Wu, but carefully avoided adopting
+any of the insignia of royalty. Even when master of the empire,
+thirteen years later, he still professed to dislike the idea of
+assuming the imperial title. His scruples were overcome, and
+he declared himself emperor in 1368. He carried his arms
+into Tatary, where he subdued the last semblance of Mongol
+power in that direction, and then bent his steps towards Liao-tung.
+Here the Mongols defended themselves with the bravery
+of despair, but unavailingly, and the conquest of this province
+left Hung-wu, as the founder of the new or Ming (&ldquo;Bright&rdquo;)
+dynasty styled himself, without a foe in the empire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>All intercourse with Europe seems now to have ceased until the
+Portuguese arrived in the 16th century, but Hung-wu cultivated
+friendly relations with the neighbouring states. As a quondam
+Buddhist priest he lent his countenance to that religion to the
+exclusion of Taoism, whose priests had for centuries earned the
+contempt of all but the most ignorant by their pretended magical
+arts and their search after the philosopher&rsquo;s stone. Hung-wu died
+in 1398 and was succeeded by his grandson Kien-Wên. Aware that
+the appointment of this youth&mdash;his father was dead&mdash;would give
+offence to the young emperor&rsquo;s uncles, Hung-wu had dismissed them
+to their respective governments. However, the prince of Yen, his
+eldest surviving son, rose in revolt as soon as the news reached him
+of his nephew&rsquo;s accession, and after gaining several victories over the
+armies of Kien-wên he presented himself before the gates of Nanking,
+the capital. Treachery opened the gates to him, and the emperor
+having fled in the disguise of a monk, the victorious prince became
+emperor and took the title of Yung-lo (1403). At home Yung-lo
+devoted himself to the encouragement of literature and the fine arts,
+and, possibly from a knowledge that Kien-wên was among the
+Buddhist priests, he renewed the law prohibiting Buddhism. Abroad
+he swept Cochin-China and Tongking within the folds of his empire
+and carried his arms into Tatary, where he made new conquests of
+waste regions, and erected a monument of his victories. He died in
+1425, and was succeeded by his son Hung-hi.</p>
+
+<p>Hung-hi&rsquo;s reign was short and uneventful. He strove to promote
+only such mandarins as had proved themselves to be able and honest,
+and to further the welfare of the people. During the reign of his
+successor, Süen-tê (1426-1436), the empire suffered the first loss of
+territory since the commencement of the dynasty. Cochin-China
+rebelled and gained her independence. The next emperor, Chêng-t&lsquo;ung
+(1436), was taken prisoner by a Tatar chieftain, a descendant
+of the Yüen family named Yi-sien, who had invaded the northern
+Erovinces. Having been completely defeated by a Chinese force
+from Liao-tung, Yi-sien liberated his captive, who reoccupied the
+throne, which during his imprisonment (1450-1457) had been held by
+his brother King-ti. The two following reigns, those of Chêng-hwa
+(1465-1488) and of Hung-chi (1488-1506), were quiet and peaceful.</p>
+
+<p>The most notable event in the reign of the next monarch, Chêng-te
+(1506-1522), was the arrival of the Portuguese at Canton (1517).
+From this time dates modern European intercourse with China.
+Chêng-te suppressed a formidable insurrection headed by the prince
+of Ning, but disorder caused by this civil war encouraged the foreign
+enemies of China. From the north came a Tatar army under Yen-ta
+in 1542, during the reign of Kia-tsing, which laid waste the province
+of Shen-si, and even threatened the capital, and a little later a
+Japanese fleet ravaged the littoral provinces. Ill-blood had arisen
+between the two peoples before this, and a Japanese colony had been
+driven out of Ningpo by force and not without bloodshed a few years
+previously. Kia-tsing (d. 1567) was not equal to such emergencies,
+and his son Lung-king (1567-1573)sought to placate the Tatar Yen-ta
+by making him a prince of the empire and giving him commercial
+privileges, which were supplemented by the succeeding emperor
+Wan-li (1573-1620) by the grant of land in Shen-si. During the reign
+of this sovereign, in the year 1592, the Japanese successfully invaded
+Korea, and Taikosarna, the regent of Japan, was on the point of
+proclaiming himself king of the peninsula, when a large Chinese force,
+answering to the invitation of the king, appeared and completely
+routed the Japanese army, at the same time that the Chinese fleet
+cut off their retreat by sea. In this extremity the Japanese sued for
+peace, and sent an embassy to Peking to arrange terms.
+<span class="sidenote">Struggle with Japan for Korea.</span>
+But the peace was of short duration. In 1597 the Japanese
+again invaded Korea, defeated the Chinese army, destroyed
+the Chinese fleet and ravaged the coast. Suddenly, however,
+when in the full tide of conquest, they evacuated Korea, which
+again fell under the direction of China. Four years later the missionary
+Matteo Ricci (<i>q.v.</i>) arrived at the Chinese court; and though at
+first the emperor was inclined to send him out of the country, his
+abilities gradually won for him the esteem of the sovereign and his
+ministers, and he remained the scientific adviser of the court until his
+death in 1610.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>About this time the Manchu Tatars, goaded into war by the
+injustice they were constantly receiving at the hands of the
+Chinese, led an army into China (in 1616) and completely defeated
+the force which was sent against them. Three years later they
+gained possession of the province of Liao-tung. These disasters
+overwhelmed the emperor, and he died of a broken heart in 1620.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year T&lsquo;ien-ming, the Manchu sovereign, having
+declared himself independent, moved the court to San-ku, to the
+east of Mukden, which, five years later, he made his
+capital. In 1627 Ts&lsquo;ung-chêng, the last emperor of
+<span class="sidenote">Manchu invasion: 17th century.</span>
+the Ming dynasty, ascended the Chinese throne. In
+his reign English merchants first made their appearance
+at Canton. The empire was now torn by internal dissensions.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span>
+Rebel bands, enriched by plunder, and grown bold by success,
+began to assume the proportion of armies. Two rebels, Li
+Tsze-ch&lsquo;êng and Shang K&lsquo;o-hi, decided to divide the empire
+between them. Li besieged K&lsquo;ai-fêng Fu, the capital of Ho-nan,
+and so long and closely did he beleaguer it that in the consequent
+famine human flesh was regularly sold in the markets. At
+length an imperial force came to raise the siege, but fearful of
+meeting Li&rsquo;s army, they cut through the dykes of the Yellow
+River, &ldquo;China&rsquo;s Sorrow,&rdquo; and flooded the whole country,
+including the city. The rebels escaped to the mountains, but
+upwards of 200,000 inhabitants perished in the flood, and the
+city became a heap of ruins (1642). From K&lsquo;ai-fêng Fu Li
+marched against the other strongholds of Ho-nan and Shen-si,
+and was so completely successful that he determined to attack
+Peking. A treacherous eunuch opened the gates to him, on
+being informed of which the emperor committed suicide. When
+the news of this disaster reached the general-commanding on the
+frontier of Manchu Tatary, he, in an unguarded moment, concluded
+a peace with the Manchus, and invited them to dispossess
+Li Tsze-ch&lsquo;êng. The Manchus entered China, and after defeating
+a rebel army sent against them, they marched towards Peking.
+On hearing of the approach of the invaders, Li Tsze-ch&lsquo;êng,
+after having set fire to the imperial palace, evacuated the city,
+but was overtaken, and his force was completely routed.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese now wished the Manchus to retire, but, having
+taken possession of Peking, they proclaimed the ninth son of
+T&lsquo;ien-ming emperor of China under the title of Shun-chi,
+and adopted the name of Ta-ts&lsquo;ing, or &ldquo;Great Pure,&rdquo;
+<span class="sidenote">Ta-ts&lsquo;ing dynasty.</span>
+for the dynasty (1644). Meanwhile the mandarins
+at Nanking had chosen an imperial prince to ascend the throne.
+At this most inopportune moment &ldquo;a claimant&rdquo; to the throne,
+in the person of a pretended son of the last emperor, appeared
+at court. While this contention prevailed inside Nanking the
+Tatar army appeared at the walls. There was no need for them
+to use force. The gates were thrown open, and they took
+possession of the city without bloodshed. Following the
+conciliatory policy they had everywhere pursued, they confirmed
+the mandarins in their offices and granted a general amnesty
+to all who would lay down their arms. As the Tatars entered the
+city the emperor left it, and after wandering about for some
+days in great misery, he drowned himself in the Yangtsze-kiang.
+Thus ended the Ming dynasty, and the empire passed again under
+a foreign yoke. By the Mings, who partly revived the feudal
+system by making large territorial grants to members of the
+reigning house, China was divided into fifteen provinces; the existing
+division into eighteen provinces was made by the Manchus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>All accounts agree in stating that the Manchu conquerors are
+descendants of a branch of the family which gave the Kin dynasty to
+the north of China; and in lieu of any authentic account of their
+early history, native writers have thrown a cloud of fable over their
+origin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manchuria</a></span>). In the 16th century they were strong
+enough to cope with their Chinese neighbours. Doubtless the Mings
+tried to check their ambition by cruel reprisals, but against this must
+be put numerous Manchu raids into Liao-tung.</p>
+
+<p>The accession to the throne of the emperor Shun-chi did not restore
+peace to the country. In Kiang-si, Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and
+Kwang-si the adherents of the Ming dynasty defended themselves
+vigorously but unsuccessfully against the invaders, while the pirate
+Chêng Chi-lung, the father of the celebrated Coxinga, kept up a
+predatory warfare against them on the coast. Eventually he was
+induced to visit Peking, where he was thrown into prison and died.
+Coxinga, warned by his father&rsquo;s example, determined to leave the
+mainland and to seek an empire elsewhere. His choice fell on
+Formosa, and having driven out the Dutch, who had established
+themselves in the island in 1624, he held possession until the reign of
+K&lsquo;ang-hi, when (1682) he resigned in favour of the imperial government.
+Meanwhile a prince of the house of Ming was proclaimed
+emperor in Kwang-si, under the title of Yung-li. The Tatars having
+reduced Fu-kien and Kiang-si, and having taken Canton after a
+siege of eight months, completely routed his followers, and Yung-li
+was compelled to fly to Pegu. Some years later, with the help of
+adherents in Yun-nan and Kwei-chow, he tried to regain the throne,
+but his army was scattered, and he was taken prisoner and strangled.
+Gradually opposition to the new régime became weaker and weaker,
+and the shaved head with the pig-tail&mdash;the symbol of Tatar
+sovereignty&mdash;became more and more adopted. In 1651 died Ama
+Wang, the uncle of Shun-chi, who had acted as regent during his
+nephew&rsquo;s minority, and the emperor then assumed the government
+of the state. He appears to have taken a great interest in science,
+and to have patronized Adam Schaal, a German Jesuit, who was at
+that time resident at Peking. It was during his reign (1656) that
+the first Russian embassy arrived at the capital, but as the envoy
+declined to <i>kowtow</i> before the emperor he was sent back without
+having been admitted to an audience.</p>
+
+<p>After an unquiet reign of seventeen years Shun-chi died (1661).
+and was succeeded by his son K&lsquo;ang-hi. He came into collision with
+the Russians, who had reached the Amur regions about 1640 and had
+built a fort on the upper Amur; but by the Treaty of Nerchinsk, concluded
+in 1689 (the first treaty made between China and a European
+power), the dispute was settled, the Amur being taken as the frontier.
+K&lsquo;ang-hi was indefatigable in administering the affairs of the empire,
+and he devoted much of his time to literary and scientific studies
+under the guidance of the Jesuits. The dictionary of the Chinese
+language, published under his superintendence, proves him to have
+been as great a scholar as his conquests over the Eleuths show him
+to have been famous as a general. During one of his hunting expeditions
+to Mongolia he caught a fatal cold, and he died in 1721.
+Under his rule Tibet was added to the empire, which extended from
+the Siberian frontier to Cochin-China, and from the China Sea to
+Turkestan. During his reign there was a great earthquake at Peking,
+in which 400,000 people are said to have perished.</p>
+
+<p>K&lsquo;ien-lung, who began to reign in 1735, was ambitious and warlike.
+He marched an army into Hi, which he converted into a Chinese
+province, and he afterwards added eastern Turkestan to the empire.
+Twice he invaded Burma, and once he penetrated into Cochin-China,
+but in neither country were his arms successful. He is accused of
+great cruelty towards his subjects, which they repaid by rebelling
+against him. During his reign the Mahommedan standard was first
+raised in Kan-suh. (Since the Mongol conquest in the 13th century
+there had been a considerable immigration of Moslems into western
+China; and numbers of Chinese had become converts). But the
+Mussulmans were unable to stand against the imperial troops;
+their armies were dispersed; ten thousand of them were exiled; and
+an order was issued that every Mahommedan in Kan-suh above the
+age of fifteen should be put to death (1784).</p>
+
+<p>K&lsquo;ien-lung wrote incessantly, both poetry and prose, collected
+libraries and republished works of value. His campaigns furnished
+him with themes for his verses, and in the Summer Palace was found
+a handsome manuscript copy of a laudatory poem he composed on
+the occasion of his war against the Gurkhas. This was one of the
+most successful of his military undertakings. His generals marched
+70,000 men into Nepal to within 60 miles of the British frontiers,
+and having subjugated the Gurkhas they received the submission of
+the Nepalese, and acquired an additional hold over Tibet (1792).
+In other directions his arms were not so successful. There is no poem
+commemorating the campaign against the rebellious Formosans,
+nor lament over the loss of 100,000 men in that island, and the last
+few years of his reign were disturbed by outbreaks among the Miao-tsze,
+hill tribes living in the mountains in the provinces of Kwei-chow
+and Kwang-si. In 1795, after a reign of sixty years, K&lsquo;ien-lung
+abdicated in favour of his fifteenth son, who adopted the title of
+Kia-k&lsquo;ing as the style of his reign. K&lsquo;ien-lung died at the age of
+eighty-eight in 1798.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the reign of K&lsquo;ien-lung commerce between Europe
+and Canton&mdash;the only Chinese port then open to foreign trade&mdash;had
+attained important dimensions. It was mainly
+in the hands of the Portuguese, the British and the
+<span class="sidenote">Trade with Europe.</span>
+Dutch. The British trade was then a monopoly of the
+East India Company. The trade, largely in opium, tea and silk,
+was subject to many exactions and restrictions,<a name="FnAnchor_49d" id="FnAnchor_49d" href="#Footnote_49d"><span class="sp">49</span></a> and many acts
+of gross injustice were committed on the persons of Englishmen.
+To obtain some redress the British government at length sent
+an embassy to Peking (1793) and Lord Macartney was chosen
+to represent George III. on the occasion. The mission was treated
+as showing that Great Britain was a state tributary to China,
+and Lord Macartney was received with every courtesy. But the
+concessions he sought were not accorded, and in this sense his
+mission was a failure.</p>
+
+<p>Kia-k&lsquo;ing&rsquo;s reign was disturbed and disastrous. In the
+northern and western provinces, rebellion after rebellion broke
+out, due in a great measure to the carelessness, incompetency
+and obstinacy of the emperor, and the coasts were infested with
+pirates, whose number and organization enabled them for a long
+time to hold the imperial fleet in check. Meanwhile the condition
+of the foreign merchants at Canton had not improved, and to set
+matters on a better footing the British government despatched
+a second ambassador in the person of Lord Amherst to Peking
+in 1816. As he declined to <i>kowtow</i> before the emperor, he was
+not admitted to the imperial presence and the mission proved
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span>
+abortive. Destitute of all royal qualities, a slave to his passions,
+and the servant of caprice, Kia-k&lsquo;ing died in 1820. The event
+fraught with the greatest consequences to China which occurred
+in his reign (though at the time it attracted little attention) was
+the arrival of the first Protestant missionary, Dr R. Morrison
+(<i>q.v.</i>), who reached Canton in 1807.</p>
+
+<p>Tao-kwang (1820-1850), the new emperor, though possessed
+in his early years of considerable energy, had no sooner ascended
+the throne than he gave himself up to the pursuit of pleasure.
+The reforms which his first manifestoes foreshadowed never
+seriously occupied his attention. Insurrection occurred in
+Formosa, Kwang-si, Ho-nan and other parts of the empire, and
+the Triad Society, which had originated during the reign of
+K&lsquo;ang-hi, again became formidable.</p>
+
+<p>More important to the future of the country than the internal
+disturbances was the new attitude taken at this time towards
+China by the nations of Europe. Hitherto the European
+missionaries and traders in China had been dependent upon
+the goodwill of the Chinese. The Portuguese had been allowed
+to settle at Macao (<i>q.v.</i>) for some centuries; Roman Catholic
+missionaries since the time of Ricci had been alternately patronized
+and persecuted; Protestant missionaries had scarcely
+gained a foothold; the Europeans allowed to trade at Canton
+continued to suffer under vexatious regulations&mdash;the Chinese
+in general regarded Europeans as barbarians, &ldquo;foreign devils.&rdquo;
+Of the armed strength of Europe they were ignorant. They were
+now to be undeceived, Great Britain being the first power to
+take action. The hardships inflicted on the British merchants
+at Canton became so unbearable that when, in 1834, the monopoly
+of the East India Company ceased, the British government
+sent Lord Napier as minister to superintend the foreign trade
+at that port. Lord Napier was inadequately supported, and the
+anxieties of his position brought on an attack of fever, from
+which he died at Macao after a few months&rsquo; residence in China.
+The chief cause of complaint adduced by the mandarins was
+the introduction of opium by the merchants, and for years
+they attempted by every means in their power to put a stop
+to its importation. At length Captain (afterwards Admiral
+Sir Charles) Elliot, the superintendent of trade, in 1839 agreed
+that all the opium in the hands of Englishmen should be given
+up to the native authorities, and he exacted a pledge from the
+merchants that they would no longer deal in the drug. On the
+3rd of April 20,283 chests of opium were handed over to the
+mandarins and were by them destroyed. The surrender of the
+<span class="sidenote">War with Great Britain, 1840.</span>
+opium led to further demands by Lin Tze-su, the
+Chinese imperial commissioner, demands which were
+considered by the British government to amount to
+a <i>casus belli</i>, and in 1840 war was declared. In the
+same year the fleet captured Chusan, and in the following year
+the Bogue Forts fell, in consequence of which operations the
+Chinese agreed to cede Hong-Kong to the victors and to pay
+them an indemnity of 6,000,000 dollars. As soon as this news
+reached Peking, Ki Shen, who had succeeded Commissioner Lin,
+was dismissed from his post and degraded, and Yi Shen, another
+Tatar, was appointed in his room. Before the new commissioner
+reached his post Canton had fallen into the hands of Sir Hugh
+Gough, and shortly afterwards Amoy, Ning-po, Tinghai in
+Chusan, Chapu, Shanghai and Chin-kiang Fu shared the same
+fate. Nanking would also have been captured had not the
+imperial government, dreading the loss of the &ldquo;Southern
+Capital,&rdquo; proposed terms of peace. Sir Henry Pottinger, who
+had succeeded Captain Elliot, concluded, in 1842, a treaty with
+the imperial commissioners, by which the four additional ports
+of Amoy, Fu-chow, Ningpo and Shanghai were declared open to
+foreign trade, and an indemnity of 21,000,000 dollars was to be
+paid to the British.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On the accession of Hien-fêng in 1850, a demand was raised for
+the reforms which had been hoped for under Tao-kwang, but Hien-fêng
+possessed in an exaggerated form the selfish and
+tyrannical nature of his father, together with a voluptuary&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Hien-fêng emperor.</span>
+craving for every kind of sensual pleasure. For some
+time Kwang-si had been in a very disturbed state, and when the
+people found that there was no hope of relief from the oppression
+they endured, they proclaimed a youth, who was said to be the
+representative of the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, as emperor,
+under the title of T&lsquo;ien-tê or &ldquo;Heavenly Virtue.&rdquo; From Kwang-si
+the revolt spread into Hu-peh and Hu-nan, and then languished from
+want of a leader and a definite political cry. When, however, there
+appeared to be a possibility that, by force of arms and the persuasive
+influence of money, the imperialists would re-establish their
+supremacy, a leader presented himself in Kwang-si, whose energy of
+character, combined with great political and religious enthusiasm,
+speedily gained for him the suffrages of the discontented. This was
+Hung Siu-ts&lsquo;üan. He proclaimed himself as sent by heaven to drive
+out the Tatars, and to restore in his own person the succession to
+China. At the same time, having been converted to Christianity and
+professing to abhor the vices and sins of the age, he called on all the
+virtuous of the land to extirpate rulers who were standing examples
+of all that was base and vile in human nature. Crowds soon flocked
+to his standard. T&lsquo;ien-tê was deserted; and putting himself at the
+head of his followers (who abandoned the practice of shaving the
+head), Hung Siu-ts&lsquo;üan marched northwards and captured Wu-ch&lsquo;ang
+on the Yangtsze-kiang, the capital of Hu-peh. Then, moving
+down the river, he proceeded to the attack of Nanking. Without
+much difficulty Hung Siu-ts&lsquo;üan in 1853 established himself within
+its walls, and proclaimed the inauguration of the T&lsquo;ai-p&lsquo;ing dynasty,
+of which he nominated himself the first emperor under the title of
+T&lsquo;ien Wang or &ldquo;Heavenly king.&rdquo; During the next few years his
+armies penetrated victoriously as far north as Tientsin and as far east
+as Chin-kiang and Su-chow, while bands of sympathizers with his
+<span class="sidenote">T&lsquo;ai-p&lsquo;ing rebellion.</span>
+cause appeared in the neighbourhood of Amoy. As if still
+further to aid him in his schemes, Great Britain declared
+war against the Tatar dynasty in 1857, in consequence of
+an outrage known as the &ldquo;Arrow&rdquo; affair (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parkes</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sir Harry
+Smith</a></span>). In December 1857 Canton was taken by the British, and a
+further blow was struck against the prestige of the Manchu dynasty
+by the determination of Lord Elgin, who had been sent as special
+ambassador, to go to Peking and communicate directly with the
+emperor. In May 1858 the Taku Forts were taken, and Lord Elgin
+went up the Peiho to Tientsin <i>en route</i> for the capital. At Tientsin,
+however, imperial commissioners persuaded him to conclude a treaty
+with them on the spot, which treaty it was agreed should be ratified
+at Peking in the following year. When, however, Sir Frederick
+Bruce, who had been appointed minister to the court of Peking,
+attempted to pass Taku to carry out this arrangement, the vessels
+escorting him were treacherously fired on from the forts and he was
+compelled to return. Thereupon Lord Elgin was again sent out with
+full powers, accompanied by a large force under the command of Sir
+Hope Grant. The French (to seek reparation for the murder of a
+missionary in Kwang-si) took part in the campaign, and on the 1st of
+August 1860 the allies landed without meeting with any opposition
+at Pei-tang, a village 12 m. north of Taku. A few days later the forts
+at that place were taken, and thence the allies marched to Peking.
+Finding further resistance to be hopeless, the Chinese opened
+negotiations, and as a guarantee of their good faith surrendered the
+An-ting gate of the capital to the allies. On the 24th of October
+1860 the treaty of 1858 was ratified by Prince Kung and Lord Elgin,
+and a convention was signed under the terms of which the Chinese
+agreed to pay a war indemnity of 8,000,000 taels. The right of
+Europeans to travel in the interior was granted and freedom guaranteed
+to the preaching of Christianity. The customs tariff then agreed
+upon legalized the import of opium, though the treaty of 1858, like
+that of 1842, was silent on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Great Britain and France were not the only powers of Europe with
+whom Hien-fêng was called to deal. On the northern border of the
+empire Russia began to exercise pressure. Russia had begun to
+colonize the lower Amur region, and was pressing towards the
+Pacific. This was a remote region, only part of the Chinese empire
+since the Manchu conquest, and by treaties of 1858 and 1860 China
+ceded to Russia all its territory north of the Amur and between the
+Ussuri and the Pacific (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Amur</a></span>, province). The Russians in their
+newly acquired land founded the port of Vladivostok (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Hien-fêng died in the summer of the year 1861, leaving the
+throne to his son T&lsquo;ung-chi (1861-1875), a child of five years old,
+whose mother, Tsz&lsquo;e Hsi (1834-1908), had been raised
+from the place of favourite concubine to that of Imperial
+<span class="sidenote">T&lsquo;ung-chi emperor; dowager empress regent.</span>
+Consort. The legitimate empress, Tsz&lsquo;e An, was childless,
+and the two dowagers became joint regents. The conclusion
+of peace with the allies was the signal for a
+renewal of the campaign against the T&lsquo;ai-p&lsquo;ings, and,
+benefiting by the friendly feelings of the British authorities engendered
+by the return of amicable relations, the Chinese government
+succeeded in enlisting Major Charles George Gordon (<i>q.v.</i>) of the
+Royal Engineers in their service. In a suprisingly short space of
+time this officer formed the troops, which had formerly been under
+the command of an American named Ward, into a formidable army,
+and without delay took the field against the rebels. From that day
+the fortunes of the T&lsquo;ai-p&lsquo;ings declined. They lost city after city,
+and, finally in July 1864, the imperialists, after an interval of twelve
+years, once more gained possession of Nanking. T&lsquo;ien Wang committed
+suicide on the capture of his capital, and with him fell his
+cause. Those of his followers who escaped the sword dispersed
+throughout the country, and the T&lsquo;ai-p&lsquo;ings ceased to be.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span></p>
+
+<p>With the measure of peace which was then restored to the country
+trade rapidly revived, except in Yun-nan, where the Mahommedan
+rebels, known as Panthays, under Suleiman, still kept the imperial
+forces at bay. Against these foes the government was careless to
+take active measures, until in 1872 Prince Hassan, the adopted son
+of Suleiman, was sent to England to gain the recognition of the
+queen for his father&rsquo;s government. This step aroused the susceptibilities
+of the imperial government, and a large force was
+despatched to the scene of the rebellion. Before the year was out
+the Mahommedan capital Ta-li Fu fell into the hands of the imperialists,
+and the followers of Suleiman were mercilessly exterminated.
+In February 1873 the two dowager empresses resigned their
+powers as regents. This long-expected time was seized upon by the
+foreign ministers to urge their right of audience with the emperor,
+and on the 29th of June 1873 tne privilege of gazing on the &ldquo;sacred
+countenance&rdquo; was accorded them.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor T&lsquo;ung-chi died without issue, and the succession to
+the throne, for the first time in the annals of the Ts&lsquo;ing dynasty,
+passed out of the direct line. As already stated, the first
+emperor of the Ts&lsquo;ing dynasty, Shih-tsu Hwangti, on
+<span class="sidenote">Accession of Kwang-su, 1875.</span>
+gaining possession of the throne on the fall of the Ming,
+or &ldquo;Great Bright&rdquo; dynasty, adopted the title of Shun-chi
+for his reign, which began in the year 1644. The legendary
+progenitor of these Manchu rulers was Aisin Gioro, whose name is
+said to point to the fact of his having been related to the race of
+Nü-chih, or Kin, <i>i.e.</i> Golden Tatars, who reigned in northern China
+during the 12th and 13th centuries. K&lsquo;ang-hi (1661-1722) was the
+third son of Shun-chi; Yung-chêng (1722-1735) was the fourth son
+of K&lsquo;ang-hi; K&lsquo;ien-lung (1736-1795) was the fourth son of Yung-chêng;
+Kia-k&lsquo;ing (1796-1820) was the fifteenth son of K&lsquo;ien-lung;
+Tao-Kwang (1821-1850) was the second son of Kia-k&lsquo;ing; Hien-fêng
+(1851-1861) was the fourth of the nine sons who were born to
+the emperor Tao-kwang; and T&lsquo;ung-chi (1862-1875) was the only
+son of Hien-fêng. The choice now fell upon Tsai-t&lsquo;ien (as he was
+called at birth), the infant son (born August 2, 1872) of Yi-huan,
+Prince Chun, the seventh son of the emperor Tao-kwang and brother
+of the emperor Hien-fêng; his mother was a sister of the empress
+Tsz&lsquo;e Hsi, who, with the aid of Li Hung-chang, obtained his adoption
+and proclamation as emperor, under the title of Kwang-su, &ldquo;Succession
+of Glory.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent the confusion which would arise among the
+princes of the imperial house were they each to adopt an arbitrary
+name, the emperor K&lsquo;ang-hi decreed that each of his
+twenty-four sons should have a <i>personal</i> name consisting
+<span class="sidenote">Imperial family nomenclature and rank.</span>
+of two characters, the first of which should be <i>Yung</i>, and
+the second should be compounded with the determinative
+<i>shih</i>, &ldquo;to manifest,&rdquo; an arrangement which would, as has
+been remarked, find an exact parallel in a system by which
+the sons in an English family might be called Louis <i>Edward</i>, Louis
+<i>Edwin</i>, Louis <i>Edwy</i>, Louis <i>Edgar</i> and so on. This device obtained also
+in the next generation, all the princes of which had <i>Hung</i> for their
+first name, and the emperor K&lsquo;ien-lung (1736-1795) extended it into
+a system, and directed that the succeeding generations should take
+the four characters <i>Yung</i>, <i>Mien</i>, <i>Yih</i> and <i>Tsai</i> respectively, as the
+first part of their names. Eight other characters, namely, <i>P&lsquo;u</i>, <i>Yu</i>,
+<i>Hêng</i>, <i>K&lsquo;i</i>, <i>Tao</i>, <i>K&lsquo;ai</i>, <i>Tsêng</i>, <i>Ki</i>, were subsequently added, thus providing
+generic names for twelve generations. With the generation represented
+by Kwang-su the first four characters were exhausted, and
+any sons of the emperor Kwang-su would therefore have been called
+<i>P&lsquo;u</i>. By the ceremonial law of the &ldquo;Great Pure&rdquo; dynasty, twelve
+degrees of rank are distributed among the princes of the imperial
+house, and are as follows: (1) Ho-shih Tsin Wang, prince of the
+first order; (2) To-lo Keun Wang, prince of the second order;
+(3) To-lo Beileh, prince of the third order; (4) Ku-shan Beitsze,
+prince of the fourth order; 5 to 8, Kung, or duke (with distinctive
+designations); 9 to 12, Tsiang-keun, general (with distinctive designations).
+The sons of emperors usually receive patents of the first
+or second order on their reaching manhood, and on their sons is
+bestowed the title of <i>Beileh</i>. A <i>Beileh&rsquo;s</i> sons become <i>Beitsze</i>; a
+Beitsze&rsquo;s sons become <i>Kung</i>, and so on.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. K. D.; X.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1">(D)&mdash;<i>From 1875 to 1901.</i></p>
+
+<p>The accession to the throne of Kwang-su in January 1875
+attracted little notice outside China, as the supreme power
+continued to be vested in the two dowager-empresses&mdash;the
+empress Tsz&lsquo;e An, principal wife of the emperor
+<span class="sidenote">The two dowager-empresses.</span>
+Hien-fêng, and the empress Tsz&lsquo;e Hsi, secondary wife
+of the same emperor, and mother of the emperor
+T&lsquo;ung-chi. Yet there were circumstances connected with the
+emperor Kwang-su&lsquo;s accession which might well have arrested
+attention. The emperor T&lsquo;ung-chi, who had himself succumbed
+to an ominously brief and mysterious illness, left a young widow
+in an advanced state of pregnancy, and had she given birth to a
+male child her son would have been the rightful heir to the throne.
+But even before she sickened and died&mdash;of grief, it was officially
+stated, at the loss of her imperial spouse&mdash;the dowager-empresses
+had solved the question of the succession by placing Kwang-su
+on the throne, a measure which was not only in itself arbitrary,
+but also in direct conflict with one of the most sacred of Chinese
+traditions. The solemn rites of ancestor-worship, incumbent on
+every Chinaman, and, above all, upon the emperor, can only be
+properly performed by a member of a younger generation than
+those whom it is his duty to honour. The emperor Kwang-su,
+being a first cousin to the emperor T&lsquo;ung-chi, was not therefore
+qualified to offer up the customary sacrifices before the ancestral
+tablets of his predecessor. The accession of an infant in the
+place of T&lsquo;ung-Tchi achieved, however, for the time being what
+was doubtless the paramount object of the policy of the two
+empresses, namely, their undisturbed tenure of the regency, in
+which the junior empress Tsz&lsquo;e Hsi, a woman of unquestionable
+ability and boundless ambition, had gradually become the
+predominant partner.</p>
+
+<p>The first question that occupied the attention of the government
+under the new reign was one of the gravest importance,
+and nearly led to a war with Great Britain. The Indian
+government was desirous of seeing the old trade relations
+between Burma and the south-west provinces, which had been
+interrupted by the Yun-nan rebellion, re-established, and for that
+purpose proposed to send a mission across the frontier into China.
+The Peking government assented and issued passports
+<span class="sidenote">Murder of Mr Margary.</span>
+for the party, which was under the command of Colonel
+Browne. Mr A.R. Margary, a young and promising
+member of the China consular service, who was told
+off to accompany the expedition as interpreter, was treacherously
+murdered by Chinese at the small town of Manwyne and almost
+simultaneously an attack was made on the expedition by armed
+forces wearing Chinese uniform (January 1875). Colonel Browne
+with difficulty made his way back to Bhamo and the expedition
+was abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>Tedious negotiations followed, and, more than eighteen months
+after the outrage, an arrangement was come to on the basis of
+guarantees for the future, rather than vengeance for
+the past. The arrangement was embodied in the
+<span class="sidenote">Chifu convention 1876.</span>
+Chifu convention, dated 13th September 1876. The
+terms of the settlement comprised (1) a mission of
+apology from China to the British court; (2) the promulgation
+throughout the length and breadth of the empire of an imperial
+proclamation, setting out the right of foreigners to travel under
+passport, and the obligation of the authorities to protect them;
+and (3) the payment of indemnity. Additional articles were
+subsequently signed in London relative to the collection of likin
+on Indian opium and other matters.</p>
+
+<p>Simultaneously with the outbreak of the Mahommedan
+rebellion in Yun-nan, a similar disturbance had arisen
+in the north-west provinces of Shen-si and Kan-suh.
+This was followed by a revolt of the whole of the
+<span class="sidenote">Revolt in Central Asia.</span>
+Central Asian tribes, which for two thousand years had
+more or less acknowledged the imperial sway. In Kashgaria a
+nomad chief named Yakub Beg, otherwise known as the Atalik
+Gh&#257;zi, had made himself amir, and seemed likely to establish
+a strong rule. The fertile province of Kulja or Ili, lying to the
+north of the T&lsquo;ianshan range, was taken possession of by Russia
+in 1871 in order to put a stop to the prevailing anarchy, but
+with a promise that when China should have succeeded in
+re-establishing order in her Central Asian dominions it should be
+given back. The interest which was taken in the rebellion in
+Central Asia by the European powers, notably by the sultan of
+Turkey and the British government, aroused the Chinese to
+renewed efforts to recover their lost territories, and, as in the
+case of the similar crisis in Yun-nan, they undertook the task
+with sturdy deliberation. They borrowed money&mdash;£1,600,000&mdash;for
+the expenses of the expedition, this being the first appearance
+of China as a borrower in the foreign markets, and appointed the
+viceroy, Tso Tsung-t&lsquo;ang, commander-in-chief. By degrees the
+emperor&rsquo;s authority was established from the confines of Kan-suh
+to Kashgar and Yarkand, and Chinese garrisons were stationed
+in touch with the Russian outpost in the region of the Pamirs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span>
+(December 1877). Russia was now called upon to restore
+Kulja, China being in a position to maintain order. China
+despatched Chung-how, a Manchu of the highest rank, who had
+been notoriously concerned in the Tientsin massacre of 1870,
+to St Petersburg to negotiate a settlement. After some months
+of discussion a document was signed (September 1879), termed
+<span class="sidenote">Imperial consolidation.</span>
+the treaty of Livadia, whereby China recovered, not
+indeed the whole, but a considerable portion of the
+territory, on her paying to Russia five million
+roubles as the cost of occupation. The treaty was,
+however, received with a storm of indignation in China.
+Memorials poured in from all sides denouncing the treaty and
+its author. Foremost among these was one by Chang Chih-tung,
+who afterwards became the most distinguished of the
+viceroys, and governor-general of Hu-peh and Hu-nan provinces.
+Prince Chun, the emperor&rsquo;s father, came into prominence at this
+juncture as an advocate for war, and under these combined
+influences the unfortunate Chung-how was tried and condemned
+to death (3rd of March 1880). For some months warlike preparations
+went on, and the outbreak of hostilities was imminent.
+In the end, however, calmer counsels prevailed. It was decided
+to send the Marquis Tseng, who in the meantime had become
+minister in London, to Russia to negotiate. A new treaty
+which still left Russia in possession of part of the Ili valley
+was ratified on the 19th of August 1881. The Chinese government
+could now contemplate the almost complete recovery of
+the whole extensive dominions which had at any time owned
+the imperial sway. The regions directly administered by the
+officers of the emperor extended from the borders of Siberia
+on the north to Annam and Burma on the south, and from
+the Pacific Ocean on the east to Kashgar and Yarkand on the
+west. There was also a fringe of tributary nations which still
+kept up the ancient forms of allegiance, and which more or
+less acknowledged the dominioi of the central kingdom. The
+principal tributary nations then were Korea, Lu-chu, Annam,
+Burma and Nepal.</p>
+
+<p>Korea was the first of the dependencies to come into notice. In
+1866 some Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered, and
+about the same time an American vessel was burnt in one of the
+rivers and her crew murdered. China refused satisfaction; both
+to France and America, and suffered reprisals to be made on
+Korea without protest. America and Japan both desired to
+conclude commercial treaties for the opening up of Korea, and
+proposed to negotiate with China. China refused and
+<span class="sidenote">Korea and Japan.</span>
+referred them to the Korean government direct, saying
+she was not wont to interfere in the affairs of her vassal
+states. As a result Japan concluded a treaty in 1876, in which
+the independence of Korea was expressly recognized. This was
+allowed to pass without protest, but as other nations proceeded
+to conclude treaties on the same terms China began to perceive
+her mistake, and endeavoured to tack on to each a declaration
+by the king that he was in fact a tributary&mdash;a declaration,
+however, which was quietly ignored. Japan, however, was the
+only power with which controversy immediately arose. In 1882
+a faction fight, which had long been smouldering, broke out,
+headed by the king&rsquo;s father, the Tai Won Kun, in the course of
+which the Japanese legation was attacked and the whole Japanese
+colony had to flee for their lives. China sent troops, and by
+adroitly kidnapping the Tai Won Kun, order was for a time
+restored. The Japanese legation was replaced, but under the
+protection of a strong body of Japanese troops. Further revolutions
+and riots followed, in which the troops of the two countries
+took sides, and there was imminent danger of war. To obviate
+this risk, it was agreed in 1885 between Count Ito and Li Hung-Chang
+that both sides should withdraw their troops, the king
+being advised to engage officers of a third state to put his army
+on such a footing as would maintain order, and each undertook
+to give the other notice should it be found necessary to send
+troops again. In this way a <i>modus vivendi</i> was established
+which lasted till 1894.</p>
+
+<p>We can only glance briefly at the domestic affairs of China during
+the period 1875-1882. The years 1877-1878 were marked by
+a famine in Shan-si and Shan-tung, which for duration and
+intensity has probably never been equalled. It was computed
+that 12 or 13 millions perished. It was vainly hoped
+<span class="sidenote">Domestic affairs, 1875-1882.</span>
+that this loss of life, due mainly to defective commumcations,
+would induce the Chinese government
+to listen to proposals for railway construction.
+The Russian scare had, however, taught the Chinese the value
+of telegraphs, and in 1881 the first line was laid from Tientsin
+to Shanghai. Further construction was continued without
+intermission from this date. A beginning also was made in
+naval affairs. The arsenal at Fuchow was turning out small
+composite gunboats, a training ship was bought and put under
+the command of a British officer. Several armoured cruisers
+were ordered from England, and some progress was made
+with the fortifications of Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei. Forts
+were also built and guns mounted at Fuchow, Shanghai, Canton
+and other vulnerable points. Money for these purposes was
+abundantly supplied by the customs duties on foreign trade,
+and China had learnt that at need she could borrow from the
+foreign banks on the security of this revenue.</p>
+
+<p>In 1881 the senior regent, the empress Tsz&lsquo;e An, was carried
+off by a sudden attack of heart disease, and the empress Tsz&lsquo;e Hsi
+remained in undivided possession of the supreme power during
+the remainder of the emperor Kwang-su&rsquo;s minority. Li Hung-Chang,
+firmly established at Tientsin, within easy reach of the
+capital, as viceroy of the home province of Chih-li and superintendent
+of northern trade, enjoyed a larger share of his imperial
+mistress&rsquo;s favour than was often granted by the ruling Manchus
+to officials of Chinese birth, and in all the graver questions of
+foreign policy his advice was generally decisive.</p>
+
+<p>While the dispute with Japan was still going on regarding
+Korea, China found herself involved in a more serious quarrel in
+respect of another tributary state which lay on the
+southern frontier. By a treaty made between France
+<span class="sidenote">Tongking and Hanoi.</span>
+and Annam in 1874, the Red river or Songkoi, which
+rising in-south-western China, flows through Tongking,
+was opened to trade, together with the cities of Haiphong and
+Hanoi situated on the delta. The object of the French was to
+find a trade route to Yun-nan and Sze-ch&lsquo;uen from a base of their
+own, and it was hoped the Red river would furnish such a
+route. Tongking at this time, however, was infested with bands
+of pirates and cut-throats, many of whom were Chinese rebels
+or ex-rebels who had been driven across the frontier by the
+suppression of the Yun-nan and Taiping rebellions, conspicuous
+among them being an organization called the Black Flags.
+And when in 1882 France sent troops to Tongking to restore
+order (the Annamese government having failed to fulfil its
+promises in that respect) China began to protest, claiming that
+Annam was a vassal state and under her protection.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>France took no notice of the protest, declaring that the claim had
+merely an archaeological interest, and that, in any case, China in
+military affairs was a <i>quantité négligeable</i>. France found,
+however, that she had undertaken a very serious task in
+<span class="sidenote">Troubles with France.</span>
+trying to put down the forces of disorder (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tongking</a></span>).
+The Black Flags were, it was believed, being aided by
+money and arms from China, and as time went on, the French were
+more and more being confronted with regular Chinese soldiers.
+Several forts, well within the Tongking frontier, were known to be
+garrisoned by Chinese troops. Operations continued with more or
+less success during the winter and spring of 1883-1884. Both sides,
+however, were desirous of an arrangement, and in May 1884 a convention
+was signed between Li Hung-Chang and a Captain Fournier,
+who had been commissioned <i>ad hoc</i>, whereby China agreed to withdraw
+her garrisons and to open her frontiers to trade, France agreeing,
+on her part, to respect the fiction of Chinese suzerainty, and guarantee
+the frontier from attack by brigands. No date had been fixed in the
+convention for the evacuation of the Chinese garrisons, and Fournier
+endeavoured to supplement this by a memorandum to Li Hung-Chang,
+at the same time announcing the fact to his government. In
+pursuance of this arrangement the French troops proceeded to occupy
+Langson on the date fixed (21st June 1884). The Chinese commandant
+refused to evacuate, alleging, in a despatch which no one
+in the French camp was competent to translate, that he had received
+no orders, and begged for a short delay to enable him to communicate
+with his superiors. The French commandant ordered an attack,
+which was repulsed with severe loss. Mutual recriminations ensued.
+From Paris there came a demand for a huge indemnity as reparation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span>
+for the insult. The Peking government offered to carry out the
+convention, and to pay a small indemnity for the lives lost through
+the misunderstanding. This was refused, and hostilities recommenced,
+or, as the French preferred to call them, reprisals, for the
+fiction was still kept up that the two countries were not at war.
+Under cover of this fiction the French fleet peaceably entered the
+harbour of Fuchow, having passed the forts at the entrance to the
+river without hindrance. Once inside, they attacked and destroyed
+the much inferior Chinese fleet which was then quietly at anchor,
+destroying at the same time a large part of the arsenal which adjoins
+the anchorage (23rd August 1884). Retracing its steps, the French
+fleet attacked and destroyed with impunity the forts which were
+built to guard the entrance to the Min river, and could offer no
+resistance to a force coming from the rear. After this exploit the
+French fleet left the mainland and continued its reprisals on the coast
+of Formosa. Kelung, a treaty port, was bombarded and taken,
+October 4th. A similar attempt, however, on the neighbouring port
+of Tamsui was unsuccessful, the landing party having been driven
+back to their ships with severe loss. The attempt was not renewed,
+and the fleet thereafter confined itself to a semi-blockade of the
+island, which was prolonged into 1885 but led to no practical results.
+Negotiations for peace, however, which had been for some time in
+progress through the mediation of Sir Robert Hart, were at this
+juncture happily concluded (April 1885). The terms were practically
+those of the Fournier convention of the year before, the demand for
+an indemnity having been quietly dropped.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>China, on the whole, came out of the struggle with greatly
+increased prestige. She had tried conclusions with a
+first-class European power and had held her own. Incorrect
+conclusions as to the military strength of China were
+<span class="sidenote">Increased prestige of China.</span>
+consequently drawn, not merely by the Chinese
+themselves&mdash;which was excusable&mdash;but by European and
+even British authorities, who ought to have been better informed.
+War vessels were ordered by China both from England and
+Germany, and Admiral Lang, who had withdrawn his services
+while the war was going on, was re-engaged together with a
+number of British officers and instructors. The completion of
+the works at Port Arthur was taken in hand, and a beginning
+was made in the construction of forts at Wei-hai-wei as a second
+naval base. A new department was created for the control of
+naval affairs, at the head of which was placed Prince Chun,
+father of the emperor, who since the downfall of Prince Kung
+in 1884 had been taking a more and more prominent part in
+public affairs.</p>
+
+<p>From 1885 to 1894 the political history of China does not call
+for extended notice. Two incidents, however, must be recorded,
+(1) the conclusion in 1886 of a convention with Great Britain, in
+which the Chinese government undertook to recognize British
+sovereignty in Burma, and (2) the temporary occupation of Port
+Hamilton by the British fleet (May 1885-February 1887).
+<span class="sidenote">1885-1894.</span>
+In 1890 Admiral Lang resigned his command
+of the Chinese fleet. During a temporary absence of
+Lang&rsquo;s colleague, Admiral Ting, the Chinese second in command,
+claimed the right to take charge&mdash;a claim which Admiral Lang
+naturally resented. The question was referred to Li Hung-Chang,
+who decided against Lang, whereupon the latter threw
+up his commission. From this point the fleet on which so much
+depended began to deteriorate. Superior officers again began
+to steal the men&rsquo;s pays, the ships were starved, shells filled with
+charcoal instead of powder were supplied, accounts were cooked,
+and all the corruption and malfeasance that were rampant in
+the army crept back into the navy.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1894 witnessed the outbreak of the war with Japan.
+In the spring, complications again arose with Japan over Korea,
+and hostilities began in July. The story of the war is
+told elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chino-Japanese War</a></span>), and it is
+<span class="sidenote">War with Japan, 1894.</span>
+unnecessary here to recount the details of the decisive
+victory of Japan. A new power had arisen in the
+Far East, and when peace was signed by Li Hung-Chang at
+Shimonoseki on the 17th of April 1895 it meant the beginning
+of a new epoch. The terms included the cession of Liao-tung
+peninsula, then in actual occupation by the Japanese troops,
+the cession of Formosa, an indemnity of H. taels 200,000,000
+(about £30,000,000) and various commercial privileges.</p>
+
+<p>The signature of this treaty brought the European powers on
+the scene. It had been for some time the avowed ambition of
+Russia to obtain an ice-free port as an outlet to her Siberian
+possessions&mdash;an ambition which was considered by British statesmen
+as not unreasonable. It did not, therefore, at all suit her
+purposes to see the rising power of Japan commanding
+<span class="sidenote">European intervention.</span>
+the whole of the coast-line of Korea. Accordingly in
+the interval between the signature and the ratification
+of the treaty, invitations were addressed by Russia
+to the great powers to intervene with a view to its modification
+on the ground of the disturbance of the balance of power,
+and the menace to China which the occupation of Port Arthur by
+the Japanese would involve. France and Germany accepted the
+invitation, Great Britain declined. In the end the three powers
+brought such pressure to bear on Japan that she gave up the
+whole of her continental acquisitions, retaining only the island of
+Formosa. The indemnity was on the other hand increased by
+H. taels 30,000,000. For the time the integrity of China seemed
+to be preserved, and Russia, France and Germany could pose as
+her friends. Evidence was, however, soon forthcoming that
+Russia and France had not been disinterested in rescuing
+Chinese territory from the Japanese grasp. Russia now obtained
+the right to carry the Siberian railway across Chinese territory
+from Stryetensk to Vladivostok, thus avoiding a long détour,
+besides giving a grasp on northern Manchuria. France obtained,
+by a convention dated the 20th of June 1895, a rectification of
+frontier in the Mekong valley and certain railway and mining
+rights in Kiang-si and Yun-nan. Both powers obtained concessions
+of land at Hankow for the purposes of a settlement.
+Russia was also said to have negotiated a secret treaty,
+frequently described as the &ldquo;Cassini Convention,&rdquo; but more
+probably signed by Li Hung-Chang at Moscow, giving her the
+right in certain contingencies to Port Arthur, which was to be
+refortified with Russian assistance. And by way of further
+securing her hold, Russia guaranteed a 4% loan of £15,000,000
+issued in Paris to enable China to pay off the first instalment of
+the Japanese indemnity.</p>
+
+<p>The convention between France and China of the 20th of June
+1895 brought China into sharp conflict with Great
+Britain. China, having by the Burma convention of
+1886 agreed to recognize British sovereignty over
+<span class="sidenote">Mekong valley dispute, 1895.</span>
+Burma, her quondam feudatory, also agreed to a delimitation
+of boundaries at the proper time. Effect was given to
+this last stipulation by a subsequent convention concluded in
+London (1st of March 1894), which traced the boundary line from
+the Shan states on the west as far as the Mekong river on the east.
+In the Mekong valley there were two semi-independent native
+territories over which suzerainty had been claimed in times gone
+by both by the kings of Ava and by the Chinese emperors.
+These territories were named Meng Lun and Kiang Hung&mdash;the
+latter lying partly on one side and partly on the other of the
+Mekong river, south of the point where it issues from Chinese
+territory. The boundary line was so drawn as to leave both
+these territories to China, but it was stipulated that China should
+not alienate any portion of these territories to any other power
+without the previous consent of Great Britain. Yielding to
+French pressure, and regardless of the undertaking she had
+entered into with Great Britain, China, in the convention with
+France in June 1895, so drew the boundary line as to cede to
+France that portion of the territory of Kiang Hung which lay
+on the left bank of the Mekong. Compensation was demanded
+by Great Britain from China for this breach of faith, and at the
+same time negotiations were entered into with France. These
+resulted in a joint declaration by the governments of France and
+Great Britain, dated the 15th of January 1896, by which it was
+agreed as regards boundary that the Mekong from the point of
+its confluence with the Nam Huk northwards as far as the
+Chinese frontier should be the dividing line between the
+possessions or spheres of influence of the two powers. It was also
+agreed that any commercial privileges obtained by either power
+in Yun-nan or Sze-ch&lsquo;uen should be open to the subjects of the
+other. The negotiations with China resulted in a further agreement,
+dated the 4th of February 1897, whereby considerable
+modifications in favour of Great Britain were made in the
+Burma boundary drawn by the 1894 convention.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span></p>
+
+<p>While Russia and France were profiting by what they were
+pleased to call the generosity of China, Germany alone had so far
+received no reward for her share in compelling the
+retrocession of Liao-tung; but, in November 1897, she
+<span class="sidenote">Kiaochow, Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei.</span>
+proceeded to help herself by seizing the Bay of
+Kiaochow in the province of Shan-tung. The act was
+done ostensibly in order to compel satisfaction for the
+murder of two German missionaries. A cession was ultimately
+made by way of a lease for a term of ninety-nine years&mdash;Germany
+to have full territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the
+lease, with liberty to erect fortifications, build docks, and exercise
+all the rights of sovereignty. In December the Russian fleet was
+sent to winter in Port Arthur, and though this was at first described
+as a temporary measure, its object was speedily disclosed
+by a request made, in January 1898, by the Russian ambassador
+in London that two British cruisers, then also anchored at Port
+Arthur, should be withdrawn &ldquo;in order to avoid friction in the
+Russian sphere of influence.&rdquo; They left shortly afterwards, and
+their departure in the circumstances was regarded as a blow to
+Great Britain&rsquo;s prestige in the Far East. In March the Russian
+government peremptorily demanded a lease of Port Arthur and
+the adjoining anchorage of Talienwan&mdash;a demand which China
+could not resist without foreign support. After an acrimonious
+correspondence with the Russian government Great Britain
+acquiesced in the <i>fait accompli</i>. The Russian occupation of Port
+Arthur was immediately followed by a concession to build a line
+of railway from that point northwards to connect with the
+Siberian trunk line in north Manchuria. As a counterpoise to the
+growth of Russian influence in the north, Great Britain obtained
+a lease of Wei-hai-wei, and formally took possession of it on its
+evacuation by the Japanese troops in May 1898.</p>
+
+<p>After much hesitation the Chinese government had at last
+resolved to permit the construction of railways with foreign
+capital. An influential official named Sheng Hsuan-hwai was
+appointed director-general of railways, and empowered to enter
+into negotiations with foreign capitalists for that purpose.
+A keen competition thereupon ensued between syndicates of
+different nationalities, and their claims being espoused by their
+various governments, an equally keen international rivalry was
+set up. Great Britain, though intimating her preference for the
+&ldquo;open door&rdquo; policy, meaning equal opportunity for
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Open door,&rdquo; and &ldquo;spheres of influence.&rdquo;</span>
+all, yet found herself compelled to fall in with the
+general movement towards what became known as the
+&ldquo;spheres of influence&rdquo; policy, and claimed the Yangtsze
+valley as her particular sphere. This she did by the
+somewhat negative method of obtaining from the
+Chinese government a declaration that no part of the Yangtsze
+valley should be alienated to any foreign power. A more formal
+recognition of the claim, as far as railway enterprise was concerned,
+was embodied in an agreement (28th of April 1899)
+between Great Britain and Russia, and communicated to the
+Chinese government, whereby the Russian government agreed
+not to seek for any concessions within the Yangtsze valley,
+including all the provinces bordering on the great river, together
+with Cheh-kiang and Ho-nan, the British government entering
+into a similar undertaking in regard to the Chinese dominions
+north of the Great Wall.<a name="FnAnchor_50d" id="FnAnchor_50d" href="#Footnote_50d"><span class="sp">50</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1899 Talienwan and Kiaochow were respectively thrown open
+by Russia and Germany to foreign trade, and, encouraged by these
+measures, the United States government initiated in September of
+the same year a correspondence with the great European powers and
+Japan, with a view to securing their definite adhesion to the &ldquo;open
+door&rdquo; policy. The British government gave an unqualified approval
+to the American proposal, and the replies of the other powers,
+though more guarded, were accepted at Washington as satisfactory.
+A further and more definite step towards securing the maintenance
+of the &ldquo;open door&rdquo; in China was the agreement concluded in October
+1900 between the British and German governments. The signatories,
+by the first two articles, agreed to endeavour to keep the ports on the
+rivers and littoral free and open to international trade and economic
+activity, and to uphold this rule for all Chinese territory as far as (<i>wo</i>
+in the German counterpart) they could exercise influence; not to use
+the existing complications to obtain territorial advantages in Chinese
+dominions, and to seek to maintain undiminished the territorial
+condition of the Chinese empire. By a third article they reserved
+their right to come to a preliminary understanding for the protection
+of their interests in China, should any other power use those complications
+to obtain such territorial advantages under any form whatever.
+On the submission of the agreement to the powers interested,
+Austria, France, Italy and Japan accepted its principles without
+express reservation&mdash;Japan first obtaining assurances that she signed
+on the same footing as an original signatory. The United States
+accepted the first two articles, but expressed no opinion on the third.
+Russia construed the first as limited to ports actually open in regions
+where the two signatories exercise &ldquo;their&rdquo; influence, and favourably
+entertained it in that sense, ignoring the reference to other forms of
+economic activity. She fully accepted the second, and observed that
+in the contingency contemplated by the third, she would modify her
+attitude according to circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, negotiations carried on by the British minister at
+Peking during 1898 resulted in the grant of very important privileges
+to foreign commerce. The payment of the second instalment of the
+Japanese indemnity was becoming due, and it was much discussed
+how and on what terms China would be able to raise the amount.
+The Russian government, as has been stated, had made China a loan
+of the sum required for the first portion of the indemnity, viz.
+£15,000,000, taking a charge on the customs revenue as security.
+The British government was urged to make a like loan of £16,000,000
+both as a matter of friendship to China and as a counterpoise to the
+Russian influence. An arrangement was come to accordingly, on
+very favourable terms financially to the Chinese, but at the last
+moment they drew back, being overawed, as they said, by the
+threatening attitude of Russia. Taking advantage of the position
+which this refusal gave him, the British minister obtained from the
+Tsung-Li-Yamen, besides the declaration as to the non-alienation of
+the Yangtsze valley above mentioned, an undertaking to throw the
+whole of the inland waterways open to steam traffic. The Chinese
+government at the same time undertook that the post of inspector-general
+of customs (then held by Sir Robert Hart) should always be
+held by an Englishman so long as the trade of Great Britain was
+greater than that of any other nation. Minor concessions were also
+made, but the opening of the waterways was by far the greatest
+advance that had been made since 1860.</p>
+
+<p>Of still greater importance were the railway and mining concessions
+granted during the same year (1898). The Chinese government had
+been generally disposed to railway construction since the conclusion
+of the Japanese War, but hoped to be able to retain the control in
+their own hands. The masterful methods of Russia and Germany
+had obliged them to surrender this control so far as concerned
+Manchuria and Shan-tung. In the Yangtsze valley, Sheng, the
+director-general of railways, had been negotiating with several
+competing syndicates. One of these was a Franco-Belgian syndicate,
+which was endeavouring to obtain the trunk line from Hankow to
+Peking. A British company was tendering for the same work, and
+as the line lay mainly within the British sphere it was considered
+not unreasonable to expect it should be given to the latter. At a
+critical moment, however, the French and Russian ministers intervened,
+and practically forced the Yamen to grant a contract in favour
+of the Franco-Belgian company. The Yamen had a few days before
+explicitly promised the British minister that the contract should not
+be ratified without his having an opportunity of seeing it. As a
+penalty for this breach of faith, and as a set-off to the Franco-Belgian
+line, the British minister required the immediate grant of all the
+railway concessions for which British syndicates were then negotiating,
+and on terms not inferior to those granted to the Belgian line.
+In this way all the lines in the lower Yangtsze, as also the Shan-si
+Mining Companies&rsquo; lines, were secured. A contract for a trunk line
+from Canton to Hankow was negotiated in the latter part of 1898 by
+an American company.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There can be little doubt that the powers, engrossed in the
+diplomatic conflicts of which Peking was the centre, had
+entirely underrated the reactionary forces gradually mustering
+for a struggle against the aggressive spirit of Western civilization.
+The lamentable consequences of administrative corruption and
+incompetence, and the superiority of foreign methods which
+had been amply illustrated by the Japanese War, had at first
+produced a considerable impression, not only upon the more
+enlightened commercial classes, but even upon many of the
+younger members of the official classes in China. The dowager-empress,
+who, in spite of the emperor Kwang-su having nominally
+attained his majority, had retained practical control of the
+supreme power until the conflict with Japan, had been held,
+not unjustly, to blame for the disasters of the war, and even
+before its conclusion the young emperor was adjured by some
+of the most responsible among his own subjects to shake himself
+free from the baneful restraint of &ldquo;petticoat government,&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span>
+and himself take the helm. In the following years a reform
+movement, undoubtedly genuine, though opinions differ as to
+the value of the popular support which it claimed,
+<span class="sidenote">The reform movement, 1898.</span>
+spread throughout the central and southern provinces
+of the empire. One of the most significant
+symptoms was the relatively large demand which
+suddenly arose for the translations of foreign works and similar
+publications in the Chinese language which philanthropic societies,
+such as that &ldquo;for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge
+amongst the Chinese,&rdquo; had been trying for some time
+past to popularize, though hitherto with scant success. Chinese
+newspapers published in the treaty ports spread the ferment of
+new ideas far into the interior. Fifteen hundred young
+men of good family applied to enter the foreign university
+at Peking, and in some of the provincial towns the Chinese
+themselves subscribed towards the opening of foreign schools.
+Reform societies, which not infrequently enjoyed official countenance,
+sprang up in many of the large towns, and found
+numerous adherents amongst the younger <i>literati</i>. Early in 1898
+the emperor, who had gradually emancipated himself from the
+dowager-empress&rsquo;s control, summoned several of the reform
+leaders to Peking, and requested their advice with regard to
+the progressive measures which should be introduced into the
+government of the empire. Chief amongst these reformers was
+Kang Yu-wei, a Cantonese, whose scholarly attainments, combined
+with novel teachings, earned for him from his followers
+the title of the &ldquo;Modern Sage.&rdquo; Of his more or less active
+sympathizers who had subsequently to suffer with him in the
+cause of reform, the most prominent were Chang Yin-huan, a
+member of the grand council and of the Tsung-Li-Yamen, who
+had represented his sovereign at Queen Victoria&rsquo;s jubilee in
+1897; Chin Pao-chen, governor of Hu-nan; Liang Chichao, the
+editor of the reformers&rsquo; organ, <i>Chinese Progress</i>; Su Chiching,
+a reader of the Hanlin College, the educational stronghold of
+Chinese conservatism; and his son Su In-chi, also a Hanlin
+man, and provincial chancellor of public instruction in Hu-nan.</p>
+
+<p>It soon became evident, that there was no more enthusiastic
+advocate of the new ideas than the emperor himself. Within a
+few months the vermilion pencil gave the imperial sanction to
+a succession of edicts which, had they been carried into effect,
+would have amounted to a revolution as far-reaching as that
+which had transformed Japan thirty years previously. The
+fossilized system of examinations for the public service was to
+be altogether superseded by a new schedule based on foreign
+learning, for the better promotion of which a number of temples
+were to be converted into schools for Western education; a state
+department was to be created for the translation and dissemination
+of the standard works of Western literature and science;
+even the scions of the ruling Manchu race were to be compelled
+to study foreign languages and travel abroad; and last, but not
+least, all useless offices both in Peking and in the provinces were
+to be abolished. A further edict was even reported to be in
+contemplation, doing away with the <i>queue</i> or pigtail, which,
+originally imposed upon the Chinese by their Manchu conquerors
+as a badge of subjection, had gradually become the most
+characteristic and most cherished feature of the national
+dress. But the bureaucracy of China, which had battened for
+centuries on corruption and ignorance, had no taste for self-sacrifice.
+Other vested interests felt themselves equally
+threatened, and behind them stood the whole latent force of
+popular superstition and unreasoning conservatism.</p>
+
+<p>The dowager-empress saw her opportunity. The Summer
+Palace, to which she had retired, had been for some time the
+centre of resistance to the new movement, and in the middle of
+September 1898 a report became current that, in order to put
+an end to the obstruction which hampered his reform policy,
+the emperor intended to seize the person of the dowager-empress
+and have her deported into the interior. Some colour was given
+to this report by an official announcement that the emperor would
+hold a review of the foreign-drilled troops at Tientsin, and had
+summoned Yuan Shihkai, their general, to Peking in order to
+confer with him on the necessary arrangements. But the reformers
+had neglected to secure the goodwill of the army, which
+was still entirely in the hands of the reactionaries. During the
+night of the 20th of September the palace of the emperor
+<span class="sidenote">The Empress&rsquo;s coup d&lsquo;état.</span>
+was occupied by the soldiers, and on the following
+day Kwang-su, who was henceforth virtually a prisoner
+in the hands of the empress, was made to issue an
+edict restoring her regency. Kang Yu-wei, warned at the last
+moment by an urgent message from the emperor, succeeded in
+escaping, but many of the most prominent reformers were
+arrested, and six of them were promptly executed. The <i>Peking
+Gazette</i> announced a few days later that the emperor himself was
+dangerously ill, and his life might well have been despaired of had
+not the British minister represented in very emphatic terms the
+serious consequences which might ensue if anything happened to
+him. Drastic measures were, however, adopted to stamp out
+the reform movement in the provinces as well as in the capital.
+The reform edicts were cancelled, the reformers&rsquo; associations
+were dissolved, their newspapers suppressed, and those who did
+not care to save themselves by a hasty recantation of their errors
+were imprisoned, proscribed or exiled. In October the reaction
+had already been accompanied by such a recrudescence of anti-foreign
+feeling that the foreign ministers at Peking had to bring
+up guards from the fleet for the protection of the legations, and to
+demand the removal from the capital of the disorderly Kan-suh
+soldiery which subsequently played so sinister a part in the
+troubles of June 1900. But the unpleasant impression produced
+by these incidents was in a great measure removed by the
+demonstrative reception which the empress Tsz&lsquo;e Hsi gave on
+the 15th of October to the wives of the foreign representatives&mdash;an
+act of courtesy unprecedented in the annals of the Chinese
+court.</p>
+
+<p>The reactionary tide continued to rise throughout the year
+1899, but it did not appear materially to affect the foreign
+relations of China. Towards the end of the year
+the brutal murder of Mr Brooks, an English missionary,
+<span class="sidenote">The Boxer movement, 1900.</span>
+in Shan-tung, had compelled attention to a
+popular movement which had been spreading rapidly
+throughout that province and the adjoining one of Chih-li
+with the connivance of certain high officials, if not under their
+direct patronage. The origin of the &ldquo;Boxer&rdquo; movement is obscure.
+Its name is derived from a literal translation of the Chinese
+designation, &ldquo;the fist of righteous harmony.&rdquo; Like the kindred
+&ldquo;Big Sword&rdquo; Society, it appears to have been in the first
+instance merely a secret association of malcontents chiefly
+drawn from the lower classes. Whether the empress Tsz&lsquo;e Hsi
+and her Manchu advisers had deliberately set themselves
+from the beginning to avert the danger by deflecting what
+might have been a revolutionary movement into anti-foreign
+channels, or whether with Oriental heedlessness they had
+allowed it to grow until they were powerless to control it, they
+had unquestionably resolved to take it under their protection
+before the foreign representatives at Peking had realized its
+gravity. The outrages upon native Christians and the threats
+against foreigners generally went on increasing. The Boxers
+openly displayed on their banners the device: &ldquo;Exterminate
+the foreigners and save the dynasty,&rdquo; yet the representatives
+of the powers were unable to obtain any effective measures
+against the so-called &ldquo;rebels,&rdquo; or even a definite condemnation
+of their methods.<a name="FnAnchor_51d" id="FnAnchor_51d" href="#Footnote_51d"><span class="sp">51</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Four months (January-April 1900) were spent in futile interviews
+with the Tsung-Li-Yamen. In May a number of Christian
+villages were destroyed and native converts massacred near the
+capital. On the 2nd of June two English missionaries, Mr
+Robinson and Mr Norman, were murdered at Yung Ching, 40 m.
+from Peking. The whole country was overrun with bands of
+Boxers, who tore up the railway and set fire to the stations at
+different points on the Peking-Tientsin line. Fortunately a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span>
+mixed body of marines and bluejackets of various nationalities,
+numbering 18 officers and 389 men, had reached Peking on the
+1st of June for the protection of the legations. The whole city
+was in a state of turmoil. Murder and pillage were of daily
+occurrence. The reactionary Prince Tuan (grandson of the
+emperor Tao-kwang) and the Manchus generally, together with
+the Kan-suh soldiery under the notorious Tung-fu-hsiang,
+openly sided with the Boxers. The European residents and a
+large number of native converts took refuge in the British
+legation, where preparations were hastily made in view of a
+threatened attack. On the 11th the chancellor of the Japanese
+legation, Mr Sugiyama, was murdered by Chinese soldiers. On
+the night of the 13th most of the foreign buildings, churches and
+mission houses in the eastern part of the Tatar city were pillaged
+and burnt, and hundreds of native Christians massacred. On
+the 20th of June the German minister, Baron von Ketteler, was
+murdered whilst on his way to the Tsung-Li-Yamen. At 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>
+on the afternoon of the 20th the Chinese troops opened fire
+upon the legations. The general direction of the defence was
+undertaken by Sir Claude Macdonald, the British minister.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Peking had been completely cut off since the 14th
+from all communication with the outside world, and in view of
+the gravity of the situation, naval and military forces
+were being hurried up by all the powers to the Gulf
+<span class="sidenote">International expedition.</span>
+of Chih-li. On the 10th of June Admiral Sir E. Seymour
+had already left Tientsin with a mixed force of 2000
+British, Russian, French, Germans, Austrians, Italians, Americans
+and Japanese, to repair the railway and restore communications
+with Peking. But his expedition met with unexpectedly
+severe resistance, and it had great difficulty in making good
+its retreat after suffering heavy losses. When it reached Tientsin
+again on the 26th of June, the British contingent of 915 men had
+alone lost 124 killed and wounded out of a total casualty list of
+62 killed and 218 wounded. The Chinese had in the meantime
+made a determined attack upon the foreign settlements at
+Tientsin, and communication between the city and the sea
+being also threatened, the Taku forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho
+were captured by the allied admirals on the 17th. The situation
+at Tientsin nevertheless continued precarious, and it was not
+till the arrival of considerable reinforcements that the troops
+of the allied powers were able to assume the offensive, taking
+the native city by storm on July 14th, at a cost, however, of
+over 700 killed and wounded. Even in this emergency international
+jealousy had grievously delayed the necessary concentration
+of forces. No power was so favourably situated to
+take immediate action as Japan, and the British government,
+who had strongly urged her to act speedily and energetically,
+undertook at her request to sound the other powers with regard
+to her intervention. No definite objection was raised, but the
+replies of Germany and Russia barely disguised their ill-humour.
+Great Britain herself went so far as to offer Japan the assistance
+of the British treasury, in case financial difficulties stood in the
+way, but on the same day on which this proposal was telegraphed
+to Tokyo (6th of July), the Japanese government had decided
+to embark forthwith the two divisions which it had already
+mobilized. By the beginning of August one of the Indian
+brigades had also reached Tientsin together with smaller reinforcements
+sent by the other powers, and thanks chiefly to the
+energetic counsels of the British commander, General Sir Alfred
+Gaselee, a relief column, numbering 20,000 men, at last set out for
+Peking on the 4th of August, a British naval brigade having started
+up river the previous afternoon. After a series of small engagements
+and very trying marches it arrived within striking distance
+of Peking on the evening of the 13th. The Russians tried to steal
+a march upon the allies during the night, but were checked at the
+walls and suffered heavy losses. The Japanese attacked another
+point of the walls the next morning, but met with fierce opposition,
+whilst the Americans were delayed by getting entangled in
+the Russian line of advance. The British contingent was more
+fortunate, and skilfully guided to an unguarded water-gate,
+General Gaselee and a party of Sikhs were the first to force
+their way through to the British legation. About 2 p.m.
+on the afternoon of the 14th of August, the long siege was
+raised.</p>
+
+<p>For nearly six weeks after the first interruption of communications,
+no news reached the outside world from Peking except a
+few belated messages, smuggled through the Chinese
+lines by native runners, urging the imperative necessity
+<span class="sidenote">Siege of the Peking legations.</span>
+of prompt relief. During the greater part of that
+period the foreign quarter was subjected to heavy rifle
+and artillery fire, and the continuous fighting at close quarters
+with the hordes of Chinese regulars, as well as Boxers, decimated
+the scanty ranks of the defenders. The supply of both ammunition
+and food was slender. But the heroism displayed by civilians
+and professional combatants alike was inexhaustible. In their
+anxiety to burn out the British legation, the Chinese did not
+hesitate to set fire to the adjoining buildings of the Hanlin, the
+ancient seat of Chinese classical learning, and the storehouse of
+priceless literary treasures and state archives. The <i>Fu</i>, or
+palace, of Prince Su, separated only by a canal from the British
+legation, formed the centre of the international position, and
+was held with indomitable valour by a small Japanese force
+under Colonel Sheba, assisted by a few Italian marines and
+volunteers of other nationalities and a number of Christian
+Chinese. The French legation on the extreme right, and the
+section of the city wall held chiefly by Germans and Americans,
+were also points of vital importance which had to bear the
+brunt of the Chinese attack.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Little is known as to what passed in the councils of the Chinese
+court during the siege.<a name="FnAnchor_52d" id="FnAnchor_52d" href="#Footnote_52d"><span class="sp">52</span></a> But there is reason to believe that throughout
+that period grave divergences of opinion existed amongst the highest
+officials. The attack upon the legations appears to have received
+the sanction of the dowager-empress, acting upon the advice of Prince
+Tuan and the extreme Manchu party, at a grand council held during
+the night of the 18th/19th June, upon receipt of the news of the
+capture of the Taku forts by the international forces. The emperor
+himself, as well as Prince Ching and a few other influential mandarins,
+strongly protested against the empress&rsquo;s decision, but it was acclaimed
+by the vast majority of those present. Three members of the Tsung-Li-Yamen
+were publicly executed for attempting to modify the terms
+of an imperial edict ordering the massacre of all foreigners throughout
+the provinces, and most of the Manchu nobles and high officials, and
+the eunuchs of the palace, who played an important part in Chinese
+politics throughout the dowager-empress&rsquo;s tenure of power, were
+heart and soul with the Boxers. But it was noted by the defenders
+of the legations that Prince Ching&rsquo;s troops seldom took part, or only
+in a half-hearted way, in the fighting, which was chiefly conducted by
+Tung-fu-hsiang&rsquo;s soldiery and the Boxer levies. The modern artillery
+which the Chinese possessed was only spasmodically brought into
+play. Nor did any of the attacking parties ever show the fearlessness
+and determination which the Chinese had somewhat unexpectedly
+displayed on several occasions during the fighting at and around
+Tientsin. Nevertheless, the position of the defenders at the end of
+the first four weeks of the siege had grown well-nigh desperate.
+Mining and incendiarism proved far greater dangers than shot and
+shell. Suddenly, just when things were looking blackest, on the 17th
+of July the Chinese ceased firing, and a sort of informal armistice
+secured a period of respite for the beleaguered Europeans. The
+capture of the native city of Tientsin by the allied forces had shaken
+the self-confidence of the Chinese authorities, who had hitherto not
+only countenanced, but themselves directed the hostilities.<a name="FnAnchor_53d" id="FnAnchor_53d" href="#Footnote_53d"><span class="sp">53</span></a> Desultory
+fighting, nevertheless, continued, and grave fears were entertained
+that the approach of the relief column would prove the signal
+for a desperate attempt to rush the legations. The attempt was
+made, but failed. The relief, however, came not a day too soon.
+Of the small band of defenders which, including civilian volunteers,
+had never mustered 500, 65 had been killed and 131 wounded.
+Ammunition and provisions were almost at an end. Even more
+desperate was the situation at the Pei-tang, the Roman Catholic
+northern cathedral and mission house, where, with the help of a small
+body of French and Italian marines, Mgr Favier had organized an
+independent centre of resistance for his community of over 3000
+souls. Their rations were absolutely exhausted when, on the 15th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span>
+of August, a relief party was despatched to their assistance from the
+legations.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ruin wrought in Peking during the two months&rsquo; fighting
+was appalling. Apart from the wholesale destruction of foreign
+property in the Tatar city, and of Chinese as well as
+European buildings in the vicinity of the legations, the
+<span class="sidenote">Looting of Peking.</span>
+wealthiest part of the Chinese city had been laid in
+ashes. The flames from a foreign drug store fired by the Boxers
+had spread to the adjoining buildings, and finally consumed the
+whole of the business quarter with all its invaluable stores of
+silks, curiosities, furs, &amp;c. The retribution which overtook
+Peking after its capture by the international forces was scarcely
+less terrible. Looting was for some days almost universal. Order
+was, however, gradually restored, first in the Japanese and then
+in the British and American quarters, though several months
+elapsed before there was any real revival of native confidence.</p>
+
+<p>So unexpected had been the rapid and victorious advance of
+the allies, that the dowager-empress with the emperor and the
+rest of the court did not actually leave Peking until
+the day after the legations had been relieved. But
+<span class="sidenote">Flight of the Chinese court.</span>
+the northern and western portions of the Tatar city
+had not yet been occupied, and the fugitives made
+good their escape on the 15th. When the allies some days later
+marched through the Forbidden City, they only found a few
+eunuchs and subordinate officials in charge of the imperial
+apartments. At the end of September, Field Marshal Count von
+Waldersee, with a German expeditionary force of over 20,000
+men, arrived to assume the supreme command conferred upon
+him with the more or less willing assent of the other powers.</p>
+
+<p>The political task which confronted the powers after the occupation
+of Peking was far more arduous than the military one.
+The action of the Russians in Manchuria, even in a
+treaty port like Niu-chwang, the seizure of the railway
+<span class="sidenote">Restoration of order.</span>
+line not only to the north of the Great Wall, but also
+from Shan-hai-kwan to Peking, by the Russian military
+authorities, and the appropriation of an extensive line of river
+frontage at Tientsin as a Russian &ldquo;settlement,&rdquo; were difficult to
+reconcile with the pacific assurances of disinterestedness which
+Russia, like the rest of the powers, had officially given. Great
+anxiety prevailed as to the effect of the flight of the Chinese court
+in other parts of the empire. The anti-foreign movement had not
+spread much beyond the northern provinces, in which it had had
+the open support of the throne and of the highest provincial
+officials. But among British and Americans alone, over 200
+defenceless foreigners, men, women and children, chiefly missionaries,
+had fallen victims to the treachery of high-placed mandarins
+like Yü Hsien, and hundreds of others had had to fly for their
+lives, many of them owing their escape to the courageous protection
+of petty officials and of the local gentry and peasantry.
+In the Yangtsze valley order had been maintained by the energy
+of the viceroys of Nanking and Wu-chang, who had acted
+throughout the critical period in loyal co-operation with the
+British consuls and naval commanders, and had courageously
+disregarded the imperial edicts issued during the ascendancy
+of the Boxers. After some hesitation, an Indian brigade,
+followed by French, German and Japanese contingents, had
+been landed at Shanghai for the protection of the settlements,
+and though the viceroy, Liu Kun-yi, had welcomed British support,
+and even invited the joint occupation of the Yangtsze forts
+by British and Chinese troops, the appearance of other European
+forces in the Yangtsze valley was viewed with great suspicion. In
+the south there were serious symptoms of unrest, especially after
+Li Hung-Chang had left Canton for the north, in obedience, as he
+alleged at the time, to an imperial edict which, there is reason to
+believe, he invented for the occasion. The Chinese court, after
+one or two intermediate halts, had retired to Si-gan-fu, one of
+the ancient capitals of the empire, situated in the inaccessible
+province of Shen-si, over 600 m. S.W. of Peking. The influence
+of the ultra-reactionaries, headed by Prince Tuan and General
+Tung-fu-hsiang, still dominated its councils, although credentials
+were sent to Prince Ching and to Li Hung-Chang, who, after
+waiting upon events at Shanghai, had proceeded to Peking,
+authorizing them to treat with the powers for the re-establishment
+of friendly relations.</p>
+
+<p>The harmony of the powers, which had been maintained with
+some difficulty up to the relief of the legations, was subjected
+to a severe strain as soon as the basis of negotiations
+with the Chinese government came to be discussed.
+<span class="sidenote">Measures of reparation.</span>
+While for various reasons Russia, Japan and the
+United States were inclined to treat China with great
+indulgence, Germany insisted upon the signal punishment of
+the guilty officials as a <i>conditio sine qua non</i>, and in this she had
+the support not only of the other members of the Triple Alliance,
+but also of Great Britain, and to some extent even of France,
+who, as protector of the Roman Catholic Church in Eastern
+countries, could not allow the authors of the atrocities committed
+upon its followers to escape effectual punishment. It was not
+until after months of laborious negotiations that the demands
+to be formally made upon the Chinese government were embodied
+in a joint note signed by all the foreign ministers on
+the 20th and 21st of December 1900. The demands were substantially
+as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Honourable reparation for the murder of von Ketteler and of Mr
+Sugiyama, to be made in a specified form, and expiatory monuments
+to be erected in cemeteries where foreign tombs had been desecrated.
+&ldquo;The most severe punishment befitting their crimes&rdquo; was to be
+inflicted on the personages designated by the decree of the 21st of
+September, and also upon others to be designated later by the
+foreign ministers, and the official examinations were to be suspended
+in the cities where foreigners had been murdered or ill-treated. An
+equitable indemnity, guaranteed by financial measures acceptable
+to the powers, was to be paid to states, societies and individuals,
+including Chinese who had suffered because of their employment by
+foreigners, but not including Chinese Christians who had suffered
+only on account of their faith. The importation or manufacture of
+arms or <i>matériel</i> was to be forbidden; permanent legation guards
+were to be maintained at Peking, and the diplomatic quarter was
+to be fortified, while communication with the sea was to be secured
+by a foreign military occupation of the strategic points and by the
+demolition of the Chinese forts, including the Taku forts, between the
+capital and the coast. Proclamations were to be posted throughout
+China for two years, threatening death to the members of anti-foreign
+societies, and recording the punishment of the ringleaders in the late
+outrages: and the viceroys, governors and provincial officials were
+to be declared by imperial edict responsible, on pain of immediate
+dismissal and perpetual disability to hold office, for anti-foreign
+outbreaks or violations of treaty within their jurisdictions. China
+was to facilitate commercial relations by negotiating a revision of the
+commercial treaties. The Tsung-Li-Yamen was to be reformed and
+the ceremonial for the reception of foreign ministers modified as the
+powers should demand. Compliance with these terms was declared
+to be a condition precedent to the arrangement of a time limit
+to the occupation of Peking and of the provinces by foreign troops.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under instructions from the court, the Chinese plenipotentiaries
+affixed their signatures on the 14th of January 1901 to a
+protocol, by which China pledged herself to accept these terms in
+principle, and the conference of ministers then proceeded to
+discuss the definite form in which compliance with them was to be
+exacted. This further stage of the negotiations proved even more
+laborious and protracted than the preliminary proceedings. No
+attempt was made to raise the question of the dowager-empress&rsquo;s
+responsibility for the anti-foreign movement, as Russia had from
+the first set her face against the introduction of what she euphemistically
+termed &ldquo;the dynastic question.&rdquo; But even with
+regard to the punishment of officials whose guilt was beyond
+dispute, grave divergences arose between the powers. The death
+penalty was ultimately waived in the case even of such conspicuous
+offenders as Prince Tuan and Tung-fu-hsiang, but the
+notorious Yü Hsien and two others were decapitated by the
+Chinese, and three other metropolitan officials were ordered to
+commit suicide, whilst upon others sentences of banishment,
+imprisonment and degradation were passed, in accordance with
+a list drawn up by the foreign representatives. The question of
+the punishment of provincial officials responsible for the massacre
+of scores of defenceless men, women and children was unfortunately
+reserved for separate treatment, and when it came
+up for discussion it became impossible to preserve even the
+semblance of unanimity, the Russian minister at once taking
+issue with his colleagues, although he had originally pledged
+himself as formally as the others to the principle. Count
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span>
+Lamsdorff frankly told the British ambassador at St Petersburg
+that Russia took no interest in missionaries, and as the foreigners
+massacred in the provinces belonged mostly to that class, she
+declined to join in the action of the other powers.</p>
+
+<p>The real explanation of Russia&rsquo;s cynical secession from the
+concert of powers on this important issue must be sought in her
+anxiety to conciliate the Chinese in view of the separate
+negotiations in which she was at the same time engaged
+<span class="sidenote">Russia and Manchuria.</span>
+with China in respect of Manchuria. When the Boxer
+movement was at its height at the end of June 1900, the
+Chinese authorities in Manchuria had wantonly &ldquo;declared war&rdquo;
+against Russia, and for a moment a great wave of panic seems to
+have swept over the Russian administration, civil and military, in
+the adjoining provinces. The reprisals exercised by the Russians
+were proportionately fierce. The massacre at Blagovyeshchensk,
+where 5000 Chinese&mdash;men, women and children&mdash;were flung into
+the Amur by the Cossacks, was only one incident in the reign of
+terror by which the Russians sought to restore their power and
+their prestige. The resistance of the Chinese troops was soon
+overcome, and Russian forces overran the whole province,
+occupying even the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The Russian
+government officially repudiated all responsibility for the
+proclamations issued by General Gribsky and others, foreshadowing,
+if not actually proclaiming, the annexation of Chinese
+territory to the Russian empire. But Russia was clearly bent on
+seizing the opportunity for securing a permanent hold upon
+Manchuria. In December 1900 a preliminary agreement was
+made between M. Korostovetz, the Russian administrator-general,
+and Tseng, the Tatar general at Mukden, by which the
+civil and military administration of the whole province was
+virtually placed under Russian control. In February 1901
+negotiations were opened between the Russian government and
+the Chinese minister at St Petersburg for the conclusion of a
+formal convention of a still more comprehensive character.
+In return for the restoration to China of a certain measure
+of civil authority in Manchuria, Russia was to be confirmed
+in the possession of exclusive military, civil and commercial
+rights, constituting in all but name a protectorate, and she
+was also to acquire preferential rights over all the outlying
+provinces of the Chinese empire bordering on the Russian
+dominions in Asia. The clauses relating to Chinese Turkestan,
+Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Mongolia were subsequently
+stated to have been dropped, but the convention nevertheless
+provoked considerable opposition both in foreign countries and
+amongst the Chinese themselves. Most of the powers, including
+Germany, who, however, denied that the Anglo-German agreement
+of the 16th of October 1900 applied to Manchuria,<a name="FnAnchor_54d" id="FnAnchor_54d" href="#Footnote_54d"><span class="sp">54</span></a> advised
+the Chinese government not to pursue separate negotiations with
+one power whilst collective negotiations were in progress at
+Peking, and both Japan and Great Britain pressed for definite
+information at St Petersburg with regard to the precise tenor
+of the proposed convention. At the same time the two viceroys
+of the lower Yangtsze memorialized the throne in the strongest
+terms against the convention, and these protests were endorsed
+not only by the great majority of Chinese officials of high rank
+throughout the provinces, but by popular meetings and influential
+guilds and associations. Ultimately the two viceroys,
+Chang Chih-tung and Liu Kun-yi,<a name="FnAnchor_55d" id="FnAnchor_55d" href="#Footnote_55d"><span class="sp">55</span></a> took the extreme step of
+warning the throne that they would be unable to recognize the
+convention, even if it were ratified, and notwithstanding the
+pressure exercised in favour of Russia by Li Hung-Chang, the
+court finally instructed the Chinese minister at St Petersburg
+to decline his signature. The attitude of Japan, where public
+feeling ran high, was equally significant, and on the 3rd of April
+the Russian government issued a circular note to the powers,
+stating that, as the generous intentions of Russia had been
+misconstrued, she withdrew the proposed convention.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the conference at Peking, which had been temporarily
+disturbed by these complications, was then resumed.
+Friction between European troops of different nationalities
+and an Anglo-Russian dispute over the construction
+<span class="sidenote">The peace protocol, 1901.</span>
+of certain roads and railway sidings at Tientsin
+showed that an international occupation was fraught
+with manifold dangers. The question of indemnities, however,
+gave rise to renewed friction. Each power drew up its own
+claim, and whilst Great Britain, the United States and Japan
+displayed great moderation, other powers, especially Germany
+and Italy, put in claims which were strangely out of proportion
+to the services rendered by their military and naval forces.
+It was at last settled that China should pay altogether an indemnity
+of 450 million taels, to be secured (1) on the unhypothecated
+balance of the customs revenue administered by the imperial
+maritime customs, the import duties being raised forthwith
+to an effective 5% basis; (2) on the revenues of the &ldquo;native&rdquo;
+customs in the treaty ports; (3) on the total revenues of the
+salt gabelle. Finally the peace protocol was drawn up in a
+form which satisfied all the powers as well as the Chinese court.
+The formal signature was, however, delayed at the last moment
+by a fresh difficulty concerning Prince Chun&rsquo;s penitential mission
+to Berlin. This prince, an amiable and enlightened youth,<a name="FnAnchor_56d" id="FnAnchor_56d" href="#Footnote_56d"><span class="sp">56</span></a> son
+of the Prince Chun who was the emperor Hien-fêng&rsquo;s brother,
+and thus himself half-brother to the emperor Kwang-su, had
+reached Basel towards the end of August on his way to Germany,
+when he was suddenly informed that he and his suite would
+be expected to perform <i>kowtow</i> before the German emperor.
+The prince resented this unexpected demand, and referred home
+for instructions. The Chinese court appear to have remained
+obdurate, and the German government perceived the mistake
+that had been made in exacting from the Chinese prince a form of
+homage which Western diplomacy had for more than a century
+refused to yield to the Son of Heaven, on the ground that it was
+barbarous and degrading. The point was waived, and Prince
+Chun was received in solemn audience by the emperor William at
+Potsdam on the 4th of September. Three days later, on the 7th
+of September, the peace protocol was signed at Peking.</p>
+
+<p>The articles recorded the steps to be taken to satisfy the
+demands of the powers as to commerce. Article 11 provided
+for the amendment of existing treaties of commerce and
+navigation, and for river conservancy measures at Tientsin and
+Shanghai. The British government appointed a special commission,
+with Sir J. Mackay, member of the council of India, as
+chief commissioner, to proceed to Shanghai to carry on the
+negotiations, and a commercial treaty was signed at Shanghai on
+the 6th of September 1902, by which existing obstacles to foreign
+trade, such as <i>likin</i>, &amp;c., were removed, regulations were made
+for facilitating steamer navigation on inland waters, and several
+new ports were opened to foreign commerce.</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with the terms of the protocol, all the foreign
+troops, except the legation guards, were withdrawn from Peking
+on the 17th of September, and from the rest of Chih-li, except
+the garrisons at the different points specified along the line of
+communications, by the 22nd of September. On the 7th of
+October it was announced that the Chinese court had left Si-gan-fu
+on its way back to the northern capital. A month later (7th
+of November) the death of Li Hung-Chang at Peking removed,
+if not the greatest of Chinese statesmen, at any rate the one
+who had enjoyed the largest share of the empress-dowager&rsquo;s
+confidence.</p>
+<div class="author">(V. C.)</div>
+
+
+<p class="center1">(E)&mdash;<i>From 1901 to 1910.</i></p>
+
+<p>The events connected with the Boxer rising and its suppression
+demonstrated even more forcibly than had the war
+with Japan in 1894-1895 the necessity for the adoption of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span>
+Western methods in many departments of life and administration
+if China was to maintain the position of a great power.
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Awakening of China.&rdquo;</span>
+The necessity for a thorough reform of the administration
+was widely recognized in 1901, and among the
+progressive classes of the community much disappointment
+was manifested because the powers had
+failed to insist, in the conditions of peace, on a reorganization of
+the machinery of government. The Yangtsze viceroys, the viceroy
+at Canton, Yuan Shih-kai and other high mandarins repeatedly
+memorialized the throne to grant effective reforms. While at
+Si-gan-fu the court did in fact issue several reform decrees, but
+at the same time all authority remained in the hands of reactionaries.
+There had been an awakening in China, but another
+lesson&mdash;afforded a few years later by the Russo-Japanese War&mdash;was
+needed before the reform party was able to gain real power.</p>
+
+<p>For three or four years following the signing of the peace
+protocol of 1901 it seemed indeed that there would be little
+change in the system of government, though in some directions
+a return to the old state of affairs was neither possible nor
+desired. On the 7th of January 1902 the court returned to
+Peking&mdash;a step which marked the restoration, more or less, of
+normal conditions. The failure of the Boxer movement, in
+which, as has been shown, she was deeply implicated, had impressed
+upon the dowager empress the need for living on better
+terms with foreign powers, but the reform edicts issued from
+Si-gan-fu remained largely inoperative, though some steps were
+taken to promote education on Western lines, to readjust the
+land tax, and especially to reorganize the military forces (though
+on provincial rather than on a national basis). The building of
+railways was also pushed on, but the dowager empress was
+probably at heart as reactionary as she had proved in 1898.
+The emperor himself from his return to Peking until the day of
+his death appeared to have little influence on public affairs.
+The most disquieting feature of the situation in the years immediately
+following the return of the court to Peking was the
+continued efforts of Russia to obtain full control of Manchuria
+and a predominant influence in north China. The Chinese
+government was powerless to stem the advance of Russia, and
+the dowager empress herself was credited with indifference to
+the fate of Manchuria. It was the menace to other powers,
+notably Japan, involved in Russia&rsquo;s action which precipitated
+an issue in which the destinies of China were involved. Before
+considering the results of that struggle (the Russo-Japanese
+War) the chief events of the years 1902-1905 may be outlined.</p>
+
+<p>The dowager empress from the day of her return from Si-gan-fu
+set herself to conciliate the foreign residents in Peking. Many
+foreign onlookers were gathered on the wall of the
+Tatar city to witness the return of the court, and to
+<span class="sidenote">Relations with Europeans.</span>
+these the dowager empress made a deep bow twice,
+an apparently trivial incident which made a lasting
+impression. On the 1st of February following the dowager
+empress received the ladies of the various embassies, when she
+bewailed the attack on the legations, entertained her guests to
+tea and presented each with articles of jewelry, and from that
+time onward, as occasion offered, Tsz&lsquo;e Hsi exchanged compliments
+and civilities with the foreign ladies in Peking. Moreover,
+Sir Robert Hart&mdash;after having been nearly forty years in China&mdash;was
+now presented at court, as well as Bishop Favier and others.
+Henceforth attacks on foreigners received no direct encouragement
+at court. Tung Fu-hsiang,<a name="FnAnchor_57d" id="FnAnchor_57d" href="#Footnote_57d"><span class="sp">57</span></a> who had been banished
+to the remote province of Kan-suh, had at his command there
+his old Boxer troops, and his attitude caused anxiety at the end
+of 1902. He was said to have received support from Prince
+Tuan&mdash;who had been obliged to retire to Mongolia&mdash;but events
+proved that the power or the intention of these reactionaries to
+create trouble had been miscalculated. There were indeed
+serious Boxer disturbances in Sze-ch&lsquo;uen in 1902, but
+they were put down by a new viceroy sent from Peking.
+Notwithstanding the murder of fifteen missionaries during
+1902-1905, there was in general a marked improvement in the
+relations between the missionaries, the official classes and the
+bulk of the people, and an eagerness was shown in several
+provinces to take advantage of their educational work. This
+was specially marked in Hu-nan, a province which had been
+for long hostile to missionary endeavours. Illustrative of the
+attitude of numbers of high officials was the attendance
+of the viceroy of Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, with the whole of his staff, at the
+opening in 1905 at Cheng-tu of new buildings of the Canadian
+Methodist Mission. This friendly attitude towards the missions
+was due in part to the influence of Chinese educated abroad and
+also, to a large extent, to the desire to take advantage of Western
+culture. The spread of this new spirit was coincident with an
+agitation for independence of foreign control and the determination
+of the Chinese to use modern methods to attain
+their ends. Thus in 1905 there was an extensive boycott of
+American goods throughout China, as a retaliatory measure
+for the exclusion of Chinese from the United States. Regarding
+China as a whole the attitude of the people towards
+Europeans was held to indicate that the general view was, not
+that the Boxer teaching was false, but that the spirits behind
+Western religion were more powerful than those behind Boxer-dom.
+The spiritual prestige of Christianity and respect for the
+power of the foreigner were direct outcomes of the failure of
+the Boxers.<a name="FnAnchor_58d" id="FnAnchor_58d" href="#Footnote_58d"><span class="sp">58</span></a> The British expedition to Tibet in 1904, the
+occupation of Lhassa in August of that year, the flight of the
+Dalai Lama to Mongolia, gave grave concern to the Chinese
+government&mdash;which showed much persistence in enforcing its
+suzerain rights in Tibet&mdash;but did not, apparently, cause any ill-feeling
+towards Great Britain among the Chinese people&mdash;who
+viewed with seeming equanimity the flight of the head of the
+Buddhist religion from the headquarters of that faith. The
+country generally was peaceful, a rebellion in Kwang-si&mdash;where
+a terrible famine occurred in 1903&mdash;being suppressed in 1904
+by the forces of the viceroy at Canton.</p>
+
+<p>The expiatory measures required of China in connexion with
+the Boxer rising were carried through. China during 1902
+recovered possession of the Peking-Tientsin railway and
+of the city of Tientsin, which was evacuated by the
+<span class="sidenote">Commercial and railway progress.</span>
+foreign troops in August of that year. The foreign
+troops were also all withdrawn from Shanghai by
+January 1903. The conclusion of a new commercial treaty
+between Great Britain and China in September 1902 has
+already been recorded. The payment of the indemnity instalments
+occasioned some dispute owing to the fall in silver in
+1902, but the rise in the value of the tael in subsequent years
+led China to agree to the payment of the indemnity on a gold
+basis. The increase in revenue was a notable feature of the
+maritime customs in 1903-1905. This result was in part
+due to the new arrangements under the commercial treaty
+of 1902, and in part to the opening up of the country by
+railways. In especial the great trunk line from Peking to
+Hankow was pushed on. The line, including a bridge nearly
+2 m. long over the Yellow river was completed and opened for
+traffic in 1905. The first section of the Shanghai-Nanking
+railway was opened in the same year. At this time the Chinese
+showed a strong desire to obtain the control of the various
+lines. During 1905, for instance, the Canton-Hankow railway
+concession was repurchased by the Chinese government from an
+American company, while the Pekin Syndicate, a British concern,
+also sold their railway in Ho-nan to the Chinese government.</p>
+
+<p>Russia&rsquo;s action regarding Manchuria overshadowed, however,
+all other concerns during this period. The withdrawal of the
+proposed Russo-Chinese agreement of 1901 has been chronicled.
+The Russian government had, however, no intention of abandoning
+its hold on Manchuria. It aimed not only at effective military
+control but the reservation to Russian subjects of mining,
+railway and commercial rights. Both the sovereignty of China
+and the commercial interests of other nations were menaced.
+This led to action by various powers. The preamble of the Anglo-Japanese
+treaty of the 30th of January 1902 declared the main
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span>
+motives of the contracting parties to be the maintenance of the
+independence and territorial integrity of China and Korea, and
+<span class="sidenote">Manchuria.</span>
+the securing of equal opportunities in those countries
+for the commerce and industry of all nations, <i>i.e.</i> the
+policy of the &ldquo;open door.&rdquo; Protests were lodged
+by Great Britain, Japan and the United States against the
+grant of exclusive rights to Russian subjects in Manchuria.
+Russia asserted her intention to respect the commercial rights
+of other nations, and on the 8th of April 1902 an agreement
+was signed at Peking which appeared to show the good faith of
+the Russian government, as it provided for the withdrawal of the
+Russian troops in Manchuria within eighteen months from that
+date. In accordance with this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang
+railway was transferred to China in October 1902
+and the district between Shan-hai-kwan and the Liao river
+evacuated by Russia. But it soon appeared that Russia&rsquo;s
+hold on the country had not relaxed. Advantage was taken
+of the terms of concession granted in August 1896 to the Russo-Chinese
+Bank<a name="FnAnchor_59d" id="FnAnchor_59d" href="#Footnote_59d"><span class="sp">59</span></a> to erect towns for Russian colonists and to plant
+garrisons along the line of railway, and to exclude Chinese
+jurisdiction altogether from the railway zone. The so-called
+evacuation became in fact the concentration of the Russian
+forces along the line of railway. Moreover, the maritime customs
+at Niu-chwang were retained by the Russo-Chinese Bank despite
+protests from the Chinese imperial authorities, and a Russian
+civil administration was established at that port. The evacuation
+of southern Manchuria should have taken place in April
+1903, but in that month, instead of fulfilling the conditions of
+the 1902 agreement, the Russian chargé d&rsquo;affaires in Peking made
+a series of further demands upon China, including the virtual
+reservation of the commerce of Manchuria for Russian subjects.
+Though Russia officially denied to the British and American
+governments that she had made these demands, it was demonstrated
+that they had been made. The United States and Japan
+thereupon insisted that China should conclude with them commercial
+treaties throwing open Mukden and two ports on the
+Yalu river to foreign trade. The American treaty was signed
+on the 8th of October 1903&mdash;the day fixed for the complete
+evacuation of Manchuria by Russia&mdash;and the Japanese treaty on
+the day following. Both treaties provided that the ports should
+be opened after ratifications had been exchanged. From fear
+of Russia China, however, delayed the ratification of the treaties.
+Meantime, in August 1903, a regular through railway service
+between Moscow and Port Arthur was established. In the same
+month a Russian Viceroyalty of the Far East was created
+which in effect claimed Manchuria as a Russian province. In
+September Russia withdrew some of the demands she had made
+in April, but her concessions proved illusory. When the 8th of
+October passed and it was seen that the Russians had not withdrawn
+their troops<a name="FnAnchor_60d" id="FnAnchor_60d" href="#Footnote_60d"><span class="sp">60</span></a> there issued for a time threats of war
+from Peking. Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, who had
+at his command some 65,000 troops trained by Japanese officers,
+pressed on the government the necessity of action. At this point
+Japan intervened. Her interests were vitally affected by Russia&rsquo;s
+action not only in Manchuria, but in Korea, and seeing that
+China was powerless the Japanese government negotiated
+directly with St Petersburg. In these negotiations Russia
+showed that she would not yield her position in either country
+except to force. Japan chose the issue of war and proved
+successful.</p>
+
+<p>The Russo-Japanese War did not very greatly alter China&rsquo;s
+position in Manchuria. In the southern part of that country
+Japan succeeded to the special privileges Russia had wrung
+from China (including the lease of Port Arthur); in the north
+Russia remained in possession of the railway zone. For Japan&rsquo;s
+position as at once the legatee of special privileges
+<span class="sidenote">Lessons of the Russo-Japanese War.</span>
+and the champion of China&rsquo;s territorial integrity
+and &ldquo;the open door&rdquo; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Japan</a></span>, § <i>History</i>. However,
+the attitude of Japan was more conciliatory
+than that of Russia had been; Mukden and other
+places were thrown open to foreign trade and Chinese civil administration
+was re-established. The important results of the war,
+so far as China was concerned, were not to be looked for in
+Manchuria, but in the new spirit generated in the Chinese.
+They had been deeply humiliated by the fact that in the
+struggle between Russia and Japan China had been treated
+as a negligible quantity, and that the war had been fought on
+Chinese territory. The lesson which the loot of Peking and
+the fall of the Boxers in 1900 had half taught was now
+thoroughly mastered; the awakening of China was complete.
+The war had shown that when an Eastern race adopted
+Western methods it was capable of defeating a European
+nation.</p>
+
+<p>It was fortunate that among the influential advisers of the
+throne at this time (1905-1908) were Prince Chun (the prince
+who had visited Germany in 1901), Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy
+of Chih-li, and Chang Chih-tung, the viceroy of Hu-kwang (<i>i.e.</i>
+the provinces of Hu-peh and Hu-nan), all men of enlightened
+and strong character. In 1907 both the viceroys named were
+summoned to Peking and made members of the grand council,
+of which Prince Ching, a man of moderate views, was president.
+Yuan Shih-kai was an open advocate of a reform of the civil
+service, of the abolition of Manchu privileges, of education and
+other matters. He had specially advocated the reconstitution
+of the military forces of the empire, and in Chih-li in 1905 he
+demonstrated before a number of foreign military attachés the
+high efficiency attained by the forces of the metropolitan province.
+The success achieved by Yuan Shih-kai in this direction
+incited Chang Chih-tung to follow his example, while a decree
+from the throne called upon the princes and nobles of China to
+give their sons a military education. The formerly despised
+military profession was thus made honourable, and with salutary
+effects. The imperial princes sought high commands, officers
+were awarded ranks and dignities comparable with those of
+civil servants, and the pay of the troops was increased. The new
+<span class="sidenote">Army reform.</span>
+foreign drilled northern army was called upon to
+furnish a large proportion of a force sent under Prince
+Su into Mongolia&mdash;a country which had been on the
+point of falling into the hands of Russia, but over which, as one
+result of the Russo-Japanese War, China recovered control.
+In 1906 a step was taken towards the formation of a national
+army by withdrawing portions of the troops from provincial
+control and placing them under officers responsible to the
+central government, which also took over the charge of the
+provincial arsenals. In the years which followed further evidence
+was given of the earnestness and success with which the military
+forces were being reorganized. Less attention was given to
+naval affairs, but in the autumn of 1909 a naval commission under
+Tsai Hsün, a brother of the emperor Kwang-su, was sent to
+Europe to report on the steps necessary for the re-establishment
+of a fleet. Previously (in 1907) societies had been started in
+several provinces to collect funds for naval purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The most striking evidence of the change which had occurred
+was, however, the appointment (in 1905) of an Imperial Commission,
+headed by Prince Tsai Tse, to study the administrative
+systems of foreign countries with a view to the possible establishment
+of a representative government in China. The revolutionary
+nature of this proposal excited indignation among the
+adherents to the old order, and a bomb was thrown among the
+commissioners as they were preparing to leave Peking.<a name="FnAnchor_61d" id="FnAnchor_61d" href="#Footnote_61d"><span class="sp">61</span></a> After
+visiting Japan, America and Europe the commission returned to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span>
+Peking in July 1906.<a name="FnAnchor_62d" id="FnAnchor_62d" href="#Footnote_62d"><span class="sp">62</span></a> A committee over which Prince Ching
+presided was appointed to study the commission&rsquo;s report, and
+<span class="sidenote">A parliamentary constitution promised.</span>
+on the 1st of September following an edict was issued
+in which the establishment of a parliamentary form
+of government was announced, at a date not fixed.
+To fit the country for this new form of government
+(the edict went on to declare) the administration
+must be reformed, the laws revised, education promoted and
+the finances regulated. This edict, moreover, was but one of
+many edicts issued in 1906 and following years which showed
+how great a break with the past was contemplated. In
+November 1906 two edicts were issued with the object of
+reorganizing the central administrative offices. Their effect
+was to simplify the conduct of business, many useless posts
+being abolished, while an audit board was created to
+examine the national accounts. In November 1907 another
+edict was promulgated stating that for the present the formation
+of Houses of Lords and of Commons to determine all public
+questions was not practicable, but that it was proposed, as a
+preliminary measure, to create an Imperial Assembly. At the
+same time a scheme of provincial councils was ordered to be
+prepared. A more definite step followed in 1908 when a decree
+(dated the 27th of August) announced the convocation of a
+parliament in the ninth year from that date.</p>
+
+<p>One of the changes made in the public offices brought China
+into conflict with Great Britain. On the 9th of May 1906 a
+decree appointed Chinese commissioners to control the
+Imperial Maritime Customs.<a name="FnAnchor_63d" id="FnAnchor_63d" href="#Footnote_63d"><span class="sp">63</span></a> This was the only
+<span class="sidenote">The control of the Maritime Customs.</span>
+department of the government under European
+(British) control, and the only department also against
+which no charge of inefficiency or corruption could be
+brought. The change decreed by China was in accord with the
+new national sentiment, but by all the foreign powers interested
+it was felt that it would be a retrograde step if the customs
+were taken out of the control of Sir Robert Hart (<i>q.v.</i>), who had
+been since 1863 inspector-general of the customs. The British
+secretary of state for foreign affairs (Sir Edward Grey) at once
+protested against the decree of the 6th of May, pointing out
+that the continuation of the established system had been
+stipulated for in the loan agreements of 1896 and 1898. As a
+result of this and other representations the Board of Control of
+the Customs was late in 1906 made a department of the Board
+of Finance. The Chinese controllers-general continued in
+office, and despite the assurances given to Great Britain by
+China (in a note of the 6th of June 1906) that the appointment
+of the controllers-general was not intended to interfere with
+the established system of administration, the absolute authority
+of Sir Robert Hart was weakened.<a name="FnAnchor_64d" id="FnAnchor_64d" href="#Footnote_64d"><span class="sp">64</span></a> Sir Robert Hart returned
+to England in 1908 &ldquo;on leave of absence,&rdquo; Sir Robert Bredon,
+the deputy inspector-general, being placed in charge of the
+service under the authority of the Board of Control, of which
+on the 5th of April 1910 it was announced that he had been
+appointed a member. This step was viewed with disfavour
+by the British government, for, unless Sir Robert Bredon&rsquo;s post
+was to be merely a sinecure, it imposed two masters on the
+maritime customs. On the 20th of April Sir Robert Bredon
+severed his connexion with the Board of Control. At the
+same time Mr F.A. Aglen (the Commissioner of Customs at
+Hankow) became acting Inspector General (Sir Robert Hart
+being still nominally head of the service). The attempt on
+the part of the Chinese to control the customs was evidence
+of the strength of the &ldquo;young China&rdquo; or Recovery of Rights
+party&mdash;the party which aspired to break all the chains, such
+as extra-territoriality, which stamped the country as not the
+equal of the other great nations.<a name="FnAnchor_65d" id="FnAnchor_65d" href="#Footnote_65d"><span class="sp">65</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In the steps taken to suppress opium smoking evidence was
+forthcoming of the earnestness with which the governing body
+in China sought to better the condition of the people.
+Opium smoking followed, in China, the introduction of
+<span class="sidenote">The anti-opium agitation.</span>
+tobacco smoking, and is stated to have been introduced
+from Java and Formosa in the early part of the 17th
+century. The first edict against the habit was issued in 1729.
+At that time the only foreign opium introduced was by the
+Portuguese from Goa, who exported about 200 chests<a name="FnAnchor_66d" id="FnAnchor_66d" href="#Footnote_66d"><span class="sp">66</span></a> a year.
+In 1773 English merchants in India entered into the trade, which
+in 1781 was taken over by the East India Company&mdash;the import
+in 1790 being over 4000 chests. In 1796 the importation of
+foreign opium was declared contraband, and between 1839 and
+1860 the central government attempted, without success, to
+suppress the trade. It was legalized in 1858 after the second
+&ldquo;opium war&rdquo; with Great Britain. At that time the poppy
+was extensively grown in China, and the bulk of the opium
+smoked was, and continued to be, of home manufacture. But
+after 1860 the importation of opium from India greatly increased.
+Opium was also imported from Persia (chiefly to
+Formosa, which in 1895 passed into the possession of Japan).
+The total foreign import in 1863 was some 70,000 piculs,<a name="FnAnchor_67d" id="FnAnchor_67d" href="#Footnote_67d"><span class="sp">67</span></a> in
+1879 it was 102,000 piculs, but in 1905 had fallen to 56,000
+piculs. The number of opium smokers in China in the early
+years of the 20th century was estimated at from 25 to 30 millions.
+The evil effects of opium smoking were fully recognized, and
+Chang Chih-tung, one of the most powerful of the opponents of
+the habit, was high in the councils of the dowager-empress. On
+the 20th of September 1906 an edict was issued directing that
+the growth, sale and consumption of opium should cease in
+China within ten years, and ordering the officials to take
+measures to execute the imperial will. The measures promulgated,
+in November following, made the following provisions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(1) The cultivation of the poppy to be restricted annually by
+one-tenth of its existing area; (2) all persons using opium to be
+registered; (3) all shops selling opium to be gradually closed, and
+all places where opium is smoked to discontinue the practice within
+six months; (4) anti-opium societies to be officially encouraged,
+and medicines distributed to cure the opium-smoking habit; (5)
+all officials were requested to set an example to the people, and all
+officials under sixty were required to abandon opium smoking within
+six months or to withdraw from the service of the state.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was estimated that the suppression of opium smoking
+would entail a yearly loss of revenue of over £1,600,000, a loss
+about equally divided between the central and provincial governments.
+The first step taken to enforce the edict was the closing
+of the opium dens in Peking on the last day of 1906.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>During 1907 the opium dens in Shanghai, Canton, Fu-chow and
+many other large cities were closed, and restrictions on the issue of
+licences were introduced in the foreign settlements; even the eunuchs
+of the palace were prohibited from smoking opium under severe
+penalties. The central government continued during 1908 and 1909
+to display considerable energy in the suppression of the use of opium,
+but the provincial authorities were not all equally energetic. It was
+noted in 1908 that while in some provinces&mdash;even in Yun-nan, where
+its importance tc trade and commerce and its use as currency seemed
+to render it very difficult to do anything effective&mdash;the governor and
+officials were whole-hearted in carrying out the imperial regulations,
+in other provinces&mdash;notably in Kwei-chow and in the provinces of
+the lower Yangtsze valley&mdash;great supineness was exhibited in dealing
+with the subject. Lord William Cecil, however, stated that travelling
+in 1909 between Peking and Hankow, through country which in 1907
+he had seen covered with the poppy, he could not then see a single
+poppy flower, and that going up the Yangtsze he found only one
+small patch of poppy cultivation.<a name="FnAnchor_68d" id="FnAnchor_68d" href="#Footnote_68d"><span class="sp">68</span></a> The Peking correspondent of
+<i>The Times</i>, in a journey to Turkestan in the early part of 1910, found
+that in Shen-si province the people&rsquo;s desire to suppress the opium
+trade was in advance of the views of the government. Every day
+trains of opium carts were passed travelling under official protection.
+But in the adjoining province of Shan-si there had been complete
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span>
+suppression of poppy cultivation and in Kan-suh the officials were
+conducting a very vigorous campaign against the growth of the poppy.<a name="FnAnchor_69d" id="FnAnchor_69d" href="#Footnote_69d"><span class="sp">69</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In their endeavours to suppress opium smoking the Chinese government
+appealed to the Indian government for help, and in 1907 received
+a promise that India would decrease the production of opium
+annually by one-tenth for four years and subsequently if China did
+likewise. The Indian government also assented to Indian opium
+being taxed equally with Chinese opium, but China did not raise the
+duty on foreign opium. In 1908 the Indian government undertook
+to reduce the amount of opium exported by 5100 chests yearly. In
+the same year the opium dens in Hong-Kong were closed. In
+February 1909, on the initiative of the United States, an international
+conference was held at Shanghai to consider the opium trade and
+habit. At this conference the Chinese representative claimed that
+the consumption of opium had already been reduced by one-half&mdash;a
+claim not borne out by the ascertained facts. The conference was
+unable to suggest any heroic measures, but a number of proposals
+were agreed to (including the closing of opium dens in the foreign
+settlements), tending to the restriction of the opium trade. The
+conference also dealt with another and growing habit in China&mdash;the
+use of morphia.<a name="FnAnchor_70d" id="FnAnchor_70d" href="#Footnote_70d"><span class="sp">70</span></a> Japan agreed to prohibit the export of morphia to
+China, a prohibition to which the other powers had previously agreed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The attempts to reform the educational system of China on a
+comprehensive scale date from the year of the return of the
+court to Peking after the Boxer troubles. In 1902
+regulations were sanctioned by the emperor which
+<span class="sidenote">Education.</span>
+aimed at remodelling the methods of public instruction.
+These regulations provided among other things for the establishment
+at Peking of a university giving instruction in Western
+learning, a technical college, and a special department for
+training officials and teachers. A much more revolutionary
+step was taken in September 1905 when a decree appeared
+announcing as from the beginning of 1906 the abolition of the
+existing method of examinations. The new system was to
+include the study of modern sciences, history, geography and
+foreign languages, and in the higher grades political economy
+and civil and international law. Thousands of temples were
+converted to educational purposes. In Canton, in 1907, the old
+examination hall was demolished to make way for a college with
+every appliance on Western lines. Equal zeal was noticeable
+in such conservative cities as Si-gan-fu, and in remote provinces
+like Kan-suh. By May 1906 fifteen so-called universities had been
+founded. Moreover, many young Chinese went abroad to acquire
+education&mdash;in Japan alone in 1906 there were 13,000 students.
+In the same year primary schools for girls were established.<a name="FnAnchor_71d" id="FnAnchor_71d" href="#Footnote_71d"><span class="sp">71</span></a>
+Perhaps the most striking evidence of the new spirit regarding
+education was the tenour of a communication to the throne
+from the head of the Confucian family. On the  31st of
+December 1906 an imperial edict had appeared raising Confucius
+to the same rank as Heaven and Earth&mdash;an action taken
+to indicate the desire of the government to emphasize the
+value of ethical training. In thanking the throne for the
+honour conferred on his ancestor the head of the family urged
+that at the new college founded at the birth-place of Confucius
+the teaching should include foreign languages, physical culture,
+political science and military drill.<a name="FnAnchor_72d" id="FnAnchor_72d" href="#Footnote_72d"><span class="sp">72</span></a></p>
+
+<p>While China, with the consent of the emperor and the empress-dowager,
+and under the guidance of Prince Ching, Yuan Shih-kai
+and Chang Chih-tung, was endeavouring to bring about internal
+reforms, her attitude to foreign powers was one of reserve
+and distrust. This was especially marked in the negotiations
+with Japan and with Russia concerning Manchuria, and was
+seen also in the negotiations with Great Britain concerning
+Tibet. It was not until April 1908, after four years&rsquo; negotiations,
+that a convention with Great Britain respecting Tibet was
+signed, Chinese suzerain rights being respected. In September
+the Dalai Lama arrived in Peking from Mongolia and was received
+by the emperor, who also gave audience to a Nepalese mission.<a name="FnAnchor_73d" id="FnAnchor_73d" href="#Footnote_73d"><span class="sp">73</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The emperor Kwang-su had witnessed, without being able
+to guide, the new reform movement. In August 1908 an edict
+was issued in his name announcing the convocation of
+a parliament in nine years&rsquo; time. In November he
+<span class="sidenote">Death of the emperor and of the dowager empress.</span>
+died. His death occasioned no surprise, as disquieting
+reports about his health had been current since July,
+but the announcement that the dowager empress died
+on the 15th of November (the day after that on
+which the emperor was officially stated to have died) was
+totally unexpected. She had celebrated her birthday on the
+3rd of November and appeared then to be in good health.
+The empress dowager had taken part in the choice of a successor
+to the throne, Kwang-su&rsquo;s valedictory edict had been
+drawn up under her supervision, and it is believed that the
+emperor died some days previous to the date officially given for
+his death. Kwang-su died childless and was succeeded by his
+infant nephew Pu-Yi (born on the 8th of February 1906), a
+son of Prince Chun, who was appointed regent. Prince Chun&mdash;himself
+then only twenty-six years old&mdash;had exercised considerable
+influence at court since his mission to Germany in
+1901, and was one of the most enlightened of the Manchu princes.
+The death of the dowager empress removed a powerful obstacle
+to a reformed regime, and with her passed away the last
+prominent representative of the old era in China.</p>
+
+<p>The accession to the throne of Pu-Yi, who was given as
+reigning title Hsuan Tung (&ldquo;promulgating universally&rdquo;), was
+unaccompanied by disturbances, save for an outbreak
+at Ngan-king, easily suppressed. Prince Chun had
+<span class="sidenote">Accession of Hsuan Tung.</span>
+the support of Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung,<a name="FnAnchor_74d" id="FnAnchor_74d" href="#Footnote_74d"><span class="sp">74</span></a>
+the two most prominent Chinese members of the
+government at Peking&mdash;and thus a division between the Manchus
+and Chinese was avoided. On the 2nd of December 1908 the
+young emperor was enthroned with the usual rites. On the
+day following another edict, which, it was stated, had had the
+approval of the late dowager empress, was issued, reaffirming
+that of the 27th of August regarding the grant of a parliamentary
+constitution in nine years&rsquo; time, and urging the people
+to prepare themselves for the change. Other edicts sought to
+strengthen the position of the regent as <i>de facto</i> emperor.
+Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung received the title of Grand
+Guardians of the Heir, and the year 1908 closed with the chief
+Chinese members of the government working, apparently, in
+complete harmony with the regent.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of January 1909, however, the political situation
+was rudely disturbed by the dismissal from office of Yuan Shih-kai.
+This step led to representations by the British
+and American ministers to Prince Ching, the head of
+<span class="sidenote">Dismissal of Yuan Shih-kai.</span>
+the foreign office, by whom assurances were given that
+no change of policy was contemplated by China, while
+the regent in a letter to President Taft reiterated the determination
+of his government to carry through its reform policy.
+The dismissal of Yuan Shih-kai was believed by the Chinese
+to be due to his &ldquo;betrayal&rdquo; of the emperor Kwang-su in the
+1898 reform movement. He had nevertheless refused to go
+to extremes on the reactionary side, and in 1900, as governor
+of Shan-tung, he preserved a neutrality which greatly facilitated
+the relief of the Peking legations. During the last years
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span>
+of the life of the dowager empress it was his influence which
+largely reconciled her to the new reform movement. Yet Kwang-su
+had not forgotten the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 1898, and it is alleged
+that he left a testament calling upon his brother the prince
+regent to avenge the wrongs he had suffered.<a name="FnAnchor_75d" id="FnAnchor_75d" href="#Footnote_75d"><span class="sp">75</span></a> During the
+<span class="sidenote">Agreement with Japan.</span>
+greater part of the year there was serious estrangement
+between China and Japan, but on the 4th of September
+a convention was signed which settled most of the
+points in dispute respecting Manchuria and Korea. In
+Korea the boundary was adjusted so that Chientao, a mountainous
+district in eastern Manchuria regarded as the ancestral
+home of the reigning families of China and Korea, was definitely
+assigned to China; while in Manchuria, both as to
+railways and mines, a policy of co-operation was substituted for
+one of opposition.<a name="FnAnchor_76d" id="FnAnchor_76d" href="#Footnote_76d"><span class="sp">76</span></a> Although Japan had made substantial
+concessions, those made by China in return provoked loud
+complaints from the southern provinces&mdash;the self-government
+society calling for the dismissal of Prince Ching. In northern
+Manchuria the Russian authorities had assumed territorial
+jurisdiction at Harbin, but on the 4th of May an agreement was
+signed recognizing Chinese jurisdiction.<a name="FnAnchor_77d" id="FnAnchor_77d" href="#Footnote_77d"><span class="sp">77</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The spirit typified by the cry of &ldquo;China for the Chinese&rdquo; was
+seen actively at work in the determined efforts made to exclude
+foreign capital from railway affairs. The completion
+in October 1909 of the Peking-Kalgan railway was
+<span class="sidenote">The control of railways.</span>
+the cause of much patriotic rejoicing. The railway,
+a purely Chinese undertaking, is 122 m. long and
+took four years to build. It traversed difficult country, piercing
+the Nan K&lsquo;ow Pass by four tunnels, one under the Great Wall
+being 3580 ft. long. There was much controversy between foreign
+financiers, generally backed by their respective governments, as
+to the construction of other lines. In March 1909 the Deutschasiatische
+Bank secured a loan of £3,000,000 for the construction
+of the Canton-Hankow railway. This concession was contrary
+to an undertaking given in 1905 to British firms and was withdrawn,
+but only in return for the admittance of German capital
+in the Sze-ch&lsquo;uen railway. After prolonged negotiations an
+agreement was signed in Paris on the 24th of May 1910 for
+a loan of £6,000,000 for the construction of the railway from
+Hankow to Sze-ch&lsquo;uen, in which British, French, German and
+American interests were equally represented. In January
+1910 the French line from Hanoi to Yunnan-fu was opened;<a name="FnAnchor_78d" id="FnAnchor_78d" href="#Footnote_78d"><span class="sp">78</span></a>
+the railway from Shanghai to Nanking was opened for through
+traffic in 1909.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of the anti-opium movement and the dispute
+over the control of the Imperial Maritime Customs have already
+been chronicled. A notable step was taken in 1909
+by the institution of elected assemblies in each of the
+<span class="sidenote">Provincial Assemblies constituted. A senate formed.</span>
+provinces. The franchise on which the members
+were elected was very limited, and the assemblies
+were given consultative powers only. They were
+opened on the 14th of October (the 1st day of the
+9th moon). The businesslike manner in which these assemblies
+conducted their work was a matter of general comment among
+foreign observers in China.<a name="FnAnchor_79d" id="FnAnchor_79d" href="#Footnote_79d"><span class="sp">79</span></a> In February 1910 decrees
+appeared approving schemes drawn up by the Commission for
+Constitutional Reforms, providing for local government in
+prefectures and departments and for the reform of the judiciary.
+This was followed on the 9th of May by another decree summoning
+the senate to meet for the first time on the 1st day of
+the 9th moon (the 3rd of October 1910). All the members of the
+senate were nominated, and the majority were Manchus. Neither
+to the provincial assemblies nor to the senate was any power
+of the purse given, and the drawing up of a budget was postponed
+until 1915.<a name="FnAnchor_80d" id="FnAnchor_80d" href="#Footnote_80d"><span class="sp">80</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The efforts of the central government to increase the efficiency
+of the army and to re-create a navy were continued in 1910.
+China was credited with the intention of spending £40,000,000
+on the rehabilitation of its naval and military forces. It was
+estimated in March 1910 that there were about 200,000
+foreign-trained men, but their independent spirit and disaffection
+constituted a danger to internal peace. The danger was accentuated
+by the mutual jealousy of the central and provincial
+governments. The anti-dynastic agitation, moreover, again
+seemed to be growing in strength. In April 1910 there was
+serious rioting at Changsha, Hu-nan, a town whence a few years
+previously had issued a quantity of anti-foreign literature of a
+vile kind. The immediate causes of the riots seem to have been
+many: rumours of the intention of the foreign powers to dismember
+China, the establishment of foreign firms at Changsha
+<span class="sidenote">Anti-dynastic movements. Riots in Hu-nan.</span>
+competing with native firms and exporting rice and
+salt at a time when the province was suffering from
+famine, and the approach of Halley&rsquo;s comet. Probably
+famine precipitated the outbreak, which was easily
+crushed, as was also a rising in May at Yung chow, a
+town in the south of Hu-nan. Much mission and mercantile
+property was wrecked at Changsha, but the only loss of life
+was the accidental drowning of three Roman Catholic priests.</p>
+
+<p>An edict of the 17th of August 1910 effected considerable and
+unexpected changes in the personnel of the central government.
+Tang Shao-yi, a former lieutenant of Yuan Shih-kai, was
+appointed president of the Board of Communications, and to him
+fell the difficult task of reconciling Chinese and foreign
+interests in the development of the railway system. Sheng Kung-pao
+regarded as the chief Chinese authority on currency questions,
+and an advocate of the adoption of a gold standard, was attached
+to the Board of Finance to help in the reforms decreed
+<span class="sidenote">The regent&rsquo;s policy.</span>
+by an edict of May of the same year (see ante, <i>Currency</i>).
+The issue of the edict was attributed to the influence
+with the regent of Prince Tsai-tao, who had recently
+returned from a tour in Europe, where he had specially studied
+questions of national defence. The changes made among the
+high officials tended greatly to strengthen the central
+administration. The government had viewed with some disquiet the
+Russo-Japanese agreement of the 4th of July concerning Manchuria
+(which was generally interpreted as in fact lessening the authority
+of China in that country); it had become involved in another
+dispute with Great Britain, which regarded some of the measures
+taken to suppress opium smoking as a violation of the terms
+of the Chifu convention, and its action in Tibet had caused
+alarm in India. Thus the appointment to high office of men
+of enlightenment, pledged to a reform policy, was calculated
+to restore confidence in the policy of the Peking authorities.
+This confidence would have been greater had not the changes
+indicated a struggle for supreme power between the regent and
+the dowager empress Lung Yu, widow of Kwang-su.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of the various movements at work throughout
+China was at this time extremely difficult to gauge; the
+intensity of the desire for the acquisition of Western knowledge
+was equalled by the desire to secure the independence of the
+country from foreign control. The second of these desires gave
+the force it possessed to the anti-dynastic movement. At the
+same time some of the firmest supporters of reform were found
+among the Manchus, nor did there seem to be any reason to
+doubt the intention of the regent&mdash;if he retained power&mdash;to
+guide the nation through the troubled period of transition into
+an era of constitutional government and the full development
+of the resources of the empire.</p>
+<div class="author">(X.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliographical Note.</span>&mdash;Knowledge of the ancient history of
+China is necessarily derived from the native writers on the subject.
+Fortunately, the Chinese have always regarded the preservation
+of the national records as a matter of supreme importance. Confucius
+set an example in this respect, and has preserved for us in the <i>Spring
+and Autumn Annals</i> and the <i>Shu-king</i>, or <i>Book of History</i>,
+records of his country&rsquo;s progress during the past and then present
+centuries. The celebrated emperor Shih Hwang-ti, in establishing
+the empire, attempted to strengthen his cause by destroying all
+works on the national history. But so strongly was the historical
+sense inculcated in the people that immediately on the death of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span>
+tyrant the nation&rsquo;s records were again brought to light, and have
+been carefully preserved and edited since that time. Prof. Legge&rsquo;s
+translation of the <i>Spring and Autumn Annals</i> and the <i>Shu-king, or
+Book of History</i>, in the &ldquo;Sacred Books of the East&rdquo; series, have
+opened for students the stores of historical knowledge which were
+at the command of Confucius, and European writers on Chinese
+history have found in the dynastic annals a never-failing source of
+valuable information. It was from these works and epitomes of
+these that de Maillac gathered the facts for his celebrated <i>Histoire
+générale de la Chine</i>, and it is from similar sources that all other
+writers on Chinese history have drawn their inspiration.</p>
+
+<p>The following works on ancient and modern Chinese history
+may be specially mentioned: J.A. de Moyria de Maillac, <i>Histoire
+générale de la Chine</i> (1777), &amp;c.; J B. du Halde, <i>General History of
+China</i> (4 vols., 1736); M. de Guignes, <i>Voyages à Péking ...</i> (3 vols.,
+1808); D. Boulger, <i>A History of China</i> (3 vols., 1881); Valentine
+Chirol, <i>The Far Eastern Question</i> (1896); E.R. Huc, <i>The Chinese
+Empire</i> (2 vols., 1855); T.T. Meadows, <i>The Chinese and their
+Rebellions</i> (1856); G. Pauthier, <i>Histoire des relations politiques de
+la Chine avec les puissances occidentales depuis les temps les plus
+anciens jusqu&rsquo;à nos jours ...</i> (1859); Sir George Staunton, <i>Notes
+of Proceedings and Occurrences during the British Embassy to Peking
+in 1816</i> (1824); <i>Chinese Expansion historically reviewed</i>, a paper
+read before the Central Asian Society by Baron Suyematsu on
+January 11, 1905; F. Hirth, <i>Ancient History of China</i> (New York,
+1908); Prof. Herbert A. Giles&rsquo;s <i>Chinese Biographical Dictionary</i>
+(1897) is a storehouse of biographical detail and anecdote.</p>
+
+<p>For Chinese relations with foreign powers see H. Cordier, <i>Histoire
+des relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales, 1860-1902</i>
+(3 vols., Paris, 1901-1902); <i>Hertslet&rsquo;s China Treaties. Treaties, &amp;c.,
+between Great Britain and China, and between China and Foreign
+Powers, and Orders in Council, &amp;c., affecting British Interests in China</i>
+(3rd ed., revised by G.G.P. Hertslet and E. Parkes, London, 1908);
+J.O. Bland and E. Backhouse, <i>China under the Empress Dowager</i>
+(London, 1910). More general works are Sir R.K. Douglas, <i>China</i>,
+history since the time of Marco Polo (London, 1899); E.H. Parker,
+<i>China; Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce</i> (London, 1901);
+<i>China, Past and Present</i> (London, 1903); A.J. Sargent, <i>Anglo-Chinese
+Commerce and Diplomacy</i>&mdash;mainly in the 19th century
+(Oxford, 1907). For current affairs see the authorities cited in the
+footnotes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind f80 sc pt2">Plate I.</p>
+
+<div class="center f80">
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+
+<tr><td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:400px; height:230px" src="images/img213a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:400px; height:185px" src="images/img213b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;KU K&lsquo;AI-CHIH. TOILET SCENE.<br />
+British Museum. 4th Cent. <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).</td>
+
+<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;KIU YING. COURT LADIES.<br />
+(British Museum. 15th Cent.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:400px; height:269px" src="images/img213c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:400px; height:337px" src="images/img213d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;CHAO MÊNG-FU, AFTER WANG WEI (8th
+CENT.). SCENE ON THE WANG CH&lsquo;UAN.<br />
+(Dated 1309. British Museum.)</td>
+
+<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span>4.&mdash;HSÜ HSI. BIRD ON APPLE-BOUGH.<br />
+(10th Cent.)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+
+<tr><td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:526px" src="images/img213e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:632px" src="images/img213f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:579px" src="images/img213g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;ATTRIBUTED TO WU TAOTZÜ. SAKYAMUNI. (8th Cent.)</td>
+<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;CHIEN SHUN-CHU. THE EMPEROR HUAN-YEH. (15th Cent.)</td>
+<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;EAGLE. By LIN LIANG. (15th Cent. British Museum.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="pt2" colspan="3">Figs. 2, 4, and 5 are reproduced by permission of the Kokka Company, Tokyo.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="noind f80 sc pt2">Plate II</p>
+
+<div class="center f80">
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+
+<tr><td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:385px" src="images/img213h.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:467px" src="images/img213i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:412px" src="images/img213j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;TEMPLE VASE (c. 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td>
+<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;WINE VASE (c. 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td>
+<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11&mdash;WINE VASE (c. 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:466px" src="images/img213k.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:352px" src="images/img213l.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:623px" src="images/img213m.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;INLAID VESSEL<br />
+(C. 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td>
+<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;WINE VESSEL (c. 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td>
+<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.&mdash;INLAID VASE (c. 200 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).<br />
+In possession of C.J. Holmes.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:518px" src="images/img213n.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:420px" src="images/img213o.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:398px" src="images/img213p.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;VASE (c. 1450 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).</td>
+<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;WINE VESSEL (c. 1450 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).</td>
+<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;TEMPLE VASE (c. 1700 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="pt2" colspan="3">Figs. 9-13 and 15-17 are from originals in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.</td></tr>
+</table> </div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">VI. Chinese Art</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Painting.</i>&mdash;Painting is the pre-eminent art of China, which
+can boast of a succession of great painters for at least twelve
+centuries. Though the Chinese have an instinctive gift for harmonious
+colour, their painting is above all an art of <i>line</i>. It is
+intimately connected with writing, itself a fine art demanding
+the same skill and supple power in the wielding of the brush. The
+most typical expression of the Chinese genius in painting is the
+ink sketch, such as the masters of the Sung dynasty most preferred
+and the Japanese from the 15th century adopted for an
+abiding model. Utmost vigour of stroke was here combined
+with utmost delicacy of modulation. Rich colour and the use
+of gold are an integral part of the Buddhist pictures, though
+in the masterpieces of the religious painters a grand rhythm
+of linear design gives the fundamental character. Exquisite
+subdued colour is also found in the &ldquo;flower and bird pieces&rdquo; and
+still-life subjects of the Sung artists, and becomes more emphatic
+and variegated in the decorative artists of the Ming period.</p>
+
+<p>Not to represent facts, but to suggest a poetic idea (often
+perfumed, so to speak, with reminiscence of some actual poem),
+has ever been the Chinese artist&rsquo;s aim. &ldquo;A picture is a voiceless
+poem&rdquo; is an old saying in China, where very frequently the artist
+was a literary man by profession. Oriental critics lay more
+stress on loftiness of sentiment and tone than on technical
+qualities. This idealist temper helps to explain the deliberate
+avoidance of all emphasis on appearances of material solidity
+by means of chiaroscuro, &amp;c., and the exclusive use of the light
+medium of water-colour. The Chinese express actual dislike
+for the representation of relief. Whoever compares the painting
+of Europe with that of Asia (and Chinese painting is the central
+type for the one continent, as Italian may claim to be for the
+other) must first understand this contrast of aim. The limitations
+of the Chinese are great, but these limitations save them
+from mistaking advances in science for advances in art, and from
+petty imitation of fact. Their religious painting has great
+affinity with the early religious art of Italy (<i>e.g.</i> that of Siena).
+But the ideas of the Renaissance, its scientific curiosity, its
+materialism, its glorification of human personality, are wholly
+missing in China. For Europe, Man is ever the hero and the
+foreground&mdash;hence the dominant study of the nude, and the
+tendency to thronged compositions, with dramatic motives of
+effort and conflict. The Chinese artists, weak in the plastic,
+weak in the architectural sense, paint mostly in a lyric mood,
+with a contemplative ideal. Hence the value given to space in
+their designs, the semi-religious passion for nature, and the
+supremacy of landscape. Beauty is found not only in pleasant
+prospects, but in wild solitudes, rain, snow and storm. The life
+of things is contemplated and portrayed for its own sake, not
+for its uses in the life of men. From this point of view the body
+of Chinese painting is much more modern in conception than that
+of Western art. Landscape was a mature and free art in China
+more than a thousand years ago, and her school of landscape is
+the loftiest yet known to the world. Nor was man ever dissociated
+from nature. As early as the 4th century Ku K&lsquo;ai-chih
+says that in painting a certain noble character he must give him
+a fit background of great peaks and deep ravines. Chinese
+painting, in sum, finely complements rather than poorly supplements
+that of Europe; where the latter is strong, it is weak;
+but in certain chosen provinces it long ago found consummate expression
+for thoughts and feelings scarcely yet expressed with us.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of Chinese painting is lost in legend, though there
+is no reason to doubt its great antiquity. References in
+literature prove that by the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was a
+developed art. To this period is ascribed the invention
+<span class="sidenote">History: Early periods (to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 618).</span>
+of the hair-brush, in the use of which as an instrument
+both for writing and drawing the Chinese have attained
+marvellous skill; the usual material for the picture being
+woven silk, or, less often and since the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>,
+paper. In early times wood panels were employed; and large
+compositions were painted on walls prepared with white lime.
+These mural decorations have all disappeared. History and
+portraiture seem to have been the prevailing subjects; a secular
+art corresponding to the social ideals of Confucianism. Yet
+long before the introduction of Buddhism (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 67) with its
+images and pictures, we find that the two great symbolic figures
+of the Chinese imagination, the Tiger and the Dragon&mdash;typifying
+the forces of Nature and the power of the Spirit&mdash;had been
+evolved in art; and to imaginative minds the mystic ideas of
+Lao Tzü and the legends of his hermit followers proved a fruitful
+field for artistic motives of a kind which Buddhism was still
+more to enrich and multiply. Early classifications rank Buddhist
+and Taoist subjects together as one class.</p>
+
+<p>With the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> we come to individual names of
+artists and to the beginnings of landscape. Ku K&lsquo;ai-chih
+(4th century) ranks as one of the greatest names of Chinese
+art. A painting by him now in the British Museum (Plate I.
+fig. 1) shows a maturity which has nothing tentative about it.
+The dignified and elegant types are rendered with a mastery of
+sensitive brush-line which is not surpassed in later art. Ku
+K&lsquo;ai-chih painted all kinds of subjects, but excelled in portraiture.
+During the next century the criticism of painting was
+formulated in six canons by Hsieh Ho. Rhythm, organic or
+structural beauty, is the supreme quality insisted on.</p>
+
+<p>During the T&lsquo;ang dynasty the empire expanded to its utmost
+limits, stretching as far as the Persian Gulf. India was
+invaded; Buddhism, taught by numbers of Indian
+missionaries, became firmly established, and controlled
+<span class="sidenote">T&lsquo;ang dynasty (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 618-907).</span>
+the ideals and imaginations of the time. The vigorous
+style of a great era was impressed upon the T&lsquo;ang
+art, which culminated in Wu Taotzü, universally acknowledged
+as the greatest of all Chinese painters. It is doubtful if any of his
+work remains. The picture reproduced (Plate I. fig. 2) was long
+attributed to him, but is now thought to be of later date, like
+the two landscapes well known under his name in Japan. Wu
+Taotzü seems to have given supreme expression to the central
+subject of Buddhist art, the Nirvana of Buddha, who lies serenely
+asleep, with all creation, from saints and kings to birds and
+beasts, passionately bewailing him. The composition is known
+from Japanese copies; and it is in fact from the early religious
+schools of Japan that we can best conjecture the grandeur of
+the T&lsquo;ang style. Wu Taotzü excelled in all subjects: other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span>
+masters are best known for some particular one. Han Kan
+was famous for his horses, the models for succeeding generations
+of painters, both Chinese and Japanese. A specimen of his
+brush is in the British Museum; and in the same collection is
+a long roll which gives a glimpse of the landscape of this age.
+It is a copy by a great master of the Yuen dynasty, Chao Mêng-fu,
+from a famous painting by Wang Wei, representing scenes
+on the Wang Ch&lsquo;uan, the latter&rsquo;s home (Plate I. fig. 3 shows a
+fragment). With the T&lsquo;ang age landscape matured, and two
+schools arose, one headed by Wang Wei, the other by Li Ssü-hsün.
+The style of Wang Wei, who was equally famous as a
+poet, had a romantic idealist character&mdash;disdainful of mere fact&mdash;which
+in later developments created the &ldquo;literary man&rsquo;s picture&rdquo;
+of the Southern school, as opposed to the vigorous naturalism
+of the North.</p>
+
+<p>Next come five brief dynasties, memorable less for any corporate
+style or tradition, than for some fine painters
+like Hsü Hsi, famous for his flowers, and Huang
+<span class="sidenote">Five dynasties (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 907-960).</span>
+Ch&lsquo;uan, a great master in a delicate style. Two
+pictures by him, fowls and peonies, of extraordinary
+beauty, are in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>The empire, which had been broken up, was reunited, though
+shorn of its outer dependencies, under the house of Sung.
+This was an age of culture in which the freedom of
+<span class="sidenote">Sung dynasty (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 960-1280).</span>
+the individual was proclaimed anew; glorious in art
+as in poetry and philosophy; the period which
+for Asia stands in history as the Periclean age for Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p style="clear: both;">The religious paintings of Li Lung-mien, the grandest of Sung
+masters, if less forcible than those of T&lsquo;ang, were unsurpassed in
+harmonious rhythm of design and colour. But the most characteristic
+painting of this period is in landscape and nature-subjects.
+With a passion unmatched in Europe till Wordsworth&rsquo;s day, the
+Sung artists portrayed their delight in mountains, mists, plunging
+torrents, the flight of the wild geese from the reed-beds, the moonlit
+reveries of sages in forest solitudes, the fisherman in his boat on lake
+or stream. To them also, steeped in the Zen philosophy of contemplation,
+a flowering branch was no mere subject for a decorative
+study, but a symbol of the infinite life of nature. A mere hint to the
+spectator&rsquo;s imagination is often all that they rely on; proof of the
+singular fulness and reality of the culture of the time. The art of
+suggestion has never been carried farther. Such traditional subjects
+as &ldquo;Curfew from a Distant Temple&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Moon over Raging
+Waves&rdquo; indicate the poetic atmosphere of this art. Ma Yuan, Hsia
+Kuei and the emperor Hwei-tsung are among the greatest landscape
+artists of this period. They belong to the South Sung school, which
+loved to paint the gorges and towering rock-pinnacles of the Yangtsze.
+The sterner, less romantic scenery of the Hwang-Ho inspired the
+Northern school, of which Kuo Hsi and Li Ch&lsquo;eng were famous
+among many others. Muh Ki was one of the greatest masters of the
+ink sketch; Chao Tan Lin was famed for his tigers; Li Ti for his
+flowers as for his landscapes; Mao I for still-life: to name a few
+among a host.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Mongol dynasty continues in art the Sung tradition.
+Chao Mêng-fu, the greatest master of his time, belongs to both
+periods, and ranks with the highest names in Chinese
+painting. A landscape by him, copied from Wang
+<span class="sidenote">Yuen dynasty (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1280-1368).</span>
+Wei, has been already mentioned as in the British
+Museum, which also has two specimens of Yen Hui, a
+painter less known in his own country than in Japan.
+He painted especially figures of Taoist legend. The portrait by
+Ch&lsquo;ien Shun-chü (Plate I. fig. 5) is a fine example of purity of line
+and lovely colour, reminding us of Greek art.</p>
+
+<p>The simplicity of motive and directness of execution which
+had been the strength of the Sung art gradually gave way during
+the Ming era to complicated conceptions and elaborate
+effects. The high glow of life faded; the lyrical temper
+<span class="sidenote">Ming dynasty (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1368-1644).</span>
+and impassioned work of the Sung time were replaced
+by love of ornament and elegance. In this respect
+Kiu Ying is typical of the period, with his richly coloured
+scenes from court life (Plate I. fig. 6). None the less, there were
+a number of painters who still upheld the grander style of earlier
+ages. The greatest of these was Lin Liang (Plate I. fig. 7),
+whose brush work, if somewhat coarser, is as powerful as that
+of the Sung masters. But though individual painters of the
+first rank preserved the Ming age from absolute decline, it cannot
+be said that any new development of importance took place in a
+vitalizing direction.</p>
+
+<p>The present dynasty prolongs the history of Ming art. The
+literary school of the South became more prominent, sending
+out offshoots in Japan. There has been no movement
+<span class="sidenote">Tsing dynasty (from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1644).</span>
+of national life to be reflected in art, though a great
+body of admirable painting has been produced, down
+to the present day. The four landscape masters
+known as the &ldquo;four Wangs,&rdquo; Yün Shou-p&lsquo;ing and Wu Li are
+pre-eminent names.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Sources and Authorities.</span>&mdash;While the designs on porcelain,
+screens, &amp;c., have long been admired in the West, the paintings of
+which these are merely reproductions have been utterly ignored.
+Ignorance has gained authority with time, till the very existence of
+a great school of Chinese painting has been denied. Materials for
+study are scanty. Fires, wars and the recent armed ravages of
+Western civilization have left but little. The profound indifference
+of the Chinese to European admiration has prevented their collections
+from being known. The Japanese, always enthusiastic students
+and collectors of the continental art, claim (whether justly or not,
+is hard to ascertain) that the finest specimens are now in their
+country. Many of these are reproduced in the invaluable Tokyo
+publications, the <i>Kokka</i>, Mr Tajima&rsquo;s <i>Select Relics</i>, &amp;c., with Japanese
+criticisms in English. Of actual paintings the British Museum
+possesses a fair number, and the Louvre a few, of real importance.
+Copies and forgeries abound.</p>
+
+<p>See H.A. Giles, <i>Introduction to the History of Chinese Pictorial Art</i>
+(1905); F. Hirth, <i>Scraps from a Collector&rsquo;s Note-Book</i> (1905), (supplements
+Giles&rsquo;s work and especially valuable for the art of the Ch&lsquo;ing
+dynasty); S.W. Bushell, <i>Chinese Art</i>, vol. ii. (1906); K. Okakura,
+<i>Ideals of the East</i> (1903); M. Paléologue, <i>L&lsquo;Art chinois</i> (1887);
+W. Anderson, <i>Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings</i> (1886);
+Sei-ichi Taki, &ldquo;Chinese Landscape Painting,&rdquo; <i>The Kokka</i>, Nos. 191,
+&amp;c. (1906); <i>Chinesische Malereien aus der Sammlung Hirth</i> (Catalogue
+of an exhibition held at Dresden) (1897); W. von Seidlitz,
+article in <i>Kunstchronik</i> (1896-1897), No. 16.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Engraving</i>.&mdash;According to native historians, the art of
+printing from wooden blocks was invented in China in the
+6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, when it was employed for the publication of
+texts. The earliest evidence we have for the existence of woodcuts
+made to reproduce pictures or drawings is a passage in a
+work by Chang Yen-yüan, from which it appears that these
+were not made before the beginning of the T&lsquo;ang dynasty, under
+which that author lived. The method employed was to cut the
+design with a knife on the plank of the wood, in the manner
+followed by European artists till the end of the 18th century,
+when engraving with a burin on boxwood ousted the older
+process. The Japanese borrowed the art from China; and in
+Japan a whole school of artists arose who worked specially for
+the woodcutters and adapted their designs to the limitations
+of the material employed. In China the art has remained merely
+reproductive, and its history is therefore of less interest. <i>Printing
+in colours</i> was known to the Chinese in the 17th century,
+and probably earlier. In the British Museum is a set of prints
+brought from the East by Kaempfer in 1693, in which eight
+colours and elaborate <i>gauffrage</i> are used. Some fine albums of
+colour prints have been issued in China, but nothing equal in
+beauty to the prints produced in Japan by the co-operation of
+woodcutter and designer. <i>Engraving on copper</i> was introduced
+to China by the Jesuits, and some well-known sets of prints
+illustrating campaigns in Mongolia were made in the 18th
+century. But the method has never proved congenial to the
+artists of the Far East.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir R.K. Douglas, <i>Guide to the Chinese and Japanese Illustrated
+Books</i> (British Museum, 1887); W. Anderson, <i>Japanese Wood Engraving</i>
+(1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. <i>Architecture</i>.&mdash;In architecture the Chinese genius has
+found but limited and uncongenial expression. A nation of
+painters has built picturesquely, but this picturesqueness has
+fought against the attainment of the finest architectural qualities.
+There has been little development; the arch, for instance,
+though known to the Chinese from very early times, has been
+scarcely used as a principle of design, and the cupola has been
+undiscovered or ignored; and though foreign architectural
+ideas were introduced under the influence of the Buddhist and
+Mahommedan religions, these were more or less assimilated
+and subdued to the dominant Chinese design. Ruins scarcely
+exist and no building earlier than the 11th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> is known;
+but we know from records that the forms of architecture still
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span>
+prevalent imitate in essentials those of the 4th and 5th centuries
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> and doubtless represent an immemorial tradition.</p>
+
+<p>The grand characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pre-eminent
+importance of the roof. The <i>t&lsquo;ing</i> is the commonest
+model of building. The roof is the main feature; in fact the <i>t&lsquo;ing</i>
+consists of this roof, massive and immense, with recurved edges,
+and the numerous short columns on which the roof rests. The
+columns are of wood, the straight stems of the <i>nanmu</i> being
+specially used for this purpose. The walls are not supports,
+but merely fill in, with stone or brickwork, the spaces between
+the columns. The scheme of construction is thus curiously
+like that of the modern American steel-framed building, though
+the external form may be derived from the tent of primitive
+nomads. The roof, being the preponderant feature, is that on
+which the art of the architect has been concentrated. A double
+or a triple roof may be devised; the ridges and eaves may be
+decorated with dragons and other fantastic animals, and the
+eaves underlaid with carved and lacquered woodwork; the roof
+itself is often covered with glazed tiles of brilliant hue. In spite
+of efforts, sometimes desperate, to give variety and individual
+character by ornament and detail, the general impression is one
+of poverty of design. &ldquo;Chinese buildings are usually one-storeyed
+and are developed horizontally as they are increased in size or
+number. The principle which determines the plan of projection
+is that of symmetry&rdquo; (Bushell). All important buildings must
+face the south, and this uniform orientation increases the
+general architectural monotony produced by a preponderance
+of horizontal lines.</p>
+
+<p>A special characteristic of Chinese architecture is the <i>pai-lou</i>,
+an archway erected only by special authority, usually to commemorate
+famous persons. The <i>pai-lou</i> is commonly made of
+wood with a tiled roof, but sometimes is built entirely of stone, as
+is the gateway at the avenue of the Ming tombs. A magnificent
+example of the <i>pai-lou</i> is that on the avenue leading to Wo Fo
+Ssü, the temple of the Sleeping Buddha, near Peking. This is
+built of marble and glazed terra-cotta. The <i>pai-lou</i>, like the
+Japanese <i>torii</i>, derives its origin from the <i>toran</i> of Indian <i>stupas</i>.
+Lofty towers called <i>t&lsquo;ai</i>, usually square and of stone, seem to
+have been a common type of important building in early times.
+They are described in old books as erected by the ancient kings
+and used for various purposes. The towers of the Great Wall
+are of the same character, and are made of stone, with arched
+doors and windows. Stone, though plentiful in most provinces
+of the empire, has been singularly little used by the Chinese,
+who prefer wood or brick. M. Paléologue attributes this preference
+of light and destructible materials to the national
+indifference of the Chinese to posterity and the future, their
+enthusiasm being wholly devoted to their ancestors and the past.</p>
+
+<p>Temples are designed on the general <i>t&lsquo;ing</i> model. The Temple
+of Heaven is the most imposing of the Confucian temples,
+conspicuous with its covering of deep-blue tiles and its triple
+roof. Near this is the great Altar of Heaven, consisting of three
+circular terraces with marble balustrades. Buddhist temples
+are built on the general plan of secular residences, and consist
+of a series of rectangular courts with the principal building in
+the centre, the lesser at the sides. Lama temples differ little
+from these except in the interior decorations and symbolism.
+Mahommedan mosques are far simpler and severer in internal
+arrangement, but outwardly these also are in the Chinese style.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>pagoda</i> (Chinese <i>taa</i>), the type of Chinese architecture
+most familiar to the West, probably owes its peculiar form to
+Buddhist influence. In the pagoda alone may be found some
+trace of a religious imagination such as in Europe made Gothic
+architecture so full and splendid an expression of the aspiring
+spirit. The most famous pagoda was the Porcelain Tower of
+Nanking, destroyed by the T&lsquo;aip&lsquo;ing rebels in 1854. This was
+covered with slabs of faience coated with coloured glazes. The
+ordinary pagoda is built of brick on a stone foundation; it is
+octagonal with thirteen storeys.</p>
+
+<p>No Chinese buildings show more beauty than some of the
+graceful stone bridges for which the neighbourhood of Peking
+has been famous for centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. Paléologue, <i>L&rsquo;Art chinois</i> (1887): S.W. Bushell, <i>Chinese
+Art</i>, vol. i. (1904); J. Fergusson, <i>History of Architecture</i>; Professor
+Chûta Itô, articles in <i>The Kokka</i>, Nos. 197, 198.</p>
+<div class="author">(L.B.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>4. <i>Sculpture</i>.&mdash;Except in the casting and decoration of
+bronze vessels the Chinese have not obtained distinction as
+sculptors. They have practised sculpture in stone from an
+early period, but the incised reliefs of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a
+number of which are figured in Professor E. Chavannes&rsquo;s standard
+work,<a name="FnAnchor_81d" id="FnAnchor_81d" href="#Footnote_81d"><span class="sp">81</span></a> while they display a certain spirit, lack the true plastic
+sense, and though the power of the Chinese draughtsmen increased
+rapidly under the T&lsquo;ang and Sung dynasties, their work
+in stone showed no parallel progress. The feeling for solidity,
+which in Japan was a natural growth, was always somewhat
+exotic in China. With the impulse given to the arts by Buddhism
+a school of sculpture arose. The pilgrim Fa Hsien records
+sculpture of distinctive Chinese type in the 5th century. But
+Indian models dominated the art. Colossal Buddhas of stone
+were typical of the T&lsquo;ang era. Little, however, remains of these
+earlier times, and such true sculpture in stone, wood or ivory
+as we know dates from the 14th and succeeding centuries. The
+well-known sculptures on the arch at Chu Yung Kuan (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1345)
+are Hindu in style, though not without elements of breadth and
+strength, which seem to promise a greater development than
+actually took place. The colossal figures guarding the approach
+to the Ming tombs (15th century) show that the national taste
+rapidly became conventional and petrified so far as monumental
+sculpture was concerned, though occasional examples of devotional
+or portrait sculpture on a smaller scale in wood and ivory are
+found, which in power, grace, sincerity and restraint can rank
+with the work of more gifted nations. Such pieces, however,
+are extremely rare, and at South Kensington the ivory &ldquo;Kwanyin
+and Child&rdquo; (274. 1898) is a solitary example. As a rule the
+Chinese sculptor valued his art in proportion to the technical
+difficulties it conquered. He thus either preferred intractable
+materials like jade or rock-crystal, or, if he wrought in wood, horn
+or ivory, sought to make his work curious or intricate rather
+than beautiful. There is, nevertheless, beauty of a kind in
+Chinese bowls of jade, and there is dignity in some of the pieces
+of rock-crystal, but the bulk of the carving done in wood, horn
+and ivory does not deserve a moment&rsquo;s serious thought from
+the aesthetic point of view. The few fine specimens may be
+referred to the earlier part of the Ming dynasty when Chinese
+art in general was sincere and simple. After the middle of the
+15th century there set in the taste for profuse ornament which
+injured all subsequent Chinese work, and wholly ruined Chinese
+sculpture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bronzes.</i>&mdash;In Chinese bronzes we have a more consistent and
+exceptional form of plastic art, which can be traced continuously
+for some three thousand years. These bronzes take the form
+of ritual or honorific vessels, and the archaic shapes used in the
+service of the prehistoric religion of the country are repeated
+and copied with slight changes in decoration or detail to the
+present day.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest extant specimens, chiefly derived from the sack
+of the Summer Palace at Peking, may be referred to the Shang
+and Chow dynasties (1766-255 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). These ancient pieces have
+a certain savage monumental grandeur of design, are usually
+covered with a rich and thick patina of red, green and brown,
+and are decorated with simple patterns&mdash;scrolls, zigzag lines
+and a form of what is known as the Greek key-pattern symbolizing
+respectively waves, mountains and storm clouds. The
+animal forms used are those of the <i>tao-tieh</i> (glutton), a fabulous
+monster (possibly a conventionalized tiger) representing the
+powers of the earth, the serpent and the bull. These two last
+in later pieces combine to form the dragon, representing the
+power of the air. In the Chow dynasty libation vessels were
+also made in the form of a deer, a ram or a rhinoceros. These
+characteristics are shown in figures 9-17, Plate II. Fig. 9 is a
+temple vessel of a shape still in use, but which must date from
+before 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> With this massive piece may be contrasted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span>
+the flower-like wine vase shown in fig. 10, a favourite shape which
+is the prototype of some of the most graceful forms of Chinese
+porcelain and Japanese bronze. Its date is about 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+The large wine vase shown in fig. 11 is some 400 years later.
+On the body appears the head of the tao-tieh, on the handles
+are superbly modelled serpents. The technique, which in the
+previous pieces was somewhat rude, has now become perfect,
+yet the menacing majestic feeling remains. We see it no less
+clearly in fig. 12, a marvellous vessel richly inlaid with gold and
+silver and covered with an emerald-green patina. It may date
+from about 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and indicates that even in this remote
+epoch the Chinese were not only daring and powerful artists
+but also master-craftsmen in metal.</p>
+
+<p>It is indeed at this period that the art reaches its climax. The
+monumental grandeur of the Shang specimens is often allied
+to clumsiness; the later work, if more elaborate, is always less
+powerful. Nevertheless, it is to a later period that ninety-nine
+out of a hundred Chinese bronzes must be referred, and the
+great majority belong either to the Han and succeeding
+dynasties (220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400), or to the Renaissance of the arts
+which culminated under the Ming dynasty a thousand years later.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of the first of these periods is the free use
+of small solid figures of animals as decoration&mdash;the phoenix, the
+elephant, the frog, the ox, the tortoise, and occasionally men;
+shapes grow less austere and less significant, as a comparison
+between figures 11 and 13 will indicate; then towards the end
+of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> the influence of Buddhism is felt in the
+general tendency towards suavity of form (fig. 14). This vase
+is most delicately though sparingly inlaid with silver and a few
+touches of gold. Some small pieces, very richly and delicately
+inlaid and covered with a magnificent emerald-green patina,
+belonging to this period, form a connecting link between the
+inlaid work of the Chow dynasty and that of the Sung and Ming
+dynasties. The mirrors with Graeco-Bactrian designs, a conclusive
+proof of the external influences brought to bear upon
+Chinese art, are also attributed to the Han epoch.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The troubled period between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 and <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 960, in spite of the
+interval of activity under the T&lsquo;ang dynasty, produced, it would
+seem, but few bronzes, and those few were of no distinct or
+noteworthy style. Under the Sung dynasty the arts revived, and to this
+time some of the most splendid specimens of inlaid work belong&mdash;pieces
+of workmanship and taste no less perfect than that of the
+Japanese, in which the gold and silver of the earlier work are
+occasionally reinforced with malachite and lapis-lazuli. The coming of
+Kublai Khan and the Yuen dynasty (1280-1367) once more brought
+the East into contact with the West, and to this time we may assign
+certain fine pieces of Persian form such as pilgrim bottles. The
+vessels bearing Arabic inscriptions belong to the Ming dynasty
+(1368-1644), with which the modern history of Chinese art begins.</p>
+
+<p>The work done while the Ming dynasty was still young provides the
+student of Chinese art with many problems, and in one or two cases
+even the South Kensington authorities assign to pre-Christian times
+pieces that are clearly of Ming workmanship. The tendency of the
+period was eclectic and archaistic. The products of earlier days were
+reproduced with perfect technical command of materials, and with
+admirable taste; it is indeed by an excess of these qualities that
+archaistic Ming work may be distinguished from the true archaic.
+In fig. 15 we see how the Ming bronze worker took an earlier Buddhistic
+form of vase and gave it a new grace that amounted almost to
+artifice. A parallel might be found among the products of the so-called
+<i>art nouveau</i> of to-day, in which old designs are revived with
+just that added suavity or profusion of curvature that robs them of
+character. Fig. 16 again might be mistaken almost for a piece of
+the Chow dynasty, were not the grandeur of its form modified by just
+so much harmony in the curvature of the body and neck, and by just
+so much finish in the details as to rob the design of the old majestic
+vigour and to mark it as the splendid effort of an age of culture, and
+not the natural product of a period of strength.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, in the inlaid pieces that the difference tells most
+clearly. Here we find the monstrous forms of the Shang and Chow
+dynasties revived by men who appreciated their spirit but could not
+help making the revival an excuse for the display of their own
+superior skill. The monstrous vases and incense-burners of the past
+thus appear once more, but are now decorated with a delicate embroidery
+of inlay, are polished and finished to perfection, but lose
+therewith just the rudeness of edge and outline which made the older
+work so gravely significant. At times even some grandly planned
+vessel will appear with such a festoon of pretty tracery wreathed
+about it that the incongruity is little short of ridiculous, and we
+recognize we have passed the turning-point to decline.</p>
+
+<p>Decline indeed came rapidly, and to the latter part of the Ming
+epoch we must assign those countless bronzes where dragons and
+flowers and the stock symbols of happiness, good luck and longevity
+sprawl together in interminable convolutions. When once we reach
+this stage of contortion, of elaborate pierced and relief work, we come
+to the place in history of Chinese bronzes where serious study may
+cease, except in so far as the study of the symbols themselves throws
+light upon the history of Chinese procelain (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>). One
+class of bronze alone needs a word of notice, namely, the profusely
+decorated pieces which have a Tibetan origin, and are obviously no
+older than the end of the Ming period. Of these fig. 17 will serve as
+a specimen, and a comparison with fig. 9 will show how the softer
+rounded forms and jewelled festoons of Hindu-Greek taste enervated
+the grand primitive force of the earlier age, and that neither the added
+delicacy of texture and substance nor the vastly increased dexterity of
+workmanship can compensate for the vanished majesty.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. J. H.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">VII. The Chinese Language</p>
+
+<p><i>Colloquial.</i>&mdash;In treating of Chinese, it will be found convenient
+to distinguish, broadly, the spoken from the written language
+and to deal with each separately. This is a distinction which
+would be out of place if we had to do with any European, or
+indeed most Oriental languages. Writing, in its origin, is merely
+a symbolic representation of speech. But in Chinese, as we shall
+see, for reasons connected with the peculiar nature ot the script,
+the two soon began to move along independent and largely
+divergent lines. This division, moreover, will enable us to
+employ different methods of inquiry more suited to each. With
+regard to the colloquial, it is hardly possible to do more than
+consider it in the form or forms in which it exists at the present
+day throughout the empire of China. Although Chinese, like
+other living languages, must have undergone gradual changes
+in the past, so little can be stated with certainty about these
+changes that an accurate survey of its evolution is quite out of
+the question. Obviously a different method is required when
+we come to the written characters. The familiar line, &ldquo;Litera
+scripta manet, volat irrevocabile verbum,&rdquo; is truer perhaps of
+Chinese than of any other tongue. We have hardly any clue as
+to how Chinese was spoken or pronounced in any given district
+2000 years ago, although there are written remains dating from
+long before that time; and in order to gain an insight into the
+structure of the characters now existing, it is necessary to trace
+their origin and development.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning with the colloquial, then, and taking a linguistic
+survey of China, we find not one spoken language but a number
+of dialects, all clearly of a common stock, yet differing
+from one another as widely as the various Romance
+<span class="sidenote">The dialects.</span>
+languages in southern Europe&mdash;say, French, Italian
+and Spanish. Most of these dialects are found fringing the
+coast-line of China, and penetrating but a comparatively short
+way into the interior. Starting from the province of Kwang-tung
+in the south, where the Cantonese and farther inland the Hakka
+dialects are spoken, and proceeding northwards, we pass in
+succession the following dialects: Swatow, Amoy&mdash;these two may
+almost be regarded as one&mdash;Foochow, Wenchow and Ningpo.
+Farther north we come into the range of the great dialect
+popularly known as Mandarin (<i>Kuan hua</i> or &ldquo;official language&rdquo;),
+which sweeps round behind the narrow strip of coast occupied
+by the various dialects above-mentioned, and dominates a
+hinterland constituting nearly four-fifths of China proper.
+Mandarin, of which the dialect of Peking, the capital since 1421,
+is now the standard form, comprises a considerable number of
+sub-dialects, some of them so closely allied that the speakers of
+one are wholly intelligible to the speakers of another, while
+others (<i>e.g.</i> the vernaculars of Yangchow, Hankow or Mid-China
+and Ss&#365;-ch&lsquo;uan) may almost be considered as separate dialects.
+Among all these, Cantonese is supposed to approximate most
+nearly to the primitive language of antiquity, whereas Pekingese
+perhaps has receded farthest from it. But although philologically
+and historically speaking Cantonese and certain other dialects
+may be of greater interest, for all practical purposes Mandarin,
+in the widest sense of the term, is by far the most important.
+Not only can it claim to be the native speech of the majority of
+Chinamen, but it is the recognized vehicle of oral communication
+between all Chinese officials, even in cases where they come from
+the same part of the country and speak the same <i>patois</i>. For
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span>
+these reasons, all examples of phraseology in this article will be
+given in Pekingese.</p>
+
+<p>So far, stress has been laid chiefly on the dissimilarity of the
+dialects. On the other hand, it must be remembered that they
+proceed from the same parent stem, are spoken by members of
+the same race, and are united by the bond of writing which is the
+common possession of all, and cannot be regarded as derived
+from one more than from another. They also share alike in the
+two most salient features of Chinese as a whole: (1) they are all
+monosyllabic, that is, each individual word consists of only
+one syllable; and (2) they are strikingly poor in vocables, or
+separate sounds for the conveyance of speech. The number of
+these vocables varies from between 800 and 900 in Cantonese to
+no more than 420 in the vernacular of Peking. This scanty
+number, however, is eked out by interposing an aspirate between
+certain initial consonants and the vowel, so that for instance <i>p&lsquo;u</i>
+is distinguished from <i>pu</i>. The latter is pronounced with little
+or no emission of breath, the &ldquo;p&rdquo; approximating the farther
+north one goes (<i>e.g.</i> at Niuchwang) more closely to a &ldquo;b.&rdquo;
+The aspirated <i>p&lsquo;u</i> is pronounced more like our interjection
+&ldquo;Pooh!&rdquo; To the Chinese ear, the difference between the two
+is very marked. It will be found, as a rule, that an Englishman
+imparts a slight aspirate to his p&rsquo;s, t&rsquo;s, k&rsquo;s and ch&rsquo;s, and therefore
+has greater difficulty with the unaspirated words in Chinese.
+The aspirates are better learned by the ear than by the eye,
+but in one way or another it is essential that they be mastered
+by any one who wishes to make himself intelligible to the native.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Mongolian population, assisted by the
+progress of time, has slowly but surely diminished the number
+of vocables in Pekingese. Thus the initials <i>ts</i> and <i>k</i>, when
+followed by the vowel <i>i</i> (with its continental value) have gradually
+become softer and more assimilated to each other, and are now all
+pronounced <i>ch</i>. Again, all consonantal endings in <i>t</i> and <i>k</i>,
+such as survive in Cantonese and other dialects, have entirely
+disappeared from Pekingese, and <i>n</i> and <i>ng</i> are the only final
+consonants remaining. Vowel sounds, on the other hand, have
+been proportionately developed, such compounds as <i>ao, ia, iao,
+iu, ie, ua</i> occurring with especial frequency. (It must be understood,
+of course, that the above are only equivalents, not in all
+cases very exact, for the sounds of a non-alphabetic language.)</p>
+
+<p>An immediate consequence of this paucity of vocables is that
+one and the same sound has to do duty for different words.
+Reckoning the number of words that an educated man would
+want to use in conversation at something over four thousand,
+it is obvious that there will be an average of ten meanings to
+each sound employed. Some sounds may have fewer meanings
+attached to them, but others will have many more. Thus the
+following represent only a fraction of the total number of words
+pronounced <i>shih</i> (something like the &ldquo;shi&rdquo; in shirt):
+<img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217a.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;history,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:27px" src="images/img217b.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to employ,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217c.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;a corpse,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217d.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;a market,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217e.jpg" alt="" />
+&ldquo;an army,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217f.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;a lion,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217g.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to rely on,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217h.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to wait on,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217i.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;poetry,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217j.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;time,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217k.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to know,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217l.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to bestow,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217m.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to be,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217n.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;solid,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217o.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to lose,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217p.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to proclaim,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217q.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to look at,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217r.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;ten,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217s.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to pick up,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217t.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;stone,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217u.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;generation,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217v.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to eat,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217w.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;a house,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217x.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;a clan,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217y.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;beginning,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217z.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to let go,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217aa.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to test,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217ab.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;affair,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217ac.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;power,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217ad.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;officer,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217ae.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to swear,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217af.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to pass away,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217ag.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to happen.&rdquo; It would
+be manifestly impossible to speak without ambiguity, or indeed
+to make oneself intelligible at all, unless there were some means
+of supplementing this deficiency of sounds. As a matter of fact,
+several devices are employed through the combination of which
+confusion is avoided. One of these devices is the coupling of
+words in pairs in order to express a single idea. There is a word
+<img style="width:25px; height:27px" src="images/img217ah.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ko</i> which means &ldquo;elder brother.&rdquo; But in speaking, the sound
+<i>ko</i> alone would not always be easily understood in this sense.
+One must either reduplicate it and say <i>ko-ko</i>, or prefix
+<img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217ai.jpg" alt="" /> (<i>ta</i>, &ldquo;great&rdquo;) and say <i>ta-ko</i>. Simple reduplication is mostly
+confined to family appellations and such adverbial phrases as <img style="width:60px; height:25px" src="images/img217aj.jpg" alt="" />
+<i>man-man</i>, &ldquo;slowly.&rdquo; But there is a much larger class of pairs,
+in which each of the two components has the same meaning.
+Examples are: <img style="width:56px; height:25px" src="images/img217ak.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k&lsquo;ung-p&lsquo;a</i>, &ldquo;to be afraid,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img217al.jpg" alt="" /> <i>kao-su</i>, &ldquo;to tell,&rdquo; <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img217am.jpg" alt="" /> <i>shu-mu</i>, &ldquo;tree,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img217an.jpg" alt="" /> <i>p&lsquo;i-fu</i>, &ldquo;skin,&rdquo; <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img217ao.jpg" alt="" /> <i>man-ying</i>, &ldquo;full,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img217ap.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ku-tu</i>, &ldquo;solitary.&rdquo; Sometimes the two parts are not
+exactly synonymous, but together make up the sense required.
+Thus in <img style="width:63px; height:25px" src="images/img217aq.jpg" alt="" /> <i>i-shang</i>, &ldquo;clothes,&rdquo; <i>i</i> denotes
+more particularly clothes worn on the upper part of the body,
+and <i>shang</i> those on the lower part. <img style="width:60px; height:25px" src="images/img217ar.jpg" alt="" /> <i>fêng-huang</i> is the name
+of a fabulous bird, <i>fêng</i> being the male, and <i>kuang</i> the female.
+In another very large class of expressions, the first word serves
+to limit and determine the special meaning of the second: <img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img217as.jpg" alt="" />
+&ldquo;milk-skin,&rdquo; &ldquo;cream&rdquo;; <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img217at.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;fire-leg,&rdquo; &ldquo;ham&rdquo;; <img style="width:64px; height:25px" src="images/img217au.jpg" alt="" />
+&ldquo;lamp-cage,&rdquo; &ldquo;lantern&rdquo;; <img style="width:60px; height:25px" src="images/img217av.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;sea-waist,&rdquo; &ldquo;strait.&rdquo; There
+are, besides, a number of phrases which are harder to classify.
+Thus, <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img217aw.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hu</i> means &ldquo;tiger.&rdquo; But in any case where ambiguity
+might arise, <i>lao-hu</i>, &ldquo;old tiger,&rdquo; is used instead of the monosyllable.
+<img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img217ax.jpg" alt="" /> (another <i>hu</i>) is &ldquo;fox,&rdquo; and <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img217ay.jpg" alt="" /> <i>li</i>, an animal belonging
+to the smaller cat tribe. Together, <i>hu-li</i>, they form the usual
+term for fox. <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img217az.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chih tao</i> is literally &ldquo;to know the way,&rdquo;
+but has come to be used simply for the verb &ldquo;to know.&rdquo; These
+pairs or two-word phrases are of such frequent occurrence,
+that the Chinese spoken language might almost be described as
+bi-syllabic. Something similar is seen in the extensive use of
+suffixes or enclitics, attached to many of the commonest nouns. <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img217ba.jpg" alt="" /> <i>nü</i>
+is the word for &ldquo;girl,&rdquo; but in speech <img style="width:55px; height:25px" src="images/img217bb.jpg" alt="" /> <i>nü-tz&#365;</i> or <img style="width:68px; height:25px" src="images/img217bc.jpg" alt="" />
+<i>nü-&lsquo;rh</i> is the form used. <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img217bd.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img217be.jpg" alt="" /> both mean child, and must
+originally have been diminutives. A fairly close parallel is
+afforded by the German suffix <i>chen</i>, as in <i>Mädchen</i>.
+The suffix <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img217bf.jpg" alt="" />, it may be remarked, belongs especially to the Peking
+vernacular. Then, the use of so-called numeratives will often
+give some sort of clue as to the class of objects in which a
+substantive may be found. When in pidgin English we speak of
+&ldquo;one piecee man&rdquo; or &ldquo;three piecee dollar,&rdquo; the word <i>piecee</i> is
+simply a Chinese numerative in English dress. Even in ordinary
+English, people do not say &ldquo;four cattle&rdquo; but &ldquo;four <i>head</i> of
+cattle.&rdquo; But in Chinese the use of numeratives is quite a distinctive
+feature of the language. The commonest of them, <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img217bg.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ko</i>,
+can be used indifferently in connexion with almost any class of
+things, animal, vegetable or mineral. But there are other
+numeratives&mdash;at least 20 or 30 in everyday use&mdash;which are strictly
+reserved for limited classes of things with specific attributes.
+<img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img217bh.jpg" alt="" /> <i>mei</i>, for instance, is the numerative of circular objects
+such as coins and rings; <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img217bi.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k&lsquo;o</i> of small globular objects&mdash;pearls,
+grains of rice, &amp;c.; <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img217bj.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k&lsquo;ou</i> classifies things which have
+a mouth&mdash;bags, boxes and so forth; <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img217bk.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chien</i> is used of all kinds
+of affairs; <img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img217bl.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chang</i> of chairs and sheets of paper; <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img217bm.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chih</i>
+(literally half a pair) is the numerative for various animals,
+parts of the body, articles of clothing and ships; <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img217bn.jpg" alt="" /> <i>pa</i> for things
+which are grasped by a handle, such as fans and knives.</p>
+
+<p>This by no means exhausts the list of devices by which the
+difficulties of a monosyllabic language are successfully overcome.
+Mention need only be made, however, of the system of &ldquo;tones,&rdquo;
+which, as the most curious and important of all, has been kept
+for the last.</p>
+
+<p>The tones may be defined as regular modulations of the voice
+by means of which different inflections can be imparted to the
+same sound. They may be compared with the half-involuntary
+modulations which express emotional
+<span class="sidenote">The tones.</span>
+feeling in our words. To the foreign ear, a Chinese sentence
+spoken slowly with the tones clearly brought out has a certain
+sing-song effect. If we speak of the tones as a &ldquo;device&rdquo;
+adopted in order to increase the number of vocables, this must
+be understood rather as a convenient way of explaining their
+practical function than as a scientific account of their origin.
+It is absurd to suppose the tones were deliberately invented in
+order to fit each written character with a separate sound. A
+tone may be said to be as much an integral part of the word to
+which it belongs as the sound itself; like the sound, too, it is not
+fixed once and for all, but is in a constant, though very gradual,
+state of evolution. This fact is proved by the great differences of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span>
+intonation in the dialects. Theoretically, four tones have been
+distinguished&mdash;the even, the rising, the sinking and the entering&mdash;each
+of which falls again into an upper and a lower series. But
+only the Cantonese dialect possesses all these eight varieties of
+tone (to which a ninth has been added), while Pekingese, with
+which we are especially concerned here, has no more than four:
+the even upper, the even lower, the rising and the sinking. The
+history of the tones has yet to be written, but it appears that
+down to the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the only tones distinguished
+were the <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img218a.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;even,&rdquo; <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img218b.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;rising&rdquo; and <img style="width:30px; height:25px" src="images/img218c.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;entering.&rdquo; Between
+that date and the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> the <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218d.jpg" alt="" /> sinking tone was
+developed. In the 11th century the even tone was divided into
+upper and lower, and a little later the entering tone finally
+disappeared from Pekingese. The following monosyllabic dialogue
+gives a very fair idea of the quality of the four Pekingese
+tones&mdash;<i>1st tone</i>: Dead (spoken in a raised monotone, with slightly
+plaintive inflection); <i>2nd tone</i>: Dead? (simple query);
+<i>3rd tone</i>: Dead? (an incredulous query long drawn out);
+<i>4th tone</i>: Dead! (a sharp and decisive answer). The native learns the
+tones unconsciously and by ear alone. For centuries their existence
+was unsuspected, the first systematic classification of them
+being associated with the name of Shên Yo, a scholar who
+lived <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 441-513. The Emperor Wu Ti was inclined to be
+sceptical, and one day said to him: &ldquo;Come, tell me, what are
+these famous four tones?&rdquo; &ldquo;They are <img style="width:128px; height:25px" src="images/img218e.jpg" alt="" /> whatever
+your Majesty pleases to make them,&rdquo; replied Shên Yo, skilfully
+selecting for his answer four words which illustrated, and in the
+usual order, the four tones in question. Although no native is
+ever taught the tones separately, they are none the less present
+in the words he utters, and must be acquired consciously or
+unconsciously by any European who wishes to be understood.
+It is a mistake, however, to imagine that every single word in
+a sentence must necessarily be given its full tonic force. Quite
+a number of words, such as the enclitics mentioned above, are
+not intonated at all. In others the degree of emphasis depends
+partly on the tone itself, partly on its position in the sentence.
+In Pekingese the 3rd tone (which is really the second in the
+ordinary series, the 1st being subdivided into upper and lower)
+is particularly important, and next to it in this respect comes
+the 2nd (that is, the lower even, or 2nd division of the 1st).
+It may be said, roughly, that any speaker whose second and third
+tones are correct will at any rate be understood, even if the 1st
+and 4th are slurred over.</p>
+
+<p>It is chiefly, however, on its marvellous script and the rich
+treasures of its literature that the Chinese language depends for
+its unique fascination and charm. If we take a page
+of printed Chinese or carefully written manuscript
+<span class="sidenote">The characters.</span>
+and compare it with a page, say, of Arabic or Sanskrit,
+the Chinese is seen at once to possess a marked characteristic
+of its own. It consists of a number of wholly independent units,
+each of which would fit into a small square, and is called a
+character. These characters are arranged in columns, beginning
+on the right-hand side of the page and running from top to
+bottom. They are <i>words</i>, inasmuch as they stand for articulate
+sounds expressing root-ideas, but they are unlike our words in
+that they are not composed of alphabetical elements or letters.
+Clearly, if each character were a distinct and arbitrarily
+constructed symbol, only those gifted with exceptional powers of
+memory could ever hope to read or write with fluency. This,
+however, is far from being the case. If we go to work synthetically
+and first see how the language is built up, it will soon appear
+that most Chinese characters are susceptible of some kind of
+analysis. We may accept as substantially true the account
+of native writers who tell us that means of communication other
+than oral began with the use of knotted cords, similar to the
+<i>quippus</i> of ancient Mexico and Peru, and that these were
+displaced later on by the practice of notching or scoring rude marks
+on wood, bamboo and stone. It is beyond question that the
+first four numerals, as written with simple horizontal strokes,
+date from this early period. Notching, however, carries us but
+a little way on the road to a system of writing, which in China,
+as elsewhere, must have sprung originally from pictures.
+In Chinese writing, especially, the indications of such an origin
+are unmistakable, a few characters, indeed, even in
+<span class="sidenote">Pictorial characters.</span>
+their present form, being perfectly recognizable as pictures
+of objects pure and simple. Thus, for &ldquo;sun&rdquo; the
+ancient Chinese drew a circle with a dot in it: <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218f.jpg" alt="" />, now modified
+into <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img218g.jpg" alt="" />; for &ldquo;moon&rdquo; <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img218h.jpg" alt="" />, now <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img218i.jpg" alt="" />; for &ldquo;God&rdquo; they drew the
+anthropomorphic figure <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img218j.jpg" alt="" />, which in its modern form appears
+as <img style="width:33px; height:25px" src="images/img218k.jpg" alt="" />; for &ldquo;mountains&rdquo; <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img218l.jpg" alt="" />, now <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img218m.jpg" alt="" />; for &ldquo;child&rdquo; <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img218n.jpg" alt="" />, now <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img218o.jpg" alt="" />;
+for &ldquo;fish&rdquo; <img style="width:17px; height:25px" src="images/img218p.jpg" alt="" />, now <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img218q.jpg" alt="" />; for &ldquo;mouth&rdquo; a round hole, now <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218r.jpg" alt="" />;
+for &ldquo;hand&rdquo; <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img218s.jpg" alt="" />, now <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img218t.jpg" alt="" />; for &ldquo;well&rdquo; <img style="width:21px; height:25px" src="images/img218u.jpg" alt="" />, now written without the
+dot. Hence we see that while the origin of all writing is pictographic,
+in Chinese alone of living languages certain pictures
+have survived, and still denote what they had denoted in the
+beginning. In the script of other countries they were gradually
+transformed into hieroglyphic symbols, after which they either
+disappeared altogether or became further conventionalized into
+the letters of an alphabet. These picture-characters, then,
+accumulated little by little, until they comprised all the common
+objects which could be easily and rapidly delineated&mdash;sun, moon,
+stars, various animals, certain parts of the body, tree, grass
+and so forth, to the number of two or three hundred. The next
+step was to a few compound pictograms which would naturally
+suggest themselves to primitive man: <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img218v.jpg" alt="" /> the sun just above the
+horizon = &ldquo;dawn&rdquo;; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218w.jpg" alt="" /> trees side by side = &ldquo;a forest&rdquo;; <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img218x.jpg" alt="" /> a
+mouth with something solid coming out of it = &ldquo;the tongue&rdquo;;
+<img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img218y.jpg" alt="" /> a mouth with vapor or breath coming out of it = &ldquo;words.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>But a purely pictographic script has its limitations. The more
+complex natural objects hardly come within its scope; still less
+the whole body of abstract ideas. While writing was
+still in its infancy, it must have occurred to the Chinese
+<span class="sidenote">Suggestive compounds.</span>
+to join together two or more pictorial characters in
+order that their association might suggest to the mind
+some third thing or idea. &ldquo;Sun&rdquo; and &ldquo;moon&rdquo; combined in
+this way make the character <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218z.jpg" alt="" />, which means &ldquo;bright&rdquo;; woman
+and child make <img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img218aa.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;good&rdquo;; &ldquo;fields&rdquo; and &ldquo;strength&rdquo; (that
+is, labour in the fields) produce the character <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img218ab.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;male&rdquo;;
+two &ldquo;men&rdquo; on &ldquo;earth&rdquo; <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img218ac.jpg" alt="" /> signifies &ldquo;to sit&rdquo;&mdash;before chairs
+were known; the &ldquo;sun&rdquo; seen through &ldquo;trees&rdquo; <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img218ad.jpg" alt="" /> designates
+the east; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218ae.jpg" alt="" /> has been explained as (1) a &ldquo;pig&rdquo; under a &ldquo;roof,&rdquo;
+the Chinese idea, common to the Irish peasant, of home, and
+also (2) as &ldquo;several persons&rdquo; under &ldquo;a roof,&rdquo; in the same
+sense; a &ldquo;woman&rdquo; under a &ldquo;roof&rdquo; makes the character <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218af.jpg" alt="" />
+&ldquo;peace&rdquo;; &ldquo;words&rdquo; and &ldquo;tongue&rdquo; <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img218ag.jpg" alt="" /> naturally suggest
+&ldquo;speech&rdquo;; two hands (<img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218ah.jpg" alt="" />, in the old form <img style="width:21px; height:25px" src="images/img218ai.jpg" alt="" />) indicate friendship;
+&ldquo;woman&rdquo; and &ldquo;birth&rdquo; <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img218aj.jpg" alt="" /> = &ldquo;born of a woman,&rdquo; means
+&ldquo;clan-name,&rdquo; showing that the ancient Chinese traced through
+the mother and not through the father. Interesting and ingenious
+as many of these combinations are, it is clear that their
+number, too, must in any practical system of writing be severely
+limited. Hence it is not surprising that this class of characters,
+correctly called ideograms, as representing ideas and not objects,
+should be a comparatively small one. Up to this point there
+seemed to be but little chance of the written language reaching
+a free field for expansion. It had run so far on lines sharply
+distinct from those of ordinary speech. There was nothing in
+the character <i>per se</i> which gave the slightest clue to the sound of
+the word it represented. Each character, therefore, had to be
+learned and recognized by a separate effort of memory.
+<span class="sidenote">Phonetic characters.</span>
+The first step in a new, and, as it ultimately proved,
+the right direction, was the borrowing of a character
+already in use to represent another word
+identical in sound, though different in meaning. Owing to the
+scarcity of vocables noted above, there might be as many as
+ten different words in common use, each pronounced <i>fang</i>.
+Out of those ten only one, we will suppose, had a character
+assigned to it&mdash;namely <img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img218ak.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;square&rdquo; (originally said to be a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span>
+picture of two boats joined together). But among the other nine
+was <i>fang</i>, meaning &ldquo;street&rdquo; or &ldquo;locality,&rdquo; in such common use
+that it became necessary to have some means of writing it.
+Instead of inventing an altogether new character, as they might
+have done, the Chinese took <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219a.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;square&rdquo; and used it also in
+the sense of &ldquo;locality.&rdquo; This was a simple expedient, no doubt,
+but one that, applied on a large scale, could not but lead to
+confusion. The corresponding difficulty which presented itself
+in speech was overcome, as we saw, by many devices, one of
+which consisted in prefixing to the word in question another
+which served to determine its special meaning. A native does
+not say <i>fang</i> simply when he wishes to speak of a place, but
+<i>li-fang</i> &ldquo;earth-place.&rdquo; Exactly the same device was now
+adopted in writing the character. To <i>fang</i> &ldquo;square&rdquo; was added
+another part meaning &ldquo;earth,&rdquo; in order to show that the <i>fang</i>
+in question had to do with location on the earth&rsquo;s surface. The
+whole character thus appeared as <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219b.jpg" alt="" />. Once this phonetic principle
+had been introduced, all was smooth sailing, and writing
+progressed by leaps and bounds. Nothing was easier now
+than to provide signs for the other words pronounced <i>fang</i>.
+&ldquo;A room&rdquo; was <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img219c.jpg" alt="" /> door-<i>fang</i>; &ldquo;to spin&rdquo; was <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img219d.jpg" alt="" /> silk-<i>fang</i>;
+&ldquo;fragrant&rdquo; was <img style="width:30px; height:25px" src="images/img219e.jpg" alt="" /> herbs-<i>fang</i>; &ldquo;to inquire&rdquo; was
+<img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img219f.jpg" alt="" /> words-<i>fang</i>; &ldquo;an embankment,&rdquo; and hence &ldquo;to guard against,&rdquo; was
+<img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img219g.jpg" alt="" /> mound-<i>fang</i>; &ldquo;to hinder&rdquo; was <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219h.jpg" alt="" /> woman-<i>fang</i>. This last
+example may seem a little strange until we remember that man
+must have played the principal part in the development of
+writing, and that from the masculine point of view there is
+something essentially obstructive and unmanageable in woman&rsquo;s
+nature. It may be remarked, by the way, that the element
+&ldquo;woman&rdquo; is often the determinative in characters that stand
+for unamiable qualities, <i>e.g.</i> <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219i.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;jealous,&rdquo; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219j.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;treacherous,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img219k.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;false&rdquo; and <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img219l.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;uncanny.&rdquo; This class of characters, which
+constitutes at least nine-tenths of the language, has received the
+convenient name of <i>phonograms</i>. It must be added that the
+formation of the phonogram or phonetic compound did not
+always proceed along such simple lines as in the examples given
+above, where both parts are pictorial characters, one the
+&ldquo;phonetic,&rdquo; representing the sound, and the other, commonly
+known as the &ldquo;radical,&rdquo; giving a clue to the sense. In the first
+place, most of the phonetics now existing are not simple pictograms,
+but themselves more or less complex characters made up
+in a variety of ways. On analysing, for instance, the word <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219m.jpg" alt="" />
+<i>hsün</i>, &ldquo;to withdraw,&rdquo; we find it is composed of the phonetic
+<img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219n.jpg" alt="" /> combined with the radical <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219o.jpg" alt="" />, an abbreviated form of <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219p.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to
+walk.&rdquo; But <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img219q.jpg" alt="" /> <i>sun</i> means &ldquo;grandson,&rdquo; and is itself a suggestive
+compound made up of the two characters <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219r.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;a son&rdquo; and <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219s.jpg" alt="" />
+&ldquo;connect.&rdquo; The former character is a simple pictogram, but
+the latter is again resolvable into the two elements <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219t.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;a down
+stroke to the left&rdquo; and <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219u.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;a strand of silk,&rdquo; which is here
+understood to be the radical and appears in its ancient form as
+<img style="width:20px; height:25px" src="images/img219v.jpg" alt="" />, a picture of cocoons spun by the silkworm. Again, the
+sound is in most cases given by no means exactly by the so-called
+phonetic, a fact chiefly due to the pronunciation having undergone
+changes which the written character was incapable of recording.
+Thus, we have just seen that the phonetic of <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219w.jpg" alt="" /> is not <i>hsün</i>
+but <i>sun</i>. There are extreme cases in which a phonetic provides
+hardly any clue at all as to the sound of its derivatives. The
+character <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219x.jpg" alt="" />, for example, which by itself is pronounced <i>ch&lsquo;ien</i>,
+appears in combination as the modern phonetic of <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219y.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k&lsquo;an</i>, <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219z.jpg" alt="" />
+<i>juan</i>, <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219aa.jpg" alt="" /> <i>yin</i> and <img style="width:30px; height:25px" src="images/img219ab.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ch&lsquo;ui</i>; though in the last
+instance it was not originally the phonetic but the radical of a character
+which was analysed as <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219ac.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ch&lsquo;ien</i>, &ldquo;to emit breath&rdquo; from <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219ad.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;the
+mouth,&rdquo; the whole character being a suggestive compound
+rather than an illustration of radical and phonetic combined.
+In general, however, it may be said that the &ldquo;final&rdquo; or rhyme
+is pretty accurately indicated, while in not a few cases the phonetic
+does give the exact sound for all its derivatives. Thus, the
+characters in which the element <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219af.jpg" alt="" /> enters are pronounced <i>chien, ch&lsquo;ien,
+hsien</i> and <i>lien</i>; but <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219ag.jpg" alt="" /> and its derivatives are all <i>i</i>. A
+considerable number of phonetics are nearly or entirely obsolete
+as separate characters, although their family of derivatives may
+be a very large one. <img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img219ah.jpg" alt="" />, for instance, is never seen by itself, yet
+<img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img219aj.jpg" alt="" />, and <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img219ak.jpg" alt="" /> are among the most important characters in the
+language. Objections have been raised in some quarters to
+this account of the phonetic development of Chinese. It is
+argued that the primitives and sub-primitives, whereby is meant
+any character which is capable of entering into combination
+with another, have really had some influence on the meaning,
+and do not merely possess a phonetic value. But insufficient
+evidence has hitherto been advanced in support of this view.</p>
+
+<p>The whole body of Chinese characters, then, may conveniently
+be divided up, for philological purposes, into pictograms,
+ideograms and phonograms. The first are pictures of objects, the
+second are composite symbols standing for abstract ideas, the
+third are compound characters of which the more important
+element simply represents a spoken sound. Of course, in a strict
+sense, even the first two classes do not directly represent either
+objects or ideas, but rather stand for sounds by which these
+objects and ideas have previously been expressed. It may, in
+fact, be said that Chinese characters are &ldquo;nothing but a number
+of more or less ingenious devices for suggesting spoken words to
+a reader.&rdquo; This definition exposes the inaccuracy of the popular
+notion that Chinese is a language of ideographs, a mistake which
+even the compilers of the <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> have not
+avoided. Considering that all the earliest characters are pictorial,
+and that the vast majority of the remainder are constructed on
+phonetic principles, it is absurd to speak of Chinese characters as
+&ldquo;symbolizing the idea of a thing, without expressing the name of it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese themselves have always been diligent students of
+their written language, and at a very early date (probably many
+centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) evolved a sixfold classification of characters,
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Six Scripts.&rdquo;</span>
+the so-called <img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img219al.jpg" alt="" /> <i>liu shu</i>, very inaccurately
+translated by the Six Scripts, which may be briefly noticed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img219am.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chih shih</i>, indicative or self-explanatory characters.
+This is a very small class, including only the simplest numerals
+and a few others such as <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219an.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;above&rdquo; and <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219ao.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;below.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>2. <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img219ap.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hsiang hsing</i>, pictographic characters.</p>
+
+<p>3. <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img219aq.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hsing shêng</i> or <img style="width:56px; height:25px" src="images/img219ar.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hsieh shêng</i>, phonetic compounds.</p>
+
+<p>4. <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img219as.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hui i</i>, suggestive compounds based on a natural
+association of ideas. To this class alone can the term &ldquo;ideographs&rdquo;
+be properly applied.</p>
+
+<p>5. <img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img219at.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chuan chu</i>.  The meaning of the name has been much
+disputed, some saying that it means &ldquo;turned  round&rdquo;; <i>e.g.</i>
+<img style="width:52px; height:25px" src="images/img219au.jpg" alt="" /> <i>mu</i> &ldquo;eye&rdquo; is now written <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img219av.jpg" alt="" />. Others understand it as comprising
+a few groups of characters nearly related in sense, each
+character consisting of an element common to the group, together
+with a specific and detachable part; <i>e.g.</i> <img style="width:55px; height:25px" src="images/img219aw.jpg" alt="" />, and <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219ax.jpg" alt="" />, all of
+which have the meaning &ldquo;old.&rdquo; This class may be ignored
+altogether, seeing that it is concerned not with the origin of
+characters but only with peculiarities in their use.</p>
+
+<p>6. <img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img219ay.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chia chieh</i>, borrowed characters, as explained above,
+that is, characters adopted for different words simply because
+of the identity of sound.</p>
+
+<p>The order of this native classification is not to be taken as in
+any sense chronological. Roughly, it may be said that the
+development of writing followed the course previously traced&mdash;that
+is, beginning with indicative signs, and going on with
+pictograms and ideograms, until finally the discovery of the
+phonetic principle did away with all necessity for other devices
+in enlarging the written language. But we have no direct
+evidence that this was so. There can be little doubt that phonetic
+compounds made their appearance at a very early date, probably
+prior to the invention of a large number of suggestive compounds,
+and perhaps even before the whole existing stock of pictograms
+had been fashioned. It is significant that numerous words of
+daily occurrence, which must have had a place in the earliest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span>
+stages of human thought, are expressed by phonetic characters.
+We can be fairly certain, at any rate, that the period of
+&ldquo;borrowed characters&rdquo; did not last very long, though it is
+thought that traces of it are to be seen in the habit of writing
+several characters, especially those for certain plants and
+animals, indifferently with or without their radicals. Thus
+<img style="width:62px; height:25px" src="images/img220a.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;a tadpole&rdquo; is frequently written <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img220b.jpg" alt="" />, without the
+part meaning &ldquo;insect&rdquo; or &ldquo;reptile.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the very earliest inscriptions that have come down to us, the
+so-called <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img220c.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ku-wên</i> or &ldquo;ancient figures,&rdquo; all the
+above-mentioned forms occur. None are wholly pictorial, with one or two
+unimportant exceptions. These early inscriptions are
+<span class="sidenote">Styles of writing.</span>
+found on bronzes dating from the half-legendary period
+extending from the beginning of the Shang dynasty in the 18th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, or possibly earlier, down to a point in the reign of King
+Hsüan of the Chou dynasty, generally fixed at 827 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They have
+been carefully reproduced and for the most part deciphered by painstaking
+Chinese archaeologists, and form the subject of many voluminous
+works. The following may be taken as a specimen, in which it will be
+noticed that only the last character is unmistakably pictorial:
+
+<span class="figleft1" style="float: left;"><img style="width:150px; height:116px" src="images/img220d.jpg" alt="" /></span>
+
+This is read: <img style="width:131px; height:25px" src="images/img220e.jpg" alt="" />&mdash;&rdquo;Shên made [this]
+precious <i>ting</i>.&rdquo; These ancient bronzes, which
+mainly take the shape of bells, cauldrons and
+sacrificial utensils, were until within the last
+decade our sole source of information concerning
+the origin and early history of Chinese writing.
+But recently a large number of inscribed bone
+fragments have been excavated in the north of
+China, providing new and unexpected matter for investigation.
+The inscriptions on these bones have already furnished a list of nearly
+2500 separate characters, of which not more than about 600 have
+been so far identified. They appear to be responses given by
+professional soothsayers to private individuals who came to them
+seeking the aid of divination in the affairs of their daily life. It is
+difficult to fix their date with much exactitude. The script, though
+less archaic than that of the earlier bronzes, is nevertheless of an
+exceedingly free and irregular type. Judging by the style of the
+inscriptions alone, one would be inclined to assign them to the early
+years of the Chou dynasty, say 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But Mr L.C. Hopkins
+thinks that they represent a mode of writing already obsolete at the
+time of their production, and retained of set purpose by the diviners
+from obscurantist motives, much as the ancient hieroglyphics were
+employed by the Egyptian priesthood. He would therefore date
+them about 500 years later, or only half a century before the birth of
+Confucius. If that is so, they are merely late specimens of the
+&ldquo;ancient figures&rdquo; appearing long after the latter had made way for a
+new and more conventionalized form of writing. This new writing
+is called in Chinese <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img220f.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chuan</i>, which is commonly rendered by
+the word Seal, for the somewhat unscientific reason that many ages
+afterwards it was generally adopted for use on seals. Under the Chou
+dynasty, however, as well as the two succeeding it, the meaning of
+the word was not &ldquo;seal,&rdquo; but &ldquo;sinuous curves,&rdquo; as made in writing.
+It has accordingly been suggested that this epoch marks the first
+introduction into China of the brush in place of the bamboo or
+wooden pencil with frayed end which was used with some kind of
+colouring matter or varnish. There are many arguments both for
+and against this view; but it is unquestionable, at any rate, that the
+introduction of a supple implement like the brush at the very time
+when the forms of characters were fast becoming crystallized and
+fixed, would be sufficient to account for a great revolution in the
+style of writing. Authentic specimens of the <img style="width:60px; height:25px" src="images/img220g.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ta chuan</i>,
+older or Greater Seal writing, are exceedingly rare. But it is generally
+believed that the inscriptions on the famous stone drums, now at
+Peking, date from the reign of King Hsüan, and they may therefore
+with practical certainty be cited as examples of the Greater Seal
+in its original form. These &ldquo;drums&rdquo; are really ten roughly chiselled
+mountain boulders, which were discovered in the early part of the
+7th century, lying half buried in the ground near Fêng-hsiang Fu in
+the province of Shensi. On them are engraved ten odes, a complete
+ode being cut on each drum, celebrating an Imperial hunting and
+fishing expedition in that part of the country. A facsimile of one of
+these, taken from an old rubbing and reproduced in Dr Bushell&rsquo;s
+<i>Handbook of Chinese Art</i>, shows that great strides had been made in
+this writing towards symmetry, compactness and conventionalism.
+The vogue of the Greater Seal appears to have lasted until the reign
+of the First Emperor, 221-210 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see <i>History</i>), when a further
+modification took place. For many centuries China had been split
+up into a number of practically independent states, and this circumstance
+seems to have led to considerable variations in the styles of
+writing. Having succeeded in unifying the empire, the First
+Emperor proceeded, on the advice of his minister Li Ss&#365;, to standardize
+its script by ordaining that only the style in use in his own state of
+Ch&lsquo;in should henceforward be employed throughout China. It is
+clear, then, that this new style of writing was nothing more than the
+Greater Seal characters in the form they had assumed after several
+centuries of evolution, with numerous abbreviations and modifications.
+It was afterwards known as the <img style="width:65px; height:25px" src="images/img220h.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hsiao chuan</i>, or Lesser
+Seal, and is familiar to us from the <i>Shuo Wen</i> dictionary (see <i>Literature</i>).
+Though a decided improvement on what had gone before, the
+Lesser Seal was destined to have but a short career of undisputed
+supremacy. Reform was in the air; and something less cumbrous
+was soon felt to be necessary by the clerks who had to supply the
+immense quantity of written reports demanded by the First Emperor.
+Thus it came about that a yet simpler and certainly more artistic
+form of writing was already in use, though not universally so, not
+long after the decree abolishing the Greater Seal. This <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img220i.jpg" alt="" /> <i>li shu</i>,
+or &ldquo;official script,&rdquo; as it is called, shows a great advance on the Seal
+character; so much so that one cannot help suspecting the traditional
+account of its invention. It is perhaps more likely to have been
+directly evolved from the Greater Seal. If the Lesser Seal was the
+script of the semi-barbarous state of Ch&lsquo;in, we should certainly expect
+to find a more highly developed system of writing in some of the other
+states. Unlike the Seal, the <i>li shu</i> is perfectly legible to one acquainted
+only with the modern character, from which indeed it differs but in
+minor details. How long the Lesser Seal continued to exist side by
+side with the <i>li shu</i> is a question which cannot be answered with
+certainty. It was evidently quite obsolete, however, at the time of
+the compilation of the <i>Shuo Wên</i>, about a hundred years after the
+Christian era. As for the Greater Seal and still earlier forms of
+writing, they were not merely obsolete but had fallen into utter
+oblivion before the Han Dynasty was fifty years old. When a
+number of classical texts were discovered bricked up in old houses
+about 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the style of writing was considered so singular by the
+literati of the period that they refused to believe it was the ordinary
+ancient character at all, and nicknamed it <i>k&lsquo;o-t&lsquo;ou shu</i>, &ldquo;tadpole
+character,&rdquo; from some fancied resemblance in shape. The theory
+that these tadpole characters were not Chinese but a species of cuneiform
+script, in which the wedges might possibly suggest tadpoles,
+must be dismissed as too wildly improbable for serious consideration;
+but we may advert for a moment to a famous inscription in
+which the real tadpole characters of antiquity are said to appear.
+This is on a stone tablet alleged to have been erected on Mount Hêng
+in the modern Hupeh by the legendary Emperor Yü, as a record of
+his labours in draining away the great flood which submerged part of
+China in the 23rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After more than one fruitless search,
+the actual monument is said to have been discovered on a peak of
+the mountain in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1212, and a transcription was made, which may
+be seen reproduced as a curiosity in Legge&rsquo;s <i>Classics</i>, vol. iii. For
+several reasons, however, the whole affair must be regarded as a
+gross imposture.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the &ldquo;official script&rdquo; two other forms were soon developed,
+namely the <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img220j.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ts&lsquo;ao shu</i>, or &ldquo;grass character,&rdquo; which so curtails
+the usual strokes as to be comparable to a species of shorthand,
+requiring special study, and the <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img220k.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hsing shu</i> or running hand,
+used in ordinary correspondence. Some form of grass character is
+mentioned as in use as early as 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> or thereabouts, though how
+nearly it approximated to the modern grass hand it is hard to say;
+the running hand seems to have come several centuries later. The
+final standardization of Chinese writing was due to the great calligraphist
+Wang Hsi-chih of the 4th century, who gave currency to the
+graceful style of character known as <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img220l.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k&lsquo;ai shu</i>, sometimes
+referred to as the &ldquo;clerkly hand.&rdquo; When block-printing was invented
+some centuries later, the characters were cut on this model, which still
+survives at the present day. It is no doubt owing to the early introduction
+of printing that the script of China has remained practically
+unchanged ever since. The manuscript rolls of the T&lsquo;ang and preceding
+dynasties, recently discovered by Dr Stein in Turkestan,
+furnish direct evidence of this fact, showing as they do a style of writing
+not only clear and legible but remarkably modern in appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The whole history of Chinese writing, then, is characterized by a
+slow progressive development which precludes the idea of sharply-marked
+divisions between one period and another. The Chinese
+themselves, however, have canonized quite a series of alleged inventors,
+starting from Fu Hsi, a mythical emperor of the third
+millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who is said to have developed a complete system
+of written characters from the markings on the back of a dragon-horse;
+hence, by the way, the origin of the dragon as an Imperial
+emblem. As a rule, the credit of the invention of the art of writing is
+given to Ts&lsquo;ang Chieh, a being with fabulous attributes, who conceived
+the idea of a written language from the markings of birds&rsquo;
+claws upon the sand. The diffusion of the Greater Seal script is
+traced to a work in fifteen chapters published by Shih Chou, historiographer
+in the reign of King Hsüan. The Lesser Seal, again, is often
+ascribed to Li Ss&#365; himself, whereas the utmost he can have done in
+the matter was to urge its introduction into common use. Likewise,
+Ch&lsquo;êng Mo, of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, is supposed to have invented
+the <i>li shu</i> while in prison, and one account attributes the Lesser Seal
+to him as well; but the fact is that the whole history of writing, as
+it stands in Chinese authors, is in hopeless confusion.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Grammar.</i>&mdash;When about to embark on the study of a foreign
+language, the student&rsquo;s first thought is to provide himself with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span>
+two indispensable aids&mdash;a dictionary and a grammar. The
+Chinese have found no difficulty in producing the former (see
+<i>Literature</i>). Now what as to the grammar? He might reasonably
+expect a people so industrious in the cultivation of their
+language to have evolved some system of grammar which to
+a certain degree would help to smooth his path. And yet the
+contrary is the case. No set of rules governing the mutual
+relations of words has ever been formulated by the Chinese,
+apparently because the need of such rules has never been felt.
+The most that native writers have done is to draw a distinction
+between <img style="width:54px; height:25px" src="images/img221a.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:46px; height:25px" src="images/img221b.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;full&rdquo; and &ldquo;empty words,&rdquo; respectively,
+the former being subdivided into <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img221c.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;living words&rdquo;
+or verbs, and <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img221d.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;dead words&rdquo; or noun-substantives. By
+&ldquo;empty words&rdquo; particles are meant, though sometimes the
+expression is loosely applied to abstract terms, including verbs.
+The above meagre classification is their nearest approach to a
+conception of grammar in our sense. This in itself does not
+prove that a Chinese grammar is impossible, nor that, if constructed,
+it might not be helpful to the student. As a matter
+of fact, several attempts have been made by foreigners to deduce
+a grammatical system which should prove as rigid and binding
+as those of Western languages, though it cannot be said that
+any as yet has stood the test of time or criticism. Other writers
+have gone to the other extreme, and maintained that Chinese
+has no grammar at all. In this dictum, exaggerated as it sounds,
+there is a very substantial amount of truth. Every Chinese
+character is an indivisible unit, representing a sound and standing
+for a root-idea. Being free from inflection or agglutination of
+any kind, it is incapable of indicating in itself either gender,
+number or case, voice, mood, tense or person. Of European
+languages, English stands nearest to Chinese in this respect,
+whence it follows that the construction of a hybrid jargon like
+pidgin English presents fewer difficulties than would be the
+case, for instance, with pidgin German. For pidgin English
+simply consists in taking English words and treating them like
+Chinese characters, that is, divesting them of all troublesome
+inflections and reducing them to a set of root-ideas arranged in
+logical sequence. &ldquo;You wantchee my no wantchee&rdquo; is nothing
+more nor less than literally rendered Chinese: <img style="width:169px; height:25px" src="images/img221e.jpg" alt="" />
+&ldquo;Do you want me or not?&rdquo; But we may go further,
+and say that no Chinese character can be definitely regarded
+as being any particular part of speech or possessing any particular
+function absolutely, apart from the general tenor of its context.
+Thus, taken singly, the character <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img221f.jpg" alt="" /> conveys only the general
+idea &ldquo;above&rdquo; as opposed to &ldquo;below.&rdquo; According to its place
+in the sentence and the requirements of common sense, it may
+be a noun meaning &ldquo;upper person&rdquo; (that is, a ruler); an
+adjective meaning &ldquo;upper,&rdquo; &ldquo;topmost&rdquo; or &ldquo;best&rdquo;; an
+adverb meaning &ldquo;above&rdquo;; a preposition meaning &ldquo;upon&rdquo;;
+and finally a verb meaning &ldquo;to mount upon,&rdquo; or &ldquo;to go to.&rdquo;
+<img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img221g.jpg" alt="" /> is a character that may usually be translated &ldquo;to enter&rdquo;
+as in <img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img221h.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to enter a door&rdquo;; yet in the locution <img style="width:66px; height:25px" src="images/img221i.jpg" alt="" />
+&ldquo;enter wood,&rdquo; the verb becomes causative, and the meaning
+is &ldquo;to put into a coffin.&rdquo; It would puzzle grammarians to determine
+the precise grammatical function of any of the words in
+the following sentence, with the exception of <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img221j.jpg" alt="" /> (an interrogative,
+by the way, which here happens to mean &ldquo;why&rdquo; but in
+other contexts is equivalent to &ldquo;how,&rdquo; &ldquo;which&rdquo; or &ldquo;what&rdquo;):
+<img style="width:133px; height:25px" src="images/img221k.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;Affair why must ancient,&rdquo; or in more idiomatic
+English, &ldquo;Why necessarily stick to the ways of the ancients in such
+matters?&rdquo; Or take a proverbial saying like <img style="width:206px; height:25px" src="images/img221l.jpg" alt="" />,
+which may be correctly rendered &ldquo;The less a man has seen,
+the more he has to wonder at.&rdquo; It is one thing, however, to
+translate it correctly, and another to explain how this translation
+can be inferred from the individual words, of which the bald
+equivalents might be given as: &ldquo;Few what see, many what
+Strange.&rdquo; To say that &ldquo;strange&rdquo; is the literal equivalent of <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img221m.jpg" alt="" />
+does not mean that <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img221m.jpg" alt="" /> can be definitely classed as an adjective.
+On the other hand, it would be dangerous even to assert that
+the word here plays the part of an active verb, because it would
+be equally permissible to translate the above &ldquo;Many things
+are strange to one who has seen but little.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Chinese grammar, then, so far as it deals with the classification of
+separate words, may well be given up as a bad job. But there still
+remains the art of syntax, the due arrangement of words to form
+sentences according to certain established rules. Here, at any rate,
+we are on somewhat firmer ground; and for many years the dictum
+that &ldquo;the whole of Chinese grammar depends upon position&rdquo; was
+regarded as a golden key to the written language of China. It is
+perfectly true that there are certain positions and collocations of
+words which tend to recur, but when one sits down to formulate a
+set of hard-and-fast rules governing these positions, it is soon found
+to be a thankless task, for the number of qualifications and exceptions
+which will have to be added is so great as to render the rule itself
+valueless. <img style="width:56px; height:25px" src="images/img221o.jpg" alt="" /> means &ldquo;on a horse,&rdquo; <img style="width:64px; height:25px" src="images/img221p.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;to get on a horse.&rdquo;
+But it will not do to say that a preposition becomes a verb when
+placed before the substantive, as many other prepositions come
+before and not after the words they govern. If we meet such a
+phrase as <img style="width:63px; height:25px" src="images/img221q.jpg" alt="" />, literally &ldquo;warn rebels,&rdquo; we must not mentally label
+<img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img221r.jpg" alt="" /> as a verb and <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img221s.jpg" alt="" /> as a substantive, and say to ourselves that in
+Chinese the verb is followed immediately by its object. Otherwise,
+we might be tempted to translate, &ldquo;to warn the rebels,&rdquo; whereas a
+little reflection would show us that the conjunction of &ldquo;warning&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;rebels&rdquo; naturally leads to the meaning &ldquo;to warn (the populace
+or whoever it may be) <i>against</i> the rebels.&rdquo; After all our adventurous
+incursions into the domain of syntax, we are soon brought back to
+the starting-point and are obliged to confess that each particular
+passage is best interpreted on its own merits, by the logic of the
+context and the application of common sense. There is no reason
+why Chinese sentences should not be dissected, by those who take
+pleasure in such operations, into subject, copula and predicate, but
+it should be early impressed upon the beginner that the profit
+likely to accrue to him therefrom is infinitesimal. As for fixed rules
+of grammatical construction, so far from being a help, he will find
+them a positive hindrance. It should rather be his aim to free his
+mind from such trammels, and to accustom himself to look upon
+each character as a root-idea, not a definite part of speech.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Book Language.</i>&mdash;Turning now to some of the more
+salient characteristics of the book language, with the object of
+explaining how it came to be so widely separated from common
+speech, we might reasonably suppose that in primitive times the
+two stood in much closer relation to each other than now. But
+it is certainly a striking fact that the earliest literary remains of
+any magnitude that have come down to us should exhibit a style
+very far removed from any possible colloquial idiom. The
+speeches of the Book of History (see <i>Literature</i>) are more manifestly
+fictitious, by many degrees, than the elaborate orations in
+Thucydides and Livy. If we cannot believe that Socrates
+actually spoke the words attributed to him in the dialogues of
+Plato, much less can we expect to find the <i>ipsissima verba</i> of
+Confucius in any of his recorded sayings. In the beginning, all
+characters doubtless represented spoken words, but it must very
+soon have dawned on the practical Chinese mind that there was
+no need to reproduce in writing the bisyllabic compounds of
+common speech. <i>Chien</i> &ldquo;to see,&rdquo; in its written form <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img221t.jpg" alt="" />, could
+not possibly be confused with any other <i>chien</i>, and it was therefore
+unnecessary to go to the trouble of writing <img style="width:60px; height:25px" src="images/img221u.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k&lsquo;an-chien</i>
+&ldquo;look-see,&rdquo; as in colloquial. There was a wonderful outburst
+of literary activity in the Confucian era, when it would seem that
+the older and more cumbrous form of Seal character was still in
+vogue. If the mere manual labour of writing was so great, we
+cannot wonder that all superfluous particles or other words that
+could be dispensed with were ruthlessly cut away. So it came
+about that all the old classical works were composed in the
+tersest of language, as remote as can be imagined from the
+speech of the people. The passion for brevity and conciseness
+was pushed to an extreme, and resulted more often than not in
+such obscurity that detailed commentaries on the classics were
+found to be necessary, and have always constituted an important
+branch of Chinese literature. After the introduction of the
+improved style of script, and when the mechanical means of
+writing had been simplified, it may be supposed that literary
+diction also became freer and more expansive. This did happen
+to some extent, but the classics were held in such veneration as
+to exercise the profoundest influence over all succeeding schools
+of writers, and the divorce between literature and pooular speech
+became permanent and irreconcilable. The book language
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span>
+absorbed all the interest and energy of scholars, and it was
+inevitable that this elevation of the written should be accompanied
+by a corresponding degradation of the spoken word.
+This must largely account for the somewhat remarkable fact
+that the art of oratory and public speaking has never been deemed
+worthy of cultivation in China, while the comparatively low
+position occupied by the drama may also be referred to the same
+cause. At the same time, the term &ldquo;book language,&rdquo; in its
+widest sense, covers a multitude of styles, some of which differ
+from each other nearly as much as from ordinary speech. The
+department of fiction (see <i>Literature</i>), which the lettered Chinaman
+affects to despise and will not readily admit within the
+charmed circle of &ldquo;literature,&rdquo; really constitutes a bridge
+spanning the gulf between the severer classical style and the
+colloquial; while an elegant terseness characterises the higher-class
+novel, there are others in which the style is loose and
+shambling. Still, it remains true that no book of any first-rate
+literary pretensions would be easily intelligible to any class of
+Chinamen, educated or otherwise, if read aloud exactly as printed.
+The public reader of stories is obliged to translate, so to speak,
+into the colloquial of his audience as he goes along. There is no
+inherent reason why the conversation of everyday life should not
+be rendered into characters, as is done in foreign handbooks for
+teaching elementary Chinese; one can only say that the Chinese
+do not think it worth while. There are a few words, indeed,
+which, though common enough in the mouths of genteel and
+vulgar alike, have positively no characters to represent them.
+On the other hand, there is a vast store of purely book words
+which would never be used or understood in conversation.</p>
+
+<p>The book language is not only nice in its choice of words, it
+also has to obey special rules of construction. Of these, perhaps
+the most apparent is the carefully marked antithesis between
+characters in different clauses of a sentence, which results in a
+kind of parallelism or rhythmic balance. This parallelism is
+a noticeable feature in ordinary poetical composition, and
+may be well illustrated by the following four-line stanza:</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<img style="width:177px; height:25px" src="images/img222a.jpg" alt="" /> The bright sun completes its course behind
+the mountains; <img style="width:181px; height:25px" src="images/img222b.jpg" alt="" /> The yellow river flows away
+into the sea. <img style="width:160px; height:25px" src="images/img222c.jpg" alt="" /> Would you command a prospect
+of a thousand <i>li</i>? <img style="width:166px; height:25px" src="images/img222d.jpg" alt="" /> Climb yet one storey
+higher.&rdquo; In the first line of this piece, every single character
+is balanced by a corresponding one in the second: <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img222e.jpg" alt="" /> white by
+<img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img222f.jpg" alt="" /> yellow, <img style="width:19px; height:25px" src="images/img222g.jpg" alt="" /> sun by <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img222h.jpg" alt="" /> river, and so on. In the 3rd and 4th
+lines, where more laxity is generally allowed, every word again
+has its counterpart, with the sole exception of <img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img222i.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;wish&rdquo; and
+<img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img222j.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;further.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The question is often asked: What sort of instrument is
+Chinese for the expression of thought? As a medium for the
+conveyance of historical facts, subtle emotions or abstruse
+philosophical conceptions, can it compare with the languages
+of the Western world? The answers given to this question have
+varied considerably. But it is noteworthy that those who most
+depreciate the qualities of Chinese are, generally speaking,
+theorists rather than persons possessing a profound first-hand
+knowledge of the language itself. Such writers argue that want
+of inflection in the characters must tend to make Chinese hard
+and inelastic, and therefore incapable of bringing out the finer
+shades of thought and emotion. Answering one a priori argument
+with another, one might fairly retort that, if anything,
+flexibility is the precise quality to be predicated of a language
+in which any character may, according to the requirements of the
+context, be interpreted either as noun, verb or adjective. But
+all such reasoning is somewhat futile. It will scarcely be contended
+that German, being highly inflected, is therefore superior
+in range and power to English, from which inflections have
+largely disappeared. Some of the early Jesuit missionaries,
+men of great natural ability who steeped themselves in Oriental
+learning, have left very different opinions on record. Chinese
+appeared to them as admirable for the superabundant richness
+of its vocabulary as for the conciseness of its literary style.
+And among modern scholars there is a decided tendency to accept
+this view as embodying a great deal more truth than the other.</p>
+
+<p>Another question, much debated years ago, which time itself
+is now satisfactorily answering, was whether the Chinese language
+would be able to assimilate the vast stock of new terminology
+which closer contact with the West would necessarily carry with
+it. Two possible courses, it seemed, were open: either fresh
+characters would be formed on the radical-phonetic principle, or
+the new idea might be expressed by the conjunction of two or
+more characters already existing. The former expedient had
+been tried on a limited scale in Japan, where in the course of
+time new characters were formed on the same principle as of old,
+which were yet purely Japanese and find no place in a Chinese
+dictionary. But although the field for such additions was
+boundless, the Chinese have all along been chary of extending
+the language in this way, probably because these modern
+terms had no Chinese sound which might have suggested some
+particular phonetic. They have preferred to adopt the other
+method, of which <img style="width:98px; height:25px" src="images/img222k.jpg" alt="" /> (rise-descend-machine) for &ldquo;lift,&rdquo;
+and <img style="width:131px; height:25px" src="images/img222l.jpg" alt="" /> (discuss-govern-country-assembly) for
+&ldquo;parliament&rdquo; are examples. Even a metaphysical abstraction
+like The Absolute has been tentatively expressed by <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img222m.jpg" alt="" />
+(exclude-opposite); but in this case an equivalent was already
+existing in the Chinese language.</p>
+
+<p>A very drastic measure, strongly advocated in some quarters,
+is the entire abolition of all characters, to be replaced by their
+equivalent sounds in letters of the alphabet. Under this scheme
+<img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img222n.jpg" alt="" /> would figure as <i>jên</i> or <i>ren</i>, <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img222o.jpg" alt="" /> as <i>ma</i>,
+and so on. But the proposal has fallen extremely flat. The vocables,
+as we have seen, are so few in number that only the colloquial, if even that,
+could possibly be transcribed in this manner. Any attempt to transliterate
+classical Chinese would result in a mere jumble of sounds,
+utterly unintelligible, even with the addition of tone-marks.
+There is another aspect of the case. The characters are a potent
+bond of union between the different parts of the Empire with
+their various dialects. If they should ever fall into disuse,
+China will have taken a first and most fatal step towards internal
+disruption. Even the Japanese, whose language is not only free
+from dialects, but polysyllabic and therefore more suitable for
+romanization, have utterly refused to abandon the Chinese script,
+which in spite of certain disadvantages has hitherto triumphantly
+adapted itself to the needs of civilized intercourse.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See P. Premare, <i>Notitiae Linguae Sinicae</i> (1831); Ma Kien-chung,
+<i>Ma shih wên t&lsquo;ung</i> (1899); L.C. Hopkins, <i>The Six Scripts</i> (1881)
+and <i>The Development of Chinese Writing</i> (1910); H.A. Giles,
+<i>A Chinese-English Dictionary</i> (2nd ed., 1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. A. GI.; L. GI.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">VIII. Chinese Literature</p>
+
+<p>The literature of China is remarkable (1) for its antiquity,
+coupled with an unbroken continuity down to the present day;
+(2) for the variety of subjects presented, and for the exhaustive
+treatment which, not only each subject, but also each subdivision,
+each separate item, has received, as well as for the
+colossal scale on which so many literary monuments have been
+conceived and carried out; (3) for the accuracy of its historical
+statements, so far as it has been possible to test them; and
+further (4) for its ennobling standards and lofty ideals, as well
+as for its wholesome purity and an almost total absence of
+coarseness and obscenity.</p>
+
+<p>No history of Chinese literature in the Chinese language has
+yet been produced; native scholars, however, have adopted,
+for bibliographical purposes, a rough division into four great
+classes. Under the first of these, we find the Confucian Canon,
+together with lexicographical, philological, and other works
+dealing with the elucidation of words. Under the second,
+histories of various kinds, officially compiled, privately written,
+constitutional, &amp;c.; also biography, geography and bibliography.
+Under the third, philosophy, religion, <i>e.g.</i> Buddhism; the arts
+and sciences, <i>e.g.</i> war, law, agriculture, medicine, astronomy,
+painting, music and archery; also a host of general works,
+monographs, and treatises on a number of topics, as well as
+encyclopaedias. The fourth class is confined to poetry of all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span>
+descriptions, poetical critiques, and works dealing with the all-important
+rhymes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Poetry.</i>&mdash;Proceeding chronologically, without reference to
+Chinese classification, we have to begin, as would naturally be
+expected, with the last of the above four classes. Man&rsquo;s first
+literary utterances in China, as elsewhere, took the form of
+verse; and the earliest Chinese records in our possession are the
+national lyrics, the songs and ballads, chiefly of the feudal age,
+which reaches back to over a thousand years before Christ.
+Some pieces are indeed attributed to the 18th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>;
+the latest bring us down to the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Such is the
+collection entitled <i>Shih Ching</i> (or <i>She King</i>), popularly known as
+the Odes, which was brought together and edited by Confucius,
+551-479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and is now included among the Sacred Books,
+forming as it does an important portion of the Confucian Canon.
+These Odes, once over three thousand in number, were reduced
+by Confucius to three hundred and eleven; hence they are
+frequently spoken of as &ldquo;the Three Hundred.&rdquo; They treat of
+war and love, of eating and drinking and dancing, of the virtues
+and vices of rulers, and of the misery and happiness of the people.
+They are in rhyme. Rhyme is essential to Chinese poetry;
+there is no such thing as blank verse. Further, the rhymes of
+the Odes have always been, and are still, the only recognized
+rhymes which can be used by a Chinese poet, anything else
+being regarded as mere jingle. Poetical licence, however, is
+tolerated; and great masters have availed themselves freely
+of its aid. One curious result of this is that whereas in many
+instances two given words may have rhymed, as no doubt they
+did, in the speech of three thousand years ago, they no longer
+rhyme to the ear in the colloquial of to-day, although  still
+accepted as true and proper rhymes in the composition of verse.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It is noticeable at once that the Odes are mostly written in lines
+of four words, examples of lines consisting of any length from a
+single word to eight, though such do exist, being comparatively rare.
+These lines of four words, generally recognized as the oldest measure
+in Chinese poetry, are frequently grouped as quatrains, in which the
+first, second and fourth lines rhyme; but very often only the second
+and fourth lines rhyme, and sometimes there are groups of a larger
+number of lines in which occasional lines are found without any rhyme
+at all. A few stray pieces, as old as many of those found among the
+Odes, have been handed down and preserved, in which the metre
+consists of two lines of three words followed by one line of seven
+words. These three lines all rhyme, but the rhyme changes with
+each succeeding triplet. It would be difficult to persuade the English
+reader that this is a very effective measure, and one in which many a
+gloomy or pathetic tale has been told. In order to realise how a few
+Chinese monosyllables in juxtaposition can stir the human heart to
+its lowest depths, it is necessary to devote some years to the study of
+the language.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a dithyrambic measure,
+irregular and wild, was introduced and enjoyed considerable vogue.
+It has indeed been freely adopted by numerous poets from that early
+date down to the present day; but since the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it
+has been displaced from pre-eminence by the seven-word and five-word
+measures which are now, after much refinement, the accepted
+standards for Chinese poetry. The origin of the seven-word metre
+is lost in remote antiquity; the five-word metre was elaborated under
+the master-hand of Mei Shêng, who died 140 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Passing over seven
+centuries of growth, we reach the T&lsquo;ang dynasty, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 618-905, the
+most brilliant epoch in the history of Chinese poetry. These three
+hundred years produced an extraordinarily large number of great
+poets, and an output of verse of almost incredible extent. In 1707
+an anthology of the T&lsquo;ang poets was published by Imperial order;
+it ran to nine hundred books or sections, and contained over forty-eight
+thousand nine hundred separate poems. A copy of this work
+is in the Chinese department of the University Library at Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>It was under the T&lsquo;ang dynasty that a certain finality was reached
+in regard to the strict application of the tones to Chinese verse.
+For the purposes of poetry, all words in the language were ranged
+under one or the other of two tones, the <i>even</i> and the <i>oblique</i>, the
+former now including the two even tones, of which prior to the 11th
+century there was only one, and the latter including the rising,
+sinking and entering tones of ordinary speech. The incidence of
+these tones, which may be roughly described as sharps and flats,
+finally became fixed, just as the incidence of certain feet in Latin
+metres came to be governed by fixed rules. Thus, reading downward
+from right to left, as in Chinese, a five-word stanza may run:</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sharp</td> <td class="tcl">Flat</td> <td class="tcl">Flat</td> <td class="tcl">Sharp</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;°</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;°</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;°</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A seven-word stanza may run:</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Flat</td> <td class="tcl">Sharp</td> <td class="tcl">Sharp</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;°</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;°</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;°</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The above are only two metres out of many, but enough perhaps
+to give to any one who will read them with a pause or quasi-caesura,
+as marked by ° in each specimen, a fair idea of the rhythmic lilt of
+Chinese poetry. To the trained ear, the effect is most pleasing;
+and when this scansion, so to speak, is united with rhyme and choice
+diction, the result is a vehicle for verse, artificial no doubt, and
+elaborate, but admirably adapted to the genius of the Chinese
+language. Moreover, in the hands of the great poets this artificiality
+disappears altogether. Each word seems to slip naturally into its
+place; and so far from having been introduced by violence for the
+ends of prosody, it appears to be the very best word that could have
+been chosen, even had there been no trammels of any kind, so effectually
+is the art of the poet concealed by art. From the long string
+of names which have shed lustre upon this glorious age of Chinese
+poetry, it may suffice for the present purpose to mention the following,
+all of the very first rank.</p>
+
+<p>Mêng Hao-jan, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 689-740, failed to succeed at the public
+competitive examinations, and retired to the mountains where he
+led the life of a recluse. Later on, he obtained an official post;
+but he was of a timid disposition, and once when the emperor,
+attracted by his fame, came to visit him, he hid himself under the
+bed. His hiding-place was revealed by Wang Wei, a brother poet
+who was present. The latter, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 699-759, in addition to being a
+first-rank poet, was also a landscape-painter of great distinction.
+He was further a firm believer in Buddhism; and after losing his
+wife and mother, he turned his mountain home into a Buddhist
+monastery. Of all poets, not one has made his name more widely
+known than Li Po, or Li T&lsquo;ai-po, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 705-762, popularly known
+as the Banished Angel, so heavenly were the poems he dashed off,
+always under the influence of wine. He is said to have met his
+death, after a tipsy frolic, by leaning out of a boat to embrace the
+reflection of the moon. Tu Fu, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 712-770, is generally ranked
+with Li Po, the two being jointly spoken of as the chief poets of their
+age. The former had indeed such a high opinion of his own poetry
+that he prescribed it for malarial fever. He led a chequered and
+wandering life, and died from the effects of eating roast beef and
+drinking white wine to excess, immediately after a long fast. Po
+Chü-i, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 772-846, was a very prolific poet. He held several high
+official posts, but found time for a considerable output of some of
+the finest poetry in the language. His poems were collected by
+Imperial command, and engraved upon tablets of stone. In one
+of them he anticipates by eight centuries the famous ode by
+Malherbe, <i>À Du Perrier, sur la mort de sa fille</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The T&lsquo;ang dynasty with all its glories had not long passed away
+before another imperial house arose, under which poetry flourished
+again in full vigour. The poets of the Sung dynasty, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 960-1260,
+were many and varied in style; but their work, much of it of the
+very highest order, was becoming perhaps a trifle more formal and
+precise. Life seemed to be taken more seriously than under the gay
+and pleasure-loving T&lsquo;angs. The long list of Sung poets includes
+such names as Ss&#365;-ma Kuang, Ou-yang Hsiu and Wang An-shih,
+to be mentioned by and by, the first two as historians and the last
+as political reformer. A still more familiar name in popular estimation
+is that of Su Tung-p&lsquo;o, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 103-1101, partly known for his
+romantic career, now in court favour, now banished to the wilds,
+but still more renowned as a brilliant poet and writer of fascinating
+essays.</p>
+
+<p>The Mongols, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1260-1368, who succeeded the Sungs, and the
+Mings who followed the Sungs and bring us down to the year 1644,
+helped indeed, especially the Mings, to swell the volume of Chinese
+verse, but without reaching the high level of the two great poetical
+periods above-mentioned. Then came the present dynasty of Manchu
+Tatars, of whom the same tale must be told, in spite of two
+highly-cultured emperors, K&lsquo;ang Hsi and Ch&lsquo;ien Lung, both of them poets
+and one of them author of a collection containing no fewer than
+33,950 pieces, most of which, it must be said, are but four-line
+stanzas, of no literary value whatever. It may be stated in this
+connexion that whereas China has never produced an epic in verse,
+it is not true that all Chinese poems are quite short, running only to
+ten or a dozen lines at the most. Many pieces run to several hundred
+lines, though the Chinese poet does not usually affect length, one of
+his highest efforts being the four-line stanza, known as the &ldquo;stop-short,&rdquo;
+in which &ldquo;the words stop while the sense goes on,&rdquo; expanding
+in the mind of the reader by the suggestive art of the poet.
+The &ldquo;stop-short&rdquo; is the converse of the epigram, which ends in a
+satisfying turn of thought to which the rest of the composition is
+intended to lead up; it aims at producing an impression which, so
+far from being final, is merely the prelude to a long series of visions
+and of feelings. The last of the four lines is called the &ldquo;surprise
+line&rdquo;; but the revelation it gives is never a complete one: the words
+stop, but the sense goes on. Just as in the pictorial art of China,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span>
+so in her poetic art is suggestiveness the great end and aim of the
+artist. Beginners are taught that the three canons of verse
+composition are lucidity, simplicity and correctness of diction. Yet
+some critics have boldly declared for obscurity of expression, alleging
+that the piquancy of a thought is enhanced by its skilful concealment.
+For the foreign student, it is not necessary to accentuate
+the obscurity and difficulty even of poems in which the motive is
+simple enough. The constant introduction of classical allusions,
+often in the vaguest terms, and the almost unlimited licence as to
+the order of words, offer quite sufficient obstacles to easy and rapid
+comprehension. Poetry has been defined by one Chinese writer as
+&ldquo;clothing with words the emotions which surge through the heart.&rdquo;
+The chief moods of the Chinese poet are a pure delight in the varying
+phenomena of nature, and a boundless sympathy with the woes and
+sufferings of humanity. Erotic poetry is not absent, but it is not a
+feature proportionate in extent to the great body of Chinese verse;
+it is always restrained, and never lapses from a high level of purity
+and decorum. In his love for hill and stream which he peoples
+with genii, and for tree and flower which he endows with sentient
+souls, the Chinese poet is perhaps seen at his very best; his views of
+life are somewhat too deeply tinged with melancholy, and often
+loaded with an overwhelming sadness &ldquo;at the doubtful doom of
+human kind.&rdquo; In his lighter moods he draws inspiration, and in his
+darker moods consolation from the wine-cup. Hard-drinking, not
+to say drunkenness, seems to have been universal among Chinese
+poets, and a considerable amount of talent has been expended upon
+the glorification of wine. From Taoist, and especially from Buddhist
+sources, many poets have obtained glimpses to make them less
+forlorn; but it cannot be said that there is any definitely religious
+poetry in the Chinese language.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;One of the labours undertaken by Confucius was
+connected with a series of ancient documents&mdash;that is, ancient
+in his day&mdash;now passing under a collective title as <i>Shu Ching</i>
+(or <i>Shoo King</i>), and popularly known as the Canon, or Book,
+of History. Mere fragments as some of these documents are, it
+is from their pages of unknown date that we can supplement
+the pictures drawn for us in the Odes, of the early civilization of
+China. The work opens with an account of the legendary emperor
+Yao, who reigned 2357-2255 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was able by virtue
+of an elevated personality to give peace and happiness to his
+&ldquo;black-haired&rdquo; subjects. With the aid of capable astronomers,
+he determined the summer and winter solstices, and calculated
+approximately the length of the year, availing himself, as
+required, of the aid of an intercalary month. Finally, after a
+glorious reign, he ceded the throne to a man of the people,
+whose only claim to distinction was his unwavering practice of
+filial piety. Chapter ii. deals with the reign, 2255-2205 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+of this said man, known in history as the emperor Shun. In
+accordance with the monotheism of the day, he worshipped God
+in heaven with prayer and burnt offerings; he travelled on
+tours of inspection all over his then comparatively narrow
+empire; he established punishments, to be tempered with
+mercy; he appointed officials to superintend forestry, care of
+animals, religious observances, and music; and he organized a
+system of periodical examinations for public servants. Chapter
+iii. is devoted to details about the Great Yü, who reigned
+2205-2197 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, having been called to the throne for his
+engineering success in draining the empire of a mighty inundation
+which early western writers sought to identify with Noah&rsquo;s
+Flood. Another interesting chapter gives various geographical
+details, and enumerates the articles, gold, silver, copper, iron,
+steel, silken fabrics, feathers, ivory, hides, &amp;c., &amp;c., brought in
+under the reign of the Great Yü, as tribute from neighbouring
+countries. Other chapters include royal proclamations, speeches
+to troops, announcements of campaigns victoriously concluded,
+and similar subjects. One peculiarly interesting document is
+the Announcement against Drunkenness, which seems to have
+been for so many centuries a national vice, and then to have
+practically disappeared as such. For the past two or three
+hundred years, drunkenness has always been the exception
+rather than the rule. The Announcement, delivered in the
+12th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, points out that King Wên, the founder of the
+Chou dynasty, had wished for wine to be used only in connexion
+with sacrifices, and that divine favours had always been liberally
+showered upon the people when such a restriction had been
+observed. On the other hand, indulgence in strong drink had
+invariably attracted divine vengeance, and the fall and disruption
+of states had often been traceable to that cause. Even
+on sacrificial occasions, drunkenness is to be condemned.
+&ldquo;When, however, you high officials and others have done your
+duty in ministering to the aged and to your sovereign, you may
+then eat to satiety and drink to elevation.&rdquo; The Announcement
+winds up with an ancient maxim, &ldquo;Do not seek to see yourself
+reflected in water, but in others,&rdquo;&mdash;whose base actions should
+warn you not to commit the same; adding that those who
+after a due interval should be unable to give up intemperate
+habits would be put to death. It is worth noting, in concluding
+this brief notice of China&rsquo;s earliest records, that from first to
+last there is no mention whatever of any distant country from
+which the &ldquo;black-haired people&rdquo; may have originally come;
+no vestige of any allusion to any other form of civilization, such
+as that of Babylonia, with its cuneiform script and baked-clay
+tablets, from which an attempt has been made to derive the
+native-born civilization of China. A few odd coincidences
+sum up the chief argument in favour of this now discredited
+theory.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The next step lands us on the confines, though scarcely in the
+domain, of history properly so called. Among his other literary
+labours, Confucius undertook to produce the annals of
+Lu, his native state; and beginning with the year 722
+<span class="sidenote">Annals of the Lu state.</span>
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, he carried the record down to his death in 479, after
+which it was continued for a few years, presumably by
+Tso-ch&lsquo;iu Ming, the shadowy author of the famous Commentary, to
+which the text is so deeply indebted for vitality and illumination.
+The work of Confucius is known as the <i>Ch&lsquo;un Ch&lsquo;iu</i>, the Springs and
+Autumns, q.d. Annals. It consists of a varying number of brief
+entries under each year of the reign of each successive ruler of Lu.
+The feudal system, initiated more than four centuries previously,
+and consisting of a number of vassal states owning allegiance to a
+central suzerain state, had already broken hopelessly down, so far
+as allegiance was concerned. For some time, the object of each
+vassal ruler had been the aggrandizement of his own state, with a
+view either to independence or to the hegemony, and the result was
+a state of almost constant warfare. Accordingly, the entries in the
+<i>Ch&lsquo;un Ch&lsquo;iu</i> refer largely to covenants entered into between
+contracting rulers, official visits from one to another of these rulers,
+their births and deaths, marriages, invasions of territory, battles,
+religious ceremonies, &amp;c., interspersed with notices of striking natural
+phenomena such as eclipses, comets and earthquakes, and of
+important national calamities, such as floods, drought and famine.
+For instance, Duke Wên became ruler of Lu in 625 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and under
+his 14th year, 612 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, we find twelve entries, of which the following
+are specimens:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="minind">
+<p>2. In spring, in the first month, the men of the Chu State invaded
+our southern border.</p>
+
+<p>3. In summer, on the I-hai day of the fifth month, P&lsquo;an, Marquis
+of the Ch&lsquo;i State, died.</p>
+
+<p>5. In autumn, in the seventh month, there was a comet, which
+entered Pei-ton (&alpha;&beta;&gamma;&delta; in Ursa Major).</p>
+
+<p>9. In the ninth month, a son of the Duke of Ch&lsquo;i murdered his ruler.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Entry 5 affords the earliest trustworthy instance of a comet in China.
+A still earlier comet is recorded in what is known as The Bamboo
+Annals, but the genuineness of that work is disputed.</p>
+
+<p>It will be readily admitted that the <i>Ch&lsquo;un Ch&lsquo;iu</i>, written
+throughout in the same style as the quotations given, would scarcely
+enable one to reconstruct in any detail the age it professes to record.
+Happily we are in possession of the <i>Tso Chuan</i>, a so-called
+commentary, presumably by some one named Tso, in which the bald
+entries in the work of Confucius are separately enlarged upon to
+such an extent and with such dramatic brilliancy that our commentary
+reads more like a prose epic than &ldquo;a treatise consisting of a
+systematic series of comments or annotations on the text of a literary
+work.&rdquo; Under its guidance we can follow the intrigues, the alliances,
+the treacheries, the ruptures of the jealous states which constituted
+feudal China; in its picture pages we can see, as it were with our
+own eyes, assassinations, battles, heroic deeds, flights, pursuits and
+the sufferings of the vanquished from the retribution exacted by
+the victors. Numerous wise and witty sayings are scattered throughout
+the work, many of which are in current use at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>History as understood in Europe and the west began in China with
+the appearance of a remarkable man. Ss&#365;-ma Ch&lsquo;ien, who flourished
+145-87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was the son of an hereditary grand astrologer,
+also an eager student of history and the actual planner of
+<span class="sidenote">The Historical Record.</span>
+the great work so successfully carried out after his death.
+By the time he was ten years of age, Ss&#365;-ma Ch&lsquo;ien was
+already well advanced with his studies; and at twenty he set forth
+on a round of travel which carried him to all parts of the empire.
+Entering the public service, he was employed upon a mission of
+inspection to the newly-conquered regions of Ss&#365;ch&lsquo;uan and Yünnan;
+in 110 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> his father died, and he stepped into the post of grand
+astrologer. After devoting some time and energy to the reformation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span>
+of the calendar, he took up the work which had been begun by his
+father and which was ultimately given to the world as the <i>Shih Chi</i>,
+or Historical Record. This was arranged under five great headings,
+namely, (l) Annals of Imperial Reigns, (2) Chronological Tables, (3)
+Monographs, (4) Annals of Vassal Princes, and (5) Biographies.</p>
+
+<p>The Historical Record begins with the so-called Yellow Emperor,
+who is said to have come to the throne 2698 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and to have reigned
+a hundred years. Four other emperors are given, as belonging to
+this period, among whom we find Yao and Shun, already mentioned.
+It was China&rsquo;s Golden Age, when rulers and ruled were virtuous alike,
+and all was peace and prosperity. It is discreetly handled in a few
+pages by Ss&#365;-ma Ch&lsquo;ien, who passes on to the somewhat firmer but
+still doubtful ground of the early dynasties. Not, however, until the
+Chou dynasty, 1122-255 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, had held sway for some three hundred
+years can we be said to have reached a point at which history begins
+to separate itself definitely from legend. In fact, it is only from the
+8th century before Christ that any trustworthy record can be safely
+dated. With the 3rd century before Christ, we are introduced to one
+of the feudal princes whose military genius enabled him to destroy
+beyond hope of revival the feudal system which had endured for
+eight hundred years, and to make himself master of the whole of the
+China of those days. In 221 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he proclaimed himself the &ldquo;First
+<span class="sidenote">Burning of the Books.</span>
+Emperor,&rdquo; a title by which he has ever since been known.
+Everything, including literature, was to begin with his
+reign; and acting on the advice of his prime minister, he
+issued an order for the burning of all books, with the exception
+only of works relating to medicine, divination and agriculture.
+Those who wished to study law were referred for oral teaching to
+such as had already qualified in that profession. To carry out the
+scheme effectively, the First Emperor made a point of examining
+every day about 120 &#8468; weight of books, in order to get rid of such
+as he considered to be useless; and he further appointed a number of
+inspectors to see that his orders were carried out. The result was
+that about four hundred and sixty scholars were put to death for
+having disobeyed the imperial command, while many others were
+banished for life. This incident is known as the Burning of the
+Books; and there is little doubt that, but for the devotion of the
+literati, Chinese literature would have had to make a fresh start in
+212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> As it was, books were bricked up in walls and otherwise
+widely concealed in the hope that the storm would blow over; and
+this was actually the case when the Ch&lsquo;in (Ts&lsquo;in) dynasty collapsed
+and the House of Han took its place in 206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Confucian books
+were subsequently recovered from their hiding-places, together with
+many other works, the loss of which it is difficult now to contemplate.
+Unfortunately, however, a stimulus was provided, not for the recovery,
+but for the manufacture of writings, the previous existence of which
+could be gathered either from tradition or from notices in the various
+works which had survived. Forgery became the order of the day;
+and the modern student is confronted with a considerable volume of
+literature which has to be classified as genuine, doubtful, or spurious,
+according to the merits of each case. To the first class belongs the
+bulk, but not all, of the Confucian Canon; to the third must be
+relegated such books as the <i>Tao Tê Ching</i>, to be mentioned later on.</p>
+
+<p>Ss&#365;-ma Ch&lsquo;ien, dying in 87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, deals of course only with the
+opening reigns of the Han dynasty, with which he brings to a close
+the first great division of his history. The second division consists of
+chronological tables; the third, of eight monographs on the following
+topics: (1) Rites and Ceremonies, (2) Music, (3) Natural Philosophy,
+(4) The Calendar, (5) Astronomy, (6) Religion, (7) Water-ways, and
+(8) Commerce. On these eight a few remarks may not be out of
+place, (1) The Chinese seem to have been in possession, from very
+early ages, of a systematic code of ceremonial observances, so that it
+is no surprise to find the subject included, and taking an important
+place, in Ss&#365;-ma Ch&lsquo;ien&rsquo;s work. The <i>Li Chi</i>, or Book of Rites, which
+now forms part of the Confucian Canon, is however a comparatively
+modern compilation, dating only from the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (2) The
+extraordinary similarities between the Chinese and Pythagorean
+systems of music force the conclusion that one of these must necessarily
+have been derived from the other. The Jesuit Fathers jumped
+to the conclusion that the Greeks borrowed their art from the Chinese;
+but it is now common knowledge that the Chinese scale did not exist
+in China until two centuries after its appearance in Greece. The fact
+is that the ancient Chinese works on music perished at the Burning
+of the Books; and we are told that by the middle of the 2nd century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the hereditary Court music-master was altogether ignorant of
+his art. What we may call modern Chinese music reached China
+through Bactria, a Greek kingdom, founded by Diodotus in 256 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+with which intercourse had been established by the Chinese at an
+early date. (3) The term Natural Philosophy can only be applied
+by courtesy to this essay, which deals with twelve bamboo tubes of
+varying lengths, by means of which, coupled with the twenty-eight
+zodiacal constellations and with certain calendaric accords, divine
+communication is established with the influences of the five elements
+and the points of the compass corresponding with the eight winds.
+(4) In this connexion, it is worth noting that in 104 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Chinese
+first adopted a cycle of nineteen years, a period which exactly brings
+together the solar and the lunar years; and further that this very
+cycle is said to have been introduced by Meton, 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+and was adopted at Athens about 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, probably reaching China,
+via Bactria, some two centuries afterwards. (5) This chapter deals
+specially with the sun, moon and five planets, which are supposed to
+aid in the divine government of mankind. (6) Refers to the solemn
+sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, as performed by the emperor upon
+the summit of Mt. T&lsquo;ai in Shan-tung. (7) Refers to the management
+of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow river, so often spoken of as &ldquo;China&rsquo;s
+Sorrow,&rdquo; and also of the numerous canals with which the empire is
+intersected. (8) This chapter, which treats of the circulation of
+money, and its function in the Chinese theory of political economy,
+is based upon the establishment in 110 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> of certain officials whose
+business it was to regularize commerce. It was their duty to buy up
+the chief necessaries of life when abundant and when prices were in
+consequence low, and to offer these for sale when there was a shortage
+and when prices would otherwise have risen unduly. Thus it was
+hoped that a stability in commercial transactions would be attained,
+to the great advantage of the people. The fourth division of the
+<i>Shih Chi</i> is devoted to the annals of the reigns of vassal princes, to
+be read in connexion with the imperial annals of the first division.
+The final division, which is in many ways the most interesting of all,
+gives biographical notices of eminent or notorious men and women,
+from the earliest ages downwards, and enables us to draw conclusions
+at which otherwise it would have been impossible to arrive. Confucius
+and Mencius, for instance, stand out as real personages who
+actually played a part in China&rsquo;s history; while all we can gather
+from the short life of Lao Tz&#365;, a part of which reads like an interpolation
+by another hand, is that he was a more or less legendary
+individual, whose very existence at the date usually assigned to
+him, 7th and 6th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, is altogether doubtful. Scattered
+among these biographies are a few notices of frontier nations; <i>e.g.</i>
+of the terrible nomads known as the Hsiung-nu, whose identity with
+the Huns has now been placed beyond a doubt.</p>
+
+<p>Ss&#365;-ma Ch&lsquo;ien&rsquo;s great work, on which he laboured for so many
+vears and which ran to five hundred and twenty-six thousand five
+hundred words, has been described somewhat at length for the
+following reason. It has been accepted as the model for all subsequent
+dynastic histories, of which twenty-four have now been published,
+the whole being produced in 1747 in a uniform edition, bound
+up (in the Cambridge Library) in two hundred and nineteen large
+volumes. Each dynasty has found its historian in the dynasty
+which supplanted it; and each dynastic history is notable for the
+extreme fairness with which the conquerors have dealt with the
+vanquished, accepting without demur such records of their predecessors
+as were available from official sources. The T&lsquo;ang dynasty,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 618-906, offers in one sense a curious exception to the general
+rule. It possesses two histories, both included in the above series.
+The first of these, now known as the Old T&lsquo;ang History, was ultimately
+set aside as inaccurate and inadequate, and a New T&lsquo;ang History was
+compiled by Ou-yang Hsiu, a distinguished scholar, poet and statesman
+of the 11th century. Nevertheless, in all cases, the scheme of
+the dynastic history has, with certain modifications, been that which
+was initiated in the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by Ss&#365;-ma Ch&lsquo;ien.</p>
+
+<p>The output of history, however, does not begin and end with the
+voluminous records above referred to, one of which, it should be
+mentioned, was in great part the work of a woman.
+History has always been a favourite study with the Chinese,
+<span class="sidenote">The Mirror of History.</span>
+and innumerable histories of a non-official character, long
+and short, complete and partial, political and constitutional,
+have been showered from age to age upon the Chinese reading
+world. Space would fail for the mere mention of a tithe of such
+works; but there is one which stands out among the rest and is
+especially enshrined in the hearts of the Chinese people. This is the
+<i>T&lsquo;ung Chien</i>, or Mirror of History, so called because &ldquo;to view
+antiquity as though in a mirror is an aid in the administration of
+government.&rdquo; It was the work of a statesman of the 11th century,
+whose name, by a coincidence, was Ss&#365;-ma Kuang. He had been
+forced to retire from office, and spent nearly all the last sixteen years
+of his life in historical research. The Mirror of History embraces a
+period from the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> down to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 960. It is written in a
+picturesque style; but the arrangement was found to be unsuited to
+the systematic study of history. Accordingly, it was subjected to
+revision, and was to a great extent reconstructed by Chu Hsi, the
+famous commentator, who flourished <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1130-1200, and whose
+work is now regarded as the standard history of China.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Biography.</i>&mdash;In regard to biography, the student is by no
+means limited to the dynastic histories. Many huge biographical
+collections have been compiled and published by private individuals,
+and many lives of the same personages have often
+been written from different points of view. There is nothing
+very much by which a Chinese biography can be distinguished
+from biographies produced in other parts of the world. The
+Chinese writer always begins with the place of birth, but he is
+not so particular about the year, sometimes leaving that to be
+gathered from the date of death taken in connexion with the age
+which the person may have attained. Some allusion is usually
+made to ancestry, and the steps of an official career, upward by
+promotion or downward by disgrace, are also carefully noted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geography and Travel.</i>&mdash;There is a considerable volume of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span>
+Chinese literature which comes under this head; but if we
+exclude certain brief notices of foreign countries, there remains
+nothing in the way of general geography which had been produced
+prior to the arrival of the Jesuit Fathers at the close of the 16th
+century. Up to that period geography meant the topography
+of the Chinese empire; and of topographical records there is
+a very large and valuable collection. Every prefecture and
+department, some eighteen hundred in all, has each its own
+particular topography, compiled from records and from tradition
+with a fullness that leaves nothing to be desired. The buildings,
+bridges, monuments of archaeological interest, &amp;c., in each
+district, are all carefully inserted, side by side with biographical
+and other local details, always of interest to residents and often
+to the outside public. An extensive general geography of the
+empire was last published in 1745; and this was followed by a
+chronological geography in 1794.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese have always been fond of travel, and hosts of
+travellers have published notices, more or less extensive, of the
+different parts of the empire, and even of adjacent
+nations, which they visited either as private individuals
+<span class="sidenote">Fa Hsien.</span>
+or, in the former case, as officials proceeding to distant posts.
+With Buddhism came the desire to see the country which was
+the home of the Buddha; and several important pilgrimages
+were undertaken with a view to bring back images and sacred
+writings to China. On such a journey the Buddhist priest, Fa
+Hsien, started in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 399; and after practically walking the
+whole way from central China, across the desert of Gobi, on to
+Khoten, and across the Hindu Kush into India, he visited many
+of the chief cities of India, until at length reaching Calcutta he
+took ship, and after a most adventurous voyage, in the course
+of which he remained two years in Ceylon, he finally arrived
+safely, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 414, with all his books, pictures, and images, at
+a spot on the coast of Shantung, near the modern German port
+of Kiao-chow.</p>
+
+<p>Another  of  these  adventurous  priests  was  Hsüan  Tsang
+(wrongly, Yüan Chwang), who left China on a similar mission in
+629,  and returned in  645,  bringing  with  him  six
+<span class="sidenote">Hsüan Tsang.</span>
+hundred and fifty-seven Buddhist books, besides many
+images and pictures, and one hundred and fifty relics.
+He spent the rest of his life in translating, with the help of other
+learned priests, these books into Chinese, and completed in 648
+the important record of his own travels, known as the Record of
+Western Countries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Philosophy.</i>&mdash;Even the briefest <i>résumé</i> of Chinese philosophical
+literature must necessarily include the name of Lao Tz&#365;, although
+his era, as seen above, and his personality are
+both matters of the vaguest conjecture. A number of
+<span class="sidenote">Lao Tz&#365;.</span>
+his sayings, scattered over the works of early writers, have been
+pieced together, with the addition of much incomprehensible
+jargon, and the whole has been given to the world as the work
+of Lao Tz&#365; himself, said to be of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, under
+the title of the <i>Tao Tê Ching</i>. The internal evidence against this
+book is overwhelming; <i>e.g.</i> one quotation had been detached
+from the writer who preserved it, with part of that writer&rsquo;s
+text clinging to it&mdash;of course by an oversight. Further, such a
+treatise is never mentioned in Chinese literature until some time
+after the Burning of the Books, that is, about four centuries
+after its alleged first appearance. Still, after due expurgation, it
+forms an almost complete collection of such apophthegms of Lao
+Tz&#365; as have come down to us, from which the reader can learn
+that the author taught the great doctrine of Inaction&mdash;Do
+nothing, and all things will be done. Also, that Lao Tz&#365;
+anticipated the Christian doctrine of returning good for evil, a
+sentiment which was highly reprobated by the practical mind
+of Confucius, who declared that evil should be met by justice.
+Among the more picturesque of his utterances are such paradoxes
+as, &ldquo;He who knows how to shut, uses no bolts; yet you cannot
+open. He who knows how to bind uses no ropes; yet you cannot
+untie&rdquo;; &ldquo;The weak overcomes the strong; the soft overcomes
+the hard,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>These, and many similar subtleties of speech, seem to have fired
+the imagination of Chuang Tz&#365;, 4th and 3rd centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, with the
+result that he put much time and energy into the glorification of Lao
+Tz&#365; and his doctrines. Possessed of a brilliant style and a master of
+<span class="sidenote">Chuang Tz&#365;.</span>
+irony, Chuang Tz&#365; attacked the schools of Confucius and
+Mo Ti (see below) with so much dialectic skill that the
+ablest scholars of the age were unable to refute his
+destructive criticisms. His pages abound in quaint anecdotes and
+allegorical instances, arising as it were spontaneously out of the
+questions handled, and imparting a lively interest to points which
+might otherwise have seemed dusty and dull. He was an idealist
+with all the idealist&rsquo;s hatred of a utilitarian system, and a mystic
+with all the mystic&rsquo;s contempt for a life of mere external activity.
+Only thirty-three chapters of his work now remain, though so many
+as fifty-three are known to have been still extant in the 3rd century;
+and even of these, several complete chapters are spurious, while in
+others it is comparatively easy to detect here and there the hand of
+the interpolator. What remains, however, after all reductions, has
+been enough to secure a lasting place for Chuang Tz&#365; as the most
+original of China&rsquo;s philosophical writers. His book is of course under
+the ban of heterodoxy, in common with all thought opposed to the
+Confucian teachings. His views as mystic, idealist, moralist and
+social reformer have no weight with the aspirant who has his way to
+make in official life; but they are a delight, and even a consolation, to
+many of the older men, who have no longer anything to gain or to lose.</p>
+
+<p>Confucius, 551-479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who imagined that his Annals of the Lu
+State would give him immortality, has always been much more
+widely appreciated as a moralist than as an historian.
+His talks with his disciples and with others have been
+<span class="sidenote">Confucius.</span>
+preserved for us, together with some details of his personal and
+private life; and the volume in which these are collected forms one
+of the Four Books of the Confucian Canon. Starting from the
+axiomatic declaration that man is born good and only becomes evil
+by his environment, he takes filial piety and duty to one&rsquo;s neighbour
+as his chief themes, often illustrating his arguments with almost
+Johnsonian emphasis. He cherished a shadowy belief in a God, but
+not in a future state of reward or punishment for good or evil actions
+in this world. He rather taught men to be virtuous for virtue&rsquo;s sake.</p>
+
+<p>The discourses of Mencius, who followed Confucius after an interval
+of a hundred years, 372-289 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, form another of the Four Books,
+the remaining two of which are short philosophical
+treatises, usually ascribed to a grandson of Confucius.
+<span class="sidenote">Mencius.</span>
+Mencius devoted his life to elucidating and expanding the teachings
+of the Master; and it is no doubt due to him that the Confucian
+doctrines obtained so wide a vogue. But he himself was more a
+politician and an economist (see below) than a simple preacher of
+morality; and hence it is that the Chinese people have accorded to
+him the title of The Second Sage. He is considered to have
+<span class="sidenote">Mo Ti.</span>
+effectually &ldquo;snuffed out&rdquo; the heterodox school of Mo Ti,
+a philosopher of the 5th and 4th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> who propounded a
+doctrine of &ldquo;universal love&rdquo; as the proper foundation for organized
+society, arguing that under such a system all the calamities that men
+bring upon one another would altogether disappear, and the Golden
+Age would be renewed. At the same time Mencius exposed
+<span class="sidenote">Yang Chu.</span>
+the fallacies of the speculations of Yang Chu, 4th century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who founded a school of ethical egoism as opposed to the
+exaggerated altruism of Mo Ti. According to Mencius, Yang Chu
+would not have parted with one hair of his body to save the whole
+world, whereas Mo Ti would have sacrificed all. Another early
+<span class="sidenote">Hsün Tz&#365;.</span>
+philosopher is Hsün Tz&#365;, 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He maintained,
+in opposition to Mencius, who upheld the Confucian
+dogma, and in conformity with Christian doctrine, that the nature
+of man at his birth is evil, and that this condition can only be changed
+<span class="sidenote">Yang Hsiung.</span>
+by efficient moral training. Then came Yang Hsiung, 53-18 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+who propounded an ethical criterion midway between the
+rival positions insisted on by Mencius and Hsün Tz&#365;,
+teaching that the nature of man at birth is neither good
+nor evil, but a mixture of both, and that development in either
+direction depends wholly upon circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>There is a voluminous and interesting work, of doubtful age, which
+passes under the title of <i>Huai-nan Tz&#365;</i>, or the Philosopher of Huai-nan.
+It is attributed to Liu An, prince of Huai-nan, who
+died 122 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and who is further said to have written on
+<span class="sidenote">Huai-nan Tz&#365;.]</span>
+alchemy; but alchemy was scarcely known in China at
+the date of his death, being introduced about that time from Greece.
+The author, whoever he may have been, poses as a disciple of Lao
+Tz&#365;; but the speculations of Lao Tz&#365;, as glorified by Chuang Tz&#365;,
+were then rapidly sinking into vulgar efforts to discover the elixir of
+life. It is very difficult in many cases of this kind to decide what
+books are, and what books are not, partial or complete forgeries.
+In the present instance, the aid of the <i>Shuo Wên</i>, a dictionary of the
+1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (see below), may be invoked, but not in quite so
+satisfactory a sense as that in which it will be seen lower down to
+have been applied to the <i>Tao Tê Ching</i>. The <i>Shuo Wên</i> contains a
+quotation said to be taken from <i>Huai-nan Tz&#365;</i>; but that quotation
+cannot be found in the work under consideration. It may be argued
+that the words in question may have been taken from another work
+by the same author; but if so, it becomes difficult to believe that
+a book, more than two hundred years old, from which the author
+of the <i>Shuo Wên</i> quoted, should have been allowed to perish
+without leaving any trace behind. China has produced its Bentleys
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span>
+in considerable numbers; but almost all of them have given their
+attention to textual criticism of the Confucian Canon, and few have
+condescended to examine critically the works of heterodox writers.
+The foreign student therefore finds himself faced with many knotty
+points he is entirely unable to solve.</p>
+
+<p>Of Wang Ch&lsquo;ung, a speculative and materialistic philosopher,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 27-97, banned by the orthodox for his attacks on Confucius
+and Mencius, only one work has survived. it consists
+of eighty-four essays on such topics as the nature of
+<span class="sidenote">Wang Ch&lsquo;ung.</span>
+things, destiny, divination, death, ghosts, poisons,
+miracles, criticisms of Confucius and Mencius, exaggeration, sacrifice
+and exorcism. According to Wang Ch&lsquo;ung, man, endowed at birth
+sometimes with a good and sometimes with an evil nature, is informed
+with a vital fluid, which resides in the blood and is nourished by
+eating and drinking, its two functions being to animate the body
+and keep in order the mind. It is the source of all sensation, passing
+through the blood like a wave. When it reaches the eyes, ears and
+mouth, the result is sight, hearing and speech respectively. Disturbance
+of the vital fluid leads to insanity. Without the fluid, the body
+cannot be maintained; without the body, the fluid loses its vitality.
+Therefore, argues Wang Ch&lsquo;ung, when the body perishes and the
+fluid loses its vitality, each being dependent on the other, there
+remains nothing for immortality in a life beyond the grave. Ghosts
+he held to be the hallucinations of disordered minds, and miracles to
+be natural phenomena capable of simple explanations. His indictments
+of Confucius and Mencius are not of a serious character;
+though, as regards the former, it must be borne in mind that the
+Chinese people will not suffer the faintest aspersion on the fair fame
+of their great Sage. It is related in the <i>Lun Yü</i> that Confucius paid
+a visit to the notoriously immoral wife of one of the feudal nobles,
+and that a certain disciple was &ldquo;displeased&rdquo; in consequence, whereupon
+the Master swore, saying, &ldquo;If I have done any wrong, may the
+sky fall and crush me!&rdquo; Wang Ch&lsquo;ung points out that the form of
+oath adopted by Confucius is unsatisfactory and fails to carry
+conviction. Had he said, &ldquo;May I be struck dead by lightning!&rdquo; his
+sincerity would have been more powerfully attested, because people
+are often struck dead by lightning; whereas the fall of the sky is
+too remote a contingency, such a thing never having been known to
+happen within the memory of man. As to Mencius, there is a passage
+in his works which states that a thread of predestination runs
+through all human life, and that those who accommodate themselves
+will come off better in the end than those who try to oppose; it is in
+fact a statement of the <span class="grk" title="ouk uper moron">&#959;&#8016;&#954; &#8017;&#960;&#8050;&#961; &#956;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span> principle. On this Wang
+Ch&lsquo;ung remarks that the will of God is consequently made to depend
+on human actions; and he further strengthens his objection by
+showing that the best men have often fared worst. For instance,
+Confucius never became emperor; Pi Kan, the patriot, was
+disembowelled; the bold and faithful disciple, Tz&#365; Lu, was chopped
+into small pieces.</p>
+
+<p>But the tale of Chinese philosophers is a long one. It is a department
+of literature in which the leading scholars of all ages have
+mostly had something to say. The great Chu Hsi,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1130-1200, whose fame is chiefly perhaps that of a
+<span class="sidenote">Book of Changes.</span>
+commentator and whose monument is his uniform
+exegesis of the Confucian Canon, was also a voluminous writer on
+philosophy. He took a hand in the mystery which surrounds the
+<i>I Ching</i> (or <i>Yih King</i>), generally known as the Book of Changes,
+which is held by some to be the oldest Chinese work and which forms
+part of the Confucian Canon. It is ascribed to King Wên, the virtual
+founder of the Chou dynasty, 1122-249 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, whose son became the
+first sovereign and posthumously raised his father to kingly rank.
+It contains a fanciful system of divination, deduced originally from
+eight diagrams consisting of triplet combinations of a line and a
+broken line, either one of which is necessarily repeated twice, and in two
+cases three times, in the same combination. Thus there may be three lines
+<img style="width:36px; height:20px" src="images/img227a.jpg" alt="" />, or three broken lines <img style="width:33px; height:20px" src="images/img227b.jpg" alt="" />, and other such
+combinations as <img style="width:35px; height:20px" src="images/img227c.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:32px; height:20px" src="images/img227d.jpg" alt="" />. Confucius declared that he
+would like to give another fifty years to the elucidation of this puzzling
+text. Shao Yung, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1011-1077, sought the key in numbers: Ch&lsquo;êng I., <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+1033-1107, in the eternal fitness of things. &ldquo;But Chu Hsi alone,&rdquo; says a
+writer of the 17th century, &ldquo;was able to pierce through the meaning
+and appropriate the thoughts of the inspired man who composed it.&rdquo;
+No foreigner, however, has been able quite to understand what Chu
+Hsi did make of it, and several have gone so far as to set all native
+interpretations aside in favour of their own. Thus, the <i>I Ching</i> has
+been discovered by one to be a calendar of the lunar year; by another,
+to contain a system of phallic worship; and by a third, to be a
+vocabulary of the language of a tribe, whose very existence had to be
+postulated for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Political Economy.</i>&mdash;This department of literature has been by no
+means neglected by Chinese writers. So early as the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+we find Kuan Chung, the prime minister of the Ch&lsquo;i state,
+devoting his attention to economic problems, and thereby
+<span class="sidenote">Kuan Chung.</span>
+making that state the wealthiest and the strongest of all
+the feudal kingdoms. Beginning life as a merchant, he passed into
+the public service, and left behind him at death a large work, parts
+of which, as we now possess it, may possibly have come direct from
+his own hand, the remainder being written up at a later date in
+accordance with the principles he inculcated. His ideal State was
+divided into twenty-one parts, fifteen of which were allotted to
+officials and agriculturists, and six to manufacturers and traders.
+His great idea was to make his own state self-contained; and
+accordingly he fostered agriculture in order to be independent in
+time of war, and manufactures in order to increase his country&rsquo;s
+wealth in time of peace. He held that a purely agricultural
+population would always remain poor; while a purely manufacturing
+population would risk having its supplies of raw material cut off in
+time of war. He warmly encouraged free imports as a means of
+enriching his countrymen, trusting to their ability, under these
+conditions, to hold their own against foreign competition. He
+protected capital, in the sense that he considered capitalists to be
+necessary for the development of commerce in time of peace, and
+for the protection of the state in time of war.</p>
+
+<p>Mencius (see above) was in favour of heavily taxing merchants
+who tried to engross for the purpose of regrating, that is, to buy up
+wholesale for the purpose of retailing at monopoly prices; he was in
+fact opposed to all trusts and corners in trade. He was in favour of a
+tax to be imposed upon such persons as were mere consumers, living
+upon property which had been amassed by others and doing no work
+themselves. No tax, however, was to be exacted from property-owners
+who contributed by their personal efforts to the general
+welfare of the community. The object of the tax was not revenue,
+but the prevention of idleness with its attendant evil consequences
+to the state.</p>
+
+<p>Wang An-shih, the Reformer, or Innovator, as he has been called,
+flourished <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1021-1086. In 1069 he was appointed state councillor,
+and forthwith entered upon a series of startling reforms
+which have given him a unique position in the annals of
+<span class="sidenote">Wang An-shih.</span>
+China. He established a state monopoly in commerce,
+under which the produce of a district was to be used first for the
+payment of taxes, then for the direct use of the district itself, and
+the remainder was to be purchased by the government at a cheap rate,
+either to be held until there was a rise in price, or to be transported
+to some other district in need of it. The people were to profit
+by fixity of prices and escape from further taxation; and the
+government, by the revenue accruing in the process of administration.
+There was also to be a system of state advances to cultivators of
+land; not merely to the needy, but to all alike. The loan was to be
+compulsory, and interest was to be paid on it at the rate of 2% per
+month. The soil was to be divided into equal areas and taxed according
+to its fertility in each case, without reference to the number of
+inhabitants contained in each area. All these, and other important
+reforms, failed to find favour with a rigidly conservative people, and
+Wang An-shih lived long enough to see the whole of his policy reversed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Military Writers.</i>&mdash;Not much, relatively speaking, has been written
+by the Chinese on war in general, strategy or tactics. There is,
+however, one very remarkable work which has come down
+to us from the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, as to the genuineness of
+<span class="sidenote">Sun-Tz&#365;.</span>
+which there now seems to be no reasonable doubt. A biographical
+notice of the author, Sun Wu, is given in the <i>Shih Chi</i> (see above),
+from which we learn that &ldquo;he knew how to handle an army, and was
+finally appointed General.&rdquo; His work, entitled the <i>Art of War</i>, is a
+short treatise in thirteen chapters, under the following headings:
+&ldquo;Laying Plans,&rdquo; &ldquo;Waging War,&rdquo; &ldquo;Attack by Stratagem,&rdquo; &ldquo;Tactical
+Dispositions,&rdquo; &ldquo;Energy,&rdquo; &ldquo;Weak Points and Strong,&rdquo; &ldquo;Man&oelig;uvring,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Variation of Tactics,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Army on the March,&rdquo; &ldquo;Terrain,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Nine Situations,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Attack by Fire,&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Use of
+Spies.&rdquo; Although the warfare of Sun Wu&rsquo;s day was the warfare of
+bow and arrow, of armoured chariots and push of pike, certain
+principles inseparably associated with successful issue will be found
+enunciated in his work. Professor Mackail, in his <i>Latin Literature</i>
+(p. 86), declares that Varro&rsquo;s <i>Imagines</i> was &ldquo;the first instance in
+history of the publication of an illustrated book.&rdquo; But reference to
+the Art Section of the history of the Western Han dynasty, 206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 25,
+will disclose the title of fifteen or sixteen illustrated books,
+one of which is Sun Wu&rsquo;s <i>Art of War</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;In spite of the high place accorded to agriculturists,
+who rank second only to officials and before artisans and traders,
+and in spite of the assiduity with which agriculture has been practised
+in all ages, securing immunity from slaughter for the ploughing ox&mdash;what
+agricultural literature the Chinese possess may be said to belong
+entirely to modern times. Ch&lsquo;ên Fu of the 12th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> was the
+author of a small work in three parts, dealing with agriculture,
+cattle-breeding and silkworms respectively. There is also a well-known
+work by an artist of the early 13th century, with forty-six woodcuts
+illustrating the various operations of agriculture and weaving. This
+book was reprinted under the emperor K&lsquo;ang Hsi, 1662-1723, and
+new illustrations with excellent perspective were provided by Chiao
+Ping-chên, an artist who had adopted foreign methods as introduced
+by the famous Jesuit, Matteo Ricci. The standard work on agriculture,
+<span class="sidenote">Hsü Kuang-ch&lsquo;i.</span>
+entitled <i>Nung Chêng Ch&lsquo;üan Shu</i>, was compiled by
+Hsü Kuang-ch&lsquo;i, 1562-1634, generally regarded as the
+only influential member of the mandarinate who has ever
+become a convert to Christianity. It is in sixty sections,
+the first three of which are devoted to classical references. Then
+follow two sections on the division of land, six on the processes of
+husbandry, none on hydraulics, four on agricultural implements,
+six on planting, six on rearing silkworms, four on trees, one on
+breeding animals, one on food and eighteen on provision against a
+time of scarcity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Medicine and Therapeutics.</i>&mdash;The oldest of the innumerable
+medical works of all descriptions with which China has been flooded
+from time immemorial is a treatise which has been credited to the
+Yellow Emperor (see above), 2698-2598 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is entitled <i>Plain Questions
+of the Yellow Emperor</i>, or <i>Su Wên</i> for short, and takes the form of
+questions put by the emperor and answered by Earl Ch&lsquo;i, a minister,
+who was himself author of the <i>Nei Ching</i>, a medical work no longer in
+existence. Without accepting the popular attribution of the <i>Su
+Wên</i>, it is most probable that it is a very old book, dating back to
+several centuries before Christ, and containing traditional lore of a
+still more remote period. The same may be said of certain works
+on cautery and acupuncture, both of which are still practised by
+Chinese doctors; and also of works on the pulse, the variations of
+which have been classified and allocated with a minuteness hardly
+credible. Special treatises on fevers, skin-diseases, diseases of the
+feet, eyes, heart, &amp;c., are to be found in great quantities, as well as
+veterinary treatises on the treatment of diseases of the horse and
+the domestic buffalo. But in the whole range of Chinese medical
+literature there is nothing which can approach the <i>Pên Ts&lsquo;ao</i>, or
+<span class="sidenote">Pên Ts&lsquo;no.</span>
+<i>Materia Medica</i>, sometimes called the Herbal, a title (<i>i.e.</i>
+<i>Pên Ts&lsquo;ao</i>) which seems to have belonged to some book of
+the kind in pre-historic ages. The work under consideration was
+compiled by Li Shih-chên, who completed his task in 1578 after
+twenty-six years&rsquo; labour. No fewer than eighteen hundred and
+ninety-two species of drugs, animal, vegetable and mineral, are dealt
+with, arranged under sixty-two classes in sixteen divisions; and eight
+thousand one hundred and sixty prescriptions are given in connexion
+with the various entries. The author professes to quote from
+the original <i>Pên Ts&lsquo;ao</i>, above mentioned; and we obtain from his
+extracts an insight into some curious details. It appears that formerly
+the number of recognized drugs was three hundred and sixty-five in
+all, corresponding with the days of the year. One hundred and
+twenty of these were called <i>sovereigns</i> (cf. a sovereign prescription);
+and were regarded as entirely beneficial to health, taken in any
+quantity or for any time. Another similar number were called
+<i>ministers</i>; some of these were poisonous, and all had to be used with
+discretion. The remaining one hundred and twenty-five were
+<i>agents</i>; all very poisonous, but able to cure diseases if not taken in
+over-doses. The modern <i>Pên Ts&lsquo;ao</i>, in its sixteen divisions, deals with
+drugs classed under water, fire, earth, minerals, herbs, grain, vegetables,
+fruit, trees, clothes and utensils, insects, fishes, crustacea,
+birds, beasts and man. In each case the proper name of the drug is
+first given, followed by its explanation, solution of doubtful points,
+correction of errors, means of identification by taste, use in prescriptions,
+&amp;c. The work is fully illustrated, and there is an index to the
+various medicines, classed according to the complaints for which they
+are used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Divination, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The practice of divination is of very ancient
+date in China, traceable, it has been suggested, back to the Canon of
+Changes (see above), which is commonly used by the lettered classes
+for that purpose. A variety of other methods, the chief of which is
+astrology, have also been adopted, and have yielded a considerable
+bulk of literature. Even the officially-published almanacs still mark
+certain days as suitable for certain undertakings, while other days are
+marked in the opposite sense. The spirit of Zadkiel pervades the
+Chinese empire. In like manner, geomancy is a subject on which
+many volumes have been written; and the same applies to the
+pseudo sciences of palmistry, physiognomy, alchemy (introduced
+from Greek sources) and others.</p>
+
+<p><i>Painting.</i>&mdash;Calligraphy, in the eyes of the Chinese, is just as much
+a fine art as painting; the two are, in fact, considered to have come
+into existence together, but as might be expected the latter occupies
+the larger space in Chinese literature, and forms the subject of
+numerous extensive works. One of the most important of these is
+the <i>Hsüan Ho Hua P&lsquo;u</i>, the author of which is unknown. It contains
+information concerning two hundred and thirty-one painters and the
+titles of six thousand one hundred and ninety-two of their pictures,
+all in the imperial collection during the dynastic period <i>Hsüan Ho</i>,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1119-1126, from which the title is derived. The artists are
+classified under one of the following ten headings, supposed to
+represent the line in which each particularly excelled: Religion,
+Human Figures, Buildings, Barbarians (including their Animals),
+Dragons and Fishes, Landscape, Animals, Flowers and Birds, The
+Bamboo, Vegetables and Fruits.</p>
+
+<p><i>Music.</i>&mdash;The literature of music does not go back to a remote period.
+The Canon of Music, which was formerly included in the Confucian
+Canon, has been lost for many centuries; and the works now available,
+exclusive of entries in the dynastic histories, are not older than
+the 9th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, to which date may be assigned the <i>Chieh Ku
+Lu</i>, a treatise on the deerskin drum, said to have been introduced into
+China from central Asia, and evidently of Scythian origin. There are
+several important works of the 16th and 17th centuries, in which the
+history and theory of music are fully discussed, and illustrations of
+instruments are given, with measurements in each case, and the
+special notation required.</p>
+
+<p><i>Miscellaneous.</i>&mdash;Under this head may be grouped a vast number
+of works, many of them exhaustive, on such topics as archaeology,
+seals (engraved), numismatics, pottery, ink (the miscalled &ldquo;Indian&rdquo;),
+mirrors, precious stones, tea, wine, chess, wit and humour,
+even cookery, &amp;c. There is, indeed, hardly any subject, within
+reasonable limits, which does not find some corner in Chinese
+literature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Collections</i>.&mdash;Reprints of miscellaneous books and pamphlets in a
+uniform edition, the whole forming a &ldquo;library,&rdquo; has long been a
+favourite means of disseminating useful (and other)
+information. Of these, the <i>Lung Wei Pi Shu</i> may be taken
+<span class="sidenote">Lung Wei Pi Shu.</span>
+as a specimen. In bulk it would be about the equivalent
+of twenty volumes, 8vo, of four hundred pages to each. Among its
+contents we find the following. A handbook of phraseology, with
+explanations; a short account of fabulous regions to the N., S., E.
+and W.; notes on the plants and trees of southern countries; biographical
+sketches of ninety-two wonderful personages; an account
+of the choice of an empress, with standard measurements of the
+height, length of limb, &amp;c., of the ideal woman; &ldquo;Pillow Notes&rdquo;
+(a term borrowed by the Japanese), or jottings on various subjects,
+ranging from the Creation to an account of Fusang, a country where
+the trees are thousands of feet high and of vast girth, thus supporting
+the California, as opposed to the Mexico, identification of Fusang;
+critiques on the style of various poets, and on the indebtedness of
+each to earlier writers; a list of the most famous bronze vessels cast
+by early emperors, with their dimensions, inscriptions, &amp;c.; a treatise
+on the bamboo; a list of famous swords, with dates of forging and
+inscriptions; an account of the old Mongol palace, previous to its
+destruction by the first Ming emperor; notes on the wild tribes of
+China; historical episodes; biographical notices of one hundred and
+four poets of the present dynasty; notes on archaeological, supernatural
+and other topics, first published in the 9th century; notes
+for bibliophiles on the care of books, and on paper, ink, pictures and
+bric-à-brac; a collection of famous criminal cases; night thoughts
+suggested by a meteor. Add to the above, numerous short stories
+relating to magic, dreams, bilocation, and to almost every possible
+phase of supernatural manifestation, and the reader will have some
+idea of what he may expect in an ordinary &ldquo;library&rdquo; of a popular
+character. It must always be remembered that with the Chinese,
+style is of paramount importance. Documents, the subject-matter of
+which would be recognized to be of no educative value, would still be
+included, if written in a pleasing style, such as might be serviceable
+as a model.</p>
+
+<p><i>Individual Authors</i>.&mdash;In a similar manner it has always been customary
+for relatives or friends, sometimes for the trade, to publish the
+&ldquo;complete works&rdquo; of important and often unimportant writers;
+usually, soon after death. And as literary distinction has hitherto
+almost invariably led to high office under the state, the collected
+works of the great majority of authors open with selected Memorials
+to the Throne and other documents of an official character. The
+public interest in these may have long since passed away; but they
+are valued by the Chinese as models of a style to be imitated, and the
+foreign student occasionally comes across papers on once burning
+questions arising out of commercial or diplomatic intercourse with
+western nations. Then may follow&mdash;the order is not always the
+same&mdash;the prefaces which the author contributed from time to time
+to the literary undertakings of his friends. Preface-writing is almost
+a department of Chinese literature. No one ever thinks of publishing
+a book without getting one or more of his capable associates to provide
+prefaces, which are naturally of a laudatory character, and
+always couched in highly-polished and obscure terms, the difficulty of
+the text being often aggravated by a fanciful and almost illegible
+script. Prefaces written by emperors, many examples of which may
+be seen, are of course highly esteemed, and are generally printed in
+coloured ink. The next section may comprise biographical notices
+of eminent men and women, or of mere local celebrities, who happened
+to die in the author&rsquo;s day. Then will follow Records, a title which
+covers inscriptions carved on the walls of new buildings, or on
+memorial tablets, and also notes on pictures which the author may
+have seen, places which he may have visited, or allegorical incidents
+which he may have imagined. Then come disquisitions, or essays
+on various subjects; researches, being short articles of archaeological
+interest; studies or monographs; birthday congratulations
+to friends or to official colleagues; announcements, as to deities, a
+cessation of whose worship is threatened if the necessary rain or fair
+weather be not forthcoming; funeral orations, letters of condolence,
+&amp;c. The above items will perhaps fill half a dozen volumes; the
+remaining volumes, running to twenty or thirty in all, as the case
+may be, will contain the author&rsquo;s poetry, together with his longer
+and more serious works. The essential of such a collection is, in
+Chinese eyes, its completeness.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Fiction</i>.&mdash;Although novels are not regarded as an integral
+part of literature proper, it is generally conceded that some
+novels may be profitably studied, if for no other
+reason, from the point of view of style. With the
+<span class="sidenote">San Kuo Chih.</span>
+novel, however, we are no longer on perfectly safe
+ground in regard to that decency which characterizes, as has
+been above stated, the vast mass of Chinese literature. Chinese
+novels range, in this sense, from the simplest and most unaffected
+tale of daily life, down to low&mdash;not the lowest&mdash;depths
+of objectionable pornography. The <i>San Kuo Chih</i>, an historical
+romance based upon a period of disruption at the close of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span>
+2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, is a delightful book, packed with episodes of
+battle, heroism, self-sacrifice, skilful strategy, and all that goes
+to make up a stirring picture of strenuous times. Its author,
+who might almost have been Walter Scott, cannot be named for
+certain; but the work itself probably belongs to the 13th
+century, a date at which the novel begins to make its appearance
+in China. Previous to that time, there had been current an
+immense quantity of stories of various kinds, but nothing like a
+novel, as we understand the term. From the 13th century
+onwards, the growth of the novel was continuous; and finally,
+in the 17th century, a point was reached which is not likely to
+be surpassed.The <i>Hung Lou Mêng</i>, the author of which took
+<span class="sidenote">Hung Lou Mêng.</span>
+pains, for political reasons, to conceal his identity,
+is a creation of a very high order. Its plot is intricate
+and original, and the <i>dénouement</i> startlingly tragic.
+In the course of the story, the chief clue of which is love, woven
+in with intrigue, ambition, wealth, poverty, and other threads
+of human life, there occur no fewer than over four hundred
+characters, each one possessed of a distinctive personality drawn
+with marvellous skill. It contains incidents which recall the
+licence tolerated in Fielding; but the coarseness, like that of
+Fielding, is always on the surface, and devoid of the ulterior
+suggestiveness of the modern psychological novel. But perhaps
+<span class="sidenote">Liao Chai.</span>
+no work of fiction has ever enjoyed such vogue among literary
+men as a collection of stories, some graceful, some
+weird, written in 1679 by P&lsquo;u Sungling, a disappointed
+candidate at the public examinations. This collection, known as
+the <i>Liao Chai</i>, is exceedingly interesting to the foreign
+student for its sidelights on folklore and family life; to the
+native scholar, who professes to smile at the subject-matter as
+beyond the pale of genuine literature, it is simply invaluable
+as an expression of the most masterly style of which his
+language is capable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drama.</i>&mdash;Simultaneously with the appearance of the novel,
+stage-plays seem to have come into existence in China. In
+the earliest ages there were set dances by trained performers,
+to the accompaniment of music and singing; and something of
+the kind, more or less ornate as regards the setting, has always
+been associated with solemn and festive occasions. But not until
+the days of the Mongol rule, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1260-1368, can the drama proper
+be said to have taken root and flourished in Chinese soil. The
+probability is that both the drama and the novel were introduced
+from Central Asia in the wake of the Mongol conquerors;
+the former is now specially essential to the everyday happiness
+of the Chinese people, who are perhaps the most confirmed
+playgoers in the world. There is an excellent collection of one
+hundred plays of the Mongol dynasty, with an illustration to
+each, first published in 1615; there is also a further large
+collection, issued in 1845, which contains a great number of
+plays arranged under sixty headings, according to the style and
+purport of each, besides many others.
+<span class="sidenote">Hsi Hsiang Chi.</span>
+There is one famous play of the Mongol period which deals largely
+in plot and passion, and is a great favourite with the educated
+classes. It is entitled <i>Hsi Hsiang Chi</i>, or the Story of
+the Western Pavilion; and as if there was a doubt as to the
+reception which would be accorded to the work, a minatory
+sentence was inserted in the prolegomena: &ldquo;If any one
+ventures to call this book indecent, he will certainly have his
+tongue torn out in hell.&rdquo; So far as the written play is concerned,
+its language is altogether unobjectionable; on the stage,
+by means of gag and gesture, its presentation is often unseemly
+and coarse. What the Chinese playgoer delights in, as an
+evening&rsquo;s amusement, is a succession of plays which are more
+of the nature of sketches, slight in construction and generally
+weak in plot, some of them based upon striking historical
+episodes, and others dealing with a single humorous incident.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Dictionaries.</i>&mdash;The <i>Erh Ya</i>, or Nearing the Standard, is commonly
+classed as a dictionary, and is referred by native scholars generally
+to the 12th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The entries are arranged under nineteen
+heads, to facilitate reference, and explain a large number of words and
+phrases, including names of beasts, birds, plants and fishes. The
+work is well illustrated in the large modern edition; but the actual
+date of composition is an entirely open question, and the insertion of
+woodcuts must necessarily belong to a comparatively late age (see
+<i>Military Writers</i>).</p>
+
+<p>With the <i>Shuo Wên</i>, or Explanation of Written Words, we begin the
+long list of lexicographical works which constitute such a notable
+feature in Chinese literature. A scholar, named Hsü Shên,
+who died about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 120, made an effort to bring together and
+<span class="sidenote">Shuo Wên.</span>
+analyse all the characters it was possible to gather from the written
+language as it existed in his own day. He then proceeded to arrange
+these characters&mdash;about ten thousand in all&mdash;on a system which
+would enable a student to find a given word without having possibly
+to search through the whole book. To do this, he simply grouped
+together all such as had a common part, more or less indicative of
+the meaning of each, much as though an English dictionary were to
+consist of such groups as</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>Dog-days</p>
+<p>Dog-kennel</p>
+<p>Dog-collar</p>
+<p>Dog-meat</p>
+<p>Dog-nap</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and so on.</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>Horse-collar</p>
+<p>Horse-flesh</p>
+<p>Horse-back</p>
+<p>Horse-fly</p>
+<p>Horse-chestnut</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Hsü Shên selected five hundred and forty of these common parts, or
+Radicals (see <i>Language</i>), a number which, as will be seen later
+on, was found to be cumbrously large; and under each Radical he
+inserted all the characters belonging to it, but with no particular
+order or arrangement, so that search was still, in many cases, quite
+a laborious task. The explanations given were chiefly intended to
+establish the pictorial origin of the language; but whereas no one
+now disputes this as a general conclusion, the steps by which Hsü
+Shên attempted to prove his theory must in a large number of
+instances be dismissed as often inadequate and sometimes ridiculous.
+Nevertheless, it was a great achievement; and the <i>Shuo Wên</i> is
+still indispensable to the student of the particular script in vogue a
+century or two before Christ. It is also of value in another sense.
+It may be used, with discretion, in testing the genuineness of an
+alleged ancient document, which, if an important or well-known
+document before the age of Hsü Shên, would not be likely to contain
+characters not given in his work. Under this test the <i>Tao Tê
+Ching</i>, for instance, breaks down (see <i>Huai-nan Tz&#365;</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Passing over a long series of dictionaries and vocabularies which
+appeared at various dates, some constructed on Hsü Shên&rsquo;s plan,
+with modifications and improvements, and others, known as phonetic
+dictionaries, arranged under the finals according to the Tones, we
+come to the great standard lexicon produced under the auspices,
+and now bearing the name of the emperor K&lsquo;ang Hsi, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1662-1723.</p>
+
+<p>But before proceeding, a rough attempt may be made to exhibit in
+English terms the principle of the phonetic as compared with the
+radical dictionary described above. In the spoken language
+there would occur the word <i>light</i>, the opposite of dark,
+<span class="sidenote">Phonetic dictionaries.</span>
+and this would be expressed in writing by a certain
+symbol. Then, when it became necessary to write down <i>light</i>,
+the opposite of heavy, the result would be precisely what we
+see in English. But as written words increased, always with a limited
+number of vocables (see <i>Language</i>), this system was found to be
+impracticable, and Radicals were inserted as a means of distinguishing
+one kind of <i>light</i> from another, but without altering the
+original sound. Now, in the phonetic dictionary the words are no
+longer arranged in such groups as</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>Sun-light</p>
+<p>Sun-beam</p>
+<p>Sun-stroke</p>
+<p>Sun-god, &amp;c.</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">according to the Radicals, but in such groups as</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>Sun-light</p>
+<p>Moon-light</p>
+<p>Foot-light</p>
+<p>Gas-light, &amp;c.</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">according to the phonetics, all the above four being pronounced simply
+<i>light</i>, without reference to the radical portion which guides
+towards the limited sense of the term. So, in a phonetic dictionary,
+we should have such a group as</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>Brass-bound</p>
+<p>Morocco-bound</p>
+<p>Half-bound</p>
+<p>Spell-bound</p>
+<p>Homeward-bound</p>
+<p>Wind-bound</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and so on, all the above six being pronounced simply <i>bound</i>.
+To return to &ldquo;K&lsquo;ang Hsi,&rdquo; as the lexicon in question is familiarly
+styled, the total number of characters given therein
+amounts to over forty-four thousand, grouped no longer
+<span class="sidenote">K&lsquo;ang Hsi.</span>
+under the five hundred and forty Radicals of Hsü Shên, but under
+the much more manageable number of two hundred and fourteen,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span>
+as already used in earlier dictionaries. Further, as the groups of
+characters would now be more than four times as large as in the <i>Shuo
+Wên</i>, they were subdivided under each Radical according to the
+number of strokes in the other, or phonetic part of the character.
+Thus, adopting letters as strokes, for the purpose of illustration, we
+should have &ldquo;dog-nap&rdquo; in the group of Radical &ldquo;dog&rdquo; and three
+strokes, while &ldquo;dog-days&rdquo; and &ldquo;dog-meat&rdquo; would both be found
+under Radical &ldquo;dog&rdquo; with four strokes, and so on. The two
+hundred and fourteen Radicals are themselves arranged in groups
+according to the number of strokes; so that it is not a very arduous
+task to turn up ordinary characters in a Chinese dictionary. Finally,
+although Chinese is a monosyllabic and non-alphabetic language,
+a method has been devised, and has been in use since the 3rd century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, by which the sound of any word can be indicated in a dictionary
+otherwise than by simply quoting a word of similar sound, which of
+course may be equally unknown to the searcher. Thus, the sound
+of a word pronounced <i>ching</i> can be exhibited by selecting two words,
+one having the initial <i>ch</i>, and the other a final <i>ing</i>. E.g. the sound
+<i>ching</i> is given as <i>chien ling</i>; that is <i>ch[ien l]ing = ching</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Concordance.</i>&mdash;Considering the long unbroken series of years
+during which Chinese literature has always, in spite of many losses,
+been steadily gaining in bulk, it is not astonishing to find that
+classical, historical, mythological and other allusions to personages
+or events of past times have also grown out of all proportion to the
+brain capacity even of the most brilliant student. Designed especially
+to meet this difficulty, there are several well-known handbooks,
+elementary and advanced, which trace such allusions to their source
+and provide full and lucid explanations; but even the most extensive
+of these is on a scale incommensurate with the requirements of the
+scholar. Again, it is due to the emperor K&lsquo;ang Hsi that we possess
+one of the most elaborate compilations of the kind ever planned and
+carried to completion. The <i>P&lsquo;ei Wên Yün Fu</i>, or Concordance to
+Literature, is a key, not only to allusions in general, but to all
+phraseology, including allusions, idiomatic expressions and other obscure
+combinations of words, to be found in the classics, in the dynastic
+histories, and in all poets, historians, essayists, and writers of
+recognized eminence in their own lines. No attempt at explanation is
+given; but enough of the passage, or passages, in which the phrase
+occurs, is cited to enable the reader to gather the meaning required.
+The trouble, of course, lies with the arrangement of these phrases in
+a non-alphabetic language. Recourse has been had to the Rhymes
+and the five Tones (see <i>Language</i>); and all phrases which end with
+the same word form one of a number of groups which appear under
+the same Rhyme, the Rhymes themselves being distributed over five
+Tones. Thus, to find any phrase, the first point is to discover what is
+its normal Rhyme; the next is to ascertain the Tone of that Rhyme.
+Then, under this Tone-group the Rhyme-word will be found, and
+under the Rhyme-word group will be found the final word of the
+phrase in question. It will now only remain to run through this last
+group of phrases, all of which have this same final word, and the
+search&mdash;so vast is the collection&mdash;will usually yield a satisfactory
+result. The <i>P&lsquo;ei Wên Yün Fu</i> runs of course to many volumes; a
+rough estimate shows it to contain over fifteen million words.</p>
+
+<p><i>Encyclopaedias.</i>&mdash;In their desire to bring together condensed, yet
+precise, information on a large variety of subjects, the Chinese may
+be said to have invented the encyclopaedia. Though not the earliest
+work of this kind, the <i>T&lsquo;ai P&lsquo;ing Yü Lan</i> is the first of any great
+importance. It was produced towards the close of the 10th century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, under the direct supervision of the emperor, who is said to have
+examined three sections every day for about a year, the total number
+of sections being one thousand in all, arranged under fifty-five
+headings. Another similar work, dealing with topics drawn from the
+lighter literature of China, is the <i>T&lsquo;ai P&lsquo;ing Kuang Chi</i>, which was
+issued at about the same date as the last-mentioned. Both of these,
+and especially the former, have passed through several editions.
+They help to inaugurate the great Sung dynasty, which for three
+centuries to follow effected so much in the cause of literature.
+Other encyclopaedias, differing in scope and in plan, appeared from
+time to time, but it will be necessary to concentrate attention upon
+two only. The third emperor of the Ming dynasty, known
+<span class="sidenote">Yuan Lo Ta Tien.</span>
+as Yung Lo, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1403-1425, issued a commission for the
+production of a work on a scale which was colossal even
+for China. His idea was to collect together all that had ever been
+written in the four departments of (1) the Confucian Canon,
+(2) History, (3) Philosophy and (4) General Literature, including
+astronomy, geography, cosmogony, medicine, divination, Buddhism,
+Taoism, arts and handicrafts; and in 1408 such an encyclopaedia
+was laid before the Throne, received the imperial approval and was
+named <i>Yung Lo Ta Tien</i>, or The Great Standard of Yung Lo. To
+achieve this, 3 commissioners, with 5 directors, 20 sub-directors and a
+staff of 2141 assistants, had laboured for the space of five years.
+Its contents ran to no fewer than 22,877 separate sections, to which
+must be added an index filling 60 sections. Each section contained
+about 20 leaves, making a total of 917,480 pages for the whole work.
+Each page consisted of sixteen columns of characters averaging
+twenty-five to each column, or a total of 366,992,000 characters, to
+which, in order to bring the amount into terms of English words,
+about another third would have to be added. This extraordinary
+work was never printed, as the expense would have been too great,
+although it was actually transcribed for that purpose; and later on,
+two more copies were made, one of which was finally stored in Peking
+and the other, with the original, in Nanking. Both the Nanking
+copies perished at the fall of the Ming dynasty; and a similar fate
+overtook the Peking copy, with the exception of a few odd volumes,
+at the siege of the legations in 1900. The latter was bound up in
+11,100 volumes, covered with yellow silk, each volume being 1 ft.
+8 in. in length by 1 ft. in breadth, and averaging over &frac12; in. in thickness.
+This would perhaps be a fitting point to conclude any notice
+of Chinese encyclopaedias, but for the fact that the work of Yung Lo
+is gone while another encyclopaedia, also on a huge scale, designed
+and carried out sonic centuries later, is still an important work of
+reference.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>T&lsquo;u Shu Chi Ch&lsquo;êng</i> was planned, and to a great extent made
+ready, under instructions from the emperor K&lsquo;ang Hsi (see above),
+and was finally brought out by his successor, Yung Chêng,
+1723-1736. Intended to embrace all departments of
+<span class="sidenote">T&lsquo;u Shu.</span>
+knowledge, its contents were distributed over six leading categories,
+which for want of better equivalents may be roughly rendered by
+(l) Heaven, (2) Earth, (3) Man, (4) Arts and Sciences, (5) Philosophy
+and (6) Political Science. These were subdivided into thirty-two
+classes; and in the voluminous index which accompanies the work
+a further attempt was made to bring the searcher into still closer
+touch with the individual items treated. Thus, the category Heaven
+is subdivided into four classes, namely&mdash;again, for want of better
+terms&mdash;(<i>a</i>) The Sky and its Manifestations, (<i>b</i>) The Seasons, (<i>c</i>)
+Astronomy and Mathematics and (<i>d</i>) Natural Phenomena. Under
+these classes come the individual items; and here it is that the
+foreign student is often at a loss. For instance, class <i>a</i> includes
+Earth, in its cosmogonic sense, as the mother of mankind; Heaven,
+in its original sense of God; the Dual Principle in nature; the Sun,
+Moon and Stars; Wind; Clouds; Rainbow; Thunder and Lightning;
+Rain; Fire, &amp;c. But Earth is itself a geographical category;
+and all strange phenomena relating to many of the items under class
+<i>a</i> are recorded under class <i>d</i>. Category No. 6, marked as Political
+Science, contains such classes as Ceremonial, Music and Administration
+of Justice, alongside of Handicrafts, making it essential to study
+the arrangement carefully before it is possible to consult the work
+with ease. Such preliminary trouble is, however, well repaid, the
+amount of information given on any particular subject being practically
+coextensive with what is known about that subject. The
+method of presenting such information, with variations to suit the
+nature of the topics handled, is to begin with historical excerpts,
+chronologically arranged. These are usually followed by sometimes
+lengthy essays dealing with the subject as a theme, taken from the
+writings of qualified authors, and like all the other entries, also
+chronologically arranged. Then come elegant extracts in prose and
+verse, in all of which the subject may be simply mentioned and not
+treated as in the essays. After these follow minor notices of incidents,
+historical and otherwise, and all kinds of anecdotes, derived from a
+great variety of sources. Occasionally, single poetical lines are
+brought together, each contributing, some thought or statement
+germane to the subject, expressed in elegant or forcible terms; and
+also, wherever practicable, biographies of men and women are
+inserted.</p>
+
+<p>Chronological and other tables are supplied where necessary, as
+well as a very large number of illustrations, many of these being
+reproductions of woodcuts from earlier works. It is said that the
+<i>T&lsquo;u Shu Chi Ch&lsquo;êng</i> was printed from movable copper type cast by
+the Jesuit Fathers employed by the emperor K&lsquo;ang Hsi at Peking;
+also that only a hundred copies were struck off, the type being then
+destroyed. An 8vo edition of the whole encyclopaedia was issued at
+Shanghai in 1889; this is bound up in sixteen hundred and twenty-eight
+handy volumes of about two hundred pages each. A copy of
+the original edition stands on the shelves of the British Museum, and
+a translation of the Index has recently been completed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Manuscripts and Printing.</i>&mdash;At the conclusion of this brief
+survey of Chinese literature it may well be asked how such an
+enormous and ever-increasing mass has been handed down
+from generation to generation. According to the views put forth
+by early Chinese antiquarians, the first written records were
+engraved with a special knife upon bamboo slips and wooden
+tablets. The impracticability of such a process, as applied to
+books, never seems to have dawned upon those writers; and
+this snowball of error, started in the 7th century, long after the
+knife and the tablet had disappeared as implements of writing,
+continued to gather strength as time went on. Recent
+researches, however, have placed it beyond doubt that when the
+Chinese began to write in a literary sense, as opposed to mere
+scratchings on bones, they traced their characters on slips of
+bamboo and tablets of wood with a bamboo pencil, frayed at one
+end to carry the coloured liquid which stood in the place of ink.
+The knife was used only to erase. So things went on until about
+200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when it would appear that a brush of hair was substituted
+for the bamboo pencil; after which, silk was called into
+requisition as an appropriate vehicle in connexion with the more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span>
+delicate brush. But silk was expensive and difficult to handle,
+so that the invention of paper in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 105 by a eunuch, named
+Ts&lsquo;ai Lun, came as a great boon, although it seems clear that a
+certain kind of paper, made from silk floss, was in use before his
+date. However that may be, from the 1st century onwards the
+Chinese have been in possession of the same writing materials
+that are in use at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 170, Ts&lsquo;ai Yung, who rose subsequently to the highest
+offices of state, wrote out on stone in red ink the authorized text
+of the Five Classics, to be engraved by workmen, and thus
+handed down to posterity. The work covered forty-six huge
+tablets, of which a few fragments are said to be still in existence.
+A similar undertaking was carried out in 837, and the later
+tablets are still standing at a temple in the city of Hsi-an Fu,
+Shensi. With the T&lsquo;ang dynasty, rubbings of famous inscriptions,
+wherein the germ of printing may be detected, whether for the
+style of the composition or for the calligraphic excellence of the
+script, came very much into vogue with scholars and collectors.
+It is also from about the same date that the idea of multiplying
+on paper impressions taken from wooden blocks seems to have
+arisen, chiefly in connexion with religious pictures and prayers.
+The process was not widely applied to the production of books
+until the 10th century, when in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 932 the Confucian Canon
+was printed for the first time. In 981 orders were issued for the
+<i>T&lsquo;ai P&lsquo;ing Kuang Chi</i>, an encyclopaedia extending to many
+volumes (see above) to be cut on blocks for printing. Movable
+types of baked clay are said to have been invented by an
+alchemist, named Pi Shêng, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1043; and under the Ming
+dynasty, 1368-1644, these were made first of wood, and later
+of copper or lead, but movable types have never gained the
+favour accorded to block-printing, by means of which most of
+China&rsquo;s great typographical triumphs have been achieved. The
+process is, and always has been, the same all over China. Two
+consecutive pages of a book, separated by a column containing
+the title, number of section, and number of leaf, are written out
+and pasted face downwards on a block of wood (<i>Lindera tz&#365;-mu</i>,
+Hemsl.). This paper, where not written upon, is cut away with
+sharp tools, leaving the characters in relief, and of course backwards,
+as in the case of European type. The block is then inked,
+and an impression is taken off, on one side of the paper only.
+This sheet is then folded down the middle of the separating
+column above mentioned, so that the blank halves come
+together, leaving two pages of printed matter outside; and when
+enough sheets have been brought together, they are stabbed at
+the open ends and form a volume, to be further wrapped in
+paper or pasteboard, and labelled with title, &amp;c. It is almost
+superfluous to say that the pages of a Chinese book must not be
+cut. There is nothing inside, and, moreover, the column bearing
+the title and leaf-number would be cut through. The Chinese
+newspapers of modern times are all printed from movable types,
+an ordinary fount consisting of about six to seven thousand
+characters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Legge, <i>The Chinese Classics</i> (1861-1872); A. Wylie, <i>Notes
+on Chinese Literature</i> (1867); E. Chavannes, <i>Mémoires historiques</i>
+(1895-1905); H.A. Giles, <i>Chuang Tz&#365;</i> (1889), <i>A Chinese Biographical
+Dictionary</i> (1898), and <i>A History of Chinese Literature</i> (1901); A.
+Forke, <i>Lun-Hêng</i> (1907); F. Hirth, <i>The Ancient History of China</i>
+(1908); L. Giles, <i>Sun Tz&#365;</i> (1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. A. GI.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1d" id="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> As to the origin of the names China and Cathay (the medieval
+name) see below § <i>History</i>. According to one theory the name
+China is of Malay origin, designating originally the region now called
+Indo-China, but transferred in early times to China proper. By the
+Chinese the country is often called <i>Shih-pa-shêng,</i> &ldquo;the Eighteen
+Provinces,&rdquo; from the number of its great territorial divisions. It
+is also called <i>Chung-kwo,</i> &ldquo;the Middle Kingdom,&rdquo; properly used of
+the central part of China, and <i>Hwa-kwo,</i> &ldquo;the Flowery Kingdom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2d" id="Footnote_2d" href="#FnAnchor_2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A Chinese mile, <i>li</i>, or <i>le</i> = 0.36 English mile.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3d" id="Footnote_3d" href="#FnAnchor_3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the Grand Canal the chief authority is Dominique Gandar,
+S.J., &ldquo;Le Canal Impérial. Étude historique et descriptive,&rdquo; <i>Variétés
+sinologiques</i> No. 4 (Shanghai, 1903); see also Stenz, &ldquo;Der Kaiserkanal,&rdquo;
+in <i>Beiträgen zur Kolonialpolitik</i>, Band v. (Berlin, 1903-1904),
+and the works of Ney Elias, Sir J.F. Davis, A. Williamson, E.H. Parker
+and W.R. Carles.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4d" id="Footnote_4d" href="#FnAnchor_4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Nevertheless there is considerable local traffic. The transit
+trade with Shan-tung, passing the Chin-kiang customs and using
+some 250 m. of the worst part of the canal, was valued in 1905 at
+3,331,000 taels.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5d" id="Footnote_5d" href="#FnAnchor_5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The portion of the wall which abutted on to the sea has been destroyed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6d" id="Footnote_6d" href="#FnAnchor_6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See the <i>Geog. Jnl.</i> (Feb. and March 1907). For a popular account
+of the wall, with numerous photographs, see <i>The Great Wall of
+China</i> (London, 1909), by W.E. Giel, who in 1908 followed its course
+from east to west. Consult also A. Williamson, <i>Journey in North
+China</i> (London, 1870); Martin, &ldquo;La Grande Muraille de la Chine,&rdquo;
+<i>Revue scientifique</i> (1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7d" id="Footnote_7d" href="#FnAnchor_7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For Shanghai the figures are compiled from twenty-six years&rsquo; observations.
+See <i>China Sea Directory</i>, vol. iii. (4th ed., 1904) p. 660.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8d" id="Footnote_8d" href="#FnAnchor_8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The thermometer registered 23° F. in January 1893, on the river
+28 m. below Canton. This is the lowest reading known. Ibid, pp. 104-105.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9d" id="Footnote_9d" href="#FnAnchor_9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See  W.W. Rockhill, <i>Inquiry  into  the  Population  of  China</i>
+(Washington, 1904).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10d" id="Footnote_10d" href="#FnAnchor_10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> For a bibliography of works relating to the aboriginal races of
+China see Richard&rsquo;s <i>Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire</i>
+(1908 ed.), pp. 371-373.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11d" id="Footnote_11d" href="#FnAnchor_11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Evidences of the social changes taking place in China are to be
+found in the strong movement for the education of girls, and in the
+formation of societies, under official patronage, to prevent the binding
+of women&rsquo;s feet.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12d" id="Footnote_12d" href="#FnAnchor_12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> It must be remembered that there is great variety in the
+costumes worn in the various provinces. The particulars here given
+are of the most general styles of dress.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13d" id="Footnote_13d" href="#FnAnchor_13d"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Richard&rsquo;s <i>Comprehensive Geography</i>, &amp;c. (1908 edition), pp. 340-341.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14d" id="Footnote_14d" href="#FnAnchor_14d"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Otherwise Abū Ja&lsquo;far Ibn Mahommed al-Mansūr (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>,
+C. § 2).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15d" id="Footnote_15d" href="#FnAnchor_15d"><span class="fn">15</span></a> For a summary of Chang Chih-tung&rsquo;s treatise, see <i>Changing
+China</i> (1910 edition), chap. xxii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16d" id="Footnote_16d" href="#FnAnchor_16d"><span class="fn">16</span></a> It was announced in June 1910 that the throne had approved
+a recommendation of the Board of Education that English should
+be the official language for scientific and technical education, and
+that the study of English should be compulsory in all provincial
+scientific and technical schools.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17d" id="Footnote_17d" href="#FnAnchor_17d"><span class="fn">17</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 19th of February and the 3rd of May 1910.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18d" id="Footnote_18d" href="#FnAnchor_18d"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Another peculiarity of loess in China is that it lends itself
+readily to the excavation of dwellings for the people. In many
+places whole villages live in cave dwellings dug out in the vertical
+wall of loess. They construct spiral staircases, selecting places
+where the ground is firm, and excavate endless chambers and
+recesses which are said to be very comfortable and salubrious.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19d" id="Footnote_19d" href="#FnAnchor_19d"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See J. Edkins, <i>The Poppy in China</i>, and H.B. Morse, <i>The Trade
+and Administration of the Chinese Empire</i>, chap. xi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20d" id="Footnote_20d" href="#FnAnchor_20d"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Richard&rsquo;s <i>Comprehensive Geography, &amp;c.</i> (1908 edition), p. 144.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21d" id="Footnote_21d" href="#FnAnchor_21d"><span class="fn">21</span></a> In the 18th century foreign trade was restricted to Canton.
+In the 17th century, however, the Dutch traded to Formosa and
+Amoy, and the English to Amoy also. The Portuguese traded with
+Canton as early as 1517. For the early intercourse between Portugal
+and China see the introductory chapter in Donald Ferguson&rsquo;s
+<i>Letters from Portuguese Captives in Canton</i> (Bombay, 1902).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22d" id="Footnote_22d" href="#FnAnchor_22d"><span class="fn">22</span></a> From <i>The Statesman&rsquo;s Year Book</i>, 1910 edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23d" id="Footnote_23d" href="#FnAnchor_23d"><span class="fn">23</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 28th of March 1910.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24d" id="Footnote_24d" href="#FnAnchor_24d"><span class="fn">24</span></a> See Morse, <i>op. cit.</i> chap. x.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25d" id="Footnote_25d" href="#FnAnchor_25d"><span class="fn">25</span></a> The maritime customs had  established a postal service for its
+own convenience in 1861, and it first gave facilities to the general
+public in 1876. An organized service for the conveyance of government
+despatches has existed in China for many centuries, and the
+commercial classes maintain at their own expense a system (&ldquo;letter
+hongs&rdquo;) for the transmission of correspondence.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26d" id="Footnote_26d" href="#FnAnchor_26d"><span class="fn">26</span></a> For the causes leading to this movement and the progress of
+reform see § <i>History</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27d" id="Footnote_27d" href="#FnAnchor_27d"><span class="fn">27</span></a> For recent authoritative accounts of the government of China
+see H.B. Morse, <i>The Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire</i>,
+chap. iii.; Richard&rsquo;s <i>Comprehensive Geography</i>, &amp;c., Bk. I. § v., and
+<i>The Statesman&rsquo;s Year Book</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28d" id="Footnote_28d" href="#FnAnchor_28d"><span class="fn">28</span></a> The empress-consort is chosen by the emperor from a number
+of girls selected by his ministers from the families of Manchu nobles.
+From the same candidates the emperor also selects secondary-empresses
+(usually not more than four). Concubines, not limited in
+number, are chosen from the daughters of Manchu nobles and free-men.
+All the children are equally legitimate.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29d" id="Footnote_29d" href="#FnAnchor_29d"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Recent emperors have been children at accession and have been
+kept in seclusion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30d" id="Footnote_30d" href="#FnAnchor_30d"><span class="fn">30</span></a> See &ldquo;Democratic China&rdquo; in H.A. Giles, <i>China and the Chinese</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31d" id="Footnote_31d" href="#FnAnchor_31d"><span class="fn">31</span></a> W.F. Mayers, <i>The Chinese Government</i> (1878).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32d" id="Footnote_32d" href="#FnAnchor_32d"><span class="fn">32</span></a> This body is superseded by the Imperial Senate summoned to
+meet for the first time on the 3rd of October 1910.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33d" id="Footnote_33d" href="#FnAnchor_33d"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Yamên is the name given to the residences of all high officials.
+Tsung-li Yamên = the bureau for managing each (foreign) kingdom&rsquo;s
+affairs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34d" id="Footnote_34d" href="#FnAnchor_34d"><span class="fn">34</span></a> An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a naval and military
+advisory board. Up to that time the navy was controlled by the
+viceroys at Canton, Nanking, Fu-chow and Tientsin; the viceroys
+at Canton and Tientsin being ministers superintendent of the
+southern and northern ports respectively.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35d" id="Footnote_35d" href="#FnAnchor_35d"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Thus in 1910 Prince Ching, president of the grand council, was,
+for the third time, impeached by censors, being denounced as an
+&ldquo;old treacherous minister,&rdquo; who filled the public service with a
+crowd of men as unworthy as himself. The censor who made the
+charge was stripped of his office (see <i>The Times</i> of the 30th of March
+1910).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36d" id="Footnote_36d" href="#FnAnchor_36d"><span class="fn">36</span></a> For details of local government see Richard&rsquo;s <i>Comprehensive
+Geography</i>, 1908 edition, pp. 301 et seq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_37d" id="Footnote_37d" href="#FnAnchor_37d"><span class="fn">37</span></a> Morse, op. cit., 1908 edition, p. 76</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_38d" id="Footnote_38d" href="#FnAnchor_38d"><span class="fn">38</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 28th of February 1910.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39d" id="Footnote_39d" href="#FnAnchor_39d"><span class="fn">39</span></a> See <i>The Statesman&rsquo;s Year-Book</i> (1910 edition).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_40d" id="Footnote_40d" href="#FnAnchor_40d"><span class="fn">40</span></a> A few of the old native customs stations, which are deemed
+perquisites of the imperial court, may also be excepted, as, for
+instance, the native custom-house at Canton, Hwei Kwan on the
+Grand Canal, and various stations in the neighbourhood of Peking.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41d" id="Footnote_41d" href="#FnAnchor_41d"><span class="fn">41</span></a> The production of a budget in 1915 was promised in one of the
+reform edicts of 1908.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42d" id="Footnote_42d" href="#FnAnchor_42d"><span class="fn">42</span></a> In this article the tael used as a standard is the Haikwan (<i>i.e.</i>
+customs) tael, worth about 3s. It fluctuates with the value of silver.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_43d" id="Footnote_43d" href="#FnAnchor_43d"><span class="fn">43</span></a> Roughly £43,000,000.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_44d" id="Footnote_44d" href="#FnAnchor_44d"><span class="fn">44</span></a> <i>Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire</i> (1910), p. 118.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_45d" id="Footnote_45d" href="#FnAnchor_45d"><span class="fn">45</span></a> Temporary reductions are granted in provinces affected by
+rebellion, drought or flood.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_46d" id="Footnote_46d" href="#FnAnchor_46d"><span class="fn">46</span></a> Information as to what extent the expenses of the new army
+and navy are met by the central government is lacking.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_47d" id="Footnote_47d" href="#FnAnchor_47d"><span class="fn">47</span></a> To meet the expenditure on interest and redemption of the
+indemnities for the Boxer outrages the Peking government required
+the provincial authorities to increase their annual remittances by
+taels 18,700,000 during the years 1902-1910.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_48d" id="Footnote_48d" href="#FnAnchor_48d"><span class="fn">48</span></a> It must be remembered that the Haikwan tael is here indicated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_49d" id="Footnote_49d" href="#FnAnchor_49d"><span class="fn">49</span></a> See Morse&rsquo;s <i>Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire</i>,
+chap. ix.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_50d" id="Footnote_50d" href="#FnAnchor_50d"><span class="fn">50</span></a> A supplementary exchange of notes of the same date excepted
+from the scope of this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang
+extension which had already been conceded to the Hongkong &amp;
+Shanghai Bank.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_51d" id="Footnote_51d" href="#FnAnchor_51d"><span class="fn">51</span></a> The religious aspect of the Boxer movement gave it strength.
+Its disciples believed that the spirits which defended China were
+incensed by the introduction of Western methods and ideals. Many
+of them believed themselves to be invulnerable to any Western
+weapon. (See Lord W. Cecil, <i>Changing China</i>, 1910, ch. i.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_52d" id="Footnote_52d" href="#FnAnchor_52d"><span class="fn">52</span></a> The diary of a Manchu noble printed in <i>China under the
+Empress Dowager</i> (1910) by J.O. Bland and E. Backhouse throws
+light on the subject. It was to Jung-Lu, father-in-law of Prince
+Chin, that the legations owed their escape from extermination.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_53d" id="Footnote_53d" href="#FnAnchor_53d"><span class="fn">53</span></a> It was at this time (July 17th) that the intense anxiety of the
+civilized world with regard to the fate of the besieged reached its
+culminating point. Circumstantial accounts of the fall of the legations
+and the massacre of their inmates were circulated in Shanghai
+and found general credence. It was not till near the end of the
+month that an authentic message from the American minister
+proved these fears to be premature.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_54d" id="Footnote_54d" href="#FnAnchor_54d"><span class="fn">54</span></a> In negotiating this agreement Lord Salisbury appears to have
+been largely influenced by the aggressive features of Russia&rsquo;s action
+in North China, while Germany appears to have been actuated by a
+desire to forestall isolated action by Great Britain in the Yangtsze
+basin. In Germany the agreement was known as the Yangtsze
+Agreement. Great Britain held, however, that it applied equally to
+Manchuria.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_55d" id="Footnote_55d" href="#FnAnchor_55d"><span class="fn">55</span></a> Liu Kun-yi died in 1902. In the same year died Tao-mu, the
+viceroy of Canton. In these men China lost two of her most capable
+and enlightened officials.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_56d" id="Footnote_56d" href="#FnAnchor_56d"><span class="fn">56</span></a> Prince Chun was born in 1882. He was the first member of the
+imperial family to be sent on a foreign mission.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_57d" id="Footnote_57d" href="#FnAnchor_57d"><span class="fn">57</span></a> Tung Fu-hsiang died in 1908. A sum of some £80,000 belonging
+to him, and left in the provincial treasury, was appropriated for works
+of public utility (see <i>The Times</i>, April 9th, 1910).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_58d" id="Footnote_58d" href="#FnAnchor_58d"><span class="fn">58</span></a> Lord W. Cecil, op. cit. p. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_59d" id="Footnote_59d" href="#FnAnchor_59d"><span class="fn">59</span></a> This institution was nominally a private concern which financed
+the Manchurian railway, but it acted as part of the Russian government
+machinery. The existence of the contract of the 27th of
+August 1896 was frequently denied until expressly admitted by the
+Russo-Chinese agreement of the 8th of April 1902.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_60d" id="Footnote_60d" href="#FnAnchor_60d"><span class="fn">60</span></a> On the 8th of October the Russian troops had been withdrawn
+from Mukden, but they reoccupied the town on the 28th of the
+same month, Admiral Alexeiev, the viceroy of the Far East, alleging
+that the inertia of the Chinese officials seriously hindered the work of
+extending civilization in Manchuria.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_61d" id="Footnote_61d" href="#FnAnchor_61d"><span class="fn">61</span></a> The form of outrage, probably the first of its kind in China,
+was itself a symptom of the changed times. The bomb injured
+Prince Tsai Tse and another commissioner, and the departure of the
+commission was consequently delayed some months.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_62d" id="Footnote_62d" href="#FnAnchor_62d"><span class="fn">62</span></a> In 1907 further commissions were appointed, on the initiative
+of Yuan Shih-kai, to study specifically the constitutions of Great
+Britain, Germany and Japan.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_63d" id="Footnote_63d" href="#FnAnchor_63d"><span class="fn">63</span></a> This department was organized at Shanghai in 1854. The
+Taiping rebels being in possession of the native city, the collection
+of customs dues, especially on foreign ships, was placed in the hands
+of foreigners. This developed into a permanent institution, the
+European staff being mainly British.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_64d" id="Footnote_64d" href="#FnAnchor_64d"><span class="fn">64</span></a> The British official view, as stated in parliament on the 27th  of
+April 1910, was that the changes resulting from the creation of the
+Board of Control had, so far, been purely departmental changes of
+form, and that the position of the inspector-general remained
+unaltered.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_65d" id="Footnote_65d" href="#FnAnchor_65d"><span class="fn">65</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 21st of April and 11th of May 1910.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_66d" id="Footnote_66d" href="#FnAnchor_66d"><span class="fn">66</span></a> A chest contained from 135 &#8468; to 160 lb.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_67d" id="Footnote_67d" href="#FnAnchor_67d"><span class="fn">67</span></a> A picul = 133&frac12; lb.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_68d" id="Footnote_68d" href="#FnAnchor_68d"><span class="fn">68</span></a> <i>Changing China</i>, p. 118.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_69d" id="Footnote_69d" href="#FnAnchor_69d"><span class="fn">69</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of 7th and 8th of March and 8th of April 1910.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_70d" id="Footnote_70d" href="#FnAnchor_70d"><span class="fn">70</span></a> The first recorded importation of morphia into China was in
+1892, and it is suggested that it was first used as an anti-opium
+medicine. Morphia-taking, however, speedily became a vice, and
+in 1902 over 195,000 oz. of morphia were imported (enough for some
+300,000,000 injections). To check the evil the Chinese government
+during 1903 imposed a tax of about 200% <i>ad valorem</i>, with the result
+that the imports declared to the customs fell in 1905 to 54 oz. only.
+The falling off was explained &ldquo;not by a diminished demand, but
+by smuggling&rdquo; (Morse&rsquo;s <i>Trade and Administration of the Chinese
+Empire</i>, p. 351).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_71d" id="Footnote_71d" href="#FnAnchor_71d"><span class="fn">71</span></a> A regulation by the ministry of education, dated the 14th of
+January 1910, ordered that no girl should be admitted to school
+dressed in foreign clothes or with unnatural (<i>i.e.</i> bound) feet.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_72d" id="Footnote_72d" href="#FnAnchor_72d"><span class="fn">72</span></a> For the growth of the education movement see <i>The Times</i>, 4th
+of September 1909.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_73d" id="Footnote_73d" href="#FnAnchor_73d"><span class="fn">73</span></a> The Dalai Lama left Peking in December 1908 on his return
+to Lhassa, which he reached in November 1909. Differences had
+arisen between him and the Chinese government, which sought to
+make the spiritual as well as the temporal power of the Dalai Lama
+dependent on his recognition by the emperor of China. Early in
+1910 the Dalai Lama, in consequence of the action of the Chinese
+amban in Lhassa, fled from that city and sought refuge in India.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_74d" id="Footnote_74d" href="#FnAnchor_74d"><span class="fn">74</span></a> Chang Chih-tung died in October 1909. He was a man of considerable
+ability, and one whose honesty and loyalty had never
+been doubted. He was noted as an opponent of opium smoking,
+and for over thirty years had addressed memorials to the throne
+against the use of the drug.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_75d" id="Footnote_75d" href="#FnAnchor_75d"><span class="fn">75</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 7th of September 1909.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_76d" id="Footnote_76d" href="#FnAnchor_76d"><span class="fn">76</span></a> Proposals made early in 1910 by the American secretary of state
+for the neutralization of the Manchurian railway received no support.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_77d" id="Footnote_77d" href="#FnAnchor_77d"><span class="fn">77</span></a> By a convention signed on July 4th, 1910, Russia and Japan
+agreed to &ldquo;maintain and respect&rdquo; the <i>status quo</i> in Manchuria.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_78d" id="Footnote_78d" href="#FnAnchor_78d"><span class="fn">78</span></a> See the <i>Quinzaine coloniale</i> of the 10th of December 1909.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_79d" id="Footnote_79d" href="#FnAnchor_79d"><span class="fn">79</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 20th of January 1910.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_80d" id="Footnote_80d" href="#FnAnchor_80d"><span class="fn">80</span></a> See for the prospects of reform <i>The Times</i> of 30th May 1910.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_81d" id="Footnote_81d" href="#FnAnchor_81d"><span class="fn">81</span></a> <i>La Sculpture sur pierre en Chine ait temps des deux dynasties Han</i>
+(Paris, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINA<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span>, the common name for ware made of porcelain, given
+because it came from China, where the first vitrified, translucent,
+white ware was produced. The Portuguese or Italians gave it
+the name of &ldquo;porcelain&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). English usage was influenced
+by India and the East, where the Persian <i>chīnī</i> was widely
+prevalent as the name of the ware. This is seen also in some
+of the earlier forms and pronunciations, <i>e.g.</i> <i>chiney</i>, <i>cheney</i>, and
+later <i>chaney</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>; and for &ldquo;china-clay&rdquo; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaolin</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINANDEGA<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chinendega</span>, the capital of the department
+of Chinandega in western Nicaragua, 10 m. N.N.E. of the seaport
+of Corinto by the Corinto-Managua railway. Pop. (1900) about
+12,000. Chinandega is the centre of a fertile corn-producing
+district, and has a large transit trade owing to its excellent situation
+on the chief Nicaraguan railway. Its manufactures include
+coarse cloth, pottery and Indian feather ornaments. Cotton,
+sugar-cane and bananas are cultivated in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHI-NAN FU<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span>, the capital of Shan-tung, China, in 36° 40&prime; N.,
+117° 1&prime; E. Pop. about 100,000. It is situated in one of the
+earliest settled districts of the Chinese empire. The city,
+which lies in the valley of the present channel of the Yellow
+river (Hwang-Ho), and about 4 m. south of the river, is
+surrounded by a triple line of defence. First is the city wall,
+strongly built and carefully guarded, outside this a granite wall,
+and beyond this again a mud rampart. Three springs outside
+the west gate throw up streams of tepid water to a height of
+about 2 ft. This water, which is highly prized for its healing
+qualities, fills the moat and forms a fine lake in the northern
+quarter of the city.</p>
+
+<p>Chi-nan Fu was formerly famous for its manufacture of silks
+and of imitation precious stones. It is now the chief commercial
+entrepôt of Western Shan-tung but no longer a manufacturing
+centre. A highway connects it with the Yellow river, and it is
+joined by a railway 280 m. long to Kiaochow. The city has a
+university for instruction on Western lines, and an efficient
+military school. American Presbyterians began mission work
+in the city in 1873; it is also the see of a Roman Catholic
+bishop.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINCHA ISLANDS<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span>, three small islands in the Pacific Ocean,
+about 12 m. from the coast of Peru (to which country they
+belong), opposite the town of Pisco, and 106 m. distant from
+Callao, in 13° 38&prime; S., 76° 28&prime; W. The largest of the group,
+known as the North Island or Isla del Norte, is only four-fifths
+of a mile in length, and about a third in breadth. They are of
+granitic formation, and rise from the sea in precipitous cliffs,
+worn into countless caves and hollows, which furnish convenient
+resting-places for the sea-fowl. Their highest points attain an
+elevation of 113 ft. The islands have yielded a few remains of
+the Chincha Indian race. They were formerly noted for
+vast deposits of guano, and its export was begun by the Peruvian
+government in 1840. The supply, however, was exhausted in
+1874. In 1853-1854 the Chincha Islands were the chief object in
+a contest known as the Guano War between President Echenique
+and General Castilla; and in April 1864 they were seized by the
+Spanish rear-admiral Pinzon in order to bring the Peruvian
+government to apologize for its treatment of Spanish immigrants.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINCHEW<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span>, or CHINCHU, the name usually given in English
+charts to an ancient and famous port of China in the province
+of Fu-kien, of which the Chinese name is <i>Ch&lsquo;üanchow-fu</i> or
+<i>Ts&lsquo;üanchow-fu</i>. It stands in 24° 57&prime; N., 118° 35&prime; E. The walls
+have a circuit of 7 or 8 m., but embrace much vacant ground.
+The chief exports are tea and sugar, tobacco, china-ware, nankeens,
+&amp;c. There are remains of a fine mosque, founded by the
+Arab traders who resorted thither. The English Presbyterian
+Mission has had a chapel in the city since about 1862. Beyond
+the northern branch of the Min (several miles from the city)
+there is a suburb called Loyang, approached by the most
+celebrated bridge in China.</p>
+
+<p>Ch&lsquo;üanchow, owing to the obstruction of its harbour by sand
+banks, has been supplanted as a port by Amoy, and its trade is
+carried on through the port of Nganhai. It is still, however, a
+large and populous city. It was in the middle ages the great port
+of Western trade with China, and was known to the Arabs and to
+Europeans as <i>Zaitūn</i> or <i>Zayton</i>, the name under which it appears in
+Abulfeda&rsquo;s geography and in the Mongol history of Rashīddudīn,
+as well as in Ibn Batuta, Marco Polo and other medieval travellers.
+Some argument has been alleged against the identity of Zayton
+with Ch&lsquo;üanchow, and in favour of its being rather Changchow
+(a great city 60 m. W.S.W. of Ch&lsquo;üanchow), or a port on the river
+of Changchow near Amoy. &ldquo;Port of Zayton&rdquo; may have
+embraced the great basin called Amoy Harbour, the chief part
+of which lies within the <i>Fu</i> or department of Ch&lsquo;üanchow; but
+there is hardly room for doubt that the Zayton of Marco Polo and
+Abulfeda was the Ch&lsquo;üanchow of the Chinese. Ibn Batuta informs
+us that a rich silk texture made here was called <i>Zaitūniya</i>;
+and there can be little doubt that this is the real origin of the
+word &ldquo;Satin,&rdquo; <i>Zettani</i> in medieval Italian, <i>Aceytuni</i> in Spanish.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINCHILLA<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span>, a small grey hopping rodent mammal (<i>Chinchilla
+lanigera</i>), of the approximate size of a squirrel, inhabiting
+the eastern slopes of the Andes in Chile and Bolivia, at altitudes
+between 8000 and 12,000 ft. It typifies not only the genus
+<i>Chinchilla</i>, but the family <i>Chinchillidae</i>, for the distinctive
+features of which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodentia</a></span>. The ordinary chinchilla is
+about 10 in. in length, exclusive of the long tail, and in the form
+of its head somewhat resembles a rabbit. It is covered with a
+dense soft fur ¾ in. long on the back and upwards of an inch in
+length on the sides, of a delicate French grey colour, darkly
+mottled on the upper surf ace and dusky white beneath; the ears
+being long, broad and thinly covered with hair. Chinchillas
+live in burrows, and these subterranean dwellings undermine
+the ground in some parts of the Chilean Andes to such an extent
+as to cause danger to travellers on horseback. They associate
+in communities, forming their burrows among loose rocks, and
+coming out to feed in the early morning and towards sunset.
+They feed chiefly on roots and grasses, in search of which they
+often travel considerable distances; and when eating they sit on
+their haunches, holding their food in their fore-paws. The
+Indians in hunting them employ the grison (<i>Galictis vittata</i>), a
+member of the weasel family, which is trained to enter the
+crevices of the rocks where the chinchillas lie concealed during
+the day. The fur (<i>q.v.</i>) of this rodent was prized by the ancient
+Peruvians, who made coverlets and other articles with the skin,
+and at the present day the skins are exported in large numbers
+to Europe, where they are made into muffs, tippets and trimmings.
+That chinchillas have not under such circumstances
+become rare, if not extinct, is owing to their extraordinary
+fecundity, the female usually producing five or six young twice
+a year. They are docile in disposition, and thus well fitted for
+domestication. The Peruvian chinchilla (<i>C. brevicaudata</i>) is
+larger, with relatively shorter ears and tail; while still larger
+species constitute the genus <i>Lagidium</i>, ranging from the Andes
+to Patagonia, and distinguished by having four in place of five
+front-toes, more pointed ears, and a somewhat differently formed
+skull. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Viscacha</a></span>).</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINDE<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span>, a town of Portuguese East Africa, chief port for the
+Zambezi valley and British Central Africa, at the mouth of the
+Chinde branch of the Zambezi, in 18° 40&prime; S., 36° 30&prime; E. Pop.
+(1907) 2790, of whom 218 were Europeans. Large steamers are
+unable to cross the bar, over which the depth of water varies from
+10 to 18 ft. Chinde owes its existence to the discovery in 1889
+that the branch of the river on the banks of which it is built is
+navigable from the ocean (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zambezi</a></span>). The Portuguese in
+1891 granted on lease for 99 years an area of 5 acres&mdash;subsequently
+increased to 25&mdash;to the British government, on which
+goods in transit to British possessions could be stored duty
+free. This block of land is known as the British Concession, or
+British Chinde. The prosperity of the town largely depends
+on the transit trade with Nyasaland and North East Rhodesia.
+There is also a considerable export from Portuguese districts,
+sugar, cotton and ground nuts being largely cultivated in the
+Zambezi valley, and gold and copper mines worked.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINDWIN<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>, a river of Burma, the largest tributary of the
+Irrawaddy, its entire course being in Burmese territory. It is
+called Ningthi by the Manipuris. The Chindwin is formed by the
+junction of the Tanai, the Tawan and the Tarôn or Turông,
+but it is still uncertain which is the main stream. The Tanai
+has hitherto been looked on as the chief source. It rises in about
+25° 30&prime; N. and 97° E., on the Shwedaung-gyi peak of the Kumôn
+range, 12 m. N. of Mogaung, and flows due N. for the first part
+of its course until it reaches the Hukawng valley, when it turns
+to the W. and flows through the middle of the plain to the end
+of the valley proper. There it curves round to the S., passes
+through the Tarôn or Turông valley, takes the name of the
+Chindwin, and maintains a general southerly course until it
+enters the Irrawaddy, after flowing through the entire length
+of the Upper and Lower Chindwin districts, in about 21° 30&prime; N.
+and 95° 15&prime; E. Its extreme outlets are 22 m. apart, the interval
+forming a succession of long, low, partially populated islands.
+The most southerly mouth of the Chindwin is, according to
+tradition, an artificial channel, cut by one of the kings of Pag&#257;n.
+It was choked up for many centuries until in 1824 it was opened
+out by an exceptional flood. The Tanai (it is frequently called
+Tanaikha, but <i>kha</i> is merely the Kachin word for river), as long
+as it retains that name, is a swift, clear river, from 50 to 300 yds.
+wide and from 3 to 15 ft. deep. The river is navigated by native
+boats in the Hukawng valley, but launches cannot come up
+from the Chindwin proper because of the reefs below Taro.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Tarôn, Turông or Towang river seems to be the real main
+source of the Chindwin. It flows into the Hukawng valley from the
+north, and has a swift current with a succession of rapids. Its sources
+are in the hills to the south of Sadiya, rising from 10,000 to 11,000 ft.
+above sea-level. It flows through a deep valley, with a general E.
+and W. direction, as far as its junction with the Loglai. It then
+turns S., and after draining an intricate system of hills, breaks into
+the Hukawng valley a few miles N. of Saraw, and joins or receives
+the Tanai about 10 m. above Kintaw village. Except the Tanai,
+the chief branches of the Upper Chindwin rise in mountains that are
+covered at least with winter snows. Below the Hukawng valley the
+Chindwin is interrupted at several places by fails or transverse reefs.
+At the village of Haksa there is a fall, which necessitates transhipment
+from large boats to canoes. Not far below this the Uyu river
+comes in on the left bank at Homalin, and from this point downwards
+the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company ply for the
+greater part of the year. The Uyu flows through a fertile and well-cultivated
+valley, and during the rainy season it is navigable for a
+distance of 150 m. from its mouth by steamers of light draught.
+Ordinarily regular steam communication with Homalin ceases in
+the dry weather, but from Kindat, nearly 150 m. below it, there are
+weekly steamers all the year round. Below Kindat the only considerable
+affluent of the Chindwin is the Myit-tha, which receives
+the Chin hills drainage. The Chindwin rises considerably during the
+rains, but in March and April it is here and there so shallow as to
+make navigation difficult even for small steam launches. Whirlpools
+and narrows and shifting sandbanks also give some trouble, but
+much has been done to improve navigation since the British annexation.
+Kindat, the headquarters of the Upper Chindwin district, and
+Mônywa of the Lower, are on the banks of the river.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. SC.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINDWIN, UPPER<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> and <span class="bold">LOWER</span>, two districts in the
+Sagaing division of Upper Burma. Upper Chindwin has an
+area of 19,062 sq. m., and a population, according to the census
+of 1901, of 154,551. Lower Chindwin has an area of 3480 sq. m.,
+and a population of 276,383. Upper Chindwin lies to the north
+of the lower district, and is bounded on the N. by the Chin, N&#257;ga
+and Kachin hills; on the E. they are bounded by the Myitkyina,
+Katha and Shwebo districts; Lower Chindwin is bounded on
+the S. by the Pakôkku and Sagaing districts; and both districts
+are bounded on the W. by the Chin hills, and by Pakôkku on
+the southern stretch. The western portion of both districts is
+hilly, and the greater part of Upper Chindwin is of the same
+character. Both have valuable teak forests. The total rainfall
+averages in Lower Chindwin 27 and in Upper Chindwin 60 in.
+Coal exists in extensive fields, but these are not very accessible.
+Rice forms the great crop, but a certain amount of til-seed and
+of indigo is also cultivated. Kindat, a mere village, is the headquarters
+of the upper district, and Mônywa, with a population
+of 7869, of the lower. Both are on the Chindwin river, and are
+served by the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. Alôn,
+close to Mônywa, and formerly the headquarters, is the terminus
+of the railway from Sagaing westwards, which was opened in 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINESE PAVILLON<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Turkish Crescent, Turkish Jingle</span>,
+or <span class="sc">Jingling Johnny</span> (Fr. <i>chapeau chinois</i>; Ger. <i>türkischer
+Halbmond, Schellenbaum</i>; Ital. <i>cappello chinese</i>), an instrument
+of percussion of indefinite sonorousness, <i>i.e.</i> not producing definite
+musical tones. The <i>chapeau chinois</i> was formerly an adjunct
+in military bands, but never in the orchestra, where an instrument
+of somewhat similar shape, often confused with it and
+known as the <i>Glockenspiel</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), is occasionally called into
+requisition. The Chinese pavilion consists of a pole about 6 ft.
+high terminating in a conical metal cap or pavilion, hung with
+small jingling bells and surmounted by a crescent and a star.
+Below this pavilion are two or more metal bands forming a
+fanciful double crescent or squat lyre, likewise furnished with
+tiny bells. The two points of the crescent are curved over,
+ending in fanciful animal heads from whose mouths hang low
+streaming tails of horse-hair. The Chinese pavilion is played by
+shaking or waving the pole up and down and jingling the bells, a
+movement which can at best be but a slow one repeated once or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span>
+at most twice in a bar to punctuate the phrases and add brilliancy
+to the military music. The Turkish crescent or &ldquo;jingling Johnny,&rdquo;
+as it was familiarly called in the British army bands, was introduced
+by the Janissaries into western Europe. It has fallen into
+disuse now, having been replaced by the glockenspiel or steel
+harmonica. Edinburgh University possesses two specimens.<a name="FnAnchor_1e" id="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+In the 18th century at Bartholomew Fair one of the chief bands
+hired was one well known as playing in London on winter
+evenings in front of the Spring-Garden coffee house and opposite
+Wigley&rsquo;s. This band consisted of a double drum, a Dutch organ
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barrel-organ</a></span>), a tambourine, a violin, pipes and the
+Turkish jingle.<a name="FnAnchor_2e" id="FnAnchor_2e" href="#Footnote_2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1e" id="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Captain C.R. Day, <i>Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments</i>
+(London, 1891), p. 233.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2e" id="Footnote_2e" href="#FnAnchor_2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Hone&rsquo;s <i>Everyday Book</i>, i. 1248.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINGFORD<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span>, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary
+division of Essex, England, 10&frac12; m. N. of London (Liverpool
+Street station) by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4373.
+It lies between the river Lea and the western outskirts of Epping
+Forest. The church of All Saints has Early English and Perpendicular
+remains. Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s or Fair Mead hunting
+lodge, a picturesque half-timbered building, is preserved under
+the Epping Forest Preservation Act. A majestic oak, one of
+the finest trees in the Forest, stands near it. Buckhurst Hill
+(an urban district; pop. 4786) lies to the N.E.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINGLEPUT<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chengalpat</span>, a town and district of British
+India, in the Madras presidency. The town, situated 36 m. by
+rail from Madras, had a population in 1901 of 10,551. With
+Chandragiri in North Arcot, Chingleput was once the capital of
+the Vijayanagar kings, after their overthrow by the Mussulmans
+at Talikota in 1565. In 1639 a chief, subject to these kings,
+granted to the East India Company the land on which Fort St
+George now stands. The fort built by the Vijayanagar kings in
+the 16th century was of strategic importance, owing to its
+swampy surroundings and the lake that flanked its side. It was
+taken by the French in 1751, and was retaken in 1752 by Clive,
+after which it proved invaluable to the British, especially when
+Lally in his advance on Madras left it unreduced in his rear.
+During the wars of the British with Hyder Ali it withstood his
+power, and afforded a refuge to the natives; and in 1780, after
+the defeat of Colonel W. Baillie, the army of Sir Hector Munro
+here found refuge. The town is noted for its manufacture of
+pottery, and carries on a trade in rice.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Chingleput</span> surrounds the city of Madras,
+stretching along the coast for about 115 m. The administrative
+headquarters are at Saidapet. Area, 3079 sq. m. Pop. (1901)
+1,312,122, showing an increase of 9% in the decade. Salt is
+extensively manufactured all along the coast. Cotton and silk
+weaving is also largely carried on, and there are numerous indigo
+vats, tanneries and an English cigar factory.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIN HILLS<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span>, a mountainous district of Upper Burma. It lies
+on the border between the Lushai districts of Eastern Bengal and
+Assam and the plains of Burma, and has an area of 8000 sq. m.
+It is bounded N. by Assam and Manipur, S. by Arakan, E. by
+Burma, and W. by Tippera and the Chittagong hill tracts. The
+Chins, Lushais and Kukis are to the north-east border of India
+what the Pathan tribes are to the north-west frontier. In 1895
+the Chin Hills were declared a part of the province of Burma,
+and constituted a scheduled district which is now administered
+by a political officer with headquarters at Falam. The tract
+forms a parallelogram 250 m. from N. to S. by 100 to 150 m. wide.
+The country consists of a much broken and contorted mass of
+mountains, intersected by deep valleys. The main ranges run
+generally N. to S., and vary in height from 5000 to 9000 ft.,
+among the most important being the Letha or Tang, which is
+the watershed between the Chindwin and Manipur rivers; the
+Imbukklang, which divides the Sokte tribe from the Whenchs
+and sheds the water from its eastern slopes into Upper Burma
+and that from its western slopes into Arakan; and the Rong-klang,
+which with its prolongations is the main watershed of the
+southern hills, its eastern slopes draining into the Myittha and
+thus into the Chindwin, while the western fall drains into the
+Boinu river, which winding through the hills discharges itself
+eventually in the Bay of Bengal. The highest peak yet discovered
+is the Liklang, between Rawywa and Lungno, some 70 m.
+S. of Haka (nearly 10,000 ft.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It is supposed that the Kukis of Manipur, the Lushais of Bengal
+and Assam, and the Chins originally lived in Tibet and are of the same
+stock; their form of government, method of cultivation, manners
+and customs, beliefs and traditions all point to one origin. The slow
+speech, the serious manner, the respect for birth and the knowledge
+of pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous
+method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the
+clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body,
+mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of
+combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy
+discouragement and panic in defeat, are common traits. The Chins,
+Lushais and Kukis were noted for the secrecy of their plans, the
+suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed in retreating
+to their fastnesses. After committing a raid they have been known
+to march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a
+meal or sleeping, so as to escape from any parties which might follow
+them. The British, since the occupation of Upper Burma, have been
+able to penetrate the Chin-Lushai country from both sides at once.
+The pacification of the Chin Hills is a triumph for British administration.
+Roads, on which Chin coolies now readily work, have been constructed
+in all directions. The rivers have been bridged; the people
+have taken up the cultivation of English vegetables, and the indigenous
+districts have been largely developed. The Chin Hills had a
+population (1901 census) of 87,189, while the Chins in Burma totalled
+179,292. The Pakôkku Chin Hills, which form a separate tract, have
+an area of 2260 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 13,116.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. SC.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINKIANG<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chen-Kiang-fu</span>, a treaty port of China, in
+the province of Kiang-su, on the Yangtsze-kiang above Shanghai,
+from which it is distant 160 m. It is in railway communication
+both with Shanghai and Nanking (40 m. distant), and being at
+the point where the Grand Canal running N. and S. intersects
+the Yangtsze, which runs E. and W., is peculiarly well situated
+to be a commercial entrepôt. The total value of exports and
+imports for 1904 was £4,632,992; estimated pop. 168,000. In the
+war of 1842 it yielded to the British only after a desperate
+resistance. It was laid waste by the T&lsquo;aip&lsquo;ing rebels in 1853,
+and was recaptured by the imperial forces in 1858.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINO-JAPANESE WAR<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1894-95). The causes of this
+conflict arose out of the immemorial rivalry of China and Japan
+for influence in Korea. In the 16th century a prolonged war in
+the peninsula had ended with the failure of Japan to make good
+her footing on the mainland&mdash;a failure brought about largely by
+lack of naval resources. In more modern times (1875, 1882, 1884)
+Japan had repeatedly sent expeditions to Korea, and had fostered
+the growth of a progressive party in Seoul. The difficulties of
+1884 were settled between China and Japan by the convention of
+Tientsin, wherein it was agreed that in the event of future
+intervention each should inform the other if it were decided to
+despatch troops to the peninsula. Nine years later the occasion
+arose. A serious rebellion induced the Korean government to
+apply for military assistance from China. Early in June 1894
+a small force of Chinese troops were sent to Asan, and Japan,
+duly informed of this action, replied by furnishing her minister
+at Seoul with an escort, rapidly following up this step by the
+despatch of about 5000 troops under Major-General Oshima.
+A complicated situation thus arose. Chinese troops were present
+in Korea by the request of the government to put down rebellion.
+The Japanese controlled the capital, and declined to recognize
+Korea as a tributary of China. But she proposed that the
+two powers should unite to suppress the disturbance and to
+inaugurate certain specified reforms. China considered that the
+measures of reform must be left to Korea herself. The reply was
+that Japan considered the government of Korea &ldquo;lacking in
+some of the elements which are essential to responsible independence.&rdquo;
+By the middle of July war had become inevitable
+unless the Peking government were willing to abandon all claims
+over Korea, and as Chinese troops were already in the country by
+invitation, it was not to be expected that the shadowy suzerainty
+would be abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>At Seoul the issue was forced by the Japanese minister, who
+delivered an ultimatum to the Korean government on the 20th of
+July. On the 23rd the palace was forcibly occupied. Meanwhile
+China had despatched about 8000 troops to the Yalu river.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span>
+The outbreak of war thus found the Japanese in possession of
+Seoul and ready to send large forces to Korea, while the Chinese
+occupied Asan (about 40 m. south of the capital), and had a
+considerable body of troops in Manchuria in addition to those
+despatched to the Yalu river. To Japan the command of the
+sea was essential for the secure transport and supply of her
+troops. Without it the experience of the war of the 16th century
+would be repeated. China, too, could only utilize overland routes
+to Korea by submitting to the difficulties and delays entailed.
+To both powers the naval question was thus important.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>By the time war was finally declared (August 1) hostilities had
+already begun. On the 25th of July Oshima set out from Seoul to
+attack the Chinese at Asan. On the 29th he won a victory at
+Söng-hwan, but the Chinese commander escaped with a considerable
+part of his forces by a detour to Ping-Yang (Phyong-Yang). Meanwhile
+a portion of the Japanese fleet had encountered some Chinese warships
+and transports off Phung-Tao, and scored an important success,
+sinking, amongst other vessels, the transport &ldquo;Kowshing&rdquo; (July 25).
+The loss of more than 1000 Chinese soldiers in this vessel materially
+lightened Oshima&rsquo;s task. The intention of the Chinese to crush
+their enemies between their forces at Asan and Ping-Yang was
+completely frustrated, and the Japanese obtained control of all
+southern Korea.</p>
+
+<p>Reinforcements from Japan were now pouring into Korea, in spite
+of the fact that the rival navies had not yet tried conclusions, and
+General Nozu, the senior Japanese officer present, soon found
+himself in a position to move on Ping-Yang. Three columns converged
+upon the place on the 15th of September, and in spite of its strong
+walls carried it, though only after severe fighting.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the troops on either side had been conveyed to the
+scene of war by sea, though the decisive contest for sea supremacy
+was still to be fought. The Chinese admiral Ting with the Northern
+Squadron (which alone took part in the war) had hitherto remained
+inactive in Wei-hai-wei, and on the other side Vice-Admiral Ito&rsquo;s
+fleet had not directly interfered with the hostile transports which
+were reinforcing the troops on the Yalu. But two days after the
+battle of Ping-Yang, Ting, who had conveyed a large body of
+troops to the mouth of the Yalu, encountered the Japanese fleet on
+his return journey off Hai-Yang-Tao on the 17th of September.
+The heavy battleships &ldquo;Chen-Yuen&rdquo; and &ldquo;Ting-Yuen&rdquo; constituted
+the strongest element of the Chinese squadron, for the Japanese,
+superior as they were in every other factor of success, had no vessels
+which could compare with these in the matter of protection. Ting
+advanced in a long irregular line abreast; the battleships in the
+centre, the lighter vessels on the wings. Ito&rsquo;s fast cruisers steamed
+in line ahead against the Chinese right wing, crushing their weaker
+opponents with their fire. In the end the Chinese fleet was defeated
+and scattered, but the two heavy battleships drew off without
+serious injury. This battle of the Yalu gave Japan command of
+the sea, but Ito continued to act with great caution. The remnants
+of the vanquished fleet took refuge in Port Arthur, whence after
+repairs Ting proceeded to Wei-hai-wei.</p>
+
+<p>The victory of Ping-Yang had cleared Korea of the Chinese troops,
+but on the lower Yalu&mdash;their own frontier&mdash;large forces threatened
+a second advance. Marshal Yamagata therefore took the offensive
+with his 1st army, and on the 24th and 25th of October, under great
+difficulties&mdash;though without serious opposition from the enemy&mdash;forced
+the passage of the river and occupied Chiulien-cheng. Part of the
+Chinese force retired to the north-east, part to Feng-hwang-cheng
+and Hsiu-yuen (Siu-Yen). The Japanese 1st army advanced
+several columns towards the mountains of Manchuria to secure its
+conquests and prepare for a future advance. General Tachimi&rsquo;s
+brigade occupied Feng-hwang-cheng on the 29th of October. On
+the 7th of November a column from the Yalu took Takushan, and
+a few days later a converging attack from these two places was made
+upon Hsiu-yuen, which was abandoned by the Chinese. Meanwhile
+Tachimi, skirmishing with the enemy on the Mukden and Liao-Yang
+roads, found the Chinese in force. A simultaneous forward
+move by both sides led to the action of Tsao-ho-ku (November 30),
+after which both sides withdrew&mdash;the Chinese to the line of the
+mountains covering Hai-cheng, Liao-Yang and Mukden, with the
+Tatar general Ikotenga&rsquo;s force, 14,000 strong, on the Japanese right
+north-east of Feng-hwang-cheng; and the Japanese to Chiulien-cheng,
+Takushan and Hsiu-yuen. The difficulties of supply in the
+hills were almost insurmountable, and no serious advance was
+intended by the Japanese until January 1895, when it was to be made
+in co-operation with the 2nd army. This army, under Marshal
+Oyama, had been formed in September and at first sent to Chemulpo
+as a support to the forces under Yamagata; but its chief task was
+the siege and capture of the Chinese fortress, dockyard and arsenal
+of Port Arthur.</p>
+
+<p>The Liao-Tong peninsula was guarded by the walled city of
+Kinchow and the forts of Ta-lien-wan (Dalny under the Russian
+régime, and Tairen under the Japanese) as well as the fortifications
+around Port Arthur itself. On the 24th of October the disembarkation
+of the 2nd army began near Pi-tsze-wo, and the successive
+columns of the Japanese gradually moved towards Kinchow, which
+was carried without difficulty on the 6th of November. Even less
+resistance was offered by the modern forts of Ta-lien-wan. The
+Japanese now held a good harbour within a few miles of the main
+fortress. Here they landed siege artillery, and on the 17th of
+November the advance was resumed. The attack was made on the
+19th at dawn. Yamaji&rsquo;s division (Nogi&rsquo;s and Nishi&rsquo;s brigades)
+after a trying night march assaulted and carried the western defences
+and moved upon the town. Hasegawa in the centre, as soon as
+Yamaji began to appear in rear of his opponents in the northern
+forts, pushed home his attack with equal success, and by 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>
+practically all resistance was at an end. The Japanese paid for
+this important success with but 423 casualties. Meanwhile the
+Chinese general Sung, who had marched from Hai-cheng to engage
+the 2nd army, appeared before Kinchow, where he received on the
+22nd a severe repulse at the hands of the Japanese garrison. Marshal
+Oyama subsequently stationed his advanced guard towards Hai-cheng,
+the main body at Kinchow, and a brigade of infantry at Port
+Arthur. Soon after this overtures of peace were made by China;
+but her envoy, a foreigner unfurnished with credentials, was not
+received by the Tokyo government.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese 1st army (now under General Nozu) at Antung
+and Feng-hwang-cheng prepared, in spite of the season, to move
+across the mountains, and on the 3rd of December General Katsura
+left Antung for Hai-cheng. His line of march was by Hsi-mu-cheng,
+and strong flank guards followed parallel routes on either side.
+The march was accomplished safely and Hai-cheng occupied on the
+13th of December. In the meantime Tachimi had moved northward
+from Feng-hwang-cheng, in order to distract the attention of the
+Chinese from Hai-cheng, and there were some small engagements
+between this force and that of Ikotenga, who ultimately retired
+beyond the mountains to Liao-Yang. Sung had already left Kai-ping
+to secure Hai-cheng when he heard of the fall of that place;
+his communications with Ikotenga being now severed, he swerved
+to the north-west and established a new base at Niu-chwang. Once
+on his new line Sung moved upon Hai-cheng. As it was essential
+that he should be prevented from joining forces with Ikotenga,
+General Katsura marched out of Hai-cheng to fight him. At Kang-wang-tsai
+(December 19th) the Chinese displayed unusual steadiness,
+and it cost the Japanese some 343 casualties to dislodge the enemy.
+The victors returned to Hai-cheng exhausted with their efforts, but
+secure from attack for some time to come. The advanced troops of
+the 2nd army (Nogi&rsquo;s brigade) were now ready to advance, and only
+the Kai-ping garrison (left behind by Sung) barred their junction
+with Katsura. At Kai-ping (January 10th) the resistance of the
+Chinese was almost as steady as at Kang-wang-tsai, and the Japanese
+lost 300 killed and wounded in their successful attack. In neither
+of these actions was the defeated force routed, nor did it retire very
+far. On the 17th of January and again on the 22nd Ikotenga
+attacked Hai-cheng from the north, but was repulsed.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the 2nd army, still under Oyama, had undertaken
+operations against Wei-hai-wei, the second great fortress and dockyard
+of northern China, where Admiral Ting&rsquo;s squadron had been
+refitting since the battle of the Yalu; and it was hoped that both
+armies would accomplish their present tasks in time to advance in
+the summer against Peking itself. On the 18th of January a naval
+demonstration was made at Teng-chow-fu, 70 m. west of Wei-hai-wei,
+and on the 19th the Japanese began their disembarkation at
+Yung-cheng Bay, about 12 m. from Wei-hai-wei. The landing was
+scarcely opposed, and on the 26th the Japanese advance was begun.
+The south-eastern defences of Wei-hai-wei harbour were carried by
+the 6th division, whilst the 2nd division reached the inner waters
+of the bay, driving the Chinese before them. The fleet under Ito
+co-operated effectively. On the night of the 4th-5th of February
+the Chinese squadron in harbour was attacked by ten torpedo
+boats. Two boats were lost, but the armour-clad &ldquo;Ting-Yuen&rdquo;
+was sunk. On the following night a second attack was made, and
+three more vessels were sunk. On the 9th the &ldquo;Ching-Yuen&rdquo;
+was sunk by the guns in one of the captured forts. On the 12th
+Admiral Ting wrote to Admiral Ito offering to surrender, and then
+took poison, other officers following his example. Wei-hai-wei was
+then dismantled by the Japanese, who recovered the remnant of the
+Chinese squadron, including the &ldquo;Chen Yuen,&rdquo; and the 2nd army
+concentrated at Port Arthur for the advance on Peking.</p>
+
+<p>While this campaign was in progress the Chinese despatched a
+second peace mission, also with defective credentials. The Japanese
+declined to treat, and the mission returned to China. In February
+the Chinese made further unsuccessful attacks on Hai-cheng. Yamaji
+near Kai-ping fought a severe action on the 21st, 22nd and 23rd of
+February at Taping-shan against a part of Sung&rsquo;s army under
+General Ma-yu-kun. This action was fought with 2 ft. of snow on
+the ground, the thermometer registering zero F., and no less than
+1500 cases of frost-bite were reported. It was the intention of
+General Nozu, after freeing the Hai-cheng garrison from Ikotenga,
+to seize Niu-chwang port. Two divisions converged on An-shan-chan,
+and the Chinese, threatened in front and flank, retired to
+Liao-Yang. Meanwhile two more attacks on Hai-cheng had been
+repulsed. The 3rd and 5th divisions then moved on Niu-chwang,
+and Yamaji&rsquo;s 1st division at Kai-ping joined in the advance. The
+column from An-shan-chan stormed Niu-chwang, which was
+obstinately defended, and cost the stormers nearly 400 men. All
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span>
+three divisions converged on Niu-chwang port (Ying-kow), and the
+final engagement took place at Tien-chwang-tai, which was captured
+on the 9th of March. The Chinese forces in Manchuria being
+thoroughly broken and dispersed, there was nothing to prevent
+the Japanese from proceeding to the occupation of Peking, since
+they could, after the break-up of the ice, land and supply large
+forces at Shan-hai-kwan, within 170 m. of the capital. Two more
+Japanese divisions were sent out, with Prince Komatsu as supreme
+commander. Seven divisions were at Port Arthur ready to embark,
+when negotiations were reopened. Li Hung-Chang proceeded to
+Shimonoseki, where the treaty was signed on the 17th of April 1895.
+An expedition was sent towards the end of March to the Pescadores,
+and later the Imperial Guard division was sent to Formosa.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to estimate the Chinese losses in the war. The
+Japanese lost 4177 men by death in action or by sickness, and
+56,862 were wounded or disabled by sickness, exclusive of the
+losses in the Formosa and Pescadores expeditions. Nearly two-thirds
+of these losses were incurred by the 1st army in the trying
+winter campaign in Manchuria.</p>
+
+<p>The most important works dealing with the war are: Vladimir,
+<i>China-Japan War</i> (London, 1896); Jukichi Inouye, <i>The Japan-China
+War</i> (Yokohama, &amp;c., 1896); du Boulay, <i>Epitome of the
+China-Japanese War</i> (London, 1896), the official publication of the
+British War Office; Atteridge, <i>Wars of the Nineties</i>, pp. 535-636
+(London, 1899); von Kunowski and Fretzdorff, <i>Der japanisch-chinesische
+Krieg</i> (Leipzig, 1895); von Müller, <i>Der Krieg zwischen
+China und Japan</i> (Berlin, 1895); Bujac, <i>Précis de quelques campagnes
+contemporaines: II. La Guerre sino-japonaise</i> (Paris and
+Limoges).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINON<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span>, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the
+Vienne, 32m. S.W. of Tours on the State railway. Pop. (1906)
+4071. Chinon lies at the foot of the rocky eminence which is
+crowned by the ruins of the famous castle. Its narrow, winding
+streets contain many houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. The
+oldest of its churches, St Mexme, is in the Romanesque style, but
+only the façade and nave are left. The church of St Etienne dates
+from the 15th century, that of St Maurice from the 12th, 15th and
+16th centuries. The castle, which has undergone considerable
+modern restoration, consists of three portions. That to the east,
+the Château de St Georges, built by Henry II. of England, has
+almost vanished, only the foundation of the outer wall remaining.
+The Château du Milieu (11th to 15th centuries) comprises the
+keep, the Pavilion de l&rsquo;Horloge and the Grand Logis, in the
+principal apartment of which the first meeting between Joan of
+Arc and Charles VII. took place. Of the Château du Coudray,
+which is separated by a moat from the Château du Milieu, the
+chief remains are the Tour du Moulin (10th century) and two less
+ancient towers. A statue of Rabelais, who was born in the
+vicinity of the town, stands on the river-quay. Chinon has
+trade in wheat, brandy, red wine and plums. Basket and rope
+manufacture, tanning and cooperage are among its industries.
+Chinon (Caïno) existed before the Roman occupation of Gaul,
+and was from early times an important fortress. It was occupied
+by the Visigoths, and subsequently, after forming part of the
+royal domain, came to the counts of Touraine and from them
+to the counts of Anjou. Henry II. often resided in the castle,
+and died there. The place was taken by Philip Augustus in
+1205 after a year&rsquo;s siege.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINOOK<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span>, a tribe of North American Indians, dwelling at the
+mouth of the Columbia river, Washington. They were fishermen
+and traders, and used huge canoes of hollowed cedar trunks.
+The tribe is practically extinct, but the name survives in the trade
+language known as &ldquo;Chinook jargon.&rdquo; This has been analysed
+as composed of two-fifths Chinook, two-fifths other Indian
+tongues, and the rest English and Canadian French; but the
+proportion of English has tended to increase. The Chinookan
+linguistic family includes a number of separate tribes.</p>
+
+<p>The name CHINOOK is also applied to a wind which blows from
+W. or N. over the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it
+descends as a dry wind warm in winter and cool in summer (cf.
+<i>Föhn</i>). It is due to a cyclone passing northward, and continues
+from a few hours to several days. It moderates the climate of the
+eastern Rockies, the snow melting quickly on account of its
+warmth and vanishing on account of its dryness, so that it is said
+to &ldquo;lick up&rdquo; the snow from the slopes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gill, <i>Dictionary of Chinook Jargon</i> (Portland, Ore., 1891);
+Boas, &ldquo;Chinook Texts,&rdquo; in <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, Bureau of Ethnology
+(Washington, 1894); J.C. Pilling, &ldquo;Bibliography of Chinookan
+Languages,&rdquo; <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, Bureau of Ethnology (Washington,
+1893); Horatio Hale, <i>Manual of Oregon Trade Language</i> (London,
+1890); G.C. Shaw, <i>The Chinook Jargon</i> (Seattle, 1909);
+<i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINSURA<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span>, a town of British India, on the Hugli river, 24 m.
+above Calcutta, formerly the principal Dutch settlement in
+Bengal. The Dutch erected a factory here in 1656, on a healthy
+spot of ground, much preferable to that on which Calcutta is
+situated. In 1759 a British force under Colonel Forde was
+attacked by the garrison of Chinsura on its march to Chandernagore,
+but in less than half an hour the Dutch were entirely
+routed. In 1795, during the Napoleonic wars, the settlement was
+occupied by a British garrison. At the peace of 1814 it was
+restored to the Dutch. It was among the cessions in India
+made by the king of the Netherlands in 1825 in exchange for
+the British possessions in Sumatra. Hugli College is maintained
+by government; and there are a number of schools, several of
+which are carried on by Scottish Presbyterian missionaries.
+Chinsura is included in the Hugli municipality.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHINTZ<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span>, a word derived from the Hindu <i>chīnt</i>, spotted or
+variegated. This name was given to a kind of stained or painted
+calico produced in India. It is now applied to a highly glazed
+printed calico, commonly made in several colours on a light
+ground and used for bed hangings, covering furniture, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIOGGIA<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the
+province of Venice, from which it is 18&frac12; m. S. by sea. Pop.
+(1901) 21,384 (town), 31,218 (commune). It is inhabited mostly
+by fishermen, and is situated upon an island at the S. end of the
+lagoons. It is traversed by one main canal, La Vena. The
+peculiar dialect and customs of the inhabitants still survive to
+some extent. It is of earlier origin than Venice, and indeed is
+probably identical with the Roman Portus Aedro, or Ebro,
+though its name is derived from the Roman Fossa Claudia,
+a canalized estuary which with the two mouths of the Meduacus
+(Brenta) went to form the harbour. In 672 it entered the
+league of the cities of the lagoons, and recognized the authority
+of the doge. In 809 it was almost destroyed by Pippin, but
+in 1110 was made a city, remaining subject to Venice, whose
+fortunes it thenceforth followed. It was captured after a determined
+resistance by the Genoese in 1379, but recovered in 1380. Chioggia
+is connected by rail with Rovigo, 35 m. to the south-west.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. AS.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Naval War of Chioggia (1378-80).</i>&mdash;The naval war of 1378-1380,
+carried on by Venice against the Genoese and their allies,
+the lord of Carrara and the king of Hungary, is of exceptional
+interest as one in which a superior naval power, having suffered
+disaster in its home waters, and having been invaded, was yet
+able to win in the end by holding out till its squadrons in distant
+seas could be recalled for its defence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>When the war began in the spring of 1378, Venice was mainly
+concerned for the safety of its trading stations in the Levant and
+the Black Sea, which were exposed to the attacks of the Genoese.
+The more powerful of the two fleets which it sent out was despatched
+into the eastern Mediterranean under Carlo Zeno, the bailiff and
+captain of Negropont. A smaller force was sent to operate against
+the Genoese in the western Mediterranean, and was placed under the
+command of Vettor Pisani. The possessions of Venice on the mainland,
+which were then small, were assailed by Francesco Carrara and
+the Hungarians. Her only ally in the war, Bernabó Visconti of
+Milan, gave her little help on this side, but his mercenaries invaded
+the territory of Genoa. The danger on land seemed trifling to Venice
+so long as she could keep the sea open to her trade and press the
+war against the Genoese in the Levant.</p>
+
+<p>During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were
+carried out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the
+Genoese stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their
+squadrons to action on the 30th of May 1378 off Punta di Anzio to
+the south of the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in
+a gale by 10 Venetian against 11 Genoese galleys. The Genoese
+admiral, Luigi de&rsquo; Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and
+others were wrecked. Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for
+Famagusta in Cyprus, then held by Genoa. If Pisani had directed
+his course to Genoa itself, which was thrown into a panic by the
+defeat at Anzio, it is possible that he might have dictated peace,
+but he thought his squadron too weak, and preferred to follow the
+Genoese galleys which had fled to Famagusta. During the summer
+of 1378 he was employed partly in attacking the enemy in Cyprus,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span>
+but mainly in taking possession of the Istrian and Dalmatian towns
+which supported the Hungarians from fear of the aggressive ambition
+of Venice. He was ordered to winter on the coast of Istria, where
+his crews suffered from exposure and disease. Genoa, having
+recovered from the panic caused by the disaster at Anzio, decided to
+attack Venice at home while the best of her ships were absent with
+Carlo Zeno. She sent a strong fleet into the Adriatic under Luciano
+Doria. Pisani had been reinforced early in the spring of 1378, but
+when he was sighted by the Genoese fleet of 25 sail off Pola in Istria
+on the 7th of May, he was slightly outnumbered, and his crews were
+still weak. The Venetian admiral would have preferred to avoid
+battle, and to check an attack on Venice itself, by threatening the
+Genoese fleet from his base on the Istrian coast. He was forced into
+battle by the commissioner (<i>proveditore</i>) Michael Steno, who as
+agent of the senate had authority over the admiral. The Venetians
+were defeated with the loss of all their galleys except six. Luciano
+Doria fell in the battle, and the Genoese, who had suffered severely,
+did not at once follow up their success. On the arrival of his
+successor, Pietro Doria, with reinforcements, they appeared off the
+Lido, the outer barrier of the lagoon of Venice, in July, and in
+August they entered on a combined naval and military attack on the
+city, in combination with the Carrarese and the Hungarians. The
+Venetians had closed the passages through the outer banks except
+at the southern end, at the island of Brondolo, and the town of
+Chioggia. The barrier here approaches close to the mainland, and
+the position facilitated the co-operation of the Genoese with the
+Carrarese and Hungarians, but Chioggia is distant from Venice,
+which could only be reached along the canals across the lagoon. The
+Venetians had taken up the buoys which marked the fairway, and
+had placed a light squadron on the lagoon. The allies, after
+occupying the island of Brondolo, attacked, and on the 13th of August
+took the town of Chioggia with its garrison of 3000 men.</p>
+
+<p>There appeared to be nothing to prevent the enemy from advancing
+to the city of Venice except the difficult navigation of the lagoon.
+The senate applied for peace, but when the Genoese replied that
+they were resolved to &ldquo;bit and bridle the horses of Saint Mark&rdquo;
+the Venetians decided to fight to the end. Vettor Pisani, who had
+been imprisoned after the defeat at Pola, but who possessed the
+confidence of the people and the affection of the sailors, was released
+and named commander-in-chief against the wish of the aristocracy.
+Under his guidance the Venetians adopted a singularly bold and
+ingenious policy of offensive defence. The heavy Genoese vessels
+were much hampered by the shallow water and intricate passages
+through the lagoon. By taking advantage of their embarrassment
+and his own local knowledge, Pisani carried out a series of
+movements which entirely turned the tables on the invaders. Between
+the 23rd and 25th of August he executed a succession of night
+attacks, during which he sank vessels laden with stores not only in
+the canals leading through the lagoon to Venice, but in the fairways
+leading from Chioggia to the open sea round both ends of the island
+of Brondolo. The Genoese were thus shut in at the very moment
+when they thought they were about to besiege Venice. Pisani
+stationed the galleys under his command in the open sea outside
+Brondolo, and during the rest of the year blockaded the enemy
+closely. The distress of the Venetians themselves was great, but the
+Doge Andrea Contarini and the nobles set an example by sharing the
+general hardships, and taking an oath not to return to Venice till
+they had recovered Chioggia. Carlo Zeno had long since been
+ordered to return, but the slowness and difficulty of communication
+and movement under 14th century conditions delayed his reappearance.
+The besiegers of Chioggia were at the end of their powers of
+endurance, and Pisani had been compelled to give a promise that
+the siege would be raised, when Zeno&rsquo;s fleet reached the anchorage
+off Brondolo on the 1st of January 1380. The attack on Chioggia
+was now pressed with vigour. The Genoese held out resolutely in
+the hope of relief from home. But the resources of Genoa had been
+taxed to fit out the squadrons she had already sent to sea. It was
+not until the 12th of May 1380 that her admiral, Matteo Maruffo,
+was able to reach the neighbourhood of Brondolo with a relieving
+force. By this time the Venetians had recovered the island, and their
+fleet occupied a fortified anchorage from which they refused to be
+drawn. Maruffo could do nothing, and on the 24th of June 1380
+the defenders of Chioggia surrendered. The crisis of the war was
+past. Venice, being now safe at home, recovered the command of the
+sea, and before the close of the year was able to make peace as a
+conqueror.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;S. Romanin, <i>Storia documentata di Venezia</i> (Venice,
+1855); W.C. Hazlitt, <i>History of the Venetian Republic</i> (London,
+1860); Horatio F. Brown, <i>Venice</i> (London, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIOS<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span>, an island on the west coast of Asia Minor, called by the
+Greeks Chios (<span class="grk" title="Chios, 's tê Chio">&#935;&#943;&#959;&#962; &#8125;&#963; &#964;&#8052; &#935;&#943;&#959;</span>) and by the Turks Saki Adasi;
+the soft pronunciation of &#935; before &#953; in modern Greek, approximating
+to <i>sh</i>, caused <span class="grk" title="Chio">&#935;&#943;&#959;</span> to be Italianized as Scio. It forms,
+with the islands of Psara, Nikaria, Leros, Calymnus and Cos,
+a sanjak of the Archipelago vilayet. Chios is about 30 m. long
+from N. to S., and from 8 to 15 m. broad; pop. 64,000. It well
+deserves the epithet &ldquo;craggy&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="paipaloessa">&#960;&#945;&#953;&#960;&#945;&#955;&#972;&#949;&#963;&#963;&#945;</span>) of the Homeric
+hymn. Its figs were noted in ancient times, but wine and gum
+mastic have always been the most important products. The
+climate is healthy; oranges, olives and even palms grow freely.
+The wine grown on the N.W. coast, in the district called by
+Strabo Ariusia, was known as <i>vinum Arvisium</i>. Early in the
+7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Glaucus of Chios discovered the process of
+welding iron (<span class="grk" title="kollêsis">&#954;&#972;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>: see J.G. Frazer&rsquo;s <i>Pausanias</i>, note
+on x. 16. 1, vol. v. pp. 313-314), and the iron stand of a large
+crater whose parts were all connected by this process was
+constructed by him, and preserved as one of the most interesting
+relics of antiquity at Delphi. The long line of Chian sculptors
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>) in marble bears witness to the fame of Chian
+art. In literature the chief glory of Chios was the school of
+epic poets called Homeridae, who helped to create a received
+text of Homer and gave the island the reputation of being the
+poet&rsquo;s birthplace. The chief town, Chios (pop. 16,000), is on
+the E. coast. A theatre and a temple of Athena Poliuchus
+existed in the ancient city. About 6 m. N. of the city there is a
+curious monument of antiquity, commonly called &ldquo;the school
+of Homer&rdquo;; it is a very ancient sanctuary of Cybele, with an
+altar and a figure of the goddess with her two lions, cut out
+of the native rock on the summit of a hill. On the west coast
+there is a monastery of great wealth with a church founded by
+Constantine IX. Monomachus (1042-1054). Starting from the
+city and encompassing the island, one passes in succession the
+promontory Posidium; Cape Phanae, the southern extremity
+of Chios, with a harbour and a temple of Apollo; Notium,
+probably the south-western point of the island; Laii, opposite
+the city of Chios, where the island is narrowest; the town
+Bolissus (now Volisso), the home of the Homerid poets; Melaena,
+the north-western point; the wine-growing district Ariusia;
+Cardamyle (now Cardhamili); the north-eastern promontory
+was probably named Phlium, and the mountains that cross
+the northern part of the island Pelinaeus or Pellenaeus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The history of Chios is very obscure. According to Pherecydes,
+the original inhabitants were Leleges, while according to other
+accounts Thessalian Pelasgi possessed the island before it became
+an Ionian state. The name Aethalia, common to Chios and Lemnos
+in very early times, suggests the original existence of a homogeneous
+population in these and other neighbouring islands. Oenopion, a
+mythical hero, son of Dionysus or of Rhadamanthus, was an early
+king of Chios. His successor in the fourth generation, Hector, united
+the island to the Ionian confederacy (Pausan. vii. 4), though Strabo
+(xiv. p. 633) implies an actual conquest by Ionian settlers. The regal
+government was at a later time exchanged for an oligarchy or a
+democracy. The names of two tyrants, Amphiclus and Polytecnus,
+are mentioned. The products of the island were largely exported on
+the ships of Miletus, with which city Chios formed a close mercantile
+alliance in opposition to the rival league of Phocaea and Samos.
+Similar commercial considerations determined the Chians in their
+attitude towards the Persian conquerors: in 546 they submitted to
+Cyrus as eagerly as Phocaea resisted him; during the Ionian revolt
+their fleet of 100 sail joined the Milesians in offering a desperate
+opposition at Lade (494). The island was subsequently punished
+with great rigour by the Persians. The Chian ships, under the tyrant
+Strattis, served in the Persian fleet at Salamis. After its liberation
+in 479 Chios joined the Delian League and long remained a firm ally
+of the Athenians, who allowed it to retain full autonomy. But in 413
+the island revolted, and was not recaptured. After the Peloponnesian
+War it took the first opportunity to renew the Athenian alliance,
+but in 357 again seceded. As a member of the Delian League it had
+regained its prosperity, being able to equip a fleet of 50 or 60 sail.
+Moreover, it was reputed one of the best-governed states in Greece,
+for although it was governed alternately by oligarchs and democrats
+neither party persecuted the other severely. It was not till late in
+the 4th century that civil dissension became a danger to the state,
+leaving it a prey to Idrieus, the dynast of Caria (346), and to the
+Persian admiral Memnon (333). During the Hellenistic age Chios
+maintained itself in a virtually independent position. It supported
+the Romans in their Eastern wars, and was made a &ldquo;free and allied
+state.&rdquo; Under Roman and Byzantine rule industry and commerce
+were undisturbed, its chief export at this time being the Arvisian
+wine, which had become very popular. After temporary occupations
+by the Seljuk Turks (1089-1092) and by the Venetians (1124-1125,
+1172, 1204-1225), it was given in fief to the Genoese family of
+Zaccaria, and in 1346 passed definitely into the hands of a Genoese
+<i>maona</i>, or trading company, which was organized in 1362 under the
+name of &ldquo;the Giustiniani.&rdquo; This mercantile brotherhood, formerly
+a privileged class, alone exploited the mastic trade; at the same time
+the Greeks were allowed to retain their rights of self-government
+and continued to exercise their industries. In 1415 the Genoese
+became tributary to the Ottomans. In spite of occasional secessions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span>
+which brought severe punishment upon the island (1453, 1479), the/#
+rule of the Giustiniani was not abolished till 1566. Under the Ottoman
+government the prosperity of Chios was hardly affected. But
+the island underwent severe periods of suffering after its capture and
+reconquest from the Florentines (1595) and the Venetians (1694-1695),
+which greatly reduced the number of the Latins. Worst of all
+were the massacres of 1822, which followed upon an attack by some
+Greek insurgents executed against the will of the natives. In 1881
+Chios was visited by a very severe earthquake in which over 5600
+persons lost their lives and more than half the villages were seriously
+damaged. The island has now recovered its prosperity. There is a
+harbour at Castro, and steam flour-mills, foundries and tanneries
+have been established. Rich antimony and calamine mines are
+worked by a French undertaking, and good marble is quarried by an
+Italian company.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Strabo xiv. pp. 632 f.; Athenaeus vi. 265-266;
+Herodotus i. 160-165, vi. 15-31; Thucydides viii. 14-61; <i>Corpus
+Inscr. Atticarum</i>, iv. (2), pp. 9, 10; H. Houssaye in <i>Revue des deux
+mondes</i>, xlvi. (1876), pp. 1 ff.; T. Bent in <i>Historical Review</i> (1889),
+pp. 467-480; Fustel de Coulanges, <i>L&rsquo;ÃŽle de Chio</i> (ed. Jullian, Paris,
+1893); for coinage, B.V. Head, <i>Historia numorum</i> (Oxford, 1887),
+pp. 513-515, and NUMISMATICS: <i>Greek</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. GR.; M. O. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (d. 1779), the most famous of
+English cabinetmakers. The materials for the biography of
+Chippendale are exceedingly scanty, but he is known to have been
+the son of Thomas Chippendale I., and is believed to have been
+the father of Thomas Chippendale III. His father was a cabinet-maker
+and wood-carver of considerable repute in Worcester
+towards the beginning of the 18th century, and possibly he
+originated some of the forms which became characteristic of
+his son&rsquo;s work. Thus a set of chairs and settees was made,
+apparently at Worcester, for the family of Bury of Knateshill,
+at a period when the great cabinetmaker could have been no
+more than a boy, which are practically identical with much of the
+work that was being turned out of the family factory as late
+as the &rsquo;sixties of the 18th century. Side by side with the Queen
+Anne or early Georgian feeling of the first quarter of the 18th
+century we find the interlaced splats and various other details
+which marked the Chippendale style. By 1727 the elder Chippendale
+and his son had removed to London, and at the end of 1749
+the younger man&mdash;his father was probably then dead&mdash;established
+himself in Conduit Street, Long Acre, whence in 1753 he
+removed to No. 60 St Martin&rsquo;s Lane, which with the addition of
+the adjoining three houses remained his factory for the rest of
+his life. In 1755 his workshops were burned down; in 1760 he
+was elected a member of the Society of Arts; in 1766 his partnership
+with James Ranni was dissolved by the latter&rsquo;s death.</p>
+
+<p>It has always been exceedingly difficult to distinguish the work
+executed in Chippendale&rsquo;s factory and under his own eye from
+that of the many copyists and adapters who throughout the
+second half of the 18th century&mdash;the golden age of English
+furniture&mdash;plundered remorselessly. Apart from his published
+designs, many of which were probably never made up, we have to
+depend upon the very few instances in which his original accounts
+enable us to earmark work which was unquestionably his. For
+Claydon House, the seat of the Verneys in Buckinghamshire, he
+executed much decorative work, and the best judges are satisfied
+that the Chinese bedroom there was designed by him. At
+Harewood House, the seat of the earl of Harewood in Yorkshire,
+we are on firmer ground. The house was furnished between
+1765 and 1771, and both Robert Adam and Chippendale were
+employed upon it. Indeed, there is unmistakable evidence to
+show that certain work, so closely characteristic of the Adams
+that it might have been assigned to them without hesitation, was
+actually produced by Chippendale. This may be another of the
+many indications that Chippendale was himself an imitator, or it
+may be that Adam, as architect, prescribed designs which Chippendale&rsquo;s
+cabinetmakers and carvers executed. Chippendale&rsquo;s
+bills for this Adam work are still preserved. Stourhead,
+the famous house of the Hoares in Wiltshire, contains much
+undoubted Chippendale furniture, which may, however, be
+the work of Thomas Chippendale III.; at Rowton Castle,
+Shropshire, Chippendale&rsquo;s bills as well as his works still exist.</p>
+
+<p>Our other main source of information is <i>The Gentleman and
+Cabinet Maker&rsquo;s Director</i>, which was published by Thomas
+Chippendale in 1754. This book, the most important collection
+of furniture designs issued up to that time in England, contains
+one hundred and sixty engraved plates, and the list of subscribers
+indicates that the author had acquired a large and distinguished
+body of customers. The book is of folio size; there was a
+second edition in 1759, and a third in 1762.</p>
+
+<p>In the rather bombastic introduction Chippendale says that he
+has been encouraged to produce the book &ldquo;by persons of distinction
+and taste, who have regretted that an art capable of so
+much perfection and refinement should be executed with so
+little propriety and elegance.&rdquo; He has some severe remarks
+upon critics, from which we may assume that he had already
+suffered at their hands. Perhaps, indeed, Chippendale may have
+been hinted at in the caustic remarks of Isaac Ware, surveyor to
+the king, who bewailed that it was the misfortune of the world in
+his day &ldquo;to see an unmeaning scrawl of C&rsquo;s inverted and looped
+together, taking the place of Greek and Roman elegance even in
+our most expensive decorations. It is called French, and let
+them have the praise of it! The Gothic shaft and Chinese bell
+are not beyond nor below it in poorness of imitation.&rdquo; It is the
+more likely that these barbs were intended for Chippendale,
+since he was guilty not only of many essays in Gothic, but of a
+vast amount of work in the Chinese fashion, as well as in the
+flamboyant style of Louis XV. The <i>Director</i> contains examples
+of each of the manners which aroused the scorn of the king&rsquo;s
+surveyor. Chippendale has even shared with Sir William
+Chambers the obloquy of introducing the Chinese style, but
+he appears to have done nothing worse than &ldquo;conquer,&rdquo; as
+Alexandre Dumas used to call it, the ideas of other people. Nor
+would it be fair to the man who, whatever his occasional
+extravagances and absurdities, was yet a great designer and a
+great transmuter, to pretend that all his Chinese designs were
+contemptible. Many of them, with their geometrical lattice-work
+and carved tracery, are distinctly elegant and effective.
+Occasionally we find in one piece of furniture a combination of
+the three styles which Chippendale most affected at different
+periods&mdash;Louis XV., Chinese and Gothic&mdash;and it cannot
+honestly be said that the result is as incongruous as might have
+been expected. Some of his most elegant and attractive work is
+derived directly from the French, and we cannot doubt that the
+inspiration of his famous ribbon-backed chair came directly from
+some of the more artistic performances in rococo.</p>
+
+<p>The primary characteristic of his work is solidity, but it is a
+solidity which rarely becomes heaviness. Even in his most
+lightsome efforts, such as the ribbon-backed chair, construction is
+always the first consideration. It is here perhaps that he differs
+most materially from his great successor Sheraton, whose ideas of
+construction were eccentric in the extreme. It is indeed in the
+chair that Chippendale is seen at his best and most characteristic.
+From his hand, or his pencil, we have a great variety of chairs,
+which, although differing extensively in detail, may be roughly
+arranged in three or four groups, which it would sometimes be
+rash to attempt to date. He introduced the cabriole leg,
+which, despite its antiquity, came immediately from Holland;
+the claw and ball foot of ancient Oriental use; the straight,
+square, uncompromising early Georgian leg; the carved lattice-work
+Chinese leg; the pseudo-Chinese leg; the fretwork leg,
+which was supposed to be in the best Gothic taste; the inelegant
+rococo leg with the curled or hoofed foot; and even occasionally
+the spade foot, which is supposed to be characteristic of the
+somewhat later style of Hepplewhite. His chair-backs were very
+various. His efforts in Gothic were sometimes highly successful;
+often they took the form of the tracery of a church window, or
+even of an ovalled rose window. His Chinese backs were distinctly
+geometrical, and from them he would seem to have
+derived some of the inspiration for the frets of the glazed book-cases
+and cabinets which were among his most agreeable work.
+The most attractive feature of Chippendale&rsquo;s most artistic chairs&mdash;those
+which, originally derived from Louis Quinze models,
+were deprived of their rococo extravagances&mdash;is the back, which,
+speaking generally, is the most elegant and pleasing thing that
+has ever been done in furniture. He took the old solid or
+slightly pierced back, and cut it up into a light openwork design
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span>
+exquisitely carved&mdash;for Chippendale was a carver before everything&mdash;in
+a vast variety of designs ranging from the elaborate
+and extremely elegant, if much criticized, ribbon back, to a
+comparatively plain but highly effective splat. His armchairs,
+however, often had solid or stuffed backs. Next to his chairs
+Chippendale was most successful with settees, which almost
+invariably took the shape of two or three conjoined chairs, the
+arms, backs and legs identical with those which he used for single
+seats. He was likewise a prolific designer and maker of book-cases,
+cabinets and escritoires with doors glazed with fretwork
+divisions. Some of those which he executed in the style which in
+his day passed for Gothic are exceedingly handsome and effective.
+We have, too, from his hand many cases for long clocks, and a
+great number of tables, some of them with a remarkable degree
+of Gallic grace. He was especially successful in designing small
+tables with fretwork galleries for the display of china. His
+mirrors, which were often in the Chinese taste or extravagantly
+rococo, are remarkable and characteristic. In his day the
+cabinetmaker still had opportunities for designing and constructing
+the four-post bedstead, and some of Chippendale&rsquo;s
+most graceful work was lavished upon the woodwork of the
+lighter, more refined and less monumental four-poster, which,
+thanks in some degree to his initiative, took the place of the
+massive Tudor and the funereally hung Jacobean bed. From an
+organ case to a washhand-stand, indeed, no piece of domestic
+furniture came amiss to this astonishing man, and if sometimes he
+was extravagant, grotesque or even puerile, his level of achievement
+is on the whole exceedingly high.</p>
+
+<p>Since the revival of interest in his work he has often been
+criticized with considerable asperity, but not always justly.
+Chippendale&rsquo;s work has stood the supreme test of posterity
+more completely than that of any of his rivals or successors; and,
+unlike many men of genius, we know him to have been warmly
+appreciated in his lifetime. He was at once an artist and
+a prosperous man of business. His claims to distinction are
+summed up in the fact that his name has by general consent been
+attached to the most splendid period of English furniture.</p>
+
+<p>Chippendale was buried on the 13th of November 1779,
+apparently at the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and
+administration of his intestate estate was granted to his widow
+Elizabeth. He left four children, Thomas Chippendale III., John,
+Charles and Mary. He was one of the assignees in bankruptcy of
+the notorious Theresa Cornelys of Soho Square, of whom we read
+in Casanova and other scandalous chronicles of the time. Thomas
+Chippendale III. succeeded to the business of his father and
+grandfather, and for some years the firm traded under the style
+of Chippendale &amp; Haig. The factory remained in St Martin&rsquo;s
+Lane, but in 1814 an additional shop was opened at No. 57
+Haymarket, whence it was in 1821 removed to 42 Jermyn Street.
+Like his father, Thomas Chippendale III. was a member of the
+Society of Arts; and he is known to have exhibited five pictures
+at the Royal Academy between 1784 and 1801. He died at the
+end of 1822 or the beginning of 1823.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. P. -B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIPPENHAM<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span>, a market town and municipal borough in the
+Chippenham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94 m.
+W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5074.
+Chippenham is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 361 acres. It lies in a hollow on the south
+side of the Upper Avon, here crossed by a picturesque stone
+bridge of 21 arches. St Andrew&rsquo;s church, originally Norman of
+the 12th century, has been enlarged in different styles. A paved
+causeway running for about 4 m. between Chippenham Cliff and
+Wick Hill is named after Maud Heath, said to have been a
+market-woman, who built it in the 15th century, and bequeathed
+an estate for its maintenance. After the decline of its woollen
+and silk trades, Chippenham became celebrated for grain and
+cheese markets. There are also manufactures of broadcloth,
+churns, condensed milk, railway-signals, guns and carriages;
+besides bacon-curing works, flour mills, tanneries and large
+stone quarries. Bowood, the seat of the marquess of Lansdowne,
+is 3&frac12; m. S.E. of Chippenham. Lanhill barrow, or Hubba&rsquo;s Low,
+2&frac12; m. N.W., is an ancient tomb containing a <i>kistvaen</i> or sepulchral
+chamber of stone; it is probably British, though tradition makes
+it the grave of Hubba, a Danish leader.</p>
+
+<p>Chippenham (<i>Chepeham, Chippeham</i>) was the site of a royal
+residence where in 853 Æthelwulf celebrated the marriage
+of his daughter Æthelswitha with Burhred, king of Mercia. The
+town also figured prominently in the Danish invasion of the 9th
+century, and in 933 was the meeting-place of the witan. In the
+Domesday Survey Chippenham appears as a crown manor and is
+not assessed in hides. The town was governed by a bailiff in the
+reign of Edward I., and returned two members to parliament
+from 1295, but it was not incorporated until 1553, when a
+charter from Mary established a bailiff and twelve burgesses and
+endowed the corporation with certain lands for the maintenance
+of two parliamentary burgesses and for the repair of the bridge
+over the Avon. In 1684 this charter was surrendered to Charles
+II., and in 1685 a new charter was received from James II., which
+was shortly abandoned in favour of the original grant. The
+Representation Act of 1868 reduced the number of parliamentary
+representatives to one, and the borough was disfranchised by
+the Redistribution Act of 1885. The derivation of Chippenham
+from <i>cyppan</i>, to buy, implies that the town possessed a market
+in Saxon times. When Henry VII. introduced the clothing
+manufacture into Wiltshire, Chippenham became an important
+centre of the industry, which has lapsed. A prize, however,
+was awarded to the town for this commodity at the Great
+Exhibition of 1851.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIPPEWA<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span><a name="FnAnchor_1f" id="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">FALLS</span>, a city and the county-seat of Chippewa
+county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, about 100 m.
+E. of St Paul, Minnesota, and 12 m. N.E. of Eau Claire, Wisconsin.
+Pop. (1890) 8670; (1900) 8094; (1910, census) 8893. It is served
+by the Minneapolis, St Paul &amp; Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago &amp;
+North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St Paul railways,
+and by the electric line to Eau Claire. The first settlement on
+the site was made in 1837; and the city was chartered in 1870.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1f" id="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the Chippewa Indians see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ojibway</a></span>, of which the word is a
+popular adaptation.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIPPING CAMPDEN<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span>, a market town in the northern parliamentary
+division of Gloucestershire, England, on the Oxford and
+Worcester line of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1542.
+It is picturesquely situated towards the north of the Cotteswold
+hill-district. The many interesting ancient houses afford
+evidence of the former greater importance of the town. The
+church of St James is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a
+number of brasses of the 15th and 16th centuries and several
+notable monumental tombs. A ruined manor house of the 16th
+century and some almshouses complete, with the church, a
+picturesque group of buildings; and Campden House, also of
+the 16th century, deserves notice.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from a medieval tradition preserved by Robert de
+Brunne that it was the meeting-place of a conference of Saxon
+kings, the earliest record of Campden (<i>Campedene</i>) is in Domesday
+Book, when Earl Hugh is said to hold it, and to have there fifty
+villeins. The number shows that a large village was attached to
+the manor, which in 1173 passed to Hugh de Gondeville, and
+about 1204 to Ralph, earl of Chester. The borough must have
+grown up during the 12th century, for both these lords granted
+the burgesses charters which are known from a confirmation of
+1247, granting that they and all who should come to the market of
+Campedene should be quit of toll, and that if any free burgess of
+Campedene should come into the lord&rsquo;s amerciament he should be
+quit for 12d. unless he should shed blood or do felony. Probably
+Earl Ralph also granted the town a portman-mote, for the
+account of a skirmish in 1273 between the men of the town and
+the county mentions a bailiff and implies the existence of some
+sort of municipal government. In 1605 Campedene was incorporated,
+but it never returned representatives to parliament.
+Camden speaks of the town as a market famous for stockings,
+a relic of that medieval importance as a mart for wool that had
+given the town the name of Chipping.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIPPING NORTON<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span>, a market town and municipal borough in
+the Banbury parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, 26
+m. N.W. of Oxford by a branch of the Great Western railway.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span>
+Pop. (1901) 3780. It lies on the steep flank of a hill, and consists
+mainly of one very wide street. The church of St Mary the
+Virgin, standing on the lower part of the slope, is a fine building
+of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, the hexagonal
+porch and the clerestory being good examples of the later style.
+The town has woollen and glove factories, breweries and an
+agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and
+12 councillors. Area, 2456 acres. Chipping Norton (<i>Chepyngnorton</i>)
+was probably of some importance in Saxon times. At
+the Domesday Survey it was held in chief by Ernulf de Hesding;
+it was assessed at fifteen hides, and comprised three mills. It
+returned two members to parliament as a borough in 1302 and
+1304-1305, but was not represented after this date, and was not
+considered to be a borough in 1316. The first and only charter
+of incorporation was granted by James I., in 1608; it established
+a common council consisting of 2 bailiffs and 12 burgesses; a
+common clerk, 2 justices of the peace, and 2 serjeants-at-mace;
+and a court of record every Monday. In 1205 William Fitz-Alan
+was granted a four days&rsquo; fair at the feast of the Invention
+of the Cross; and in 1276 Roger, earl of March,
+was granted a four days&rsquo; fair at the feast of St Barnabas.
+In the reign of Henry VI. the market was held
+on Wednesday, and a fair was held at the Translation
+of St Thomas Becket. These continued to be held in
+the reign of James I., who annulled the former two
+fairs, and granted fairs at the feasts of St Mark, St
+Matthew, St Bartholomew, and SS. Simon and Jude.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIQUITOS<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (Span, &ldquo;very small&rdquo;), a group of
+tribes in the province of Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
+Bolivia, and between the head waters of the rivers
+Mamoré and Itenez. When their country was first
+invaded they fled into the forests, and the Spaniards,
+coming upon their huts, the doorways of which are
+built excessively low, supposed them to be dwarfs:
+hence the name. They are in fact well formed and
+powerful, of middle height and of an olive complexion.
+They are an agricultural people, but made
+a gallant resistance to the Spaniards for nearly two
+centuries. In 1691, however, they made the Jesuit
+missionaries welcome, and rapidly became civilized.
+The Chiquito language was adopted as the means
+of communication among the converts, who soon
+numbered 50,000, representing nearly fifty tribes.
+Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 the Chiquitos
+became decadent, and now number short of 20,000.
+Their houses, regularly ranged in streets, are built of
+adobes thatched with coarse grass. They manufacture
+copper boilers for making sugar and understand
+several trades, weave ponchos and hammocks and
+make straw hats. They are fond of singing and
+dancing, and are a gentle-mannered and hospitable folk.
+The group is now divided into forty tribes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIROMANCY<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheir">&#967;&#949;&#7984;&#961;</span>, hand, and <span class="grk" title="manteia">&#956;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>, divination),
+the art of telling the character or fortune of persons by studying
+the lines of the palms of the hands (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palmistry</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIRON<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cheiron</span>, in Greek mythology, one of the Centaurs,
+the son of Cronus and Philyra, a sea nymph. He dwelt at the
+foot of Mount Pelion, and was famous for his wisdom and
+knowledge of the healing art. He offers a remarkable contrast
+to the other Centaurs in manners and character. Many of the
+most celebrated heroes of Greece were brought up and instructed
+by him (Apollodorus iii. 10. 13). Accidentally pierced by a
+poisoned arrow shot by Heracles, he renounced his immortality
+in favour of Prometheus, and was placed by Zeus among the
+stars as the constellation <i>Sagittarius</i> (Apollodorus ii. 5; Ovid,
+<i>Fasti</i>, v. 414). In a Pompeian wall-painting he is shown
+teaching Achilles to play the lyre.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See articles in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i> and W.H.
+Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; W. Mannhardt, <i>Wald- und
+Feldkulte</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIROPODIST<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (an invented word from Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheir">&#967;&#949;&#7984;&#961;</span>, hand, and
+<span class="grk" title="pous">&#960;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span>, foot), properly one who treats the ailments of the hands
+and feet, or is consulted as to keeping them in good condition;
+the use of the word is now restricted, however, to the care of
+the toes, &ldquo;manicurist&rdquo; having been invented for the corresponding
+attentions to the fingers. The word was first introduced
+in 1785, by a &ldquo;corncutter&rdquo; in Davies Street, London.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIROPTERA<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (Greek for &ldquo;hand-wings&rdquo;), an order of
+mammals containing the bats, all of which are unique in the
+class in possessing the power of true flight, and have their fore-limbs
+specially modified for this purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="f90">
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter1" colspan="2"><img style="border:0; width:670px; height:468px" src="images/img239.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Skeleton and Wing-Membranes of the Noctule Bat<br />
+(<i>Pipistrellus noctula</i>). &times; 1/3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p>c, Clavicle.</p>
+<p>h, Humerus.</p>
+<p>r, Radius.</p>
+<p>u, Ulna.</p>
+<p>d<span class="sp">1</span>, First digit.</p>
+<p>d<span class="sp">2</span>, d<span class="sp">3</span>, d<span class="sp">4</span>, d<span class="sp">5</span>, Other digits of the fore-limb
+    supporting wm, the wing-membrane.</p>
+<p>m, m, Metacarpal bones.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl"><p>ph<span class="sp">1</span>, First phalanx.</p>
+<p>ph<span class="sp">2</span>, Second phalanx.</p>
+<p>ph<span class="sp">3</span>, Third phalanx.</p>
+<p>am, Antebrachial membrane.</p>
+<p>f, Femur.</p>
+<p>t, Tibia.</p>
+<p>fb, Fibula.</p>
+<p>c, Calcar supporting im, the interfemoral membrane.</p>
+<p>pcb, Post-calcaneal lobe.</p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The mammals comprised in this order are at once distinguished
+by the possession of true wings; this peculiarity being accompanied
+by other modifications of bodily structure having relation
+to aerial locomotion. Thus, in direct contrast to all other
+mammals, in which locomotion is chiefly effected by action
+from behind, and the hind-limbs consequently greatly preponderate
+in size over the fore, in the Chiroptera the fore-limbs,
+being the agents in propelling the body forward during flight,
+immensely exceed the short and weak hinder extremities. The
+thorax, giving origin to the great muscles which sustain flight,
+and containing the proportionately large lungs and heart, is
+remarkably capacious; and the ribs are flattened and close
+together; while the shoulder-girdle is greatly developed in
+comparison with the weak pelvis. The fore-arm (fig. 1) consists
+of a rudimentary ulna, a long curved radius, and a carpus of
+six bones supporting a thumb and four elongated fingers, between
+which, the sides of the body, and the hinder extremities a thin
+expansion of skin, the wing-membrane, is spread. The knee
+is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind-limb,
+outwards by the wing-membrane; an elongated cartilaginous
+process (the calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from
+the inner side of the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports
+part of the posterior margin of an accessory membrane of flight,
+extending from the tail or posterior extremity of the body to
+the hind-limbs, and known as the interfemoral membrane.
+The penis is pendent; the testes are abdominal or inguinal;
+the teats, usually two in number, thoracic; the uterus is simple
+or with more or less long cornua; the placenta discoidal and
+deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend
+backwards over the cerebellum. The teeth comprise incisors,
+canines, premolars and molars; and the dental formula never
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span>
+exceeds i. 2/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/8, m. 3/3; total 38. Despite the forward
+position of the teats, which is merely an adaptive feature, bats
+are evidently mammals of low organization, and are most
+nearly related to the Insectivora.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the backward direction of the knee, a bat,
+when placed on the ground, rests on all fours, having the knees
+directed upwards, while the foot is rotated forwards and inwards
+on the ankle. Walking is thus a kind of shuffle; but, notwithstanding
+a general belief, bats can take wing from the walking posture.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of the skeleton are characterized by their slenderness
+and the great size of the medullary canals in those of the
+extremities. The vertebral column is short, and the vertebrae
+differ but slightly in number and form throughout the group.
+The general number of dorso-lumbar vertebrae is 17, whereof
+12 are dorsal; the cervical vertebrae are broad, but short.
+Except in fruit-bats (<i>Pteropodidae</i>), the vertebrae, from the
+third cervical backwards, are devoid of spinous processes. From
+the first dorsal to the last lumbar the vertebral column forms
+a single curve, most pronounced in the lumbar region. The
+bodies of the vertebrae are but slightly movable on each other,
+and in old individuals become partially welded. The caudal
+vertebrae are cylindrical bones without processes; their number
+and length varying in allied species. The development of these
+vertebrae is correlated with habits, the long tail in the
+insectivorous species supporting and controlling the position of the
+interfemoral membrane which aids bats in their doubling motions
+when in pursuit of insects by acting as a rudder, and assists them
+in the capture of the larger insects. In the fruit-bats this is
+not required, and the tail is rudimentary or absent. In all bats
+the presternum has a prominent keel for the attachment of the
+great pectoral muscles.</p>
+
+<p>The shape of the skull varies greatly; but post-orbital processes
+are developed only in some <i>Pteropodidae</i> and a few <i>Nycteridae</i>
+and <i>Emballonuridae</i>; in <i>Pteropus leucopterus</i> alone does a
+process from the zygomatic arch meet the post-orbital so as
+to complete the orbital ring. Zygomatic arches, though slender, are
+present in all except in some of the species of <i>Phyllostomatidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The milk-teeth differ from those of all other mammals in that
+they are unlike those of the permanent series. They are slender,
+with pointed recurved cusps, and are soon shed, but exist for
+a short time with the permanent teeth. In the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>
+the milk-teeth are absorbed before birth. The permanent
+teeth exhibit great variety, sometimes even in the same family, as in
+<i>Phyllostomatidae</i>, whilst in other families, as <i>Rhinolophidae</i>,
+the resemblance between the dentition of species differing in
+many respects is remarkable. In all they are provided with
+well-developed roots, and their crowns are acutely tuberculate,
+with more or less well-defined W-shaped cusps, in the insectivorous
+species, or variously hollowed out or longitudinally
+grooved in the frugivorous kinds.</p>
+
+<p>The shoulder-girdle varies but slightly, the clavicle being
+long, strong and curved; and the scapula large, oval and
+triangular, with a long curved coracoid process. The humerus,
+though long, is scarcely two-thirds the length of the radius;
+and the rudimentary ulna is welded with the radius. A sesamoid
+bone exists in the tendon of the triceps muscle. The upper row
+of the carpus consists of the united scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform
+bones.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;hand&rdquo; has five digits, the first, fourth and fifth of which
+consist each of a metacarpal and two phalanges; but in the
+second and third the number of phalanges is different in certain
+families. The first digit terminates in a claw, most developed in
+the frugivorous species, in most of which the second digit is also
+clawed, although in other bats this and the remaining digits
+are unarmed.</p>
+
+<p>In the weak pelvis the ilia are long and narrow, while in most
+species the pubes of opposite sides are loosely united in front in
+males, and widely separated in females; in the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>
+alone they form a symphysis. Only in the <i>Molossinae</i> is there
+a well-developed fibula; in the rest this bone is either very
+slender or cartilaginous and ligamentous in its upper third, or
+reduced to a small bony process above the heel, or absent.
+The foot consists of a short tarsus, and of slender, laterally
+compressed toes, with much-curved claws.</p>
+
+<p>Although the brain is of a low type, probably no animals
+possess so delicate a sense of touch as Chiroptera. In ordinary
+bats tactile organs exist, not only in the bristles on the sides of the
+muzzle, but in the sensitive structures forming the wing-membranes
+and ears, while in many species leaf-like expansions
+surrounding the nasal apertures or extending backwards behind
+them are added. These nose-leaves are made up partly of the
+extended and thickened integument of the nostrils, and partly of
+the glandular eminences occupying the sides of the muzzle, in
+which in other bats the sensitive bristles are implanted.</p>
+
+<p>In no mammals are the ears so developed or so variable in
+form; in most insectivorous species they are longer than the
+head, while in the long-eared bat their length nearly equals
+that of the head and body. The form is characteristic in each
+of the families; in most the &ldquo;earlet,&rdquo; or tragus, is large, in
+some cases extending nearly to the outer margin of the conch;
+its office appears to be to intensify and prolong the waves of
+sound by producing undulations in them. In the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>,
+the only family of insectivorous bats wanting the tragus, the
+auditory bullae reach their greatest size, and the nasal appendages
+their highest development. In frugivorous bats the ear is simple
+and but slightly variable. In all bats the ears are extremely
+mobile, each independently at will.</p>
+
+<p>The oesophagus is narrow, especially in blood-sucking vampires.
+The stomach presents two types of structure, corresponding
+respectively to the two divisions of the order, Megachiroptera
+and Microchiroptera; in the former the pyloric extremity is, with
+one exception, elongated and folded upon itself, in the latter
+simple; an exceptional type is met with in the blood-suckers,
+where the cardiac extremity is elongated, forming a long
+appendage. The intestine is comparatively short, varying from
+one and a half to four times the length of the head and body;
+longest in the frugivorous, shortest in the insectivorous species.
+In <i>Rhinopoma</i> and <i>Megaderma</i> a small caecum has been found.
+The liver is characterized by the great size of the left lateral lobe,
+which occasionally equals half that of the whole organ; the right
+and left lateral fissures are usually very deep; in Megachiroptera
+the spigelian lobe is, with one exception, ill defined or absent, and
+the caudate is generally large; but in Microchiroptera the former
+lobe is large, while the caudate is small. The gall-bladder is
+generally well developed.</p>
+
+<p>In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of
+slender, long, cylindrical bones connecting the basi-hyoid with
+the skull, while the pharynx is short, and the larynx shallow with
+feebly developed vocal cords, and guarded by a short pointed
+epiglottis. In the African epauletted bats, <i>Epomophorus</i>, the
+pharynx is long and capacious, the aperture of the larynx far
+removed from the fauces, and, opposite to it, opens a canal,
+leading from the nasal chambers, and extending along the back
+of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls
+are ossified; the hyoids are unconnected, except by muscle
+with the skull; while the cerato-hyals and epi-hyals are cartilaginous
+and expanded, entering into the formation of the walls of
+the pharynx, and (in males of some species) supporting the orifices
+of a pair of air-sacs communicating with the pharynx (fig. 2).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1"><img style="border:0; width:600px; height:582px" src="images/img241a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Head and Neck of <i>Epomophorus franqueti</i> (adult male).
+From Dobson. The anterior (<i>a.ph.s</i>) and posterior (<i>p.ph.s</i>) pharyngeal
+sacs are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the points
+where they communicate with the pharynx; <i>s</i>, thin membranous
+partition in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of
+opposite sides; <i>s.m</i>, sterno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior
+from the posterior sac.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 350px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:300px; height:160px" src="images/img241b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Frontal Sac and Nose-Leaf
+in Male and Female Masked Bat
+(<i>Phyllorhina larvata</i>). From Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The extent and shape of the wings generally depend on the
+form of the bones of the fore-limbs, and on the presence or
+absence of the tail. The wings consist of an &ldquo;antebrachial
+membrane,&rdquo; which extends from the point of the shoulder along
+the humerus and more or less of the fore-arm to the base of the
+thumb, the metacarpal bone of which is partially or wholly
+included in it; the &ldquo;wing-membrane&rdquo; spread out between
+the elongated fingers, and extending along the sides of the body
+to the posterior extremities, generally reaching to the feet;
+and the &ldquo;interfemoral membrane,&rdquo; the most variable of all,
+which is supported between the extremity of the body, the legs
+and the calcar (fig. 1). The antebrachial and wing membranes
+are most developed in species fitted only for aerial locomotion
+which when at rest hang with the body enveloped in the wings;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span>
+but in the <i>Emballonuridae</i>, and also in the <i>Molossinae</i>, which
+are the best fitted for terrestrial progression, the antebrachial
+membrane is reduced to a small size, and not developed along
+the fore-arm, leaving the thumb quite free, while the wing-membrane
+is narrow and folded in repose under the forearm.
+The relative development of the interfemoral membrane has been
+referred to in connexion with the caudal vertebrae. Its small
+size in the frugivorous and blood-sucking species, which do not
+require it, is easily understood.
+Scent-glands and
+pouches opening on the surface
+of the skin are developed
+in many species, but in most
+cases more so in males than
+in females (fig. 3). As
+rule, bats produce only a
+single offspring at a birth,
+which for some time is carried
+about by the female parent
+clinging to the fur of her breast; but certain North American
+bats commonly give birth to three or four young ones at a
+time, which are carried about in the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>Bats are divisible into two suborders, Megachiroptera and
+Microchiroptera.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="center1"><i>Megachiroptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these comprises the fruit-eating species, which are
+generally of large size, with the crowns of the cheek-teeth smooth
+and marked with a longitudinal groove. The bony palate
+is continued behind the last molar, narrowing slowly
+<span class="sidenote">Fruit-eating bats.</span>
+backwards; there are three phalanges in the index
+finger, the third phalange being terminated generally by
+a claw; the sides of the ear form a ring at the base; the tail, when
+present, is inferior to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane;
+the pyloric extremity of the stomach is generally much elongated;
+and the spigelian lobe of the liver is ill-defined or absent, while the
+caudate is well developed. This group is limited to the tropical and
+sub-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 450px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:400px; height:326px" src="images/img241c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Head of a Flying-Fox or
+Fruit-Bat (<i>Pteropus personatus</i>). From
+Gray.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>All the members of this suborder are included in the single family
+<i>Pteropodidae</i>, the first representatives of which are the African
+epauletted bats, forming the genus <i>Epomophorus</i>. In this the dental
+formula is <i>i.</i> 2/2 (or &frac12;), <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> &frac12;. Tail short or absent, when
+present free from the interfemoral membrane; second finger with a
+claw; premaxillae united in front. The species are strictly limited
+to Africa south of the Sahara, and are distinguished by the large and
+long head, expansible and often folded lips, and the white tufts of
+hair on the margins of the ears. The males are provided with
+glandular pouches, situated in the skin of the side of the neck near
+the point of the shoulder, which are rudimentary or absent in
+females. In the males they are lined with glandular membrane,
+from which long coarse yellowish hairs project to form conspicuous
+epaulet-like tufts on the shoulders. The males often have a pair of
+air-sacs extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath
+the integument of the neck, in the position shown in fig. 2. These
+bats appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which
+their voluminous lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow
+without loss. The huge and ugly West African hammer-headed bat,
+<i>Hypsignathus monstrosus</i>, represents an allied genus distinguished
+by the absence of shoulder-pouches,
+and the presence
+of leaf-like expansions of
+skin on the front of the
+muzzle, and of distinct cusps
+on the outer sides of the
+cheek-teeth. The great
+majority of the bats of this
+group, commonly known as
+&ldquo;flying-foxes,&rdquo; are included
+in the typical genus <i>Pteropus</i>,
+of which the dental
+formula is <i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/3,
+<i>m.</i> 2/3. All are of large size,
+and the absence of a tail,
+the long pointed muzzle,
+and the woolly fur covering
+the neck render their recognition
+easy. One of the
+species, <i>P. edulis</i>, inhabiting
+Java, measures 5 ft. across the fully extended wings, and is the
+largest member of the order.</p>
+
+<p>The range of the genus extends from Madagascar through the
+Seychelles to India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Japan,
+New Guinea, Australia and Polynesia. Although two species inhabit
+the Comoro Islands, scarcely 200 m. from the mainland, not
+one is found in Africa; while the common Indian species is closely
+allied to the Madagascar flying-fox. The Malay Archipelago and
+Australia form the headquarters of these bats, which in some places
+occur in countless multitudes. The colonies exhale a strong musky
+odour, and when awake the occupants utter a loud incessant chatter.
+Wallace&rsquo;s fruit-bat of Celebes and Macassar has been made the type
+of a separate genus, as <i>Styloctenium wallacei</i>. In <i>Roussettus</i> (or
+<i>Cynonycteris</i>) the dentition is as in <i>Pteropus</i>, but the tail is short, and
+the fur of the nape of the neck not different from that of the back:
+its distribution accords with that of <i>Pteropus</i>, except that it includes
+Africa and does not reach farther east than New Ireland. <i>R.
+aegyptiacus</i> inhabits the chambers of the Great Pyramid and other
+deserted buildings in Egypt, and is probably the species figured in
+Egyptian frescoes. <i>Boneia</i>, with two species, from Celebes, differs
+in having only two upper incisors. <i>Harpyionycteris</i> and <i>Scotonycteris</i>,
+respectively from the Philippines and West Africa, are represented
+by a single species each; but of <i>Cynopterus</i>, which is mainly confined
+to the Indo-Malay countries, there are some half-score different
+kinds. The dentition is <i>i.</i> 2/(2 or 1), <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/3, <i>m.</i> 3/3, the muzzle  is
+shorter than in <i>Roussettus</i>, with the upper lip grooved in front as in
+<i>Pteropus</i>, while the tail and fur resemble those of the former genus.
+These bats are extremely voracious, a specimen of the Indian <i>C.
+marginatus</i> having eaten a banana twice its own weight in three
+hours. Among several Austro-Malay genera, such as <i>Ptenochirus</i>
+and <i>Balionycteris</i>, the tube-nosed bats of the genus <i>Gelasinus</i> (or
+<i>Harpyia</i>) are remarkable for the conformation of the nostrils (fig. 5).
+<i>Cephalotes</i>, with one
+species, ranging from
+Celebes to the Solomon
+group, has the dentition
+<i>i.</i> 1/1, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> 2/3, premaxillae
+not united in
+front, nostrils simple,
+muzzle short, index finger
+without a claw, tail short.
+As in <i>Gelasinus</i>, the wing-membrane
+arises from the
+middle line of the back, to
+which it is attached by a
+longitudinal thin process
+of skin; the wings are
+naked, but the back
+covered with hair. <i>Leipenyx</i> is an allied West African genus with
+one species.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 450px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:400px; height:222px" src="images/img241d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Head of Papuan Tube-Nosed
+Bat (<i>Gelasinus major</i>). From G.E.
+Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The foregoing belong to the typical subfamily <i>Pteropodinae</i>, while
+the remainder represent a second group, <i>Carponycterinae</i> (or <i>Macroglossinae</i>),
+characterized by having the facial part of the skull produced,
+the molar teeth narrow, and scarcely raised above the gum,
+and the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior third,
+and armed with long recurved papillae near the tip. The single
+representative of the first genus, <i>Notopteris macdonaldi</i>, inhabiting
+Fiji, New Guinea and the New Hebrides, is distinguished from other
+bats of this family by the length of its tail, which is nearly as long
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span>
+as the forearm. The dentition is <i>i.</i> 2/1, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> 2/2, while the index
+finger has no claw, and the wings arise from the spine. <i>Eonycteris</i>,
+with the dentition <i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/3, <i>m.</i> 2/3, is also represented by a single
+species, <i>E. spelaea</i>, from Tenasserim, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula
+and Islands, which has somewhat the appearance of a <i>Roussettus</i>,
+but the absence of a claw in the index finger and the presence of the
+characteristic tongue and teeth at once distinguish it. <i>Carponycteris</i>
+(<i>Macroglossus</i>) and <i>Melonycteris</i>, the former with several and the
+latter with a single species, are closely allied Indo-Malay and Papuan
+genera, the index finger in both having a claw, but the number of
+the teeth being the same as in <i>Eonycteris</i>. <i>C. minimus</i> is the smallest
+known species of the suborder, much smaller than the serotine bat
+of Europe, with the fore-arm scarcely longer than that of the long-eared
+bat. It is nearly as common in certain parts of Burma as
+<i>Cynopterus marginatus</i>, and extends eastwards through the Malay
+Archipelago as far as New Ireland, where it is associated with
+<i>Melonycteris melanops</i>, distinguished by its larger size and the total
+absence of the tail. An allied small <i>Carpopycteris</i> inhabits India.
+<i>Trygenycteris</i> (<i>Megaloglossus</i>) <i>woermanni</i>, of West Africa, is the only
+member of the group occurring west of the Himalaya. <i>Callinycteris</i>
+of Celebes, with the dentition <i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/2, <i>m.</i> 3/3, has a short tail and
+no index-claws, while <i>Nesonycteris</i> of the Solomons, with the dentition
+<i>i.</i> 2/1, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/3, <i>m.</i> 3/3, differs by the absence of the tail.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Microchiroptera.</i></p>
+
+<p>The second and larger suborder, the Microchiroptera, includes
+all the insectivorous species, the majority of which are of relatively
+small size as compared with the Megachiroptera. In these
+bats, with a few specialized exceptions, the crowns of the
+<span class="sidenote">Insect-eating bats.</span>
+cheek-teeth are surmounted by sharp cusps, divided by
+transverse grooves. In the skull the bony palate narrows
+abruptly and is not continued backwards laterally behind the last
+molar; there is one rudimentary phalange (rarely two or none) in the
+index finger, which is never terminated by a claw; the outer and
+inner sides of the ear commence interiorly from separate points of
+origin; the tail, when present, is contained in the interfemoral
+membrane, or appears on its upper surface; the stomach, except in
+the blood-sucking group, is simple; and the spigelian lobe of the
+liver large, and the caudate generally small.</p>
+
+<p>The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in genera (to
+say nothing of species) that only some of the more important types
+can be <span class="correction" title="superfluous parenthesis removed">mentioned.</span></p>
+
+<p>Brief references have already been made to the manner in which
+in many or most of these bats the tail aids in the capture of prey.
+From the observations of C. Oldham, it appears that these bats,
+when walking, carry the tail downwards and forwards, so that the
+membrane connecting this organ with the hind-legs forms a kind of
+pouch or bag. If a large insect be encountered the bat seizes it with
+a snatch, and slightly spreading its folded wings and pressing them
+on the ground in order to steady itself, brings its feet forwards so
+as to increase the capacity of the tail-pouch, into which, by bending
+its neck and thrusting its head beneath the body, it pushes the
+insect. Although the latter, especially if large, will often struggle
+violently, when once in the pouch it but rarely escapes, from which
+it is subsequently extracted and devoured. It is assumed that the
+same method of capture is employed when on the wing; and a
+naturalist who has observed the long-eared bat picking moths off
+willows states that the bat always hovers when taking off the moth,
+and bends up the tail so as to form a receptacle for the insect as it
+drops.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 320px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:270px; height:327px" src="images/img242a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Head of Mitred
+Horseshoe Bat (<i>Rhinolophus
+mitratus</i>). From
+Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>, Horse-shoe and Leaf-nosed bats of the Old
+World, the nose-leaf is developed and surrounds the nasal apertures,
+which are situated in a depression on
+the upper surface of the muzzle so as to
+look upwards; the ears are large and
+generally separate, without trace of a
+tragus or earlet; the premaxillae are
+rudimentary, suspended from the nasal
+cartilages, and support a single pair of
+small incisors; the molars have acute
+<b>W</b>-shaped cusps; the skull is large, and
+the nasal bones which support the nose-leaf
+much expanded vertically and laterally.
+In females a pair of teat-like
+appendages are found in front of the
+pubis; and the long tail extends to the
+margin of the interfemoral membrane.
+The middle finger has two phalanges, but
+the index is rudimentary. The fibula is
+rudimentary.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Rhinolophidae</i> are the most highly
+organized of insectivorous bats, in which the osseous and cutaneous
+systems reach the fullest development. Compared with theirs, the
+bones of the extremities and the wings of other bats appear coarsely
+formed, and their teeth seem less perfectly fitted to crush the hard
+bodies of insects. The complicated nasal appendages reach their
+highest development, and the differences in their form afford
+characters in the discrimination of the species, which resemble one
+another closely in dentition and the colour of the fur.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 420px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:370px; height:286px" src="images/img242b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Head of Squirrel Leaf-Bat
+(<i>Phyllorhina calcarata</i>). From Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the first subfamily, <i>Rhinolophinae</i>, the first toe has two, and the
+other toes three phalanges each; and the ilio-pectineal spine is not
+connected by bone with the antero-inferior surface of the ilium. In the
+horseshoe bats, <i>Rhinolophus</i>, the dentition is i. 1/2, c. 1/1, p. 2/3,
+m. 3/8, the nose-leaf has a central process behind and between the nasal
+orifices, with the posterior extremity lanceolate, and the antitragus
+large. Among the numerous forms <i>R. luctus</i> is the largest, and inhabits
+elevated hill-tracts in India and Malaysia; <i>R. hipposiderus</i>
+of Europe, extending into south England and Ireland, is one of the
+smallest; and <i>R. ferrum-equinum</i> represents the average size of the
+species, which are mainly distinguished from one another by the
+form of the nose-leaf. The last-named species extends from England
+to Japan, and southward to the Cape of Good Hope, but is represented
+by a number of local races. When sleeping, the horseshoe bats, at
+least in some instances, suspend themselves head downwards, with
+the wings wrapped round the body after the manner of fruit bats. The
+posture of ordinary bats is quite different, and while the lesser horseshoe
+(<i>R. hipposiderus</i>) alights from the air in an inverted position,
+other bats, on first coming to rest, do so with the head upwards,
+and then reverse their position.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 450px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:400px; height:379px" src="images/img242c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Head of Persian Leaf-Bat.
+(<i>Triaenops persicus</i>). From Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the second subfamily, <i>Hippo-siderinae</i> (formerly called
+<i>Phyllorhinae</i>), the toes are equal and include two phalanges each, while
+the ilio-pectineal spine is united by a bony isthmus with a process
+derived from the antero-inferior surface of the ilium. <i>Hipposiderus,
+Clöeotis, Rhinonycteris, Triaenops, Anthops</i> and <i>Coelops</i> represent
+this subfamily. <i>Hipposiderus</i> (<i>Phyllorhina</i>), with many species,
+ranging over Asia, Africa and Australasia, and the dental formula i. 1/2,
+c. 1/1, p. 2/2, or 1/2, m. 3/3, differs from <i>Rhinolophus</i> in the form
+of the nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate behind (fig. 6), and is unprovided
+with a central process covering the nostrils; the largest species, <i>H.
+armiger</i>, appears to be the most northerly, having been taken at
+Amoy in China, and in the Himalaya at an elevation of 5500 ft.
+Many are provided with a frontal sac behind the nose-leaf, rudimentary
+in females (see fig. 7), which can be everted at pleasure;
+the sides of this sac secrete a waxy substance, and its extremity
+supports a tuft of straight hairs. <i>Rhinonycteris</i>,
+represented by <i>R. aurantia</i> from Australia, and <i>Triaenops</i>.
+by <i>T. persicus</i> from Persia and other species from Africa and
+Madagascar, are closely allied genera. <i>Triaenops</i> (fig. 8) is
+characterized by the remarkable form of its nasal appendages
+and ears, and the presence of a bony projection from
+the upper extremity of the second phalange of the fourth
+finger. <i>Coelops</i> (<i>C. Frithi</i>), from the Bengal Sanderbans,
+Java and Siam is distinguished by the peculiar form of its
+nose-leaf and the length of the
+metacarpal bone of the index finger, as well as by the shortness of
+the calcar and interfemoral membrane. <i>Clöeotis</i> is represented by a
+single East African species, and <i>Anthops</i> by one from the Solomon
+Islands characterized by the nose-leaf covering the whole front of the face.</p>
+
+<p>The next family, <i>Nycteridae</i>, which is also Old World, is a small
+one,  nearly allied to the last, in  which it is included  by Prof.
+Max Weber as a subfamily under the name of <i>Myadermatinae</i>.
+It differs by the presence of a small tragus in
+<span class="sidenote">False vampires.</span>
+the ears, which are united at their bases; and by the
+nasal chamber not being inflated. The premaxillae are either small
+and separated in front, or rudimentary; and the first phalange
+of the middle finger when in repose is laid back on the metacarpus.
+There are only pectoral teats.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two genera, <i>Megaderma</i>, as represented by the five species
+of false vampires, is distinguished by the absence of ossified premaxillae
+and upper incisors (i. 0/2, p. (2 or 1)/2), the cylindrical narrow
+muzzle surmounted by an erect nose-leaf the base of which conceals
+the nasal orifices, the immense joined ears with large bifid tragus,
+and the great extent of the interfemoral membrane, in the base of
+which the short tail is concealed. <i>M. gigas</i> (fig. 9), from central
+Queensland, is the largest species of the genus, and of the suborder.
+<i>M. lyra</i>, common in India (fore-arm 2.7 in.), has been caught in the
+act of sucking the blood, while flying, from a small bat which it
+afterwards devoured. The range of the genus includes Africa, the
+Indo-Malay countries and Australasia. <i>Nycteris</i>, which is common
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span>
+to Africa and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, has ossified premaxillae
+and upper incisors (<i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 1/2), and a long tail; but lacks a
+nose-leaf. As in <i>Megaderma</i>, the frontal bones are deeply hollowed
+and expanded laterally, the muzzle presents a similar cylindrical
+form, and the lower jaw also projects; but, instead of a nose-leaf,
+the face is marked by a deep longitudinal sharp-edged groove extending
+from the nostrils to the band connecting the base of the large
+ears; the sides of this depression being margined as far back as the
+eyes by small horizontal cutaneous appendages. With the exception
+of <i>N. javanica</i>, the species are limited to Africa.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:530px; height:617px" src="images/img243a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;The False Vampire (<i>Megaderma gigas</i>). From Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>According to the classification followed by Dr G.E. Dobson, the
+extensive family of New World bats known as <i>Phyllostomatidae</i> was
+widely sundered from the two preceding groups; but in
+Prof. Max Weber&rsquo;s system  they are placed next one
+<span class="sidenote">Vampires.</span>
+another&mdash;an arrangement which has the great advantage of bringing
+together all the bats furnished with nose-leaves. It is indeed
+probable that the vampires, as the members of the present family
+may be collectively termed, are the New World representatives of the
+Old World <i>Rhinolophidae</i> and <i>Nycteridae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Phyllostomatidae</i> are characterized by the presence of a nose-leaf,
+or of lappets on the chin, but the nostrils are not directed
+upwards. The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal cavity form simple
+plates (much as in the two preceding families). The premaxillae are
+always well developed, with their palatal portions forming a suture
+and denning the boundaries of distinct palatine foramina (in place
+of being rudimentary, as in <i>Nycteridae</i> and <i>Rhinolophidae</i>). The
+large ears have a tragus. The middle finger has three phalanges, and
+the index one. There is an incomplete fibula. The tail may be
+either long or short. Generally the dentition is <i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> 3/3.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 500px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:450px; height:273px" src="images/img243b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Head of Blainville&rsquo;s Vampire
+(<i>Mormops blainvillei</i>). From Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>All the bats of this family may be readily recognized by the
+presence of a well-developed third phalange in the middle finger,
+associated either with a
+distinct nose-leaf, or
+with central upper incisors,
+or with both.
+Unlike the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>,
+their eyes are
+generally large and the
+tragus is well developed,
+maintaining almost the
+same form throughout
+the species, however
+much the other parts
+of the body may vary.
+Their fur is of a dull
+colour, and the face and
+back are often marked
+with white streaks. A few species, probably all those with the
+tail and interfemoral membrane well developed, feed principally
+on insects, while the greater number of the species of the groups
+<i>Vampyreae</i> and <i>Glossophageae</i> appear to live on a mixed diet
+of insects and fruits, and the <i>Desmodonteae</i>, of which two species
+are known, are true blood-suckers, and have their teeth and intestinal
+tract specially modified in accordance with their habits. The group
+is practically limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of Central
+and South America, although one species of <i>Otopterus</i> reaches California.
+In the first subfamily, <i>Mormopsinae</i> (<i>Lobostominae</i>), the
+nostrils open by simple apertures at the extremity of the muzzle in
+front, not margined by a distinct nose-leaf; while, in compensation,
+the chin is furnished with expanded leaf-like appendages. The tail
+is short. It includes two genera. In <i>Chilonycteris</i> the crown of the
+head is moderately elevated above the face-line, and the basi-cranial
+axis is almost in the same plane as the facial, while in <i>Mormops</i> (fig.
+10) the crown of the head is greatly elevated above the face-line, and
+the basi-cranial axis is nearly at right angles to the facial; <i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>p.</i> 2/3,
+in both genera. As regards the species of <i>Chilonycteris</i>, the most
+striking feature is the occurrence of a rufous and a dark brown phase
+in each. In some the two phases are very marked, but in others they
+are connected by intermediate shades. Here may be mentioned the
+two species of tropical American hare-lipped bats, forming the genus
+<i>Noctilio</i>, which presents characters common to this and the following
+family, to which latter it is often referred. The typical <i>N. leporinus</i>
+is a bat of curious aspect, with strangely folded lips, erect skin-processes
+on the chin, and enormous feet and claws. The two middle
+incisors are close together, and so large as to conceal the small outer
+ones, while in the lower jaw there are but two small incisors; the
+premolars numbering 1/2. These bats live near the coast, and feed on
+small crabs and fishes.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the remaining members of the family are included in the
+subfamily <i>Phyllostomatinae</i>, characterized by the presence of a
+distinct nose-leaf and the warty chin. The clitoris is imperforate,
+whereas it is perforated in the <i>Mormopsinae</i>. The incisors are generally
+2/2 (occasionally 2/1), and the molars well developed. The subfamily
+is divided into a number of groups or sections. The first of
+them, the <i>Vampyreae</i>, is characterized as follows: Muzzle long and
+narrow in front, the distance between the eyes generally less than
+(rarely equal to) that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle;
+nose-leaf horseshoe-shaped in front, lanceolate behind; interfemoral
+membrane well developed; tail generally distinct, rarely absent;
+inner margin of the lips not fringed; <i>i.</i> 2/2 or 2/1, <i>p.</i> 2/2 or 2/3; molars with
+<b>W</b>-shaped cusps, usually well developed.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the <i>Vampyreae</i> appear to be insectivorous, so that the
+term cannot be considered indicative of habits; but a few, if not
+all, probably supplement their insect diet with fruit. <i>Vampyrus
+spectrum</i> (the largest bat in the New World) is said to be wholly
+frugivorous, and <i>Otopterus waterhousei</i> appears to prey occasionally
+on smaller bats. The genera may be arranged in two subgroups according
+as the tail is produced to the margin of the interfemoral
+membrane or perforates it to appear on its upper surface. In the
+first division are included three genera, <i>Lonchorhina</i>, <i>Otopterus</i> (or
+<i>Macrotus</i>) and <i>Dolichophyllum</i> (or <i>Macrophyllum</i>), the first represented
+by <i>L. aurita</i>, characterized by an extraordinary long nose-leaf, and
+peculiarly large ears and tragus. In the second subsection are included
+<i>Vampyrus</i>, <i>Chrotopterus</i>, <i>Tonatia</i> (<i>Lophostoma</i>) <i>Micronycteris</i>,
+<i>Glyphonycteris</i>, <i>Trachyops</i>, <i>Phylloderma</i>, <i>Phyllostoma</i>, <i>Anthorhina</i>
+(<i>Tylostoma</i>), <i>Mimon</i>, <i>Hemiderma</i> (<i>Carollia</i>) and <i>Rhinophylla</i>; all, with
+the exception of the last, distinguished chiefly by the form of the skull
+and the presence or absence of the second lower premolar. <i>Phyllostoma
+hastatum</i>, next in point of size to <i>Vampyrus spectrum</i>, is a well-known
+species in South America; <i>P. elongatum</i> (fig. 11) differs in its
+smaller size and larger nose-leaf. <i>Hemiderma brevicauda</i>, a small
+species, closely resembles <i>Glossophaga soricina</i>, and forms a connecting
+link between this and the next group. <i>Rhinophylla pumilio</i> is the
+smallest species of the family; further
+distinguished by the absence of a tail,
+the narrowness of its molars, which
+do not form <b>W</b>-shaped cusps, and the
+small size of the last upper molar,
+characters connecting it and the group
+with the <i>Stenodermateae</i>. Both in
+<i>Hemiderma</i> and <i>Rhinophylla</i> the zygomatic
+arch is incomplete.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 350px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:278px" src="images/img243c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Head of Lesser
+Javelin Vampire (<i>Phyllostoma
+elongatura</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The next subsection, <i>Glossophageae</i>,
+presents the following distinctive
+features: Muzzle long and narrow;
+tongue long and extensible, attenuated
+towards the tip, and beset with
+long filiform recurved papillae; lower
+lip with a wide groove above, and in
+front margined by small warts;
+nose-leaf small; tail short or none;
+<i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>p.</i> 2/3 or 3/3 or 2/2, <i>m.</i> 3/3 or 2/3 or 2/2; teeth narrow; molars with narrow
+<b>W</b>-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent; lower incisors
+small or deciduous. The species included in this group represent
+some ten genera, distinguished principally by differences in the form
+and number of the teeth, and the presence or absence of the zygomatic,
+arch of the skull. In <i>Glossophaga</i> and <i>Phyllonycteris</i> the upper
+incisors form a continuous row between the canines. In <i>Monophyllus</i>
+and <i>Leptonycteris</i> (<i>Ischnoglossa</i>) they are separated into pairs
+by a narrow interval in front; while in <i>Lonchoglossa</i>, <i>Glossonycteris</i>
+and <i>Choeronycteris</i> they are widely separated and placed in pairs near
+the canines. In the first four of these genera the lower incisors are
+present (at least to a certain age), in the last three they are deciduous
+even in youth. The zygomatic arch is wanting in <i>Phyllonycteris</i>,
+<i>Glossonycteris</i> and <i>Choeronycteris</i>. The typical species is <i>Glossophaga
+soricina</i>, which, as already mentioned, closely resembles <i>Hemiderma</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span>
+<i>brevicauda</i>, both in form and dentition. Its long brush-tipped tongue
+(which it possesses in common with other species of the group) is
+used to lick out the pulpy contents of fruits having hard rinds. The
+food of the species of this group appears to consist of both fruit and
+insects, and the long tongue may be used for extracting the latter
+from the deep corollas of flowers. Other genera are <i>Lonchophylla</i>,
+<i>Rhithronycteris</i>, <i>Hylonycteris</i> and <i>Lychonycteris</i>, each with a single
+species (in 1904).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 500px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:450px; height:185px" src="images/img244a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Head of Long-tongued Vampire
+(<i>Choeronycteris mexicana</i>), showing brush-tipped
+tongue. From Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The third group, <i>Stenodermateae</i>, presents the following characteristics:&mdash;Muzzle
+very short and generally broad in front, the distance
+between the eyes nearly always exceeding (rarely equalling) the
+distance from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; nose-leaf
+short, horseshoe-shaped
+in front,
+lanceolate behind
+(except in <i>Brachyphylla</i>
+and <i>Centurio</i>);
+interfemoral membrane
+concave behind;
+tail none;
+inner margin of the
+lips fringed with
+conical papillae;
+<i>i.</i> 2/2 or 2/1, <i>p.</i> 2/2, <i>m.</i> 3/3
+or 2/3 or 2/2; cheek-teeth
+broad (except
+in <i>Sturnira</i>), molars
+with concave or flat crowns margined externally by raised cutting-edges.
+Although the <i>Stenodermateae</i> are generally easily distinguished
+from the <i>Vampyreae</i> by the shortness and breadth of
+the muzzle and the form of the cheek-teeth, certain species of the
+latter resemble the former in external appearance, agreeing almost
+absolutely in the form of the nose-leaf, the ears and the tragus, and
+the warts on the chin. These resemblances show that, while the form
+of the teeth and jaws has become modified to suit the food, the
+external characters have remained much the same, and indicate the
+common origin of the two sections. The food of these bats appears to
+be wholly or in great part fruit. The species are divided into some
+eleven genera, mostly distinguished by the form of the skull and teeth.
+<i>Artibeus</i> includes the frugivorous <i>A. perspicillatus</i>. <i>Stenoderma
+achradophilum</i>, found in Jamaica and Cuba, with the last, from which
+it is scarcely distinguishable externally except by its much smaller
+size, differs in the absence of the horizontal plate of the premaxillae
+on the palate. <i>Sturnira lilium</i>, while agreeing with these in the form
+of the nose-leaf and ears, differs from all the species of the family in
+its longitudinally-grooved molars, which resemble those of the
+<i>Pteropodidae</i> more closely than those of any other bats; and the
+presence of tufts of long differently-coloured hairs over glands in the
+sides of the neck is another character in common with that group.
+<i>Centurio senex</i> (fig. 13) is the type of a small genus distinguished from
+<i>Stenoderma</i> and other genera of this group by the absence of a distinct
+nose-leaf. Some naturalists make this genus the type of a distinct
+subgroup, <i>Centurioneae</i>. Up to 1904 the genera, exclusive of <i>Centurio</i>,
+included in the <i>Stenodermateae</i> were <i>Artibeus</i> (with several sub-genera),
+<i>Vampyrops</i> (also with subgenera), <i>Mesophylla</i>, <i>Chiroderma</i>,
+<i>Stenoderma</i> (with 3 subgenera), <i>Ectophylla</i>, <i>Ametrida</i> (with 2 sub-genera),
+<i>Pygoderma</i>, <i>Sturnira</i> and <i>Brachyphylla</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 350px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:300px; height:237px" src="images/img244b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Head of Masked
+Vampire (<i>Centurio senex</i>).
+From Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The third subfamily, <i>Desmodontieae</i>, is represented only by the
+blood-sucking bats, and distinguished by having <i>i.</i> &frac12;, of which the
+upper pair are cutting, the rudimentary
+molars, the very short interfemoral
+membrane, and the blood-sucking
+habit. They are further characterized
+as follows: Muzzle short and conical;
+nose-leaf distinct; <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> 1/1 or 0/0;
+upper incisors occupying the whole
+space between the canines; premolars
+narrow, with sharp-edged longitudinal
+crowns; molars rudimentary or absent;
+stomach elongated, and intestiniform.
+There are two genera, <i>Desmodus</i>, without
+calcar or molars, and <i>Diphylla</i>,
+with a short calcar and a single rudimentary
+molar on each side&mdash;restricted
+to Central and South America. <i>Desmodus rufus</i>, the commoner
+species, is a little larger than the noctule bat, and abundant
+in certain parts of South America, where it is troublesome owing to
+its attacks upon domestic animals, sucking their blood and leaving
+them weakened from repeated bleedings. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vampire</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The fourth family of bats, unlike any of the three previous ones,
+has a cosmopolitan distribution. These free-tailed bats, as they are
+conveniently called, constituting the family <i>Emballonuridae</i>,
+present the following distinctive features. The
+<span class="sidenote">Free-tailed bats.</span>
+nostrils are of normal form and without a nose-leaf. The
+premaxillae have their palatal portion imperfectly developed,
+and united by a slender process with the maxillae. The
+ears are large, with a small tragus. The middle finger has two
+phalanges, and the index generally a single one. The fibula is incomplete.
+The tail is generally short, and always partly free from
+the interfemoral membrane. There is generally only a single pair of
+upper incisors, separated by gaps from the canines, and from one
+another in the middle line.</p>
+
+<p>The distinctive feature of these bats is the free tail-tip, which
+pierces the interfemoral membrane to appear on its upper surface,
+and may project beyond its margin. As a rule, these bats may also
+be recognized by the peculiar form of the muzzle, which is obliquely
+truncated, the nostrils projecting more or less in front beyond the
+lower lip, by the first phalange of the middle finger being folded in
+repose forwards on the upper surface of the metacarpal bone, and by
+the upper incisors. Although cosmopolitan, these bats rarely extend
+north or south of the thirtieth parallels of latitude.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 280px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:230px; height:195px" src="images/img244c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Ear of <i>Emballonura raffrayana</i>. From Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The family may be divided into two subfamilies, of which the
+<i>Emballonurinae</i> is characterized by the incomplete premaxillae, the
+presence of only one phalange in the index finger, and the short tail.
+The dental formula is generally <i>i.</i> 1/3 (sometimes 2/3 or 1/2), <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> 3/3.
+This subfamily may be further subdivided
+into subgroups or sections of which the
+first, <i>Embalionurae</i>, is characterized by the
+slender tail perforating the interfemoral
+membrane, so as to appear on its upper
+surface; the legs long, with a slender
+fibula; the incisors weak; and the premolars
+2/2. The typical genus <i>Emballonura</i>
+presents the following features: <i>i.</i> 2/3,
+extremity of the muzzle more or less
+produced beyond the lower lip, forehead
+flat. The genus contains several species,
+inhabiting islands from Madagascar
+through the Malay Archipelago and Siam
+to the Navigator Islands. <i>Coleura</i>, with <i>i.</i> 1/3, the extremity
+of the muzzle broad, and the forehead concave, has two species
+from East Africa and the Seychelles. <i>Rhynchonycteris</i> is distinguished
+from <i>Coleura</i> by the produced extremity of the muzzle.
+The single species, <i>R. naso</i>, from Central and South America, is
+common in the vicinity of streams, where it is usually found during
+the day resting on the vertical faces of rocks, or on trunks of trees
+growing over water; it escapes notice owing to the greyish colour of
+the fur of the body and of small tufts on the antebrachial membrane
+counterfeiting the weathered surfaces of rocks and bark. As evening
+approaches it appears on the wing, flying close to the water. <i>Saccopteryx</i>
+has <i>i.</i> 1/3 and the antibrachial membrane with a pouch opening
+on its upper surface; it contains several species from Central and
+South America. This sac is developed only in the male and in the
+female is rudimentary. In adult males a valvular longitudinal
+opening occupies the upper surface of the membrane leading into a
+small pouch, the interior of which is lined with a glandular membrane
+secreting an unctuous reddish substance with a strong ammoniacal
+odour. Allied genera are the tropical American <i>Peropteryx</i> and the
+Brazilian <i>Cormura</i>. The various species of tomb-bats (<i>Taphozous</i>)
+inhabit the tropical and subtropical parts of all the eastern hemisphere
+except Polynesia, and are distinguished by the cartilaginous
+premaxillaries, the deciduous pair of upper incisors, and the presence
+of only two pairs of lower incisors. Most of the species have a
+glandular sac (fig. 15) between the angles of the lower jaw, more
+developed in males than in females, in some species absent in the
+latter. An open throat-sac is wanting in <i>T. melanopogon</i>, but about
+its position are the openings of small pores, the secretion from which
+probably causes the hairs to grow long, forming the black beard
+found in many males. The three tropical American white bats,
+<i>Diclidurus</i>, with <i>i.</i> 1/3, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/2, <i>m.</i> 3/3, resemble <i>Taphozous</i> in the form
+of the head and ears, but, besides other characters, differ from all
+other bats in possessing a pouch, opening off the centre of the
+interior surface of the interfemoral membrane; the extremity of the
+tail enters this, and perforates its base.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:600px; height:227px" src="images/img244d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Heads of Tomb-Bat (<i>Taphozous longimanus</i>), showing
+relative development of throat-sacs in male and female. From
+Dobson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The second subfamily of the <i>Emballonuridae</i>, <i>Rhinopomatinae</i>, is
+represented only by the genus <i>Rhinopoma</i>, with several species
+ranging from Egypt through Arabia to India, Burma and Sumatra.
+The premaxillae (fig. 16) are complete; the index finger has two
+phalanges; the tail is very long and mouselike; and the dental
+formula <i>i.</i> 1/2, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 1/2, <i>m.</i> 2/3. Dr G.E. Dobson has remarked that
+these mouse-tailed bats might be elevated to the rank of a family, for
+it is difficult to determine their affinities, a kind of cross relationship
+attaching them to the <i>Nycteridae</i> on the one hand and to the <i>Emballonuridae</i>
+on the other. These bats, distinguished from all other
+Microchiroptera by the presence of two phalanges in the index finger
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span>
+and the long and slender tail projecting far beyond the narrow interfemoral
+membrane, inhabit the subterranean tombs in Egypt and
+deserted buildings generally from north-east Africa to Burma and
+Sumatra.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 350px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:300px; height:176px" src="images/img245a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Skull of Mouse-tailed Bat (<i>Rhinopoma microphyllum</i>). &times;2. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The last group, according to the system adopted by Prof. Max
+Weber, is that of the <i>Vespertilionidae</i>, which includes such typical
+bats as the pipistrelle, the noctule, and the long-eared
+species. By Mr G.S. Miller<a name="FnAnchor_1g" id="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the first section of the
+<span class="sidenote">Typical bats.</span>
+family&mdash;<i>Natalinae</i>&mdash;is regarded as of family rank, while
+the last section, or <i>Molossinae</i>, is included by Dr G.E. Dobson in the
+<i>Emballonuridae</i>, from the typical forms of which its members differ
+widely in tail-structure. In this
+extended sense the family, which
+has a cosmopolitan distribution,
+may be defined as follows:&mdash;The
+nostrils are normal and without a
+nose-leaf. The ethmoturbinal bones
+of the nasal chamber are involuted.
+The palatine processes of the premaxillae
+do not form a suture. The
+ear is mostly large, with a tragus.
+The middle finger (except in <i>Thyroptera</i>)
+has two phalanges. The
+fibula is usually rudimentary. The
+tail is long and does not perforate the interfemoral membrane.
+The incisors are generally 2/3 or 1/2, but may be reduced to 1/1 in the
+<i>Molossinae</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 450px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:400px; height:291px" src="images/img245b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Chilonatalus micropus</i>. &times;2. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the first subfamily, <i>Natalinae</i>, which is exclusively tropical
+American, the other upper incisors are separated from one
+another and from the canines; palatine processes of the premaxillae
+are at least partially developed; and the dental formula
+is <i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> (2 or 3)/3, <i>m.</i> 3/3. In general appearance these bats recall
+the more typical <i>Vespertilionidae</i>, although the form of the muzzle is
+suggestive of the <i>Mormopsinae</i> among the <i>Phyllostomatidae</i>. Again,
+while the form of the skull is
+vespertilione, the relation of
+the vomer to the front end
+of the premaxillae is of the
+phyllostomine type. The
+molars and incisors are likewise
+vespertilione, whereas the
+premolars are as distinctly
+phyllostomine. Finally, while
+the third, or middle, finger
+normally has two phalanges,
+as in typical <i>Vespertilionidae</i>,
+the second of these is elongated
+and in <i>Thyroptera</i>
+divided into two, as in <i>Phyllostomatidae</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:600px; height:269px" src="images/img245c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Suctorial Disks in <i>Thyroptera tricolor</i>, <i>a</i>, side, and <i>b</i>,
+concave surface, of thumb disk; <i>c</i>, foot with disk, and calcar with
+projections (all much enlarged). (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The first two genera, <i>Furipterus</i> and <i>Amorphochilus</i>, each have a
+single species, the latter being distinguished from the former by the
+wide separation of the nostrils and the backward prolongation of the
+palate. In both the crown of the head is elevated, the thumb and
+first phalange of the middle finger are very short, and the premolars
+are 2/3. The same elevation of the crown characterizes the genera
+<i>Natalus</i> and <i>Chilonatalus</i> (fig. 17), in which the premolars are 3/3: in
+general appearance these bats are very like the Old World vespertilionine
+genus <i>Cerivoula</i>, except for the short triangular tragus.
+Lastly, <i>Thyroptera</i> includes two species distinguished by an additional
+phalange in the middle finger and by accessory clinging-organs attached
+to the extremities. In <i>Thyroptera tricolor, i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 3/3, from Brazil,
+these have the appearance of small, circular, stalked, hollow disks
+(fig. 18), resembling miniature sucking-cups of cuttle-fishes, and are
+attached to the inferior surfaces of the thumbs and the soles of the
+feet. By their aid the bat is able to maintain its hold when creeping
+over smooth vertical surfaces.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 350px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:250px; height:214px" src="images/img245d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Scotophilus emarginatus</i>. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The second or typical subfamily, <i>Vespertilioninae</i>, includes all the
+remaining members of the family with the exception of the aberrant
+<i>Molossinae</i>. The upper incisors are in proximity to the canines; the
+premaxillae widely separated; the ears medium or large; the dental
+formula is <i>i.</i> 2/3 (or 1/3), <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/3 (2/3, 2/2, or 1/2), <i>m.</i> 3/3; and the fibula very
+small and imperfect. All the members of this large cosmopolitan
+group are closely allied, and differ chiefly by external characters.
+They may be divided into subgroups. In the first of these, the
+<i>Plecoteae</i>, of which the long-eared bat (<i>Plecotus auritus</i>) is the type,
+the crown of the head is but slightly raised above the face-line,
+the upper incisors are close to the canines, and the nostrils are
+margined behind by grooves an the upper surface of the muzzle, or
+by rudimentary nose-leaves; the ears being generally very large and
+united. Of the six genera, <i>Plecotus</i>, with <i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 2/3, has three species:&mdash;one
+the long-eared European bat referred to above; <i>P. macrotis</i>,
+restricted to North America, is distinguished
+by the great size of the glandular
+prominences of the sides of the muzzle,
+which meet in the centre above and behind
+the nostrils; the third species being also
+American. The second, <i>Barbastella</i>, with
+<i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 2/2, distinguished by its dentition
+and by the outer margin of the ear being
+carried forwards above the mouth and in
+front of the eye, includes the European
+barbastelle bat, <i>B. barbastellus</i>, and <i>B. darjelingensis</i>
+from the Himalaya. <i>Otonycteris</i>,
+<i>i.</i> 1/3, <i>pm.</i>, 1/2, connecting this group with the
+<i>Vespertilioneae</i>, is represented by <i>O. hemprichii</i>, from North Africa
+and the Himalaya, and an Arabian species. The next two genera are
+distinguished by the presence of a rudimentary nose-leaf: <i>Nyctophilus</i>,
+<i>i.</i> 1/3, <i>p.</i> 1/2, with three species from Australasia; and <i>Antrozous</i>,
+<i>i.</i> 1/2, <i>p.</i> 1/2, distinguished from all the other members of the subfamily
+by having but two lower incisors, and from other <i>Plecoteae</i> by the
+separate ears; the two species inhabit California. The sixth genus,
+<i>Euderma</i>, is also represented by a Californian species.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 450px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:400px; height:152px" src="images/img245e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Cerivoula hardwickei</i>. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The second group <i>Vespertilioneae</i>, with about thirteen genera,
+includes the great majority of the species; and a large number of
+these may be classed under <i>Vespertilio</i>, which is divisible into subgenera,
+differing from one another in the number of premolars, and
+often ranked as separate genera. One group is represented by
+<i>V.</i> (<i>Histiolus</i>) <i>magellanicus</i>, a species remarkable for its extreme
+southern range, its relatives being also South American. A second
+group, with <i>p.</i> 1/2, includes the British serotine, <i>V.</i> (<i>Eptesicus</i>) <i>serotinus</i>,
+of Europe and northern Asia, and represented in North America by
+the closely allied <i>V.</i> (<i>E.</i>) <i>fuscus</i>. In the typical group, which includes
+the Old World <i>V. murinus</i>, one species, <i>V. borealis</i>, ranges to the
+Arctic circle. The European noctule, <i>V.</i> (<i>Pierygistes</i>) <i>noctula</i>, and
+Leisler&rsquo;s bat, <i>V.</i> (<i>P.</i>) <i>leisleri</i>, represent another group; and the
+common pipistrelle, <i>V.</i> (<i>Pipistrellus</i>) <i>pipistrellus</i>, yet another, with
+<i>p.</i> 2/2. The only other group that need be mentioned is one represented
+by the North American <i>V.</i> (<i>Lasionycteris</i>) <i>noctivagans</i>, with <i>p.</i> 2/3.
+The African <i>Läephotes</i>, the Chinese <i>Ia</i>, and the Papuan <i>Philetor</i> are
+allied genera, each with a single species. <i>Chalinolobus</i> and <i>Glauconycteris</i>
+have the same general dental character as <i>Vespertilio</i>,
+but are distinguished by the presence of a lobe projecting from the
+lower lip near the gape; the former, with <i>p.</i> 2/2, is represented by five
+Australasian species, one of which extends into New Zealand; while
+the latter, with <i>p.</i> 1/2, is African. The species of <i>Glauconycteris</i> are
+noticeable for their peculiarly thin membranes traversed by distinct
+reticulations and parallel lines. <i>Scotophilus</i>, with <i>i.</i> 1/3, <i>p.</i> 1/2, includes
+several species, restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions of
+the eastern hemisphere,
+though widely distributed
+within these
+limits. These bats,
+though approaching certain
+species of <i>Vespertilio</i>
+in many points, are distinguished
+by the single
+(in place of two) pair
+of unicuspidate upper
+incisors separated by a
+wide space and placed
+close to the canines, by the small transverse first lower premolar
+crushed in between the canine and second premolar, and, generally,
+by their conical, nearly naked, muzzles and thick leathery membranes.
+<i>S. temmincki</i> is the commonest bat in India, and appears often before
+the sun has touched the horizon. <i>S. gigas</i>, from equatorial Africa, is
+the largest species. <i>Nycticejus</i>, with the same dental formula as
+<i>Scotophilus</i>, is distinguished, by the first lower premolar not being
+crushed in between the adjoining teeth, and the comparatively
+greater size of the last upper molar. It includes only the North
+American <i>N. humeralis</i> (<i>crepuscularis</i>), a bat scarcely larger than the
+pipistrelle. The hairy-membraned bats of the genus <i>Lasiurus</i>
+(<i>Atalapha</i>), with <i>i.</i> 1/3, <i>p.</i> 2/2 or 1/2, are also limited to the New World,
+and generally characterized by the interfemoral membrane being
+more or less covered with hair and by the peculiar form of the tragus,
+which is expanded above and abruptly curved inwards. In those
+species which have two upper premolars the first is extremely small
+and internal to the tooth-row. The genus, which is divided into
+<i>Lasiurus</i> proper and <i>Dasypterus</i>, is further characterized by the
+presence of four teats in the female, and by the general production
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span>
+of three or four offspring at a birth. <i>Rhogëessa</i> and <i>Tomopeas</i> are
+allied tropical American types. <i>Murina</i>, with the subgenus <i>Harpiocephalus</i>,
+has <i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 2/2, and includes several small bats distinguished
+by the prominent tube-like nostrils and hairy interfemoral membrane.
+<i>M. suilla</i>, from Java, the Malay and neighbouring islands, is a well-known
+species, and the closely allied <i>M. hilgendorfi</i> is from Japan.
+The remaining species are from the Himalaya, Tibet and Ceylon;
+and apparently restricted to the hill-tracts of the countries in which
+they are found. Next to <i>Vespertilio</i> the genus <i>Myotis</i> (divisible into
+several subgenera), with <i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 3/3, includes the largest number of
+species, and has rather a wider geographical distribution in both
+hemispheres, one species being recorded from the Navigator Islands.
+The species may be recognized by the peculiar character of the pairs
+of upper incisors on each side, the cusps of which diverge from each
+other, by the large number of premolars, of which the second upper
+is always small, and by the oval elongated ear and narrow tragus.
+The British <i>M. bechsteini</i> and <i>M. nattereri</i> are examples of this group.
+<i>Cerivoula</i> (<i>Kerivoula</i>), which also has <i>p.</i> 3/3, is distinguished by the
+parallel upper incisors and the large second upper premolar. There
+are numerous African and Indo-Malayan species, of which <i>C. picta</i>,
+from India and Indo-Malay, is characterized by its brilliant orange
+fur, and membranes variegated with orange and black. The genus
+includes delicately formed insectivorous, tropical, forest-haunting
+bats, whose colouring approximates them to the ripe bananas among
+which they often pass the daytime.</p>
+
+<p>Another subgroup, <i>Minioptereae</i>, is represented solely by the genus
+<i>Miniopterus</i>, with <i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 2/3. The incisors are separated from one
+another in front and from the canines; the first phalange of the
+middle finger is very short, the crown of the head elevated, and the
+tail long. The genus is represented by some half-dozen Old World
+species, among which the typical <i>M. schreibersi</i> ranges from Europe,
+southern Asia, and Africa to Japan and Australasia.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:280px; height:294px" src="images/img246a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:280px; height:258px" src="images/img246b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Head of Mastiff-bat (<i>Molossus glaucinus</i>). (From Dobson.)</td>
+<td><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Nyctinomops macrotis</i>. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The last subfamily is that of the <i>Molossinae</i>, included by Dobson
+in the family <i>Emballonuridae</i>. In this group the premaxillae are in
+contact or but very slightly separated; the ears are large, with the
+tragus small; the dental formula is <i>i.</i> 1/1 (1/2 or 1/3), <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 1/2 (2/2), <i>m.</i> 3/3;
+and the fibula is strongly developed. In their blunt muzzles and
+many other features these bats undoubtedly resemble the <i>Emballonuridae</i>,
+from the typical members of which they differ by the production
+of the thick tail far beyond the margin of the interfemoral
+membrane. They are further characterized by their broad and
+stout feet, in which the first, and in most cases also the fifth, toe is
+thicker than the rest, and furnished with long bent hairs; and by
+the presence of callosities at the base of the thumbs, and a single
+pair of large upper incisors occupying the centre of the space between
+the canines. The feet are free from the wing-membrane, which
+folds up under the fore-arm and legs; the interfemoral membrane
+is retractile, being movable backwards and forwards along the tail;
+this power of varying its superficial extent confers on these bats
+great dexterity in changing the direction of flight. All are able to
+walk or crawl well, and spend much of their time on trees. The
+genus <i>Chiromeles</i>, with <i>i.</i> 1/1, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 1/2, <i>m.</i> 3/3, the first hind-toe much
+larger than and separate from the others, and the widely sundered
+ears, is represented by <i>C. torquata</i>, a large bat of peculiar aspect,
+inhabiting the Indo-Malay countries. This species is nearly naked,
+a collar only of thinly spread hairs half surrounding the neck, and
+is remarkable for its enormous throat-sac and nursing-pouches.
+The former consists of a semicircular fold of skin forming a pouch
+round the neck beneath, concealing the orifices of subcutaneous
+pectoral glands which discharge an oily fluid of offensive smell. The
+nursing-pouch is formed on each side by an extension of a fold of
+skin from the side of the body to the inferior surfaces of the humerus
+and femur. In the anterior part of this pouch the teat is placed.
+The typical genus <i>Molossus</i> (fig. 21) includes the mastiff-bats,
+characterized by the dental formula <i>i.</i> 1/1 or 1/2, <i>p.</i> 1/2 or 2/2; and by the
+upper incisors being close together in front. The genus is restricted
+to the tropical and subtropical regions of the New World. <i>M.
+obscurus</i>, a small species common in tropical America, inhabits the
+hollow trunks of palms and other trees and the roofs of houses.
+The males and females live apart (as is the case in most if not all
+bats). In West Africa the mastiff-bats are represented by <i>Eomops</i>,
+with one species; while <i>Nyctinomops</i> includes a number of tropical
+American species more nearly related to the next genus, in which
+some of them (fig. 22) were formerly included. The widely spread
+<i>Nyctinomus</i>, with <i>i.</i> 1/3 or 1/2, <i>p.</i> 2/2 or 1/2, and the upper incisors separate
+in front, includes numerous species inhabiting the tropical and
+subtropical parts of both hemispheres. The lips of the bats of this
+genus are even more expansible than in <i>Molossus</i>, in many of the
+species (fig. 22) showing vertical wrinkles. <i>N. toeniotis</i> (or <i>cestonii</i>),
+one of the largest species, alone extends into Europe, as far north
+as Switzerland. <i>N. johorensis</i>, from the Malay Peninsula, is remarkable
+for the extraordinary form of its ears. <i>N. brasiliensis</i>
+is common in tropical America, and extends as far north as California.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:600px; height:271px" src="images/img246c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Thumb and leg and foot of New Zealand bat (<i>Mystacops
+tuberculatus</i>), enlarged. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Here may be conveniently noticed two very rare and aberrant
+bats, <i>Myzopoda</i> (or <i>Myxopoda</i>) <i>aurita</i> of Madagascar, and <i>Mystacops</i>
+(or <i>Mystacina</i>) <i>tuberculatas</i> of New Zealand, the latter
+of which is believed to be well-nigh, if not entirely, exterminated.
+<span class="sidenote">Myzopoda and Mystacops.</span>
+Their systematic position and affinities are
+somewhat uncertain; but in the opinion of O. Thomas<a name="FnAnchor_2g" id="FnAnchor_2g" href="#Footnote_2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+the former should typify a separate family, <i>Myzopodidae</i>, in which
+the latter may also find a place. From all other bats <i>Myzopoda</i> is
+distinguished by the presence of a peculiar mushroom-shaped organ
+at the base of the large ear, and by the union of the tragus with the
+latter, on the inner base of which it forms a small projection. There
+are three phalanges in the middle finger; and the whole inferior
+surface of the thumb supports a large sessile horseshoe-shaped
+adhesive pad, with the circular margin directed forwards and
+notched along its edge, while a smaller pad occupies part of the sole
+of the hind-foot. Mr Thomas regards this bat as related on the one
+hand to the subfamily <i>Mormopsinae</i> of the <i>Phyllostomatidae</i>, and on
+the other to the <i>Natalinae</i> among the <i>Vespertilionidae</i>; both these
+groups being regarded by him as of family rank.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mystacops</i> resembles <i>Myzopoda</i> in having three phalanges to the
+middle finger, but differs in that the tail perforates the interfemoral
+membrane to appear on its upper surface in the manner characteristic
+of the <i>Emballonuridae</i>. The greater part of the wing-membrane is
+exceedingly thin, but a narrow portion along the fore-arm, the sides
+of the body, and the legs, is thick and leathery, and beneath this
+thickened portion the wings are folded. Other peculiarities of
+structure are found in the form of the claws of the thumbs and toes,
+each of which has a small heel projecting from its concave surface
+near the base, also in the sole of the foot and inferior surface of the
+leg, as shown in fig. 23. The plantar surface, including the toes, is
+covered with soft and very lax, deeply wrinkled skin, and each toe
+is marked by a central longitudinal groove with short grooves at
+right angles to it. The lax wrinkled integument is continued along
+the inferior flattened surface of the ankle and leg. These peculiarities
+appear to be related to climbing habits in the species.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Extinct Bats</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Palaeontology tells us nothing with regard to the origin of
+the Chiroptera, all the known fossil species, some of which date
+back to the Oligocene, being more or less closely allied to existing
+types, and therefore of comparatively little interest. The origin
+of the order from primitive insectivorous mammals must have
+taken place at least as early as the Lower Eocene. It is, however,
+noteworthy that several of the earlier extinct species appear
+to be related to the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>, which is the most generalized
+family of the order. Remains of <i>Pteropodidae</i> belonging to
+existing genera occur in the caves of tropical countries in the
+eastern hemisphere; and the skeleton of an extinct generic
+type, <i>Archaeopteropus</i>, has been obtained from the Miocene
+lignite of Italy, which indicates a form to a certain extent
+transitional in character between typical fruit-bats and the
+insectivorous bats. The tail, for instance, which in most modern
+fruit-bats is rudimentary, with only three or four vertebrae, in
+the fossil has eight complete vertebrae; while the teeth of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span>
+extinct form are distinctly cusped. Whether, however, the tail
+is longer than in the existing <i>Notopteris</i> of Fiji and New Guinea,
+or whether the molars are more distinctly cusped than is the
+case with the Solomon Island <i>Pteropus</i> (<i>Pteralopex</i>), is not
+stated. Still, the fact that the Miocene fruit-bat does show
+certain signs of approximation to the insectivorous (and more
+generalized) section of the order is of interest. Of the Oligocene
+forms, <i>Pseudorhinolophus</i> of Europe is apparently a member of
+the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>; but the affinities of <i>Alastor</i> and <i>Vespertiliavus</i>,
+which are likewise European, are more doubtful, although
+the latter may be related to <i>Taphozous</i>. The North American
+<i>Vespertilio</i> (<i>Vesperugo</i>) <i>anemophilus</i> and the European <i>V.
+aquensis</i> and <i>V. parisiensis</i> are, on the other hand, members of
+the <i>Vespertilionidae</i>, the last being apparently allied to the
+serotine (<i>V. serotinus</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>AUTHORITIES.&mdash;The above article is based to some extent on the
+article in the 9th edition of this work by G.E. Dobson, whose
+British Museum &ldquo;Catalogue&rdquo; is, however, now obsolete. Professor
+H. Winge&rsquo;s &ldquo;Jordfundae og nulevende Flagermus (Chiroptera),&rdquo;
+published in <i>E. Mus. Lundi</i> (Copenhagen, 1892), contains much
+valuable information; and for <i>Pteropodidae</i> Dr P. Matschie&rsquo;s
+<i>Megachiroptera</i> (Berlin, 1899), should be consulted. For the rest the
+student must refer to namerous papers by G.M. Allen, K. Andersen,
+F.A. Jentink, G.S. Miller, T.S. Palmer, A.G. Rehn, O. Thomas and
+others, in various English and American zoological serials, all of
+which are quoted in the volumes of the <i>Zoological Record</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1g" id="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. xii. (1899).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2g" id="Footnote_2g" href="#FnAnchor_2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> (London, 1904), vol. ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIRU<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span>, a graceful Tibetan antelope (<i>Pantholops Hodgsoni</i>),
+of which the bucks are armed with long, slender and heavily-ridged
+horns of an altogether peculiar type, while the does are
+hornless. Possibly this handsome antelope may be the original
+of the mythical unicorn, a single buck when seen in profile
+looking exactly as if it had but one long straight horn. Although
+far from uncommon, chiru are very wary, and consequently
+difficult to approach. They are generally found in small parties,
+although occasionally in herds. They inhabit the desolate
+plateau of Tibet, at elevations of between 13,000 and 18,000 ft.,
+and, like all Tibetan animals, have a firm thick coat, formed in
+this instance of close woolly hair of a grey fawn-colour. The most
+peculiar feature about the chiru is, however, its swollen, puffy
+nose, which is probably connected with breathing a highly rarefied
+atmosphere. A second antelope inhabiting the same country
+as the chiru is the goa (<i>Gazella picticaudata</i>), a member of the
+gazelle group characterized by the peculiar form of the horns
+of the bucks and certain features of coloration, whereby it is
+markedly distinguished from all its kindred save one or two
+other central Asian species. The chiru, which belongs to the
+typical or antilopine section of antelopes, is probably allied to
+the saiga.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHIRURGEON<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span>, one whose profession it is to cure disease by
+operating with the hand. The word in its original form is now
+obsolete. It derives from the Mid. Eng. <i>cirurgien</i> or <i>sirurgien</i>,
+through the Fr. from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheirourgos">&#967;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span>, one who operates with
+the hand (from <span class="grk" title="cheir">&#967;&#949;&#7984;&#961;</span>, hand, <span class="grk" title="ergon">&#7956;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#957;</span>, work); from the early form
+is derived the modern word &ldquo;surgeon.&rdquo; &ldquo;Chirurgeon&rdquo; is a
+16th century reversion to the Greek origin. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Surgery</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHISEL<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>cisel</i>, modern <i>ciseau</i>, Late Lat. <i>cisellum</i>,
+a cutting tool, from <i>caedere</i>, to cut), a sharp-edged tool for cutting
+metal, wood or stone. There are numerous varieties of chisels
+used in different trades; the carpenter&rsquo;s chisel is wooden-handled
+with a straight edge, transverse to the axis and bevelled
+on one side; stone masons&rsquo; chisels are bevelled on both sides,
+and others have oblique, concave or convex edges. A chisel with
+a semicircular blade is called a &ldquo;gouge.&rdquo; The tool is worked
+either by hand-pressure or by blows from a hammer or mallet.
+The &ldquo;cold chisel&rdquo; has a steel edge, highly tempered to cut
+unheated metal. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tool</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHISLEHURST<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span>, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parliamentary
+division of Kent, England, 11-1/4 m. S.E. of London,
+by the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 7429.
+It is situated 300 ft. above sea-level, on a common of furze
+and heather in the midst of picturesque country. The church
+of St Nicholas (Perpendicular with Early English portions, but
+much restored) has a tomb of the Walsingham family, who had
+a lease of the manor from Elizabeth; Sir Francis Walsingham,
+the statesman, being born here in 1536. Another statesman
+of the same age, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was born here in 1510.
+Near the church is an ancient cockpit. The mortuary chapel
+attached to the Roman Catholic church of St Mary was built
+to receive the body of Napoleon III., who died at Camden
+Place in 1873; and that of his son was brought hither in 1879.
+Both were afterwards removed to the memorial chapel at
+Farnborough in Hampshire. Camden Place was built by
+William Camden, the antiquary, in 1609, and in 1765 gave
+the title of Baron Camden to Lord Chancellor Pratt. The house
+was the residence not only of Napoleon III., but of the empress
+Eugénie and of the prince imperial, who is commemorated by a
+memorial cross on Chislehurst Common. The house and grounds
+are now occupied by a golf club. There are many villa residences
+in the neighbourhood of Chislehurst.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHISWICK<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span>, an urban district in the Ealing parliamentary
+division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, on the
+Thames, 7&frac12; m. W. by S. of St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral. Pop. (1901)
+29,809. The locality is largely residential, but there are breweries,
+and the marine engineering works of Messrs Thornycroft on the
+river. Chiswick House, a seat of the duke of Devonshire, is
+surrounded by beautiful grounds; here died Fox (1806) and Canning
+(1827). The gardens near belonged till 1903 to the Royal
+Horticultural Society. The church of St Nicholas has ancient
+portions, and in the churchyard is the tomb of William Hogarth
+the painter, with commemorative lines by David Garrick.
+Hogarth&rsquo;s house is close at hand. Chiswick Hall, no longer
+extant, was formerly a country seat for the masters and sanatorium
+for the scholars of Westminster school. Here in 1811 the
+Chiswick Press was founded by Charles Whittingham the elder,
+an eminent printer (d. 1840).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHITA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span>, a town of east Siberia, capital of Transbaikalia, on
+the Siberian railway, 500 m. E. of Irkutsk, on the Chita river,
+half a mile above its confluence with the Ingoda. Pop. (1883)
+12,600; (1897) 11,480. The Imperial Russian Geographical
+Society has a museum here. Several of the palace revolutionaries,
+known as Decembrists, were banished to this place from
+St Petersburg in consequence of the conspiracy of December 1825.
+The inhabitants support themselves by agriculture and by trade
+in furs, cattle, hides and tallow bought from the Buriats, and
+in manufactured wares imported from Russia and west Siberia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHITALDRUG<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span>, a district and town in the native state of
+Mysore, India. The district has an area of 4022 sq. m. and a
+population (1901) of 498,795. It is distinguished by its low
+rainfall and arid soil. It lies within the valley of the Vedavati
+or Hagari river, mostly dry in the hot season. Several parallel
+chains of hills, reaching an extreme height of 3800 ft., cross the
+district; otherwise it is a plain. The chief crops are cotton and
+flax; the chief manufactures are blankets and cotton cloth.
+The west of the district is served by the Southern Mahratta
+railway. The largest town in the district is Davangere (pop.
+10,402). The town of CHITALDRUG, which is the district headquarters
+(pop. 1901, 5792), was formerly a military cantonment,
+but this was abandoned on account of its unhealthiness. It
+has massive fortifications erected under Hyder Ali and Tippoo
+Sahib towards the close of the 18th century; and near it on the
+west are remains of a city of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHITON<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span>, the name<a name="FnAnchor_1h" id="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> given to fairly common littoral animals
+of rather small size which belong to the phylum Mollusca, and,
+in the possession of a radula in the buccal cavity, resemble more
+especially the Gastropoda. Their most important characteristic
+in comparison with the latter is that they are, both in external
+and internal structure, bilaterally symmetrical. The dorsal
+integument or mantle bears, not a simple shell, but eight calcareous
+plates in longitudinal series articulating with each other.
+The ventral surface forms a flat creeping &ldquo;foot,&rdquo; and between
+mantle and foot is a pallial groove in which there is on each side
+a series of gills. Originally the Chitons were placed with the
+limpets, <i>Patella</i>, in Cuvier&rsquo;s <i>Cyclobranchia</i>, an order of the
+Gastropoda. In 1876 H. von Jhering demonstrated the affinities
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span>
+of <i>Neomenia</i> and <i>Chaetoderma</i>, vermiform animals destitute of
+shell, with the Chitons, and placed them all in a division of worms
+which he named Amphineura. The discovery by A.A.W.
+Hubrecht in 1881 of a typical molluscan radula and odontophore
+in a new genus <i>Proneomenia</i>, allied to <i>Neomenia</i>, showed that
+the whole group belonged to the Mollusca. E. Ray Lankester
+(<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, 9th ed., 1883) placed them under the name Isopleura
+as a subclass of Gastropoda. Paul Pelseneer (1906) raised the
+group to the rank of a class of Mollusca, under von Jhering&rsquo;s
+name Amphineura.</p>
+
+<p>The Amphineura are divided into two orders: (1) the Polyplacophora,
+or Chitons; (2) the Aplacophora, or forms without
+shells, <i>Neomenia</i>, <i>Chaetoderma</i> and their allies.</p>
+
+<p class="center1">Order I.&mdash;<span class="sc">Polyplacophora</span></p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:550px; height:314px" src="images/img248a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Three views of Chiton.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr f90" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p>A. Dorsal view of <i>Chiton Wosnessenksii</i>,
+Midd., showing
+the eight shells. (After
+Middendorf.)</p>
+
+<p>B. View from the pedal surface
+of a species of Chiton from
+the Indian Ocean, <i>p</i>, foot;
+<i>o</i>, mouth (at the other end
+of the foot is seen the anus
+raised on a papilla); <i>kr</i>,
+oral fringe; <i>br</i>, the numerous
+ctenidia (branchial
+plumes); spreading beyond
+these, and all round the
+animal, is the mantle-skirt.
+(After Cuvier.)</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl"><p>C. The same species of Chiton,
+with the shells removed and
+the dorsal integument reflected,
+<i>b</i>, buccal mass; <i>m</i>,
+retractor muscles of the
+buccal mass; <i>ov</i>, ovary;
+<i>od</i>, oviduct; <i>i</i>, coils of intestines;
+<i>ao</i>, aorta; <i>c&rsquo;</i>, left
+auricle; <i>c</i>, ventricle.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:550px; height:448px" src="images/img248b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Pallial eye and aesthetes of <i>Acanthopleura spiniger</i>
+(Moseley).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Each of the eight valves of the shell is made up of two distinct
+calcareous layers: (a) an outer or upper called the tegmentum,
+which is visible externally; (b) a deeper layer called articulamentum
+which is porcellaneous, quite compact, and entirely
+covered by the tegmentum. In the lower forms the two layers
+are coextensive and have smooth edges, but in the higher forms
+the articulamentum projects laterally beyond and beneath the
+tegmentum into the substance of the mantle. These projections
+are termed insertion plates; they are usually slit or notched to
+form teeth, the edges of which may be smooth and sharp, or may
+be crenulated. The anterior margin of each valve except the
+first is provided with two projections called sutural laminae
+which underlie the posterior margin of the preceding valve.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:600px; height:358px" src="images/img248c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Lankester, <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Ventral aspect of three species of Polyplacophora showing
+position of gills.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr f90" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" style="width: 50%;">
+<p>A. <i>Lepidopleurus benthus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>B. <i>Boreochiton cinereus</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl"><p>C. <i>Schizochiton incisus</i>. <i>a</i>,
+anus; <i>f</i>, foot; <i>g</i>, gills; <i>m</i>,
+mouth; <i>pa</i>, mantle;  <i>pa&rsquo;</i>,
+anal lobe of mantle; <i>ps</i>,
+pallial slit; <i>te</i>, pallial
+tentacles.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 400px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:350px; height:644px" src="images/img248d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Diagrams of the alimentary canal of Amphineura (from Hubrecht).</p>
+<p>A. Neomenia and Proneomenia.</p>
+<p>B. Chaetoderma.</p>
+<p>C.  Chiton.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Alimentary canal.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Liver (digestive gland).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The tegmentum is formed by the fold of mantle covering the
+edge of the articulamentum, and extends over the latter from the
+sides. It is the first part of the shell formed in development.
+The tegmentum is much reduced in <i>Acanthochiton</i>, and absent
+in the adult <i>Cryptochiton</i>.
+The tegmentum is pierced
+by numerous vertical ramified
+canals which contain
+epithelial papillae of the
+epidermis. These papillae
+form pallial sense-organs,
+containing nerve-end
+bulbs, covered by a dome
+of cuticle, and innervated
+from the pallial nerve-cords.
+They are termed
+according to their size,
+micraesthetes and megalaesthetes.
+In the common
+species of <i>Chiton</i> and many
+others of the family
+<i>Chitonidae</i> the megalaesthetes
+are developed into
+definite eyes, the most
+complicated of which have
+retina, pigment within the
+eye, cornea and crystalline
+lens (intra-pigmental eyes)
+(fig. 2). The eyes are
+arranged in rows running
+diagonally from the median
+anterior beak of each valve
+to its lateral borders
+There may be only one
+such row on either side, or
+many rows. In some species
+the total number present
+amounts to thousands.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Branchiae.</i>&mdash;The series of
+gills may extend the whole
+length of the body in the pallial groove, or may be confined to the
+posterior end. Each gill has the structure of a typical molluscan
+ctenidium, consisting of an axis bearing an anterior and posterior
+row of filaments or lamellae. The gills are thus metamerically
+repeated; there may be from four to eighty pairs, but there is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span>
+often a numerical asymmetry on the two sides. The largest pair of
+branchiae is placed immediately behind the renal openings and
+corresponds to the single pair of other molluscs, the organs being
+repeated anteriorly only (Metamacrobranchs) or anteriorly and
+posteriorly (Mesomacrobranchs).</p>
+
+<p><i>Intestine.</i>&mdash;The digestive tube in the Polyplacophora, which are
+herbivorous, is longer than the body, and thrown into a few coils,
+the anus being median and posterior. The mouth leads into the
+buccal cavity, on the ventral side of which opens the radular caecum.
+Each transverse row of teeth of the radula contains 17 teeth, one of
+which is median, while the second and the fifth on each side are
+enlarged. Two pairs of glands open into the buccal cavity, and at
+the junction of pharynx and oesophagus is another pair called the
+sugar glands. The stomach is surrounded by the liver or digestive
+gland, consisting of two lobes which are symmetrical in the young
+animals, but in the adult the right lobe is anterior and smaller.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:453px; height:620px" src="images/img249a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Diagrams of the excretory and reproductive organs of
+Amphineura (after Hubrecht).</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" style="width: 50%;">
+<p>A, Chaetoderma.</p>
+<p>B, Neomenia.</p>
+<p>C, Proneomenia.</p>
+<p>D, Chiton.</p>
+<p>O, Ovary.</p>
+<p>P, Pericardium.</p>
+<p>N, Nephridium.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl"><p>u, External aperture of nephridium.</p>
+<p>g, External aperture of the genital duct of Chiton.</p>
+<p>r, Rectum.</p>
+<p>Cl, Cloacal or pallial chamber of Neomeniae and Chaetoderma.</p>
+<p>Br, Ctenidia (branchial plumes).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs.</i>&mdash;As in other molluscs the
+coelom is represented by a large pericardial cavity, situated above
+the intestine posteriorly, and a generative sac which is single and
+median and situated in front of the pericardium, except in the
+<i>Nuttalochiton hyadesi</i>, where the gonads are in a similar position,
+but are paired. The excretory organs are coelomoducts with an internal
+ciliated opening into the pericardium and an opening to the exterior.
+Both the openings are close together, the external opening being
+just in front of the principal gill near the posterior end of the body.
+The renal tube is doubled on itself, its middle part where the bend
+occurs being situated more or less anteriorly. The excretory surface
+is increased by numerous ramified caeca which extend beneath the
+body wall laterally and ventrally, and open into the tube (fig. 6).
+The sexes are distinct, and the ovary is frequently greenish in colour,
+the testis red. The gonad is transversely wrinkled and lies between
+the aorta and the intestine, extending from the pericardium to the
+anterior end of the body. A simple gonaduct on each side arises
+from the gonad near its posterior end and passes first forwards,
+then backwards, and lastly outwards to the external opening in the
+pallial groove, anterior to the renal aperture. There may be from
+one to nine gills between the genital and renal pores.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heart and Vascular System.</i>&mdash;The heart is enclosed in the
+pericardium, and consists of a median elongated ventricle and a pair of
+lateral auricles, so that the structure somewhat resembles that in
+the Lamellibranchiata. The openings of the auricles into the
+ventricle vary in different forms. In many of the lower forms
+(<i>Lepidopleuridae, Mopalidae, Ischnochitonidae</i>) the opening on each
+side is single and anterior. In the true <i>Chitonidae</i> there are generally
+two apertures on each side, and in two species three or four, another
+instance of the tendency to metameric repetition in the group.
+The auricles are connected with one another posteriorly behind the
+ventricle. The ventricle leads into a single anterior median aorta.
+As in other molluscs, the arteries do not extend far, but lead into
+inter-visceral blood-spaces. The venous blood is conducted from
+the tissues to a large sinus on either side above the pallial groove,
+and from this sinus passes to the gills by an afferent vessel in each
+gill on the internal or pedal margin of the axis. The oxygenated
+blood is carried from each gill by an efferent vessel on the external
+or pallial side of the axis to another longitudinal vessel which leads
+to the auricle on each side.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:571px" src="images/img249b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">
+<p class="f90">After Haller (<i>Arbeiten zool. Instit.</i>), Vienna, 1882.</p>
+<p class="pt05"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Dissection of the renal organs (nephridia) of <i>Chiton siculus.</i></p>
+<p class="pt05">F, Foot.</p>
+<p>L, Edge of the mantle not removed in the front part of the specimen.</p>
+<p>s.o., Oesophagus.</p>
+<p>af, Anus.</p>
+<p>gg, Genital duct.</p>
+<p>go, External opening of the same.</p>
+<p>eg, Stem of the nephridium leading to no, its external aperture.</p>
+<p>nk, Reflected portion of the nephridial stem.</p>
+<p>ng, Fine caeca of the nephridium, which are seen ramifying transversely
+    over the whole inner surface of the pedal muscular mass.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System.</i>&mdash;There are no well-marked specialized ganglia
+in the central nervous system, nerve-cells being distributed uniformly
+along the cords. There are two pairs of longitudinal
+cords, a pedal pair situated ventrally and united beneath
+the intestine by numerous commissures, and a pallial
+pair situated laterally and continuous with one another
+above the rectum (fig. 7).  The four cords are all connected
+anteriorly with the cerebral commissure which
+lies above the buccal mass anteriorly. From the points
+where the cords meet the cerebral commissure, arise on
+each an anterior labial commissure and a stomatogastric
+commissure. The letter bears two ganglion swellings, the
+buccal ganglia. The labial commissure gives off a subradular
+commissure which also bears two ganglia, these being
+in close relation to a special sense-organ called the subradular
+organ, an epithelial projection with nerve-endings,
+lying in front of the radula and probably gustatory in
+function. One osphradium or branchial olfactory organ
+is usually present on each side, on either side of the anus on
+the inner wall of the mantle, near the base of the last gill.
+In <i>Lepidopleuridae</i> an osphradium occurs at the base of
+each gill. The sense organs of the shell-valves have
+already been described.</p>
+
+<p><i>Development.</i>&mdash;The eggs may be laid separately invested
+by a chitinous envelope, or as in <i>Ischnochiton
+magdalenensis</i> they may form strings containing nearly
+200,000 eggs, or the ova may be retained in the pallial
+groove and undergo development there, as in <i>Chiton polii</i>
+and <i>Hemiarthrum setulosum</i>.  One species <i>Callistochiton
+viviparus</i> is viviparous and its ova develop without a larval
+stage in the maternal oviduct. Segmentation is total and at first
+regular, and is followed by invagination, the blastopore passing to the
+position of the future mouth. By the development of a ciliated ring
+just in front of the mouth the embryo becomes a trochosphere. In
+the centre of the praeoral lobe is a tuft of cilia. Just behind the
+ciliated ring is a pair of larval eyes which disappear in the adult;
+these correspond to the cephalic eyes of Lamellibranchs. An
+ectodemic invagination forms a large mucous gland on the foot,
+which is more or less atrophied in adult life. The gonads originate
+by proliferation of the anterior wall of the pericardium. The shell-valves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span>
+arise as transverse thickenings of the dorsal cuticle behind the
+ciliated ring, the tegmentum being the first part formed.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Classification</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Suborder I. <span class="sc">Eoplacophora</span>, Pilsbry.&mdash;Tegmentum coextensive
+with articulamentum, or the latter projecting in smooth unslit plates.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:330px; height:828px" src="images/img250a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter1" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:290px; height:392px" src="images/img250b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">
+<p class="f90">After Hubrecht, loc. cit.</p>
+<p class="pt05"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Diagrams of the nervous system of Amphineura.</p>
+
+<p class="pt05">A, Proneomenia.</p>
+<p>B, Neomenia.</p>
+<p>C, Chaetoderma.</p>
+<p>D, Chiton.</p>
+<p>c, Cerebral ganglia.</p>
+<p>s, Sublingual ganglia.</p>
+<p>v, Pedal (ventral) nerve-cord.</p>
+<p>l, Visceral (lateral) nerve-cord.</p>
+<p>pc. Post-anal junction of the visceral nerve-cords.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl" style="padding-left: 4em;">
+<p class="f90">From Gegenbaur, <i>Elements of Comp.  Anatomy.</i></p>
+<p class="pt05"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Anterior part of the nervous system of <i>Chiton cinereus</i>,
+in more detail.</p>
+
+<p class="pt05">B, Buccal ganglia (concerned with the odontophore).</p>
+<p>C, Cerebral nerve-mass.</p>
+<p>P, Pedal ganglion and commencement of pedal nerve-cord.</p>
+<p>pl, Visceral nerve-cord. The sublingual ganglia are not lettered.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 mind">Fam. 1. <i>Lepidopleuridae.</i>&mdash;Terminal margins of end valves never
+elevated; form oval or oblong. <i>Lepidopleurus cancellatus</i>, Sow.
+North Atlantic and Mediterranean; various abyssal species.
+<i>Hanleya hanleyi</i>, Bean, north Atlantic. <i>Hemiarthrum Microplax</i>.
+The extinct <i>Gryptochitonidae</i>, Pilsbry, with
+other Palaeozoic genera, narrow and elongated in
+form with terminal margins of end valves
+elevated, belong to this group.</p>
+
+<p>Suborder II. <span class="sc">Mesoplacophora</span>, Pilsbry.&mdash;Insertion plates well developed and slit.</p>
+
+<p class="mind">Fam. 2. <i>Ischnochitonidae.</i>&mdash;All the valves with
+slits, and the inner layer well covered by the outer.</p>
+
+<p class="mind2">Subfam. 1. <i>Ischnochitoninae.</i>&mdash;No shell-eyes:
+sutural laminae separated; slits in the valves
+1-7 do not correspond with the ribs of the
+tegmentum. <i>Ischnochiton, Trachydermon,
+Chaetopleura, Stenoplax, Stenoradsia</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="mind2">Subfam. 2. <i>Callochitoninae.</i> With shell-eyes and united sutural
+laminae. <i>Callochiton laevis</i>, North Atlantic and Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p class="mind2">Subfam. 3. <i>Callistoplacinae.</i> No shell-eyes, slits in the valves 1-7
+corresponding with the ribs of the tegmentum. <i>Callistochiton</i>
+(viviparous). <i>Nuttalochiton.</i></p>
+
+<p class="mind">Fam. 3. <i>Mopaliidae.</i> Each intermediate valve with a single slit;
+girdle hairy. <i>Mopalia, Placiphorella, Plaxiphora, Placophoropsis.</i></p>
+
+<p class="mind">Fam. 4. <i>Acanthochitonidae.</i> Valves immersed in the girdle, with
+small tegmentum. <i>Acanthochiton</i> (A<i>. fascicularis</i>, North Atlantic
+and Mediterranean). <i>Spongiochiton, Katharina, Amicula, Cryptochiton</i>
+(<i>C. stelleri</i>, arctic).</p>
+
+<p class="mind">Fam. 5. <i>Cryptoplacidae.</i> Vermiform, with thick girdle and small
+valves; insertion and sutural plates strongly drawn forward,
+sharp and smooth. <i>Cryptoplax, Choneplax.</i></p>
+
+<p>Suborder III. <span class="sc">Teleoplacophora</span>, Pilsbry.&mdash;All the valves, or at
+least the seven anterior, with insertion plates cut into teeth by slits.</p>
+
+<p class="mind">Fam. 6. <i>Chitonidae.</i> Characters of the suborder.</p>
+
+<p class="mind2">Subfam. 1. <i>Chitoninae.</i> No extra-pigmental eyes; insertion
+plates with pectinations between the fissures. <i>Chiton, Eudoxochiton,
+Trachyodon, Radsia.</i></p>
+
+<p class="mind2">Subfam. 2. <i>Toniciinae.</i> Extra-pigmental shell-eyes. <i>Tonicia,
+Acanthopleura, Enoplochiton, Onithochiton, Schizochiton,
+Lorica, Loricella, Liolophura.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center1">Order 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Aplacophora</span>, von Jhering.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chaetoderma</i> was first described by S. Lovén, in 1841, and was
+for a long time believed to be a Gephyrean worm. <i>Neomenia</i>,
+mentioned first by Michael Sars in 1868 under the name <i>Solenopus</i>,
+was afterwards included among the Opisthobranchs by
+J. Koren and D.C. Danielssen. C. Gegenbaur placed the two
+genera in a division of Vermes which he called Solenogastres.</p>
+
+<p>The chief points in which the Aplacophora differ from the
+Polyplacophora are: (1) they are worm-like in shape; (2) there is
+no distinct foot, and the mantle bears no shell-valves, but only
+numerous calcareous spicules; (3) the digestive tube is straight.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neomenia</i> and its allies are marine animals living at depths
+of 15 to 800 fathoms on soft muddy ground; they are found
+crawling on corals and hydrozoa, on which they feed. The
+British genera are: <i>Neomenia, Rhopalomenia</i> and <i>Myzomenia</i>.
+They have been taken in nearly all seas except the South Atlantic
+and S.E. and N.W. Pacific. About forty species are known.
+<i>Chaetoderma</i>, of which nine species have been described, has
+similar habits and distribution, but feeds chiefly on Protozoa.
+The order Aplacophora is divided into two suborders.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Suborder I. <span class="sc">Neomeniomorpha</span>.&mdash;Aplacophora with a distinct
+longitudinal ventral groove; bisexual with paired genital glands
+and no distinct liver. The whole of the skin except the ventral groove
+corresponds to the mantle of <i>Chiton</i>. The cuticle, in some species
+very thick, contains numerous spicules which are long, hollow and
+calcified; they are secreted by epithelial papillae. In some species
+there are also sensory papillae comparable to the aesthetes of Chitons.
+A small longitudinal projection in the ventral groove represents the
+foot. Into the groove open mucous glands, a large one anteriorly
+and another opening into a posteriorly cloacal, branchial cavity.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:550px; height:187px" src="images/img250c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;<i>Neomenia carinata</i>, Tullberg (after Tullberg).</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" style="width: 50%;">
+<p>A, Lateral view.</p>
+<p>B, Ventral view.</p>
+<p>C, Dorsal view.</p>
+<p>D, Ventral view of a more extended specimen.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<p>a, Anterior.</p>
+<p>b, Posterior extremity.</p>
+<p>c, Furrow, in which the narrow foot is concealed.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Branchiae.</i>&mdash;In <i>Neomeniidae</i> and most of the <i>Parameniidae</i>
+there is a circlet of gills on the inner walls of the cloacal chamber. These
+gills are simple folds or laminae of the body wall. In other species
+they are absent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Intestine.</i>&mdash;-The mouth opens into a muscular pharynx lined by
+a thick cuticle. Into the pharyngeal cavity open salivary glands
+and radular sac. The former are paired and ventral, and open on
+a subradular prominence. In some species there is a second dorsal
+pair. <i>Neomenia</i> and other genera have no salivary glands.</p>
+
+<p>The radula when present comprises several transverse rows of
+teeth, and each transverse row may have several teeth (polystichous),
+two teeth (distichous), or one tooth (monostichous). It is a curious
+fact that in the original type <i>Neomenia</i> the radula is entirely absent,
+as it likewise is in several genera of <i>Proneomeniidae</i>. The oesophagus
+is short and leads into a long, straight stomach, provided with
+numerous symmetrical lateral caeca. The stomach opens into a
+short straight rectum which opens into the branchial chamber.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs.</i>&mdash;The coelom differs from
+that of the Chitons in the fact that the cavities of the genital organs
+are continuous with it, and in the fact that there is only one pair of
+coelomoducts resembling the renal organs of Chitons, but serving
+also as genital ducts. The gonads are paired and hermaphrodite,
+they form a pair of anterior prolongations of the pericardium,
+extending nearly to the anterior end of the body. Ova are developed
+on the median, spermatozoa on the outer wall of each genital tube.
+The pericardium is ciliated internally on its dorsal and lateral walls.
+The urino-genital tubes arise from the posterior angles of the pericardium,
+pass first forwards, then backwards, and unite to open
+by a common opening into the cloaca below the anus except in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span>
+<i>Strophomenia</i>, where the openings are separate. Usually each tube
+is provided with caecal appendages on its proximal portion, and these
+serve as vesiculae seminales, while the distal portion is enlarged
+and glandular and secretes the egg-shell.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heart and Vascular System.</i>&mdash;There is a heart in the pericardium
+consisting of a median ventricle attached, except in <i>Neomenia</i>, to
+the dorsal wall of the pericardium, and in <i>Neomenia</i> a pair of auricular
+ducts returning blood from the gills to the ventricle. The aorta is
+not independent as in Chitons, but is a sinus like the other channels
+of the circulation. A single median ventral sinus passes backwards
+to the gills or cloaca. The blood is coloured red by haemoglobin in
+blood corpuscles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System.</i>&mdash;Ganglionic enlargements are more conspicuous
+than in the Chitons. In front of the buccal mass is a median cerebral
+ganglion. From this pass off two pairs of cords, the pleural
+and pedal, in <i>Proneomenia</i> separate from their origin, in <i>Neomenia</i>
+united at first and diverging at a pleural ganglion. The pedal cords
+anteriorly form a pair of pedal ganglia united by a thick commissure.
+The supra-rectal commissure may be present and bear an ovoid
+ganglion; or may be wanting. With regard to sense organs the
+epithelial papillae of the mantle have been mentioned. There is
+also in some genera a median retractile sensory papilla on the dorsal
+posterior surface above the rectum, not covered by the cuticle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Development</i> has only been described in <i>Myzomenia banyulensis</i>,
+by G. Pruvot. It closely resembles in the early stages that of
+Chitons. The external surface of the trochosphere is formed of a
+number of ciliated test-cells. The ectoderm behind the ciliated ring
+develops spicules, and the post-oral region of the larva elongates.
+Later the ciliated ring or velum disappears and seven imbricated
+calcareous plates, made up of flattened spicules, are formed on the
+dorsal surface. This appears to indicate that the Neomeniomorpha
+are descended from <i>Chiton</i>-like ancestors, and that they have lost
+their shell valves.</p>
+
+<p class="mind"><i>Classification of the</i> <span class="sc">Neomeniomorpha</span>.&mdash;Fam. 1. <i>Lepidomeniidae.</i>
+Slender, tapering behind, with subventral cloacal orifice; thin
+cuticle without papillae; flattened spicules; no gills. <i>Lepidomenia,
+Ismenia, Ichthyodes, Stylomenia, Dondersia, Nematomenia,
+Myzomenia, M. banyulensis</i>, Mediterranean and Plymouth.</p>
+
+<p class="mind">Fam. 2. <i>Neomeniidae.</i> Short, truncate in front and behind;
+cloacal orifice transverse; gills present; rather thin cuticle;
+no radula. <i>Neomenia</i> (<i>N. carinata</i>, N. Atlantic and N. and
+N.W. Scotland), <i>Hemimenia</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="mind">Fam. 3. <i>Proneomeniidae.</i> Elongated, cylindrical, rounded at both
+ends; thick cuticle with acicular spicules; radula polystichous
+or wanting. <i>Proneomenia, Amphimenia, Echinomenia, Rhopalomenia</i>
+(<i>R. aglaopheniae</i>, Mediterranean and Plymouth),
+<i>Notomenia, Pruvotia, Strophomenia</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="mind">Fam. 4. <i>Parameniidae.</i> Short and truncated in front; thick
+cuticle, often without papillae; gills and radula present.
+<i>Paramenia, Macellomenia, Pararhopalia, Dinomenia, Cyclomenia,
+Proparamenia, Uncimenia, Kruppomenia.</i></p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 450px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:400px; height:102px" src="images/img251a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;<i>Chaetoderma nitidulum</i>,
+Lovén (after Graff). The cephalic
+enlargement is to the left, the anal
+chamber (reduced pallial chamber, containing
+the concealed pair of ctenidia) to the right.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Suborder II. <span class="sc">Chaetodermomorpha</span>.&mdash;Aplacophora without
+distinct ventral groove, with single median unisexual gonad, with
+differentiated hepatic sac, and with cloacal chamber
+furnished with two bipectinate gills. There are only
+two genera in this suborder: <i>Chaetoderma</i>, and
+<i>Limifossor</i> from Alaska. The characters therefore
+are very uniform. The body is worm-like and cylindrical,
+the posterior half a little thicker than the anterior;
+the posterior extremity
+forms the enlarged funnel-like branchial or cloacal chamber.
+The anterior extremity is also somewhat enlarged. The whole
+surface is uniformly covered with short compressed calcareous spicula
+embedded in the cuticle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Branchiae.</i>&mdash;The single pair of branchiae are placed symmetrically
+right and left of the anus, and each has the structure
+of a ctenidium bearing a row of lamellae on each side as in the Polyplacophora.</p>
+
+<p><i>Intestine.</i>&mdash;The mouth is anterior, terminal and crescentic, and
+beneath it is a rounded ventral shield. On the floor of the pharynx
+or buccal mass is a rudimentary radula, which in many species
+consists of a single large tooth, bearing two small teeth or a row of
+teeth. In other species the radula is more of the usual type consisting
+of several transverse rows of two or three teeth each. Two
+pairs of salivary glands open into the buccal cavity. The digestive
+tube is straight and simple, wider in its anterior part, into which
+opens the duct of the hepatic caecum (fig. 4, B). The latter extends
+backwards on the ventral side of the intestine.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs.</i>&mdash;These are closely similar
+in their relations to those of the Neomeniomorpha. The chief
+difference is that the gonad or generative portion of the coelom is
+single and median, opening into the pericardium by a single posterior
+aperture. The excretory organs or coelomoducts arise from the
+posterior corners of the pericardium, run forwards and then backwards
+to open by separate apertures lateral to the gills (fig. 5, A).
+There are no accessory generative organs.</p>
+
+<p><i>The heart and vascular system</i> are similar to those of the
+Neomeniomorpha, the only important differences being that the ventricle
+is nearly free in the pericardial cavity, and that the latter is traversed
+by the retractor muscles of the gills.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System.</i>&mdash;There are two closely connected cerebral ganglia,
+from which arise the usual two pairs of nerve cords. Pallial and
+pedal on each side are closer together than in the other groups, and
+posteriorly they unite into a supra-rectal cord provided with a
+median ganglionic enlargement (fig. 7, C). A small stomatogastric
+commissure bearing two small ganglia arises from the cerebral
+ganglia and surrounds the oesophagus.</p>
+
+<p>The development is at present entirely unknown.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>General Remarks on the Amphineura.</i></p>
+
+<p>The most important theoretical question concerning the
+Amphineura is how far do they represent the original condition
+of the ancestral mollusc? That is to say, we have to inquire
+which of their structural features is primitive and which modified.
+Their bilateral symmetry is obviously to be regarded as primitive,
+and the nervous system shows an original condition from which
+that of the asymmetrical twisted Gastropods can be derived.
+But in many other features both external and internal the three
+principal divisions differ so much from one another that we have
+to consider in the case of each organ-system which condition
+is the more primitive. According to Paul Pelseneer the
+Polyplacophora are the most archaic, the Aplacophora being
+specialized in (1) the great reduction of the foot, (2) the
+disappearance of the shell (<i>Cryploplax</i> among the Polyplacophora
+showing both reductions in progress), (3) the disappearance of
+the radula. But it is a widely recognized principle of morphology
+that a much modified animal is by no means modified to the
+same degree in all its organs. A form which is primitive on the
+whole may show a more advanced stage of evolution in some
+particular system of organs than another animal which is on the
+whole more highly developed and specialized. Thus the
+independent metamerism of certain organs in the Chitons is not
+primitive but acquired within the group: <i>e.g.</i> the shell valves
+and the ctenidia. And although embryology seems to prove
+that the Neomeniomorphs are derived from forms with a series
+of shell-valves, nevertheless it seems probable that the calcareous
+spicules which alone are present in adult Aplacophora preceded
+the solid shell in evolution.</p>
+
+<p>It is held by some morphologists that the mollusc body is
+unsegmented, and therefore is to be compared to a single segment
+of a Chaetopod or Arthropod. In this case there should be only
+one pair of coelomoducts in the adult, the pair of true nephridia
+which should also occur being represented by the larval nephridia.
+There should also be only a single coelom, or a pair of lateral
+coelomic cavities. On this view then the Aplacophora are more
+primitive than the Polyplacophora in the relations of coelom,
+gonad and coelomoducts; and the genital ducts of the Chitons
+have arisen either by metameric repetition within the group,
+or by the gradual loss of an original connexion between the
+generative sac and the renal tube, as in Lamellibranchs and
+Gastropods, the generative sac acquiring a separate duct and
+opening to the exterior on each side.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;A. Sedgwick, &ldquo;On certain Points in the Anatomy
+of Chiton,&rdquo; <i>Proc. R. Soc. Lond.</i> xxxiii., 1881; J. Blumrich,
+&ldquo;Das Integument der Chitonen,&rdquo; <i>Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.</i> lii., 1891;
+A.C. Haddon, &ldquo;Report on the Polyplacophora,&rdquo; <i>Challenger Reports. Zool.</i>
+pt. xliii., 1886;
+H.N. Moseley, &ldquo;On the presence of Eyes in the Shells of certain Chitonidae,
+and on the structure of these Organs,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.</i>
+new ser. xxv., 1885; A.A.W. Hubrecht,
+&ldquo;Proneomenia Sluiteri,&rdquo; <i>Nied. Arch. f. Zool.</i> Suppl. 1., 1881;
+A. Kowalewsky and A.F. Marion, &ldquo;Contr. à l&rsquo;histoire des Solenogastres
+ou Aplacophores,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Mus. Marseille, Zool.</i> iii., 1887;
+A. Kowalewsky, &ldquo;Sur le genre Chaetoderma,&rdquo;
+<i>Arch. de zool. expér</i>. (3) ix., 1901;
+P. Pelseneer, &ldquo;Mollusca,&rdquo; <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>, edited by
+E. Ray Lankester, pt. v., 1906;
+E. Ray Lankester, &ldquo;Mollusca,&rdquo; in the 9th ed. of this Encyclopaedia,
+to which this article is much indebted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1h" id="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Gr. <span class="grk" title="chitôn">&#967;&#953;&#964;&#974;&#957;</span> was a garment in the shape of a loose tunic,
+varying at different periods: see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>: <i>Greek</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
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+</body>
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+
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@@ -0,0 +1,20969 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 2
+       "Chicago, University of" to "Chiton"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 20, 2010 [EBook #31329]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like a2 or were originally
+      printed in subscript.
+
+(2) Side-notes were moved as titles to their respective paragraphs.
+
+(3) Chinese characters were denoted as [Ch].
+
+(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(5) Letters topped by Breve are represented as [)x].
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Page 159: "a detailed account of the period (Santiago, 1875); the
+      same author's," 'Santiago' amended from 'Sanitago'.
+
+    Page 183: "The more important are those that follow:--," amended
+      from 'folllow'.
+
+    Page 183: "The three provinces adjoining the metropolitan province
+      of Chih-li--Shan-tung, Shan-si and Ho-nan--have no viceroys over
+      them," 'Ho-nan' amended from 'Hon-an'.
+
+    Page 242: "The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in
+      genera (to say nothing of species) that only some of the more
+      important types can be mentioned).)," superfluous parenthesis
+      removed.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME VI, SLICE II
+
+       Chicago, University of to Chiton
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF                      CHILPERIC
+  CHICANE                                     CHILTERN HILLS
+  CHICHELEY, HENRY                            CHILTERN HUNDREDS
+  CHICHEN-ITZA                                CHILWA
+  CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER    CHIMAERA
+  CHICHESTER                                  CHIMAY
+  CHICKAMAUGA CREEK                           CHIME
+  CHICKASAWS                                  CHIMERE
+  CHICKASHA                                   CHIMESYAN
+  CHICKEN-POX                                 CHIMKENT
+  CHICLANA                                    CHIMNEY
+  CHICOPEE                                    CHIMNEYPIECE
+  CHICORY                                     CHIMPANZEE
+  CHIDAMBARAM                                 CHINA (country)
+  CHIEF                                       CHINA (porcelain)
+  CHIEMSEE                                    CHINANDEGA
+  CHIENG MAI                                  CHI-NAN FU
+  CHIERI                                      CHINCHA ISLANDS
+  CHIETI                                      CHINCHEW
+  CHI-FU                                      CHINCHILLA
+  CHIGI-ALBANI                                CHINDE
+  CHIGWELL                                    CHINDWIN
+  CHIH-LI                                     CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER
+  CHIHUAHUA (state of Mexico)                 CHINESE PAVILLON
+  CHIHUAHUA (city of Mexico)                  CHINGFORD
+  CHILAS                                      CHINGLEPUT
+  CHILBLAINS                                  CHIN HILLS
+  CHILD, SIR FRANCIS                          CHINKIANG
+  CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES                        CHINO-JAPANESE WAR
+  CHILD, SIR JOHN                             CHINON
+  CHILD, SIR JOSIAH                           CHINOOK
+  CHILD, LYDIA MARIA                          CHINSURA
+  CHILD                                       CHINTZ
+  CHILDEBERT                                  CHIOGGIA
+  CHILDERIC                                   CHIOS
+  CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY              CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS
+  CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR                     CHIPPENHAM
+  CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO                   CHIPPEWA
+  CHILDRENITE                                 CHIPPING CAMPDEN
+  CHILDREN'S COURTS                           CHIPPING NORTON
+  CHILDREN'S GAMES                            CHIQUITOS
+  CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM                      CHIROMANCY
+  CHILE                                       CHIRON
+  CHILEAN CIVIL WAR                           CHIROPODIST
+  CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR                          CHIROPTERA
+  CHILIASM                                    CHIRU
+  CHILLAN                                     CHIRURGEON
+  CHILLIANWALLA                               CHISEL
+  CHILLICOTHE (city in Missouri, U.S.A.)      CHISLEHURST
+  CHILLICOTHE (city in Ohio, U.S.A.)          CHISWICK
+  CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM                      CHITA
+  CHILOE                                      CHITALDRUG
+  CHILON                                      CHITON
+
+
+
+
+CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the great educational institutions of the
+United States, established under Baptist auspices in the city of
+Chicago, and opened in 1892.[1] Though the president and two-thirds of
+the trustees are always Baptists, the university is non-sectarian except
+as regards its divinity school. An immense ambition and the
+extraordinary organizing ability shown by its first president, William
+R. Harper, determined and characterized the remarkable growth of the
+university's first decade of activity. The grounds include about 140
+acres. Of these about 60 acres--given in part by Marshall Field and laid
+out by Frederick Law Olmsted--border the Midway Plaisance, connecting
+Washington and Jackson parks. On these grounds the main part of the
+university stands. The buildings are mostly of grey limestone, in Gothic
+style, and grouped in quadrangles. The Mitchell tower is a shortened
+reproduction of Magdalen tower, Oxford, and the University Commons,
+Hutchinson Hall, is a duplicate of Christ Church hall, Oxford.
+Dormitories accommodate about a fifth of the students. The quadrangles
+include clubs, dining halls, dormitories, gymnasiums, assembly halls,
+recitation halls, laboratories and libraries. In the first college year,
+1892-1893, there were 698 students; in that of 1907-1908 there were
+5038,[2] of whom 2186 were women. There are faculties of arts,
+literature, science, divinity,[3] medicine (organized in 1901), law
+(1902), education, and commerce and administration. The astronomical
+department, the Yerkes Observatory, is located on William's Bay, Lake
+Geneva, Wisconsin, about 65 m. from Chicago. It has the largest
+refracting telescope in the world (clear aperture 40 in., focal length
+about 61 ft.). The Chicago Institute, founded and endowed by Mrs Anita
+McCormick Blaine as an independent normal school, became a part of the
+university in 1901. The school of education, as a whole, brings under
+university influence hundreds of children from kindergarten age upwards
+to young manhood and womanhood, apart from the university classes
+proper. Chicago was the second university of the country to give its
+pedagogical department such scope in the union of theory and practice.
+The nucleus of the library (450,000 volumes in 1908) was purchased in
+Berlin soon after the university's organization, in one great collection
+of 175,000 volumes. Scholarly research has been fostered in every
+possible way, and the university press has been active in the
+publication of various departmental series and the following
+periodicals:--_Biblical World_, _American Journal of Theology, American
+Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, American Journal of
+Sociology, Journal of Political Economy, Modern Philology, Classical
+Philology, Classical Journal, Journal of Geology, Astrophysical Journal,
+Botanical Gazette, Elementary School Teacher and School Review._ The
+courses in the College of Commerce and Administration link the
+university closely with practical life. In extension work the university
+has been active from the beginning, instruction being given not only by
+lectures but by correspondence (a novel and unique feature among
+American universities); in the decade 1892-1902, 1715 persons were
+prepared by the latter method for matriculation in the university (11.6%
+of the total number of matriculants in the decade). Extension lectures
+were given in twenty-two states. At Chicago the work of the university
+is continuous throughout the year: the "summer quarter" is not as in
+other American schools a supplement to the teaching year, but an
+integral part; and it attracts the teachers of the middle western states
+and of the south. In the work of the first two years, known together as
+the Junior College, men and women are in the main given separate
+instruction; but in the Senior College years unrestricted co-education
+prevails. Students are mainly controlled by self-government in small
+groups ("the house system"). Relations with "affiliated" (private)
+colleges and academies and "co-operating" (public) high-schools also
+present interesting features.
+
+The value of the property of the university in 1908 was about
+$25,578,000. Up to the 30th of June 1908 it had received from gifts
+actually paid $29,651,849, of which $22,712,631 were given by John D.
+Rockefeller.[4] The value of buildings in 1908 was $4,508,202, of
+grounds $4,406,191, and of productive funds $14,186,235. Upon the death
+of President Harper, Harry Pratt Judson (b. 1849), then head professor
+of political science and dean of the faculties of arts, became acting
+president, and on the 20th of January 1907 he was elected president.
+
+  See the _Decennial Publications_ of the University (since 1903),
+  especially vol. i. for details of history and administration.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] A small Baptist college of the same name---established in 1855
+    on land given by S.A. Douglas--went out of existence in 1886.
+
+  [2] If, however, the total is reckoned on the basis of nine months
+    of residence the figure for 1907-1908 would be 3202.
+
+  [3] The Divinity School has a graduate department and three
+    under-graduate departments, doing work in English, in Danish and
+    Norwegian, and in Swedish. Allied with the Divinity School of the
+    University is the "Disciples' Divinity House" (1894), a theological
+    school of the Disciples of Christ.
+
+  [4] The words "founded by John D. Rockefeller" follow the title of
+    the university on all its letterheads and official documents. Mr
+    Rockefeller would not allow his name to be a part of the title, nor
+    has he permitted the designation of any building by his name.
+    President Harper was selected by him to organize the university, and
+    it was his will that the president and two-thirds of the trustees
+    should be "always" Baptists. President Harper more than once stated
+    most categorically that contrary to prevalent beliefs no donor of
+    funds to the university "has ever (1902) by a single word or act
+    indicated his dissatisfaction with the instruction given to students
+    in the university, or with the public expression of opinion made by
+    any officer of the university"; and certainly so far as the public
+    press reveals, no other university of the country has had so many
+    professors who have in various lines, including economics, expressed
+    radical views in public.
+
+
+
+
+CHICANE, the pettifogging subterfuge and delay of sharp
+law-practitioners, also any deliberate attempt to gain unfair advantage
+by petty tricks. A more common English form of the word is "chicanery."
+"Chicane" is technically used also as a term in the game of bridge for
+the points a player may score if he holds no trumps. The word is French,
+derived either from _chaug[=a]n_, Persian for the stick used in the game
+of "polo," still played on foot and called _chicane_ in Languedoc (the
+military use of _chicaner_, to take advantage of slight variations in
+ground, suits this derivation), or from _chic_, meaning little or petty,
+from the Spanish _chico_, small, which appears in the phrase "_chic a
+chic_," little by little.
+
+
+
+
+CHICHELEY, HENRY (1364-1443), English archbishop, founder of All Souls
+College, Oxford, was born at Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire, in 1363
+or 1364. Chicheley told the pope in 1443, in asking leave to retire from
+the archbishopric, that he was in his eightieth year. He was the third
+and youngest son of Thomas Chicheley, who appears in 1368 in still
+extant town records of Higham Ferrers as a suitor in the mayor's court,
+and in 1381-1382, and again in 1384-1385, was mayor: in fact, for a
+dozen years he and Henry Barton, school master of Higham Ferrers grammar
+school, and one Richard Brabazon, filled the mayoralty in turns. His
+occupation does not appear; but his eldest son, William, is on the
+earliest extant list (1373) of the Grocers' Company, London. On the 9th
+of June 1405 Chicheley was admitted, in succession to his father, to a
+burgage in Higham Ferrers. His mother, Agnes Pincheon, is said to have
+been of gentle birth. There is therefore no foundation in fact for the
+silly story (copied into the _Diet. Nat. Biog._ from a local historian,
+J. Cole, Wellingborough, 1838) that Henry Chicheley was picked up by
+William of Wykeham when he was a poor ploughboy "eating his scanty meal
+off his mother's lap," whatever that means. The story was unknown to
+Arthur Duck, fellow of All Souls, who wrote Chicheley's life in 1617. It
+is only the usual attempt, as in the cases of Whittington, Wolsey and
+Gresham, to exaggerate the rise of a successful man. The first recorded
+appearance of Henry Chicheley himself is at New College, Oxford, as
+Checheley, eighth among the undergraduate fellows, in July 1387, in the
+earliest extant hall-book, which contains weekly lists of those dining
+in Hall. It is clear from Chicheley's position in the list, with eleven
+fellows and eight scholars, or probationer-fellows, below him, that this
+entry does not mark his first appearance in the college, which had been
+going on since 1375 at least, and was chartered in 1379. He must have
+come from Winchester College in one of the earliest batches of scholars
+from that college, the sole feeder of New College, not from St John
+Baptist College, Winchester, as guessed by Dr William Hunt in the _Dict.
+Nat. Biog._ (and repeated in Mr Grant Robertson's _History of All Souls
+College_) to cover the mistaken supposition that St Mary's College was
+not founded till 1393. St Mary's College was in fact formally founded in
+1382, and the school had been going on since 1373 (A.F. Leach, _History
+of Winchester College_), while no such college as St John's College at
+Winchester ever existed.
+
+Chicheley appears in the Hall-books of New College up to the year
+1392/93, when he was a B.A. and was absent for ten weeks from about the
+6th of December to the 6th of March, presumably for the purpose of his
+ordination as a sub-deacon, which was performed by the bishop of Derry,
+acting as suffragan to the bishop of London. He was then already
+beneficed, receiving a royal ratification of his estate as parson of
+Llanvarchell in the diocese of St Asaph on the 20th of March 1391/92
+(_Cal. Pat. Rolls_). In the Hall-book, marked 1393/94, but really for
+1394/95, Chicheley's name does not appear. He had then left Oxford and
+gone up to London to practise as an advocate in the principal
+ecclesiastical court, the court of arches. His rise was rapid. Already
+on the 8th of February 1395/96 he was on a commission with several
+knights and clerks to hear an appeal in a case of _John Molton, Esquire
+v. John Shawe, citizen of London_, from Sir John Cheyne, kt., sitting
+for the constable of England in a court of chivalry. Like other
+ecclesiastical lawyers and civil servants of the day; he was paid with
+ecclesiastical preferments. On the 13th of April 1396 he obtained
+ratification of the parsonage of St Stephen's, Walbrook, presented on
+the 30th of March by the abbot of Colchester, no doubt through his
+brother Robert, who restored the church and increased its endowment. In
+1397 he was made archdeacon of Dorset by Richard Mitford, bishop of
+Salisbury, but litigation was still going on about it in the papal court
+till the 27th of June 1399, when the pope extinguished the suit,
+imposing perpetual silence on Nicholas Bubwith, master of the rolls, his
+opponent. In the first year of Henry IV. Chicheley was parson of
+Sherston, Wiltshire, and prebendary of Nantgwyly in the college of
+Abergwilly, North Wales; on the 23rd of February 1401/2, now called
+doctor of laws, he was pardoned for bringing in, and allowed to use, a
+bull of the pope "providing" him to the chancellorship of Salisbury
+cathedral, and canonries in the nuns' churches of Shaftesbury and Wilton
+in that diocese; and on the 9th of January 1402/3 he was archdeacon of
+Salisbury. This year his brother Robert was senior sheriff of London. On
+the 7th of May 1404, Pope Boniface IX. provided him to a prebend at
+Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held prebends at Salisbury,
+Lichfield, St Martin's-le-Grand and Abergwyly, and the living of
+Brington. On the 9th of January 1405 he found time to attend a court at
+Higham Ferrers and be admitted to a burgage there. In July 1405
+Chicheley began a diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman pope
+Innocent VII., who was professing his desire to end the schism in the
+papacy by resignation, if his French rival at Avignon would do likewise.
+Next year, on the 5th of October 1406, he was sent with Sir John Cheyne
+to Paris to arrange a lasting peace and the marriage of Prince Henry
+with the French princess Marie, which was frustrated by her becoming a
+nun at Poissy next year. In 1406 renewed efforts were made to stop the
+schism, and Chicheley was one of the envoys sent to the new pope Gregory
+XII. Here he utilized his opportunities. On the 31st of August 1407 Guy
+Mone (he is always so spelt and not Mohun, and was probably from one of
+the Hampshire Meons; there was a John Mone of Havant admitted a
+Winchester scholar in 1397), bishop of St David's, died, and on the 12th
+of October 1407 Chicheley was by the pope provided to the bishopric of
+St David's. Another bull the same day gave him the right to hold all his
+benefices with the bishopric.
+
+At Siena in July 1408 he and Sir John Cheyne, as English envoys, were
+received by Gregory XII. with special honour, and Bishop Repingdon of
+Lincoln, ex-Wycliffite, was one of the new batch of cardinals created on
+the 18th of September 1408, most of Gregory's cardinals having deserted
+him. These, together with Benedict's revolting cardinals, summoned a
+general council at Pisa. In November 1408 Chicheley was back at
+Westminster, when Henry IV. received the cardinal archbishop of Bordeaux
+and determined to support the cardinals at Pisa against both popes. In
+January 1409 Chicheley was named with Bishop Hallum of Salisbury and the
+prior of Canterbury to represent the Southern Convocation at the
+council, which opened on the 25th of March 1409, arriving on the 24th of
+April. Obedience was withdrawn from both the existing popes, and on the
+26th of June a new pope elected instead of them. Chicheley and the other
+envoys were received on their return as saviours of the world; though
+the result was summed up by a contemporary as trischism instead of
+schism, and the Church as giving three husbands instead of two.
+Chicheley now became the subject of a leading case, the court of king's
+bench deciding, after arguments reheard in three successive terms, that
+he could not hold his previous benefices with the bishopric, and that,
+spite of the maxim _Papa potest omnia_, a papal bull could not supersede
+the law of the land (_Year-book_ ii. H. iv. 37, 59, 79). Accordingly he
+had to resign livings and canonries wholesale (April 28, 1410). As,
+however, he had obtained a bull (August 20, 1409) enabling him to
+appoint his successors to the vacated preferments, including his nephew
+William, though still an undergraduate and not in orders, to the
+chancellorship of Salisbury, and a prebend at Lichfield, he did not go
+empty away. In May 1410 he went again on an embassy to France; on the
+11th of September 1411 he headed a mission to discuss Henry V.'s
+marriage with a daughter of the duke of Burgundy; and he was again there
+in November. In the interval Chicheley found time to visit his diocese
+for the first time and be enthroned at St David's on the 11th of May
+1411. He was with the English force under the earl of Arundel which
+accompanied the duke of Burgundy to Paris in October 1411 and there
+defeated the Armagnacs, an exploit which revealed to England the
+weakness of the French. On the 30th of November 1411 Chicheley, with two
+other bishops and three earls and the prince of Wales, knelt to the king
+to receive public thanks for their administration. That he was in high
+favour with Henry V. is shown by his being sent with the earl of Warwick
+to France in July 1413 to conclude peace. Immediately after the death of
+archbishop Arundel he was nominated by the king to the archbishopric,
+elected on the 4th of March, translated by papal bull on the 28th of
+April, and received the pall without going to Rome for it on the 24th of
+July.
+
+These dates are important as they help to save Chicheley from the
+charge, versified by Shakespeare (_Henry V._ act i. sc. 2) from Hall's
+_Chronicle_, of having tempted Henry V. into the conquest of France for
+the sake of diverting parliament from the disendowment of the Church.
+There is no contemporary authority for the charge, which seems to appear
+first in Redman's rhetorical history of Henry V., written in 1540 with
+an eye to the political situation at that time. As a matter of fact, the
+parliament at Leicester, in which the speeches were supposed to have
+been made, began on the 30th of April 1414 before Chicheley was
+archbishop. The rolls of parliament show that he was not present in the
+parliament at all. Moreover parliament was so far from pressing
+disendowment that on the petition of the Commons it passed a savage act
+against the heresies "commonly called Lollardry" which "aimed at the
+destruction of the king and all temporal estates," making Lollards
+felons and ordering every justice of the peace to hunt down their
+schools, conventicles, congregations and confederacies.
+
+In his capacity of archbishop, Chicheley remained what he had always
+been chiefly, the lawyer and diplomatist. He was present at the siege of
+Rouen, and the king committed to him personally the negotiations for the
+surrender of the city in January 1419 and for the marriage of Katherine.
+He crowned Katherine at Westminster (20th February 1421), and on the 6th
+of December baptized her child Henry VI. He was of course a persecutor
+of heretics. No one could have attained or kept the position of
+archbishop at the time without being so. So he presided at the trial of
+John Claydon, Skinner and citizen of London, who after five years'
+imprisonment at various times had made public abjuration before the late
+archbishop, Arundel, but now was found in possession of a book in
+English called _The Lanterne of Light_, which contained the heinous
+heresy that the principal cause of the persecution of Christians was the
+illegal retention by priests of the goods of this world, and that
+archbishops and bishops were the special seats of antichrist. As a
+relapsed heretic, he was "left to the secular arm" by Chicheley. On the
+1st of July 1416 Chicheley directed a half-yearly inquisition by
+archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On the 12th of February 1420
+proceedings were begun before him against William Taylor, priest, who
+had been for fourteen years excommunicated for heresy, and was now
+degraded and burnt for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to
+saints, but only to God. A striking contrast was exhibited in October
+1424, when a Stamford friar, John Russell, who had preached that any
+religious _potest concumbere cum muliere_ and not mortally sin, was
+sentenced only to retract his doctrine. Further persecutions of a whole
+batch of Lollards took place in 1428. The records of convocation in
+Chicheley's time are a curious mixture of persecutions for heresy, which
+largely consisted in attacks on clerical endowments, with negotiations
+with the ministers of the crown for the object of cutting down to the
+lowest level the clerical contributions to the public revenues in
+respect of their endowments. Chicheley was tenacious of the privileges
+of his see, and this involved him in a constant struggle with Henry
+Beaufort, bishop of Winchester. In 1418, while Henry V. was alive, he
+successfully protested against Beaufort's being made a cardinal and
+legate _a latere_ to supersede the legatine jurisdiction of Canterbury.
+But during the regency, after Henry VI.'s accession, Beaufort was
+successful, and in 1426 became cardinal and legate. This brought
+Chicheley into collision with Martin V. The struggle between them has
+been represented as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the
+encroachments of the papacy on the Church of England. In point of fact
+it was almost wholly personal, and was rather an incident in the rivalry
+between the duke of Gloucester and his half-brother, Cardinal Beaufort,
+than one involving any principle. Chicheley, by appointing a jubilee to
+be held at Canterbury in 1420, "after the manner of the Jubilee ordained
+by the Popes," threatened to divert the profits from pilgrims from Rome
+to Canterbury. A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on
+the 19th of March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated "to
+ensnare simple souls and extort from them a profane reward, thereby
+setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff,
+to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted by God" (_Cal. Pap.
+Reg._ vii. 12). Chicheley also incurred the papal wrath by opposing the
+system of papal provision which diverted patronage from English to
+Italian hands, but the immediate occasion was to prevent the
+introduction of the bulls making Beaufort a cardinal. Chicheley had been
+careful enough to obtain "Papal provisions" for himself, his
+pluralities, his bishopric and archbishopric.
+
+But, after all, it is not as archbishop or statesman, persecutor,
+papalist or antipapalist that Chicheley is remembered, but for his
+educational foundations. He endowed a hutch, i.e. chest or loan-fund for
+poor scholars at New College, and another for the university of Oxford
+at large. He founded no less than three colleges, two at Oxford, one at
+Higham Ferrers, while there is reason to believe that he suggested and
+inspired the foundation of Eton and of King's College. His first college
+at Oxford, in perishing, gave birth to St John's College, which now
+holds its site. This was St Bernard's College, founded by Chicheley
+under licence in mortmain in 1437 for Cistercian monks, on the model of
+Gloucester Hall and Durham College for the southern and northern
+Benedictines. Nothing more than a site and building was required by way
+of endowment, as the young monks, who were sent there to study under a
+provisor, were supported by the houses of the order to which they
+belonged. The site was five acres, and the building is described in the
+letters patent "as a fitting and noble college mansion in honour of the
+most glorious Virgin Mary and St Bernard in Northgates Street outside
+the Northgate of Oxford." It was suppressed with the Cistercian abbeys
+in 1539, and granted on the 11th of December 1546 to Christ Church,
+Oxford, who sold it to Sir Thomas Pope in 1553 for St John's College.
+
+The college at Higham Ferrers was a much earlier design. On the 2nd of
+May 1422 Henry V., in right of the duchy of Lancaster, "hearing that
+Chicheley inflamed by the pious fervour of devotion intended to enlarge
+divine service and other works of piety at Higham Ferrers, in
+consideration of his fruitful services, often crossing the seas,
+yielding to no toils, dangers or expenses ... especially in the
+conclusion of the present final peace with our dearest father the king
+of France," granted for 300 marks (L200) licence to found, on three
+acres at Higham Ferrers, a perpetual college of eight chaplains and four
+clerks, of whom one was to teach grammar and the other song ... "and six
+choristers to pray for himself and wife and for Henry IV. and his wife
+Mary ... and to acquire the alien priory of Merseye in Essex late
+belonging to St Ouen's, Rouen," as endowment. A papal bull having also
+been obtained, on the 28th of August 1425, the archbishop, in the course
+of a visitation of Lincoln diocese, executed his letters patent founding
+the college, dedicating it to the Virgin, St Thomas a Becket and St
+Edward the Confessor, and handed over the buildings to its members, the
+vicar of Higham Ferrers being made the first master or warden. He
+further endowed it in 1434 with lands in Bedfordshire and
+Huntingdonshire, and his brothers, William and Robert, gave some houses
+in London in 1427 and 1438. The foundation was closely modelled on
+Winchester College, with its warden and fellows, its grammar and song
+schoolmasters, but a step in advance was made by the masters being made
+fellows and so members of the governing body. Attached was also a bede
+or almshouse for twelve poor men. Both school and almshouse had existed
+before, and this was merely an additional endowment. The whole endowment
+was in 1535 worth some L200 a year, about a fifth of that of Winchester
+College. Unfortunately, All Souls being a later foundation, the college
+at Higham Ferrers was not affiliated to it, and so fell with other
+colleges not part of the universities. On the 18th of July 1542 it was
+surrendered to Henry VIII., and its possessions granted to Robert Dacres
+on condition of maintaining the grammar school and paying the master L10
+a year, the same salary as the headmasters of Winchester and Eton, and
+maintaining the almshouse. Both still exist, but the school has been
+deprived of its house, and the Fitzwilliam family, who now own the
+lands, still continue to pay only L10 a year.
+
+All Souls College was considerably later. The patent for it, dated 20th
+of May 1438, is for a warden and 20 scholars, to be called "the Warden
+and College of the souls of all the faithful departed," to study and
+pray "for the soul of King Henry VI. and the souls of Henry V., Thomas,
+duke of Clarence, and all the dukes, earls, barons, knights, squires and
+other nobles and subjects of our father who during the time and in the
+service of our father and ourselves ended their lives in the wars of the
+kingdom of France, and for the souls of all the faithful departed." For
+this, the king granted Berford's Hall, formerly Charleston's Inn, which
+Chicheley's trustees had granted to him so as to obtain a royal grant
+and indefeasible title. Richard Andrews, the king's secretary, like
+Chicheley himself a scholar of Winchester and fellow of New College, was
+named as first warden. A papal bull for the college was obtained on the
+21st of June 1439; and further patents for endowments from the 11th of
+May 1441 to the 28th of January 1443, when a general confirmation
+charter was obtained, for which L1000 (L30,000 at least of our money)
+was paid. It is commonly represented that the endowment was wholly
+derived from alien priories bought by Chicheley from the crown. In
+truth, not so large a proportion of the endowment of All Souls was
+derived from this source as was that of New College. The only alien
+priories granted were Abberbury in Oxfordshire, Wedon Pinkney in
+Northamptonshire, Romney in Kent, and St Clare and Llangenith in Wales,
+all very small affairs, single manors and rectories, and these did not
+form a quarter of the whole endowment. The rest, particularly the manor
+of Edgware, which made the fortune of the college, was bought from
+private owners. Early in 1443 the college was opened by Chicheley with
+four bishops in state. The statutes, not drawn up until the end of April
+1443, raised the number of the college to forty. Like the college
+buildings, they are almost an exact copy of those of New College,
+_mutatis mutandis_. The college is sometimes described as being
+different from other colleges in being merely a large chantry to pray
+for the souls of the dead warriors. But it was no more a chantry than
+the other colleges, all of which, like the monasteries and collegiate
+churches, were to pray for their founders' and other specified souls.
+Indeed, All Souls was more of a lay foundation than its model. For while
+at New College only twenty out of seventy fellows were to study law
+instead of arts, philosophy and theology, at All Souls College sixteen
+were to be "jurists" and only twenty-four "artists"; and while at New
+College there were ten chaplains and three clerks necessarily, at All
+Souls the number was not defined but left optional; so that there are
+now only one chaplain and four bible clerks.
+
+Ten days after he sealed the statutes, on the 12th of April 1443,
+Chicheley died and was buried in Canterbury cathedral on the north side
+of the choir, under a fine effigy of himself erected in his lifetime.
+There is what looks like an excellent contemporary portrait in one of
+the windows of All Souls College, which is figured in the _Victoria
+County History_ for Hampshire, ii. 262.      (A. F. L.)
+
+
+
+
+CHICHEN-ITZA, or CHICHEN, an ancient ruined city of Yucatan, Mexico,
+situated 22 m. W. of Valladolid. The name is derived from that of the
+Itza, a tribe of the great Mayan stock, which formerly inhabited the
+city, and _chichen_, having reference probably to two wells or pools
+which doubtless originally supplied the inhabitants with water and are
+still in existence. The history of the city is unknown, though it is
+regarded as probable that it preserved its independence long after the
+Spaniards had taken possession of the rest of the district. The area
+covered by the ruins is approximately 1 sq. m., and other remains are
+found in the neighbouring forest. (See CENTRAL AMERICA: _Archaeology_.)
+
+
+
+
+CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER, BARON (1563-1625), lord-deputy
+of Ireland, second son of Sir John Chichester of Raleigh, Devonshire, by
+Gertrude, daughter of Sir William Courtenay of Powderham, was born at
+Raleigh in May 1563, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. He
+commanded a ship against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and is said to have
+served under Drake in his expedition of 1595. Having seen further
+service abroad, he was sent to Ireland at the end of 1598, and was
+appointed by the earl of Essex to the governorship of Carrickfergus.
+When Essex returned to England, Chichester rendered valuable service
+under Mountjoy in the war against the rebellious earl of Tyrone, and in
+1601 Mountjoy recommended him to Cecil in terms of the highest praise as
+the fittest person to be entrusted with the government of Ulster. On the
+15th of October 1604 Chichester was appointed lord-deputy of Ireland. He
+announced his policy in a proclamation wherein he abolished the
+semi-feudal rights of the native Irish chieftains, substituting for them
+fixed dues, while their tenants were to become dependent "wholly and
+immediately upon his majesty." Tyrone and other Irish clan chieftains
+resented this summary interference with their ancient social
+organization, and their resistance was strengthened by the ill-advised
+measures against the Roman Catholics which Chichester was compelled to
+take by the orders of the English ministers. He himself was moderate and
+enlightened in his views on this matter, and it was through his
+influence that the harshness of the anti-Catholic policy was relaxed in
+1607. Meantime his difficulties with the Irish tribal leaders remained
+unsolved. But in 1607, by "the flight of the Earls" (see O'NEILL), he
+was relieved of the presence of the two formidable Ulster chieftains,
+the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell. Chichester's policy for dealing with
+the situation thus created was to divide the lands of the fugitive earls
+among Irishmen of standing and character; but the plantation of Ulster
+as actually carried out was much less favourable and just to the native
+population than the lord-deputy desired. In 1613 Chichester was raised
+to the peerage as Baron Chichester of Belfast, and in the following year
+he went to England to give an account of the state of Ireland. On his
+return to Ireland he again attempted to moderate the persecuting policy
+against the Irish Catholics which he was instructed to enforce; and
+although he was to some extent successful, it was probably owing to his
+opposition to this policy that he was recalled in November 1614. The
+king, however, told him "You may rest assured that you do leave that
+place with our very good grace and acceptation of your services"; and he
+was given the post of lord-treasurer of Ireland. After living in
+retirement for some years, Chichester was employed abroad in 1622; in
+the following year he became a member of the privy council. He died on
+the 19th of February 1625 and was buried at Carrickfergus.
+
+Lord Chichester married Lettice, daughter of Sir John Perrot and widow
+of Walter Vaughan of Golden Grove. He had no children, and his title
+became extinct at his death. The heir to his estates was his brother Sir
+Edward Chichester (d. 1648), governor of Carrickfergus, who in 1625 was
+created Baron Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of
+Carrickfergus. This nobleman's eldest son Arthur (1606-1675), who
+distinguished himself as Colonel Chichester in the suppression of the
+rebellion of 1641, was created earl of Donegall in 1647, and was
+succeeded in his titles by his nephew, whose great-grandson, Arthur, 5th
+earl of Donegall, was created Baron Fisherwick in the peerage of Great
+Britain (the other family titles being in the peerage of Ireland) in
+1790, and earl of Belfast and marquess of Donegall in the peerage of
+Ireland in 1791. The present marquess of Donegall is his descendant.
+
+  See S.R. Gardiner in _Dict. Nat. Biog_. and _History of England,
+  1603-1642_ (London, 1883); Fynes Moryson, _History of Ireland,
+  1599-1603_ (Dublin, 1735).    (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+CHICHESTER, a city and municipal borough in the Chichester parliamentary
+division of Sussex, England, 69 m. S.S.W. from London by the London,
+Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 12,224. It lies in a plain
+at the foot of a spur of the South Downs, a mile from the head of
+Chichester Harbour, an inlet of the English Channel. The cathedral
+church of the Holy Trinity was founded towards the close of the 11th
+century, after the see had been removed to Chichester from Selsey in
+1075. The first church was consecrated in 1108, but fires in 1114 and
+1187 caused building to continue steadily until the close of the 13th
+century. Bishop Ralph Luffa (1091-1123) was the first great builder, and
+was followed by Seffrid II. (1180-1204). Norman work appears in the nave
+(arcade and triforium), choir (arcade) and elsewhere; but there is much
+very beautiful Early English work, the choir above the arcade and the
+eastern part being especially fine. The nave is remarkable in having
+double aisles on each side, the outer pair being of the 13th century.
+The church is also unique among English cathedrals in the possession of
+a detached campanile, a massive and beautiful Perpendicular structure
+with the top storey octagonal. The principal modern restorations are the
+upper part of the north-west tower, which copies the Early English work
+of that on the south-west; and the fine central tower and spire, which
+had been erected at different periods in the 14th century, but
+collapsed, doing little damage to the fabric, in 1861. Under the
+direction of Sir Gilbert Scott and others they were reconstructed with
+scrupulous care in preserving the original plan. The Lady chapel at the
+east end is in the main early Decorated, but greatly restored; the
+library is a fine late Norman vaulted room; the cloisters are
+Perpendicular and well restored; and the bishop's palace retains an
+Early English chapel. The cathedral is 393 ft. long within, 131 ft.
+across the transepts, and 90 ft. across the nave with its double aisles.
+The height of the spire is 277 ft.
+
+At the junction of the four main streets of the town stands the market
+cross, an exquisite octagonal structure in ornate Perpendicular style,
+built by Bishop Story, c. 1500, perhaps the finest of its kind in the
+United Kingdom. The hospital of St Mary was founded in the 12th century,
+but the existing buildings are in a style transitional from Early
+English to Decorated. Its use as an almshouse is maintained. Other
+ancient buildings are the churches of St Olave, in the construction of
+which Roman materials were used; and of St Andrew, where is the tomb of
+the poet William Collins, whose memorial with others by the sculptor
+Flaxman is in the cathedral; the Guildhall, formerly a Grey Friars'
+chapel, of the 13th century; the Canon Gate leading into the cathedral
+close; and the Vicars College. The city retains a great part of its
+ancient walls, which have a circuit of about a mile and a half, and, at
+least in part, follow the line of Roman fortifications. The principal
+modern buildings, besides churches and chapels, are the council house,
+corn exchange, market house, and museum of the Chichester Literary
+Society. The grammar school was founded in 1497 by Bishop Story. There
+is a large cattle market, and the town has a considerable agricultural
+trade, with breweries and tanneries. A canal connects with Chichester
+Harbour. The diocese includes the whole county of Sussex except a few
+parishes, with very small portions of Kent and Surrey. The municipal
+borough is under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area,
+1538 acres.
+
+The Romano-British town on this site was perhaps Regnum or Regni. Many
+inscriptions, pottery, coins, &c., have been found, and part of the
+medieval walls contain a Roman cave. An interesting inscription from
+this site is preserved at Goodwood. Situated on one Roman road in direct
+connexion with London and another leading from east to west, Chichester
+(_Cissaceaster_, _Cicestre_) remained of considerable importance under
+the South Saxon kings. In 967 King Edgar established a mint here. Though
+Domesday Book speaks of one hundred and forty-two burgages in Chichester
+and a charter of Henry I. mentions the borough, the earliest extant
+charter is that granted by Stephen, confirming to the burgesses their
+customs and rights of the borough and gild merchant as they had them in
+the time of his grandfather. This was confirmed by Henry II. Under Henry
+III. the fee farm rent was L38: 10s., but this was reduced by a charter
+of 10 Edward II. to L36, the customs of wool, hides and skins being
+reserved to the king. Edward III. directed that the Sussex county court
+should be held at Chichester, and this was confirmed in the following
+year. Confirmations of the previous charters were also granted by Edward
+III., Richard II., Henry VI., Edward IV., and Henry VII, who gave the
+mayor and citizens cognizance of all kinds of pleas of assize touching
+lands and hereditaments of freehold tenure. A court leet, court of
+record and bailiffs' court of liberties still exist. The charters were
+also confirmed by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Philip and Mary, and
+Elizabeth. In 1604 the city was incorporated under a mayor and aldermen.
+Since 1295, when it first returned a member, Chichester has been
+regularly represented in parliament. Throughout the middle ages
+Chichester was a place of great commercial importance, Edward III.
+establishing a wool staple here in 1348. Fairs were granted by Henry I.
+and Henry VII, Fuller mentions the Wednesday market as being famous for
+corn, while Camden speaks of that on Saturday as the greatest for fish
+in the county. The markets and a fair on the 20th of October are still
+held.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Sussex_; Alexander Hay, _History of
+  Chichester_ (Chichester, 1804).
+
+
+
+
+CHICKAMAUGA CREEK, a small tributary of the Tennessee river, which it
+joins near Chattanooga, Tennessee, U.S.A. It gives its name to the great
+battle of Chickamauga in the American Civil War, fought on the 19-20th
+of September 1863, between the Federal army of the Cumberland under
+Major-General W.S. Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General
+Braxton Bragg. For the general operations of Rosecrans' army in 1863 see
+AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. A successful war of manoeuvre had brought the army
+of the Cumberland from Murfreesboro to Decherd, Tenn., and Bragg's army
+lay on the Tennessee at and above Chattanooga. Rosecrans was expected by
+the enemy to manoeuvre so as to gain touch with the Union forces in
+the upper Tennessee valley, but he formed an entirely different plan of
+operations. One part of the army demonstrated in front of Chattanooga,
+and the main body secretly crossed the river about Stevenson and
+Bridgeport (September 4th). The country was mountainous, the roads few
+and poor, and the Federals had to take full supplies of food, forage and
+ammunition with them, but Rosecrans was an able commander, his troops
+were in good hands, and he accepted the risks involved. These were
+intensified by the want of good maps, and, in the event, at one moment
+the army was placed in a position of great danger. A corps under A. McD.
+McCook moved south-eastward across the ridges to Alpine, another under
+Thomas marched via Trenton on McLemore's Cove. The presence of Federal
+masses in Lookout Valley caused Bragg to abandon Chattanooga at once,
+and the object of the manoeuvre was thus accomplished; but owing to
+the want of good maps the Union army was at the same time exposed to
+great danger. The head of Thomas's column was engaged at Dug Gap, on the
+11th, against the flank guard of Bragg's army, and at the time McCook
+was far away to the south, and Crittenden's corps, which had occupied
+Chattanooga on the 9th, was also at a distance. Thomas was isolated, but
+Rosecrans, like every other commander under whom he served, placed
+unbounded confidence in his tenacity, and if Bragg was wrong in
+neglecting to attack him on the 14th, subsequent events went far to
+disarm criticism. By the 18th of September Rosecrans had at last
+collected his army on Chickamauga Creek covering Chattanooga. But Bragg
+had now received heavy reinforcements, and lay, concentrated for battle,
+on the other side of the Creek.
+
+[Illustration: CHICKAMAUGA]
+
+The terrain of the battle of Chickamauga (19th-20th of September) had
+little influence on its course. Both armies lay in the plain, the two
+lines roughly parallel. Bragg's intention was to force his attack home
+on Rosecrans' left wing, thus cutting him off from Chattanooga and
+throwing him back into the mountain country whence he had come. On the
+19th a serious action took place between the Confederate right and
+Rosecrans' left under Thomas. On the 20th the real battle began. The
+Confederates, in accordance with Bragg's plans, pressed hard upon
+Thomas, to whom Rosecrans sent reinforcements. One of the divisions
+detached from the centre for this purpose was by inadvertence taken out
+of the first line, and before the gap could be filled the Confederate
+central attack, led by Longstreet and Hood, the fighting generals of
+Lee's army, and carried out by veteran troops from the Virginian
+battlefields, cut the Federal army in two. McCook's army corps, isolated
+on the Federal right, was speedily routed, and the centre shared its
+fate. Rosecrans himself was swept off the field in the rout of half of
+his army. But Thomas was unshaken. He re-formed the left wing in a
+semicircle, and aided by a few fresh brigades from Rossville, resisted
+for six hours the efforts of the whole Confederate army. Rosecrans in
+the meantime was rallying the fugitives far to the rear near Chattanooga
+itself. The fury of Bragg's assault spent itself uselessly on the heroic
+divisions under Thomas, who remained on the field till night and then
+withdrew in good order to Rossville. Here he remained on the 21st,
+imposing respect upon the victors. On the 22nd Rosecrans had
+re-established order, and Thomas fell back quietly to Chattanooga,
+whither Bragg slowly pursued. For the subsequent events of the campaign
+see CHATTANOOGA. The losses in the battle bear witness to a severity in
+the fighting unusual even in the American Civil War. Of 70,000
+Confederates engaged at least 18,000 were killed and wounded, and the
+Federals lost 16,000 out of about 57,000. The battlefield has been
+converted into a national park, and was used during the Spanish American
+War (1898) as a place of mobilization for the U.S. volunteers.
+
+
+
+
+CHICKASAWS, a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean stock, now
+settled in the western part of Oklahoma. Their former range was northern
+Mississippi and portions of Tennessee. According to their own tradition
+and the evidence of philology, they are closely connected with the
+Creeks and Choctaws; and they believe that they emigrated with these
+tribes from the west, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the
+district that now forms the north-east part of the state of that name.
+Here they were visited by De Soto in 1540. From the first they were
+hostile to the French colonists. With the English, on the other hand,
+their relations were more satisfactory. In 1786 they made a treaty with
+the United States; and in 1793 they assisted the whites in their
+operations against the Creeks. In the early years of the 19th century
+part of their territory was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion
+of the tribe migrated to Arkansas; and in 1832-1834, the remainder,
+amounting to about 3600, surrendered to the United States the 6,442,400
+acres of which they were still possessed, and entered into a treaty with
+the Choctaws for incorporation with that tribe. In 1855, however, they
+effected a separation of this union, with which they had soon grown
+dissatisfied, and by payment to the Choctaws of $150,000 obtained a
+complete right to their present territory. In the Civil War they joined
+the Confederates and suffered in consequence; but their rights were
+restored by the treaty of 1865. In 1866 they surrendered 7,000,000
+acres; and in 1873 they adopted their former slaves. They had an
+independent government consisting of a governor, a senate, and a house
+of representatives; but tribal government virtually ceased in 1906. The
+Chickasaws of pure or mixed blood numbered 4826 in 1900, and with the
+fully admitted "citizens," i.e. the freed slaves and adopted whites, the
+whole nation amounted to some 10,000.
+
+  See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CHICKASHA, a city and the county-seat of Grady county, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
+near the Washita river, about 45 m. S.S.W. of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1900)
+3209; (1907) 7862, including 1643 negroes; (1910) 10,320. Chickasha is
+served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Chicago, Rock Island &
+Pacific and the Oklahoma Central railways. It is the trade centre of a
+very fertile section of the Washita Valley, whose principal products are
+Indian corn, cotton, fruits and vegetables and live-stock. The city has
+various manufactures, including flour, cotton-seed oil, lumber,
+furniture and farm implements. Chickasha was founded in 1892 and was
+chartered as a city in 1899.
+
+
+
+
+CHICKEN-POX (Syn. _varicella_, a Low Latin diminutive of _variola_), a
+specific contagious disease characterized by an eruption of vesicles in
+the skin. The disease usually occurs in epidemics, and is one of
+childhood, the patients being generally between two and six years old.
+The incubation period is from ten to fifteen days; there are practically
+no prodromal symptoms, the only indication being a slight amount of
+fever for some twenty-four hours, after which the eruption makes its
+appearance. A number of raised red papules appear on the trunk, either
+on the back or chest; in from twelve to twenty-four hours these develop
+into tense vesicles filled with a clear fluid, which in another
+thirty-six hours or so becomes opalescent. During the fourth day these
+vesicles dry and shrivel up, and the scabs fall off, leaving as a rule
+no scar. Fresh spots appear during the first three days, so that at the
+end of that time they can be seen in all stages of growth and decay. The
+eruption is most marked on the chest, but it also occurs on the face and
+limbs, and on the mucous membrane of the mouth and palate. The
+temperature begins to fall after the appearance of the rash, but a
+certain slight amount may persist after the disappearance of all
+symptoms. It rarely rises above 102 F. The disease runs a very
+favourable course in the majority of cases, and after effects are rare.
+One attack does not confer immunity, and in numerous cases one
+individual has had three attacks. The diet should be light, and the
+patient should be prevented from scratching the spots, which would lead
+to ulceration and scarring. After the first few days there is no
+necessity to confine the patient to bed. In the large majority of cases,
+it is easy to distinguish the disease from smallpox, but in certain
+patients it is very difficult. The chief points in the differential
+diagnosis are as follows. (1) In chicken-pox the rash is distributed
+chiefly on the trunk, and less on the limbs. (2) Some of the vesicles
+are oval, whereas in smallpox they are always hemispherical. They are
+also more superficial, and have not at the outset the hard shotty
+feeling of the more virulent disease. (3) The vesicles attain their full
+growth within twelve to twenty-four hours. (4) The pustules are usually
+monocular. (5) There is no prodromal period.
+
+
+
+
+CHICLANA, or CHICLANA DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern Spain, in the
+province of Cadiz, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Cadiz. Pop. (1900) 10,868.
+Chiclana occupies a fertile valley, watered by the river Lirio, and
+sheltered, on the north and south, by low hills covered with vines and
+plantations. It faces the gulf of Cadiz, 3 m. W., and, from its mild
+climate and pleasant surroundings, is the favourite summer residence of
+the richer Cadiz merchants; its hot mineral springs also attract many
+visitors. In the neighbourhood are the Roman ruins of Chiclana la Vieja,
+the town of Medina Sidonia (q.v.), and, about 5 m. S., the battlefield
+of Barrosa, where the British under Sir Thomas Graham (Lord Lynedoch)
+defeated the French under Marshal Victor, on the 5th of March 1811.
+
+
+
+
+CHICOPEE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on
+the E. side of the Connecticut river, at the mouth of the Chicopee
+river, immediately N. of Springfield. Pop. (1890) 14,050; (1900) 19,167,
+of whom 8139 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,401. Chicopee is
+served by the Boston & Maine railway. The city, which has an area of
+about 25 sq. m., contains five villages. Chicopee Center, Chicopee
+Falls, Willimansett, Fairview and Aldenville. Chicopee Falls lies on
+both sides of the Chicopee river, which falls some 70 ft. in less than 3
+m. and furnishes valuable power for manufactories. The most important
+products are cotton goods (two large factories having, together, about
+200,000 spindles), fire-arms (especially the Stevens rifles), tools,
+rubber and elastic goods, sporting goods, swords, automobiles and
+agricultural implements. Here, too, is a bronze statuary foundry, in
+which some of the finest monuments, bronze doors, &c., in the country
+have been cast, including the doors of the Capitol at Washington. The
+bronze casting industry here was founded by Nathan Peabody Ames
+(1803-1847), who was first a sword-maker and in 1836 began the
+manufacture of cannon and church bells. The total value of the city's
+factory product in 1905 was $7,715,653, an increase of 43.2% in five
+years. There is a public library. The municipality owns and operates the
+water-works system and the electric lighting plant. Chicopee was settled
+about 1638, was set off from Springfield as an independent township in
+1848, and was chartered as a city in 1890. Chicopee Falls was the home
+of Edward Bellamy. The name of the city is an Indian word meaning
+"cedar-tree" or "birch-bark place."
+
+
+
+
+CHICORY. The chicory or succory plant, _Cichorium Intybus_ (natural
+order, Compositae), in its wild state is a native of Great Britain,
+occurring most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by road-sides. It has
+a long fleshy tap-root, a rigid branching hairy stem rising to a height
+of 2 or 3 ft.--the leaves around the base being lobed and toothed, not
+unlike those of the dandelion. The flower heads are of a bright blue
+colour, few in number, and measure nearly an inch and a half across.
+Chicory is cultivated much more extensively on the continent of
+Europe--in Holland, Belgium, France and Germany--than in Great Britain;
+and as a cultivated plant it has three distinct applications. Its roots
+roasted and ground are used as a substitute for, adulterant of, or
+addition to coffee; both roots and leaves are employed as salads; and
+the plant is grown as a fodder or herbage crop which is greedily
+consumed by cattle. In Great Britain it is chiefly in its first
+capacity, in connexion with coffee, that chicory is employed. A large
+proportion of the chicory root used for this purpose is obtained from
+Belgium and other neighbouring continental countries; but a considerable
+quantity is cultivated in England, chiefly in Yorkshire. For the
+preparation of chicory the older stout white roots are selected, and
+after washing they are sliced up into small pieces and kiln-dried. In
+this condition the material is sold to the chicory roaster, by whom it
+is roasted till it assumes a deep brown colour; afterwards when ground
+it is in external characteristics very like coffee, but is destitute of
+its pleasing aromatic odour. Neither does the roasted chicory possess
+any trace of the alkaloid caffeine which gives their peculiar virtues to
+coffee and tea. The fact, however, that for over a hundred years it has
+been successfully used as a substitute for or recognized addition to
+coffee, while in the meantime innumerable other substances have been
+tried for the same purpose and abandoned, indicates that it is agreeable
+and harmless. It gives the coffee additional colour, bitterness and
+body. It is at least in very extensive and general use; and in Belgium
+especially its infusion is largely drunk as an independent beverage.
+
+The blanched leaves are much esteemed by the French as a winter salad
+known by the name of _Barbe de capucin_. When intended for winter use,
+chicory is sown in May or June, commonly in drills, and the plants are
+thinned out to 4 in. apart. If at first the leaves grow very strong,
+they are cut off, perhaps in the middle of August, about an inch from
+the ground, so as to promote the production of new leaves, and check the
+formation of flower-stems. About the beginning of October the plants are
+raised from the border, and all the large leaves cut off; the roots are
+also shortened, and they are then planted pretty closely together in
+boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when needful. When frost
+comes on, the boxes are protected by any kind of litter and haulm. As
+the salad is wanted, they are removed into some place having a
+moderately increased temperature, and where there is no light. Each box
+affords two crops of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for
+cutting when about 6 in. long. Another mode of obtaining the young
+leaves of this plant in winter is to sow seeds in a bed of light rich
+mould, or in boxes in a heat of from 55 deg. to 60 deg., giving a gentle
+watering as required. The leaves will be fit to be cut in a fortnight
+after sowing, and the plants will afford a second crop.
+
+In Belgium a variety of chicory called _Witloef_ is much preferred as a
+salad to the French _Barbe de capucin_. The seeds are sown and the
+plants thinned out like those of the ordinary sort. They are eventually
+planted in light soil, in succession, from the end of October to
+February, at the bottom of trenches a foot or more in depth, and covered
+over with from 2 to 3 ft. of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks,
+according to the heat applied, the heads are fit for use and should be
+cut before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced in
+frames on a mild hot-bed, or in a mushroom-house, in the same way as
+sea-kale. In Belgium the fresh roots are boiled and eaten with butter,
+and throughout the Continent the roots are stored for use as salads
+during winter.
+
+  See also ENDIVE (_Cichorium endivia_).
+
+
+
+
+CHIDAMBARAM, or CHEDUMBRUM, a town of British India, in the South Arcot
+district of Madras, 7 m. from the coast and 151 m. S. of Madras by rail.
+Pop. (1901) 19,909. The pagodas at Chidambaram are the oldest in the
+south of India, and portions of them are gems of art. Here is supposed
+to have been the northern frontier of the ancient Chola kingdom, the
+successive capitals of which were Uriyur on the Cauvery, Combaconum and
+Tanjore. The principal temple is sacred to Siva, and is said to have
+been rebuilt or enlarged by a leper emperor, who came south on a
+pilgrimage and was cured by bathing in the temple tank; upwards of
+60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every December. It contains a "hall of
+a thousand pillars," one of numerous such halls in India, the exact
+number of pillars in this case being 984; each is a block of solid
+granite, and the roof of the principal temple is of copper-gilt. Three
+hundred of the highest-caste Brahmins live with their families within
+the temple enclosure.
+
+
+
+
+CHIEF (from Fr. _chef_, head, Lat. _caput_), the head or upper part of
+anything, and so, in heraldry, the upper part of the escutcheon,
+occupying one-third of the whole. When applied to a leading personage, a
+head man or one having the highest authority, the term chief or
+chieftain (Med. Lat. _capitanus_, O. Fr. _chevetaine_) is principally
+confined to the leader of a clan or tribe. The phrase "in chief" (Med.
+Lat. _in capite_) is used in feudal law of the tenant who holds his fief
+direct from the lord paramount (see FEUDALISM).
+
+
+
+
+CHIEMSEE, also called BAYRISCHES MEER, the largest lake in Bavaria,
+lying on a high plateau 1600 ft. above the sea, between the rivers Inn
+(to which it drains through the Alz) and Salzach. With a length of 6 and
+a breadth of 9 m., it has an area of about 33 sq. m., and contains three
+islands, Herrenwoerth, Frauenwoerth and Krautinsel. The first, which has a
+circumference of 61/2 m. and is beautifully wooded, is remarkable for the
+romantic castle which Louis II. of Bavaria erected here. It was the seat
+of a bishop from 1215 to 1805, and until 1803 contained a Benedictine
+monastery. The shores of the lake are flat on the north and south sides,
+but its other banks are flanked by undulating hills, which command
+beautiful and extensive views. The waters are clear and it is well
+stocked with trout and carp; but the fishing rights are strictly
+preserved. Steamers ply on the lake, and the railway from Rosenheim to
+Salzburg skirts the southern shores.
+
+
+
+
+CHIENG MAI, the capital of the Lao state of the same name and of the
+provincial division of Siam called Bayap, situated in 99 deg. 0' E., 18
+deg. 46' N. The town, enclosed by massive but decaying walls, lies on the
+right bank of the river Me Ping, one of the branches of the Me Nam, in a
+plain 800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by high, wooded mountains. It
+has streets intersecting at right angles, and an enceinte within which is
+the palace of the Chao, or hereditary chief. The east and west banks of
+the river are connected by a fine teak bridge. The American Presbyterian
+Mission, established here in 1867, has a large number of converts and
+has done much good educational work. Chieng Mai, which the Burmese have
+corrupted into Zimme, by which name it is known to many Europeans, has
+long been an important trade centre, resorted to by Chinese merchants
+from the north and east, and by Burmese, Shans and Siamese from the west
+and south. It is, moreover, the centre of the teak trade of Siam, in
+which many Burmese and several Chinese and European firms are engaged.
+The total value of the import and export trade of the Bayap division
+amounts to about L2,500,000 a year. The Siamese high commissioner of
+Bayap division has his headquarters in Chieng Mai, and though the
+hereditary chief continues as the nominal ruler, as is also the case in
+the other Lao states of Nan, Pre, Lampun, Napawn Lampang and Tern, which
+make up the division, the government is entirely in the hands of that
+official and his staff. The government forest department, founded in
+1896, has done good work in the division, and the conservator of forests
+has his headquarters in Chieng Mai. The headquarters of an army division
+are also situated here. A British consul resides at Chieng Mai, where,
+in addition to the ordinary law courts, there is an international court
+having jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties.
+The population, about 20,000, consists mainly of Laos, with many Shans,
+a few Burmese, Chinese and Siamese and some fifty Europeans. Hill tribes
+(Ka) inhabit the neighbouring mountains in large numbers.
+
+Chieng Mai was formerly the capital of a united Lao kingdom, which, at
+one time independent, afterwards subject to Burma and then to Siam, and
+later broken up into a number of states, has finally become a provincial
+division of Siam. In 1902 a rising of discontented Shans took place in
+Bayap which at one time seemed serious, several towns being attacked and
+Chieng Mai itself threatened. The disturbance was quelled and the
+malcontents eventually hunted out, but not without losses which included
+the commissioner of Pre and a European officer of gendarmerie.
+
+
+
+
+CHIERI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
+Turin, 13 m. S.E. by rail and 8 m. by road from the town of Turin. Pop.
+(1901) 11,929 (town), 13,803 (commune). Its Gothic cathedral, founded in
+1037 and reconstructed in 1405, is the largest in Piedmont, and has a
+13th century octagonal baptistery. Chieri was subject to the bishop of
+Turin in the 9th and 10th centuries, it became independent in the 11th
+century. In 1347 it submitted voluntarily to Count Amedeus VI. of Savoy
+to save itself from the marquis of Monferrato, and finally came under
+the dominion of Savoy in the 16th century. In 1785 it was made into a
+principality of the duke of Aosta. It was an early centre of trade and
+manufacture; and in the middle of the 15th century produced about
+100,000 pieces of cotton goods per annum.
+
+  See L. Cibrario, _Delle storie di Chieri_ (Turin, 1855).
+
+
+
+
+CHIETI, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province of
+Chieti, and the seat of an archbishop, 140 m. E.N.E. of Rome by rail,
+and 9 m. W. of Castellammare Adriatico. Pop. (1901) 26,368. It is
+situated at a height of 1083 ft. above sea-level, 3 m. from the railway
+station, from which it is reached by an electric tramway. It commands a
+splendid view of the Apennines on every side except the east, where the
+Adriatic is seen. It is an active modern town, upon the site of the
+ancient _Teate Marrucinorum_ (q.v.), with woollen and cotton
+manufactories and other smaller industries. The origin of the see of
+Chieti dates from the 4th century, S. Justinus being the first bishop.
+The cathedral has been spoilt by restoration, and the decoration of the
+exterior is incomplete; the Gothic campanile of 1335 is, however, fine.
+The cathedral possesses two illuminated missals. Close by is the town
+hall, which contains a small picture gallery, in which, in 1905, was
+held an important exhibition of ancient Abruzzese art. The de Laurentiis
+family possesses a private collection of some importance. To the north
+of Chieti is the octagonal church of S. Maria del Tricaglio, erected in
+1317, which is said (without reason) to stand upon the site of a temple
+of Diana. The order of the Theatines, founded in 1524, takes its name
+from the city. Under the Lombards Chieti formed part of the duchy of
+Benevento; it was destroyed by Pippin in 801, but was soon rebuilt and
+became the seat of a count. The Normans made it the capital of the
+Abruzzi.
+
+
+
+
+CHI-FU, CHEFOO, or YEN-T'AI (as it is called by the natives), a seaport
+of northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Chih-li, in the
+province of Shan-tung, near the mouth of the Yi-ho, about 30 m. E. of
+the city of Teng-chow-fu. It was formerly quite a small place, and had
+only the rank of an unwalled village; but it was chosen as the port of
+Teng-chow, opened to foreign trade in 1858 by the treaty of Tientsin,
+and it is now the residence of a Tao-t'ai, or intendant of circuit, the
+centre of a gradually increasing commerce, and the seat of a British
+consulate, a Chinese custom-house, and a considerable foreign
+settlement. The native town is yearly extending, and though most of the
+inhabitants are small shop-keepers and coolies of the lowest class, the
+houses are for the most part well and solidly built of stone. The
+foreign settlement occupies a position between the native town and the
+sea, which neither affords a convenient access for shipping nor allows
+space for any great extension of area. Its growth, however, has hitherto
+been steady and rapid. Various streets have been laid out, a large
+hotel erected for the reception of the visitors who resort to the place
+as a sanatorium in summer, and the religious wants of the community are
+supplied by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church. Though the harbour
+is deep and extensive, and possessed of excellent anchorage, large
+vessels have to be moored at a considerable distance from the shore.
+Chi-fu has continued to show fair progress as a place of trade, but the
+total volume is inconsiderable, having regard to the area it supplies.
+In 1880 the total exports and imports were valued at L2,724,000, in 1899
+they amounted to L4,228,000, and in 1904 to L4,909,908. In 1895 there
+entered the port 905 vessels representing a tonnage of 835,248 tons,
+while in 1905 the number of vessels had risen to 1842, representing a
+tonnage of 1,492,514 tons. The imports are mainly woollen and cotton
+goods, iron and opium, and the exports include bean cake, bean oil,
+peas, raw silk, straw-braid, walnuts, a coarse kind of vermicelli,
+vegetables and dried fruits. Communication with the interior is only by
+roads, which are extremely defective, and nearly all the traffic is by
+pack animals. From its healthy situation and the convenience of its
+anchorage, Chi-fu has become a favourite rendezvous for the fleets of
+the European powers in Chinese waters, and consequently it has at times
+been an important coaling station. It lies in close proximity to Korea,
+Port Arthur and Wei-hai-Wei, and it shared to some extent in the
+excitement to which the military and naval operations in these quarters
+gave rise. The Chi-fu convention was signed here in 1876 by Sir Thomas
+Wade and Li-Hung-Chang.
+
+
+
+
+CHIGI-ALBANI, the name of a Roman princely family of Sienese extraction
+descended from the counts of Ardenghesca. The earliest authentic mention
+of them is in the 13th century, and they first became famous in the
+person of Agostino Chigi (d. 1520), an immensely rich banker who built
+the palace and gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by
+Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments; Pope
+Julius II. made him practically his finance minister and gave him the
+privilege of quartering his own (Della Rovere) arms with those of the
+Chigi. Fabio Chigi, on being made pope (Alexander VII.) in 1655,
+conferred the Roman patriciate on his family, and created his nephew
+Agostino prince of Farnese and duke of Ariccia, and the emperor Leopold
+I. created the latter _Reichsfuerst_ (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in
+1659. In 1712 the family received the dignity of hereditary marshals of
+the Church and guardians of the conclaves, which gave them a very great
+importance on the death of every pope. On the marriage in 1735 of
+another Agostino Chigi (1710-1769) with Giulia Albani, heiress of the
+Albani, a Venetian patrician family, said to be of Albanian origin, her
+name was added to that of Chigi. The family owns large estates at Siena.
+
+  See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, vol. iii. (Berlin,
+  1868); _Almanach de Gotha_.
+
+
+
+
+CHIGWELL, a parish and residential district in the Epping parliamentary
+division of Essex, England; with stations (Chigwell Lane and Chigwell)
+on two branches of the Great Eastern railway, 12 m. N.E. from London.
+Pop. (1901) 2508. The old village church of St Mary, principally
+Perpendicular, has a Norman south door. The village lies in a branch of
+the Roding valley, fragments of Hainault Forest lying to the south and
+east, bordering the village of Chigwell Row. The village of Chigwell
+appears in the Domesday survey. The pleasant scenery of the
+neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers both of visitors and of
+residents from London, is described in Dickens's novel, _Barnaby Rudge_,
+and the King's Head Inn, Dickens's "Maypole," still stands. The old
+grammar school, founded by Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (d.
+1631), whose fine memorial brass is in St Mary's church, has become one
+of the minor modern institutions of the English public school type.
+William Penn attended school at Chigwell from his home at Wanstead.
+
+
+
+
+CHIH-LI ("Direct Rule"), the metropolitan province of China, in which is
+situated Peking, the capital of the empire. It contains eleven
+prefectural cities, and occupies an area of 58,950 sq. m. The population
+is 29,400,000, the vast majority of whom are resident in the plain
+country. This province forms part of the great delta plain of China
+proper, 20,000 sq. m. of which are within the provincial boundaries; the
+remainder of the territory consists of the mountain ranges which define
+its northern and western frontier. The plain of Chih-li is formed
+principally by detritus deposited by the Pei-ho and its tributary the
+Hun-ho ("muddy river"), otherwise known as the Yung-ting-ko, and other
+streams having their sources in mountains of Shan-si and other ranges.
+It is bounded E. by the Gulf of Chih-li and Shan-tung, and S. by
+Shan-tung and Ho-nan. The proportion of Mahommedans among the population
+is very large. In Peking there are said to be as many as 20,000
+Mahommedan families, and in Pao-ting Fu, the capital of the province,
+there are about 1000 followers of the prophet. The extremes of heat and
+cold in Chih-li are very marked. During the months of December, January
+and February the rivers are frozen up, and even the Gulf of Chih-li is
+fringed with a broad border of ice. There are four rivers of some
+importance in the province: the Pei-ho, with the Hun-ho, which rises in
+the mountains in Mongolia and, flowing to the west of Peking, forms a
+junction with the Pei-ho at Tientsin; the Shang-si-ho, which rises in
+the mountains on the north of the province of Shan-si, and takes a
+south-easterly course as far as the neighbourhood of Ki Chow, from which
+point it trends north-east and eventually joines the Hun-ho some 15 m.
+above Tientsin; the Pu-to-ho, which rises in Shan-si, and after running
+a parallel course to Shang-si-ho on the south, empties itself in the
+same way into the Hun-ho; and the Lan-ho, which rises in Mongolia,
+enters the province on the north-east after passing to the west of
+Jehol, passes the city of Yung-p'ing Fu in its course (which is
+south-easterly) through Chih-li, and from thence winds its way to the
+north-eastern boundary of the Gulf of Chih-li. The province contains
+three lakes of considerable size. The largest is the Ta-lu-tsze Hu,
+which lies in 37 deg. 40' N. and 115 deg. 20' E.; the second in importance
+is one which is situated to the east of Pao-ting Fu; and the third is the
+Tu-lu-tsze Hu, which lies east by north of Shun-te Fu. Four high roads
+radiate from Peking, one leading to Urga by way of Suean-hwa Fu, which
+passes through the Great Wall at Chang-kiu K'ow; another, which enters
+Mongolia through the Ku-pei K'ow to the north-east, and after continuing
+that course as far as Fung-ning turns in a north-westerly direction to
+Dolonnor; a third striking due east by way of T'ung-chow and Yung-p'ing
+Fu to Shan-hai Kwan, the point where the Great Wall terminates on the
+coast; and a fourth which trends in a south-westerly direction to
+Pao-ting Fu and on to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si. The mountain ranges to
+the north of the province abound with coal, notably at Chai-tang,
+T'ai-gan-shan, Miao-gan-ling, and Fu-tao in the Si-shan or Western
+Hills. "At Chai-tang," wrote Baron von Richthofen, "I was surprised to
+walk over a regular succession of coal-bearing strata, the thickness of
+which, estimating it step by step as I proceeded gradually from the
+lowest to the highest strata, exceeds 7000 ft." The coal here is
+anthracite, as is also that at T'ai-gan-shan, where are found beds of
+greater value than any in the neighbourhood of Peking. In Suean-hwa Fu
+coal is also found, but not in such quantities as in the places above
+named. Iron and silver also exist in small quantities in different parts
+of the province, and hot and warm springs are very common at the foot of
+the hills along the northern and western edges of the province. The
+principal agricultural products are wheat, kao-liang, oats, millet,
+maize, pulse and potatoes. Fruits and vegetables are also grown in large
+quantities. Of the former the chief kinds are pears, apples, plums,
+apricots, peaches, persimmons and melons. Tientsin is the Treaty Port of
+the province.
+
+
+
+
+CHIHUAHUA, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded N. and N.E. by
+the United States (New Mexico and Texas), E. by Coahuila, S. by Durango,
+and W. by Sinaloa and Sonora. Pop. (1895) 260,008; (1900) 327,784. Area,
+87,802 sq. m. The surface of the state is in great part an elevated
+plateau, sloping gently toward the Rio Grande. The western side,
+however, is much broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which form
+elevated valleys of great fertility. An arid sandy plain extending from
+the Rio Grande inland for 300 to 350 m. is quite destitute of vegetation
+where irrigation is not used. There is little rainfall in this region
+and the climate is hot and dry. The more elevated plateaus and valleys
+have the heavier rainfall, but the average for the state is barely 39
+in.; an impermeable clay substratum prevents its absorption by the soil,
+and the bare surface carries it off in torrents. The great Bolson de
+Mapimi depression, in the S.E. part of the state, was once considered to
+be an unreclaimable desert, but experiments with irrigation have shown
+its soil to be highly fertile, and the conversion of the narrow valleys
+of the sierras on the west into irrigation reservoirs promises to
+reclaim a considerable part of its area. The only river of consequence
+is the Conchos, which flows north and north-east into the Rio Grande
+across the whole length of the state. In the north there are several
+small streams flowing northward into lakes. Agriculture has made little
+progress in Chihuahua, and the scarcity of water will always be a
+serious obstacle to its development outside the districts where
+irrigation is practicable. The climate and soil are favourable to the
+production of wheat, Indian corn, beans, indigo, cotton and grapes, from
+which wine and brandy are made. The principal grape-producing district
+is in the vicinity of Ciudad Juarez. Stock-raising is an important
+industry in the mountainous districts of the west, where there is
+excellent pasturage for the greater part of the year. The principal
+industry of the state, however, is mining--its mineral resources
+including gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead and coal. The silver mines
+of Chihuahua are among the richest in Mexico, and include the famous
+mining districts of Batopilas, Chihuahuilla, Cosihuiriachic, Jesus
+Maria, Parral, and Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua el Viejo. There are more
+than one hundred of these mines, and the total annual yield at the end
+of the 19th century was estimated at $4,500,000. The state is traversed
+from north to south by the Mexican Central railway, and there are short
+branches to some of the mining districts.
+
+Chihuahua originally formed part of the province of Nueva Viscaya, with
+Durango as the capital. In 1777 the northern provinces, known as the
+Provincias Internas, were separated from the viceroyalty, and in 1786
+the provinces were reorganized as intendencias, but Chihuahua was not
+separated from Durango until 1823. An effort was made to overthrow
+Spanish authority in 1810, but its leader Hidalgo and two of his
+lieutenants were captured and executed, after which the province
+remained passive until the end of the struggle. The people of the state
+have been active partizans in most of the revolutionary outbreaks in
+Mexico, and in the war of 1862-66 Chihuahua was loyal to Juarez. The
+principal towns are the capital Chihuahua, El Parral, 120 m. S.S.E. of
+the state capital, in a rich mining district (pop. 14,748 in 1900),
+Ciudad Juarez and Jimenez, 120 m. S.E. of Chihuahua (pop. 5881 in 1900).
+
+
+
+
+CHIHUAHUA, a city of Mexico, capital of the above state, on the
+Chihuahua river, about 1000 m. N.W. of Mexico City and 225 m. S. by E.
+of El Paso. Pop. (1895) 18,279; (1900) 30,405. The city stands in a
+beautiful valley opening northward and hemmed in on all other sides by
+spurs of the Sierra Madre. It is 4635 ft. above sea-level, and its
+climate is mild and healthy. The city is laid out regularly, with broad
+streets, and a handsome plaza with a monument to Hidalgo and his
+companions of the revolution of 1810, who were executed here. The most
+noteworthy of its public buildings is the fine old parish church of San
+Francisco, begun in 1717 and completed in 1789, one of the best
+specimens of 18th-century architecture in Mexico. It was built, it is
+said, with the proceeds of a small tax on the output of the Santa
+Eulalia mine. Other prominent buildings are the government palace, the
+Porfirio Diaz hospital, the old Jesuit College (now occupied by a modern
+institution of the same character), the mint, and an aqueduct built in
+the 18th century. Chihuahua is a station on the Mexican Central railway,
+and has tramways and telephones. Mining is the principal occupation of
+the surrounding district, the famous Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua el Viejo
+mines being about 12 m. from the city. Next in importance is
+agriculture, especially fruit-growing. Manufacturing is making good
+progress, especially the weaving of cotton fabrics by modern methods.
+The manufacture of cotton and woollen goods are old industries in
+Chihuahua, but the introduction of American skill and capital toward the
+end of the 19th century placed them on an entirely new footing. The
+manufacture of gunpowder for mining operations is another old industry.
+
+Chihuahua was founded between 1703 and 1705 as a mining town, and was
+made a villa in 1715 with the title San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua.
+Because of the rich mines in its vicinity it soon became one of the most
+prosperous towns in northern Mexico, although the state was constantly
+raided by hostile Indians. In 1763 it had a population of nearly 5000.
+The war of independence was followed by a period of decline, owing to
+political disorder and revolution, which lasted until the presidency of
+General Porfirio Diaz. In the war between Mexico and the United States,
+Chihuahua was captured on the 1st of March 1847, by Colonel A.W.
+Doniphan, and again on the 7th of March by General Price. In 1864
+President Juarez made the city his provisional capital for a short time.
+
+
+
+
+CHILAS, a hill village in the North-West Frontier Province of India. It
+is dominated by a fort on the left bank of the Indus, about 50 m. below
+Bunji, 4100 ft. above sea-level. It was occupied by a British force
+early in 1893, when a determined attack was made on the place by the
+Kohistanis from the Indus valley districts to the south-west, aided by
+contingents from Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus.
+Its importance consists in its position with reference to the
+Kashmir-Gilgit route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected
+with Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its command
+of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit from the Punjab
+frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil pass. By the Kashmir route
+Gilgit is 400 m. from the rail-head at Rawalpindi. The Kagan route would
+bring it 100 m. nearer, but the unsettled condition of the country
+through which the road passes has been a bar to its general use.
+
+
+
+
+CHILBLAINS (or KIBE; _Erythema pernio_), a mild form of frostbite,
+affecting the fingers or toes and other parts, and causing a painful
+inflammatory swelling, with redness and itching of the affected part.
+The chief points to be noticed in its aetiology are (1) that the lesions
+occur in the extremities of the circulation, and (2) that they are
+usually started by rapid changes from heat to cold or vice versa. The
+treatment is both general and local. In the general treatment, if a
+history of blanching fingers (fingers or hands going "dead") can be
+obtained, the chilblains may be regarded as mild cases of Raynaud's
+disease, and these improve markedly under a course of nitrites. Cardiac
+tonics are often helpful, especially in those cases where there is some
+attendant lesion of the heart. But the majority of cases improve
+wonderfully on a good course of a calcium salt, _e.g._ calcium lactate
+or chloride; fifteen grains three times a day will answer in most cases.
+The patient should wash in soft tepid water, and avoid extremes of heat
+and cold. In the local treatment, two drugs are of great value in the
+early congestive stage--ichthyol and formalin. Ichthyol, 10 to 20% in
+lanoline spread on linen and worn at night, often dispels an attack at
+the beginning. Formalin is equally efficacious, but requires more skill
+in its use. It can be used as an ointment, 10 to 50% for delicate skins,
+stronger for coarser skins. It should be replaced occasionally by
+lanoline. If the stage of ulceration has been reached, a paste made from
+the following prescription, spread thickly on linen and frequently
+changed, soon cures:--Hydrarg. ammoniat. gr. v., ichthyol [minim]x,
+pulveris zinci oxidi [drachm]iv, vaseline [ounce]ss.
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713), English banker, was a Wiltshire man,
+who, having been apprenticed to a goldsmith, became himself a London
+goldsmith in 1664. In 1671 he married Elizabeth (d. 1720), daughter of
+another goldsmith named William Wheeler (d. 1663), and with his wife's
+stepfather, Robert Blanchard (d. 1681), took over about the same time
+the business of goldsmiths hitherto carried on by the Wheelers. This was
+the beginning of Child's Bank. Child soon gave up the business of a
+goldsmith and confined himself to that of a banker. He inherited some
+wealth and was very successful in business; he was jeweller to the
+king, and lent considerable sums of money to the government. Being a
+freeman of the city of London, Child was elected a member of the court
+of common council in 1681; in 1689 he became an alderman, and in the
+same year a knight. He served as sheriff of London in 1691 and as lord
+mayor in 1699. His parliamentary career began about this time. In 1698
+he was chosen member of parliament for Devizes and in 1702 for the city
+of London, and was again returned for Devizes in 1705 and 1710. He died
+on the 4th of October 1713, and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Sir
+Francis, who was a benefactor to Christ's hospital, bought Osterley
+Park, near Isleworth, now the residence of his descendant the earl of
+Jersey.
+
+Child had twelve sons. One, Sir Robert, an alderman, died in 1721.
+Another, Sir Francis (c. 1684-1740), was lord mayor of London in 1732,
+and a director of the East India Company. He was chosen member of
+parliament for the city of London in 1722, and was member for Middlesex
+from 1727 until his death. After the death of the younger Sir Francis at
+Fulham on the 20th of April 1740 the banking business passed to his
+brother Samuel, and the bank is still owned by his descendants, the
+principal proprietor being the earl of Jersey. Child's Bank was at first
+conducted at the Marygold, next Temple Bar in Fleet Street, London; and
+the present bank occupies the site formerly covered by the Marygold and
+the adjacent Devil tavern.
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896), American scholar and educationist, was
+born in Boston on the 1st of February 1825. He graduated at Harvard in
+1846, taking the highest rank in his class in all subjects; was tutor in
+mathematics in 1846-1848; and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in
+history, political economy and English. After two years of study in
+Europe, in 1851 he succeeded Edward T. Channing as Boylston professor of
+rhetoric, oratory and elocution. Child studied the English drama (having
+edited _Four Old Plays_ in 1848) and Germanic philology, the latter at
+Berlin and Goettingen during a leave of absence, 1849-1853; and he took
+general editorial supervision of a large collection of the British
+poets, published in Boston in 1853 and following years. He edited
+Spenser (5 vols., Boston, 1855), and at one time planned an edition of
+Chaucer, but contented himself with a treatise, in the _Memoirs of the
+American Academy of Arts and Sciences_ for 1863, entitled "Observations
+on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales," which did much to
+establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation and scansion as now
+generally understood. His largest undertaking, however, grew out of an
+original collection, in his British Poets series, of _English and
+Scottish Ballads_, selected and edited by himself, in eight small
+volumes (Boston, 1857-1858). Thenceforward the leisure of his life--much
+increased by his transfer, in 1876, to the new professorship of
+English--was devoted to the comparative study of British vernacular
+ballads. He accumulated, in the university library, one of the largest
+folklore collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than
+printed sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all
+other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative hearing to
+popular versions still surviving. At last his final collection was
+published as _The English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, at first in ten
+parts (1882-1898), and then in five quarto volumes, which remain the
+authoritative treasury of their subject. Professor Child worked--and
+overworked--to the last, dying in Boston on the 11th of September 1896,
+having completed his task save for a general introduction and
+bibliography. A sympathetic biographical sketch was prefixed to the work
+by his pupil and successor George L. Kittredge.
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690), governor of Bombay, and in fact if not in
+name the first governor-general of the British settlements in India, was
+born in London. He was sent as a little boy to his uncle, the chief of
+the factory at Rajapur; and in 1682 was appointed chief of the East
+India Company's affairs at Surat and Bombay, while at the same time his
+brother, Sir Josiah Child (q.v.), was governor of the company at home.
+The two brothers showed themselves strong men and guided the affairs of
+the company through the period of struggle between the Moguls and
+Mahrattas. They have been credited by history with the change from
+unarmed to armed trade on the part of the company; but as a matter of
+fact both of them were loth to quarrel with the Mogul. War broke out
+with Aurangzeb in 1689, but in the following year Child had to sue for
+peace, one of the conditions being that he should be expelled from
+India. He escaped this expulsion by his death in 1690.
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (1630-1699), English merchant, economist and governor
+of the East India Company, was born in London in 1630, the second son of
+Richard Child, a London merchant of old family. After serving his
+apprenticeship in the business, to which he succeeded, he started on his
+own account at Portsmouth, as victualler to the navy under the
+Commonwealth, when about twenty-five. He amassed a comfortable fortune,
+and became a considerable stock-holder in the East India Company, his
+interest in India being accentuated by the fact that his brother John
+(q.v.) was making his career there. He was returned to parliament in
+1659 for Petersfield; and in later years sat for Dartmouth (1673-1678)
+and for Ludlow (1685-1687). He was made a baronet in 1678. His advocacy,
+both by speech and by pen, under the pseudonym of Philopatris, of the
+East India Company's claims to political power, as well as to the right
+of restricting competition with its trade, brought him to the notice of
+the shareholders, and he became a director in 1677, and, subsequently,
+deputy-governor and governor. In this latter capacity he was for a
+considerable time virtually the sole ruler of the company, and directed
+its policy as if it were his own private business. He and his brother
+have been credited with the change from unarmed to armed traffic; but
+the actual renunciation of the Roe doctrine of unarmed traffic by the
+company was resolved upon in January 1686, under Governor Sir Joseph
+Ash, when Child was temporarily out of office. He died on the 22nd of
+June 1699. Child made several important contributions to the literature
+of economics; especially _Brief Observations concerning Trade and the
+Interest of Money_ (1668), and _A New Discourse of Trade_ (1668 and
+1690). He was a moderate in those days of the "mercantile system," and
+has sometimes been regarded as a sort of pioneer in the development of
+the free-trade doctrines of the 18th century. He made various proposals
+for improving British trade by following Dutch example, and advocated a
+low rate of interest as the "_causa causans_ of all the other causes of
+the riches of the Dutch people." This low rate of interest he thought
+should be created and maintained by public authority. Child, whilst
+adhering to the doctrine of the balance of trade, observed that a people
+cannot always sell to foreigners without ever buying from them, and
+denied that the export of the precious metals was necessarily
+detrimental. He had the mercantilist partiality for a numerous
+population, and became prominent with a new scheme for the relief and
+employment of the poor; it is noteworthy also that he advocated the
+reservation by the mother country of the sole right of trade with her
+colonies. Sir Josiah Child's eldest son, Richard, was created Viscount
+Castlemain in 1718 and earl of Tylney in 1731.
+
+  See also Macaulay, _History of England_, vol. iv.; R. Grant, _Sketch
+  of the History of the East India Company_ (1813); D. Macpherson,
+  _Annals of Commerce_ (1805); B. Willson, _Ledger and Sword_ (1903).
+      (T. A. I.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880), American author, was born at Medford,
+Massachusetts, on the 11th of February 1802. She was educated at an
+academy in her native town and by her brother Convers Francis
+(1795-1863), a Unitarian minister and from 1842 to 1863 Parkman
+professor in the Harvard Divinity School. Her first stories, _Hobomok_
+(1824) and _The Rebels_ (1825), were popular successes. She was a
+schoolmistress until 1828, when she married David Lee Child (1794-1874),
+a brilliant but erratic Boston lawyer and journalist. From 1826 to 1834
+she edited _The Juvenile Miscellany_, the first children's monthly
+periodical in the United States. About 1831 both she and her husband
+began to identify themselves with the anti-slavery cause, and in 1833
+she published _An Appeal for that Class of Americans called Africans_, a
+stirring portrayal of the evils of slavery, and an argument for
+immediate abolition, which had a powerful influence in winning recruits
+to the anti-slavery cause. Henceforth her time was largely devoted to
+the anti-slavery cause. From 1840 to 1844, assisted by her husband, she
+edited the _Anti-Slavery Standard_ in New York City. After the Civil War
+she wrote much in behalf of the freedmen and of Indian rights. She died
+at Wayland, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1880. In addition to
+the books above mentioned, she wrote many pamphlets and short stories
+and _The (American) Frugal Housewife_ (1829), one of the earliest
+American books on domestic economy, _The Mother's Book_ (1831), a
+pioneer cook-book republished in England and Germany, _The Girls' Own
+Book_ (1831), _History of Women_ (2 vols., 1832), _Good Wives_ (1833),
+_The Anti-Slavery Catechism_ (1836), _Philothea_ (1836), a romance of
+the age of Pericles, perhaps her best book, _Letters from New York_ (2
+vols., 1843-1845), _Fact and Fiction_ (1847), _The Power of Kindness_
+(1851), _Isaac T. Hopper: a True Life_ (1853), _The Progress of
+Religious Ideas through Successive Ages_ (3 vols., 1855), _Autumnal
+Leaves_ (1857), _Looking Toward Sunset_ (1864), _The Freedman's Book_
+(1865), _A Romance of the Republic_ (1867), and _Aspirations of the
+World_ (1878).
+
+  See _The Letters of Lydia Maria Child, with a Biographical
+  Introduction by J.G. Whittier_ (Boston, 1883); and a chapter in T.W.
+  Higginson's _Contemporaries_ (Boston, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CHILD, the common term for the offspring of human beings, generally
+below the age of puberty; the term is the correlative of "parent," and
+applies to either sex, though some early dialectical uses point to a
+certain restriction to a girl. The word is derived from the A.S. _cild_,
+an old Teutonic word found in English only, in other Teutonic languages
+_kind_ and its variants being used, usually derived from the
+Indo-European root _ken_, seen in Gr. [greek: genos], Lat. _genus_, and
+Eng. "kin"; _cild_ has been held to be a modification of the same root,
+but the true root is _kilth_, seen in Goth. _kilthei_, womb, an origin
+which appears in the expressions "child-birth," "to be with child," and
+the like; the plural in A.S. was _cild_, and later _cildru_, which in
+northern M.E. became _childre or childer_, a form dialectically extant,
+and in southern English _childeren_ or _children_ (with the plural
+termination -en, as in "brethren"). There are several particular uses of
+"child" in the English version of the Bible, as of a young man in the
+"Song of the three holy children," of descendants or members of a race,
+as in "children of Abraham," and also to express origin, giving a
+description of character, as "children of darkness." During the 13th and
+14th centuries "child" was used, in a sense almost amounting to a title
+of dignity, of a young man of noble birth, probably preparing for
+knighthood. In the _York Mysteries_ of about 1440 (quoted in the _New
+English Dictionary_) occurs "be he churl or child," obviously referring
+to gentle birth, cf. William Bellenden's translation (1553) of Livy (ii.
+124) "than was in Rome ane nobill childe ... namit Caius Mucius." The
+spelling "childe" is frequent in modern usage to indicate its archaic
+meaning. Familiar instances are in the line of an old ballad quoted in
+_King Lear_, "childe Roland to the dark tower came," and in Byron's
+_Childe Harold_. With this use may be compared the Spanish and
+Portuguese _Infante_ and _Infanta_, and the early French use of _Valet_
+(q.v.).
+
+_Child-study._--The physical, psychological and educational development
+of children, from birth till adulthood, has provided material in recent
+years for what has come to be regarded as almost a distinct part of
+comparative anthropological or sociological science, and the literature
+of adolescence (q.v.) and of "child-study" in its various aspects has
+attained considerable proportions. In England the British Child Study
+Association was founded in 1894, its official organ being the
+_Paidologist_, while similar work is done by the Childhood Society, and,
+to a certain extent, by the Parents' National Educational Union (which
+issues the _Parents' Review_). In America, where specially valuable work
+has been done, several universities have encouraged the study (notably
+Chicago, while under the auspices of Professor John Dewey); and
+Professor G. Stanley Hall's initiative has led to elaborate inquiries,
+the principal periodical for the movement being the _Pedagogical
+Seminary_. The impetus to this study of the child's mind and capacities
+was given by the classic work of educationists like J.A. Comenius, J.H.
+Pestalozzi, and F.W.A. Froebel, but more recent writers have carried it
+much further, notably W.T. Preyer (_The Mind of the Child_, 1881), whose
+psychological studies stamp him as one of the chief pioneers in new
+methods of investigation. Other authorities of first-rate importance
+(their chief works only being given here) are J. Sully (_Studies of
+Childhood_, 1896), Earl Barnes (_Studies in Education_, 1896, 1902),
+J.M. Baldwin (_Mental Development in the Child and the Race_, 1895),
+Sigismund (_Kind und Welt_, 1897), A.F. Chamberlain (_The Child_, 1900),
+G. Stanley Hall (_Adolescence_, 1904; he had from 1882 been the leader
+in America of such investigations), H. Holman and R. Langdon Down
+(_Practical Child Study_, 1899), E.A. Kirkpatrick (_Fundamentals of
+Child-study_, 1903), and Prof. Tracy of Toronto (_Psychology of
+Childhood_, 5th ed., 1901); while among a number of contributions worth
+particular attention may be mentioned W.B. Drummond's excellent summary,
+_Introduction to Child Study_ (1907), which deals succinctly with
+methods and results; Irving King's _Psychology of Child Development_
+(1906, useful for its bibliography); Prof. David R. Major's _First Steps
+in Mental Growth_ (1906); and Miss M. Shinn's _Notes an the Development
+of a Child_ (1893) and Mrs Louise E. Hogan's _Study of a Child_ (1898),
+which are noteworthy among individual and methodical accounts of what
+children will do. In such books as those cited a great deal of important
+material has been collected and analysed, and a number of conclusions
+suggested which bear both on psychology and the science of education;
+but it must be borne in mind, as regards a great deal of the voluminous
+literature of the subject, that it is often more pertinent to general
+psychology and hygiene than to any special conclusions as to the
+essential nature of a child--whatever "_a_ child" generically may be as
+the special object of a special science. The child, after all, is in a
+transition stage to an adult, and there is often a tendency in modern
+"child students" to interpret the phenomena exhibited by a particular
+child with a _parti pris_, or to exaggerate child-study--which is really
+interesting as providing the knowledge of growth towards full human
+equipment--as though it involved the discovery of some distinct form of
+animal, of separate value on its own account.
+
+_Growth._--Into the psychical characteristics and development of the
+child and all the interesting educational problems involved it is
+impossible to enter here, and reference must be made to the works cited
+above. But a knowledge of the more important features of normal physical
+development has a constant importance. Some of these, as matters of
+comparative physiology or pathology, are dealt with in other articles in
+this work. One of these chief matters of interest is weight and height,
+and this is naturally affected by race, nutrition and environment. But
+while the standard in different countries somewhat differs, the British
+average for healthy children may here be followed. At birth the average
+weight of a baby is a little over 7 lb and the length about 20 in. The
+following are the averages for weight and height, taking the age in
+years of the child at the last birthday:--
+
+  +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |  Age.  | Height, in inches. | Weight, in pounds. |
+  +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |        |   Girls  |   Boys  |   Girls  |   Boys  |
+  |        |          |         |          |         |
+  |   1    |    28.7  |   29    |   19.8   |   20.5  |
+  |   2    |    32.5  |   32.5  |   25.5   |   26.5  |
+  |   3    |    35    |   35    |   30     |   31.2  |
+  |   4    |    38    |   38    |   34     |   35    |
+  |   5    |    40.5  |   41    |   39.2   |   41.2  |
+  |   6    |    42.8  |   44    |   41.7   |   44.4  |
+  |   7    |    44.5  |   46    |   47.5   |   49.7  |
+  |   8    |    46.6  |   47    |   52.1   |   54.9  |
+  |   9    |    48.7  |   49    |   55.5   |   60.4  |
+  |  10    |    51    |   51.8  |   62     |   67.5  |
+  |  11    |    53.1  |   53.5  |   68     |   72    |
+  |  12    |    55.6  |   55    |   76.4   |   76.7  |
+  |  13    |    57.7  |   57    |   87.2   |   82.6  |
+  |  14    |    59.8  |   59.3  |   96.7   |   92    |
+  |  15    |    60.9  |   62    |  102.7   |  106    |
+  +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
+
+  See also CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; CHILDREN'S COURTS; CHILDREN'S
+  GAMES; INFANT; &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHILDEBERT, the name of three Frankish kings.
+
+
+CHILDEBERT I. (d. 558) was one of the four sons of Clovis. In the
+partition of his father's realm in 511 he received as his share the town
+of Paris, and the country to the north as far as the river Somme, and to
+the west as far as the English Channel, with the Armorican peninsula. In
+524, after the murder of Chlodomer's children, Childebert annexed the
+cities of Chartres and Orleans. He took part in the various expeditions
+against the kingdom of Burgundy, and in 534 received as his share of the
+spoils of that kingdom the towns of Macon, Geneva and Lyons. When
+Vitiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence to the Franks in
+535, the possession of Arles and Marseilles was guaranteed to Childebert
+by his brothers. Childebert also made a series of expeditions against
+the Visigoths of Spain; in 542 he took possession of Pampeluna with the
+help of his brother Clotaire I., and besieged Saragossa, but was forced
+to retreat. From this expedition he brought back to Paris a precious
+relic, the tunic of St Vincent, in honour of which he built at the gates
+of Paris the famous monastery of St Vincent, known later as St
+Germain-des-Pres. He died without issue in 558, and was buried in the
+abbey he had founded, where his tomb has been discovered.
+
+  See "Nouveaux documents sur le tombeau de Childebert a
+  Saint-Germain-des-Pres," in the _Bulletin de la Societe des
+  Antiquaires_ (1887).
+
+
+CHILDEBERT II. (570-595), king of Austrasia, was a son of Sigebert. When
+his father was assassinated in 575, Childebert was taken from Paris by
+Gundobald, one of his faithful _leudes_, to Metz, where he was
+recognized as sovereign. He was then only five years old, and during his
+long minority the power was disputed between his mother Brunhilda and
+the nobles. Chilperic, king at Paris, and King Gontran of Burgundy,
+sought alliance with Childebert, who was adopted by both in turn. But
+after the assassination of Chilperic in 584, and the dangers occasioned
+to the Frankish monarchy by the expedition of Gundobald in 585,
+Childebert threw himself unreservedly into the arms of Gontran. By the
+pact of Andelot in 587 Childebert was recognized as Gontran's heir, and
+with his uncle's help he quelled the revolts of the nobles and succeeded
+in seizing the castle of Woewre. Many attempts were made on his life by
+Fredegond, who was anxious to secure Gontran's inheritance for her son
+Clotaire II. On the death of Gontran in 592 Childebert annexed the
+kingdom of Burgundy, and even contemplated seizing Clotaire's estates
+and becoming sole king of the Franks. He died, however, in 595.
+Childebert II. had had relations with the Byzantine empire, and fought
+in 585 in the name of the emperor Maurice against the Lombards in Italy.
+
+
+CHILDEBERT III. was one of the last and feeblest of the Merovingians. A
+son of King Theuderich III., he succeeded his brother Clovis III. in
+695, and reigned until 711.
+
+  See B. Krusch, "Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Koenige," in
+  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxii. 451-490.    (C. PF.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILDERIC, the name of three Frankish kings.
+
+
+CHILDERIC I. (c. 437-481), king of the Salian Franks, succeeded his
+father Merwich (Merwing) as king about. 457. With his tribe he was
+established around the town of Tournai, on lands which he had received
+as a _foederatus_ of the Romans, and for some time he kept the peace
+with his allies. About 463, in conjunction with the Roman general
+Egidius, he fought against the Visigoths, who hoped to extend their
+dominion along the banks of the Loire; after the death of Egidius he
+assisted Count Paul in attempting to check an invasion of the Saxons.
+Paul having perished in the struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from
+some Saxons, followed them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and
+massacred them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who wished
+to invade Italy. These are all the facts known about him. The stories of
+his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight years in Thuringia
+with King Basin and his wife Basine; of his return when a faithful
+servant advised him that he could safely do so by sending to him half of
+a piece of gold which he had broken with him; and of the arrival at
+Tournai of Queen Basine, whom he married, are entirely legendary. After
+the fall of the Western Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric
+regarded himself as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in
+481 and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis (q.v.), afterwards
+king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered in 1653, when numerous
+precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a figure of the
+king, were found.
+
+
+CHILDERIC II. (c. 653-673), king of Austrasia, was a son of the Frankish
+king Clovis II., and in 660, although a child, was proclaimed king of
+Austrasia, while his brother, Clotaire III., ruled over the rest of the
+dominions of Clovis. After the death of Clotaire in 670 he became ruler
+of the three Frankish kingdoms, Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, but
+soon quarrelled with some supporters in Neustria, and was assassinated
+whilst hunting. He was buried at St Germain near Paris.
+
+
+CHILDERIC III. (d. c. 751), king of the Franks, was the last king of the
+Merovingian dynasty. The throne had been vacant for seven years when the
+mayors of the palace, Carloman and Pippin the Short, decided in 743 to
+recognize Childeric as king. We cannot say whose son he was, or what
+bonds bound him to the Merovingian family. He took no part in public
+business, which was directed, as before, by the mayors of the palace.
+When in 747 Carloman retired into a monastery, Pippin resolved to take
+the royal crown for himself; taking the decisive step in 751 after
+having received the celebrated answer of Pope Zacharias that it were
+better to name king him who possessed the power than him who possessed
+it not. Childeric was dethroned and placed in the monastery of St Omer;
+his son, Theuderich, was imprisoned at Saint-Wandrille.
+
+  See W. Junghans, _Die Geschichte der fraenkischen Koenige Childerich und
+  Clodovech_ (Goettingen, 1857); J.J. Chiflet, _Anastasis Childerici I.
+  Francorum regis_ (Antwerp, 1655); J.B.D. Cochet, _Le Tombeau de
+  Childeric I, roi des Francs_ (Paris, 1859); and E. Lavisse, _Histoire
+  de France_, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY (1827-1896), British statesman, was born
+in London on the 25th of June 1827. On leaving Cambridge he went out to
+Australia (1850), and became a member of the government of Victoria, but
+in 1857 returned to England as agent-general of the colony. Entering
+parliament in 1860 as Liberal member for Pontefract (a seat that he
+continued to hold till 1885), he became civil lord of the admiralty in
+1864, and in 1865 financial secretary to the treasury. Childers occupied
+a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone ministries. He
+was first lord of the admiralty from 1868 to 1871, and as such
+inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Ill-health compelled his
+resignation of office in 1871, but next year he returned to the ministry
+as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. From 1880 to 1882 he was
+secretary for war, a post he accepted somewhat unwillingly; and in that
+position he had to bear the responsibility for the reforms which were
+introduced into the war office under the parsimonious conditions which
+were then part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the
+Egyptian War occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy;
+and also the Boer War, in which he and his colleagues showed to less
+advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was chancellor of the exchequer, and the
+beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter year was the occasion
+of the government's fall. Defeated at the general election at
+Pontefract, he was returned as a Home Ruler (one of the few Liberals who
+adopted this policy before Mr Gladstone's conversion) in 1886 for South
+Edinburgh, and was home secretary in the ministry of 1886. When the
+first Home Rule bill was introduced he demurred privately to its
+financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his threat of
+resignation. He retired from parliament in 1892, and died on the 29th of
+January 1896, his last piece of work being the drafting of a report for
+the royal commission on Irish financial relations, of which he was
+chairman. Childers was a capable and industrious administrator of the
+old Liberal school, and he did his best, in the political conditions
+then prevailing, to improve the naval and military administration while
+he was at the admiralty and war office. His own bent was towards
+finance, but no striking reform is associated with his name. His most
+ambitious effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of consols in
+1884, but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the
+subsequent conversion in 1888.
+
+  The _Life_ (1901) of Mr Childers, by his son, throws some interesting
+  side-lights on the inner history of more than one Gladstonian cabinet.
+
+
+
+
+CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR (1838-1876), English Oriental scholar, son of
+the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at Nice, was born in 1838.
+In 1860 he received an appointment in the civil service of Ceylon, which
+he retained until 1864, when he was compelled to return to England owing
+to ill-health. He had studied P[=a]li during his residence in Ceylon,
+under Yatramulle Unnanse, a learned Buddhist for whom he cherished a
+life-long respect, and he had gained an insight into the Sinhalese
+character and ways of thought. In 1869 he published the first P[=a]li
+text ever printed in England, and began to prepare a P[=a]li dictionary,
+the first volume of which was published in 1872, and the second and
+concluding volume in 1875. In the following year it was awarded the
+Volney prize by the Institute of France, as being the most important
+philological work of the year. He was a frequent contributor to the
+Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which he published the
+_Mah[=a]-parinibb[=a]na Sutta_, the P[=a]li text giving the account of
+the last days of Buddha's life. In 1872 he was appointed sub-librarian
+at the India Office, and in the following year he became the first
+professor of P[=a]li and Buddhist literature at University College,
+London. He died in London on the 25th of July 1876.
+
+
+
+
+CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO. English law has always in theory given to
+children the same remedies as to adults for ill-usage, whether by their
+parents or by others, and has never recognized the _patria potestas_ as
+known to the earlier Roman law; and while powers of discipline and
+chastisement have been regarded as necessarily incident to paternal
+authority, the father is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done
+to them. The only points in which infancy created a defect in civil
+status were that infants were subject to the restraints on complete
+freedom of action involved in their being in the legal custody of the
+father, and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers
+and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in amount and
+severity to the nature of the fault committed and the age and mental
+capacity of the child punished. But the court of chancery, in delegated
+exercise of the authority of the sovereign as _parens patriae_, always
+asserted the right to take from parents, and if necessary itself to
+assume the wardship of children where parental rights were abused or
+serious cruelty was inflicted, the power being vested in the High Court
+of Justice. Abuse of the power of correction was regarded as giving a
+cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if attended by fatal
+results rendered the parent liable to indictment for murder or
+manslaughter.
+
+The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children undoubtedly
+changed considerably with the relaxation of the accepted standard of
+severity in domestic or scholastic discipline and with the growth of new
+ideas as to the duties of parents to children, which in their latest
+developments tend enormously to enlarge the parental duties without any
+corresponding increase of filial obligations.
+
+Starting from the earlier conception, which limited ill-treatment
+legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common law came to
+recognize criminal liability in cases where persons, bound under duty or
+contract to supply necessaries to a child, unable by reason of its
+tender years to provide for itself, wilfully neglected to supply them,
+and thereby caused the death of the child or injury to its health,
+although no actual assault had been committed. Questions have from time
+to time arisen as to what could be regarded as necessary within this
+rule; and quite apart from legislation, popular opinion has influenced
+courts of justice in requiring more from parents and employers than used
+to be required. But parliament has also intervened to punish abandonment
+or exposure of infants of under two years, whereby their lives are
+endangered, or their health has been or is likely to be permanently
+injured (Offences against the Person Act of 1861, s. 27), and the
+neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or servants (same act, s. 26,
+and Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875, s. 6). By the Poor
+Law Amendment Act 1868, parents were rendered _summarily_ punishable who
+wilfully neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid or
+lodging for their children under fourteen years of age in their custody,
+whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be seriously
+injured. This enactment (now superseded by later legislation) made no
+express exception in favour of parents who had not sufficient means to
+do their duty without resort to the poor law, and was construed as
+imposing criminal liability on parents whose peculiar religious tenets
+caused them advisedly to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick
+child.
+
+The chief progress in the direction of adequate protection for children
+prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the subject than
+in the institution of an effective system of police, whereby it became
+possible to discover and repress cruelty punishable under the ordinary
+law. It is quite inaccurate to say that children had very few rights in
+England, or that animals were better protected. But before the
+constitution of the present police force, and in the absence of any
+proper system of public prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless
+cases of neglect and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as
+nobody's business, because there was no person ready to undertake in the
+public interest the protection of the children of cruel or negligent
+parents. In 1889 a statute was passed with the special object of
+preventing cruelty to children. This act was superseded in 1894 by a
+more stringent act, which was repealed by the Prevention of Cruelty to
+Children Act 1904, in its turn superseded for the most part by the
+Children Act 1908, which introduced many new provisions in the law
+relating to children and specifically deals with the offence of
+"cruelty" to them. This offence can only be committed by a person over
+sixteen in respect of a child under sixteen of whom he has "custody,"
+"charge" or "care." The act presumes that a child is in the custody of
+its parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent, or of
+its guardians or persons liable by law to maintain it; that it is in the
+charge of a person to whom the parent has committed such charge (e.g. a
+schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a person who has actual
+possession or control of it. Cruelty is defined as consisting in
+assault, ill-treatment (falling short of actual assault), neglect,
+abandonment or exposure of the child in a manner likely to cause
+_unnecessary_ suffering or injury to health, including injury to or loss
+of sight, hearing or limb, or any organ of the body or any mental
+derangement; and the act or omission must be wilful, i.e. deliberate and
+intentional, and not merely accidental or inadvertent. The offence may
+be punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender may be
+sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was directly or
+indirectly interested in any sum of money payable on the death of the
+child, e.g. by having taken out a policy permitted under the Friendly
+Societies Acts. A parent or other person legally liable to maintain a
+child or young person will be deemed to have "neglected" him by failure
+to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid, or lodging, or if in
+the event of inability to provide such food, &c., by failure to take
+steps to procure the same under acts relating to the relief of the poor.
+
+These statutes overlap the common law and the statutes already
+mentioned. Their real efficacy lies in the main in the provisions which
+facilitate the taking of evidence of young children, in permitting poor
+law authorities to prosecute at the expense of the rates, and in
+permitting a constable on arresting the offender to take the child away
+from the accused, and the court of trial on conviction to transfer the
+custody of the child from the offender to some fit and willing person,
+including any society or body corporate established for the reception of
+poor children or for the prevention of cruelty to children. The
+provisions of the acts as to procedure and custody extend not only to
+the offence of cruelty but also to all offences involving bodily injury
+to a child under sixteen, such as abandonment, assault, kidnapping and
+illegally engaging a child in a dangerous public performance. The act
+of 1908 also makes an endeavour to check the heavy mortality of infants
+through "overlaying,"[1] enacting that where it is proved that the death
+of an infant under three years of age was caused by suffocation whilst
+the infant was in bed with some other person over the age of sixteen,
+and that that person was at the time of going to bed under the influence
+of drink, that other person shall be deemed to have neglected the child
+in manner likely to cause injury to its health, as mentioned above. The
+acts have been utilized with great zeal and on the whole with much
+discretion by various philanthropic societies, whose members make it
+their business to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all
+classes in society, and particularly by the Society for the Prevention
+of Cruelty to Children, which is incorporated under royal charter of the
+28th of May 1895, for the purposes _inter alia_ of preventing the public
+and private wrongs of children, and the corruption of their morals and
+of taking action to enforce the laws for their protection.
+
+The act of 1908 enacted more stringent provisions against baby-farming
+(q.v.). The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897 did not apply where only
+one child was taken, but now by the act of 1908, where a person
+undertakes for reward the nursing and maintenance of one or more infants
+under the age of _seven_ years apart from their parents or having no
+parents, he must give notice in writing to the local authority within
+forty-eight hours from the reception of the child. If an infant is
+already in the care of a person without reward and he undertakes to
+continue the nursing for reward, such undertaking is a reception of the
+child. The notice to the local authority must state the name, sex, date
+and place of birth of the infant, the name and address of the person
+receiving the infant and of the person from whom the infant was
+received. Notice must also be given of any change of address of the
+person having the care of the infant, or of the death of the infant, or
+of its removal to the care of some other person, whose name and address
+must also be given. It is the duty of local authorities to provide for
+the carrying-out in their districts of that portion of the act which
+refers to nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint infants'
+protection visitors, to fix the number of infants which any person may
+retain for nursing, to remove infants improperly kept, &c. Relatives or
+legal guardians of an infant who undertake its nursing and maintenance,
+hospitals, convalescent homes, or institutions, established for the
+protection and care of infants, and conducted in good faith for
+religious and charitable purposes, as well as boarding schools at which
+efficient elementary education is given, are exempt from the provisions
+of the act.
+
+The acts of 1904 and 1908 deal with many other offences in relation to
+children and young persons. The act of 1904 introduced restrictions on
+the employment of children which lie on the border land between cruelty
+and the regulation of child labour. It prohibits custodians of children
+from taking them, or letting them be, in the street or in public-houses
+to sing, play, perform or sell between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. These
+provisions apply to boys under fourteen and girls under sixteen. There
+are further prohibitions (1) on allowing children under eleven to sing,
+play, perform or be exhibited for profit, or offer anything for sale in
+public-houses or places of public amusement at any hour without a
+licence from a justice, which is granted only as to children over ten
+and under stringent conditions; (2) on allowing children under sixteen
+to be trained as acrobats, contortionists, or circus performers, or for
+any dangerous performance; and the Children's Dangerous Performances Act
+1879, as amended in 1897, makes it an offence to employ a male young
+person under sixteen and a female under eighteen in a dangerous public
+performance.
+
+The act of 1908 renders liable to a fine not exceeding L25, or
+alternatively, or in addition thereto, imprisonment with or without hard
+labour for any term not exceeding three months, any custodian, &c., of
+any child or young person who allows him to be in any street, premises
+or place for the purpose of begging or receiving alms, or of inducing
+the giving of alms, whether or not there is a pretence of singing,
+playing, performing or offering anything for sale. An important
+departure in the act of 1908 was the attempt to prevent the exposure of
+children to the risk of burning. Any custodian, &c., of a child under
+seven who allows that child to be in a room Containing an open grate not
+sufficiently protected to guard against the risk of burning or scalding
+is liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding L10. Provision
+is made against allowing children between the ages of four and sixteen
+to be in brothels; it is also made a misdemeanour if any custodian, &c.,
+of a girl under sixteen causes or encourages her seduction or
+prostitution, and any person having the custody of a young girl may be
+bound over to exercise proper care if it is shown to the satisfaction of
+a court of summary jurisdiction, on the complaint of any person, that
+she is exposed to such risk.
+
+The act of 1908, following legislation in many parts of the United
+States and in some of the British colonies, places a penalty on selling
+tobacco to any person apparently under the age of sixteen, whether for
+his own use or not. It empowers constables and park keepers to seize
+tobacco in the possession of any person apparently under sixteen found
+smoking in any street or public place, as well as to search them; it
+also empowers a court, of summary jurisdiction to prevent automatic
+machines for the sale of tobacco being used by young persons. The act
+also contains useful provisions empowering the clearing of a court
+whilst a child or young person is giving evidence in certain cases (e.g.
+of decency or morality), and the forbidding children (other than infants
+in arms) being present in court during the trial of other persons; it
+places a penalty on pawnbrokers taking an article in pawn from children
+under fourteen; and on vagrants for preventing children above the age of
+five receiving education. It puts a penalty on giving intoxicating
+liquor to any child under the age of five, except upon the orders of a
+duly qualified medical practitioner, or in case of sickness, or other
+urgent cause; also upon any holder of the licence of any licensed
+premises who allows a child to be at any time in the bar of the licensed
+premises; or upon any person who causes or attempts to cause a child to
+be in the bar of licensed premises other than railway refreshment rooms
+or premises used for any purpose to which the holding of a licence is
+merely auxiliary, or where the child is there simply for the purpose of
+passing through to some other part of the premises. It makes provision
+for the safety of children at entertainments, and consolidates the law
+relating to reformatory and industrial schools, and to juvenile
+offenders (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS).
+
+In the act of 1908, "child" is denned as a person under the age of
+fourteen years, and "young person" as a person who is fourteen years and
+upwards and under the age of sixteen years. The act applies to Scotland
+and Ireland. In the application of the act to Ireland exception is made
+relative to the exclusion of children from bars of licensed premises, in
+the case of a child being on licensed premises where a substantial part
+of the business carried on is a drapery, grocery, hardware or other
+business wholly unconnected with the sale of intoxicating liquor, and
+the child is there for the purpose of purchasing goods other than
+intoxicating liquor.
+
+_British Possessions._--Legislation much on the lines of the acts of
+1889-1908 has been passed in many British possessions, e.g. Tasmania
+(1895, 1906), Queensland (1896, 1905), Jamaica (1896), South Australia
+(1899, 1904), New South Wales (1892 and 1900), New Zealand (1906),
+Mauritius (1906), Victoria (1905,1906). In South Australia a State
+Children's Department has been created to care for and manage the
+property and persons of destitute and neglected children, and the
+officials of the council may act in cases of cruelty to children; the
+legislation of Victoria and Queensland is based on that of South
+Australia. See also CHILDREN'S COURTS, EDUCATION and LABOUR LEGISLATION.
+    (W. F. C.; T. A. I.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+    [1] There has been some doubt as to whether it is more correct to
+    say a person "_overlays_" or "_overlies_" a child, and the question
+    came up in committee on the bill. According to Sir J.A.H. Murray
+    (see Letter in _The Times_, 12th of May 1908) "to lie," an
+    intransitive verb, becomes transitive when combined with a
+    preposition, e.g. a nurse lies over a child or overlies a child; "to
+    lay" is the causal derivative of "to lie," and is followed by two
+    objects, e.g. to lay the table with a cloth, or to lay a cloth on
+    the table; similarly, to overlay a surface with varnish, or to
+    overlay a child with a blanket, or with the nurse's or mother's
+    body. The instrument can be left unexpressed, and a person can be
+    said to overlay a child, i.e. with her own body, a pillow, &c. Thus,
+    while "overlie" covers the case where the woman herself lies over
+    the child, "overlay" is the more general word.
+
+
+
+
+CHILDRENITE, a rare mineral species; a hydrous basic aluminium iron
+phosphate, orthorhombic in crystallization. The ferrous oxide is in part
+replaced by manganous oxide and lime, and in the closely allied and
+isomorphous species eosphorite manganese predominates over iron. The
+general formula for the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH)2PO2 + H2O.
+Childrenite is found only as small brilliant crystals of a
+yellowish-brown colour, somewhat resembling chalybite in general
+appearance. They are usually pyramidal in habit, often having the form
+of double six-sided pyramids with the triangular faces deeply striated
+parallel to their shorter edges. Hardness 4.5-5; specific gravity
+3.18-3.24. The mineral, named after the zoologist and mineralogist J.G.
+Children (1777-1852), secretary of the Royal Society, was detected in
+1823 on specimens obtained some years previously during the cutting of a
+canal near Tavistock in Devonshire. It has also been found in a few
+copper mines in Cornwall and Devonshire.
+
+Eosphorite occurs as crystals of prismatic habit with angles very nearly
+the same as those of childrenite. Unlike childrenite, it has a distinct
+cleavage in one direction, and often occurs in compact masses as well as
+in crystals. The colour is sometimes yellowish-white, but usually
+rose-pink, and on this account the mineral was named from [Greek:
+eosphoros], dawn-bearer. Hardness 5; specific gravity 3.11-3.145. It was
+discovered in 1878 in a pegmatite-vein at Branchville, Connecticut,
+where it is associated with other rare manganese phosphates.    (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILDREN'S COURTS, or JUVENILE COURTS, a special system of tribunals for
+dealing with juvenile offenders, first suggested in the United States.
+The germ of such institutions was planted in Massachusetts in 1869, when
+a plan was introduced at Boston of hearing charges against children
+separately, and apart from the ordinary business of the lesser
+tribunals. No great progress was made in the development of the idea in
+Massachusetts, as the legal authorities were not fully convinced of the
+utility or need for a separate court so long as the children were kept
+strictly apart from adults, and this could be assured by a separate
+session. But the system of "probation," by which children were handed
+over to the kindly care and guardianship of an appointed officer, and
+thus escaped legal repression, was created about the same time in Boston
+and produced excellent results. The probation officer is present at the
+judge's side when he decides a case, and is given charge of the
+offender, whom he takes by the hand, either at his parent's residence or
+at school, and continually supervises, having power if necessary to
+bring him again before the judge. The example of Massachusetts in due
+course influenced other countries, and especially the British colony of
+South Australia, where a State Children's Department was created at
+Adelaide in 1895, and three years later a juvenile court was opened
+there for the trial of persons under eighteen and was conducted with
+great success, though the system of probation officers was not
+introduced. A juvenile court was also established at Toronto (Canada) on
+the South Australian model.
+
+The movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very rapidly. In the
+United States Illinois was the first state to call a distinct children's
+court into existence, and Judge Richard Tuthill was the pioneer at
+Chicago, where the court was established in 1899. Many states followed
+suit, including New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Kansas,
+Colorado, Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1906.
+In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the Society for
+the Protection of Children, there is a separate children's court with
+rooms attached, where the children for detention wait till they are
+brought in for trial. Brooklyn has also a children's court. In
+Pennsylvania, where the juvenile court was at first opposed as
+unconstitutional, the difficulty was met by first bringing the child
+before the magistrate in the police court, a course which (though
+followed by his transferring the case to the special court) perpetuated
+the very evils the children's court was intended to avoid; the work of
+probation was, however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by female
+officers. The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an
+especially appointed judge, and policemen act as probation officers to
+some extent. The court of Indianapolis, however, gained the reputation
+of being the most complete and perfect in the United States. It works
+with a large and highly efficient band of volunteer probation officers
+under a chief. The juvenile court of Denver, Colorado, attained
+remarkable results under Judge B. Lindsey, whose magnetic personality,
+wonderful comprehension of boy nature, and extraordinary influence over
+them achieved great results. The court meets once a fortnight, when
+fresh cases are tried and boys already on probation report themselves,
+often to the number of two hundred at a time. The latter appear before
+the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a sealed
+letter, and according to its purport receives praise or blame, or he may
+be committed to the Detention House. An efficient court was also
+constituted at Baltimore, Maryland, with a judge especially chosen to
+preside, probation being for fixed periods, varying from three months to
+three years, and children being brought back to the court for parole or
+discharge, or, if necessary, committal to the house of one of the
+philanthropic societies. In Washington, D.C., the system of having no
+distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was followed,
+and it was found that numbers of children came to the court for help and
+guidance, looking upon the judge for the time being as their friend and
+counsellor. Probation in this instance offered peculiar difficulties on
+account of the colour question, two-thirds of the children having negro
+blood and a white boy being always preferred for a vacant situation.
+Throughout, the action of juvenile courts in the United States has been
+to bring each individual into "human touch" with kindly helpful workers
+striving to lead the young idea aright and train it to follow the
+straight path. It was the result always of the effort of private persons
+and not due to government initiative, indeed the advocates and champions
+of the system only established it by overcoming strong opposition from
+the authorities.
+
+Progress in the same direction has been made in England. The home office
+had recommended London police magistrates to keep children's cases
+separate from those of adults; the same practice or something analogous
+obtained in many county boroughs, such as Bath, Birmingham, Bristol,
+Bolton, Bradford, Hull, Manchester, Walsall, Halifax and others, and the
+Children Act 1908 definitely established children's courts. This act
+enacted that courts of summary jurisdiction when hearing charges, &c.,
+against children or young persons should, unless the child or young
+person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different building or
+room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the court are held, or
+on different days or at different times. Furthermore, provision must be
+made for preventing persons apparently under the age of sixteen years
+whilst being conveyed to or from court, or whilst waiting before or
+after their attendance in court, from associating with adults, unless
+such adults are charged jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons
+other than members and officers of the court, the parties to the case,
+their solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the
+case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave of the
+court. Bona-fide press representatives are also excepted. The main
+object of the whole system is to keep the child, the embryotic offender
+who has probably erred from ignorance or the pressure of circumstances
+or misfortune, altogether free from the taint or contagion that attaches
+to criminal proceedings. The moral atmosphere of a legal tribunal is
+injurious to the youthful mind, and children who appear before a bench,
+whether as accused or as witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with
+legal processes.
+
+The most beneficial action of the children's court comes from its
+association with the system of personal guardianship and close
+supervision exercised by the probation officers, official and voluntary.
+Where the intervention of the newly constituted tribunal can not only
+save the child from evil association when first arrested, but can rescue
+him without condemnation and committal to prison, its functions may be
+relied upon to diminish crime by cutting it off at the source. Much
+depends upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority.
+Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, firm, sympathetic,
+tactful and able to gain the confidence of those brought before him, he
+may do great good, by dealing with each individual and not merely with
+his offence, realizing that the court does not exist to condemn but to
+strengthen and give a fresh chance. Where the children's court is only a
+branch of the existing jurisdiction worked by the regular magistrate or
+judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen, the
+beneficial results are not so noticeable.    (A. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILDREN'S GAMES. The study of traditional games has in recent years
+become an important branch of folklore research in England, and has
+contributed not a little towards elucidating many unrecorded facts in
+early history. These games may be broadly divided into two
+kinds--dramatic games, and games of skill and chance. These differ
+materially in their object. Games of skill and chance are played for the
+purpose of winning property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic
+games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided between
+boys' games and girls' games. Boys' games are mostly of a contest
+character, girls' of a more domestic type. The boys' dramatic games have
+preserved some interesting beliefs and customs, but the tendency in
+these games, such as "prisoner's base," has been to drop the words and
+tune and to preserve only that part (action) which tends best for
+exercise and use in school playgrounds. The girls' singing-games have
+not developed on these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of
+their early characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune
+and action. The words, in verse, express ideas contained in customs not
+now in vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking place between
+men and women and between people of different villages. The tunes are
+simple, and the same tune is frequently used for different games. The
+actions are illustrative of the ideas to be expressed. The players
+represent various objects--animals, villages and people. The singing
+game is therefore not a game in the usual sense of the word. There is no
+element of "gambling" or playing "to win" in it--no one is richer or
+poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to play together.
+It is really a "play," and has survived because it has handed down some
+instances of custom and belief which were deeply rooted and which made a
+strong appeal to the imagination of our ancestors. The singing games
+represent in dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances
+common to people in early stages of development. These dances celebrated
+events which served to bind the people together and to give them a
+common interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were dramatic
+in character, singing and action forming a part of them, and their
+performers were connected by ties of place or kindred. They are probably
+survivals of what we might call folk drama. In these times it was held
+imperative to perform religious ceremonies periodically; at sowing and
+harvesting to ensure good crops; in the care of cattle and on occasions
+of marriage, birth and death. These were matters affecting the welfare
+of the whole community. Events were celebrated with dance, song and
+feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected with some
+belief which rendered ceremony necessary.
+
+At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for their
+basis, but in process of time they became purely secular and were
+performed at certain seasons only, because it was the custom to do so.
+They then became recognized as beautiful or pleasing things in the life
+of the people, and so continued, altering somewhat in ideas but
+retaining their old dramatic forms. They were danced by old and young at
+festivals and holidays, these being held about the same time of year as
+that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been held.
+
+Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods, "line" and
+"circle." These represent two of the early forms of dramatic action. The
+"line" form (two lines of players standing opposite each other having a
+space of ground between them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents
+two different and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest.
+This method is used in all cases where contest is involved. The "circle"
+form, on the other hand, where all players join hands, represents those
+occasions when all the people of one place were engaged in celebrating
+events in which all were interested. Thus games celebrating sowing and
+harvest, and those associated with love and marriage, are played in this
+form. Both these methods allow of development. The circle varies from
+examples where all perform the same actions and say the same words to
+that where two or more players have principal parts, the others only
+singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the singing has
+disappeared. The form or method of play and the actions constitute the
+oldest remaining parts of the game (the words being subject to
+alterations and loss through ignorance of their meaning), and it is to
+this form or method, the actions and the accompaniment of song, that
+they owe their survival, appealing as they do to the strong dramatic
+instinct of children and of uncultured folk.
+
+It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known singing
+games. In "line" form, a fighting game is "We are the Rovers." The words
+tell us of two opposing parties fighting for their land; both sides
+alternately deride one another and end by fighting until one side is
+victorious. Two other "line" games, "Nuts in May" and "Here come three
+dukes a-riding," are also games of contest, but not for territory. These
+show an early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by
+capture, and are played in "line" form because of the element of contest
+contained in the custom. Another form, the "arch," is also used to
+indicate contest.
+
+Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest and
+marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and sanction by
+assembled friends. "Oats and beans and barley" and "Sally Water" are
+typical of this form. The large majority of circle games deal with love
+or marriage and domestic life. The customs surviving in these games deal
+with tribal life and take us back to "foundation sacrifice," "well
+worship," "sacredness of fire," besides marriage and funeral customs.
+
+  Details may be found in the periodical publications of the Folk-lore
+  Society, and particularly in the following works:--A.B. Gomme's
+  _Traditional Games of Great Britain_ (2 vols., Nutt, 1894-1898);
+  Gomme's _Children's Singing Games_ (Nutt, 1904.); Eckenstein's
+  _Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes_ (Duckworth, 1906); Maclagan,
+  _Games of Argyllshire_, Folk-lore Society (1900); Newell's _Games of
+  American Children_ (Harper Bros., New York, 1884). In Mrs Gomme's
+  _Traditional Games_, several versions of each game, together with a
+  short account of the suggested origin and of the custom or belief
+  indicated, are given for each game. In vol. ii. (pp. 458-531) a memoir
+  of the history of games is given, and the customs and beliefs which
+  originated them, reviewing the whole subject from the anthropological
+  point of view, and showing the place which games occupy among the
+  evidences of early man. In Miss Eckenstein's comparative study of
+  nursery rhymes suggested origins are given for many of these, and an
+  attempt made to localize certain of the customs and events. In several
+  of the publications of the Folk-lore Society local collections of
+  games are given, all of which may be studied with advantage. Stubbes
+  and other early writers give many instances of boys' games in their
+  days, many of which still exist. Tylor and other writers on
+  anthropology, in dealing with savage custom, confirm the views here
+  expressed. For nursery rhymes see Halliwell, _Nursery Rhymes_ (1845),
+  and Chambers's _Popular Rhymes_ (first printed 1841, reprinted in
+  1870). The recently collected _Morris Dances_ by Mr Cecil Sharp should
+  also be consulted. One of the morris dances, bean-setting, evidently
+  dealing with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while
+  others indicating fighting or rivalry are danced in line form, each
+  line dancing in circle before crossing over to the opposite, side, and
+  thus conforming to the laws already shown to exist in the more
+  ordinary game.    (A. B. G.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1829-1894), American publisher, was born in
+Baltimore, Maryland, on the 12th of May 1829. He was educated in the
+public schools, and after a brief term of service in the navy, he became
+in 1843 a clerk in a book-shop at Philadelphia. There, in 1847, he
+established an independent book-shop, and two years later organized the
+publishing house of Childs & Peterson. In 1864, with Anthony J. Drexel,
+he purchased the _Public Ledger_, at that time a little known newspaper;
+he completely changed its policy and methods, and made it one of the
+most influential journals in the country. He died at Philadelphia on the
+3rd of February 1894. Childs was widely known for his public spirit and
+philanthropy. In addition to numerous private benefactions in
+educational and charitable fields, he erected memorial windows to
+William Cowper and George Herbert in Westminster Abbey (1877), and to
+Milton in St Margaret's, Westminster (1888), a monument to Leigh Hunt at
+Kensal Green, a Shakespeare memorial fountain at Stratford-on-Avon
+(1887), and monuments to Edgar Allan Poe and to Richard A. Proctor. He
+gave Woodland Cemetery to the Typographical Society of Philadelphia for
+a printers' burial-ground, and with Anthony J. Drexel founded in 1892 a
+home for Union printers at Colorado Springs, Colorado.
+
+His _Recollections_ were published at Philadelphia in 1890.
+
+
+
+
+CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua _chiri_, cold, or
+_tchili_, snow), a republic of South America, occupying the narrow
+western slope of the continent between Peru and its southern extremity.
+(For map see ARGENTINA.) It extends from the northern boundary of the
+province of Tacna, about 17 deg. 25' S., to Cape Horn at the extreme
+southern point of the Fuegian archipelago in 55 deg. 58' 40'' S., with an
+extreme meridian length of 2661 m., and with a coast line considerably
+exceeding that figure owing to a westward curve of about 3-1/2 deg. and an
+eastward trend south of 50 deg. S. of nearly 8 deg. Its mainland width
+ranges from about 46 to 228 m., and its area, including the islands of the
+southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774 sq. m., though the
+Gotha computation (1904) places it at 293,062 sq. m. Chile is thus a
+ribbon-like strip of territory between the Andes and the Pacific,
+comparatively regular north of the 42nd parallel, but with an extremely
+ragged outline south of that line. It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by
+Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W. by the Pacific. Its eastern boundary
+lines are described under ARGENTINA and BOLIVIA. The war of 1879-81 with
+Peru and Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-fourth
+her total area. By subsequent agreements the Bolivian department of the
+Literal, or Atacama, and the Peruvian department of Tarapaca, were
+formally ceded to Chile, and the northern frontier was removed to the
+river Camarones, which enters the Pacific at 19 deg. 12' S. Under the
+treaty of Ancon (20th October 1883) Chile was to retain possession of the
+provinces of Tacna and Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of
+Moquegua for a period of ten years, and then submit "to popular vote
+whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru." At the
+expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the
+agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible possession of
+the territory. This arbitrary retention of Tacna and Arica, which became
+the province of Tacna under Chilean administration, removed the frontier
+still farther north, to the river Sama, which separates that province
+from the remaining part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Starting
+from the mouth of that river, in 17 deg. 57' S., the disputed boundary
+follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in the
+Alto do Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the water parting to the
+Bolivian boundary line in the Cordillera Silillica.
+
+  _Physiography._--For purposes of general topographical description
+  Chile may be divided into three regions: the desert region of the
+  north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of
+  Coquimbo and Llanquihue, and the heavily-forested rainy region south
+  of lat. 41 deg. S. The desert region is an elevated arid plateau
+  descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it breaks
+  down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft. From the sea this
+  plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat topped hills
+  closely following the coast line. The surface is made up of extensive
+  plains covered with sand and deposits of alkaline salts, broken by
+  ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs from the Andes,
+  and by irregular lateral ranges in the vicinity of the main cordillera
+  enclosing elevated saline plateaus. This region is rainless, barren
+  and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vegetation except in some
+  small river valleys where irrigation is possible, and on the slopes of
+  some of the snow-covered peaks where the water from the melting snows
+  nourishes a scanty and coarse vegetation before it disappears in the
+  thirsty sands. It is very rich in mineral and saline deposits,
+  however. The eastern parts of this region lie within the higher ranges
+  of the Andes and include a large district awarded to Chile in 1899
+  (see ARGENTINA and ATACAMA). This arid, bleak area is apparently a
+  continuation southward of the great Bolivian _altaplanicie_, and is
+  known as the Puna de Atacama. Its average elevation is estimated at
+  11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line of volcanoes crosses it from north to
+  south, and extensive lava beds cover a considerable part of its
+  surface. Large shallow saline lakes are also characteristic features
+  of this region. From 28 deg. S. the spurs from the cordillera toward the
+  coast are more sharply defined and enclose deeper valleys, where the
+  cultivation of the soil becomes possible, at first through irrigation
+  and then with the aid of light periodical rains. The slopes of the
+  Andes are precipitous, the general surface is rough, and in the north
+  the higher ground and coast are still barren. Beginning with the
+  province of Aconcagua the coast elevations crystallize into a range of
+  mountains, the Cordillera Maritima, which follows the shore line south
+  to the province of Llanquihue, and is continued still farther south by
+  the mountain range of Chiloe and the islands of the western coast,
+  which are the peaks of a submerged mountain chain. Lying between this
+  coast range and the Andes is a broad valley, or plain, extending from
+  the Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly
+  over 620 m. with an average width of about 60 m. It is sometimes
+  called the "Vale of Chile," and is the richest and most
+  thickly-populated part of the republic. It is a highly fertile region,
+  is well watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate
+  rainfall, and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great
+  productiveness. It slopes toward the south, and its lower levels are
+  filled with lakes and with depressions where lakes formerly existed.
+  It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy
+  tracts, as in Nuble and Arauco; in the north very little natural
+  forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the
+  enclosing mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is
+  heavier, the plain is well covered with forest. South of 41 deg. S. the
+  country is mountainous, heavily-forested and inhospitable. There are
+  only a few scattered settlements within its borders, and a few nomadic
+  tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast. The
+  deeply-indented coast line is filled with islands which preserve the
+  general outline of the continent southward to the Fuegian archipelago,
+  the outside groups forming a continuation of the Cordillera Maritima.
+  The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout this region, especially
+  in the latitude of Chiloe, gives rise to a large number of rivers and
+  lakes. Farther south this excessive precipitation is in the form of
+  snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at a comparatively low level
+  which in places discharge into the inlets and bays of the sea. The
+  extreme southern part of this region extends eastward to the Atlantic
+  entrance to the Straits of Magellan, and includes the greater part of
+  the large island of Tierra del Fuego with all the islands lying south
+  and west of it. There are some comparatively level stretches of
+  country immediately north of the Straits, partly forested and partly
+  grassy plains, where sheep farming has been established with some
+  degree of success, but the greater part of this extreme southern
+  territory is mountainous, cold, wet and inhospitable. The perpetual
+  snow-line here descends to 3500 to 4000 ft. above sea-level, and the
+  forest growth does not rise above an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  It has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile
+  comprise about twenty-five millions of acres (slightly over 39,000 sq.
+  m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area. The desert regions
+  of the north include comparatively large areas of plains and gently
+  sloping surfaces, traversed by ranges of barren hills. The remainder
+  of the republic, probably more than three-fifths of its surface, is
+  extremely mountainous. The western slopes of the Andes, with its spurs
+  and lateral ranges, cover a broad zone on the eastern side of the
+  republic, and the Cordillera Maritima covers another broad zone on its
+  western side from about lat. 33 deg. to the southern extremity of Chiloe,
+  or below lat. 43 deg. This maritime range is traversed by several river
+  valleys, some of which, like the Bio-Bio, are broad and have so gentle
+  a slope as to be navigable. The Andes, however, present an unbroken
+  barrier on the east, except at a few points in the south where the
+  general elevation is not over 5000 to 6000 ft., and where some of the
+  Chilean rivers, as the Palena and Las Heras, have their sources on its
+  eastern side. From the 52nd to about the 31st parallel this great
+  mountain system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes,
+  apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes
+  short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several
+  parallel ranges appear on the Argentine side and one on the Chilean
+  side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau. The
+  Chilean lateral range, which extends from the 29th to the 19th
+  parallels, traverses an elevated desert region and possesses several
+  noteworthy peaks, among which are Cerro Bolson, 16,017 ft., and Cerro
+  Dona Ines, 16,706 ft. It is broken to some extent in crossing the
+  province of Antofagasta, the southern division being known as the
+  Sierra de Huatacondo. At the southern frontier of Bolivia the main
+  chain, which has served as the boundary line between Argentina and
+  Chile, divides into two great ranges, the principal one continuing
+  almost due north along the eastern side of the great Bolivian
+  _alta-planicie_, and the other forming its western rim, where it is
+  known as the Cordillera Silillica, and then following the trend of the
+  coast north-westward into Peru becomes the Cordillera Occidental. The
+  western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with short spurs
+  enclosing deep valleys. The whole system is volcanic, and a
+  considerable number of volcanoes are still intermittently active,
+  noticeably in central and southern Chile. The culminating point of the
+  Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of 23,097 ft.
+
+  In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation of
+  these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined. The
+  highest of these apparently detached groups are Mt. Maca (lat. 45 deg.
+  S.), 9711 ft., and Mt. Arenales (about 47 deg. S. lat.), 11,286 ft.
+  Cathedral Peak on Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft. and
+  the highest point on Taytao peninsula to 3937 ft. The coast range of
+  central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating point in
+  the province of Santiago being 7316 ft. Between central Chile and the
+  northern desert region there is a highly mountainous district where
+  distinct ranges or elongated spurs cross the republic from the Andes
+  to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great beauty and
+  fertility. The most famous of these is the "Vale of Quillota" between
+  Valparaiso and Santiago. The Chilean Andes between Tacna and Valdivia
+  are crossed by 24 passes, the majority of them at elevations exceeding
+  10,000 ft. The best-known of these is the Uspallata pass between
+  Santiago and the Argentine city of Mendoza, 12,870 ft. above
+  sea-level. The passes of central and southern Chile are used only in
+  the summer season, but those of northern Chile are open throughout the
+  whole year.
+
+  The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively recent
+  elevation still subject Chile, in common with other parts of the
+  western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances.
+  In some instances since European occupation, violent earthquake shocks
+  have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of the
+  coast. After the great earthquake of 1835 Captain Robert FitzRoy
+  (1805-1865) of H.M.S. "Beagle" found putrid mussel-shells still
+  adhering to the rocks 10 ft. above high water on the island of Santa
+  Maria, 30 m. from Concepcion, and Charles Darwin declares, in
+  describing that disaster, that "there can be no doubt that the land
+  round the bay of Concepcion was upraised two or three feet." These
+  upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land
+  sometimes settling back to its former position. This happened on the
+  island of Santa Maria after 1835. The existence of sea-shells at
+  elevations of 350 to 1300 ft. in other parts of the republic shows
+  that these forces, supplemented by a gradual uplifting of the coast,
+  have been in operation through long periods of time and that the
+  greater part of central and southern Chile has been raised from the
+  sea in this way. These earthquake shocks have two distinct
+  characteristics, a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible,
+  called a _temblor_, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a
+  violent horizontal or rotary vibration, or motion, also repeated at
+  frequent intervals, called a _terremoto_, which is caused by a
+  fracture or displacement of the earth's strata at some particular
+  point, and often results in considerable damage. When the earthquake
+  occurs on the coast, or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves
+  are sometimes formed, which cause even greater damage than the
+  earthquake itself. Arica has been three times destroyed by tidal
+  waves, and other small towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered
+  similar disasters. Coquimbo was swept by a tidal wave in 1849, and
+  Concepcion and Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835. The great
+  earthquake which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was
+  not followed by a tidal wave. These violent shocks are usually limited
+  to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may be felt at
+  long distances from the centre of disturbance. In this respect Chile
+  may be divided into at least four great earthquake areas, two in the
+  desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and the fourth
+  extending from Concepcion to Chiloe. A study of Chilean earthquake
+  phenomena, however, would probably lead to a division of southern
+  Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas.
+
+
+    Coast.
+
+  The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of islands
+  extending from Chiloe S. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which shows
+  that they are in part the summits of a submerged mountain chain, a
+  continuation southward of the Cordillera Maritima. Three groups of
+  these islands, called the Chiloe, Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes,
+  lie N. of the Taytao peninsula (lat. 45 deg. 50' to 46 deg. 55' S.), and
+  with the mainland to the E. form the province of Chiloe. The largest of
+  these is the island of Chiloe, which is inhabited. Some of the smaller
+  islands of these groups are also inhabited, though the excessive
+  rainfall of these latitudes and the violent westerly storms render
+  them highly unfavourable for human occupation. Some of the smallest
+  islands are barren rocks, but the majority of them are covered with
+  forests. These archipelagoes are separated from the mainland in the
+  north by the gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 m.
+  wide, which appear to be a submerged part of the great central valley
+  of Chile, and farther south by the narrower Moraleda channel, which
+  terminates southward in a confusing network of passages between the
+  mainland and the islands of the Chonos group. One of the narrow parts
+  of the Chilean mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of
+  this group, where the accidental juxtaposition of Magdalena island,
+  which indents the continent over half a degree at this point, and the
+  basin of Lake Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp
+  wedge-shaped projection westward, narrows the distance between the
+  two to about 26 m. The Taytao peninsula, incorrectly called the Tres
+  Montes on some maps, is a westward projection of the mainland, with
+  which it is connected by the narrow isthmus of Ofqui, over which the
+  natives and early missionaries were accustomed to carry their boats
+  between the Moraleda Channel and Gulf of Penas. A short ship canal
+  here would give an uninterrupted and protected inside passage from
+  Chacao Channel all the way to the Straits of Magellan, a distance of
+  over 760 m. A southern incurving projection of the outer shore-line of
+  this peninsula is known as Tres Montes peninsula, the most southern
+  point of which is a cape of the same name. Below the Taytao peninsula
+  is the broad open Gulf of Penas, which carries the coast-line eastward
+  fully 100 m. and is noticeably free from islands. The northern
+  entrance to Messier Channel is through this gulf. Messier, Pitt,
+  Sarmiento and Smyth's Channels, which form a comparatively safe and
+  remarkably picturesque inside route for small steamers, about 338 m.
+  in length, separate another series of archipelagoes from the mainland.
+  These channels are in places narrow and tortuous. Among the islands
+  which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Azopardo
+  (lying within Baker Inlet), Prince Henry, Campana, Little Wellington,
+  Great Wellington and Mornington (of the Wellington archipelago), Madre
+  de Dios, Duke of York, Chatham, Hanover, Cambridge, Contreras, Rennell
+  and the Queen Adelaide group of small barren rocks and islands lying
+  immediately north of the Pacific entrance to the Straits of Magellan.
+  The large number of English names on this coast is due to the fact
+  that the earliest detailed survey of this region was made by English
+  naval officers; the charts prepared from their surveys are still in
+  use and form the basis of all subsequent maps. None of these islands
+  is inhabited, although some of them are of large size, the largest
+  (Great Wellington) being about 100 m. long. It has likewise been
+  determined, since the boundary dispute with Argentina called attention
+  to these territories and led to their careful exploration at the
+  points in dispute, that Skyring Water, in lat. 53 deg. S., opens westward
+  into the Gulf of Xaultegua, which transforms Ponsonby Land and Cordoba
+  (or Croker) peninsula into an island, to which the name of Riesco has
+  been given. The existence of such a channel was considered probable
+  when these inland waters were first explored in 1829 by Captain
+  FitzRoy, but it was not discovered and surveyed until three-quarters
+  of a century had elapsed. Belonging to the Fuegian group south of the
+  Straits of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Ines, Clarence, Dawson,
+  Londonderry, Hoste, Navarin and Wollaston islands, with innumerable
+  smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores and filling the
+  channels between them. Admirable descriptions of this inhospitable
+  region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts of the globe, may be
+  found in the _Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty's
+  Ships "Adventure" and "Beagle" between the years 1826 and 1836_ (3
+  vols., 1839).
+
+  The western and larger part of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.) belongs to
+  Chile. About 63 m. S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat. 56 deg. 25' S., is the Diego
+  Ramirez group of small, rocky islands, the most southern possession of
+  the republic. Its westernmost possessions are Sala-y-Gomez and Easter
+  islands, the former in about 27 deg. S., 105 deg. W., and the latter, the
+  easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, in 27 deg. 6' S., 109 deg. 17' W.
+  Much nearer the Chilean coast (396 m.), lying between the 33rd and
+  34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan Fernandez group, and
+  rising apparently from the same submerged plateau about 500 m. farther
+  north of the latter are the rocky islets of San Ambrosio and San
+  Felix, all belonging to Chile. North of Chiloe there are few islands
+  in close proximity to the coast. The more important of these are La
+  Mocha, off the southern coast of Arauco, in lat. 38 deg. 20' S., which is
+  8 m. long and rises to an elevation of 1240 ft. above the sea; Santa
+  Maria, 30 m. south-west of Concepcion, which partially encloses the
+  Bay of Arauco and is well cultivated; and Quiriquina, lying off the
+  port of Talcahuano in the entrance to Concepcion bay. There are a few
+  barren islands on the desert coast, the largest of which are between
+  Coquimbo and Caldera. Since the removal of their guano deposits they
+  have become practically worthless, except where they serve to shelter
+  anchorages.
+
+
+    Harbours.
+
+  The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient in
+  good harbours. Those of the desert region are only slight indentations
+  in a remarkably uniform coast-line, sheltered on one side by a point
+  of land, or small island. The landings are generally dangerous because
+  of the surf, and the anchorages are unsafe from storms on the
+  unprotected side. Among the most frequented of these are Valparaiso,
+  Coquimbo, Caldera, Iquique and Arica. There are some small harbours
+  for coasting vessels of light draught along the coast of central
+  Chile, usually at the partially obstructed mouths of the larger
+  rivers, as San Antonio near the mouth of the Maipo, Constitucion at
+  the mouth of the Maule, and Llico on the outlet of Lake Vichuquen, but
+  there is no harbour of importance until Conception (or Talcahuano) Bay
+  is reached. There are three harbours on this bay, El Tome, Penco and
+  Talcahuano (q.v.), the last being the largest and best-protected port
+  on the inhabited part of the Chilean coast. Immediately south of this
+  bay is the large Bay of Arauco, into which the Bio-Bio river
+  discharges, and on which, sheltered by the island of Santa Maria, are
+  the ports of Coronel and Lota. The next important harbour is that of
+  El Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia river and 15 m. below the
+  city of Valdivia. The Bay of San Carlos on the northern coast of
+  Chiloe, which opens upon the narrow Chacao channel, has the port of
+  Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for vessels of
+  light and medium draught. Inside the island of Chiloe the large gulfs
+  of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado are well protected from the severe
+  westerly storms of these latitudes, but they are little used because
+  the approach through the Chacao channel is tortuous and only 2 to 3 m.
+  wide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 m. wide and 150 m. long, are
+  beset with small rocky islands. At the north end of the first is the
+  Reloncavi, a large and nearly landlocked bay, on which stands Puerto
+  Montt, the southern terminus of the Chilean central railway. The large
+  Gulf of Penas, south of Taytao peninsula, is open to the westerly
+  storms of the Pacific, but it affords entrance to several natural
+  harbours. Among these are the Gulfs of Tres Montes and San Estevan,
+  and Tarn Bay at the entrance to Messier Channel. The next 300 m. of
+  the Chilean coast contain numerous bays and inlets affording safe
+  harbours, but the mainland and islands are uninhabited and the climate
+  inhospitable. Behind Rennell Island in lat. 52 deg. S., however, is a
+  succession of navigable estuaries which penetrate inland nearly to the
+  Argentine frontier. The central part of this group of estuaries is
+  called Worsley Sound, and the last and farthest inland of its arms is
+  Last Hope Inlet (Ultima Esperanza), on which is situated the Chilean
+  agricultural colony of Puerto Consuelo. The Straits of Magellan, about
+  360 m. in length, lie wholly within Chilean territory. Midway of them
+  is situated Punta Arenas, the most southern town and port of the
+  republic.
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  Except in the extreme south the hydrography of Chile is of the
+  simplest description, all the larger rivers having their sources in
+  the Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific. Their courses are
+  necessarily short, and only a few have navigable channels, the
+  aggregate length of which is only 705 m. Nearly all rivers in the
+  desert region are lost in the sands long before reaching the coast.
+  Their waterless channels are interesting, however, as evidence of a
+  time when climatological conditions on this coast were different. The
+  principal rivers of this region are Sama (which forms the provisional
+  boundary line with Peru), Tacna, Camarones, Loa, Copiapo, Huasco,
+  Elqui, Limari and Choapa. The Loa is the largest, having its sources
+  on the slopes of the Cordillera south of the Minho volcano, between
+  21 deg. and 21 deg. 30' S. lat., and flowing south on an elevated plateau
+  to Chiuchiu, and thence west and north in a great curve to Quillaga,
+  whence its dry channel turns westward again and reaches the Pacific in
+  lat. 21 deg. 28' S., a few miles south of the small port of Huanillos. Its
+  total length is estimated at 250 m. The upper courses of the river are
+  at a considerable elevation above the sea and receive a large volume
+  of water from the Cordilleras. The water of its upper course and
+  tributaries is sweet, and is conducted across the desert in pipes to
+  some of the coast towns, but in its lower course, as in all the rivers
+  of this region, it becomes brackish. The Copiapo, which once
+  discharged into the sea, is now practically exhausted in irrigating a
+  small fertile valley in which stands the city of that name. The
+  Copiapo and Huasco have comparatively short courses, but they receive
+  a considerable volume of water from the higher sierras. The latter is
+  also used to irrigate a small, cultivated valley. The rivers of the
+  province of Coquimbo--the Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa--exist
+  under less arid conditions, and like those of the province of
+  Aconcagua--the Ligua and Aconcagua--are used to irrigate a much larger
+  area of cultivated territory. The central agricultural provinces are
+  traversed by several important rivers, all of them rising on the
+  western slopes of the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the lower
+  coast range to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate
+  the great central valley of Chile. These are the Maipo (Maypo or
+  Maipu), Rapel, Mataquito, Maule, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Tolten,
+  Valdivia or Calle-Calle, Bueno and Maullin. With the exception of the
+  first three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are
+  open only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their
+  mouths. The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220
+  m., 100 of which are navigable. These rivers have been of great
+  service in the agricultural development of this part of Chile,
+  affording means of transportation where railways and highways were
+  entirely lacking. Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers,
+  whose economic value has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which
+  flows through Santiago and enters the Maipo from the north; the
+  turbulent Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro,
+  which waters an extensive part of the province of Talca and enters the
+  Maule from the north; the Nuble, which rises in the higher Andes north
+  of the peaks of Chillan and flows entirely across the province of
+  Nuble to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which rises
+  in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about lat.
+  35 deg. 30' S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the Cautin,
+  which rises in the north-east corner of Cautin and after a tortuous
+  course westward nearly across that province forms the principal
+  confluent of the Imperial. The unsettled southern regions of Chiloe
+  (mainland) and Magallanes are traversed by a number of important
+  rivers which have been only partially explored. They have their
+  sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side of the line of
+  highest summits. The Puelo has its origin in a lake of the same name
+  in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through the Cordilleras
+  into an estuary (Reloncavi Inlet) of the Gulf of Reloncavi at the
+  northern end of the Gulf of Chacao. Its lower course is impeded in
+  such a manner as to form three small lakes, called Superior, Inferior
+  and Taguatagua. A large northern tributary of the Puelo, the Manso,
+  has its sources in Lake Mascardi and other lakes and streams
+  south-east of the Cerro Tronador, also in Argentina, and flows
+  south-west through the Cordilleras to unite with the Puelo a few miles
+  west of the 72nd meridian. The Reloncavi Inlet also receives the
+  outflow of Lake Todos los Santos through a short tortuous stream
+  called the Petrohue. The Comau Inlet and river form the boundary line
+  between the provinces of Llanquihue and Chiloe, and traverse a densely
+  wooded country in a north-westerly direction from the Andes to the
+  north-eastern shore of the Gulf of Chacao. Continuing southward, the
+  Yelcho is the next important river to traverse this region. It drains
+  a large area of Argentine territory, where it is called the Rio
+  Fetaleufu or Fetalauquen, its principal source being a large lake of
+  the same name. It flows south-west through the Andes, and then
+  north-west through Lake Yelcho to the Gulf of Corcovado. The Argentine
+  colony of the 16th of October, settled principally by Welshmen from
+  Chubut, is located on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in
+  about lat. 43 deg. S. The Palena is another river of the same character,
+  having its source in a large frontier lake called General Paz and
+  flowing for some distance through Argentine territory before crossing
+  into Chile. It receives one large tributary from the south, the Roo
+  Pico, and enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of
+  the 44th parallel. The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an
+  extensive Andean region between the 44th and 45th parallels and
+  discharging into the Puyuguapi channel, which separates Magdalena
+  island from the mainland. The Aisen also has its source in Argentine
+  territory near the 46th parallel, and drains a mountainous region as
+  far north as the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and
+  discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in about
+  lat. 45 deg. 20' S. The lower course of this river is essentially an
+  inlet, and is navigable for a short distance. The next large river is
+  the Las Heras, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos
+  Aires and Pueyrredon, or Cochrane, find their way to the Pacific. Both
+  of these large lakes are crossed by the boundary line. The Las Heras
+  discharges into Martinez Inlet, the northern part of a large estuary
+  called Baker or Calen Inlet which penetrates the mainland about 75 m.
+  and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-east corner of the Gulf of Penas.
+  Azopardo (or Merino Jarpa) island lies wholly within this great
+  estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands, called
+  Baker Islands, which separate it from Messier Channel. The course of
+  the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aires is south and south-west, the
+  short range of mountains in which are found the Cerros San Valentin
+  and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet. Baker Inlet also
+  receives the waters of still another large Argentine-Chilean lake, San
+  Martin, whose far-reaching fjord-like arms extend from lat. 49 deg. 10'
+  to 48 deg. 20' S.; its north-west arm drains into the Tero, or La Pascua,
+  river. Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply cut passage through
+  the Andes, and the divide between its southern extremity (Laguna Tar)
+  and Lake Viedma, which discharges through the Santa Cruz river into
+  the Atlantic, is so slight as to warrant the hypothesis that this was
+  once a strait between the two oceans. After a short north-westerly
+  course the Toro discharges into Baker Inlet in lat. 48 deg. 15' S., long.
+  73 deg. 24' W. South of the Toro there are no large rivers on this coast,
+  but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply into the mountains and bring
+  away the drainage of their snow-capped, storm-swept elevations. A
+  peculiar network of fjords and connecting channels terminating inland
+  in a peculiarly shaped body of water with long, widely branching arms,
+  called Worsley Sound, Obstruction Sound and Last Hope Inlet, covers an
+  extensive area between the 51st and 53rd parallels, and extends nearly
+  to the Argentine frontier. It has the characteristics of a tidewater
+  river and drains an extensive region. The sources of the Argentine
+  river Coile are to be found among the lakes and streams of this same
+  region, within Chilean territory. A noteworthy peculiarity of southern
+  Chile, from the Taytao peninsula (about 46 deg. 50' S. lat.) to Tierra
+  del Fuego, is the large number of glaciers formed on the western and
+  southern slopes of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which
+  discharge direct into these deeply cut estuaries. Some of the larger
+  lakes of the Andes have glaciers discharging into them. The formation
+  of these icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge
+  direct into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found
+  elsewhere in the same latitudes.
+
+
+    Lakes.
+
+  The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are found
+  chiefly in the southern half of the republic. In the north the only
+  lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper saline plateaus
+  between the 23rd and 28th parallels. They are fed from the melting
+  snows and periodical storms of the higher Andes, and most of them are
+  completely dry part of the year. Their waters are saturated with
+  saline compounds, which in some cases have considerable commercial
+  value. In central Chile above the Bio-Bio river the lakes are small
+  and have no special geographical interest, with the exception perhaps
+  of the Laguna del Maule, in 36 deg. 7' S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37
+  deg. 20', which lie in the Andes near the Argentine frontier and are
+  sources of the two rivers of the same names. Below the Bio-Bio river
+  there is a line of large picturesque lakes extending from the province
+  of Cautin, south through that of Llanquihue, corresponding in
+  character and position to the dry lacustrine depressions extending
+  northward in the same valley. They lie on the eastern side near the
+  Cordilleras, and serve the purpose of great reservoirs for the
+  excessive precipitation of rain and snow on their western slopes. With
+  one exception they all drain westward into the Pacific through short
+  and partly navigable rivers, and some of the lakes are also utilized
+  for steamship navigation. These lakes are Villarica on the southern
+  frontier of Cautin, Rinihue and Ranco in Valdivia, and Puyehue,
+  Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos in Llanquihue. The largest of
+  the number are Lakes Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an
+  estimated area of 200 sq. m. and the latter of 300 sq. m. Lake Todos
+  los Santos is situated well within the Andean foothills north-east of
+  Puerto Montt and at an elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that
+  of the other lakes, Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level. The
+  great Andean lakes of General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos
+  Aires (in lat. 46 deg. 30' S.), Pueyrredon, or Cpchrane (47 deg. 15' S.)
+  and San Martin (49 deg. S.), lie partly within Chilean territory. In the
+  extreme south are Lagoa Blanca, a large fresh-water lake in lat. 52 deg.
+  30' S., and two large inland salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called
+  Otway Water and Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage.
+
+  _Geology._--Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions which
+  differ from each other in their geological structure. Along the coast
+  lies a belt of granite and schist overlaid unconformably by Cretaceous
+  and Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are formed chiefly of
+  folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks of later date. The
+  great longitudinal valley of Chile runs approximately, but only
+  approximately, along the boundary between the two zones. Towards the
+  north the coastal zone disappears beneath the sea and the Andean zone
+  reaches to the shore. The ancient rocks which form the most
+  characteristic feature of the former do indeed occur upon the coast of
+  Peru, but in the north of Chile they are found only in isolated masses
+  standing close to the shore or, as at Mejillones, projecting into the
+  sea. South of Antofagasta the old rocks form a nearly continuous band
+  along the coast, extending as far as Cape Horn and Staten Island, and
+  occupying the greater part of the islands of southern Chile.
+  Lithologically they are crystalline schists, together with granite,
+  diorite, gabbro and other igneous rocks. They are known to be
+  pre-Jurassic, but whether they are Palaeozoic or Archaean is
+  uncertain. They are strongly folded and are overlaid unconformably by
+  Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. In the north both the Cretaceous and
+  Tertiary beds of this zone are limited in extent, but towards the
+  south Mesozoic beds, which are at least in part Cretaceous, form a
+  band of considerable width. The Tertiary beds include both marine and
+  terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly of Miocene and Pliocene
+  age. The whole of the north part of Tierra del Fuego is occupied by
+  plateaus of horizontal Tertiary strata.
+
+  The Chilean Andes correspond with the Western Cordillera of Bolivia
+  and Peru, and consist almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds,
+  together with the products of the Tertiary eruptions. The Mesozoic
+  beds are thrown into a series of parallel folds which run in the
+  direction of the chain and which are generally free from any
+  complications such as overthrusting or overfolding. The Cretaceous
+  beds form a synclinal upon the eastern side of the chain (and, in
+  general, beyond the Chilean boundary), while the Jurassic beds are
+  thrown into a number of folds which form the axis and the western
+  flank. Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other
+  igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesozoic foundation
+  rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later date. The Trias is known
+  only at La Ternera near Copiapo, where coal-seams with Rhaetic plants
+  have been found; but the rest of the Mesozoic series, from the Lias to
+  the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented without a break of
+  more than local importance. The deposits are marine, consisting mainly
+  of sandstone and limestone, together with tuffs and conglomerates of
+  porphyry and porphyrite. These porphyritic rocks form a characteristic
+  feature of the southern Andes, and were at one time supposed to be
+  metamorphic; but they are certainly volcanic, and as they contain
+  marine fossils they must have been laid down beneath the sea. They are
+  not confined to any one horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the
+  Jurassic and occasionally also amongst the Cretaceous strata. They
+  form, in fact, a special facies which may frequently be traced
+  laterally into the more normal marine deposit of the same age. The
+  fauna of the Mesozoic beds is very rich, and includes forms which are
+  found in northern Europe, others which occur in central Europe, and
+  others again which are characteristic of the Mediterranean region. It
+  lends no support to Neumayr's theory of climatic zones. A large part
+  of the chain is covered by the products of the great volcanoes which
+  still form the highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes. The
+  rocks are liparites, dacites, hornblende and pyroxene andesites. The
+  recent lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are
+  olivine-bearing hypersthene-andesite and basalt.[1]
+
+  _Climate_.--The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical
+  heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low
+  temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego and the
+  southern coast. The high altitudes of the Andean region also introduce
+  vertical zones of temperature, modified to some extent by the rainless
+  plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall of the south. In
+  general terms it may be said that the extremes of temperature are not
+  so great as in corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere,
+  because of the greater expanse of water in comparison with the land
+  areas, the summers being cooler and the winters warmer. The cold
+  antarctic, or Humboldt, current sweeps northward along the coast and
+  greatly modifies the heat of the arid, tropical plateaus. The climate
+  of northern and central Chile is profoundly affected by the high
+  mountain barrier on the eastern frontier and by the broad treeless
+  pampas of Argentina, which raise the easterly moisture-laden winds
+  from the Atlantic to so high an elevation that they sweep across Chile
+  without leaving a drop of rain. At very rare intervals light rains
+  fall in the desert regions north of Coquimbo, but these are brought by
+  the prevailing coast winds. With this exception these regions are the
+  most arid on the face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical sun
+  during the day and chilled at night by the proximity of snow-covered
+  heights and a cold ocean current. Going south the temperature slowly
+  falls and the rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided
+  into a short rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season. At
+  Copiapo, in 27 deg. 22' S., 1300 ft. above the sea, the mean annual
+  temperature is 60 deg. and the rainfall about 1 in., but at Coquimbo, in
+  29 deg. 56' S., the temperature is 59.2 deg. and the rainfall 11/2 in. At
+  Santiago, in 33 deg. 27' S., 1755 ft. above the sea, the mean temperature
+  is 54 deg. and the annual rainfall 161/2 in., though the latter varies
+  considerably. The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21.
+  At Talca, in 35 deg. 36' S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual
+  temperature is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the
+  rainfall has increased to 19.7 in. The long dry season of this region
+  makes irrigation necessary, and vegetation has something of a
+  subtropical appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37 deg.
+  The climate is healthy and agreeable, though the death-rate among the
+  common people is abnormally high on account of personal habits and
+  unsanitary surroundings. In southern Chile the climate undergoes a
+  radical change--the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a long
+  rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall. The plains as well as the
+  western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the rivers become
+  torrents, and the sky is covered with heavy clouds a great part of the
+  year. At Valdivia, in 39 deg. 49' S. and near the sea-level, the mean
+  annual temperature is 52.9 deg. and the annual rainfall 108 to 115 in.,
+  with about 150 rainy days in the year. These meteorological conditions
+  are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north end of the island of
+  Chiloe, in 41 deg. 46' S., where the mean annual temperature is 50.7 deg.
+  and the annual rainfall 134 in. The equable character of the climate at
+  this point is shown by the limited range between its summer and winter
+  temperatures, the mean for January being 56.5 deg. and the mean for July
+  45.9 deg. The almost continual cloudiness is undoubtedly a principal
+  cause, not only of the low summer temperatures, but also of the
+  comparatively high winter temperatures. Frosts are infrequent, and
+  snow does not lie long. The climate is considered to be healthful
+  notwithstanding the excessive humidity. The 600 m. of coast from the
+  Chonos Archipelago south to the Fuegian islands have a climate closely
+  approximating that of the latter. It is wet and stormy all the year
+  through, though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and
+  Valdivia. The line of perpetual snow, which is 6000 ft. above
+  sea-level between lat. 41 deg. and 43 deg., descends to 3500 (to 4000)
+  ft. in Tierra del Fuego, affording another indication of the low maximum
+  temperatures ruling during the summer. At the extreme south, where
+  Chilean territory extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the
+  Straits of Magellan, a new climatic influence is encountered in the
+  warm equatorial current flowing down the east coast of South America,
+  which gives to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that
+  of the western shore. The Andes, although much broken in these
+  latitudes, also exert a modifying influence on these eastern
+  districts, sheltering them from the cold westerly storms and giving
+  them a drier climate. This accounts for the surprising meteorological
+  data obtained from Punta Arenas, in 53 deg. 10' S., where the mean annual
+  temperature is 43.2 deg. and the annual rainfall only 22.5 in. Other
+  observations reduce this annual precipitation to less than 16 in.
+  According to observations made by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition
+  (1901-1903), at Orange Bay, Hoste Island, in lat. 55 deg. 31' S., long.
+  68 deg. 05' W., which is more exposed to the westerly storms, the mean
+  temperature for 11 months was 41.98 deg. and the total precipitation
+  (rain and snow) 53.1 in. The mean maximum temperature was 49.24 deg.,
+  and the mean minimum 35.83 deg. The observations showed 284 days with
+  rain or snow, of which 70 were with snow.
+
+  _Flora_.--The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and less
+  interesting than those of Argentina and Brazil, but contains many
+  peculiar genera and species. A classification of this flora
+  necessitates its division into at least three general zones--the
+  desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of
+  the south. The first is an arid desert absolutely barren along part of
+  the coast, between Tacna and Copiapo, but with a coarse scanty
+  vegetation near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes
+  where moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the
+  sand. In the valleys of the Copiapo and Huasco rivers a meagre
+  vegetation is to be found near their channels, apart from what is
+  produced by irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry
+  river channels below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing
+  southward into the province of Coquimbo a gradual change in the arid
+  conditions may be observed. The higher summits of the Cordilleras
+  afford a larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent
+  are the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water
+  supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an
+  indication of what the coming season is to be. The arborescent growth
+  near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are to be
+  found the "algarrobo" (_Prosopis siliquastrum_) and "chanar"
+  (_Gourliea chilensis_), but the only shrub to be found on the coast is
+  a species of _Skytanthus_. Near the sierras where irrigation is
+  possible, fruit-growing is so successful, especially the grape and
+  fig, that the product is considered the best in Chile. In regard to
+  the indigenous flora of this region John Ball[2] says: "The species
+  which grow here are the more or less modified representatives of
+  plants which at some former period existed under very different
+  conditions of life." Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a
+  dwarfed species, and then a larger columnar form (_Cereus quisco_).
+  The streams are fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields
+  fill the irrigated valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better
+  covered with a thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the
+  streams, however, continue barren as far south as the transverse
+  ranges of mountains across the province of Aconcagua.
+
+  To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character
+  between the northern and southern zones. It is much more than this,
+  however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly
+  its own. A large majority of the 198 genera peculiar to the South
+  American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile. This
+  zone extends from about the 30th to the 36th parallel, perhaps a
+  little farther south to include some characteristic types. The
+  evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south,
+  and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a subtropical
+  aspect. One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is the
+  _peumo_ (_Cryptocarya peumus_), whose dense evergreen foliage is
+  everywhere conspicuous. The _quillay_ (_Quillaja saponaria_) is
+  another characteristic evergreen tree of this region, whose bark
+  possesses saponaceous properties. In earlier times the coquito palm
+  (_Jubaea spectabilis_) was to be found throughout this part of Chile,
+  but it has been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine sap,
+  from which a treacle was made. One of the most striking forest trees
+  is the _pehuen_ or Chilean pine (_Araucaria imbricata_), which often
+  grows to a height of 100 ft. and is prized by the natives for its
+  fruit. Three indigenous species of the beech--the _roble_ (_Fagus
+  obliqua_), _coyhue_ (_F. Dombeyi_), and _rauli_ (_F. procera_)--are
+  widely diffused and highly prized for their wood, especially the
+  first, which is misleadingly called _roble_ (oak). Most of the woods
+  used in construction and manufactures are found between the Bio-Bio
+  river and the Taytao peninsula, among which are the _alerce_
+  (_Fitzroya patagonica_), _cipres_ or Chiloe cypress (_Libocedrus
+  tetragona_), the Chilean cypress (_L. Chilensis_), _lingue_ (_Persea
+  lingue_), laurel (_Laurus aromatica_), _avellano_ (_Guevina
+  avellana_), _luma_ (_Myrtus luma_), _espino_ (_Acacia cavenia_) and
+  many others. Several exotic species have been introduced into this
+  part of Chile, some of which have thriven even better than in their
+  native habitats. Among these are the oak, elm, beech (_F. sylvatica_),
+  walnut, chestnut, poplar, willow and eucalyptus. Through the central
+  zone the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain slopes,
+  but in the southern zone there are no plains, with the exception of
+  small areas near the Straits of Magellan, and the forests are
+  universal. In the variety, size and density of their growth these
+  forests remind one of the tropics. They are made up, in great part, of
+  the evergreen beech (_Fagus betuloides_), the deciduous antarctic
+  beech (_F. antarctica_),[3] and Winter's bark (_Drimys Winteri_),
+  intermingled with a dense undergrowth composed of a great variety of
+  shrubs and plants, among which are _Maytenus magellanica, Arbutus
+  rigida, Myrtus memmolaria_, two or three species of _Berberis_, wild
+  currant (_Ribes antarctica_), a trailing blackberry, tree ferns,
+  reed-like grasses and innumerable parasites. On the eastern side of
+  the Cordillera, in the extreme south, the climate is drier and open,
+  and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping
+  forests extend from an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft. down to the level
+  of the sea. A peculiar vegetable product of this inclement region is a
+  small globular fungus growing on the bark of the beech, which is a
+  staple article of food among the Fuegians--probably the only instance
+  where a fungus is the bread of a people.
+
+  It is generally conceded that the potato originated in southern Chile,
+  as it is found growing wild in Chiloe and neighbouring islands and on
+  the adjacent mainland. The strawberry is also indigenous to these
+  latitudes on both sides of the Andes, and Chile is credited with a
+  species from which the cultivated strawberry derives some of its best
+  qualities. Maize and quinoa (_Chenopodium quinoa_) were known in Chile
+  before the arrival of Europeans, but it is not certain that they are
+  indigenous. Species of the bean and pepper plant are also indigenous,
+  and the former is said to have been cultivated by the natives. Among
+  the many economic plants which have been introduced into Chile and
+  have become important additions to her resources, the more prominent
+  are wheat, barley, hemp and alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), together with
+  the staple European fruits, such as the apple, pear, peach, nectarine,
+  grape, fig, olive and orange. The date-palm has also been introduced
+  into the southern provinces of the desert region. Among the marine
+  productions on the southern coast, a species of kelp, _Macrocystis
+  pyrifera_, merits special mention because of its extraordinary length,
+  its habit of clinging to the rocks in strong currents and turbulent
+  seas, and its being a shelter for innumerable species of marine
+  animals. Captain FitzRoy found it growing from a depth of 270 ft.
+
+  _Fauna._--The fauna of Chile is comparatively poor, both in species
+  and individuals. A great part of the northern deserts is as barren of
+  animal life as of vegetation, and the dense humid forests of the south
+  shelter surprisingly few species. There are no large mammals in all
+  this extensive region except the Cetacea and a species of the
+  _Phocidae_ of southern waters. Neither are there any dangerous species
+  of Carnivora, which are represented by the timid puma (_Felis
+  concolor_), three species of wildcats, three of the fox, two of
+  _Conepatus_, a weasel, sea-otter and six species of seal. The rodents
+  are the most numerously represented order, which includes the _coypu_
+  or nutria (_Myopotamus coypus_), the chinchilla (_Chinchilla
+  laniger_), the tuco-tuco (_Ctenomys brasiliensis_), a rabbit, and 12
+  species of mice--in all some 12 genera and 25 species. The coypu,
+  sometimes called the South American beaver, inhabits the river-banks,
+  and is highly prized for its fur. It is also found along the
+  river-courses of Argentina. The ruminants are represented by a few
+  species only--the guanaco (_Auchenia huanaco_), _vicuna_ (_A.
+  vicugna_), _huemul_ (_Cervus chilensis_), which appears on the Chilean
+  escutcheon, and the _pudu_ deer, a small and not very numerous
+  species. There are two species of the Edentata, _Dasypus_ and
+  _Pichiciego_, the latter very rare, and one of the opossums. European
+  animals, such as horses, cattle, sheep, swine and goats, have been
+  introduced into the country and do well. Sheep-raising has also been
+  inaugurated with some degree of success in the vicinity of the Straits
+  of Magellan. The avifauna, with the exception of waterfowl, is also
+  limited to comparatively few species. Birds of prey are represented by
+  the condor, vulture, two species of the carrion-hawk (_Polyborus_),
+  and owl. The Chilean slopes of the Andes appear to be a favourite
+  haunt of the condor, where neighbouring stock-raisers suffer severe
+  losses at times from its attacks. The _Insessores_ are represented by
+  a number of species. Parrots are found as far south as Tierra del
+  Fuego, where Darwin saw them feeding on seeds of the Winter's bark.
+  Humming-birds have a similar range on this coast, one species
+  (_Mellisuga Kingii_) being quite numerous as far south as Tierra del
+  Fuego. A characteristic genus is that of _Pteroptochus_, of which
+  there are three or four species each characterized by some conspicuous
+  peculiarity. These are _P. megapodius_, called _El Turco_ by the
+  natives, which is noticeable for its ungainly appearance and awkward
+  gait; the _P. albicollis_, which inhabits barren hillsides and is
+  called _tapacollo_ from the manner of carrying its tail turned far
+  forward over its back; the _P. rubecula_, of Chiloe, a small timid
+  denizen of the gloomy forest, called the _cheucau_ or _chuca_, whose
+  two or three notes are believed by the superstitious natives to be
+  auguries of impending success or disaster; and an allied species
+  (_Hylactes Tarnii_, King) called the _guid-guid_ or barking bird,
+  whose cry is a close imitation of the yelp of a small dog. The
+  southern coast and its inland waters are frequented by several species
+  of petrel, among which are the _Procellaria gigantea_, whose strength
+  and rapacity led the Spaniards to call it _quebranta huesos_
+  (breakbones), the _Puffinus cinereus_, which inhabits the inland
+  channels in large flocks, and an allied species (_Puffinuria
+  Berardii_) which inhabits the inland sounds and resembles the auk in
+  some particulars of habit and appearance. There are numerous species
+  in these sheltered channels, inlets and sounds of geese, ducks, swans,
+  cormorants, ibises, bitterns, red-beaks, curlew, snipe, plover and
+  moorhens. Conspicuous among these are the great white swan (_Cygnus
+  anatoides_), the black-necked swan (_Anser nigricollis_), the
+  antarctic goose (_Anas antarctica_) and the "race-horse" or "steamer
+  duck" (_Micropterus brachypterus_).
+
+  The marine fauna is less known than the others, but it is rich in
+  species and highly interesting in its varied forms and
+  characteristics. The northern coast has no sheltered waters of any
+  considerable extent, and the shore slopes abruptly to a great depth,
+  which gives it a marine life of no special importance. In the shoal
+  waters about Juan Fernandez are found a species of codfish (possibly
+  _Gadus macrocephalus_), differing in some particulars from the
+  Newfoundland cod, and a large crayfish, both of which are caught for
+  the Valparaiso market. The sheltered waters of the broken southern
+  coast, however, are rich in fish and molluscs, especially in mussels,
+  limpets and barnacles, which are the principal food resource of the
+  nomadic Indian tribes of those regions. A large species of barnacle,
+  _Balanus psittacus_, is found in great abundance from Concepcion to
+  Puerto Montt, and is not only eaten by the natives, by whom it is
+  called _pico_, but is also esteemed a great delicacy in the markets of
+  Valparaiso and Santiago. Oysters of excellent flavour are found in
+  the sheltered waters of Chiloe. The Cetacea, which frequent these
+  southern waters, are represented by four species--two dolphins and the
+  sperm and right whale--and the _Phocidae_ by six species, one of which
+  (_Phoca lupina_) differs but little from the common seal. Another
+  species (_Macrorhinus leoninus_), popularly known as the sea-elephant,
+  is provided with short tusks and a short trunk and sometimes grows to
+  a length of 20 ft. Still another species, the sea-lion (_Otaria
+  jubata_), furnishes the natives of Tierra del Fuego with an acceptable
+  article of food, but like the _Phoca lupina_ it is becoming scarce.
+
+  Of Reptilia Chile is singularly free, there being recorded only eleven
+  species--five saurians, four ophidians, one frog and one toad--but a
+  more thorough survey of the uninhabited territories of the south may
+  increase this list. There are no alligators in the streams, and the
+  tropical north has very few lizards. There are no poisonous snakes in
+  the country, and, in a region so filled with lakes and rivers as the
+  rainy south, only two species of batrachians. The insect life of these
+  strangely associated regions is likewise greatly restricted by adverse
+  climatic conditions, a considerable part of the northern desert being
+  absolutely barren of animal and vegetable life, while the climate of
+  Tierra del Fuego and the southern coast is highly unfavourable to
+  terrestrial animal life, for which reason comparatively few species
+  are to be found. Writing of a journey inland from Iquique, Charles
+  Darwin says (_Journal of Researches, &c._, p. 444): "Excepting the
+  _Vultur aura_, ... I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor
+  insect." Of his entomological collection in Tierra del Fuego, which
+  was not large, the majority were of Alpine species. Moreover, he did
+  not find a single species common to that island and Patagonia. These
+  conditions subsist with but few modifications, if any, from the
+  Straits northward to the 42nd parallel, the extreme humidity, abnormal
+  rainfall and dark skies being unfavourable to the development of
+  insect life, while the Andes interpose an impassable barrier to
+  migration from the countries of the eastern coast. The only venomous
+  species to be found in central Chile is that of a spider which
+  frequents the wheat fields in harvest time.
+
+_Population._--The population of Chile is largely concentrated in the
+twelve agricultural provinces between and including Coquimbo and
+Concepcion, though the next six provinces to the south, of more recent
+general settlement, have received some foreign immigrants, and are
+rapidly growing. In the desert provinces the population is limited to
+the mining communities, and to the ports and supply stations maintained
+for their support and for the transport, smelting and export of their
+produce. The province of Atacama has, in addition to its mining
+population, a considerable number of agriculturists located in a few
+irrigated river valleys, which class is largely increased in the
+adjoining province of Coquimbo. The more northern provinces, however,
+maintain their populations without the support of such small cultivated
+areas. In the southern territories unfavourable conditions of a widely
+different character prevail, and the population is restricted to a few
+small settlements and some nomadic tribes of Indians. Here, however,
+there are localities where settlements could be maintained by ordinary
+means and the population could be greatly increased. Since the census of
+1895 the population of Punta Arenas has been largely increased by the
+discovery of gold in the vicinity. The twelve provinces first mentioned,
+which include the celebrated "Vale of Chile," comprise only 17% of the
+area of the republic, but the census of 1895 showed that 72% of the
+total population was concentrated within their borders. The four desert
+provinces north of Coquimbo had only 8% of the total, and the seven
+provinces and one territory south of Concepcion had 20%. According to
+the census of 1895 the total population was 2,712,145, to which the
+census officials added 10% to cover omissions. This shows an increase
+slightly over 7% for the preceding decennial period, the population
+having been returned as 2,527,320 in 1885. The census returns of 1875
+and 1866 gave respectively 2,068,447 and 2,084,943, showing an actual
+decrease in population. During these years Chile held the anomalous
+position of a country spending large sums annually to secure immigrants
+while at the same time her own labouring classes were emigrating by
+thousands to the neighbouring republics to improve their condition.
+Writing in 1879, a correspondent of _The Times_[4] stated that this
+emigration then averaged 8000 a year, and in bad times had reached as
+many as 30,000 in one year. The condition of the Chilean labourer has
+been much improved since then, however, and Chile no longer suffers so
+serious a loss of population. In 1895, the foreigners included in the
+Chilean population numbered 72,812, of which 42,105 were European,
+29,687 American, and 1020 Asiatic, &c. According to nationality there
+were 8269 Spanish, 7809 French, 7587 Italian, 7049 German, 6241 British,
+1570 Swiss, 1490 Austro-Hungarian, 13,695 Peruvian, 7531 Argentine, 6654
+Bolivian, 701 American (U.S.), 797 Chinese. According to residence,
+1,471,792 were inhabitants of rural districts, and 1,240,353 of towns.
+The registration of births, marriages and deaths is compulsory since the
+1st of January 1885, but the provisions of the law are frequently
+eluded. Notwithstanding the healthiness of the climate, the death-rate
+is high, especially in the large cities. In Santiago and Valparaiso the
+death-rate sometimes rises to 42 and 60 per 1000, and infant mortality
+is very high, being 73% of the births in some of the provincial towns.
+This unfavourable state of affairs is due to the poverty, ignorance and
+insanitary habits of the lower classes. The government has made repeated
+efforts to secure immigrants from Europe, but the lands set apart for
+immigrant settlers are in the forested provinces south of the Bio-Bio,
+where the labour and hardships involved in establishing a home are
+great, and the protection of the law against bandits and criminal
+assaults is weak. The Germans have indeed settled in many parts of these
+southern provinces since 1845, and by keeping together have succeeded in
+building up several important towns and a large number of prosperous
+agricultural communities. One German authority (Hueber) estimates the
+number of Germans in two of these provinces at 5000. The arrivals,
+however, have been on the whole discouragingly small, the total for the
+years 1901-1905 being only 14,000.
+
+Although Chileans claim a comparatively small admixture with the native
+races, it is estimated that the whites and creoles of white extraction
+do not exceed 30 to 40% of the population, while the _mestizos_ form
+fully 60%. This estimate is unquestionably conservative, for there has
+been no large influx of European blood to counterbalance the race
+mixtures of earlier times. The estimated number of Indians living within
+the boundaries of Chile is about 50,000, which presumably includes the
+nomadic tribes of the Fuegian archipelago, whose number probably does
+not reach 5000. The semi-independent Araucanians, whose territory is
+slowly being occupied by the whites, are concentrated in the eastern
+forests of Bio-Bio, Malleco and Cautin, all that remains to them of the
+Araucania which they so bravely and successfully defended for more than
+three centuries. Their number does not much exceed 40,000, which is
+being steadily reduced by drunkenness and epidemic diseases. A small
+part of these Indians live in settled communities and include some very
+successful stock-raisers, but the greater part live apart from
+civilization. There are also some remnants of tribes in the province of
+Chiloe, which inhabit the island of that name, the Chonos and Guaytecas
+archipelagoes and the adjacent mainland, who have the reputation of
+being good boatmen and fishermen; and there are remnants of a people
+called Changos, on the desert coast, and traces of Calchaqui blood in
+the neighbouring Andean foothills.
+
+There is a wide difference in every respect between the upper or ruling
+class and the common people. The former includes the landed proprietors,
+professional men and a part of those engaged in commercial and
+industrial pursuits. These educated classes form only a small minority
+of the population. Many of them, especially the landed proprietors, are
+descendants of the original Spanish settlers and are celebrated for
+their politeness and hospitality. The political control of the republic
+was secured to them by the constitution of 1833. The common people were
+kept in ignorance and practically in a state of hopeless servitude. They
+were allowed to occupy small leaseholds on the large estates on
+condition of performing a certain amount of work for the landlord. Every
+avenue toward the betterment of their condition was practically closed.
+The condition of the itinerant labourers (_peons_) was still worse, the
+wages paid them being hardly sufficient to keep them from starvation.
+The Chilean _peon_, however, comes from a hardy stock, and has borne all
+these hardships with a fortitude and patience which go far to
+counterbalance his faults. Recent reforms in education, &c., together
+with the growth of manufacturing industries, are slowly leading to
+improvements in the material condition of the common people.
+
+The political organization of the country has not been favourable to the
+development of artistic or scientific tastes, though Chile has produced
+political leaders, statesmen and polemical writers in abundance.
+Historical literature has been enriched by the works of Diego Barros
+Arana, Benjamin Vicuna Mackenna, Miguel Luis Amunategui, Carlos Walker
+Martinez, and others. One of the earliest native histories of Chile was
+that of Abbe J. Ignacio Molina, an English translation of which has long
+been a recognized authority; it is full of errors, however, and should
+be studied only in connexion with modern standard works. Among these
+must be included Claude Gay's monumental work, _Historia General de
+Chile_, and Sir C.R. Markham's admirable studies on special parts of the
+subject. In science, nearly all the important work has been done by
+foreigners, among whom are Charles Darwin, Claude Gay, Eduard Poeppig,
+Rudolph A. Philippi and Hans Steffen, who deserves special mention for
+his excellent geographical work in the southern Andes.
+
+  _Divisions and Towns._--Chile contains 23 provinces and one territory,
+  which are subdivided into 75 departments, 855 subdelegations and 3068
+  districts. The territory north of the Bio-Bio was originally divided
+  into 13 provinces, besides which the Spaniards held Chiloe, Juan
+  Fernandez and Valdivia, the latter being merely a military outpost.
+  During the years which have elapsed since the War of Independence the
+  territory south of the Bio-Bio has been effectively occupied and
+  divided into six provinces, Chiloe and the neighbouring islands and
+  mainland to the east became a province, and four provinces in the
+  northern deserts were acquired from Bolivia and Peru. In addition to
+  this, Chile claimed Patagonia and the adjacent islands, and has
+  finally secured not only the forested strip of territory west of the
+  Andes, but also a large piece of the Patagonian mainland, south of
+  lat. 52 deg. S., the larger part of Tierra del Fuego, and all the western
+  islands. This extensive region, comprising an area of 71,127 sq. m.,
+  has been provisionally organized as the territory of Magallanes. For a
+  list of provinces, their areas, reduced from official returns, their
+  populations, and the names and populations of their capitals, see the
+  bottom of this page.
+
+  +------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+-------------------+
+  |                  |        |           |             |    Population.    |
+  |    Provinces.    |  Area. |Population.|  Capitals.  +---------+---------+
+  |                  |        |  Census   |             | Census  |   Est.  |
+  |                  |        |   1895.   |             |  1895.  |   1902. |
+  +------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+---------+---------+
+  |Tacna             |  9,251 |   24,160  |Tacna        |   9,418 |  11,504 |
+  |Tarapaca          | 18,131 |   89,751  |Iquique      |  33,031 |  42,788 |
+  |Antofagasta       | 46,611 |   44,035  |Antofagasta  |  13,530 |  16,084 |
+  |Atacama           | 30,729 |   59,713  |Copiapo      |   9,301 |   8,991 |
+  |Coquimbo          | 13,461 |  160,898  |La Serena    |  15,712 |  19,536 |
+  |Aconcagua         |  5,487 |  113,165  |San Felipe   |  11,313 |  11,660 |
+  |Valparaiso        |  1,953 |  220,756  |Valparaiso   | 122,447 | 142,282 |
+  |Santiago          |  5,665 |  415,636  |Santiago     | 256,403 | 332,059 |
+  |O'Higgins         |  2,342 |   85,277  |Rancagua     |   6,665 |   7,133 |
+  |Colchagua         |  3,856 |  157,566  |San Fernando |   7,447 |   8,164 |
+  |Curico            |  2,978 |  103,242  |Curico       |  12,669 |  14,340 |
+  |Talca             |  3,840 |  128,961  |Talca        |  33,232 |  42,766 |
+  |Linares           |  3,942 |  101,858  |Linares      |   7,331 |   7,256 |
+  |Maule             |  2,475 |  119,791  |Cauquenes    |   8,574 |   9,895 |
+  |Nuble             |  3,407 |  152,935  |Chillan      |  28,738 |  36,382 |
+  |Concepcion        |  3,252 |  188,190  |Concepcion   |  39,837 |  49,351 |
+  |Arauco            |  2,458 |   59,237  |Lebu         |   2,784 |   3,178 |
+  |Bio-Bio           |  5,246 |   88,749  |Los Angeles  |   7,868 |   7,777 |
+  |Malleco           |  2,973 |   98,032  |Angol        |   7,056 |   7,638 |
+  |Cautin            |  5,832 |   78,221  |Temuco       |   7,078 |   9,699 |
+  |Valdivia          |  8,649 |   60,687  |Valdivia     |   8,060 |   9,704 |
+  |Llanquihue        | 45,515 |   78,315  |Puerto Montt |   3,480 |   4,140 |
+  |Chiloe            |  8,593 |   77,750  |Ancud        |   3,182 |   3,787 |
+  |Magallanes (Ter.) | 71,127 |    5,170  |Punta Arenas |   3,227 |   8,327 |
+  |                  +--------+-----------+             |         |         |
+  |Total, official   | 307,774| 2,712,145 |             |         |         |
+  |Total according to|        |           |             |         |         |
+  | Gotha computation| 293,062|           |             |         |         |
+  |With 10% added for|        |           |             |         |         |
+  | omissions        |        | 2,983,359 |             |         |         |
+  |Official estimate |        |           |             |         |         |
+  | for 1902         |        | 3,173,783 |             |         |         |
+  +------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+---------+---------+
+
+  In addition to the provincial capitals there are few towns of
+  importance. Among these may be mentioned:--
+
+  +------------------+---------------------+
+  |                  |     Population.     |
+  |                  +----------+----------+
+  |                  |   1895.  |Est. 1902.|
+  +------------------+----------+----------+
+  | Arica            |   2,853  |   2,824  |
+  | Pisagua          |   3,635  |   4,720  |
+  | Taltal           |   5,834  |   6,574  |
+  | Tocopilla        |   3,383  |   4,752  |
+  | Vallenar         |   5,052  |   5,199  |
+  | Coquimbo         |   7,322  |   8,165  |
+  | Ovalle           |   5,565  |   5,772  |
+  | Los Andes (Santa |          |          |
+  |   Rosa)          |   5,504  |   6,854  |
+  | Quillota         |   9,621  |   9,876  |
+  | Vina del Mar     |  10,651  |    ...   |
+  | Melipilla        |   4,286  |   5,023  |
+  | Rengo            |   6,463  |   7,232  |
+  | Vichuquen        |     826  |   3,714  |
+  | Molina           |   3,609  |   3,222  |
+  | Parral           |   8,586  |  10,219  |
+  | Constitucion     |   6,400  |   6,453  |
+  | San Carlos       |   7,051  |   6,579  |
+  | Coronel          |   4,575  |   5,959  |
+  | Lota             |   9,797  |    ...   |
+  | Talcahuano       |  10,431  |  13,499  |
+  | El Tome          |   3,977  |   6,189  |
+  | Arauco           |   3,008  |   3,334  |
+  | Canete           |   2,000  |   2,552  |
+  | Mulchen          |   4,268  |   4,332  |
+  | Traiguen         |   5,732  |   7,099  |
+  | Victoria         |   6,989  |  10,002  |
+  | La Union         |   2,830  |   3,908  |
+  | Osorno           |   4,667  |   5,888  |
+  | Castro (Chiloe)  |   1,035  |   2,166  |
+  +------------------+----------+----------+
+
+  The population is not concentrated in large cities, but is well
+  distributed through the cultivated parts of the country. The large
+  number of small towns, important as ports, market towns, or
+  manufacturing centres, is a natural result. Many of the foregoing
+  towns are only villages in size, but their importance is not to be
+  measured in this way. Arica is one of the oldest ports on the coast,
+  and has long been a favoured port for Bolivian trade because the
+  passes through the Cordilleras at that point are not so difficult.
+  Moreover, the railway from Arica to La Paz will still further add to
+  its importance, though it may not greatly increase its population.
+  Another illustration is that of Vichuquen, province of Curico,
+  situated on a tide-water lake on the coast, which is the centre of a
+  large salt-making industry. Still another instance is that of Castro,
+  the oldest settlement and former capital of Chiloe, which after a
+  century of decay is increasing again through the efforts to develop
+  the industries of that island.
+
+  _Communications._--Railway construction in Chile dates from 1850, when
+  work was begun on a short line between Copiapo and the port of
+  Caldera, in the Atacama desert region. Since then lines have been
+  built by private companies from the coast at several points to inland
+  mining centres. One of these, running from Antofagasta to the
+  Caracoles district, was afterwards extended to Oruro, Bolivia, and has
+  become a commercial route of international importance, with a total
+  length of 574 m., 224 of which are in Chile. It should be remembered
+  that many of these railway enterprises of the desert region originated
+  at a time when the territory belonged to Bolivia and Peru. The first
+  railway to be constructed in central Chile was the government line
+  from Valparaiso to Santiago, 115 m. in length, which was opened to
+  traffic in 1863. About the same time the government began the
+  construction of a longitudinal trunk line running southward from
+  Santiago midway between the Andes and the Coast range, and connecting
+  with all the provincial capitals and prominent ports. This is the only
+  railway "system" it is possible for Chile to have. The civil war of
+  1891 called attention to the need of a similar inland route through
+  the northern provinces. A branch of the Valparaiso and Santiago line
+  runs to Los Andes, and its extension across the Andes connects with
+  the Argentine lines from Buenos Aires to Mendoza and the Chilean
+  frontier--all sections together forming a transcontinental route about
+  850 m. in length. The Transandine section of this route crosses the
+  Cordillera through the Uspallata pass. A further Transandine scheme
+  provides for a line through the Pino Hachado pass (38 deg. 30' to 39 deg.
+  S.), and the Argentine Great Southern Company obtained a concession in
+  1909 to extend its Neuquen line to the frontier of Chile. The railways of
+  the republic had a total mileage at the end of 1906 of 2950 m., of
+  which 1495 m. were owned by the state, and 1455 m. belonged to private
+  companies. The private lines are located in the northern provinces and
+  are for the most part built and maintained for the transportation of
+  mining products and supplies.
+
+  In addition to her railway lines Chile has about 21,000 m. of public
+  roads of all descriptions, 135 m. of tramways, and 705 m. of navigable
+  river channels, besides a very considerable mileage of lake and coast
+  navigation. Telegraphic communication between all the important towns
+  of the republic, initiated in 1855 with a line between Santiago and
+  Valparaiso, is maintained by the state, which in 1903 owned 9306 m. of
+  line in a total of 11,080 m. Cable communication with Europe by way of
+  Buenos Aires was opened in 1875, and is now maintained by means of two
+  underground cables across the Andes, 32 m. in length. A West Coast
+  cable also connects with Europe and North American states by way of
+  Panama. There were 15,853 m. of telephone wires in the republic in
+  1906, all the principal cities having an admirable service. Modern
+  postal facilities date from 1853. The Chilean post-office is
+  administered by a director-general at Santiago, and has a high degree
+  of efficiency and liberality, compared with those of other South
+  American states. The postal rates are low, and newspapers and other
+  periodical publications circulate free, as a means of popular
+  instruction. The postal revenues for 1904 amounted to 2,775,730 pesos
+  and the expenditures to 2,407,753 pesos. Chile is a member of the
+  International Postal Union, and has arrangements with the principal
+  commercial nations for the exchange of postal money values.
+
+  The sea has been the only means of communication with distant parts of
+  the country, and must continue to be the chief transportation route.
+  There are said to be 56 ports on the Chilean coast, of which only 12
+  are prominent in foreign trade. Many of the so-called ports are only
+  landing-places on an open coast, others are on shallow bays and
+  obstructed river-mouths, and some are little-known harbours among the
+  channels and islands of the south. The prosperity of Chile is
+  intimately connected with her ocean-going trade, and no elaborate
+  system of national railway lines and domestic manufactures can ever
+  change this relationship. These conditions should have developed a
+  large merchant marine, but the Chileans are not traders and are
+  sailors only in a military sense. In 1905 their ocean-going merchant
+  marine consisted of only 148 vessels, of which 54 were steamers of
+  42,873 tons net, and 94 were sailing vessels of 39,346 tons. Nineteen
+  of the 54 steamers belonged to a subsidized national line whose West
+  Coast service once extended to San Francisco, California, and a large
+  part of the others belongs to a Lota coal-mining and copper-smelting
+  company which employs them in carrying coal to the northern ports and
+  bringing back metallic ores for smelting. The navigable rivers and
+  inland lakes employ a number of small steamers. The foreign commerce
+  of the republic is carried chiefly by foreign vessels, and the
+  coasting trade is also open to them. Three or four foreign companies
+  maintain a regular steamship service to Valparaiso and other Chilean
+  ports. The shipping entries at all Chilean ports during the year 1904,
+  both national and foreign, numbered 11,756, aggregating 17,723,138
+  tons, and the clearances 11,689, aggregating 17,370,763 tons. Very
+  nearly one-half this tonnage was British, a little over 18% German,
+  and about 29% Chilean.
+
+  _Commerce._--In the aggregate, the commerce of Chile is large and
+  important; in proportion to population it is exceeded among South
+  American states only by Argentina, Uruguay and the Guianas. Unlike
+  those states, it depends in great part on mining and its allied
+  occupations. The values of imports and exports (including bullion,
+  specie and re-exports) in pesos of 18d. during the five years
+  1901-1905 were as follows:--
+
+             Imports.           Exports.
+    Year.     pesos.             pesos.
+
+    1901    139,300,766       171,844,976
+    1902    132,428,204       185,879,965
+    1903    149,081,524       210,442,144
+    1904    164,874,928       232,493,598
+    1905    188,596,418       265,209,192
+
+  The principal imports comprise live animals, fish, coffee, mate (_Ilex
+  paraguayensis_), tea, sugar, wood and its manufactures, structural
+  iron and steel, hardware and machinery, railway and telegraph
+  supplies, lime and cement, glass and earthenware, cotton, woollen and
+  silk manufactures, coal, petroleum, paints, &c. Import duties are
+  imposed at the rates of 60, 35, 15, 5 and 25%, and certain classes of
+  merchandise are admitted free. The higher rates are designed chiefly
+  to protect national industries, while wines, liquors, cigars and
+  tobacco are admitted at the lowest rate. The 25% rate covers all
+  articles not mentioned in the schedules, which number 2260 items. The
+  duty free list includes raw cotton, certain descriptions of live
+  animals, agricultural machinery and implements, metal wire, fire
+  engines, structural iron and steel, and machinery in general. The
+  tariff is nominally _ad valorem_, but as the rates are imposed on
+  fixed official valuations it is essentially specific. The duties on
+  imports in 1905 amounted to 91,321,860 pesos, and in 1906 to
+  103,507,556 pesos. The principal exports are gold, silver, copper
+  (bars, regulus and ores), cobalt and its ores, lead and its ores,
+  vanadium ores, manganese, coal, nitrate of soda, borate of lime,
+  iodine, sulphur, wheat and guano. Nitrate of soda forms from 70 to 75%
+  of the exports, and the royalty received from it is the principal
+  source of national revenue, yielding about L4,000,000 per annum. In
+  1904 mineral products made up fully seven-eighths of the exports,
+  while agricultural and pastoral products did not quite reach
+  one-eighth.
+
+  _Agriculture._--According to the census returns about one-half the
+  population of Chile lives in rural districts, and is engaged nominally
+  in agricultural pursuits. What may be called central Chile is
+  singularly well adapted to agriculture. The northern part of this
+  region has a sub-tropical climate, light rainfall and a long, dry
+  summer, but with irrigation it produces a great variety of products.
+  Alfalfa, or lucerne (_Medicago sativa_), is grown extensively for
+  shipment to the mining towns of the desert provinces. There were no
+  less than 108,384 acres devoted to it in 1904, a considerable part of
+  which was in the irrigated river valleys of Coquimbo and Aconcagua.
+  Considerable attention is also given to fruit cultivation in these
+  subtropical provinces, where the orange, lemon, fig, melon, pineapple
+  and banana are produced with much success. Some districts, especially
+  in Coquimbo, have gained a high reputation for the excellence of their
+  preserved fruits. The vine is cultivated all the way from Atacama and
+  Coquimbo, where excellent raisins are produced, south to Concepcion,
+  where some of the best wines of Chile are manufactured. In 1904 there
+  were 93,370 acres devoted to grape production in this region, the
+  product for that year being 30,184,704 gallons of wine and 212,366
+  gallons of brandy. The universal beverage of the people--_chicha_--is
+  made from Indian corn. Although wheat is produced in the northern part
+  of this region, it is grown with greater success in the south, where
+  the rainfall is heavier and the average temperature is lower. There
+  were 1,044,025 acres devoted to this cereal in 1903, which produced
+  17,910,614 bushels, or an average of 17 bushels (of 60 lb) to the
+  acre. In 1904 the production was increased to 19,999,324 bushels, but
+  in 1905 it fell off to 15,771,477 bushels. At one time Chile supplied
+  Argentina and the entire West Coast as far north as California with
+  wheat, but Argentina and California have become wheat producers and
+  exporters, and Chile has been driven from all her old consuming
+  markets. Great Britain is now her best customer, and Brazil takes a
+  small quantity for milling mixtures. Chile has been badly handicapped
+  by her crude methods of cultivation, but these are passing away and
+  modern methods are taking their place. Formerly wheat was grown
+  chiefly in the region of long rainless summers, and the ripened grain
+  was thrown upon uncovered earth floors and threshed by horses driven
+  about over the straw, but this antiquated process was not suited to
+  the climate and enterprise of the more southern provinces, and the
+  modern threshing-machine has been introduced. Barley is largely
+  produced, chiefly for home consumption. Maize (Indian corn) is grown
+  in every part of Chile except the rainy south where the grain cannot
+  ripen, and is a principal article of food. The green maize furnishes
+  two popular national dishes, _choclos_ and _humitas_, which are eaten
+  by both rich and poor. Potatoes also are widely cultivated, but the
+  humid regions of the south, particularly from Valdivia to Chiloe,
+  produce the greatest quantity. The total annual production exceeds
+  three million bushels. The kidney bean (_Phaseolus vulgaris_) is
+  another staple product in every part of the country, and is perhaps
+  the most popular article of food among all classes of Chileans. Peas
+  are largely cultivated south of the Maule. Walnuts have become another
+  important product and are exported, the average annual produce being
+  48,000 to 50,000 bushels. The olive was introduced from Spain in
+  colonial times and is widely distributed through the north central
+  provinces, but its economic importance is not great. Of the European
+  fruits introduced into the southern provinces, the apple has been the
+  most successful. It grows with little care and yields even better than
+  in its original home. The peach, apricot, plum, quince and cherry are
+  also cultivated with success. Wild strawberries are found on both
+  sides of the Andes; the cultivated varieties are unsurpassed,
+  especially those of the province of Concepcion.
+
+  The pastoral industries of Chile have been developed chiefly for the
+  home market. The climate is admirably suited to cattle-raising, as the
+  winters are mild and pasture is to be found throughout the whole year,
+  but the proximity of the Argentine pampas is fatal to its profitable
+  development. The government has been trying to promote cattle-breeding
+  by levying duties (as high as 16 pesos a head) on cattle imported from
+  Argentina, but with no great success. The importation, which formerly
+  numbered about 140,000 per annum, still numbers not far from 100,000
+  head. There are some districts in central Chile where cattle-raising
+  is the principal occupation, but the long dry summers limit the
+  pasturage on the open plains and prevent the development which perhaps
+  would otherwise result. As in Argentina, beef is generally dried in
+  the sun to make _charqui_ (jerked beef), in which form it is exported
+  to the desert provinces. Horse and mule breeding are carried on to a
+  limited extent, and since the opening of the far South more attention
+  has been given to sheep. Goats and swine are raised in small numbers
+  on the large estates, but in Chiloe swine-raising is one of the chief
+  occupations of the people. Some attention has been given to the
+  production of butter and cheese, but the industry has attained no
+  great importance. A new industry which has made noteworthy progress,
+  however, is that of bee-keeping, which is greatly favoured by the mild
+  climate and the long season and abundance of flowers.
+
+  _Manufactures._--The manufacturing interests of Chile have become
+  influential enough to force a high tariff policy upon the country.
+  They have been restricted principally to articles of necessity--food
+  preparations, beverages, textiles and wearing apparel, leather and
+  leatherwork, woodwork, pottery, chemicals, ironware, &c. In earlier
+  days, when Chile had less competition in the production of wheat,
+  flour mills were to be found everywhere in the wheat-producing
+  provinces, and flour was one of the leading exports. Concepcion,
+  Talca, and other provincial capitals developed important milling
+  industries, which were extended to all the chief towns of the newer
+  provinces south of the Bio-Bio. There are over 500 large flour mills
+  in Chile, the greater part of which are equipped with modern
+  roller-process machinery. The development of the coal deposits in the
+  provinces of Concepcion and Arauco has made possible other industries
+  besides those of smelting mineral ores, and numerous small
+  manufacturing establishments have resulted, especially in Santiago,
+  Valparaiso, Copiapo and other places where no permanent water power
+  exists. Tanning leather is an important industry, especially in the
+  south, some of the Chilean trees, notably the _algarrobilla_
+  (_Balsamocarpon brevifolium_) and _lingue_ (_Persea lingue_) being
+  rich in tannin. To provide a market for the leather produced,
+  factories have been established for the manufacture of boots and
+  shoes, harness and saddles, and under the protection of a high tariff
+  are doing well. Brewing and distilling have made noteworthy progress,
+  the domestic consumption of their products being very large. The
+  breweries are generally worked by Germans and are situated chiefly in
+  the south, though there are large establishments in Santiago and
+  Valparaiso. Small quantities of their products are exported. Furniture
+  and carriage factories, cooperages, and other manufactories of wood
+  are numerous and generally prosperous. There are likewise a large
+  number of factories for canning and preserving fruits and vegetables.
+  Foundries and machine shops have been established, especially for the
+  manufacture of railway material. The sugar beet has been added to the
+  productions of Chile, and with it the manufacture on a small scale of
+  beet sugar. There is one large refinery at Vina del Mar, however,
+  which imports raw cane sugar from Peru for refining. The manufacture
+  of textiles is carried on at Santiago and El Tome, and numerous small
+  factories are devoted to clothing of various descriptions. The great
+  mining industries have led to a noteworthy development in the
+  production of chemicals, and a considerable number of factories are
+  engaged in the production of pharmaceutical preparations, perfumeries,
+  soaps, candles, &c.
+
+  _Mining_.--The most important of all the national industries, however,
+  is that of mining. In 1903 there were 11,746 registered mines, on
+  which mining dues were paid, the aggregate produce being valued at
+  178,768,170 pesos. These mines gave employment to 46,592 labourers, of
+  whom 24,445 were employed by the nitrate companies, 13,710 in various
+  metalliferous mines, 6437 in coal mines, and 2000 in other mines. Gold
+  is found in nearly all the provinces from Antofagasta to Concepcion,
+  and in Llanquihue, Chiloe and Magallanes territory, but the output is
+  not large. There are a great many placer washings, among which are
+  some extensive deposits near the Straits of Magellan. Silver is found
+  principally on the elevated slopes and plateaus of the Andes in the
+  desert provinces of the north. The second most important mining
+  industry in Chile, however, is that of copper, which is found in the
+  provinces of Antofagasta, Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Valparaiso,
+  Santiago, O'Higgins, Colchagua, Curico and Talca, but the richest
+  deposits are in the three desert provinces. Chile was once the largest
+  producer of copper in the world, her production in 1860-1864 being
+  rated at 60 to 67% of the total. Low prices afterwards caused a large
+  shrinkage in the output, but she is still classed among the principal
+  producers. Iron mining has never been developed in Chile, although
+  extensive deposits are said to exist. Manganese ores are mined in
+  Atacama and Coquimbo, and their export is large. The other metals
+  reported in the official returns are lead, cobalt and vanadium, of
+  which only small quantities are produced. Bolivian tin is exported
+  from Chilean ports. Among the non-metallic minerals are nitrate of
+  soda, borate of lime, coal, salt and sulphur, together with various
+  products derived from these minerals, such as iodine, sulphuric acid,
+  &c. Guano is classed among the mineral products and still figures as
+  an export, though the richest Chilean deposits were exhausted long
+  before the war with Peru. Of non-metallic products nitrate of soda is
+  by far the most important. Extensive deposits of the salt (called
+  _caliche_ in its crude, impure state) in the provinces of Tacna,
+  Tarapaca, Antofagasta and Atacama owe their existence to the rainless
+  character of the climate. Those of the first-named province have been
+  discovered since the war between Chile and Peru, and have greatly
+  extended the prospective life of the industry. The nitrate fields,
+  which lie between 50 and 100 m. from the coast and at elevations
+  exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level, have been officially estimated at
+  89,177 hectares (344 sq. m.) and to contain 2316 millions of metric
+  quintals (254,760,000 short tons). The first export of nitrates was in
+  1830, and in 1884 it reached an aggregate of 550,000 tons, and in 1905
+  of 1,603,140 tons. The latter figure is apparently about the
+  production agreed upon between the Chilean government and the nitrate
+  companies to prevent overproduction and a resulting decline in price.
+  Nearly all the _oficinas_, or working plants, are owned and operated
+  by British companies, and the railways of this desolate region are
+  generally owned by the same companies and form a part of the working
+  plant. Borate of lime also furnishes another important export, though
+  a less valuable one than nitrate of soda. Extensive deposits of borax
+  and common salt have been found in the same region, which with several
+  other products of these saline deposits, such as iodine, add
+  considerably to its exports. The coal deposits of Chile are found
+  chiefly in the provinces of Concepcion and Arauco, the principal mines
+  being on the coast of the Bay of Arauco at Coronel and Lota. Coal is
+  found also in Valdivia, on the island of Chiloe, and in the vicinity
+  of Punta Arenas on the Straits of Magellan. Sulphur is found in the
+  volcanic regions of the north, but the principal mines are in the
+  provinces of Talca.
+
+The relative magnitude and value of these mineral products may be seen
+in the following abstract from the official returns of 1903:--
+
+  +-----------------------+---------------+------------+-------------+
+  |                       |     Unit.     |  Quantity. | Value pesos |
+  |                       |               |            |  (of 18d.). |
+  +-----------------------+---------------+------------+-------------+
+  | Gold                  |    grammes    |  1,424,625 |   1,745,115 |
+  | Silver                |       "       | 39,012,382 |   1,284,308 |
+  | Copper                |    kilogrs.   | 29,923,132 |  21,438,397 |
+  | Lead                  |       "       |     70,984 |       9,097 |
+  | Cobalt ore            |       "       |    284,990 |      99,695 |
+  | Lead and Vanadium ores|       "       |      2,000 |             |
+  | Manganese ore         |       "       | 17,110,000 |     682,400 |
+  | Coal                  |      tons     |    827,112 |   8,250,720 |
+  | Nitrates              |metric quintals| 14,449,200 | 140,102,012 |
+  | Iodine                |    kilogrs.   |    157,444 |   1,687,327 |
+  | Borates               |       "       | 16,878,913 |   2,363,048 |
+  | Salt                  |metric quintals|    162,635 |     324,270 |
+  | Sulphur               |    kilogrs.   |  3,440,642 |     337,515 |
+  | Sulphuric acid        |       "       |  1,600,000 |     176,000 |
+  | Guano                 |metric quintals|    111,335 |     267,466 |
+  | Various               |    kilogrs.   |        200 |         800 |
+  +-----------------------+---------------+------------+-------------+
+
+_Government._--Chile is a centralized republic, whose government is
+administered under the provisions of the constitution of 1833 and the
+amendments of the 9th of August 1888, the 11th of August 1890, the 20th
+of August 1890, the 22nd of December 1891, and the 7th of July 1892.
+According to this constitution the sovereignty resides in the nation,
+but suffrage is restricted to married citizens over twenty-one and
+unmarried citizens over twenty-five years of age, not in domestic
+service, who can read and write, and who are the owners of real estate,
+or who have capital invested in business or industry, or who receive
+salaries or incomes proportionate in value to such real estate as
+investment; and as 75% of the population is classed as illiterate, and a
+great majority of the labouring classes is landless, badly paid, and
+miserably poor, it is apparent that political sovereignty in Chile is
+the well-guarded possession of a small minority. The dominant element in
+this minority is the rich landholding interest, and the constitution and
+the laws of the first half-century were framed for the special
+protection of that interest.
+
+The supreme powers of government are vested in three distinct
+branches--legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative power is
+exercised by a national congress, which consists of two chambers---a
+senate of 32 members, and a chamber of deputies of 94 members. The
+membership of the lower house is in the proportion of one deputy for
+each 30,000 of the departmental population, and each fraction over
+15,000; and the senate is entitled to one-third the membership of the
+chamber. The senators are elected by provinces and by a direct
+cumulative vote, and hold office for six years, one-half of the senate
+being renewed every three years. The deputies are elected by departments
+and by a direct cumulative vote, and hold office for three years. Both
+senators and deputies must have reached the age of thirty-six, must have
+a specified income, and are required to serve without salary. A
+permanent committee of 14 members represents the two chambers during the
+congressional recess and exercises certain supervisory and advisory
+powers in the administration of public affairs. Congress convenes each
+year on the 1st of June and sits until the 1st of September, but the
+president may prorogue an ordinary session for a period of 50 days, and
+with the consent of the council of state may convene it in extraordinary
+session. Congress has the privilege of giving or withholding its
+confidence in the acts of the government.
+
+The executive is a president who is elected for a term of five years and
+is ineligible for the next succeeding term. He is chosen by electors,
+who are elected by departments in the manner prescribed for deputies and
+in the proportion of three electors for each deputy. These elections are
+held on the 25th of June in the last year of a presidential term, the
+electors cast their votes on the 25th of July, and the counting takes
+place in a joint session of the two chambers of congress on the 30th of
+August, congress in joint session having the power to complete the
+election when no candidate has been duly chosen by the electors. The
+formal installation of the president takes place on the 18th of
+September, the anniversary of the declaration of national independence.
+In addition to the prerogatives commonly invested in his office, the
+president is authorized to supervise the judiciary, to nominate
+candidates for the higher ecclesiastical offices, to intervene in the
+enforcement of ecclesiastical decrees, papal bulls, &c., to exercise
+supervisory police powers, and to appoint the intendants of provinces
+and the governors of departments, who in turn appoint the sub-delegates
+and inspectors of subordinate political divisions. The president, who is
+paid L2250 per annum, must be native-born, not less than thirty years of
+age, and eligible for election to the lower house. He is assisted and
+advised by a cabinet of six ministers whose departments are: interior,
+foreign affairs, worship and colonization, justice and public
+instruction, war and marine, finance, industry and public works. In case
+of a vacancy in the presidential office, the minister of interior
+becomes the "vice-president of the republic" and discharges the duties
+of the executive office until a successor can be legally elected. A
+council of state of 12 members, consisting of the president, 6 members
+appointed by congress and 5 by the president, has advisory functions,
+and its approval is required in many executive acts and appointments.
+
+The provinces are administered by _intendentes_, and the departments by
+_gobernadores_, both appointees of the national executive. The
+sub-delegacies are governed by _sub-delegados_ appointed by the
+governors, and the districts by _inspectores_ appointed by the
+sub-delegates. Directly and indirectly; therefore, the administration of
+all these political divisions is in the hands of the president, who, in
+like manner, makes and controls the appointments of all judicial
+functionaries, subject, however, to receiving recommendations of
+candidates from the courts and to submitting appointments to the
+approval of the council of state. This gives the national executive
+absolute control of all administrative matters in every part of the
+republic. The police force also is a national organization under the
+immediate control of the minister of interior, and the public prosecutor
+in every department is a representative of the national government.
+There is no legislative body in any of these political divisions, nor
+any administrative official directly representing the people, with this
+exception: under the law of the 22nd of December 1891, municipalities,
+or communes, are created and invested with certain specified powers of
+local government affecting local police services, sanitation, local
+improvements, primary instruction, industrial and business regulations,
+&c.; they are authorized to borrow money for sanitary improvements,
+road-making, education, &c., and to impose certain specified taxes for
+their support; these municipalities elect their own _alcaldes_, or
+mayors, and municipal councils, the latter having legislative powers
+within the limits of the law mentioned.
+
+  _Justice._--The judicial power consists of a Supreme Court of Justice
+  of seven members located in the national capital, which exercises
+  supervisory and disciplinary authority over all the law courts of the
+  republic; six courts of appeal, in Tacna, Serena, Valparaiso,
+  Santiago, Talca and Concepcion; tribunals of first instance in the
+  department capitals; and minor courts, or justices of the peace, in
+  the sub-delegacies and districts. The jury system does not exist in
+  Chile, and juries are unknown except in cases where the freedom of the
+  press has been abused. All trials, therefore, are heard by one or more
+  judges, and appeals may be taken from a lower to a higher court. The
+  government is represented in each department by a public prosecutor.
+  The police officials, who are under the direct control of the
+  minister of interior, also exercise some degree of judicial authority.
+  This force is essentially military in its organization, and consisted
+  in 1901 of 500 officers, 934 non-commissioned officers and 5400 police
+  soldiers. Small forces of local policemen are supported by various
+  municipalities. The judges of the higher courts are appointed by the
+  national executive, and those of the minor tribunals by the federal
+  official governing the political division in which they are located.
+
+  _Army_.--For military purposes the republic is divided into five
+  districts, the northern desert provinces forming the first, the
+  central provinces as far south as the Bio-Bio the second and third,
+  and the southern provinces and territory the fourth and fifth. Large
+  sums of money have been expended in arms, equipment, guns and
+  fortifications. The army is organized on the German model and has been
+  trained by European officers who have been employed both for the
+  school and regiment. Though the president and minister of war are the
+  nominal heads of the army, its immediate direction is concentrated in
+  a general staff comprising six service departments, at the head of
+  which is a chief of staff. After the triumph of the revolutionists in
+  the civil war of 1891, the army was reorganized under the direction of
+  Colonel Emil Koerner, an accomplished German officer, who subsequently
+  served as chief of the general staff. In 1904 the permanent force
+  consisted of 12 battalions of infantry, 6 regiments of cavalry, 4
+  regiments of mountain artillery, 1 regiment of horse artillery, 2
+  regiments of coast artillery, and 5 companies of
+  engineers--aggregating 915 officers and 4757 men. To this nucleus were
+  added 6160 recruits, the contingent for that year of young men
+  twenty-one years of age compelled to serve with the colours. Under the
+  law of the 5th of September 1900, military service is obligatory for
+  all citizens between eighteen and forty-five years, all young men of
+  twenty-one years being required to serve a certain period with the
+  regular force. After this period they are transferred to the 1st
+  reserve for 9 years, and then to the 2nd reserve. The military rifle
+  adopted for all three branches of the service is the Mauser, 1895
+  model, of 7 mm. calibre, and the batteries are provided with Krupp
+  guns of 7 and 7.5 cm. calibre. Military instruction is given in a
+  well-organized military school at Santiago, a war academy and a school
+  of military engineering.
+
+  _Navy_.--The Chilean navy is essentially British in organization and
+  methods, and all its best fighting ships were built in British yards.
+  In 1906 the effective fighting force consisted of 1 battle ship, 2
+  belted cruisers, 4 protected cruisers, 3 torpedo gunboats, 6
+  destroyers and 8 modern torpedo boats. In addition to these there are
+  several inferior armed vessels of various kinds which bring the total
+  up to 40, not including transports and other auxiliaries. The
+  administration of the navy, under the president and minister of war
+  and marine, is confided to a general naval staff, called the
+  "Direccion jeneral de la Armada," with headquarters at Valparaiso. Its
+  duties also include the military protection of the ports, the
+  hydrographic survey of the coast, and the lighthouse service. The
+  _personnel_ comprises about 465 officers, including those of the
+  staff, and 4000 petty officers and men. There is a military port at
+  Talcahuano, in Concepcion Bay, strongly fortified, and provided with
+  arsenal and repair shops, a large dry dock and a patent slip. The
+  naval school, which occupies one of the noteworthy edifices of
+  Valparaiso, is attended by 90 cadets and is noted for the thoroughness
+  of its instruction.
+
+  _Education_.--Under the old conservative regime very little was done
+  for the public school outside the larger towns. As a large proportion
+  of the labouring classes lived in the small towns and rural
+  communities, they received comparatively little attention. The
+  increasing influence of more liberal ideas greatly improved the
+  situation with reference to popular education, and the government now
+  makes vigorous efforts to bring its public school system within the
+  reach of all. The constitution provides that free instruction must be
+  provided for the people. School attendance is not compulsory, however,
+  and the gain upon illiteracy (75%) appears to be very slow. The
+  government also gives primary instruction to recruits when serving
+  with the colours, which, with the increasing employment of the people
+  in the towns, helps to stimulate a desire for education among the
+  lower classes. Education in Chile is very largely under the control of
+  the national government, the minister of justice and public
+  instruction being charged with the direction of all public schools
+  from the university down to the smallest and most remote primary
+  school. The system includes the University of Chile and National
+  Institute at Santiago, lyceums or high schools in all the provincial
+  capitals and larger towns, normal schools at central points for the
+  training of public school teachers, professional and industrial
+  schools, military schools and primary schools. Instruction in all
+  these is free, and under certain conditions text-books are supplied.
+  In the normal schools, where the pupils are trained to enter the
+  public service as primary teachers, not only is the tuition free, but
+  also books, board, lodging and everything needed in their school work.
+  The national university at Santiago comprises faculties of theology,
+  law and political science, medicine and pharmacy, natural sciences and
+  mathematics, and philosophy. The range of studies is wide, and the
+  attendance large. The National Institute at Santiago is the principal
+  high school of the secondary grade in Chile. There were 30 of these
+  high schools for males and 12 for females in 1903, with an aggregate
+  of 11,504 matriculated students. The normal schools for males are
+  located at Santiago, Chillan and Valdivia; and for females at La
+  Serena, Santiago and Concepcion. The mining schools at Copiapo, La
+  Serena and Santiago had an aggregate attendance of 180 students in
+  1903, and the commercial schools at Iquique and Santiago an attendance
+  of 214. The more important agricultural schools are located at
+  Santiago, Chillan, Concepcion and Ancud, the Quinta Normal de
+  Agricultura in the national capital having a large attendance. The
+  School of Mechanic Arts and Trades (_Escuela de Artes y Oficios_) of
+  Santiago has a high reputation for the practical character of its
+  instruction, in which it is admirably seconded by a normal handicraft
+  school (Sloeyd system) and a night school of industrial drawing in the
+  same city, and professional schools for girls in Santiago and
+  Valparaiso, where the pupils are taught millinery, dress-making,
+  knitting, embroidery and fancy needlework. The government also
+  maintains schools for the blind and for the deaf and dumb. The public
+  primary schools numbered 1961 in 1903, with 3608 teachers, 166,928
+  pupils enrolled, and an average attendance of 108,582. The cost of
+  maintaining these schools was 4,146,574 pesos, or an average of
+  L2:17:3 per pupil in attendance. In addition to the public schools
+  there are a Roman Catholic university at Santiago, which includes law
+  and civil engineering among its regular courses of study; numerous
+  private schools and seminaries of the secondary grade, with a total of
+  11,184 students of both sexes in 1903; and 506 private primary
+  schools, with an attendance of 29,684. The private schools usually
+  conform to the official requirements in regard to studies and
+  examinations, which facilitates subsequent admission to the university
+  and the obtainment of degrees; probably they do better work than the
+  public schools, especially in the German settlements of the southern
+  provinces. A Consejo de Instruccion Publica (council of public
+  instruction) of 14 members exercises a general supervision over the
+  higher and secondary schools. There are schools of music and fine arts
+  in Santiago. The national library at Santiago, with 116,300 volumes in
+  1906, and the national observatory, are both efficiently administered.
+  At the beginning of the 20th century there were 41 public libraries in
+  the republic, including public school collections, with an aggregate
+  of 240,000 volumes.
+
+  _Charities._--According to the returns of 1903 there were 88 hospitals
+  in the republic, which reported 79,051 admissions during the year, and
+  had 6215 patients under treatment at its close; 628,536 patients
+  received gratuitous medical assistance at the public dispensaries
+  during the year; there were 24 foundling hospitals with 5570 children;
+  and there were 3092 persons in the various _hospicios_ or asylums, and
+  1478 in the imbecile asylums.
+
+  _Religion._--The Roman Catholic religion is declared by the
+  constitution to be the religion of the state, and the inaugural oath
+  of the president pledges him to protect it. A considerable part of its
+  income is derived from a subsidy included in the annual budget, which
+  makes it a charge upon the national treasury like any other public
+  service. The secular supervision of this service is entrusted to a
+  member of the president's cabinet, known as the minister of worship
+  and colonization. The executive and legislative powers intervene in
+  the appointments to the higher offices of the Church. The greater part
+  of the population remains loyal to the established faith. The law of
+  1865 gives the privilege of religious worship to other faiths, and the
+  laws of 1883 made civil marriage and the civil registry of births,
+  deaths and marriages obligatory, and secularized the cemeteries. Under
+  the reform of 1865 full religious freedom is practically accorded, and
+  it is provided that the services of religious organizations other than
+  the Roman Catholic may be held in private residences or in edifices
+  owned by private individuals or corporations. Of the 72,812 foreigners
+  residing in Chile in 1895, about 16,000 were described as Protestants.
+  Notwithstanding the opposition of some political elements to the
+  Church, the Chileans themselves may all be classed as Roman Catholics.
+  The ecclesiastical organization includes one archbishop, who resides
+  at Santiago, three bishops residing at La Serena, Concepcion and
+  Ancud, and two vicars residing in Antofagasta and Tarapaca. These
+  benefices are filled by appointments from lists of three prepared by
+  the council of state and sent to Rome by the president, and in the
+  case of an archbishop or bishop the appointment must also receive the
+  approval of the Senate. The Chilean clergy are drawn very largely from
+  the higher classes, and their social standing is much better than in
+  many South American states. The Church also possesses much property of
+  its own, and is therefore able to maintain itself on a comparatively
+  small subsidy from the public treasury, which was 985,910 pesos
+  (L73,943) in 1902. The Church maintains seminaries in all cathedral
+  towns, and these also receive a subsidy from the government.
+
+  _Finance._--For a long time Chile was considered one of the poorest
+  states of Spanish America, but the acquisition of the rich
+  mineral-producing provinces of the north, together with the
+  development of new silver and copper mines in Atacama and Coquimbo,
+  largely increased her revenues and enabled her to develop other
+  important resources. During the decade 1831-1840 the annual revenues
+  averaged about 2,100,000 pesos (of 48d.), which in the decade
+  1861-1870 had increased to an average of only 8,200,000 pesos--and
+  this during a period of considerable agricultural activity on account
+  of wheat exports to California and Australia. After 1870 the revenues
+  increased more rapidly owing to the development of new mining
+  industries, the receipts in 1879 amounting to 15,300,000 pesos, and in
+  1882 to 28,900,000 pesos. The revenues from the captured Peruvian
+  nitrate fields then became an important part of the national income,
+  which ten years later (1902) reached an aggregate of 138,507,178 pesos
+  (of i8d.), of which 105,072,832 pesos were in gold. In 1906 the
+  receipts from all sources were estimated at 149,100,000 pesos, of
+  which 62,200,000 pesos gold were credited to the tax on nitrate,
+  39,800,000 pesos gold to import duties, and 23,500,000 pesos currency
+  to railway receipts. During these years of fiscal prosperity the
+  country suffered much from financial crises caused by industrial
+  stagnation, an excessive and depreciated paper currency and political
+  disorder. To ensure an income that would meet its foreign engagements,
+  the government collected the nitrate and iodine taxes and import
+  duties in gold. As a considerable part of the expenditures were in
+  gold, the practice was adopted of keeping the gold and currency
+  accounts separate. In 1895 a conversion law was passed in which the
+  sterling value of the peso was reduced to 18d., at which rate the
+  outstanding paper should be redeemed. A conversion fund was also
+  created, and, although the government afterwards authorized two more
+  large issues, the beneficial effects of this law were so pronounced
+  that the customs regulations were modified in 1907 to permit the
+  payment of import duties in paper. The national revenue is derived
+  chiefly from the nitrate taxes, customs duties, alcohol tax, and from
+  railway, postal and telegraph receipts. There is no land tax, and
+  licence or business taxes are levied by the municipalities for local
+  purposes. The national expenditures are chiefly for the interest and
+  amortization charges on the public debt, official salaries, military
+  expenses in connexion with the army and navy, public works (including
+  railway construction, port improvements, water and sewage works), the
+  administration of the state railways, telegraph lines and post office,
+  church subsidies, public instruction and foreign representation.
+
+  The ordinary and extraordinary receipts and expenditures for the five
+  years 1899-1903, in gold and currency, in pesos of 18d., were as
+  follows:--
+
+  +------+--------------------------+-----------------------------+
+  |      |      Receipts, pesos.    |     Expenditures, pesos.    |
+  |      +-------------+------------+--------------+--------------+
+  |      |    Gold.    |   Paper.   |    Gold.     |    Paper.    |
+  +------+-------------+------------+--------------+--------------+
+  | 1899 |  83,051,604 | 45,239.970 | 31,732,797   | 76,749,793   |
+  | 1900 |  89,869,178 | 46,515,102 | 30,564,821   | 82,143,742   |
+  | 1901 |  74,665,061 | 35,394,434 | 39,808,517   | 91,087,171   |
+  | 1902 | 105,072,832 | 33,434,346 | 45,093,278[5]| 89,170,087[5]|
+  | 1903 | 108,503,565 | 32,490,145 | 12,508,075   | 84,721,437   |
+  +------+-------------+------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+  For 1906 the expenditures were fixed at 149,000,000 pesos, and the
+  revenues were estimated to produce 149,100,000 pesos, which included
+  62,200,000 pesos gold from nitrate taxes, 39,800,000 pesos gold and
+  200,000 pesos paper from import duties, 23,500,000 pesos paper from
+  the state railways, 2,500,000 pesos paper from postal and telegraph
+  receipts, and 15,000,000 pesos gold from loans. How the revenues are
+  expended is shown in the estimates for 1907, in which the total
+  expenditures were estimated at 134,830,532 pesos paper and 58,796,780
+  pesos gold, the principal appropriations being 16,192,780 pesos paper
+  and 99,733 gold for the war department, 10,460.781 paper and 6,315,731
+  gold for the marine department, 40,934,273 paper and 16,984,671 gold
+  for railways, and 6,324,817 paper for public works. In addition to
+  these the budget of 1906 provided for gold expenditures in 1907 of
+  7,000,000 pesos on sanitary works and 8,000,000 pesos on the Arica-La
+  Paz railway. The custom of dividing receipts and expenditures into
+  ordinary and extraordinary, of treating the receipts from loans as
+  revenue, of adding six months to the fiscal year for closing up
+  accounts, and of dividing receipts and expenditures into separate gold
+  and currency accounts, leads to much confusion and complication in the
+  returns, and is the cause of unavoidable discrepancies and
+  contradictions.
+
+  In May 1906 the external debt of the republic aggregated L21,700,000,
+  including the loans of 1905 and 1906, amounting to L5,700.000, for
+  sanitary works and railway construction. At the same time the internal
+  debt was 107,000,000 pesos (L8,025,000), which increases the funded
+  indebtedness to L29,725,000. Like Brazil, Chile has been careful to
+  preserve her foreign credit, and though an average indebtedness of
+  about L10 per capita may seem large for a nation with so much absolute
+  poverty among its people, the government is finding no difficulty in
+  negotiating new loans, the mineral resources of the country and the
+  conservative instincts of the people being considered satisfactory
+  guarantees. According to official returns, the real-estate valuations
+  in 1903-1904 aggregated 1,777,217,704 pesos, of which 1,020,609,215
+  pesos were in urban and 754,608,489 pesos in rural property. Of the
+  total returned, 1,775,217,704 is described as taxable, and 262,626,576
+  pesos as non-taxable. The large and steadily increasing receipts from
+  import duties, amounting to 91,321,860 pesos in 1905, and 103,507,556
+  pesos in 1906, appears to indicate an encouraging state of prosperity
+  in the country, although an average of 341/2 pesos a year (nearly L2 :
+  12s.), in addition to the increased prices paid for home manufactures,
+  seems to be a very heavy indirect tax upon so poor a people.
+
+  _Currency._--The monetary circulation in Chile consists almost wholly
+  of paper currency, nominally based on a gold standard of 18d. per
+  peso. The conversion law of 1895 made the currency convertible at this
+  rate, although the gold peso was rated at 48d. previous to that date;
+  but the financial crisis of 1898 caused the suspension of specie
+  payments, and a forced issue of additional paper led to a further
+  postponement of conversion and the prompt withdrawal of specie from
+  circulation. The paper circulation consists of national and bank
+  issues. The former owes its existence very largely to the war with
+  Peru, the civil war of 1891, and the financial troubles of 1898. On
+  the 1st of January 1890 the national issues stood at 22,487,916 pesos,
+  and the bank issues at 16,679,790 pesos, making a total of 39,167,706
+  pesos currency in circulation. This total was largely increased by
+  President Balmaceda in 1891. On the 31st of July 1898 the conversion
+  of paper notes, under the law of 1st June 1895, was suspended, and the
+  government issued 27,989,929 pesos to the banks of issue, which was
+  described as a loan at 2%, and raised their outstanding circulation to
+  40,723,089 pesos, and at the same time issued on its own account
+  17,693,890 pesos and assumed responsibility for 1,193,641 pesos which
+  had been illegally put into circulation before 1896. This gave an
+  aggregate registered circulation of 86,045,166 pesos in 1898. In 1904
+  another issue of 30,000,000 pesos was authorized and the date of
+  conversion was still further postponed, and in 1907 a more general act
+  provided that the maximum paper circulation should not exceed
+  150,000,000 pesos of the value of 18d. per peso, and that new issues
+  should be made only through the issue department and against deposits
+  of gold, which deposits would be returned to depositors on the
+  presentation of the currency issued. The redemption of this issue was
+  guaranteed by a conversion fund of 100,000,000 pesos, and by an
+  authorization to issue a loan of 50,000,000 pesos to redeem the
+  balance, if necessary. The conversion fund under the act of 1895 stood
+  at 77,282,257 pesos (L5,796,170) on the 31st of May 1907. There are 23
+  joint-stock banks of issue, with an aggregate registered capital of
+  40,689,665 pesos (L3,051,724). Their circulating notes are secured by
+  deposits in the national treasury of gold, government notes and other
+  approved securities. There is no state bank, though the Bank of Chile,
+  with its numerous agencies and its paid-up capital of 20,000,000
+  pesos, may be said to fill the place of such an institution. Besides
+  these, there are four non-issue banks, two foreign banks and their
+  agencies, and three mortgage banks, with agencies at the important
+  provincial centres, which loan money on real-estate security and issue
+  interest bearing hypothecary notes to bearer. There are 8 savings
+  banks in the republic, whose aggregate deposits on the 31st of
+  December 1906 were 14,799,728 pesos.
+
+  The monetary unit, the gold peso, does not form a part of the actual
+  coinage. The gold coins authorized by this law are the _condor_ of 20
+  pesos, the _medio condor_, or _doblon_, of 10 pesos, and the _escudo_
+  of 5 pesos. The silver coins are the _peso_ of 100 centavos and its
+  fractional parts of 20, 10 and 5 centavos. The bronze coins are of 21/2,
+  2, 1, and 1/2 centavos.
+
+  The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard in
+  Chile, but the old Spanish standards are still widely used, especially
+  in handling mining and farm produce. Nitrate of soda is estimated in
+  Chilean quintals (101.41 lb) in the field, and metric quintals (220.46
+  lb) at the port of shipment. In silver and copper mining the _marc_ (8
+  oz.) is commonly used in describing the richness of the ores. Farm
+  produce is generally sold by the _arroba_ or _fanega_; the _vara_ is
+  used in lineal measurement, and the _cuadra_ is used by country people
+  in land measurement.    (A. J. L.)
+
+
+HISTORY.
+
+  Inca conquest.
+
+Chile was the recognized name of the country from the beginning of its
+known history. The land was originally inhabited by tribes of Indians,
+who, though not mere savages, were far below the level of civilization
+distinguishing the races of Mexico and Peru. When the country first
+became known to the Spaniards in the 16th century the northern tribes
+were found to be more civilized and much more submissive than those of
+the south. The difference was no doubt due to the invasion and conquest
+of northern Chile in the 15th century by Yupanqui, Inca of Peru,
+grandfather of Atahualpa, ruler of Peru at the time of its conquest by
+Pizarro. The dominion of the Incas in Chile was probably bounded by the
+Rapel river (lat. 34 deg. 10' S.), and, though their control of the country
+was slight, the Peruvian influence led to the introduction of a higher
+civilization, and, by weakening the power of the tribes, paved the way
+for the invasion of the Spaniards. Beyond the limits of the Inca
+conquest the Indians of Chile were distinguished by fierce independence
+of character and by their warlike qualities. Rude and ignorant as they
+were, they possessed a rough military organization; each community was
+led by its _ulmen_ (chief), and in war the tribes fought together under
+an elected leader (_toqui_). The name of the Araucanians, the most
+powerful of the tribes, came to be applied to the whole confederation of
+Indians living south of the Bio-bio river.
+
+
+  Spanish invasions.
+
+The first Spanish invasion of Chile took place in 1535, when Diego de
+Almagro, the companion and rival of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru,
+marched into Chile in search of gold. Disappointed in his quest, and
+meeting with obstinate resistance from the southern tribes, he returned
+to Peru with his whole force in 1538. In 1540 Pizarro sent Pedro de
+Valdivia to make a regular conquest and settlement of Chile. Valdivia
+founded Santiago, the present capital of Chile, in February 1541, and
+proceeded to build the towns of La Serena, Conception, Villarica,
+Imperial, Valdivia and Angol, in order to secure his hold on the
+country. But the Indians fought desperately for their independence, and
+in 1553 a general rising of the tribes ended in the defeat and death of
+Valdivia and in the destruction of most of his settlements. This was the
+beginning of nearly a century of continuous warfare. As there was no
+gold in the country the number of settlers was small, the loose tribal
+organization of the natives made it impossible to inflict a vital defeat
+on them, and the mountainous and thickly wooded country lent itself
+admirably to a warfare of surprises and ambuscades. General after
+general and army after army were despatched from Spain and Peru; Chile
+was given a government independent of the viceroy of Lima; attack after
+attack was made on the Indians, their lands were laid waste, and the
+struggle was conducted with merciless ferocity: all in vain. Settlements
+and forts were never free from assault and were taken and retaken; if
+one Indian army was destroyed another took its place, if one _toqui_ was
+killed another was chosen; when defeated, the Indians retired to their
+forests, marshes and hills, recruited their forces, and fell on the
+pursuing Spaniards. In 1612 an attempt was made by a Jesuit missionary
+to negotiate a peace, but not till 1640 was the desperate struggle ended
+by the treaty of Quillin, which left the Indians all the land south of
+the Bio-bio river. Up to 1800 the peace was broken by three wars, in
+1655, in 1723 and in 1766, the last ended by a treaty which actually
+gave the Araucanians the right to have a minister at Santiago.
+
+
+  Colonial system.
+
+It was this constant warfare with the Indians and the necessity for hard
+continuous work, owing to the lack of precious metals in Chile, that no
+doubt helped to produce in the settlers the strength and hardihood of
+character that distinguishes the Chileans among South American races.
+But not unnaturally the material condition of the country was the
+reverse of prosperous. The expenditure far exceeded the revenue. The
+Indian warfare occupied nearly the whole attention of the governors and
+much of the time of the settlers. By the Spanish colonial system the
+development of manufactures was prohibited and the trade of the colony
+was limited not only to Spain but to the one port of Cadiz. Till the
+18th century ships were not allowed to sail round Cape Horn, so that the
+Chileans had to trade indirectly through Peru and the Argentine.
+Agriculture was the one resource of the colony, and wheat was grown for
+export to Peru, but the land was concentrated in the hands of a few big
+landowners, and the cultivation of the vine and olive was forbidden. At
+the end of the 17th century Santiago was a town of poor one-storeyed
+houses and had only 8000 inhabitants; the other towns, Valparaiso,
+Concepcion, La Serena, were only large villages. Books were not allowed
+to be imported, and education was limited to such as was given here and
+there by priests and monks. The Indians within the limits of the Spanish
+colony were treated like slaves, and horribly mutilated to prevent their
+escape; but at the same time a gradual fusion of races was taking place,
+and the Chilean peasant (_peon_) of to-day is as much of Indian as of
+Spanish descent. The Araucanians, however, continued to preserve their
+independence; they jealously resented the introduction of Spanish
+influence, and the missionary efforts of the Jesuits met with little
+success.
+
+During the 18th century the condition of the colony was improved in many
+ways. The Bourbon kings of Spain were more liberal in their colonial
+policy. Merchant-ships were allowed to sail direct to Chile, trade with
+France was sometimes permitted, and a large batch of hardy emigrants was
+sent out from the Biscay provinces of Spain. Freed from the
+preoccupation of the Indian wars, the governors gave more attention to
+the general welfare of the country: a university was started in Santiago
+in 1747, many towns were built about the same time, agriculture and
+industries were promoted and a coasting trade grew up. In 1778 Charles
+III. threw open all the ports of Spain to the colonies and allowed
+freedom of trade with France. But in general the administration of the
+colony was burdensome, oppressive and inefficient. The people had no
+voice in the government. Ruling with the help of the Royal Audience, the
+governor was absolute master of the country, and regulated the smallest
+details of life. Such time as the officials could spare from the main
+object of enriching themselves by extortion and corruption was given up
+to endless official and religious ceremonies and to petty disputes of
+etiquette and precedence. All the high posts and offices were filled by
+men sent from Spain, with the result that bitter jealousy reigned
+between them and the native-born colonists (_criollos_). The _criollos_
+as a rule filled the posts in the municipalities (_cabildos_), disposed
+of by sale, so that when the revolution broke out the _cabildos_
+naturally became the centres of the movement. As in all Spanish
+colonies, so in Chile, the Church played a large part in the public
+life. Chile was divided into the two bishoprics of Santiago and
+Concepcion, and the Church managed to accumulate most of the wealth of
+the country. At the same time the monks and Jesuits did useful work in
+teaching industrial and agricultural arts, and in giving the people a
+certain degree of education; but the influence of the Church was used to
+bolster up the traditional narrow colonial system, and the constant
+quarrels between the clergy and the secular powers often threw the
+country into confusion.
+
+At the opening of the 19th century Chile was a colony whose resources
+had hardly been touched, with a population of about 500,000 persons, of
+Spanish and mixed Spanish and Indian blood: a people endowed with the
+vigour of character bred by a mountainous country and a bracing climate
+and by a hard struggle for existence, but ignorant through lack of
+education, shut out by a narrow-minded commercial system from knowledge
+of the outside world, and destitute of the character-training that free
+institutions afford.
+
+
+  Struggle for independence.
+
+The national independence of Chile dates from the second decade of the
+19th century. The revolt of England's North American colonies, and the
+events of the French Revolution naturally suggested the idea of a
+struggle for independence to the Spanish colonists, and the deposition
+of Ferdinand VII. by Napoleon, and the ensuing disorganization of Spain,
+supplied the desired opportunity. In 1809 risings took place in
+Venezuela, in Ecuador, in Upper Peru and in the Argentine; the
+revolutionary fever spread to Chile, and on the 18th of September 1810
+the _cabildo_ of Santiago secured the resignation of the governor and
+vested his powers in an elected _Junta_ (board) of seven members. This
+event was the beginning of the independence of Chile. But it was some
+time before independence was fully attained. The mass of the people were
+ignorant, intercourse between them was slight, and there was a strong
+section attached to the old regime. The party determined on independence
+was at first small, and compelled to conceal its aims till the ground
+had been prepared for open decisive action. Further, there were
+divisions between the patriots of Santiago and those of Concepcion, and
+bitter jealousies between the leaders, the chief of whom were Juan
+Martinez de Rozas, Jose Miguel Carrera and Bernardo O'Higgins. Owing to
+the apathy of the people and the enmities existing among the leaders,
+the Spanish forces, sent by the viceroy of Peru to crush the
+revolutionary movement, succeeded after two years' indecisive fighting
+in completely defeating the patriots at Rancagua in 1814. For three
+years the Spaniards maintained their hold on Chile, ruling the country
+with tyrannical harshness, but in the spring of 1817 a patriot force
+which had been organized at Mendoza in the Argentine by Jose de San
+Martin, an Argentine officer, and by O'Higgins, crossed the Andes and
+overwhelmed the royalists at the battle of Chacabuco. O'Higgins was
+named director-general of Chile, while San Martin, realizing that the
+independence of each colony depended on the Spanish being expelled from
+the whole of South America, set about preparing an invasion of Peru. The
+viceroy of Lima made one more effort to uphold the power of Spain in
+Chile, but the army he despatched under Mariano Osorio, the victor of
+Rancagua, was decisively defeated at the river Maipo on the 3rd of April
+1818. By this battle the independence of Chile, formally proclaimed by
+O'Higgins in the previous February, was finally secured.
+
+
+  The republic.
+
+The next few years witnessed the expulsion of the royalists from the
+south of Chile, the equipment of a small fleet, placed under the command
+of Manuel Blanco Encalada and Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald), and the
+invasion of Peru by San Martin with the help of the fleet, ending in the
+proclamation of Peruvian independence in 1821; though the Spanish power
+was not finally broken until Bolivar's victory at Ayacucho in 1824.
+Relieved from all fear of Spanish attacks from the north, the new
+republic of Chile entered upon a period of internal confusion and
+dissension bordering upon anarchy. As soon as the necessity for
+establishing a stable government arose the lack of training in
+self-government among the Chileans became painfully obvious. O'Higgins
+as director-general, rightly perhaps, considered that firm orderly
+government was more important than the concession of liberal
+institutions, but his administration roused strong hostility, and in
+1823 he was compelled to resign. From that date up to 1830 there were no
+less than ten governments, while three different constitutions were
+proclaimed. The nation was divided into small mutually hostile parties;
+there were ecclesiastical troubles owing to the hostility of the Church
+to the new republic; there were Indian risings in the south and royalist
+revolts in the island of Chiloe; the expenditure exceeded the revenue,
+and the employment of the old Spanish financial expedients naturally
+increased the general discontent. Up to 1830 the Liberal party, which
+favoured a free democratic regime, held the upper hand, but in that year
+the Conservatives, backed by a military rising led by General Joaquin
+Prieto, placed themselves in power after a sanguinary battle at Lircay.
+Prieto was elected president in 1831, and a new constitution was drafted
+and promulgated in 1833, which, with some modifications, remains the
+constitution of Chile at the present time. This constitution invested
+the executive with almost dictatorial powers, and the Conservatives
+entered upon a long term of office.
+
+The aim of the Conservative policy was to secure above all a strong
+administration; power was concentrated in the hands of a small circle;
+public liberties were restricted and all opposition crushed by force.
+Inaugurated under General Prieto's administration (1831-1841) by his
+able minister Diego Portales, this policy was continued by his
+successors General Manuel Bulnes (1841-1851) and Manuel Montt
+(1851-1861), each of whom like Prieto was elected to a double term of
+office. In spite of the discontent of the Liberals, the Conservative
+ascendancy secured a long period of firm stable government, which was
+essential to put an end to the confusion in public life and to give time
+for the people to awake to a fuller realization of the duties and
+responsibilities of national independence. The internal peace of the
+country was only disturbed three times, by Liberal risings in 1835, in
+1851 and in 1859, all of which were crushed, but not without severe
+fighting. In 1836 Chile also became involved in a war with a
+confederation of Peru and Bolivia, which ended in the victory of Chile
+and the dissolution of the confederation.
+
+While refusing to allow the people any share in, or control over, the
+government, the Conservative leaders devoted themselves to improving the
+condition of the people and of the country, and under their firm rule
+Chile advanced rapidly in prosperity. The government established a
+department for education, a training college for teachers, and numerous
+schools and libraries; literary magazines were started and a school of
+art and an academy of music founded. By the consolidation of the foreign
+debt, by the regular payment of interest, by the establishment of
+several banks, and by the negotiation of commercial treaties, the
+financial position of the country was improved. Internal development was
+promoted by the working of the silver mines of Copiapo and the coal
+mines of Lota, by the building of railways and erection of telegraphs,
+and by the colonization of the rich Valdivia province with German
+settlers.
+
+The Straits of Magellan were occupied; under an American engineer,
+William Wheelwright, a line of steamers was started on the coast, and,
+by a wise measure allowing merchandise to be landed free of duty for
+re-exportation, Valparaiso became a busy port and trading centre; while
+the demand for food-stuffs in California and Australia, following upon
+the rush for gold, gave a strong impetus to agriculture. A code of law
+was drawn up and promulgated, and the ecclesiastical system was
+organized under an archbishop appointed by the pope. To Montt, as
+minister under Bulnes and afterwards as president, must be given the
+main credit for the far-seeing policy which laid the foundations of the
+prosperity of Chile; and though the administration was in many ways
+harsh and narrow, firm government, rather than liberty that would have
+tended to anarchy, was essential for the success of the young republic.
+
+After 1861, however, a Liberal reaction set in, aided by divisions in
+the Conservative party arising mainly over church questions. Montt's
+successors, Jose Joaquin Perez (1861-1871), Federico Errazuriz
+(1871-1876) and Anibal Pinto (1876-1881), abandoned the repressive
+policy of their predecessors, invited the co-operation of the Liberals,
+and allowed discontent to vent itself freely in popular agitation. Some
+democratic changes were made in the constitution, notably a law
+forbidding the re-election of a president, and the gradual and peaceful
+transition to a Liberal policy was a proof of the progress which the
+nation had made in political training. Outside the movement for
+constitutional reform, the most important internal question was the
+successful Liberal attack on the privileged position and narrow views of
+the Church, which led to the birth of a strong ultra-montane party among
+the clergy. The government continued to be animated by a progressive
+spirit: schools, railways, telegraphs were rapidly extended; a steamship
+mail service to Europe was subsidized, and the stability of the
+government enabled it to raise new foreign loans in order to extinguish
+the old high interest-bearing loans and to meet the expenses of public
+works. In 1877 a financial crisis occurred, met by the emission of paper
+money, but the depression was only temporary, and the country soon
+rallied from the effects.
+
+During this period there was desultory fighting with the Indians; there
+was a long boundary dispute with the Argentine, settled in 1880; and in
+1865 Chilean sympathy with Peru in a quarrel with Spain led to a foolish
+war with Spain. The blockade of their ports and the bombardment of
+Valparaiso by a Spanish squadron impressed the Chileans with the
+necessity of possessing an adequate fleet to defend their long
+coast-line; and it was under President Errazuriz that the ships were
+obtained and the officers trained that did such good service in the
+great war with Peru. With a population of over two millions, a rapidly
+increasing revenue, ruled by a government that was firm and progressive
+and that enjoyed the confidence of all classes, Chile was well equipped
+for the struggle with Peru that began in 1879.
+
+
+  Close of the war with Peru.
+
+The war of 1879-82 between Chile and Peru is the subject of a separate
+article (see CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR). By the beginning of 1881 the war had
+reached a stage when the final struggle was close at hand. On the 13th
+of January of that year the Chilean forces under command of General
+Baquedano attacked the entrenched positions of the Peruvians at daybreak
+in the vicinity of Chorillos, a village some few miles from Lima, and
+forming the outer line of defence for the capital. After a stubborn
+fight the day ended in victory for the attacking forces; but the losses
+on both sides were great, and on the following day negotiations for
+peace were attempted by the representatives of the foreign powers in
+Lima, the object being to avoid, if possible, any further bloodshed.
+This attempt to end the conflict proved, however, abortive, and on the
+15th of January at 2 P.M. hostilities recommenced in the neighbourhood
+of Miraflores. After severe fighting for some four hours the Chileans
+again proved victorious, and drove the Peruvians from the second line of
+defence back upon the city of Lima. Lima was now at the mercy of the
+Chileans, and on the 17th of January a division of 4000 men of all arms,
+under the command of General Cornelio Saavedra, was sent forward to
+occupy the Peruvian capital and restore order within the town limits. A
+portion of the Chilean forces was shortly afterwards withdrawn from
+Peru, and the army of occupation remaining in the conquered country was
+in charge of Admiral Patricio Lynch, an officer who had been specially
+promoted for distinguished services during the war. President Anibal
+Pinto of Chile now set about to find means to conclude a treaty of peace
+with Peru, but his efforts in this direction were frustrated by the
+armed resistance offered in the country districts to the Chilean
+authorities by the remainder of the Peruvian forces under command of
+General Caceres. So matters continued--the Chileans administering on the
+seaboard and in the principal towns, the Peruvians maintaining a
+guerilla warfare in the mountainous districts of the interior. In
+September 1881 the term of office of president Pinto expired, and he was
+succeeded in the post of chief executive of Chile by President Domingo
+Santa Maria. Ex-President Pinto died three years later in Valparaiso,
+leaving a memory respected and admired by all political parties in his
+country. The name of Pinto will always occupy a prominent place in the
+annals of Chilean history, not only because the war with Peru took place
+during his term of office, but also on account of the fact that it was
+largely due to the intelligent direction of all details by the president
+during the struggle that the Chilean arms proved so absolutely
+successful by land and sea.
+
+
+  President Santa Maria.
+
+Senor Domingo Santa Maria, who now acceded to the presidency of Chile,
+was a Liberal in politics, and had previously held various important
+posts under the government. Under the rule of President Montt he had
+been an active member of the opposition and involved in various
+revolutionary conspiracies; for his participation in these plots he was
+at one time exiled from the country, but returned and received official
+employment under President Perez. The principal task confronting
+President Santa Maria on assuming the presidency was to negotiate a
+treaty of peace with Peru and provide for the evacuation of the Chilean
+army of occupation. The presence of the Peruvian general Caceres and his
+forces in the interior of Peru prevented for some two years the
+formation of any Peruvian national administration in Lima with which the
+Chilean authorities could deal. In August of 1883 the Peruvians were
+defeated by the forces commanded by Admiral Lynch, and a government was
+then organized under the leadership of General Iglesias. A provisional
+treaty of peace was then drawn up and signed by General Iglesias and the
+Chilean representative, and this was finally ratified by the Chilean and
+Peruvian congresses respectively in April 1884. By the terms of this
+treaty Peru ceded to Chile unconditionally the province of Tarapaca, and
+the provinces of Tacna and Arica were placed under Chilean authority for
+the term of ten years, the inhabitants having then to decide by a
+general vote whether they remained a part of Chile or elected to belong
+once more to Peru. In the event of the decision being favourable to Peru
+a sum of 10,000,000 dollars was to be paid by Peru to Chile. On the
+ratification of this treaty the Chilean forces were immediately
+withdrawn from Lima and other points of occupation in Peruvian
+territory. The government of Bolivia also attempted to negotiate a
+treaty of peace with Chile in 1884, and for this purpose sent
+representatives to Santiago. No satisfactory terms, however, could be
+arranged, and the negotiations ended in only an armistice being agreed
+to, by which Chile remained in occupation of the Bolivian seaboard
+pending a definite settlement at some future period.
+
+The administration of President Santa Maria met with violent opposition
+from the Conservatives, who included the Clerical party in their ranks,
+and also from a certain section of the Liberals. The dislike of the
+Conservatives to President Santa Maria was occasioned by his
+introduction of the law of civil marriage, the civil registration of
+births and deaths, and the freeing of the cemeteries. Hitherto no
+marriage was legal unless celebrated according to the rites of the
+Roman Catholic religion, and all registers of births and deaths were
+kept by the parish priests. Civil employees were now appointed under the
+new laws to attend to this work. Formerly the cemeteries were entirely
+under the control of the Church, and, with the exception of a few places
+specially created for the purpose, were reserved solely for the burial
+of Roman Catholics. Under the new regime these cemeteries were made
+common to the dead of all religions. Under President Perez, in 1865, a
+clause in the law of constitution had been introduced permitting the
+exercise of all creeds of religion, and this was now put into practice,
+all restrictions being removed. On several occasions, notably in 1882
+and 1885, President Santa Maria used his influence in the elections of
+senators and deputies to congress for the purpose of creating a
+substantial majority in his favour. He was induced to take this course
+in consequence of the violent opposition raised in the chambers by the
+liberal policy he pursued in connexion with Church matters. This
+intervention caused great irritation amongst the Conservatives and
+dissentient Liberals, and the political situation on more than one
+occasion became so strained as to bring the country to the verge of
+armed revolution. No outbreak, however, took place, and in 1886 the five
+years of office for which President Santa Maria had been elected came to
+an end, and another Liberal, Senor Jose Manuel Balmaceda, then succeeded
+to power.
+
+
+  Balmaceda elected president.
+
+  Revolution of 1891.
+
+The election of Balmaceda was bitterly opposed by the Conservatives and
+dissentient Liberals, but was finally successfully carried by the
+official influence exercised by President Santa Maria. On assuming
+office President Balmaceda endeavoured to bring about a reconciliation
+of all sections of the Liberal party in congress and so form a solid
+majority to support the administration, and to this end he nominated as
+ministers representatives of the different political groups. Six months
+later the cabinet was reorganized, and two most bitter opponents to the
+recent election of President Balmaceda were accorded portfolios.
+Believing that he had now secured the support of the majority in
+congress on behalf of any measures he decided to put forward, the new
+president initiated a policy of heavy expenditure on public works, the
+building of schools, and the strengthening of the naval and military
+forces of the republic. Contracts were given out to the value of
+L6,000,000 for the construction of railways in the southern districts;
+some 10,000,000 dollars were expended in the erection of schools and
+colleges; three cruisers and two sea-going torpedo boats were added to
+the squadron; the construction of the naval port at Talcahuano was
+actively pushed forward; new armament was purchased for the infantry and
+artillery branches of the army, and heavy guns were acquired for the
+purpose of permanently and strongly fortifying the neighbourhoods of
+Valparaiso, Talcahuano and Iquique. In itself this policy was not
+unreasonable, and in many ways extremely beneficial for the country.
+Unfortunately corruption crept into the expenditure of the large sums
+necessary to carry out this programme. Contracts were given by favour
+and not by merit, and the progress made in the construction of the new
+public works was far from satisfactory. The opposition in congress to
+President Balmaceda began to increase rapidly towards the close of 1887,
+and further gained ground in 1888. In order to ensure a majority
+favourable to his views, the president threw the whole weight of his
+official influence into the elections for senators and deputies in 1888;
+but many of the members returned to the chambers through this official
+influence joined the opposition shortly after taking their seats. In
+1889 congress became distinctly hostile to the administration of
+President Balmaceda, and the political situation became grave, and at
+times threatened to involve the country in civil war. According to usage
+and custom in Chile, a ministry does not remain in office unless
+supported by a majority in the chambers. Balmaceda now found himself in
+the impossible position of being unable to appoint any ministry that
+could control a majority in the senate and chamber of deputies and at
+the same time be in accordance with his own views of the administration
+of public affairs. At this juncture the president assumed that the
+constitution gave him the power of nominating and maintaining in office
+any ministers he might consider fitting persons for the purpose, and
+that congress had no right of interference in the matter. The chambers
+were now only waiting for a suitable opportunity to assert their
+authority. In 1890 it was stated that President Balmaceda had determined
+to nominate and cause to be elected as his successor at the expiration
+of his term of office in 1891 one of his own personal friends. This
+question of the election of another president brought matters to a head,
+and congress refused to vote supplies to carry on the government. To
+avoid trouble Balmaceda entered into a compromise with congress, and
+agreed to nominate a ministry to their liking on condition that the
+supplies for 1890 were voted. This cabinet, however, was of short
+duration, and resigned when the ministers understood the full amount of
+friction between the president and congress. Balmaceda then nominated a
+ministry not in accord with the views of congress under Senor Claudio
+Vicuna, whom it was no secret that Balmaceda intended to be his
+successor in the presidential chair, and, to prevent any expression of
+opinion upon his conduct in the matter, he refrained from summoning an
+extraordinary session of the legislature for the discussion of the
+estimates of revenue and expenditure for 1891. When the 1st of January
+1891 arrived, the president published a decree in the _Diario Oficial_
+to the effect that the budget of 1890 would be considered the official
+budget for 1891. This act was illegal and beyond the attributes of the
+executive power. As a protest against the action of President Balmaceda,
+the vice-president of the senate, Senor Waldo Silva, and the president
+of the chamber of deputies, Senor Ramon Barros Luco, issued a
+proclamation appointing Captain Jorje Montt in command of the squadron,
+and stating that the navy could not recognize the authority of Balmaceda
+so long as he did not administer public affairs in accordance with the
+constitutional law of Chile. The majority of the members of the chambers
+sided with this movement, and on the 7th of January Senores Waldo Silva,
+Barros Luco and a number of senators and deputies embarked on board the
+Chilean warship "Blanco Encalada," accompanied by the "Esmeralda" and
+"O'Higgins" and other vessels, sailing out of Valparaiso harbour and
+proceeding northwards to Tarapaca to organize armed resistance against
+the president (see CHILEAN CIVIL WAR). It was not alone this action of
+Balmaceda in connexion with congress that brought about the revolution.
+He had alienated the sympathy of the aristocratic classes of Chile by
+his personal vanity and ambition. The oligarchy composed of the great
+landowners have always been an important factor in the political life of
+the republic; when President Balmaceda found that he was not a _persona
+grata_ to this circle he determined to endeavour to govern without their
+support, and to bring into the administration a set of men who had no
+traditions and with whom his personality would be all-powerful. The
+Clerical influence was also thrown against him in consequence of his
+radical ideas in respect of Church matters.
+
+Immediately on the outbreak of the revolution President Balmaceda
+published a decree declaring Montt and his companions to be traitors,
+and without delay organized an army of some 40,000 men for the
+suppression of the insurrectionary movement. While both sides were
+preparing for extremities, Balmaceda administered the government under
+dictatorial powers with a congress of his own nomination. In June 1891
+he ordered the presidential election to be held, and Senor Claudio
+Vicuna was duly declared chosen as president of the republic for the
+term commencing in September 1891. The resources of Balmaceda were
+running short on account of the heavy military expenses, and he
+determined to dispose of the reserve of silver bullion accumulated in
+the vaults of the Casa de Moneda in accordance with the terms of the law
+for the conversion of the note issue. The silver was conveyed abroad in
+a British man-of-war, and disposed of partly for the purchase of a fast
+steamer to be fitted as an auxiliary cruiser and partly in payment for
+other kinds of war material.
+
+The organization of the revolutionary forces went on slowly. Much
+difficulty was experienced in obtaining the necessary arms and
+ammunition. A supply of rifles was bought in the United States, and
+embarked on board the "Itata," a Chilean vessel in the service of the
+rebels. The United States authorities refused to allow this steamer to
+leave San Diego, and a guard was stationed on the ship. The "Itata,"
+however, slipped away and made for the Chilean coast, carrying with her
+the representatives of the United States. A fast cruiser was immediately
+sent in pursuit, but only succeeded in overhauling the rebel ship after
+she was at her destination. The "Itata" was then forced to return to San
+Diego without landing her cargo for the insurgents. The necessary arms
+and ammunition were arranged for in Europe; they were shipped in a
+British vessel, and transferred to a Chilean steamer at Fortune Bay, in
+Tierra del Fuego, close to the Straits of Magellan and the Falkland
+Islands, and thence carried to Iquique, where they were safely
+disembarked early in July 1891. A force of 10,000 men was now raised by
+the _junta_ of the revolution, and preparations were rapidly pushed
+forward for a move to the south with the object of attacking Valparaiso
+and Santiago. Early in April a portion of the revolutionary squadron,
+comprising the "Blanco Encalada" and other ships, was sent to the
+southward for reconnoitring purposes and put into the port of Caldera.
+During the night of the 23rd of April, and whilst the "Blanco Encalada"
+was lying quietly at anchor, a torpedo boat called the "Almirante
+Lynch," belonging to the Balmaceda faction, steamed into the bay of
+Caldera and discharged a torpedo at the rebel ship. The "Blanco
+Encalada" sank in a few minutes and 300 of her crew perished.
+
+
+  Defeat and suicide of Balmaceda.
+
+In the middle of August 1891 the rebel forces were embarked at Iquique
+(where a provisional government under Captain Jorje Montt had been set
+up), numbering in all about 9000 men, and sailed for the south. On the
+20th of August the congressist army was disembarked at Quinteros, about
+20 m. north of Valparaiso, and marched to Concon, where the Balmacedists
+were entrenched. A severe fight ensued, in which the troops of President
+Balmaceda were defeated with heavy loss. This reverse roused the worst
+passions of the president, and he ordered the arrest and imprisonment of
+all persons suspected of sympathy with the revolutionary cause. The
+population generally were, however, distinctly antagonistic to
+Balmaceda; and this feeling had become accentuated since the 17th of
+August 1891, on which date he had ordered the execution of a number of
+youths belonging to the military college at San Lorenzo on a charge of
+seditious practices. The shooting of these boys created a feeling of
+horror throughout the country, and a sensation of uncertainty as to what
+measures of severity might not be practised in the future if Balmaceda
+won the day. After the victory at Concon the insurgent army, under
+command of General Campos, marched in a southerly direction towards Vina
+del Mar, and thence to Placilla, where the final struggle in the
+conflict took place. Balmaceda's generals Barbosa and Alcerrica had here
+massed their troops in a strong position. The battle, on the 28th of
+August, resulted in victory for the rebels. Both the Balmacedist
+generals were killed and Valparaiso was at once occupied. Three days
+later the victorious insurgents entered Santiago and assumed the
+government of the republic. After the batile of Placilla it was clear to
+President Balmaceda that he could no longer hope to find a sufficient
+strength amongst his adherents to maintain himself in power, and in view
+of the rapid approach of the rebel army he abandoned his official duties
+to seek an asylum in the Argentine legation. The president remained
+concealed in this retreat until the 18th of September. On the evening of
+that date, when the term for which he had been elected president of the
+republic terminated, he committed suicide by shooting himself. The
+excuse for this act, put forward in letters written shortly before his
+end, was that he did not believe the conquerors would give him an
+impartial trial. The death of Balmaceda finished all cause of contention
+in Chile, and was the closing act of the most severe and bloodiest
+struggle that country had ever witnessed. In the various engagements
+throughout the conflict more than 10,000 lives were lost, and the joint
+expenditure of the two governments on military preparations and the
+purchase of war material exceeded L10,000,000 sterling.
+
+An unfortunate occurrence soon after the close of the revolution brought
+strained relations for a short period between the governments of the
+United States and Chile. A number of men of the U.S.S. "Baltimore"
+having been given liberty on shore, an argument arose between some of
+them and a group of Chilean sailors in a drinking den in Valparaiso.
+Words led to blows. The Americans were badly handled, one of their
+number being killed and others severely hurt. The United States
+government characterized the affair as an outrage, demanding an
+indemnity as satisfaction. The Chilean authorities demurred at this
+attitude, and attempted to argue the matter. James G. Elaine, then
+secretary of state, refused peremptorily to listen to any explanations.
+In the end Chile paid an indemnity of $75,000 as asked, but the affair
+left bad feeling in its train.
+
+
+  President Jorje Montt.
+
+The close of the revolution against Balmaceda left the government of
+Chile in the hands of the _junta_ under whose guidance the military and
+naval operations had been organized. Admiral Jorje Montt had been the
+head of this revolutionary committee, and he acted as president of the
+provisional government when the administration of the country changed
+hands after the victory of the Congressional party. An election was now
+immediately ordered for the choice of a president of the republic and
+for representatives in the senate and chamber of deputies. Admiral
+Montt, as head of the executive power, stanchly refused to allow
+official influence to be brought to bear in any way in the presidential
+campaign. The great majority of the voters, however, required no
+pressure to decide who was in their opinion the man most fitted to
+administer the affairs of the republic. For the first time in the
+history of Chile a perfectly free election was held, and Admiral Montt
+was duly chosen by a nearly unanimous vote to be chief magistrate for
+the constitutional term of five years. The senate and chamber of
+deputies were formally constituted in due course, and the government of
+the republic resumed normal conditions of existence. The new president
+showed admirable tact in dealing with the difficult problem he was
+called upon to face. Party feeling still ran high between the partisans
+of the two sides of the recent conflict. Admiral Montt took the view
+that it was politic and just to let bygones be bygones, and he acted
+conscientiously by this principle in all administrative measures in
+connexion with the supporters of the late President Balmaceda. Early in
+1892 an amnesty was granted to the officers of the Balmaceda regime, and
+they were freely permitted to return to Chile without any attempt being
+made to molest them. The first political act of national importance of
+the new government was the grant of control to the municipalities, which
+hitherto had possessed little power to direct local affairs, and were
+not even permitted to dispose of the municipal revenues to any important
+amount without first obtaining the consent of the central government.
+Almost absolute power was now given these corporations to manage their
+own concerns, and the organization of the police was placed in their
+hands; at a later period, however, it was found necessary to modify this
+latter condition.
+
+President Montt next turned his attention towards the question of how
+best to repair the damage occasioned to the country by eight months of
+civil warfare. The plan of public works authorized in 1887 was
+reconsidered, and the construction of portions of the various
+undertakings recommenced. The army and navy were reorganized. Additional
+instructors were brought from Germany, and all arms of the military
+service were placed on a thoroughly efficient footing in matters of
+drill and discipline. Several new and powerful cruisers were added to
+the navy, and the internal economy of this branch of the national
+defence was thoroughly inspected and many defects were remedied.
+President Montt then took in hand the question of a reform of the
+currency, the abolition of inconvertible paper money, and the
+re-establishment of a gold basis as the monetary standard of the
+republic. This reform of the currency became the keynote of the
+president's policy during the remainder of his term of office. Great
+opposition was raised by the representatives of the debtor class in
+congress to the suppression of the inconvertible paper money, but in the
+end President Montt carried the day, and on the 11th of February 1895 a
+measure finally became law establishing a gold currency as the only
+legal tender in Chile. In July 1896 the Conversion Act was put in force,
+a dollar of 18d. being the monetary unit adopted. In 1895 relations with
+the neighbouring republic of Argentina began to become somewhat strained
+in regard to the interpretation of the treaty concerning the boundary
+between the two countries. The treaties of 1881, 1893 and 1895 left
+doubts in the minds of both Chileans and Argentines as to the position
+of the frontier line. On the 17th of April 1896 another protocol was
+drawn up, by which the contending parties agreed to submit any
+differences to the arbitration of Great Britain, at the instance of one
+or both governments. President Montt had now fulfilled his term of
+office, and on the 18th of September 1896 he handed over the
+presidential power to his successor, Senor Federico Errazuriz, who had
+been duly elected in the month of June previously.
+
+
+  President Errazuriz.
+
+  Crisis with Argentina.
+
+The election for the position of president of the republic was closely
+contested in 1896 between Senor Errazuriz and Senor Reyes, and ended in
+the triumph of the former candidate by the narrow majority of one vote.
+The father of the new president had been chief magistrate of Chile from
+1871 to 1876, and his administration had been one of the best the
+country had ever enjoyed; his son had therefore traditions to uphold in
+the post he was now called upon to fill. At the beginning of 1897 the
+public attention was absorbed by foreign political questions. The
+problems to be solved were the frontier difficulty with Argentina, the
+question of the possession of Tacna and Arica with Peru, and the
+necessity of fulfilling the obligation contracted with Bolivia to give
+that country a seaport on the Pacific coast. The treaty made in 1896
+with the Argentine government, referring to the arbitration of disputed
+points concerning the boundary, became practically for the moment a dead
+letter, and both Argentines and Chileans began to talk openly of an
+appeal to arms to settle the matter once for all. The governments of
+both countries began to purchase large supplies of war material, and
+generally to make preparations for a possible conflict. In these
+circumstances no final settlement with Peru and Bolivia was possible,
+the authorities of those republics holding back to see the issue of the
+Chile-Argentine dispute, and Chile being in no position at the time to
+insist on any terms being arranged. So matters drifted until the
+beginning of 1898. In July of that year the crisis reached an acute
+stage. Both Chile and Argentina put forward certain pretensions to
+territory in the Atacama district to the north, and also to a section of
+Patagonia in the south. Neither side would give way, nor was any
+disposition exhibited to refer the matter to arbitration under the
+protocol of 1896. The cry of an acute financial crisis emanating from
+the fear of war with Argentina was now raised in Chile. The president
+was advised that the only way of averting the financial ruin of the
+banking institutions of the republic was to suspend the conversion law
+and lend from the national treasury inconvertible notes to the banks.
+Senor Errazuriz weakly gave way, and a decree was promulgated placing
+the currency once more on an inconvertible paper money basis until 1902.
+In August of 1898 the Chilean government determined to insist upon the
+terms of the protocol of 1896 being acted upon, and intimated to
+Argentina that they demanded the fulfilment of the clause relating to
+arbitration on disputed points. This was practically an ultimatum, and a
+refusal on the part of the Argentine government to comply with the terms
+of the 1896 agreement meant a declaration of war by Chile. For a few
+days the issue hung in the balance, and then the Argentine government
+accepted the provisions made in 1896 for arbitration. The dispute
+concerning the Atacama district was submitted to an arbitration
+tribunal, consisting of the representative of the United States in
+Argentina, assisted by one Argentine and one Chilean commissioner. This
+tribunal, after due investigation, gave their decision in April 1899,
+and the verdict was accepted unreservedly by both governments. The
+dispute regarding the Patagonian territory was submitted to the
+arbitration of Great Britain, and a commission--consisting of Lord
+Macnaghten, Sir John Ardagh and Sir T.H. Holdich--was appointed in 1899
+to hear the case.
+
+The Argentine difficulty was ended, but Chile still had to find a
+settlement with Peru and Bolivia. The treaty made with the former
+country in 1893 was not ratified, as it was thought to concede too much
+to Peru, and the subsequent _ad referendum_ treaty was rejected on
+account of Peru claiming that only Peruvians, and not all residents,
+should have the right to vote in the plebiscite to be taken by the terms
+of the treaty of 1883 for the possession of Tacna and Arica. By the
+terms of the armistice of 1883 between Chile and Bolivia, a three years'
+notice had to be given by either government wishing to denounce that
+agreement. By the protocol of 1895 Chile agreed to give to Bolivia the
+port of Arica, or some other suitable position on the seaboard. On these
+lines a settlement was proposed. Vitor, a landing-place a little to the
+south of Arica, was offered by the Chilean government to Bolivia, but
+refused as not complying with the conditions stated in the protocol of
+1895; the Bolivians furthermore preferred to wait and see if Arica was
+finally ceded by Peru to Chile, and if so to claim the fulfilment of the
+terms of the protocol.
+
+After the accession to office of President Errazuriz there was no
+stability of any ministry. Political parties in congress were so evenly
+balanced and so subdivided into groups that a vote against the ministry
+was easy to obtain, and the resignation of the cabinet immediately
+followed in accordance with the so-called parliamentary system in vogue
+in Chile. The president of the republic has no power to dissolve the
+chambers, to endeavour to remedy the evil by one or another political
+party obtaining a substantial working majority, but must wait to see the
+results of the triennial elections. As a consequence of these conditions
+Conservative, Liberal and coalition ministries held office at short
+intervals. These unsettled political circumstances checked any
+continuity of policy, and tended to block the passage of all useful
+legislation to help forward the economic development of the country and
+inhabitants; on the other hand, the financial situation was better by
+the end of 1899 than in the previous year, since all proposals for a
+fresh paper issue had been vetoed; and the elections for congress and
+municipal office at the opening of 1900 returned a majority favourable
+to a stable currency policy.
+
+In September 1900 a fresh outburst of hostile feeling against Chile was
+created in Argentina by a note addressed by the Chilean government to
+Bolivia, intimating that Chile was no longer inclined to hand over the
+port of Arica or any other port on the Pacific, but considered the time
+ripe for a final settlement of the questions connected with the Chilean
+occupation of Bolivian territory, which had now been outstanding for
+sixteen years. The foreign policy of Chile, as indicated by this note,
+was considered by Argentina to be grasping and unconciliatory, and there
+were rumours of an anti-Chilean South American federation. Chile
+disclaimed any aggressive intentions; but in December the Bolivian
+congress declined to relinquish their claim to a port, and refused to
+conclude a definite treaty of peace. The year closed with a frontier
+incident between Chile and Argentina in the disputed territory of Ultima
+Esperanza, where some Argentine colonists were ejected by Chilean
+police; but both governments signed protocols agreeing not to take
+aggressive action in consequence.
+
+
+  President Riesco.
+
+At the opening of 1901 the country was chiefly interested in the
+forthcoming presidential election, for which the candidates were Don
+Pedro Montt (Conservative and Clerical) and Senor German Riesco
+(Liberal). The relations between President Errazuriz and congress became
+rather strained, owing to the former's inclination to retain in office a
+ministry on which congress had passed a vote of censure; but Errazuriz
+had been in ill-health for more than a year, and on the 1st of May he
+resigned, and died in July. At the ensuing election Riesco was elected
+president. The attitude of Chile towards the Pan-American Congress at
+Mexico became a matter of interest in the autumn, particularly in
+connexion with the proposal for compulsory arbitration between all
+American governments. The Chilean government made it quite clear that
+they would withdraw from the congress if this proposal was meant to be
+retroactive; and their unyielding attitude testified to the
+apprehensions felt by Chile concerning United States interference. In
+October the Chilean government announced that the contemplated
+conversion scheme, for which gold had been accumulated, would be
+postponed for two years (till October 1903), the gold being held as a
+reserve fund pending the result of the arbitration over the Argentine
+frontier. This was generally considered to be a reasonable and
+statesmanlike course. Unfortunately, a recrudescence of the excitement
+over the boundary dispute was occasioned by the irritation created in
+Argentina by the fact that, pending a decision, Chile was constructing
+roads in the disputed territory. During December 1901 relations were
+exceedingly strained, and troops were called out on both sides. But at
+the end of the month it was agreed to leave the question to the British
+arbitrators, and the latter decided to send one of their number, Sir
+T.H. Holdich, to examine the territory.
+
+
+  Argentine boundary award.
+
+The survey occupied some eight months, and it was not until the autumn
+that Sir T.H. Holdich returned to England to make his report. The
+difficulty of ascertaining the true line watershed had been very great,
+but the result was eminently successful. The award of King Edward was
+signed on the 20th of November 1902, and both parties to the litigation
+were satisfied. In order that future disputes might be amicably settled,
+a treaty was signed by which it was agreed that any question that might
+arise should be submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain or in
+default of that power to the Swiss Confederation. The removal of this
+source of irritation and the restoration of friendly relations between
+the two republics was a great relief to the finance of Chile. Had it not
+been for the political instability of the country, the effects of the
+diminution of expenditure on military and naval preparations would have
+effected a rapid improvement in its financial position. The constant
+change of ministry (there being no stable majority in the congress)
+prevented during 1903 any settled policy, or that confidence in the
+government which is the basis of commercial prosperity. In 1904,
+however, both trade and revenue showed signs of improvement, and the
+sale of the warships "Esmeralda" and "Chambuco" for L1,000,000 furnished
+a surplus, which was devoted to the improvement of the port of
+Valparaiso. This was the beginning of a period of steady industrial
+growth and development. The settlement of the long outstanding dispute
+with Bolivia in a treaty of peace signed on the 17th of October 1905 was
+very advantageous to both countries. By this treaty Bolivia ceded all
+claims to a seaport and strip of the coast, on condition that Chile
+constructed at her own charges a railway to Lapaz from the port of
+Arica, giving at the same time to Bolivia free transit across Chilean
+territory to the sea. A cash indemnity of L300,000 was also paid, and
+certain stipulations were made with regard to the construction of other
+railways giving access from Chile to the Bolivian interior.
+
+
+  Valparaiso earthquake
+
+The prosperity of Chile was to suffer a rude shock. On the 17th of
+August 1906 a terrible earthquake visited Valparaiso and the surrounding
+district. The town of Valparaiso was almost entirely destroyed, while
+Santiago and other towns were severely shaken and suffered much damage.
+It was estimated that about 3000 persons were killed, a still larger
+number injured, and at least 100,000 rendered homeless. The loss of
+property was enormous. The fire which broke out after the earthquake
+shock had subsided added to the horror of the catastrophe. Measures
+were, however, promptly taken for succouring the people, who had been
+driven from their homes, and the task of restoration was vigorously
+taken in hand. Before the end of the year the rebuilding of the city was
+rapidly progressing.
+
+
+  President Pedro Montt.
+
+In 1906 Senor Pedro Montt was elected president and entered upon his
+office on the 17th of September. The personality of the president,
+however, had become of much less importance in modern Chile than in
+earlier days. Up to 1870 the government was in the hands of a small
+oligarchy of Santiago families, but the president enjoyed large powers
+of initiative. Nowadays the congress has virtually absorbed the
+executive power, with the result that the cabinet is often changed many
+times in one year. This prevents indeed any continuity of policy, for
+the majority in congress is perpetually fluctuating, and ministerial
+crises rapidly follow one another. Chile, however, except in the
+Balmacedist civil war, is happily distinguished by its freedom from
+revolution and serious political unrest. Its history in this respect is
+in marked contrast to that of the neighbouring South American states.
+The completion of the Trans-Andean railway between Valparaiso and Buenos
+Aires was bound to be of immense commercial and industrial value; and
+eventually the making of a longitudinal railway route uniting the
+nitrate province of the north with Santiago, and Santiago with Puerto
+Montt in the distant south, opened up further important prospects. Such
+a line of through communication, binding together the different
+provinces forming the long narrow strip of territory stretching along
+more than 2000 m. of the Pacific littoral, could only be looked forward
+to, both politically and economically, as an inestimable benefit to the
+country.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_General History_.--The most valuable authority is D.
+  Barros Arana's _Historia jeneral de Chile_ (15 vols., Santiago, 1884),
+  from the earliest days up to 1830. Smaller handbooks covering the
+  whole period are: A.U. Hancock, a _History of Chile_ (Chicago, 1893),
+  the only general history in English, and containing a bibliography;
+  Gaspar Toro, _Compendio de la historia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1879), a
+  good clear abstract of Chilean history; and F. Valdes Vergara,
+  _Historia de Chile_ (Valparaiso, 1898), written primarily for schools,
+  but containing useful sketches of leading figures in Chilean history.
+
+  _Works on Special Periods_.--Colonial Period: M.L. Amunatequi,
+  _Descubri miento y conquista de Chile_ (Santiago, 1885), a valuable
+  detailed account of the Spanish conquest; by same author, _Los
+  Precursores de la independencia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1870), a clear
+  useful description of the evils of the Spanish colonial system;
+  Horacio Lara, _Cronica de la Araucania_ (Santiago, 1889), a history of
+  the Araucanian Indians right up to recent dates; Abbe Eyzaguirre,
+  _Histoire du Chili_ (Lille, 1855), mainly dealing with the position of
+  the Church during the colonial period. Perez Garcia's _Historia del
+  reino de Chile_ (Santiago, 1900), an old history by a Spanish officer
+  written about 1780, and Molina's _History of Chili_ in the English
+  translation (London, 1809), will also be found useful. Useful material
+  for research exists in J.T. Medina's _Coleccion de documentos para la
+  historia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1888), a collection of despatches and
+  official documents; his _Cosas de la colonia_ (Santiago, 1889), an
+  accumulation of undigested information about life in the colonial
+  period; and _Historiadores de Chile_ (21 vols., Santiago, 1861), a
+  collection of ancient chronicles and official documents up to the
+  early part of the 17th century.
+
+  _Revolutionary Period_.--A. Roldan, _Las Primeras Asambleas
+  nacionales_ (Santiago, 1890), an account of the struggles in the first
+  national assemblies; A. Valdes, _Revolucion Chilena y campanas de la
+  independencia_ (Santiago, 1888), an account of the early fighting and
+  rivalry of the revolutionary leaders; W. Pilling, _Emancipation of
+  South America_ (London, 1893), a translation of B. Mitre's life of San
+  Martin, describing the fighting in the wars of independence; Lord
+  Cochrane, _Narrative of Services in Chile, Peru and Brazil_ (London,
+  1859), an autobiography describing the naval exploits that helped to
+  secure the expulsion of the Spaniards; B. Vicuna Machenna, _Vida de
+  O'Higgins_ (Santiago, 1882), giving a useful account of the
+  revolutionary struggle and the main actors; and the same author's
+  _Historia jeneral de la republica de Chile_, a collection of essays on
+  the early republican history by various writers.
+
+  _Later History_.--R. Sotomayor Valdes, _Historia de Chili,
+  1831-1871_, a detailed account of the period (Santiago, 1875); the
+  same author's _Campana del ejercito Chileno en 1837_ (Santiago, 1896),
+  describing the fighting of the first Peruvian War; B. Vicuna Machenna,
+  _D. Diego Portales_ (Valparaiso, 1863), a good account of the life and
+  time of Portales, the famous minister of the Conservative party; P.B.
+  Fiqueroa, _Historia de la revolution constituyente 1858-59_ (Santiago,
+  1889), an account of the revolution at the end of Montt's presidency;
+  F. Fonch, _Chile in der Gegenwart_ (Berlin, 1870), a description of
+  Chile at the time; _Statement on Behalf of Chile_ (in the
+  Chilean-Argentine Boundary Arbitration) (6 vols., London, 1901-1902);
+  Sir Thomas Holdich, _Countries of the King's Award_ (1904); Beltran y
+  Rospido, _Los Pueblos hispano-americanos en el siglo XX._ (Madrid,
+  1904); P.F. Martin, _Through Five Republics of South America_ (London,
+  1906); Wright, _The Republic of Chile_ (London, 1905); G.F. Scott
+  Elliot, _Chile_ (London, 1907); Sir W.M. Conway, _Aconcagua and
+  Tierra del Fuego_ (London, 1902); "Chile-Argentine Arbitration" in the
+  _Geog. Journal_ (January 1903); C.M. Pepper, _Panama to Patagonia_
+  (London, 1907); C.E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854-1904_
+  (London, 1904); M. Hume, _Lecture on the Republic of Chile_ (London,
+  1902).    (E. G. J. M.; C. E. A.; G. E.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See A. Pissis, "Sur la constitution geologique de la chaine des
+    Andes entre le 16 deg. et le 55 deg. degre de latitude sud," _Ann. des
+    mines_, ser. 7, vol. iii. (Mem.), 1873, pp. 402-426, pils. ix., x.;
+    R.A. Philippi, _Die tertiaeren und quartaeren Versteinerungen Chiles_
+    (Leipzig, 1887), (includes also descriptions of some Cretaceous
+    fossils), and _Los Fosiles secondarios de Chile_ (Santiago, 1899);
+    Karl Burckhardt, "Profils geologiques transversaux de la Cordillere
+    argentino-chilienne. Stratigraphie et tectonique," _Anales Mus. La
+    Plata_, 1900, and "Beitraege zur Kenntnis der Jura- und
+    Kreide-formation der Cordillere," _Palaeontographica_, vol. 1.
+    (1903-1904) pp. 1-144, pls. i.-xvi.; see also a series of papers on
+    South American geology by G. Steinmann and his collaborators in
+    _Neues Jahrb, fuer Min._ Beil.-band viii. et seq.
+
+  [2] _Notes of a Naturalist in South America_, p. 134.
+
+  [3] Also classified as _Nothofagus_ (Mirb.).
+
+  [4] A. Gallenga, _South America_ (London, 1880), p. 181.
+
+  [5] The expenditures of 1902 are also given as 25,882,702 pesos gold,
+    and 108,844,693 pesos currency.
+
+
+
+
+CHILEAN CIVIL WAR (1891). The Chilean civil war grew out of political
+dissensions between the president of Chile, J.M. Balmaceda, and his
+congress (see CHILE: _History_), and began in January 1891. On the 6th,
+at Valparaiso, the political leaders of the Congressional party went on
+board the ironclad "Blanco Encalada," and Captain Jorje Montt of that
+vessel hoisted a broad pennant as commodore of the Congressional fleet.
+Preparations had long been made for the naval _pronunciamento_, and in
+the end but few vessels of the Chilean navy adhered to the cause of the
+"dictator" Balmaceda. But amongst these were two new and fast torpedo
+gunboats, "Almirante Condell" and "Almirante Lynch," and in European
+dockyards (incomplete) lay the most powerful vessel of the navy, the
+"Arturo Prat," and two fast cruisers. If these were secured by the
+Balmacedists the naval supremacy of the congress would be seriously
+challenged. For the present, and without prejudice to the future,
+command of the sea was held by Montt's squadron (January). The rank and
+file of the army remained faithful to the executive, and thus in the
+early part of the war the "Gobernistas," speaking broadly, possessed an
+army without a fleet, the congress a fleet without an army. Balmaceda
+hoped to create a navy; the congress took steps to recruit an army by
+taking its sympathizers on board the fleet. The first shot was fired, on
+the 16th of January, by the "Blanco" at the Valparaiso batteries, and
+landing parties from the warships engaged small parties of government
+troops at various places during January and February. The dictator's
+principal forces were stationed in and about Iquique, Coquirabo,
+Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepcion. The troops at Iquique and Coquimbo
+were necessarily isolated from the rest and from each other, and
+military operations began, as in the campaign of 1879 in this quarter,
+with a naval descent upon Pisagua followed by an advance inland to
+Dolores. The Congressional forces failed at first to make good their
+footing (16th-23rd of January), but, though defeated in two or three
+actions, they brought off many recruits and a quantity of munitions of
+war. On the 26th they retook Pisagua, and on the 15th of February the
+Balmacedist commander, Eulojio Robles, who offered battle in the
+expectation of receiving reinforcements from Tacna, was completely
+defeated on the old battlefield of San Francisco. Robles fell back along
+the railway, called up troops from Iquique, and beat the invaders at
+Haura on the 17th, but Iquique in the meanwhile fell to the
+Congressional fleet on the 16th. The Pisagua line of operations was at
+once abandoned, and the military forces of the congress were moved by
+sea to Iquique, whence, under the command of Colonel Estanislao Del
+Canto, they started inland. The battle of Pozo Almonte, fought on the
+7th of March, was desperately contested, but Del Canto was superior in
+numbers, and Robles was himself killed and his army dispersed. After
+this the other Balmacedist troops in the north gave up the struggle.
+Some were driven into Peru, others into Bolivia, and one column made a
+laborious retreat from Calama to Santiago, in the course of which it
+twice crossed the main chain of the Andes.
+
+The Congressional _Junta de Gobierno_ now established in Iquique
+prosecuted the war vigorously, and by the end of April the whole country
+was in the hands of the "rebels" from the Peruvian border to the
+outposts of the Balmacedists at Coquimbo and La Serena. The _Junta_ now
+began the formation of a properly organized army for the next campaign,
+which, it was believed universally on both sides, would be directed
+against Coquimbo. But in a few months the arrival of the new ships from
+Europe would reopen the struggle for command of the sea; the
+_torpederas_ "Condell" and "Lynch" had already weakened the
+Congressional squadron severely by sinking the "Blanco Encalada" in
+Caldera Bay (23rd of April), and the Congressional party could no longer
+aim at a methodical conquest of successive provinces, but was compelled
+to attempt to crush the dictator at a blow. Where this blow was to fall
+was not decided up to the last moment, but the instrument which was to
+deliver it was prepared with all the care possible under the
+circumstances. Del Canto was made commander-in-chief, and an ex-Prussian
+officer, Emil Koerner, chief of staff. The army was organized in three
+brigades of all arms, at Iquique, Caldera and Vallenar. Koerner
+superintended the training of the men, gave instruction in tactics to
+the officers, caused maps to be prepared, and in general took every
+precaution that his experience could suggest to ensure success. Del
+Canto was himself no mere figurehead, but a thoroughly capable leader
+who had distinguished himself at Tacna (1880) and Miraflores (1881), as
+well as in the present war. The men were enthusiastic, and the officers
+unusually numerous. The artillery was fair, the cavalry good, and the
+train and auxiliary services well organized. About one-third of the
+infantry were armed with the (Maennlicher) magazine rifle, which now made
+its first appearance in war, the remainder had the Gras and other
+breech-loaders, which were also the armament of the dictator's infantry.
+Balmaceda could only wait upon events, but he prepared his forces as
+best he was able, and his _torpederas_ constantly harried the
+Congressional navy. By the end of July Del Canto and Koerner had done
+their work as well as time permitted, and early in August the troops
+prepared to embark, not for Coquimbo, but for Valparaiso itself.
+
+The expedition by sea was admirably managed, and Quinteros, N. of
+Valparaiso and not many miles out of range of its batteries, was
+occupied on the 20th of August 1891. Balmaceda was surprised, but acted
+promptly. The first battle was fought on the Aconcagua at Concon on the
+21st. The eager infantry of the Congressional army forced the passage of
+the river and stormed the heights held by the Gobernistas, capturing 36
+guns. The killed and wounded of the Balmacedists numbered 1600, and
+nearly all the prisoners, about 1500 men, enrolled themselves in the
+rebel army, which thus more than made good its loss of 1000 killed and
+wounded. The victors pressed on towards Valparaiso, but were soon
+brought up by the strong fortified position of the Balmacedist general
+Barbosa at Vina del Mar, whither Balmaceda hurried up all available
+troops from Valparaiso and Santiago, and even from Concepcion. Del Canto
+and Koerner now resolved on a daring step. Supplies of all kinds were
+brought up from Quinteros to the front, and on the 24th of August the
+army abandoned its line of communications and marched inland. The flank
+march was conducted with great skill, little opposition was encountered,
+and the rebels finally appeared to the south-east of Valparaiso. Here,
+on the 28th, took place the decisive battle of La Placilla. Concon had
+been perhaps little more than the destruction of an isolated corps; the
+second battle was a fair trial of strength, for Barbosa was well
+prepared, and had under his command the greater part of the existing
+forces of the dictator. But the splendid fighting qualities of the
+Congressional troops and the superior generalship of their leaders
+prevailed in the end over every obstacle. The government army was
+practically annihilated, 941 men were killed, including Barbosa and his
+second in command, and 2402 wounded. The Congressional army lost over
+1800 men. Valparaiso was occupied the same evening and Santiago soon
+afterwards. There was no further fighting, for so great was the effect
+of the battles of Concon and La Placella that even the Coquimbo troops
+surrendered without firing a shot.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lieut. Sears and Ensign Wells, U.S.N., _The Chilian
+  Revolution of 1891_ (Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1893);
+  _The Capture of Valparaiso, 1891_ (Intelligence Department, War
+  Office, London, 1892); Hermann Kunz, _Taktische Beispiele aus den
+  Kriegen der neuesten Zeit; der Buergerkrieg in Chile_ (Berlin, 1901);
+  _Revista militar de Chile_ (February-March 1892); Hugo Kunz, _Der
+  Buergerkrieg in Chile_ (Vienna, 1892); _Militaer Wochenblatt_ (5th
+  supplement, 1892); Sir W. Laird Clowes, _Four Modern Naval Campaigns_
+  (London, 1902); _Proceedings of U.S. Naval Institute_ (1894) (for La
+  Placilla); and the military and naval periodicals of 1892.
+
+
+
+
+CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR (1879-1882). The proximate cause of this war was the
+seizure, by the authorities of Bolivia, of the effects of the Chilean
+Nitrate Company at Antofagasta, then part of the Bolivian province of
+Atacama. The first act of hostility was the despatch of 500 soldiers to
+protect Chilean interests at Antofagasta. This force, under Colonel
+Sotomayor, landed and marched inland; the only resistance encountered
+was at Calama on the river Loa, where a handful of newly raised militia
+was routed (23rd March 1879). About the same time Chilean warships
+occupied Cobija and Tocapilla, and Sotomayor, after his victory at
+Calama, marched to the latter port. Bolivia had declared war on the 1st
+of March, but Peru not till the 5th of April: this delay gave the
+Chileans time to occupy every port on the Bolivian coast. Thus the
+Chilean admiral was able to proceed at once to the blockade of the
+southern ports of Peru, and in particular Iquique, where there took
+place the first naval action of the war. On the 21st of April the
+Chilean sloop "Esmeralda" and the gunboat "Covadonga"--both small and
+weak ships--engaged the Peruvian heavy ironclads "Huascar" and
+"Independencia"; after a hot fight the "Huascar" under Miguel Grau sank
+the "Esmeralda" under Arturo Piat, who was killed, but Carlos Condell in
+the "Covadonga" manoeuvred the "Independencia" aground and shelled her
+into a complete wreck. The Chileans now gave up the blockade and
+concentrated all their efforts on the destruction of the "Huascar,"
+while the allies organized a field army in the neighbourhood of Tacna
+and a large Chilean force assembled at Antofagasta.
+
+On the 8th of October 1879 the "Huascar" was brought to action off
+Angamos by the "Blanco Encalada," and the "Almirante Cochrane." Grau was
+outmatched as hopelessly and made as brave a fight as Prat at Iquique.
+Early in the action a shot destroyed the Peruvian's conning tower,
+killing Grau and his staff, and another entered her turret, killing the
+flag captain and nearly all the crew of the turret guns. When the
+"Huascar" finally surrendered she had but one gun left in action, her
+fourth commander and three-quarters of her crew were killed and wounded,
+and the steering-gear had been shot away. The Peruvian navy had now
+ceased to exist. The Chileans resumed the blockade, and more active
+operations were soon undertaken. The whole force of the allies was about
+20,000 men, scattered along the seaboard of Peru. The Chileans on the
+other hand had a striking force of 16,000 men in the neighbourhood of
+Antofagasta, and of this nearly half was embarked for Pisagua on the
+26th of October. The expeditionary force landed, in the face of
+considerable opposition, on the 2nd of November, and captured Pisagua.
+From Pisagua the Peruvians and Bolivians fell back along the railway to
+their reinforcements, and when some 10,000 men had been collected they
+moved forward to attack the Chilean position of San Francisco near
+Dolores station (19th November). In the end the Chileans were
+victorious, but their only material gain was the possession of Iquique
+and the retreat of the allies, who fell back inland towards Tarapaca.
+The tardy pursuit of the Chileans ended in the battle of Tarapaca on the
+27th. In this the allies were at first surprised, but, rapidly
+recovering themselves, took the offensive, and after a murderous fight,
+in which more men were killed than were wounded, the Chileans suffered a
+complete defeat. For some inexplicable reason the allies made no use of
+their victory, continued to retreat and left the Chileans in complete
+possession of the Tarapaca region. With this the campaign of 1879 ended.
+Chile had taken possession of the Bolivian seaboard and of the Peruvian
+province of Tarapaca, and had destroyed the hostile navy.
+
+  The objective of the Chileans in the second campaign was the province
+  of Tacna and the field force of the allies at Tacna and Arica. The
+  invasion was again carried out by sea, and 12,000 Chileans were landed
+  at Pacocha (Ylo), far to the N. of Arica. Careful preparations were
+  made for a desert march, and on the 12th of March 1880 the advanced
+  corps started inland for Moquegua, which was occupied on the 20th.
+  Near Moquegua the Peruvians, some 2000 strong, took up an unusually
+  strong position in the defile of Cuesta de los Angeles. But the great
+  numerical superiority of the assailants enabled them to turn the
+  flanks and press the front of the Peruvian position, and after a
+  severe struggle the defence collapsed (March 22nd), In April the army
+  began its advance southward from Moquegua to Tacna, while the Chilean
+  warships engaged in a series of minor naval operations in and about
+  the bay of Callao. Arica was also watched, and the blockade was
+  extended north of Lima. The land campaign had ere this culminated in
+  the battle of Tacna (May 26th), in which the Chileans attacked at
+  first in several disconnected bodies, and suffered severely until all
+  their forces came on the field. Then a combined advance carried all
+  before it. The allies engaged under General Narciso Campero, the new
+  president of Bolivia, lost nearly 3000 men, and the Chileans,
+  commanded by Manuel Baquedano, lost 2000 out of 8500 on the field. The
+  defeated army was completely dissolved, and it only remained for the
+  Chileans to march on Arica from the land side. The navy co-operated
+  with its long-range guns, on the 7th of June a general assault was
+  made, and before nightfall the whole of the defences were in the hands
+  of the Chileans. Their second campaign had given them entire
+  possession of another strip of Peru (from Pisagua to Ylo), and they
+  had shown themselves greatly superior, both in courage and leadership,
+  to their opponents. While the army prepared for the next campaign, the
+  Chilean navy was active; the blockade became more stringent and
+  several fights took place, in one of which the "Covadonga" was sunk;
+  an expeditionary force about 3000 strong, commanded by Patricio Lynch,
+  a captain in the Chilean navy, carried out successful raids at various
+  places on the coast and inland.
+
+  The Chilean army was reorganized during the summer, and prepared for
+  its next operation, this time against Lima itself. General Baquedano
+  was in command. The leading troops disembarked at Pisco on the 18th of
+  November 1880, and the whole army was ready to move against the
+  defences of Lima six weeks later. These defences consisted of two
+  distinct positions, Chorrillos and Miraflores, the latter being about
+  4000 yds. outside Lima. The first line of defence was attacked by
+  Baquedano on the 13th of January 1881. Reconnaissances proved that the
+  Peruvian lines could not be turned, and the battle was a pure frontal
+  attack. The defenders had 22,000 men in the lines, the Chileans
+  engaged about 24,000. The battle of Chorrillos ended in the complete
+  defeat of the Peruvians, less than a quarter of whose army rallied
+  behind the Miraflores defences. The Chileans lost over 3000 men. Two
+  days later took place the battle of Miraflores (January 15th). Here
+  the defences were very strong, and the action began with a daring
+  counter-attack by some Peruvians. Neither party had intended to fight
+  a battle, for negotiations were in progress, but the action quickly
+  became general. Its result was, as before, the complete dissolution of
+  the defending army. Lima, incapable of defence, was occupied by the
+  invaders on the 17th, and on the 18th Callao surrendered. The
+  resistance of the Peruvians was so far broken that Chile left only a
+  small army of occupation to deal with the remnants of their army. The
+  last engagement took place at Caxacamara in September 1882, when the
+  Peruvians won an unimportant success.
+
+  See T.B.M. Mason, _The War on the Pacific Coast, 1879-1881_ (U.S.
+  Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1883); Captain Chateauminois
+  (transl.), _Memoire du Ministre de la Guerre du Chili sur la guerre
+  Chilo-Peruvienne_ (1882); Barros Arana, _Hist. de la guerre du
+  Pacifique_ (1884); Sir W. Laird Clowes, _Four Modern Naval Campaigns_
+  (London, 1902); Anon., _Precis de la guerre du Pacifique_ (Paris,
+  1886); Clements R. Markham, _The War between Peru and Chile_.
+
+
+
+
+CHILIASM (from Gr. [Greek: Chiliasmos, Chilioi], a thousand), the belief
+that Christ will return to reign in the body for a thousand years, the
+doctrine of the Millennium (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+CHILLAN, a city and the capital of the province of Nuble, in the
+southern part of central Chile, 35 deg. 56' S., 71 deg. 37' W., 246 m. by
+rail S.S.W. of Santiago and about 56 m. direct (108 by rail) N.E. of
+Concepcion. Pop. (1895) 28,738; (1902, official estimate) 36,382.
+Chillan is one of the most active commercial cities of central Chile,
+and is surrounded by a rich agricultural and grazing country. Chillan
+was founded by Ruiz de Gamboa in 1594. Its present site was chosen in
+1836. The original site, known as Chillan Viejo, forms a suburb of the
+new city. The hot sulphur springs of Chillan, which were discovered in
+1795, are about 45 m. E.S.E. They issue from the flanks of the "Volcan
+Viejo," about 7000 ft. above sea-level. The highest temperature of the
+water issuing from these springs is a little over 135 deg. The principal
+volcanoes of the Chillan group are the Nevado (9528 ft.) and the Viejo.
+After a repose of about two centuries the Nevado de Chillan broke out in
+eruption early in 1861 and caused great destruction. The eruption ceased
+in 1863, but broke out again in 1864.
+
+
+
+
+CHILLIANWALLA, a village of British India in the Punjab, situated on the
+left bank of the river Jhelum, about 85 m. N.W. of Lahore. It is
+memorable as the scene of a battle on the 13th of January 1849, between
+a British force commanded by Lord Gough and the Sikh army under Sher
+Singh. The loss of the Sikhs was estimated at 4000, while that of the
+British in killed and wounded amounted to 2800, of whom nearly 1000 were
+Europeans and 89 were British and 43 native officers. An obelisk
+erected at Chillianwalla by the British government preserves the names
+of those who fell.
+
+CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Livingston county, Missouri,
+U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state, on the Grand river, about
+80 m. N.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 5717; (1900) 6905 (538 negroes);
+(1910) 6265. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
+Wabash, and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. There are various
+manufactures. Coal and limestone are found in the vicinity, and much
+live stock is raised, wool and hides being shipped from Chillicothe.
+Chillicothe was settled about 1830, and the town was laid out in 1837 on
+land granted directly by the Federal government; it was incorporated in
+1855.
+
+
+
+
+CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Ross county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+the W. bank of the Scioto river, on the Ohio & Erie Canal, about 50 m.
+S. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 11,288; (1900) 12,976, of whom 986 were
+negroes, and 910 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,508. Chillicothe is
+served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western (which has railway shops
+here), and other railways. The city has two parks. There are several
+ancient mounds in the vicinity. Chillicothe is built on a plain about 30
+ft. above the river, in the midst of a fertile agricultural region, and
+has a large trade in grain and coal, and in manufactures. The value of
+the city's factory products increased from $1,615,959 in 1900 to
+$3,146,890 in 1905, or 94.7%. Chillicothe was founded in 1796, and was
+first incorporated in 1802. In 1800-1803 it was the capital of the
+North-West Territory, and in 1803-1810 and 1812-1816 the capital of
+Ohio. Three Indian villages bore the name Chillicothe, each being in
+turn the chief town of the Chillicothe, one of the four tribal divisions
+of the Shawnee, in their retreat before the whites; the village near
+what is now Oldtown in Greene county was destroyed by George Rogers
+Clark in 1780; that in Miami county, where Piqua is now, was destroyed
+by Clark in 1782; and the Indian village near the present Chillicothe
+was destroyed in 1787 by Kentuckians.
+
+  See Henry Howe, _Historical Collections of Ohio_ (Columbus, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM (1602-1644), English divine and controversialist,
+was born at Oxford in October 1602. In June 1618 he became a scholar of
+Trinity College, Oxford, and was made a fellow of his college in June
+1628. He had some reputation as a skilful disputant, excelled in
+mathematics, and gained some credit as a writer of verses. The marriage
+of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria of France had stimulated the
+propaganda of the Roman Catholic Church, and the Jesuits made the
+universities their special point of attack. One of them, "John Fisher,"
+who had his sphere at Oxford, succeeded in making a convert of young
+Chillingworth, and prevailed upon him to go to the Jesuit college at
+Douai. Influenced, however, by his godfather, Laud, then bishop of
+London, he resolved to make an impartial inquiry into the claims of the
+two churches. After a short stay he left Douai in 1631 and returned to
+Oxford. On grounds of Scripture and reason he at length declared for
+Protestantism, and wrote in 1634, but did not publish, a confutation of
+the motives which had led him over to Rome. This paper was lost; the
+other, on the same subject, was probably written on some other occasion
+at the request of his friends. He would not, however, take orders. His
+theological sensitiveness appears in his refusal of a preferment offered
+to him in 1635 by Sir Thomas Coventry, lord keeper of the great seal. He
+was in difficulty about subscribing the Thirty-nine Articles. As he
+informed Gilbert Sheldon, then warden of All Souls, in a letter, he was
+fully resolved on two points--that to say that the Fourth Commandment is
+a law of God appertaining to Christians is false and unlawful, and that
+the damnatory clauses in the Athanasian Creed are most false, and in a
+high degree presumptuous and schismatical. To subscribe, therefore, he
+felt would be to "subscribe his own damnation." At this time his
+principal work was far towards completion. It was undertaken in defence
+of Dr Christopher Potter, provost of Queen's College in Oxford, who had
+for some time been carrying on a controversy with a Jesuit known as
+Edward Knott, but whose real name was Matthias Wilson. Potter had
+replied in 1633 to Knott's _Charity Mistaken_ (1630), and Knott
+retaliated with _Mercy and Truth_. This work Chillingworth engaged to
+answer, and Knott, hearing of his intention and hoping to bias the
+public mind, hastily brought out a pamphlet tending to show that
+Chillingworth was a Socinian who aimed at perverting not only
+Catholicism but Christianity.
+
+Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury, was not a little solicitous about
+Chillingworth's reply to Knott, and at his request, as "the young man
+had given cause why a more watchful eye should be held over him and his
+writings," it was examined by the vice-chancellor of Oxford and two
+professors of divinity, and published with their approbation in 1637,
+with the title _The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation_.
+The main argument is a vindication of the sole authority of the Bible in
+spiritual matters, and of the free right of the individual conscience to
+interpret it. In the preface Chillingworth expresses his new view about
+subscription to the articles. "For the Church of England," he there
+says, "I am persuaded that the constant doctrine of it is so pure and
+orthodox, that whosoever believes it, and lives according to it,
+undoubtedly he shall be saved, and that there is no error in it which
+may necessitate or warrant any man to disturb the peace or renounce the
+communion of it. This, in my opinion, is all intended by subscription."
+His scruples having thus been overcome, he was, in the following year
+(1638), promoted to the chancellorship of the church of Sarum, with the
+prebend of Brixworth in Northamptonshire annexed to it. In the great
+civil struggle he used his pen against the Scots, and was in the king's
+army at the siege of Gloucester, inventing certain engines for
+assaulting the town. Shortly afterwards he accompanied Lord Hopton,
+general of the king's troops in the west, in his march; and, being laid
+up with illness at Arundel Castle, he was there taken prisoner by the
+parliamentary forces under Sir William Waller. As he was unable to go to
+London with the garrison, he was conveyed to Chichester, and died there
+in January 1644. His last days were harassed by the diatribes of the
+Puritan preacher, Francis Cheynell.
+
+  Besides his principal work, Chillingworth wrote a number of smaller
+  anti-Jesuit papers published in the posthumous _Additional Discourses_
+  (1687), and nine of his sermons have been preserved. In politics he
+  was a zealous Royalist, asserting that even the unjust and tyrannous
+  violence of princes may not be resisted, although it might be avoided
+  in terms of the instruction, "when they persecute you in one city,
+  flee into another." His writings long enjoyed a high popularity. The
+  _Religion of Protestants_ is characterized by much fairness and
+  acuteness of argument, and was commended by Locke as a discipline of
+  "perspicuity and the way of right reasoning." The charge of
+  Socinianism was frequently brought against him, but, as Tillotson
+  thought, "for no other cause but his worthy and successful attempts to
+  make the Christian religion reasonable." His creed, and the whole gist
+  of his argument, is expressed in a single sentence, "I am fully
+  assured that God does not, and therefore that men ought not to,
+  require any more of any man than this, to believe the Scripture to be
+  God's word, and to endeavour to find the true sense of it, and to live
+  according to it."
+
+  A _Life_ by Rev. T. Birch was prefixed to the 1742 edition of
+  Chillingworth's _Works_.
+
+
+
+
+CHILOE (from _Chile_ and _hue_, "part of Chile"), a province of southern
+Chile, and also the name of a large island off the Chilean coast forming
+part of the province. The province, area 8593 sq. m., pop. (1895)
+77,750, is composed of three groups of islands, Chiloe, Guaitecas and
+Chonos, and extends from the narrow strait of Chacao in 41 deg. 40' S. to
+the peninsula of Taytao, about 45 deg. 45' S. The population is composed
+mainly of Indians, distantly related to the tribes of the mainland, and
+mestizos. The capital of the province is Ancud or San Carlos, at the
+northern end of the island of Chiloe, on the sheltered bay of San
+Carlos, once frequented by whalers. It is the seat of a bishopric; pop.
+(1905) 3182. Other towns are Castro, the former capital, on the eastern
+shore of Chiloe, and the oldest town of the island (founded 1566), once
+the seat of a Jesuit mission, and Melinca on an island of the Guaitecas
+group.
+
+  The island of Chiloe, which lies immediately south of the province of
+  Llanquihue, is a continuation of the western Chilean formation, the
+  coast range appearing in the mountainous range of western Chiloe and
+  the islands extending south along the coast. Between this coast range
+  and the Andes, the gulfs of Chacao, or Ancud and Corcovado (average
+  width, 30 m.) separate the island from the mainland. Chiloe has an
+  extreme length north to south of about 118 m., and an average width of
+  35 to 40 m., with an area of about 4700 sq. m. There are several lakes
+  on the island--Cucao, 12 m. long, being the largest,--and one small
+  river, the Pudeto, in the northern part of the island, is celebrated
+  as the scene of the last engagement in the war for independence, the
+  Spanish retaining possession of Chiloe until 1826.
+
+
+
+
+CHILON, of Sparta, son of Damagetus, one of the Seven Sages of Greece,
+flourished about the beginning of the 6th century B.C. In 560 (or 556)
+he acted as ephor, an office which he is even said to have founded. The
+tradition was that he died of joy on hearing that his son had gained a
+prize at the Olympic games. According to Chilon, the great virtue of man
+was prudence, or well-grounded judgment as to future events.
+
+  A collection of the sayings attributed to him will be found in F.W.
+  Mullach, _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, i.; see Herodotus i. 69;
+  Diogenes Laertius i. 68; Pausanias iii. 16, x. 24.
+
+
+
+
+CHILPERIC, the name of two Frankish kings.
+
+
+CHILPERIC I. (d. 584) was one of the sons of Clotaire I. Immediately
+after the death of his father in 561 he endeavoured to take possession
+of the whole kingdom, seized the treasure amassed in the royal town of
+Berny and entered Paris. His brothers, however, compelled him to divide
+the kingdom with them, and Soissons, together with Amiens, Arras,
+Cambrai, Therouanne, Tournai and Boulogne, fell to Chilperic's share,
+but on the death of Charibert in 567 his estates were augmented. When
+his brother Sigebert married Brunhilda, Chilperic also wished to make a
+brilliant marriage. He had already repudiated his first wife, Audovera,
+and had taken as his concubine a serving-woman called Fredegond. He
+accordingly dismissed Fredegond, and married Brunhilda's sister,
+Galswintha. But he soon tired of his new partner, and one morning
+Galswintha was found strangled in her bed. A few days afterwards
+Chilperic married Fredegond. This murder was the cause of long and
+bloody wars, interspersed with truces, between Chilperic and Sigebert.
+In 575 Sigebert was assassinated by Fredegond at the very moment when he
+had Chilperic at his mercy. Chilperic retrieved his position, took from
+Austrasia Tours and Poitiers and some places in Aquitaine, and fostered
+discord in the kingdom of the east during the minority of Childebert II.
+One day, however, while returning from the chase to the town of Chelles,
+Chilperic was stabbed to death.
+
+Chilperic may be regarded as the type of Merovingian sovereigns. He was
+exceedingly anxious to extend the royal authority. He levied numerous
+imposts, and his fiscal measures provoked a great sedition at Limoges in
+579. He wished to bring about the subjection of the church, and to this
+end sold bishoprics to the highest bidder, annulled the wills made in
+favour of the bishoprics and abbeys, and sought to impose upon his
+subjects a rationalistic conception of the Trinity. He pretended to some
+literary culture, and was the author of some halting verse. He even
+added letters to the Latin alphabet, and wished to have the MSS.
+rewritten with the new characters. The wresting of Tours from Austrasia
+and the seizure of ecclesiastical property provoked the bitter hatred of
+Gregory of Tours, by whom Chilperic was stigmatized as the Nero and the
+Herod of his time.
+
+  See Seresia, _L'Eglise et l'Etat sous les rois francs au VIe siecle_
+  (Ghent, 1888).
+
+
+CHILPERIC II. (d. 720) was the son of Childeric II. He became king of
+Neustria in 715, on which occasion he changed his name from Daniel to
+Chilperic. At first he was a tool in the hands of Ragenfrid, the mayor
+of the palace. Charles Martel, however, overthrew Ragenfrid, accepted
+Chilperic as king of Neustria, and, on the death of Clotaire IV., set
+him over the whole kingdom. The young king died soon afterwards.
+     (C. PF.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILTERN HILLS, or THE CHILTERNS, a range of chalk hills in England,
+extending through part of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire.
+Running from S.W. to N.E., they form a well-marked escarpment
+north-westward, while the south-eastern slope is long. The name of
+Chilterns is applied to the hills between the Thames in the
+neighbourhood of Goring and the headwaters of its tributary the Lea
+between Dunstable and Hitchin, the crest line between these points being
+about 55 m. in length. But these hills are part of a larger chalk
+system, continuing the line of the White Horse Hills from Berkshire, and
+themselves continued eastward by the East Anglian ridge. The greatest
+elevation of the Chilterns is found in the centre from Watlington to
+Tring, where heights from 800 to 850 ft. are frequent. Westward towards
+the Thames gap the elevation falls away but little, but eastward the
+East Anglian ridge does not often exceed 500 ft., though it continues
+the northward escarpment across Hertfordshire. There are several passes
+through the Chilterns, followed by main roads and railways converging on
+London, which lies in the basin of which these hills form part of the
+northern rim. The most remarkable passes are those near Tring, Wendover
+and Prince's Risborough, the floors of which are occupied by the gravels
+of former rivers. The Chilterns were formerly covered with a forest of
+beech, and there is still a local supply of this wood for the
+manufacture of chairs and other articles in the neighbourhood of
+Wycombe.
+
+
+
+
+CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An old principle of English parliamentary law
+declared that a member of the House of Commons, once duly chosen, could
+not _resign_ his seat. This rule was a relic of the days when the local
+gentry had to be compelled to serve in parliament. The only method,
+therefore, of avoiding the rule came to be by accepting an office of
+profit from the crown, a statute of 1707 enacting that every member
+accepting an office of profit from the crown should thereby vacate his
+seat, but should be capable of re-election, unless the office in
+question had been created since 1705, or had been otherwise declared to
+disqualify for a seat in parliament. Among the posts of profit held by
+members of the House of Commons in the first half of the 18th century
+are to be found the names of several crown stewardships, which
+apparently were not regarded as places of profit under the crown within
+the meaning of the act of 1707, for no seats were vacated by appointment
+to them. The first instance of the acceptance of such a stewardship
+vacating a seat was in 1740, when the house decided that Sir W.W. Wynn,
+on inheriting from his father, in virtue of a royal grant, the
+stewardship of the lordship and manor of Bromfield and Yale, had _ipso
+facto_ vacated his seat. On the passing of the Place Act of 1742, the
+idea of utilizing the appointment to certain crown stewardships
+(possibly suggested by Sir W.W. Wynn's case) as a pretext for enabling a
+member to resign his seat was carried into practice. These nominal
+stewardships were eight in number, but only two survived to be used in
+this way in contemporary practice--those of the Chilterns and
+Northstead; and when a member wished to vacate his seat, he was
+accordingly spoken of as taking the Chiltern Hundreds.
+
+  1. _Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, County Bucks._--The
+  Chiltern Hundreds formed a bailiwick of the ordinary type. They are
+  situated on the Chiltern Hills, and the depredations of the bandits,
+  who found shelter within their recesses, became at an early period so
+  alarming that a special officer, known as the steward of the Chiltern
+  Hundreds, was appointed for the protection of the inhabitants of the
+  neighbouring districts. It is doubtful at what date the necessity for
+  such an appointment disappeared, but the three hundreds of Stoke,
+  Burnham and Desborough are still distinguished by the old name. The
+  appointment of steward was first used for parliamentary purposes in
+  1750, the appointment being made by the chancellor of the exchequer
+  (and at his discretion to grant or not), and the warrant bestowing on
+  the holder "all wages, fees, allowances and other privileges and
+  pre-eminences." Up to the 19th century there was a nominal salary of
+  20s. attached to the post. It was laid down in 1846 by the chancellor
+  of the exchequer that the Chilterns could not be granted to more than
+  one person in the same day, but this rule has not been strictly
+  adhered to, for on four occasions subsequent to 1850 the Chilterns
+  were granted twice on the same day. The Chilterns might be granted to
+  members whether they had taken the oath or not, or during a recess,
+  though in this case a new writ could not be issued until the House met
+  again. Each new warrant expressly revoked the grant to the last
+  holder, the new steward retaining it in his turn until another should
+  be appointed.
+
+  2. _Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of East Hundred, or Hendred,
+  Berks._--This stewardship was first used for parliamentary purposes in
+  1763, and was in more or less constant use until 1840, after which it
+  disappeared. This manor comprised copyholds, the usual courts were
+  held, and the stewardship was an actual and active office, the duties
+  being executed by a deputy steward. The manor was sold by public
+  auction in 1823 for L910, but in some manner the crown retained the
+  right of appointing a steward for seventeen years after that date.
+
+  3. _Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead, Yorkshire._--This
+  manor was crown property before 1750, but was in lease until 1838. It
+  has no copyhold lands, nor are there any records of manor courts.
+  There are no traces of any profits having ever been derived from the
+  office. It was used for parliamentary purposes in 1844 and
+  subsequently.
+
+  4. _Steward of the Manor of Hempholme, Yorkshire._--This manor appears
+  to have been of the same nature as that of Northstead. It was in lease
+  until 1835. It was first used for parliamentary purposes in 1845 and
+  was in constant use until 1865. It was sold in 1866.
+
+  5. _Escheator of Munster._--Escheators were officers commissioned to
+  secure the rights of the crown over property which had legally
+  escheated to it. In Ireland mention is made of escheators as early as
+  1256. In 1605 the escheatorship of Ireland was split up into four, one
+  for each province, but the duties soon became practically nominal. The
+  escheatorship of Munster was first used for parliamentary purposes in
+  the Irish parliament from 1793 to 1800, and in the united parliament
+  (24 times for Irish seats and once for a Scottish seat) from 1801 to
+  1820. After 1820 it was discontinued and finally abolished in 1838.
+
+  6. _Steward of the Manor of Old Shoreham, Sussex._--This manor
+  belonged to the duchy of Cornwall, and it is difficult to understand
+  how it came to be regarded as a crown appointment. It was first used
+  for parliamentary purposes in 1756, and then, occasionally, until
+  1799, in which year it was sold by the duchy to the duke of Norfolk.
+
+  7. _Steward of the Manor of Poynings, Sussex._--This manor reverted to
+  the crown on the death of Lord Montague about 1804, but was leased up
+  to about 1835. It was only twice used for parliamentary purposes, in
+  1841 and 1843.
+
+  8. _Escheator of Ulster._--This appointment was used in the united
+  parliament three times, for Irish seats only; the last time in 1819.
+
+  See parliamentary paper--_Report from the Select Committee on House of
+  Commons (Vacating of Seats)_ (1894). (T.A.I.)
+
+
+
+
+CHILWA (incorrectly SHIRWA), a shallow lake in south-east Africa, S.S.E.
+of Lake Nyasa, cut by 35 deg.20'E., and lying between 15 deg. and 15 deg.35'S. The
+lake is undergoing a process of desiccation, and in some dry seasons (as
+in 1879 and 1903) the "open water" is reduced to a number of large
+pools. Formerly the lake seems to have found an outlet northwards to the
+Lujenda branch of the Rovuma, but with the sinking of its level it is
+now separated from the Lujenda by a wooded ridge some 30 to 40 ft. above
+the surrounding plains. There are four islands, the largest rising 500
+ft. above the water. The lake was discovered by David Livingstone in
+1859 and was by him called Shirwa, from a mishearing of the native name.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMAERA, in Greek mythology, a fire-breathing female monster resembling
+a lion in the fore part, a goat in the middle, and a dragon behind
+(_Iliad_, vi. 179), with three heads corresponding. She devastated Caria
+and Lycia until she was finally slain by Bellerophon (see H.A. Fischer,
+_Bellerophon_, 1851). The origin of the myth was the volcanic nature of
+the soil of Lycia (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 110; Servius on _Aeneid_, vi.
+288), where works have been found containing representations of the
+Chimaera in the simple form of a lion. In modern art the Chimaera is
+usually represented as a lion, with a goat's head in the middle of the
+back, as in the bronze Chimaera of Arezzo (5th century). The word is now
+used generally to denote a fantastic idea or fiction of the imagination.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMAY, a town in the extreme south-east of the province of Hainaut,
+Belgium, dating from the 7th century. Pop. (1904) 3383. It is more
+commonly spoken of as being in the district _entre Sambre et Meuse_.
+Owing to its proximity to the French frontier it has undergone many
+sieges, the last of which was in 1640, when Turenne gave orders that it
+should be reduced to such ruin that it could never stand another. The
+town is chiefly famous for the castle and park that bear its name.
+Originally a stronghold of the Croey family, it has passed through the
+D'Arenbergs to its present owners, the princes of Caraman-Chimay. The
+castle, which before Turenne's order to demolish it possessed seven
+towers, has now only one in ruins, and a modern chateau was built in the
+Tudor style in the 18th century. This domain carried with it the right
+to one of the twelve peerages of Hainaut. Madame Tallien, daughter of Dr
+Cabarrus, the Lady of Thermidor, married as her second husband the
+prince de Chimay, and held her little court here down to her death in
+1835. There is a memorial to her in the church, which also contains a
+fine monument of Phillippe de Croey, chamberlain and comrade in arms of
+the emperor Charles V. John Froissart the chronicler died and was buried
+here. There is a statue in his honour on the Grand Place. Chimay is
+situated on a stream called the White Water, which in its lower course
+becomes the Viroin and joins the Meuse.
+
+
+
+
+CHIME, (1) (Probably derived from a mistaken separation into two words,
+_chimbe bell_, of _chymbal_ or _chymbel_, the old form of "cymbal," Lat.
+_cymbalum_), a mechanical arrangement by which a set of bells in a
+church or other tower, or in a clock, are struck so as to produce a
+sequence of musical sounds or a tune. For the mechanism of such an
+arrangement in a clock and in a set of bells, see the articles CLOCK and
+BELL. The word is also applied to the tune thus played by the bells and
+also to the harmonious "fall" of verse, and so, figuratively, to any
+harmonious agreement of thought or action. (2) (From Mid. Eng. _chimb_,
+a word meaning "edge," common in varied forms to Teutonic languages, cf.
+Ger. _Kimme_), the bevelled rim formed by the projecting staves at the
+ends of a cask.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMERE (Lat. _chimera, chimaera_; O. Fr. _chamarre_, Mod. Fr.
+_simarre_; Ital. _zimarra_; cf. Span. _zamarra_, a sheepskin coat;
+possibly derived ultimately from Gr. [Greek: cheimerios], "wintry," i.e.
+a winter overcoat), in modern English use the name of a garment worn as
+part of the ceremonial dress of Anglican bishops. It is a long
+sleeveless gown of silk or satin, open down the front, gathered in at
+the back between the shoulders, and with slits for the arms. It is worn
+over the rochet (q.v.), and its colour is either black or scarlet
+(convocation robes). By a late abuse the sleeves of the rochet were,
+from motives of convenience, sometimes attached to the chimere. The
+origin of the chimere has been the subject of much debate; but the view
+that it is a modification of the cope (q.v.) is now discarded, and it is
+practically proved to be derived from the medieval tabard (_tabardum,
+taberda_ or _collobium_), an upper garment worn in civil life by all
+classes of people both in England and abroad. It has therefore a common
+origin with certain academic robes (see ROBES, Sec. _Academic dress_).
+
+The word "chimere," which first appears in England in the 14th century,
+was sometimes applied not only to the tabard worn over the rochet, but
+to the sleeved cassock worn under it. Thus Archbishop Scrope is
+described as wearing when on his way to execution (1405) a blue chimere
+with sleeves. But the word properly applies to the sleeveless tabard
+which tended to supersede, from the 15th century onwards, the
+inconvenient _cappa clausa_ (a long closed cloak with a slit in front
+for the arms) as the out-of-doors upper garment of bishops. These
+chimeres, the colours of which (murrey, scarlet, green, &c.) may
+possibly have denoted academical rank, were part of the civil costume of
+prelates. Thus in the inventory of Walter Skirlawe, bishop of Durham
+(1405-1406), eight chimeres of various colours are mentioned, including
+two for riding (_pro equitatura_). The chimere was, moreover, a cold
+weather garment. In summer its place was taken by the tippet.
+
+In the Anglican form for the consecration of bishops the newly
+consecrated prelate, hitherto vested in rochet, is directed to put on
+"the rest of the episcopal habit," i.e. the chimere. The robe has thus
+become in the Church of England symbolical of the episcopal office, and
+is in effect a liturgical vestment. The rubric containing this direction
+was added to the Book of Common Prayer in 1662; and there is proof that
+the development of the chimere into at least a choir vestment was
+subsequent to the Reformation. Foxe, indeed, mentions that Hooper at his
+consecration wore "a long scarlet chymere down to the foot" (_Acts and
+Mon._, ed. 1563, p. 1051), a source of trouble to himself and of scandal
+to other extreme reformers; but that this was no more than the full
+civil dress of a bishop is proved by the fact that Archbishop Parker at
+his consecration wore surplice and tippet, and only put on the chimere,
+when the service was over, to go away in. This civil quality of the
+garment still survives alongside the other; the full dress of an
+Anglican prelate at civil functions of importance (e.g. in parliament,
+or at court) is still rochet and chimere.
+
+  The continental equivalent of the chimere is the _zimarra_ or
+  _simarre_, which is defined by foreign ecclesiologists (Moroni,
+  Barbier de Montault) as a kind of _soutane_ (cassock), from which it
+  is distinguished by having a small cape and short, open arms
+  (_manches-fausses_) reaching to the middle of the upper arm and
+  decorated with buttons. In France and Germany it is fitted more or
+  less to the figure; in Italy it is wider and falls down straight in
+  front. Like the _soutane_, the _zimarra_ is not proper to any
+  particular rank of clergy, but in the case of bishops and prelates it
+  is ornamented with red buttons and bindings. It never has a train
+  (_cauda_). It is not universally worn, e.g. in Germany apparently only
+  by prelates. G. Moroni identifies the _zimarra_ with the _epitogium_
+  which Domenico Magri, in his _Hierolexicon_ (ed. 1677), calls the
+  uppermost garment of the clergy, worn over the _soutane_ (_toga_)
+  instead of the _mantellum_ (_vestis suprema clericorum loco pallii_),
+  with a cross-reference to _Tabardum_, the "usual" upper garment
+  (_pallium usuale_); and this definition is repeated in the 8th edition
+  of the work (1732). From this it appears that so late as the middle of
+  the 18th century the _zimarra_ was still in common use as an
+  out-of-doors overcoat. But, according to Moroni, by the latter half of
+  the 19th century the _zimarra_, though still worn by certain civilians
+  (e.g. notaries and students), had become in Italy chiefly the domestic
+  garment of the clergy, notably of superiors, parish priests, rectors,
+  certain regulars, priests of congregations, bishops, prelates and
+  cardinals. It was worn also by the Roman senators, and is still worn
+  by university professors. A black _zimarra_ lined with white, and
+  sometimes ornamented with a white binding and gold tassels, is worn by
+  the pope.
+
+  More analogous to the Anglican chimere in shape, though not in
+  significance, is the purple _mantelletum_ worn over the rochet by
+  bishops, and by others authorized to wear the episcopal insignia, in
+  presence of the pope or his legates. This symbolizes the temporary
+  suspension of the episcopal jurisdiction (symbolized by the rochet) so
+  long as the pope or his representative is present. Thus at the Curia
+  cardinals and prelates wear the _mantelletum_, while the pope wears
+  the _zimarra_, and the first act of the cardinal camerlengo after the
+  pope's death is to expose his rochet by laying aside the
+  _mantelletum_, the other cardinals following his example, as a symbol
+  that during the vacancy of the papacy the pope's jurisdiction is
+  vested in the Sacred College. On the analogy of the _mantelletum_
+  certain Anglican prelates, American and colonial, have from time to
+  time appeared in purple chimeres; which, as the Rev. N.F. Robinson
+  justly points out, is a most unhappy innovation, since it has no
+  historical justification, and its symbolism is rather unfortunate.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See the _Report_ of the sub-committee of Convocation on
+  the ornaments of the church and its ministers, p. 31 (London, 1908);
+  the Rev. N.F. Robinson, "The black chimere of Anglican Prelates: a
+  plea for its retention and proper use," in _Transactions of the St
+  Paul's Ecclesiological Soc._ vol. iv. pp. 181-220 (London, 1898);
+  Herbert Druitt, _Costume on Brasses_ (London, 1906); G. Moroni,
+  _Dizionario dell' erudizione storico-ecclesiastica_ (Venice, 1861),
+  vol. 103, s.v. "Zimarra": X. Barbier de Montault, _Traite pratique de
+  la construction, &c., des eglises_, ii. 538 (Paris, 1878).    (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIMESYAN (_Tsimshian_), a tribe of North American Indians, now some
+3000 in number, living around the mouth of the Skeena river, British
+Columbia, and on the islands near the coast. They are a powerfully built
+people, who tattoo and wear labrets and rings in noses and ears. They
+are skilful fishermen, and live in large communal houses. They are
+divided into clans and distinct social orders.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMKENT, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Syr-darya, 70 m.
+by rail N.N.E. of Tashkent. Pop. (1897) 10,756, mostly Sarts. It
+occupies a strategical position at the west end of the valley between
+the Alexander range and the Ala-tau (or Talas-tau), at the meeting of
+commercial routes from (1) Vyernyi and Siberia beyond, from the
+north-east, (2) the Aral Sea and Orenburg (connected with it by rail
+since 1905) to the north-west, and (3) Ferghana and Bokhara to the
+south. The citadel, which was stormed by the Russians in 1864, stands on
+high ground above the town, but is now in ruins. Chimkent is visited by
+consumptive patients who wish to try the koumiss cure. It has cotton
+mills and soap-works.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMNEY (through the Fr. _cheminee_, from _caminata_, sc. _camera_, a
+Lat. derivative of _caminus_, an oven or furnace), in architecture, that
+portion of a building, rising above the roof, in which are the flues
+conveying the smoke to the outer air. Originally the term included the
+fireplace as well as the chimney shaft. At Rochester Castle (1130) and
+Heddington, Essex, there were no external chimney shafts, and the flue
+was carried through the wall at some height above the fireplace. In the
+early examples the chimney shaft was circular, with one flue only, and
+was terminated with a conical cap, the smoke issuing from openings in
+the side, which at Sherborne Abbey (A.D. 1300) were treated
+decoratively. It was not till the 15th century that the smoke issued at
+the top, and later in the century that more than one flue was carried up
+in the same shaft. There are a few examples of the clustered shaft in
+stone, but as a rule they are contemporaneous with the general use of
+brick. The brick chimney shafts, of which there are fine specimens at
+Hampton Court, were richly decorated with chevrons and other geometrical
+patterns. One of the best examples is that at Thornton Castle,
+Gloucestershire.
+
+In the 15th and 16th centuries in France the chimney shaft was
+recognized as an important architectural feature, and was of
+considerable elevation in consequence of the great height of the roofs.
+In the chateau of Meillant (1503) the chimney shafts are decorated with
+angle buttresses, niches and canopies, in the late Flamboyant style; and
+at Chambord and Blois they are carved with pilasters and niches with
+panelling above, carved with the salamander and other armorial devices.
+In the Roman palaces they are sometimes masked by the balustrades, and
+(when shown) take the form of sepulchral urns, as if to disguise their
+real purpose. Though not of a very architectural character, the chimneys
+at Venice present perhaps the greatest variety of terminations, and as a
+rule the smoke comes out on the sides and not through the top.
+    (R. P. S.)
+
+  _Factory Chimneys_.--Chimneys, besides removing the products of
+  combustion, also serve to provide the fire with the air requisite for
+  burning the fuel. The hot air in the shaft, being lighter than the
+  cold air outside it, tends to rise, and as it does so air flows in at
+  the bottom to take its place. An ascending current is thus established
+  in the chimney, its velocity, other things being equal, varying as the
+  square root of the height of the shaft above the grate. The velocity
+  also increases with increase of temperature in the gas column, but
+  since the weight of each cubic foot grows less as the gases expand,
+  the amount of smoke discharged by a chimney does not increase
+  indefinitely with the temperature; a maximum is reached when the
+  difference in temperature between the gases in the shaft and the
+  outside air is about 600 deg. F., but the rate of increase is very slow
+  after the difference has passed about 300 deg. F. In designing a chimney
+  the dimensions (height and sectional area) have to be so proportioned
+  to the amount of fuel to be burnt in the various furnaces connected
+  with it that at the temperature employed the products of combustion
+  are effectively removed, due allowance being made for the frictional
+  retardation of the current against the sides of the flues and shafts
+  and in passing through the fire. The velocity of the current in actual
+  chimneys varies widely, from 3 or 4 to 50 or 60 ft. a second.
+  Increased velocity, obtainable by increasing the height of the shaft,
+  gives increased delivering capacity, but a speed of 10 or 12 ft. a
+  second is regarded as good practice. Ordinary factory chimneys do not
+  in general exceed 180 or 200 ft. in height, but in some cases,
+  especially when, as in chemical works, they are employed to get rid of
+  objectionable vapours, they have been made double that height, or even
+  more. In section they are round, octagonal or square. The circular
+  form offers the least resistance to wind pressure, and for a given
+  height and sectional area requires less material to secure stability
+  than the octagonal and still less than the square; on the other hand,
+  there is more liability to cracking. Brick is the material commonly
+  used, but many chimneys are now made of iron or steel. Reinforced
+  concrete is also employed.
+
+
+
+
+CHIMNEYPIECE, the term given to the projecting hood which in medieval
+times was built over a fireplace to catch the smoke, and at a later date
+to the decorative framework, often carried up to the ceiling.
+"Chimneypiece" or "mantelpiece" is now the general term for the jambs,
+mantelshelf and external accessories of a fireplace. For many centuries
+the chimneypiece was the most ornamental and most artistic feature of a
+room, but as fireplaces have become smaller, and modern methods of
+heating have been introduced, its artistic as well as its practical
+significance has grown less.
+
+  Up to the 12th century rooms were warmed entirely by a hypocaust, or
+  with braziers, or by fires on the hearth, the smoke finding its way up
+  to a lantern in the roof. The earliest chimneypiece known is that in
+  the King's House at Southampton, with Norman shafts in the joints
+  carrying a segmental arch, which is attributed to the first half of
+  the 12th century. At a later date, in consequence of the greater width
+  of the fireplace, flat or segmental arches were thrown across and
+  constructed with voussoirs, sometimes joggled, the thrust of the arch
+  being resisted by bars of iron at the back. In domestic work of the
+  14th century the chimneypiece was greatly increased in order to allow
+  of the members of the family sitting on either side of the fire on the
+  hearth, and in these cases great beams of timber were employed to
+  carry the hood; in such cases the fireplace was so deeply recessed as
+  to become externally an important architectural feature, as at Haddon
+  Hall. The largest chimneypiece existing is in the great hall of the
+  Palais des Comtes at Poitiers, which is nearly 30 ft. wide, having two
+  intermediate supports to carry the hood; the stone flues are carried
+  up between the tracery of an immense window above. In the early
+  Renaissance style, the chimneypiece of the Palais de Justice at Bruges
+  is a magnificent example; the upper portion, carved in oak, extends
+  the whole width of the room, with statues of nearly life size of
+  Charles V. and others of the royal family of Spain. The most prolific
+  modern designer of chimneypieces was J.B. Piranesi, who in 1765
+  published a large series, on which at a later date the Empire style in
+  France was based. In France the finest work of the early Renaissance
+  period is to be found in the chimneypieces, which are of infinite
+  variety of design.
+
+  The English chimneypieces of the early 17th century, when the purer
+  Italian style was introduced by Inigo Jones, were extremely simple in
+  design, sometimes consisting only of the ordinary mantelpiece, with
+  classic architraves and shelf, the upper part of the chimney breast
+  being panelled like the rest of the room. In the latter part of the
+  century the classic architrave was abandoned in favour of a much
+  bolder and more effective moulding, as in the chimneypieces at Hampton
+  Court, and the shelf was omitted.
+
+  In the 18th century the architects returned to the Inigo Jones classic
+  type, but influenced by the French work of Louis XIV. and XV. Figure
+  sculpture, generally represented by graceful figures on each side,
+  which assisted to carry the shelf, was introduced, and the overmantel
+  developed into an elaborate frame for the family portrait over the
+  chimneypiece. Towards the close of the 18th century the designs of the
+  brothers Adam superseded all others, and a century later they came
+  again into fashion. The Adam mantels are in wood enriched with
+  ornament, cast in moulds, sometimes copied from the carved wood
+  decoration of old times.    (R. P. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIMPANZEE (_Chimpanzi_), the vernacular name of the highest species of
+the man-like apes, forming the typical representatives of the genus
+_Anthropopithecus_. Chimpanzees, of which there appear to be at least
+two species, range through the tropical forest-zone of Africa from the
+west coast to Uganda. The typical _A. troglodytes_ has been long known
+to European science, Dr Tyson, a celebrated surgeon and anatomist of his
+time, having dissected a young individual, and described it, as a pigmy
+or _Homo sylvestris_, in a book published in 1699. Of this baby
+chimpanzee the skeleton may be seen in the Natural History branch of the
+British Museum alongside the volume in which it is described. It was
+not, however, till 1788 that the chimpanzee received what is now
+recognized as a scientific name, having been christened in that year
+_Simia troglodytes_ by the naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin. In his
+classification it was included in the same genus as the orang-utan; and
+it has recently been suggested that the name _Simia_ pertains of right
+to the chimpanzee rather than to the orang-utan. Between the typical
+West African chimpanzee and the gorilla (q.v.) there is no difficulty in
+drawing a distinction; the difficulty comes in when we have to deal with
+the aberrant races, or species, of chimpanzee, some of which are so
+gorilla-like that it is by no means easy to determine to which group
+they really pertain. In height the adult male chimpanzee of the typical
+form does not exceed 5 ft., and the colour of the hair is a full black,
+while the skin, especially that of the face, is light-coloured; the ears
+are remarkably large and prominent, and the hands reach only a short
+distance below the knees. The head is rounded and short, without
+prominent beetling ridges above the eyes, or a strong crest along the
+middle line of the back of the skull; and the tusks of the old males are
+of no very great length and prominence. Moreover, there is no very
+marked difference in the size of the two sexes. Gentleness and docility
+are specially characteristic of the species, even when full-grown; while
+in the native state its habits are thoroughly arboreal.
+
+  In central Africa the chimpanzees assume more or less marked
+  gorilla-like traits. The first of these aberrant types is
+  Schweinfurth's chimpanzee (_Anthropopithecus troglodytes
+  schweinfurthi_), which inhabits the Niam-Niam country, and, although
+  evidently belonging to the same species as the typical race, exhibits
+  certain gorilla-like features. These traits are still more developed
+  in the bald chimpanzee (_A. tschego_) of Loango, the Gabun, and other
+  regions of French Congo, which takes its English name from the sparse
+  covering of hair on the head. The most gorilla-like of all the races
+  is, however, the kulu-kamba chimpanzee (_A. kulu-kamba_) of du
+  Chaillu, which inhabits central Africa. The celebrated ape "Mafuka,"
+  which lived in the Dresden zoological gardens during 1875, and came
+  from Loango, was apparently a member of this species, although it was
+  at one time regarded as a hybrid between a chimpanzee and a gorilla.
+  These gorilla-like traits were still more pronounced in "Johanna," a
+  female chimpanzee living in Barnum & Bailey's show in 1899, which has
+  been described and figured by Dr A. Keith. The heavy ridges over the
+  brow, originally supposed to be distinctive of the gorilla, are
+  particularly well marked in "Johanna," and they would doubtless be
+  still more noticeable in the male of the same race, which seems to be
+  undoubtedly du Chaillu's kulu-kamba. Still the large size and
+  prominence of the ears proclaim that both "Mafuka" and "Johanna" were
+  chimpanzees and not gorillas. A gorilla-like feature in "Johanna" is,
+  however, the presence of large folds at the sides (_ala_) of the
+  nostrils, which are absent in the typical chimpanzee, but in the
+  gorilla extend down to the upper lip. Chimpanzees exhibit great
+  docility in confinement, where, however, they seldom survive for any
+  great length of time. They likewise display a much higher degree of
+  intelligence than any of the other man-like apes. (See PRIMATES.)
+      (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHINA, a country of eastern Asia, the principal division of the Chinese
+empire. In addition to China proper the Chinese Empire includes
+Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and Sin-kiang (East Turkestan, Kulja,
+Dzungaria, &c., _i.e._ all the Chinese dependencies lying between
+Mongolia on the north and Tibet on the south). Its most southern point
+is in 18 deg. 50' N.; its most northern in 53 deg. 25' N.; its most western in
+74 deg. E., and its most eastern in 135 deg. E. It lies, however, mainly between
+20 deg. and 50 deg. N. and 80 deg. and 130 deg. E. It is considerably larger than the
+whole of Europe. Though its area has not been exactly ascertained the
+various estimates closely approximate, varying between 4,277,000 and
+4,300,000 sq. m. It is bounded N.W., N. and N.E. by Asiatic Russia,
+along a frontier extending some 6000 m.; E. by Korea and those parts of
+the Pacific known as the Yellow Sea and China Sea; S. and S.W. by the
+China Sea, French Indo-China, Upper Burma and the Himalayan states. It
+is narrowest in the extreme west. Chinese Turkestan along the meridian
+of Kashgar (76 deg. E.) has a breadth of but 250 m. It rapidly broadens and
+for the greater part of its area is over 1800 m. across in a direct N.
+and S. line. Its greatest length is from the N.E. corner of Manchuria to
+the S.W. confines of Tibet, a distance of 3100 m. in a direct line. Its
+seaboard, about 5000 m. following the indentations of the coast, is
+almost, wholly in China proper, but the peninsula of Liao-tung and also
+the western shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung are in Manchuria.
+
+China[1] proper or the Eighteen Provinces (_Shih-pa-sheng_) occupies the
+south-eastern part of the empire. It is bounded N. by Mongolia, W. by
+Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. by Burma, S. by Tongking and the gulf of that
+name, S.E. by the South China Sea, E. by the East China Sea, the Yellow
+Sea, Gulf of Chih-li and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 1,500,000
+sq. m.
+
+This vast country is separated from the rest of continental Asia by
+lofty tablelands and rugged mountain ranges, which determine the general
+course--west to east--of its principal rivers. On the north and west the
+Mongolian and Tibetan tablelands present towards China steep escarpments
+across which are very few passes. On the S.W. and S., on the borders of
+Yun-nan, high mountains and deep valleys separate China from Burma and
+Tongking. On the narrow N.E. frontier the transition from the Manchurian
+plateau to the alluvial plain of northern China is not abrupt, but,
+before the advent of railways, Manchuria afforded few and difficult
+means of access to other regions. Thus China was almost cut off from the
+rest of the world save by sea routes.
+
+
+I. THE COUNTRY
+
+Western China consists of highlands often sparsely, and eastern China of
+lowlands densely peopled. Western China contains the only provinces
+where the population is under 100 per sq. m. From the Tibetan and
+Mongolian tablelands project mountain ranges which, ramifying over the
+western region, enclose elevated level tracts and lower basins and
+valleys. East of this mountainous region, which extends into central
+China and covers probably fully half of the kingdom, are, in the north
+a great alluvial plain and in the south a vast calcareous tableland
+traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation (see Sec.Sec. _Mountains_ and
+_Geology_). In north-eastern China there is only one mountain system,
+the group of hills---highest peak 5060 ft.---forming the Shan-tung
+peninsula. This peninsula was formerly an island, but has been attached
+to the mainland by the growth of the alluvial plain. Besides the broad
+division of the country into western and eastern China it may also be
+considered as divided into three regions by the basins of its chief
+rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow river) in the north, the Yangtsze-kiang in
+the centre, and the Si-kiang (West river) in the south. In the northern
+provinces of Kan-suh and Shen-si the basins of the Hwang-ho and
+Yangtsze-kiang are separated by a mountain chain with various names--the
+eastern termination of the Kuen-lun range of central Asia. These
+mountains, in China, attain, in the Tsing-ling Shan, a maximum elevation
+of 13,000 ft. East of Shen-si, in Ho-nan the Fu-niu-shan continue the
+range, but with decreasing elevation, and beyond this the deltaic plain
+is entered.
+
+The watershed between the Yangtsze-kiang and that of the Si-kiang is
+less clearly marked. It traverses the immense tableland which occupies a
+great part of the south-west provinces of Yun-nan and Kwei-chow and is
+continued eastward by the lower tableland of Kwang-si and the Nanshan
+hills (whose elevation seldom exceeds 6000 ft.). The basin of the
+Yangtsze-kiang forms the whole of central China. Its western border, in
+Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan, is wholly mountainous, with heights exceeding
+19,000 ft. Central Sze-ch'uen, which is shut in by these mountains on
+the west, by the Yun-nan and Kwei-chow plateau on the south, by the
+Kiu-lung range on the north, and by highlands eastward (save for the
+narrow valley through which the Yangtsze-kiang forces its way), is a
+vast red sandstone tableland of about 1600 ft. elevation. It is
+exceedingly fertile and supports a dense population. Eastward of
+Sze-ch'uen the Yangtsze valley is studded with lakes. Finally it enters
+the deltaic plain. The basin of the Si-kiang fills the two southern
+provinces of Kwang-si and Kwang-tung and contains no very striking
+orographic features. It may be added that in the extreme S.W. portion of
+China is part of a fourth drainage area. Here the Mekong, Salween,
+Song-koi (Red river), &c. flow south to Indo-China.
+
+  _The Coast_.--The coast-line, following all the minor indentations,
+  is reckoned at over 4500 m.; if only the larger inlets and
+  promontories be regarded, the coast-line is about 2150 m. in length.
+  Its shape is that of a semicircle, with its most easterly point midway
+  (30 deg. N.) between its northern and southern extremities. At either end
+  of this semicircular sweep lies a peninsula, and beyond the peninsula
+  a gulf. In the north are the peninsula of Shan-tung and the gulf of
+  Chih-li; in the south the Lien-chow peninsula and the gulf of
+  Tongking. Due south of Lien-chow peninsula, separated rom it by a
+  narrow strait, is Hai-nan, the only considerable island of China. From
+  the northern point of the gulf of Chih-li to 30 deg. N., where is
+  Hang-chow bay, the shores are flat and alluvial save where the
+  Shan-tung peninsula juts out. Along this stretch there are few good
+  natural harbours, except at the mouths of rivers and in the Shan-tung
+  promontory; the sea is shallow and has many shoals. The waters
+  bordering the coast of Chih-li are partly frozen in winter; at 10 m.
+  from the shore the water is only 20 ft. deep. The proximity of Peking
+  gives its few ports importance; that of Taku is at the mouth of the
+  Peiho. In Shan-tung, deeply indented on its southern coast, are the
+  ports of Chi-fu, Wei-hai-wei and Tsing-tao (the last in Kiao-chow
+  bay). South of Shan-tung and north of the mouth of the Yangtsze huge
+  sandbanks border the coast, with narrow channels between them and the
+  shore. The estuary of the Yangtsze is 60 m. across; it contains
+  islands and sandbanks, but there is easy access to Wusung (Shanghai)
+  and other river ports. The bay of Hangchow, as broad at its entrance
+  as the Yangtsze estuary, forms the mouth of the Tsien-tang-kiang. The
+  Chusan and other groups of islands lie across the entrance of the bay.
+
+  South of Hang-chow bay the character of the coast alters. In place of
+  the alluvial plain, with flat, sandy and often marshy shores, the
+  coast is generally hilly, often rocky and abrupt; it abounds in small
+  indentations and possesses numerous excellent harbours; in this region
+  are Fu-chow, Amoy, Swatow, Hongkong, Macao, Canton and other
+  well-known ports. The whole of this coast is bordered by small
+  islands. Formosa lies opposite the S.E. coast, the channel between it
+  and Fu-kien province being about 100 m. wide. Formosa protects the
+  neighbouring regions of China from the typhoons experienced farther
+  north and farther south.
+
+
+    Deltaic Plain.
+
+  _Surface_.---As already indicated, one of the most noticeable features
+  in the surface of China is the immense deltaic plain in the
+  north-eastern portion of the country, which, curving round the
+  mountainous districts of Shan-tung, extends for about 700 m. in a
+  southerly direction from the neighbourhood of Peking and varies from
+  150 to 500 m. in breadth. This plain is the delta of the Yellow river
+  and, to some extent, that of the Yangtsze-kiang also. Beginning in the
+  prefecture of Yung-p'ing Fu, in the province of Chih-li, its outer
+  limit passes in a westerly direction as far as Ch'ang-p'ing Chow,
+  north-west of Peking. Thence running a south-south-westerly course it
+  passes westward of Cheng-ting Fu and Kwang-p'ing Fu till it reaches
+  the upper waters of the Wei river in Ho-nan. From this point it turns
+  westward and crosses the Hwang-ho or Yellow river in the prefecture of
+  Hwai-k'ing. Leaving this river it takes a course a little to the east
+  of south, and passing west of Ju-ning Fu, in the province of Ho-nan,
+  it turns in a more easterly direction as far as Luchow Fu. From this
+  prefecture an arm of the plain, in which lies the Chao Lake, stretches
+  southward from the Hwai river to the Yangtsze-kiang, and trending
+  eastward occupies the region between that river and Hangchow Bay. To
+  the north of this arm rises a hilly district, in the centre of which
+  stands Nanking. The greater part of this vast plain descends very
+  gently towards the sea, and is generally below the level of the Yellow
+  river, hence the disastrous inundations which so often accompany the
+  rise of that river. Owing to the great quantity of soil which is
+  brought down by the waters of the Yellow river, and to the absence of
+  oceanic currents, this delta is rapidly increasing and the adjoining
+  seas are as rapidly becoming shallower. As an instance, it is said
+  that the town of P'utai was one Chinese mile[2] west of the seashore
+  in the year 200 B.C., and in 1730 it was 140 m. inland, thus giving a
+  yearly encroachment upon the sea of about 100 ft. Again,
+  Sien-shwuy-kow on the Peiho was on the seashore in A.D. 500, and it is
+  now about 18 m. inland.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  Some of the ranges connected with the mountain system of central Asia
+  which enter the western provinces of China have been mentioned above,
+  others may be indicated here. In the eastern portion of Tibet the
+  Kuen-lun range throws off a number of branches, which spread first of
+  all in a south-easterly direction and eventually take a north and
+  south course, partly in the provinces of Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan, where
+  they divide the beds of the rivers which flow into Siam and French
+  Indo-China, as well as the principal northern tributaries of the
+  Yangtsze-kiang. In the north-west, traversing the western portion of
+  the province of Kan-suh, are parallel ranges running N.W. and S.E. and
+  forming a prolongation of the northern Tibetan mountains. They are
+  known as the Lung-shan, Richthofen and Nan-shan, and join on the
+  south-east the Kuen-lun range. The Richthofen range (locally called
+  Tien-shan, or Celestial Mountains) attains elevations of over 20,000
+  ft. Several of its peaks are snowclad, and there are many glaciers.
+  Forming the northern frontier of the province of Sze-ch'uen run the
+  Min-shan and the Kiu-lung (or Po-meng) ranges, which, entering China
+  in 102 deg. E., extend in a general easterly course as far as 112 deg. E. in
+  the province of Hu-peh. These ranges have an average elevation of 8000
+  and 11,000 ft. respectively. In the south a number of parallel ranges
+  spread from the Yun-nan plateau in an easterly direction as far as the
+  province of Kwang-tung. Then turning north-eastward they run in lines
+  often parallel with the coast, and cover large areas of the provinces
+  of Fu-kien, Kiang-si, Cheh-kiang, Hu-nan and southern Ngan-hui, until
+  they reach the Yangtsze-kiang; the valley of that river from the
+  Tung-ting Lake to Chin-kiang Fu forming their northern boundary. In
+  Fu-kien these hills attain the character of a true mountain range with
+  heights of from 6500 to nearly 10,000 ft. Besides the chief ranges
+  there are the Tai-hang Mountains in Shan-si, and many others, among
+  which may be mentioned the ranges--part of the escarpment of the
+  Mongolian plateau--which form the northern frontier of Chih-li. Here
+  the highest peak is Ta-kuang-ting-tzu (6500 ft.), about 300 m. N.N.E.
+  of Peking and immediately north of Wei Ch'ang (the imperial hunting
+  grounds).
+
+
+    The Yellow River.
+
+  _Rivers and Canals._--The rivers of China are very numerous and there
+  are many canals. In the north the rivers are only navigable by small
+  craft; elsewhere they form some of the most frequented highways in the
+  country. The two largest rivers, the Yangtsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho
+  (Yellow river), are separately noticed. The Hwang-ho (length about
+  2400 m.) has only one important tributary in China, the Wei-ho, which
+  rises in Kan-suh and flows through the centre of Shen-si. Below the
+  confluence the Hwang-ho enters the plains. According to the Chinese
+  records this portion of the river has changed its course nine times
+  during 2500 years, and has emptied itself into the sea at different
+  mouths, the most northerly of which is represented as having been in
+  about 39 deg. N., or in the neighbourhood of the present mouth of the
+  Peiho, and the most southerly being that which existed before the
+  change in 1851-1853, in 34 deg. N. Owing to its small value as a navigable
+  highway and to its propensity to inundate the regions in its
+  neighbourhood, there are no considerable towns on its lower course.
+
+
+    The Yangtsze-kiang.
+
+  The Yangtsze-kiang is the chief waterway of China. The river, flowing
+  through the centre of the country, after a course of 2900 m., empties
+  itself into the Yellow Sea in about 31 deg. N. Unlike the Yellow river,
+  the Yangtsze-kiang is dotted along its navigable portions with many
+  rich and populous cities, among which are Nanking, An-ch'ing
+  (Ngank'ing), Kiu-kiang, Hankow and I-ch'ang. From its mouth to
+  I-ch'ang, about 1000 m., the river is navigable by large steamers.
+  Above this last-named city the navigation becomes impossible for any
+  but light native craft or foreign vessels specially constructed for
+  the navigation, by reason of the rapids which occur at frequent
+  intervals in the deep mountain gorges through which the river runs
+  between Kwei-chow and I-ch'ang. Above Kwei-chow it receives from the
+  north many tributaries, notably the Min, which water the low
+  table-land of central Sze-ch'uen. The main river itself has in this
+  province a considerable navigable stretch, while below I-ch'ang it
+  receives the waters of numerous navigable affluents. The Yangtsze
+  system is thus all important in the economic and commercial
+  development of China.
+
+  Perhaps the most remarkable of the affluents of the Yangtsze is the
+  Han-kiang or Han river. It rises in the Po-meng mountains to the north
+  of the city of Ning-kiang Chow in Shen-si. Taking a generally easterly
+  course from its source as far as Fan-cheng, it from that point takes a
+  more southerly direction and empties itself into the Yangtsze-kiang at
+  Han-kow, "the mouth of the Han." Here it is only 200 ft. wide, while
+  higher up it widens to 2600 ft. It is navigable by steamers for 300 m.
+  The summer high-water line is for a great part of its course, from
+  I-ch'eng Hien to Han-kow, above the level of its banks. Near
+  Sien-t'ao-chen the elevation of the plain above low water is no more
+  than 1 ft., and in summer the river rises about 26 ft. above its
+  lowest level. To protect themselves against inundations the natives
+  have here, as elsewhere, thrown up high embankments on both sides of
+  the river, but at a distance from the natural banks of about 50 to 100
+  ft. This intervening space is flooded every year, and by the action of
+  the water new layers of sand and soil are deposited every summer, thus
+  strengthening the embankments from season to season.
+
+  The Hwai-ho is a large river of east central China flowing between the
+  Hwang-ho and the Yangtsze-kiang. The Hwai-ho and its numerous
+  affluents (it is said to have 72 tributaries) rise in Ho-nan. The main
+  river flows through the centre of Ngan-hui, in which province it
+  receives from the N.W. the Sha-ho, Fei-ho and other important
+  affluents. Formerly it received through the Sha-ho part of the waters
+  of the Hwang-ho. The Hwai-ho flows into the Hungtso lake, through
+  which it feeds the Grand Canal, not far from the old course of the
+  Hwang-ho, and probably at one time joined that river not far from its
+  mouth. It has a length of about 800 m. and is navigable from the point
+  where it leaves the hill country of Ho-nan to Lake Hungtso. It is
+  subject to violent floods, which inundate the surrounding country for
+  a distance of 10 to 20 m. Many of its tributaries are also navigable
+  for considerable distances.
+
+
+    Grand Canal.
+
+  Next in importance to the Yangtsze-kiang as a water highway is the
+  Yun-ho, or, as it is generally known in Europe, the Grand Canal. This
+  magnificent artificial river reaches from Hang-chow Fu in the province
+  of Cheh-kiang to Tientsin in Chih-li, where it unites with the Peiho,
+  and thus may be said to extend to Tung-chow in the neighbourhood of
+  Peking. According to the itineraries published by Pere Gandar, the
+  total length of the canal is 3630 _li_, or about 1200 m. A rough
+  measurement, taking account only of the main bends of the canal, makes
+  its length 850 m. After leaving Hang-chow the canal passes round the
+  eastern border of the Tai-hu or Great Lake, surrounding in its course
+  the beautiful city of Su-chow, and then trends in a generally
+  north-westerly direction through the fertile districts of Kiang-su as
+  far as Chin-kiang on the Yangtsze-kiang. In this, the southern
+  section, the slope is gentle and water is plentiful (from 7 ft. at low
+  water to 11 ft., and occasionally 13 ft. at high water). Between
+  Su-chow and Chin-kiang the canal is often over 100 ft. wide, and its
+  sides are in many places faced with stone. It is spanned by fine stone
+  bridges, and near its banks are many memorial arches and lofty
+  pagodas. In the central portion of the canal, that is between
+  Chin-kiang and Tsing-kiang-pu, at which latter place it crosses the
+  dry channel which marks the course of the Yellow river before 1852,
+  the current is strong and difficult to ascend in the upward (northern)
+  journey. This part of the canal skirts several lakes and is fed by the
+  Hwai-ho as it issues from the Hungtso lake. The country lying west of
+  the canal is higher than its bed; while the country east is lower than
+  the canal. The two regions are known respectively as Shang-ho (above
+  the river) and Ssia-ho (below the river). Waste weirs opening on the
+  Ssia-ho (one of the great rice-producing areas of China) discharge the
+  surplus water in flood seasons. The northern and considerably the
+  longest section of the canal extends from the old bed of the Yellow
+  river to Tientsin. It largely utilizes existing rivers and follows
+  their original windings. Between Tsing-kiang-pu and the present course
+  of the Yellow river the canal trends N.N.W., skirting the highlands of
+  Shan-tung. In this region it passes through a series of lagoons, which
+  in summer form one lake--Chow-yang. North of that lake on the east
+  bank of the canal, is the city of Tsi-ning-chow. About 25 m. N. of
+  that city the highest level of the canal is reached at the town of Nan
+  Wang. Here the river Wen enters the canal from the east, and about 30
+  m. farther N. the Yellow river is reached. On the west side of the
+  canal, at the point where the Yellow river now cuts across it, there
+  is laid down in Chinese maps of the 18th century a dry channel which
+  is described as being that once followed by the Yellow river, i.e.
+  before it took the channel it abandoned in 1851-1853. The passage of
+  the Yellow river to the part of the canal lying north of that stream
+  is difficult, and can only be effected at certain levels of the
+  river. Frequently the waters of the river are either too low or the
+  current is too strong to permit a passage. Leaving this point the
+  canal passes through a well-wooded and hilly country west of
+  Tung-p'ing Chow and east of Tung-ch'ang Fu. At Lin-ching Chow it is
+  joined at right angles by the Wei river in the midst of the city. Up
+  to this point, i.e. from Tsing-kiang-pu to Lin-ching Chow, a distance
+  of over 300 m., navigation is difficult and the water-supply often
+  insufficient. The differences of level, 20 to 30 ft., are provided for
+  by barrages over which the boats--having discharged their cargo--are
+  hauled by windlasses. Below the junction with the Wei the canal
+  borrows the channel of the river and again becomes easily navigable.
+  Crossing the frontier into Chih-li, between Te Chow and Tsang Chow,
+  which it passes to the west, it joins the Peiho at Tientsin, after
+  having received the waters of the Keto river in the neighbourhood of
+  Tsing Hien.[3]
+
+  The most ancient part of the canal is the section between the Yangtsze
+  and the Hwai-ho. This part is thought, on the strength of a passage in
+  one of the books of Confucius, to have been built c. 486 B.C. It was
+  repaired and enlarged in the 3rd century A.D. The southern part,
+  between the Yangtsze and Hang-chow, was built early in the 7th century
+  A.D. The northern part is stated to have been constructed in the three
+  years 1280-1283. The northern portion of the canal is now of little
+  use as a means of communication between north and south.[4] It is
+  badly built, neglected and charged with the mud-laden waters of the
+  Yellow river. The "tribute fleet" bearing rice to Peking still uses
+  this route; but the rice is now largely forwarded by sea. The central
+  and southern portions of the canal are very largely used.
+
+  The Peiho (length about 350 m.) is of importance as being the high
+  waterway to Peking. Taking its rise in the Si-shan, or Western
+  Mountains, beyond Peking, it passes the city of T'sung-chow, the port
+  of Peking, and Tientsin, where it meets the waters of the Hun-ho and
+  empties itself into the gulf of Chih-li at the village of Taku. The
+  Peiho is navigable for small steamers as far as Tientsin during the
+  greater part of the year, but from the end of November to the
+  beginning of March it is frozen up.
+
+
+    The Si-kiang.
+
+  In the southern provinces the Si-kiang, or Western river, is the most
+  considerable. It has a length of over 1000 m. This river takes its
+  rise in the prefecture of Kwang-nan Fu in Yun-nan, whence it reaches
+  the frontier of Kwang-si at a distance of about 90 li from its source.
+  Then trending in a north-easterly direction it forms the boundary
+  between the two provinces for about 150 li. From this point it takes a
+  generally south-easterly course, passing the cities of Tsien Chow,
+  Fung-e Chow, Shang-lin Hien, Lung-ngan Hien, Yung-kang Chow and
+  Nan-ning Fu to Yung-shan Hien. Here it makes a bend to the north-east,
+  and continues this general direction as far as Sin-chow Fu, a distance
+  of 800 li, where it meets and joins the waters of the Kien-kiang from
+  the north. Its course is then easterly, and after passing Wu-chow Fu
+  it crosses the frontier into Kwang-tung. In this part of its course it
+  flows through a gorge 3 m. long and in places but 270 yds. in width.
+  Both above and below this gorge it is 1 m. wide. Some 30 m. above
+  Canton it divides into two main and several small branches. The
+  northern branch, called Chu-kiang, or Pearl river, flows past Fat-shan
+  and Canton and reaches the sea through the estuary called the Bocca
+  Tigris or Bogue, at the mouth of which is the island of Hong-Kong. The
+  southern branch, which retains the name of Si-kiang, reaches the sea
+  west of Macao. Near the head of its delta the Si-kiang receives the
+  Pei-kiang, a considerable river which flows through Kwang-tung in a
+  general N. to S. direction. Like the Yangtsze-kiang the Si-kiang is
+  known by various names in different parts of its course. From its
+  source to Nan-ning Fu in Kwang-si it is called the Si-yang-kiang, or
+  river of the Western Ocean; from Nan-ning Fu to Sin-chow Fu it is
+  known as the Yu-kiang, or the Bending river; and over the remainder of
+  its course it is recognized by the name of the Si-kiang, or Western
+  river. The Si-kiang is navigable as far as Shao-king, 130 m., for
+  vessels not drawing more than 15 ft. of water, and vessels of a light
+  draught may easily reach Wu-chow Fu, in Kwang-si, which is situated 75
+  m. farther up. In winter the navigation is difficult above Wu-chow Fu.
+  Above that place there is a rapid at low water, but navigation is
+  possible to beyond Nan-ning Fu.
+
+  [Illustration: CHINA]
+
+  _Lakes._--There are numerous lakes in the central provinces of China.
+  The largest of these is the Tung-t'ing in Hu-nan, which, according to
+  the Chinese geographers, is upwards of 800 li, or 266 m., in
+  circumference. In native gazetteers its various portions are known
+  under distinct names; thus it is said to include the Ts'ing-ts'ao, or
+  Green Grass Lake; the Ung, or Venerable Lake; the Chih-sha, or Red
+  Sand Lake; the Hwang-yih, or Imperial Post-house Lake; the Ngan-nan,
+  or Peaceful Southern Lake; and the Ta-tung, or Great Deep Lake. In
+  ancient times it went by the name of the Kiu-kiang Hu, or Lake of the
+  Nine Rivers, from the fact that nine rivers flowed into it. Its chief
+  affluents are the Siang-kiang, which rises in the highlands in the
+  north of Kwang-si and flows in a general N.N.E. direction, and the
+  Yuen-kiang, which flows N. and then E. from the eastern border of
+  Kwei-chow. The lake is connected with the Yangtsze-kiang by two
+  canals, the Taping and the Yochow Fu. In summer it is fed by the
+  overflow from the Yangtsze-kiang; in winter it pours its waters into
+  that river through the Yochow Fu canal. During the winter and spring
+  the water of the lake is so low that the shallow portions become
+  islands, separated by rivers such as the Siang and Yuen, and
+  numberless streams; but in summer, owing to the rise in the waters of
+  the Yangtsze-kiang, the whole basin of the lake is filled. It is then
+  about 75 m. long and 60 m. broad. About 180 m. E. of the Tung-t'ing
+  lake is the Poyang lake, which occupies the low-lying part of the
+  province of Kiang-si, and is connected with the Yangtsze by the Hu-kow
+  canal. The Poyang lake is also subject to a wide difference between
+  high and low water, but not quite to the same extent as the Tung-t'ing
+  lake, and its landmarks are more distinctly defined. It is about 90 m.
+  long by 20 broad. The T'ai lake, in the neighbourhood of Su-chow Fu,
+  is also celebrated for its size and the beauty of its surroundings. It
+  is about 150 m. in circumference, and is dotted over with islands, on
+  which are built temples for the devotees of religion, and
+  summer-houses for the votaries of pleasure from the rich and
+  voluptuous cities of Hang-chow and Su-chow. The boundary line between
+  the provinces of Cheh-kiang and Kiang-su crosses its blue waters, and
+  its shores are divided among thirteen prefectures. Besides these lakes
+  there are, among others, two in Yun-nan, the Kun-yang-hai (Tien-chi)
+  near Yun-nan Fu, which is 40 m. long and is connected with the
+  Yangtsze-kiang by the Pu-to river, and the Erh-hai (Urh-hai) to the
+  east of the city of Tali.
+
+  _The Great Wall._--Along the northern provinces of Chih-li, Shan-si,
+  Shen-si and Kan-suh, over 22 deg. of longitude (98 deg. to 120 deg. E.), stretches
+  the Great Wall of China, built to defend the country against foreign
+  aggression. It was begun in the 3rd century B.C., was repaired in the
+  15th century, and in the 16th century was extended by 300 m. Following
+  the windings the wall is 1500 m. long. Starting near the seashore[5]
+  at Shan-hai-kwan on the gulf of Liao-tung, where the Chinese and
+  Manchurian frontiers meet, it goes eastward past Peking (which is
+  about 35 m. to the south) and then trends S. and E. across Shan-si to
+  the Hwang-ho. From the neighbourhood of Peking to the Hwang-ho there
+  is an inner and an outer wall. The outer (northern) wall passes
+  through Kalgan, thus guarding the pass into Mongolia. A branch wall
+  separates the greater part of the western frontier of Chih-li from
+  Shan-si. West of the Hwang-ho the Great Wall forms the northern
+  frontier of Shen-si, and west of Shen-si it keeps near the northern
+  frontier of Kan-suh, following for some distance in that province the
+  north bank of the Hwang-ho. It ends at Kiayu-kwan (98 deg. 14'E.) just
+  west of Su-chow. This part of the wall was built to protect the one
+  main artery leading from central Asia to China through Kan-suh and
+  Shen-si by the valley of the Wei-ho, tributary of the Hwang-ho. There
+  is a branch wall in Kan-suh running west and south to protect the
+  Tibetan frontier. The height of the wall is generally from 20 to 30
+  ft., and at intervals of some 200 yds. are towers about 40 ft. high.
+  Its base is from 15 to 25 ft. thick and its summit 12 ft. wide. The
+  wall is carried over valleys and mountains, and in places is over 4000
+  ft. above sea-level. Military posts are still maintained at the chief
+  gates or passes--at Shan-hai-kwan, the Kalgan pass, the Yenmun pass
+  (at the N. of Shan-si) and the Kaiyu pass in the extreme west, through
+  which runs the caravan route to Barkal in Turkestan. Colonel A.W.S.
+  Wingate, who in the opening years of the 20th century visited the
+  Great Wall at over twenty places widely apart and gathered many
+  descriptions of it in other places, states that its position is
+  wrongly shown "on the maps of the day" (1907) in a number of places;
+  while in others it had ceased to exist, "the only places where it
+  forms a substantial boundary being in the valley bottoms, on the
+  passes and where it crosses main routes. These remarks apply with
+  particular force to the branch running south-west from the Nan-k'ow
+  pass and forming the boundary of Chih-li and Shan-si provinces." In
+  Colonel Wingate's opinion the wall was originally built by degrees and
+  in sections, not of hewn stone, but of round boulders and earth, the
+  different sections being repaired as they fell into ruin. "Only in the
+  valley bottoms and on the passes was it composed of masonry or
+  brickwork. The Mings rebuilt of solid masonry all those sections
+  through which led a likely road for invading Tatars to follow, or
+  where it could be seen at a distance from the sky-line." The building
+  of the wall "was a sufficiently simple affair," not to be compared
+  with the task of building the pyramids of Egypt.[6]
+
+  _Climate._--The climate over so vast an area as China necessarily
+  varies greatly. The southern parts of Yun-nan, Kwang-si and Kwang-tung
+  (including the city of Canton) lie within the tropics. The northern
+  zone (in which lies Peking) by contrast has a climate which resembles
+  that of northern Europe, with winters of Arctic severity. The central
+  zone (in which Shanghai is situated) has a generally temperate
+  climate. But over both northern and central China the influence of the
+  great plateau of Mongolia tends to establish uniform conditions
+  unusual in so large an area. The prevailing winds during summer--the
+  rainy season--are south-easterly, caused by heat and the ascending
+  current of air over the sandy deserts of central Asia, thus drawing in
+  a current from the Pacific Ocean. In the winter the converse takes
+  place, and the prevailing winds, descending from the Mongolian
+  plateau, are north and north-west, and are cold and dry. From October
+  to May the climate of central China is bracing and enjoyable. The
+  rainfall is moderate and regular.
+
+  In northern China the inequalities both of temperature and rainfall
+  are greater than in the central provinces. In the province of Chih-li,
+  for example, the heat of summer is as intense as is the cold of
+  winter. In summer the rains often render the plain swampy, while the
+  dry persistent westerly winds of spring create dust storms
+  (experienced in Peking from March to June). The rainfall is, however,
+  uncertain, and thus the harvests are precarious. The provinces of
+  Shan-tung and Shan-si are peculiarly liable to prolonged periods of
+  drought, with consequent severe famines such as that of 1877-1878,
+  when many millions died. In these regions the air is generally
+  extremely dry, and the daily variations of temperature consequent on
+  excessive radiation are much greater than farther south.
+
+  Accurate statistics both of heat and rainfall are available from a few
+  stations only. The rainfall on the southern coasts is said to be about
+  100 in. yearly; at Peking the rainfall is about 24 in. a year. In the
+  coast regions the temperatures of Peking, Shanghai and Canton may be
+  taken as typical of those of the northern, central and southern zones.
+  In Peking (39 deg. N.) the mean annual temperature is about 53 deg. F.,
+  the mean for January 23 deg., for July 79 deg. In Shanghai (31 deg. 11'
+  N.)[7] the mean annual temperature is 59 deg., the mean for January 36.2
+  deg., for July 80.4 deg. In Canton (23 deg. 15' N.) the mean annual
+  temperature is 70 deg., the mean for January 54 deg., for July 82 deg.
+  The range of temperature, even within the tropics, is noteworthy. At
+  Peking and Tientsin the thermometer in winter falls sometimes to 5 deg.
+  below zero and rises in summer to 105 deg. (at Taku 107 deg. has been
+  recorded); in Shanghai in winter the thermometer falls to 18 deg. and in
+  summer rises to 102 deg. In Canton frost is said to have been recorded,
+  but according to the _China Sea Directory_ the extreme range is from 38
+  deg. to 100 deg.[8] The climate of Shanghai, which resembles, but is
+  not so good as, that of the Yangtsze-kiang valley generally, is fairly
+  healthy, but there is an almost constant excess of moisture. The summer
+  months, July to September, are very hot, while snow usually falls in
+  December and January.
+
+  At Canton and along the south coast the hot season corresponds with
+  the S.W. monsoon; the cool season--mid October to end of April--with
+  the N.E. monsoon. Farther north, at Shanghai, the S.W. monsoon is
+  sufficiently felt to make the prevailing wind in summer southerly.
+
+  _Provinces._--China proper is divided into the following provinces:
+  Cheh-kiang, Chih-li, Fu-kien, Ngan-hui (An-hui), Ho-nan, Hu-nan,
+  Hu-peh, Kan-suh, Kiang-si, Kiang-su, Kwang-si, Kwang-tung, Kwei-chow,
+  Shan-si, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan. See the separate
+  notices of each province and the article on Sheng-king, the southern
+  province of Manchuria.    (X.)
+
+
+  _Geology._
+
+  The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of
+  the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary
+  deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin.
+  From the close of the Palaeozoic period down to the present day the
+  greater part of the empire has been dry land, and it is only in the
+  southern portion of Tibet and in the western Tian Shan that any
+  evidence of a Mesozoic sea has yet been found. The geological sequence
+  may be summarized as follows:--
+
+  _Archean._--Gneiss, crystalline schists, phyllites, crystalline
+  limestones. Exposed in Liao-tung, Shan-tung, Shan-si, northern Chih-li
+  and in the axis of the mountain ranges, e.g. the Kuen-lun and the
+  ranges of southern China.
+
+  _Sinian._--Sandstones, quartzites, limestones. Sometimes rests
+  unconformably upon the folded rocks of the Archaen system; but
+  sometimes, according to Loczy, there is no unconformity. Covers a
+  large area in the northern part of China proper; absent in the eastern
+  Kuen-lun; occurs again in the ranges of S.E. China. In Liao-tung
+  Cambrian fossils have been found near the summit of the series; they
+  belong to the oldest fauna known upon the earth, the fauna of the
+  _Olenellus_ zone. It is, however, not improbable that in many places
+  beds of considerably later date have been included in the Sinian
+  system.
+
+  _Ordovician._--Ordovician fossils have been found in the Lung-shan,
+  Kiang-su (about 50 m. east of Nan-king), in the south-west of
+  Cheh-kiang and in the south-east of Yun-nan. Ordovician beds probably
+  occur also in the Kuen-lun.
+
+  _Silurian._--Limestones and slates with Silurian corals and other
+  fossils have been found in Sze-ch'uen.
+
+  _Devonian._--Found in Kan-suh and in the Tsing-ling-shan, but becomes
+  much more important in southern China. Occurs also on the south of the
+  Tian-shan, in the Altyn-tagh, the Nan-shan and the western Kuen-lun.
+
+  _Carboniferous._--Covers a large area in northern China, in the
+  plateau of Shen-si and Shan-si, extending westwards in tongues between
+  the folds of the Kuen-lun. In this region it consists of a lower
+  series of limestones and an upper series of sandstones with seams of
+  coal, which may perhaps be in part of Permian age. This is probably
+  the most extensive coalfield in the world.
+
+  In south China the whole series consists chiefly of limestones, and
+  the coal seams are comparatively unimportant. Carboniferous beds are
+  also found in the Tian-shan, the Nan-shan, Kan-suh, on the southern
+  borders of the Gobi, &c.
+
+  _Mesozoic._--Marine Triassic beds containing fossils similar to those
+  of the German Muschelkalk have been found by Loczy near Chung-tien, on
+  the eastern border of the Tibetan plateau. Elsewhere, however, the
+  Mesozoic is represented chiefly by a red sandstone, which covers the
+  greater part of Sze-ch'uen and fills also a number of troughs amongst
+  the older beds of southern China. No marine fossils are found in this
+  sandstone, but remains of plants are numerous, and these belong to the
+  Rhaetic, Lias and Lower Oolite. No Cretaceous beds are known in China
+  excepting in S. Tibet (on the shores of the Tengri-nor) and in the
+  western portion of the Tian-shan.
+
+  _Cainozoic and Recent._--No marine deposits of this age are known.
+  Although the loess of the great plain and the sand of the desert are
+  still in process of formation, the accumulation of these deposits
+  probably began in the Tertiary period.
+
+  _Volcanic Rocks._--Amongst the Archean rocks granitic and other
+  intrusions are abundant, but of more modern volcanic activity the
+  remains are comparatively scanty. In south China there is no evidence
+  of Tertiary or Post-Tertiary volcanoes, but groups of volcanic cones
+  occur in the great plain of north China. In the Liao-tung and
+  Shan-tung peninsulas there are basaltic plateaus, and similar
+  outpourings occur upon the borders of Mongolia. All these outbursts
+  appear to be of Tertiary or later data.
+
+  _Loess._--One of the most characteristic deposits of China is the
+  loess, which not merely imparts to north China the physical character
+  of the scenery, but also determines the agricultural products, the
+  transport, and general economic life of the people of that part of the
+  country. It is peculiar to north China and it is not found south of
+  the Yangtsze. The loess is a solid but friable earth of
+  brownish-yellow colour, and when triturated with water is not unlike
+  loam, but differs from the latter by its highly porous and tubular
+  structure. The loess soil is extremely favourable to agriculture. (See
+  LOESS and _infra, Sec. Agriculture._)
+
+  The loess is called by the Chinese _Hwang-t'u_, or yellow earth, and
+  it has been suggested that the imperial title _Hwang-ti_, Yellow
+  Emperor or Ruler of the Yellow, had its origin in the fact that the
+  emperor is lord of the loess or yellow earth.
+
+
+    Structure.
+
+  Structurally, China proper may be divided into two regions, separated
+  from each other by the folded range of the Tsing-ling-shan, which is a
+  continuation of the folded belt of the Kuen-lun. North of this chain
+  the Palaeozoic beds are in general nearly horizontal, and the
+  limestones and sandstones of the Sinian and Carboniferous systems form
+  an extensive plateau which rises abruptly from the western margin of
+  the great plain of northern China. The plateau is deeply carved by the
+  rivers which flow through it; and the strata are often faulted, but
+  they are never sharply folded. South of the Tsing-ling-shan, on the
+  other hand, the Palaeozoic beds are thrown into a series of folds
+  running from W. 30 deg. S. to E. 30 deg. N., which form the hilly region
+  of southern China. Towards Tongking these folds probably bend southwards
+  and join the folds of Further India. Amongst these folded beds lie
+  trough-like depressions filled with the Mesozoic red sandstone which
+  lies unconformably upon the Palaeozoic rocks.
+
+  The present configuration of China is due, in a very considerable
+  degree, to faulting. The abrupt eastern edge of the Shan-si plateau,
+  where it overlooks the great plain, is a line of fault, or rather a
+  series of step faults, with the downthrow on the east; and von
+  Richthofen has shown reason to believe that this line of faulting is
+  continued far to the south and to the north. He believed also that the
+  present coast-line of China has to a large extent been determined by
+  similar faults with their downthrow on the east.
+
+  Concerning the structure of the central Asian plateau our knowledge is
+  still incomplete. The great mountain chains, the Kuen-lun, the
+  Nan-shan and the Tian-shan, are belts of folding; but the Mongolian
+  Altai is a horst--a strip of ancient rock lying between two faults and
+  with a depressed area upon each side. In the whole of this northern
+  region faulting, as distinct from folding, seems to have played an
+  important part. Along the southern margin of the Tian-shan there is a
+  remarkable trough-like depression which appears to lie between two
+  approximately parallel faults.    (P. LA.)
+
+
+  _Fauna_.
+
+  China lies within two zoological provinces or regions, its southern
+  portion forming a part of the Oriental or Indian region and having a
+  fauna close akin to that of the western Himalaya, Burma and Siam,
+  whereas the districts to the north of Fu-chow and south of the
+  Yangtsze-kiang lie within the eastern Holarctic (Palaearctic) region,
+  or rather the southern fringe of the latter, which has been separated
+  as the Mediterranean transitional region. Of these two divisions of
+  the Chinese fauna, the northern one is the more interesting, since it
+  forms the chief home of a number of peculiar generic types, and also
+  includes types represented elsewhere at the present day (exclusive in
+  one case of Japan) only in North America. The occurrence in China of
+  these types common to the eastern and western hemispheres is important
+  in regard to the former existence of a land-bridge between Eastern
+  Asia and North America by way of Bering Strait.
+
+  Of the types peculiar to China and North America the alligator of the
+  Yangtsze-kiang is generically identical with its Mississippi relative.
+  The spoon-beaked sturgeon of the Yangtsze and Hwang-ho is, however,
+  now separated, as _Psephurus_, from the closely allied American
+  _Polyodon_. Among insectivorous mammals the Chinese and Japanese
+  shrew-moles, respectively forming the genera _Uropsilus_ and
+  _Urotrichus_, are represented in America by _Neurotrichus_. The giant
+  salamander of the rivers of China and Japan and the Chinese mandarin
+  duck are by some included in the same genera as their American
+  representatives, while by others they are referred to genera apart.
+  Whichever view we take does not alter their close relationship. One
+  wapiti occurs on the Tibetan frontier, and others in Manchuria and
+  Amurland.
+
+  As regards mammals and birds, the largest number of generic and
+  specific types peculiar to China are met with in Sze-ch'uen. Foremost
+  among these is the great panda (_Aeluropus melanoleucus_),
+  representing a genus by itself, probably related to bears and to the
+  true panda (_Aelurus_), the latter of which has a local race in
+  Sze-ch'uen. Next come the snub-nosed monkeys (_Rhinopithecus_), of
+  which the typical species is a native of Sze-ch'uen, while a second is
+  found on the upper Mekong, and a third in the mountains of central
+  China. In the Insectivora the swimming-shrew (_Nectogale_) forms
+  another generic type peculiar to Sze-ch'uen, which is also the sole
+  habitat of the mole-like _Scaptochirus_, of _Uropsilus_, near akin to
+  the Japanese _Urotrichus_, of _Scaptonyx_, which connects the latter
+  with the moles (_Talpa_), and of _Neotetracus_, a relative of the
+  Malay rat-shrews (_Gymnura_). Here also may be mentioned the
+  raccoon-dog, forming the subgenus _Nyctereutes_, common to China and
+  Japan. The Himalayan black and the Malay bear have each a local race
+  in Sze-ch'uen, where the long-haired Fontanier's cat (_Felis tristis_)
+  and the Tibet cat (_F. scripta_) connect Indo-Malay species with the
+  American ocelots, while the bay cat (_F. temmincki_), a Malay type, is
+  represented by local forms in Sze-ch'uen and Fu-chow. The Amurland
+  leopard and Manchurian tiger likewise constitute local races of their
+  respective species.
+
+  Among ruminants, the Sze-ch'uen takin represents a genus (_Budorcas_)
+  found elsewhere in the Mishmi Hills and Bhutan, while serows
+  (_Nemorhaedus_) and gorals (_Urotragus_), allied to Himalayan and
+  Burmo-Malay types, abound. The Himalayan fauna is also represented by
+  a race of the Kashmir hangul deer. Of other deer, the original habitat
+  of Pere David's milu (_Elaphurus_), formerly kept in the Peking park,
+  is unknown. The sika group, which is peculiar to China, Japan and
+  Formosa, is represented by _Cervus hortulorum_ in Manchuria and the
+  smaller _C. manchuricus_ and _sika_ in that province and the Yangtsze
+  valley; while musk-deer (_Moschus_) abound in Kan-suh and Sze-ch'uen.
+  The small water-deer (_Hydropotes_ or _Hydrelaphus_) of the Yangtsze
+  valley represents a genus peculiar to the country, as do the three
+  species of tufted deer (_Elaphodus_), whose united range extends from
+  Sze-ch'uen to Ning-po and I-ch'ang. Muntjacs (_Cervulus_) are likewise
+  very characteristic of the country, to which the white-tailed,
+  plum-coloured species, like the Tenasserim _C. crinifrons_, are
+  peculiar. The occurrence of races of the wapiti in Manchuria and
+  Amurland has been already mentioned.
+
+  To refer in detail to the numerous forms of rodents inhabiting China
+  is impossible here, and it must suffice to mention that the
+  flying-squirrels (_Pteromys_) are represented by a large and handsome
+  species in Sze-ch'uen, where is also found the largest kind of
+  bamboo-rat (_Rhizomys_), the other species of which are natives of the
+  western Himalaya and the Malay countries. Dwarf hamsters of the genus
+  _Cricetulus_ are natives of the northern provinces. In the extreme
+  south, in Hai-nan, is found a gibbon ape (_Hylobates_), while langur
+  (_Semnopithecus_) and macaque monkeys (_Macacus_) likewise occur in
+  the south, one of the latter also inhabiting Sze-ch'uen.
+
+  To give an adequate account of Chinese ornithology would require space
+  many times the length of this article. The gorgeous mandarin duck
+  (_Aix galerita_) has already been mentioned among generic types common
+  to America. In marked distinction to this is the number of species of
+  pheasants inhabiting north-western China, whence the group ranges into
+  the eastern Himalaya. Among Chinese species are two of the three
+  species of blood-pheasants (_Ithagenes_), two tragopans (_Ceriornis_
+  or _Tragopan_), a monal (_Lophophorus_), three out of the five species
+  of _Crossoptilum_, the other two being Tibetan, two kinds of
+  _Pucrasia_, the gorgeous golden and Amherst's pheasants alone
+  representing the genus _Chrysolophus_, together with several species
+  of the typical genus _Phasianus_, among which it will suffice to
+  mention the long-tailed _P. reevesi_. The Himalayan bamboo-partridges
+  (_Bambusicola_) have also a Chinese representative. The only other
+  large bird that can be mentioned is the Manchurian crane, misnamed
+  _Grus japonensis_. Pigeons include the peculiar subgenus
+  _Dendroteron_; while among smaller birds, warblers, tits and finches,
+  all of an Eastern Holarctic type, constitute the common element in the
+  avifauna. Little would be gained by naming the genera, peculiar or
+  otherwise.
+
+  China has a few peculiar types of freshwater tortoises, among which
+  _Ocadia sinensis_ represents a genus unknown elsewhere, while there is
+  also a species of the otherwise Indian genus _Damonia_. The Chinese
+  alligator, _Alligator sinensis_, has been already mentioned. Among
+  lizards, the genera _Plestiodon_, _Mabuia_, _Tachydromus_ and _Gecko_,
+  of which the two latter are very characteristic of the Oriental
+  region, range through China to Japan; and among snakes, the Malay
+  python (_Python reticulatus_) is likewise Chinese. The giant
+  salamander (_Cryptobranchus_, or _Megalobatrachus, maximus_)
+  represents, as mentioned above, a type found elsewhere only in North
+  America, while _Hynobius_ and _Onychodactylus_ are peculiar generic
+  types of salamanders. Among fishes, it must suffice to refer to the
+  spoon-beaked sturgeon (_Psephurus_) of the Yangtsze-kiang, and the
+  numerous members of the carp family to be found in the rivers of
+  China. From these native carp the Chinese have produced two highly
+  coloured breeds, the goldfish and the telescope-eyed carp.
+
+  Among the invertebrates special mention may be made of the great
+  ailanthus silk-moth (_Attacus cynthia_) of northern China and Japan,
+  and also of its Manchurian relative _A. pernyi_; while it may be added
+  that the domesticated "silkworm" (_Bombyx mori_) is generally believed
+  to be of Chinese origin, although this is not certain. Very
+  characteristic of China is the abundance of handsomely coloured
+  swallow-tailed butterflies of the family _Papilionidae_. The Chinese
+  kermes (_Coccus sinensis_) is also worth mention, on account of it
+  yielding wax. As regards land and freshwater snails, China exhibits a
+  marked similarity to Siam and India; the two groups in which the
+  Chinese province displays decided peculiarities of its own being
+  _Helix_ (in the wider sense) and _Clausilia_. There are, for instance,
+  nearly half a score of subgenera of _Helix_ whose headquarters are
+  Chinese, while among these, forms with sinistral shells are relatively
+  common. The genus _Clausilia_ is remarkable on account of attaining a
+  second centre of development in China, where its finest species,
+  referable to several subgenera, occur. Carnivorous molluscs include a
+  peculiar slug (_Rathouisia_) and the shelled genera _Ennea_ and
+  _Streptaxis_. In the western provinces species of _Buliminus_ are
+  abundant, and in the operculate group _Heudeia_ forms a peculiar type
+  akin to _Helicina_, but with internal foldings to the shell.
+
+  Lastly, it has to be mentioned that the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang
+  are inhabited by a small jelly-fish, or medusa (_Limnocodium kawaii_),
+  near akin to _L. sowerbii_, which was discovered in the hot-house
+  tanks in the Botanical Gardens in the Regent's Park, London, but whose
+  real home is probably the Amazon.    (R. L.*)
+
+
+  _Flora_.
+
+  The vegetation of China is extremely rich, no fewer than 9000 species
+  of flowering plants having been already enumerated, of which nearly a
+  half are endemic or not known to occur elsewhere. Whole provinces are
+  as yet only partially explored; and the total flora is estimated to
+  comprise ultimately 12,000 species. China is the continuation eastward
+  of the great Himalayan mass, numerous chains of mountains running
+  irregularly to the sea-board. Thousands of deep narrow valleys form
+  isolated areas, where peculiar species have been evolved. Though the
+  greater part of the country has long ago been cleared of its primeval
+  forest and submitted to agriculture, there still remain some extensive
+  forests and countless small woods in which the original flora is well
+  preserved. Towards the north the vegetation is palaearctic, and
+  differs little in its composition from that of Germany, Russia and
+  Siberia. The flora of the western and central provinces is closely
+  allied to that of the Himalayas and of Japan; while towards the south
+  this element mingles with species derived from Indo-China, Burma and
+  the plain of Hindostan. Above a certain elevation, decreasing with the
+  latitude, but approximately 6000 ft. in the Yangtsze basin, there
+  exist in districts remote from the traffic of the great rivers,
+  extensive forests of conifers, like those of Central Europe in
+  character, but with different species of silver fir, larch, spruce and
+  Cembran pine. Below this altitude the woods are composed of deciduous
+  and evergreen broad-leafed trees and shrubs, mingled together in a
+  profusion of species. Pure broad-leafed forests of one or two species
+  are rare, though small woods of oak, of alder and of birch are
+  occasionally seen. There is nothing comparable to the extensive beech
+  forests of Europe, the two species of Chinese beech being sporadic and
+  rare trees. The heaths, _Calluna_ and _Erica_, which cover great
+  tracts of barren sandy land in Europe, are absent from China, where
+  the Ericaceous vegetation is made up of numerous species of
+  _Rhododendron_, which often cover vast areas on the mountain slopes.
+  Pine forests occur at low levels, but are always small in extent.
+
+  The appearance of the vegetation is very different from that of the
+  United States, which is comparable to China in situation and in
+  extent. Though there are 60 species of oak in China, many with
+  magnificent foliage and remarkable cupules, the red oaks, so
+  characteristic of North America, with their bristle-pointed leaves,
+  turning beautiful colours in autumn, are quite unknown. The great
+  coniferous forest west of the Rocky Mountains has no analogue in
+  China, the gigantic and preponderant Douglas fir being absent, while
+  the giant _Sequoias_ are represented only on a small scale by
+  _Cryptomeria_, which attains half their height.
+
+  Certain remnants of the Miocene flora which have disappeared from
+  Europe are still conspicuous and similar in North America and China.
+  In both regions there are several species of _Magnolia_; one species
+  each of _Liriodendron, Liquidambar_ and _Sassafras_; and curious
+  genera like _Nyssa, Hamamelis, Decumaria_ and _Gymnocladus_. The
+  swamps of the south-eastern states, in which still survive the once
+  widely spread _Taxodium_ or deciduous cypress, are imitated on a small
+  scale by the marshy banks of rivers near Canton, which are clad with
+  _Glyptostrobus_, the "water-pine" of the Chinese. _Pseudolarix,
+  Cunninghamia_ and _Keteleeria_ are coniferous genera peculiar to
+  China, which have become extinct elsewhere. The most remarkable tree
+  in China, the only surviving link between ferns and conifers, _Ginkgo
+  biloba_, has only been seen in temple gardens, but may occur wild in
+  some of the unexplored provinces. Its leaves have been found in the
+  tertiary beds of the Isle of Mull.
+
+  Most of the European genera occur in China, though there are curious
+  exceptions like the plane tree, and the whole family of the
+  _Cistaceae_, which characterize the peculiar _maquis_ of the
+  Mediterranean region. The rhododendrons, of which only four species
+  are European, have their headquarters in China, numbering 130 species,
+  varying in size from miniature shrubs 6 in. high to tall trees.
+  _Lysimachia, Primula, Clematis, Rubus_ and _Gentiana_ have each a
+  hundred species, extraordinary variable in habit, in size and in
+  colour of the flowers. The ferns are equally polymorphic, numbering
+  400 species, and including strange genera like _Archangiopteris_ and
+  _Cheiropteris_, unknown elsewhere. About 40 species of bamboos have
+  been distinguished; the one with a square stem from Fu-kien is the
+  most curious.
+
+  With a great wealth of beautiful flowering shrubs and herbaceous
+  plants, the Chinese at an early period became skilled horticulturists.
+  The emperor Wu Ti established in 111 B.C. a botanic garden at
+  Ch'ang-an, into which rare plants were introduced from the west and
+  south. Many garden varieties originated in China. The chrysanthemum,
+  perhaps the most variable of cultivated flowers, is derived from two
+  wild species (small and inconspicuous plants), and is mentioned in the
+  ancient Chinese classics. We owe to the skill of the Chinese many
+  kinds of roses, lilies, camellias and peonies; and have introduced
+  from China some of the most ornamental plants in our gardens, as
+  _Wistaria, Diervilla, Kerria, Incarvillea, Deutzia, Primula sinensis,
+  Hemerocallis_, &c. The peach and several oranges are natives of China.
+  The varnish tree (_Rhus vernicifera_), from which lacquer is obtained;
+  the tallow tree (_Sapium sebiferum_); the white mulberry, on which
+  silkworms are fed; and the tea plant were all first utilized by the
+  Chinese. The Chinese have also numerous medicinal plants, of which
+  ginseng and rhubarb are best known. Nearly all our vegetables and
+  cereals have their counterpart in China, where there are numerous
+  varieties not yet introduced into Europe, though some, like the Soy
+  bean, are now attracting great attention.    (A. HE.*)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L. Richard (S.J.), _Geographie de l'empire de Chine_
+  (Shanghai, 1905)--the first systematic account of China as a whole in
+  modern times. The work, enlarged, revised and translated into English
+  by M. Kennelly (S.J.), was reissued in 1908 as Richard's
+  _Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies_. This
+  is the standard authority for the country and gives for each section
+  bibliographical notes. It has been used in the revision of the present
+  article. Valuable information on northern, central and western China
+  is furnished by Col. C.C. Manifold and Col. A.W.S. Wingate in the
+  _Geog. Journ._ vol. xxiii. (1904) and vol. xxix. (1907). Consult also
+  Marshall Broomhall (ed.), _The Chinese Empire: a General and
+  Missionary Survey_ (London, 1907); B. Willis, E. Blackwelder and
+  others, _Research in China_, vol. i. part i. "Descriptive Topography
+  and Geology," part ii. "Petrography and Zoology," and Atlas
+  (Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1906-1907); Forbes and Hemsley,
+  "Enumeration of Chinese Plants," in _Journ. Linnean Soc. (Bot.)_,
+  vols. xxiii. and xxxvi.; Bretschneider, _History of European Botanical
+  Discoveries in China_; E. Tiessen, _China das Reich der achtzehn
+  Provinzen_, Teil i. "Die allgemeine Geographie des Landes" (Berlin,
+  1902); and _The China Sea Directory_ (published by the British
+  Admiralty), a valuable guide to the coasts: vol. ii. (5th ed., 1906)
+  deals with Hong-Kong and places south thereof, vol. iii. (4th ed.,
+  1906, supp. 1907) with the rest of the Chinese coast; vol. i. (5th
+  ed., 1906) treats of the islands and straits in the S.W. approach to
+  the China Sea. Much of China has not been surveyed, but considerable
+  progress has been made since 1900. _The Atlas of the Chinese Empire_
+  (London, 1908), a good general atlas, which, however, has no hill
+  shading, gives maps of each province on the scale of 1:3,000,000. The
+  preface contains a list of the best regional maps.
+
+  _The Journal af the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_
+  contains papers on all subjects relating to China.
+
+
+II. THE PEOPLE
+
+  Population.
+
+China is noted for the density of its population, but no accurate
+statistics are forthcoming. The province of Shan-tung is reputed to
+have a population of 680 per sq. m. The provinces of central China, in
+the basin of the Yangtsze-kiang--namely Sze-ch'uen, Hu-peh, Ngan-hui,
+Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang--contain probably a third of thes total
+population, the density of the people in these provinces being
+represented as from 490 to 310 per sq. m. Ho-nan, which belongs partly
+to the basin of the Hwang-ho and partly to that of the Yangtsze-kiang,
+as well as the S.E. coast provinces of Fu-kien and Kwang-tung, are also
+densely peopled, Ho-nan being credited with 520 persons per sq. m.,
+Fu-kien with 490 and Kwang-tung with about 320.
+
+  The Chinese government prints from time to time in the _Peking
+  Gazette_ returns of the population made by the various provincial
+  authorities. The method of numeration is to count the households, and
+  from that to make a return of the total inhabitants of each province.
+  There would be no great difficulty in obtaining fairly accurate
+  returns if sufficient care were taken. It does not appear, however,
+  that much care is taken. Mr E.H. Parker published in the _Statistical
+  Society's Journal_ for March 1899 tables translated from Chinese
+  records, giving the population from year to year between 1651 and
+  1860. These tables show a gradual rise, though with many fluctuations,
+  up till 1851, when the total population is stated to be 432 millions.
+  From that point it decreases till 1860, when it is put down at only
+  261 millions. The Chinese Imperial Customs put the total population of
+  the empire in 1906 at 438,214,000 and that of China proper at
+  407,253,000. It has been held by several inquirers that these figures
+  are gross over-estimates. Mr Rockhill, American minister at Peking
+  (1905-1909), after careful inquiry[9] concluded that the inhabitants
+  of China proper did not exceed, in 1904, 270,000,000. Other competent
+  authorities are inclined to accept the round figure of 400,000,000 as
+  nearer the accurate number. Eleven cities were credited in 1908 with
+  between 500,000 and 1,000,000 inhabitants each, and smaller cities are
+  very numerous, but the population is predominantly rural. In addition
+  to the Chinese the population includes a number of aboriginal races
+  such as the Lolos (q.v.), the Miaotsze (q.v.), the Ikias of Kwei-chow
+  and Kwang-si, the Hakka, found in the south-east provinces, and the
+  Hoklos of Kwang-tung province.[10] The Manchus resident in China are
+  estimated to number 4,000,000. According to the Imperial Customs
+  authorities, the number of foreigners resident in China in 1908 was
+  69,852. Of these 44,143 were Japanese, 9520 Russian, 9043 British,
+  3637 German, 3545 American, 3353 Portuguese, 2029 French, 554 Italian
+  and 282 Belgian.
+
+
+    Emigration.
+
+  The Chinese are a colonizing race, and in Manchuria, Mongolia and
+  Turkestan they have brought several districts under cultivation. In
+  the regions where they settle they become the dominant race--thus
+  southern Manchuria now differs little from a province of China proper.
+  In Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula and throughout the Far East Chinese
+  are numerous as farmers, labourers and traders; in some places, such
+  as Singapore, Chinese are among the principal merchants. This
+  colonizing spirit is probably due more to the enterprise of the people
+  than to the density of the population. There were Chinese settlements
+  at places on the east coast of Africa before the 10th century A.D.
+  Following the discovery of gold in California there was from 1850
+  onwards a large emigration of Chinese to that state and to other parts
+  of America. But in 1879 Chinese exclusion acts were passed by the
+  United States, an example followed by Australia, where Chinese
+  immigration was also held to be a public danger. Canada also adopted
+  the policy of excluding Chinese, but not before there had been a
+  considerable immigration into British Columbia. Two factors, a racial
+  and an economic, are at work to bring about these measures of
+  exclusion. As indentured labourers Chinese have been employed in the
+  West Indies, South America and other places (see COOLIE).
+
+  In addition to several million Chinese settlers in Manchuria, and
+  smaller numbers in Mongolia, Turkestan and Tibet, it was estimated in
+  1908 that there were over 9,000,000 Chinese resident beyond the
+  empire. Of these 2,250,000 were in Formosa, which for long formed a
+  part of the empire, and over 6,000,000 in neighbouring regions of Asia
+  and in Pacific Islands. In the West Indies (chiefly Cuba) the number
+  of Chinese was estimated at 100,000, in South America (Brazil, Peru
+  and Chile) at 72,000, in the United States at 150,000, in Canada at
+  12,000, and in Australia and New Zealand at 35,000. There are
+  comparatively few Chinese in Japan (if Formosa be excepted) and Korea.
+  The number is given in 1908 as 17,000 in Japan and 11,000 in Korea.
+
+
+_Social Life._
+
+The awakening of the East which has followed the Russo-Japanese War of
+1904-5 has affected China also. It is too soon to say how far the influx
+of European ideas will be able to modify the immemorial customs and
+traditions of perhaps the most conservative people in the world; but the
+process has begun, and this fact makes it difficult to give a picture of
+Chinese habits and customs which shall be more than historical or
+provisional. Moreover, the difficulty of presenting a picture which
+shall be true of China as a whole is enhanced by the different
+characteristics observable in various regions of so vast a country. The
+Chinese themselves, until the material superiority of Western
+civilization forced them to a certain degree to conform to its
+standards, looked down from the height of their superior culture with
+contempt on the "Western barbarians." Nor was their attitude wholly
+without justification. Their civilization was already old at a time when
+Britain and Germany were peopled by half-naked barbarians, and the
+philosophical and ethical principles on which it was based remain, to
+all appearances, as firmly rooted as ever. That these principles have,
+on the whole, helped to create a national type of a very high order few
+Europeans who know the Chinese well would deny. The Chinese are
+naturally reserved, earnest and good-natured; for the occasional
+outbursts of ferocious violence, notably against foreign settlements,
+are no index to the national character. There is a national proverb that
+"the men of the Four Seas are all brothers," and even strangers can
+travel through the country without meeting with rudeness, much less
+outrage. If the Chinese character is inferior to the European, this
+inferiority lies in the fact that the Chinaman's whole philosophy of
+life disinclines him to change or to energetic action. He is
+industrious; but his industry is normally along the lines marked out by
+authority and tradition. He is brave; but his courage does not naturally
+seek an outlet in war. The jealously exclusive empire, into which in the
+19th century the nations of the West forced an entrance, was organized
+for peace; the arts of war had been all but forgotten, and soldiers were
+of all classes the most despised.
+
+  The whole social and political organization of the Chinese is based,
+  in a far more real sense than in the West, on the family. The supreme
+  duty is that of the child to its parent; on this the whole Chinese
+  moral system is built up. Filial piety, according to the teaching of
+  Confucius, is the very foundation of society; the nation itself is but
+  one great family, and the authority of the government itself is but an
+  extension of the paternal authority, to which all its children are
+  bound to yield implicit obedience. The western idea of the liberty and
+  dignity of the individual, as distinct from the community to which he
+  belongs, is wholly alien to the Chinese mind. The political unit in
+  China is not the individual but the family, and the father of the
+  family is supposed to be responsible for the qualities and views of
+  all his kin. He is rewarded for their virtues, punished for their
+  faults; the deserts of a son ennoble the father and all his ancestors,
+  and conversely his crimes disgrace them.
+
+  An outcome of this principle is the extraordinary importance in China
+  of funeral rites, especially in the case of the father. The eldest
+  son, now head of the family, or, failing him, his first-born or
+  adopted son, fixes one of the three souls of the dead in the tablet
+  commemorating his virtues, burns incense to his shade, and supplies
+  him with paper money and paper representations of everything (clothes,
+  servants, horses) that he may require in his journey to the other
+  world. Mourning lasts for three years, during which the mourners wear
+  white garments and abstain from meat, wine and public gatherings.
+  Custom, too, dictates that wherever the Chinaman may die he must be
+  brought back for burial to the place of his birth; one of the objects
+  of the friendly societies is to provide funds to charter ships to
+  transport home the bodies of those who have died abroad. Annually, in
+  May, the white-clad people stream to the graves and mortuary temples
+  with flowers, fruit and other offerings for the dead. Christian
+  missionaries have found in this ancestor worship the most serious
+  obstacle to the spread of a religion which teaches that the convert
+  must, if need be, despise his father and his mother and follow Christ.
+
+  The same elaborate ceremonialism that characterizes the Chinese
+  funeral customs is found also in their marriage rites and the rules of
+  their social intercourse generally. Confucius is reported to have said
+  that "all virtues have their source in etiquette," and the due
+  observance of the "ceremonial" (_li_) in the fulfilling of social
+  duties is that which, in Chinese opinion, distinguishes civilized from
+  barbarous peoples. The Board of Rites, one of the departments of the
+  central government, exists for the purpose of giving decisions in
+  matters of etiquette and ceremony. As to marriage, the rule that the
+  individual counts for nothing obtains here in its fullest
+  significance. The breeding of sons to carry on the ancestral cult is a
+  matter of prime importance, and the marriage of a young man is
+  arranged at the earliest possible age. The bride and bridegroom have
+  little voice in the matter, the match being arranged by the parents
+  of the parties; the lifting of the bride's veil, so that the
+  bridegroom may see her face, is the very last act of the long and
+  complicated ceremony.
+
+  In the traditional Chinese social system four classes are
+  distinguished: the literary, the agricultural, the artisan and the
+  trading class. Hereditary nobility, in the European sense, scarcely
+  exists, and the possession of an hereditary title gives in itself no
+  special privileges. Official position is more highly esteemed than
+  birth and the bureaucracy takes the place of the aristocracy in the
+  west. There are, nevertheless, besides personal decorations for merit,
+  such as the yellow jacket, five hereditary rewards for merit; these
+  last only for a fixed number of lives. A few Chinese families,
+  however, enjoy hereditary titles in the full sense, the chief among
+  them being the Holy Duke of Yen (the descendant of Confucius). The
+  Imperial Clansmen consist of those who trace their descent direct from
+  the founder of the Manchu dynasty, and are distinguished by the
+  privilege of wearing a yellow girdle; collateral relatives of the
+  imperial house wear a red girdle. Twelve degrees of nobility (in a
+  descending scale as one generation succeeds another) are conferred on
+  the descendants of every emperor; in the thirteenth generation the
+  descendants of emperors are merged in the general population, save
+  that they retain the yellow girdle. The heads of eight houses, the
+  "Iron-capped" (or helmeted) princes, maintain their titles in
+  perpetuity by rule of primogeniture in virtue of having helped the
+  Manchu in the conquest of China. Imperial princes apart, the highest
+  class is that forming the civil service. (See also Sec. _Government and
+  Administration_.) The peasant class forms the bulk of the population.
+  The majority of Chinese are small landowners; their standard of living
+  is very low in comparison with European standards. This is in part due
+  to the system of land tenure. A parent cannot, even if he wished to do
+  so, leave all his land to one son. There must be substantially an
+  equal division, the will of the father notwithstanding. As early
+  marriages and large families are the rule, this process of continual
+  division and subdivision has brought things down to the irreducible
+  minimum in many places. Small patches of one-tenth or even
+  one-twentieth of an acre are to be found as the estate of an
+  individual landowner, and the vast majority of holdings run between
+  one and three acres. With three acres a family is deemed very
+  comfortable, and the possession of ten acres means luxury.
+
+  The only class which at all resembles the territorial magnates of
+  other countries is the class of retired officials. The wealth of an
+  official is not infrequently invested in land, and consequently there
+  are in most provinces several families with a country seat and the
+  usual insignia of local rank and influence. On the decease of the
+  heads or founders of such families it is considered dignified for the
+  sons to live together, sharing the rents and profits in common. This
+  is sometimes continued for several generations, until the country seat
+  becomes an agglomeration of households and the family a sort of clan.
+  A family of this kind, with literary traditions, and with the means to
+  educate the young men, is constantly sending its scions into the
+  public service. These in turn bring their earnings to swell the common
+  funds, while the rank and dignity which they may earn add to the
+  importance and standing of the group as a whole. The members of this
+  class are usually termed the _literati_ or gentry.
+
+  The complex character of the Chinese is shown in various ways. Side by
+  side with the reverence of ancestors the law recognizes the right of
+  the parent to sell his offspring into slavery and among the poor this
+  is not an uncommon practice, though in comparison with the total
+  population the number of slaves is few. The kidnapping of children for
+  sale as slaves is carried on, but there is no slave raiding. There are
+  more female than male slaves; the descendants of male slaves acquire
+  freedom in the fifth generation. While every Chinese man is anxious to
+  have male children, girls are often considered superfluous.
+
+  The position of women is one of distinct inferiority; a woman is
+  always subject to the men of her family--before marriage to her
+  father, during marriage to her husband, in widowhood to her son; these
+  states being known as "the three obediences." Sons who do not,
+  however, honour their mothers outrage public opinion. Polygamy is
+  tolerated, secondary wives being sometimes provided by the first wife
+  when she is growing old. Secondary wives are subordinate to first
+  wives. A wife may be divorced for any one of seven reasons. The sale
+  of wives is practised, but is not recognized by law. Women of the
+  upper classes are treated with much respect. The home of a Chinese man
+  is often in reality ruled by his mother, or by his wife as she
+  approaches old age, a state held in veneration. Chinese women
+  frequently prove of excellent business capacity, and those of high
+  rank--as the recent history of China has conspicuously
+  proved--exercise considerable influence on public affairs.
+
+  Deforming the feet of girls by binding and stopping their growth has
+  been common for centuries. The tottering walk of the Chinese lady
+  resulting from this deformation of the feet is the admiration of her
+  husband and friends. Foot-binding is practised by rich and poor in all
+  parts of the country, but is not universal. In southern and western
+  China Hakka women and certain others never have their feet bound. It
+  has been noted that officials (who all serve on the itinerary system)
+  take for secondary wives natural-footed women, who are frequently
+  slaves.[11] Every child is one at birth, and two on what Europeans
+  call its first birthday, the period of gestation counting as one year.
+
+  In their social intercourse the Chinese are polite and ceremonious;
+  they do not shake hands or kiss, but prostrations (kotowing),
+  salutations with joined hands and congratulations are common. They
+  have no weekly day of rest, but keep many festivals, the most
+  important being that of New Year's Day. Debts are supposed to be paid
+  before New Year's Day begins and for the occasion new clothes are
+  bought. Other notable holidays are the Festival of the First Full
+  Moon, the Feast of Lanterns and the Festival of the Dragon Boat. A
+  feature of the festivals is the employment of thousands of lanterns
+  made of paper, covered with landscapes and other scenes in gorgeous
+  colours. Of outdoor sports kite-flying is the most popular and is
+  engaged in by adults; shuttle-cock is also a favourite game, while
+  cards and dominoes are indoor amusements. The theatre and marionette
+  shows are largely patronized. The habit of opium smoking is referred
+  to elsewhere; tobacco smoking is general among both sexes.
+
+  Except in their head-dress and their shoes little distinction is made
+  between the costumes of men and women.[12] Both sexes wear a long
+  loose jacket or robe which fits closely round the neck and has wide
+  sleeves, and wide short trousers. Over the robe shorter jackets--often
+  sleeveless--are worn, according to the weather. For winter wear the
+  jackets are wadded, and a Chinaman will speak of "a three, four or six
+  coat cold day." A man's robe is generally longer than that of a woman.
+  Petticoats are worn by ladies on ceremonial occasions and the long
+  robe is removed when in the house. "It is considered very unwomanly
+  not to wear trousers, and very indelicate for a man not to have skirts
+  to his coat." No Chinese woman ever bares any part of her body in
+  public--even the hands are concealed in the large sleeves--and the
+  evening dress of European ladies is considered indelicate; but Hakka
+  women move about freely without shoes or stockings. A Chinese man
+  will, however, in warm weather often strip naked to the waist. Coolies
+  frequently go bare-legged; they use sandals made of rope and possess
+  rain-coats made of palm leaves. The garments of the poorer classes are
+  made of cotton, generally dyed blue. Wealthy people have their clothes
+  made of silk. Skirts and jackets are elaborately embroidered. Costly
+  furs and fur-lined clothes are much prized, and many wealthy Chinese
+  have fine collections of furs. Certain colours may only be used with
+  official permission as denoting a definite rank or distinction, e.g.
+  the yellow jacket. The colours used harmonize--the contrasts in colour
+  seen in the clothes of Europeans is avoided. Dark purple over blue are
+  usual colour combinations. The mourning colour is white. Common shoes
+  are made of cotton or silk and have thick felt soles; all officials
+  wear boots of satin into which is thrust the pipe or the fan--the
+  latter carried equally by men and women. The fan is otherwise stuck at
+  the back of the neck, or attached to the girdle, which may also hold
+  the purse, watch, snuff-box and a pair of chop-sticks.
+
+  Formerly Chinese men let their hair grow sufficiently long to gather
+  it in a knot at the top; on the conquest of the country by the Manchu
+  they were compelled to adopt the queue or pigtail, which is often
+  artificially lengthened by the employment of silk thread, usually
+  black in colour. The front part of the head is shaved. As no Chinese
+  dress their own hair, barbers are numerous and do a thriving trade.
+  Women do not shave the head nor adopt the queue. Men wear in general a
+  close-fitting cap, and the peasants large straw hats. Circular caps,
+  larger at the crown than round the head and with an outward slope are
+  worn in winter by mandarins, conical straw hats in summer. Women have
+  elaborate head ornaments, decking their hair with artificial flowers,
+  butterflies made of jade, gold pins and pearls. The faces of Chinese
+  ladies are habitually rouged, their eyebrows painted. Pearl or bead
+  necklaces are worn both by men and women. Officials and men of leisure
+  let one or two finger nails grow long and protect them with a metal
+  case.
+
+  The staple food of the majority of the Chinese in the south and
+  central provinces is rice; in the northern provinces millet as well as
+  rice is much eaten. In separate bowls are placed morsels of pork,
+  fish, chicken, vegetables and other relishes. Rice-flour, bean-meal,
+  macaroni, and shell fish are all largely used. Flour balls cooked in
+  sugar are esteemed. Beef is never eaten, but Mahommedans eat mutton,
+  and there is hardly any limit to the things the Chinese use as food.
+  In Canton dogs which have been specially fed are an article of diet.
+  Eggs are preserved for years in a solution of salt, lime and wood-ash,
+  or in spirits made from rice. Condiments are highly prized, as are
+  also preserved fruits. Special Chinese dishes are soups made from
+  sea-slugs and a glutinous substance found in certain birds' nests,
+  ducks' tongues, sharks' fins, the brains of chickens and of fish, the
+  sinews of deer and of whales, fish with pickled fir-tree cones, and
+  roots of the lotus lily. A kind of beer brewed from rice is a usual
+  drink; _samshu_ is a spirit distilled from the same grain and at
+  dinners is served hot in small bowls. Excellent native wines are
+  made. The Chinese are, however, abstemious with regard to alcoholic
+  liquors. Water is drunk hot by the very poor, as a substitute for tea.
+  Tea is drunk before and after meals in cups without handle or saucer;
+  the cups are always provided with a cover. Two substantial meals are
+  taken during the day--luncheon and dinner; the last named at varying
+  hours from four till seven o'clock. At dinner a rich man will offer
+  his guest twenty-four or more dishes (always a multiple of 4), four to
+  six dishes being served at a time. Food is eaten from bowls and with
+  chop-sticks (q.v.) and little porcelain spoons. Men dine by themselves
+  when any guests are present; dinner parties are sometimes given by
+  ladies to ladies. Chinese cookery is excellent; in the culinary art
+  the Chinese are reputed to be second only to the French.
+
+  Ethnologically the Chinese are classed among the Mongolian races (in
+  which division the Manchus are also included), although they present
+  many marked contrasts to the Mongols. The Tatars, Tibetans, Burmese,
+  Shans, Manchu and other races--including the Arab and Japanese--have
+  mingled with the indigenous population to form the Chinese type, while
+  aboriginal tribes still resist the pressure of absorption by the
+  dominant race (see ante, _Population_). The Chinese are in fact
+  ethnically a very mixed people, and the pure Mongol type is uncommon
+  among them. Moreover, natives of different provinces still present
+  striking contrasts one to another, and their common culture is
+  probably the strongest national link. By some authorities it is held
+  that the parent stock of the Chinese came from the north-west, beyond
+  the alluvial plain; others hold that it was indigenous in eastern
+  China. Notwithstanding the marked differences between the inhabitants
+  of different provinces and even between those living in the same
+  province, certain features are common to the race. "The stature is
+  below the average and seldom exceeds 5 ft. 4 in., except in the North.
+  The head is normally brachycephalic or round horizontally, and the
+  forehead low and narrow. The face is round, the mouth large, and the
+  chin small and receding. The cheek-bones are prominent, the eyes
+  almond-shaped, oblique upwards and outwards, and the hair coarse, lank
+  and invariably black. The beard appears late in life, and remains
+  generally scanty. The eyebrows are straight and the iris of the eye is
+  black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat. The hands and feet
+  are disproportionately small, and the body early inclines to obesity.
+  The complexion varies from an almost pale-yellow to a dark-brown,
+  without any red or ruddy tinge. Yellow, however, predominates."[13]
+
+  A few words may be added concerning the Manchus, who are the ruling
+  race in China. Their ethnic affinities are not precisely known, but
+  they may be classed among the Ural-Altaic tribes, although the term
+  Ural-Altaic (q.v.) denotes a linguistic rather than a racial group. By
+  some authorities they are called Tung-tatze, i.e. Eastern Tatars---the
+  Tatars of to-day being of true Mongol descent. Manchu is the name
+  adopted in the 13th century by one of several tribes which led a
+  nomadic life in Manchuria and were known collectively in the 11th
+  century as Nuechihs. Some authorities regard the Khitans (whence the
+  European form Cathay), who in the 9th and 10th centuries dwelt in the
+  upper Liao region, as the ancestors of this race. It was not until the
+  16th century that the people became known generally as Manchus and
+  obtained possession of the whole of the country now bearing their name
+  (see MANCHURIA). They had then a considerable mixture of Chinese and
+  Korean blood, but had developed a distinct nationality and kept their
+  ancient Ural-Altaic language. In China the Manchus retained their
+  separate nationality and semi-military organization. It was not until
+  the early years of the 20th century that steps were officially taken
+  to obliterate the distinction between the two races. The Manchus are a
+  more robust race than the inhabitants of central and southern China,
+  but resemble those of northern China save that their eyes are
+  horizontally set. They are a lively and enterprising people, but have
+  not in general the intellectual or business ability of the Chinese.
+  They are courteous in their relations with strangers. The common
+  people are frugal and industrious. The Manchu family is generally
+  large. The women's feet are unbound; they twist their hair round a
+  silver bangle placed cross-wise on the top of the head. The Manchus
+  have no literature of their own, but as the language of the court
+  Manchu has been extensively studied in China.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Sir John F. Davies, _China_ (2 vols., London, 1857); E.
+  Reclus, _The Universal Geography_, vol. vii. (Eng. trans. ed. by E.G.
+  Ravenstein and A.H. Keane); E. and O. Reclus, _L'Empire du milieu_
+  (Paris, 1902); Sir R.K. Douglas, _Society in China_ (London, 1895); J.
+  Doolittle, _Social Life of the Chinese_ (2 vols., New York, 1867);
+  H.A. Giles, _China and the Chinese_ (1902); E. Bard, _Les Chinois chez
+  eux_ (Paris, 1900); A.G. Jones, _Desultory Notes on Chinese Etiquette_
+  (Shanghai, 1906); Mrs Archibald Little, _Intimate China_ (London,
+  1899) and _The Land of the Blue Gown_ (London, 1902); E.H. Parker,
+  _John Chinaman and a Few Others_ (London, 1901); J. Dyer-Ball, _Things
+  Chinese_ (Shanghai, 1903); Cheng Kitung, _The Chinese Painted by
+  Themselves_ (Eng. trans. by J. Millington, London, 1885); L. Richard,
+  _Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire_ (Shanghai, 1908). (X.)
+
+
+_Religion._
+
+  The ancient faith.
+
+The earliest traces of religious thought and practice in China point to
+a simple monotheism. There was a Divine Ruler of the universe, abiding
+on high, beyond the ken of man. This Power was not regarded as the
+Creator of the human race, but as a Supreme Being to whom wickedness was
+abhorrent and virtuous conduct a source of joy, and who dealt out
+rewards and punishments with unerring justice, claiming neither love nor
+reverence from mankind. If a man did his duty towards his neighbour, he
+might pass his whole time on earth oblivious of the fact that such a
+Power was in existence; unless perchance he wished to obtain some good
+or attain some end, in which case he might seek to propitiate Him by
+sacrifice and prayer. There was no Devil to tempt man astray, and to
+rejoice in his fall; neither was there any belief that righteous
+behaviour in this world would lead at death to absorption in the Deity.
+To God, understood in this sense, the people gave the name _Tien_, which
+in the colloquial language was used of the sky; and when, in the first
+stages of the written character, it became necessary to express the idea
+of _Tien_, they did not attempt any vague picture of the heavens, but
+set down the rude outline of a man. Perhaps about this period the title
+_Shang Ti_, or Supreme Ruler, came into vogue as synonymous with _Tien_.
+But although the two terms were synonyms, and both may be equally
+rendered by "God," there is nevertheless an important distinction to be
+observed, much as though _Tien_ and _Shang Ti_ were two Persons in one
+substance. _Tien_ is far more an abstract Being, while _Shang Ti_
+partakes rather of the nature of a personal God, whose anthropomorphic
+nature is much more strongly accentuated. _Shang Ti_ is described as
+walking and talking, as enjoying the flavour of sacrifices, as pleased
+with music and dancing in his honour, and even as taking sides in
+warfare; whereas _Tien_ holds aloof, wrapped in an impenetrable majesty,
+an _ignotum pro mirifico_. So much for religion in primeval days,
+gathered scrap by scrap from many sources; for nothing like a history of
+religion is to be found in Chinese literature.
+
+Gradually to this monotheistic conception was added a worship of the
+sun, moon and constellations, of the five planets, and of such
+noticeable individual stars as (e.g.) Canopus, which is now looked upon
+as the home of the God of Longevity. Earth, too--Mother Earth--came in
+for her share of worship, indicated especially by the God of the Soil,
+and further distributed among rivers and hills. Wind, rain, heat, cold,
+thunder and lightning, as each became objects of desire or aversion,
+were invested with the attributes of deities. The various parts of the
+house--door, kitchen-stove, courtyard, &c.--were also conceived of as
+sheltering some spirit whose influence might be benign or the reverse.
+The spirits of the land and of grain came to mean one's country, the
+commonwealth, the state; and the sacrifices of these spirits by the
+emperor formed a public announcement of his accession, or of his
+continued right to the throne. Side by side with such sacrificial rites
+was the worship of ancestors, stretching so far back that its origin is
+not discernible in such historical documents as we possess. In early
+times only the emperor, or the feudal nobles, or certain high officials,
+could sacrifice to the spirits of nature; the common people sacrificed
+to their own ancestors and to the spirits of their own homes. For three
+days before performing such sacrifices, a strict vigil with purification
+was maintained; and by the expiration of that time, from sheer
+concentration of thought, the mourner was able to see the spirits of the
+departed, and at the sacrifice next day seemed to hear their movements
+and even the murmur of their sighs. Ancestral worship in China has
+always been, and still is, worship in the strict sense of the term. It
+is not a memorial service in simple honour of the dead; but sacrifices
+are offered, and the whole ceremonial is performed that the spirits of
+former ancestors may be induced to extend their protection to the living
+and secure to them as many as possible of the good things of this world.
+
+For Confucianism, which cannot, strictly speaking, be classed as a
+religion, see CONFUCIUS.
+
+
+    Taoism.
+
+  Around the scanty utterances of Lao Tz[)u] or Lao-tsze (q.v.; see also
+  Sec. _Chinese Literature, Sec.Sec. Philosophy_) an attempt was made by later
+  writers to weave a scheme of thought which should serve to satisfy the
+  cravings of mortals for some definite solution of the puzzle of life.
+  Lao Tz[)u] himself had enunciated a criterion which he called _Tao_,
+  or the Way, from which is derived the word Taoism; and in his usual
+  paradoxical style he had asserted that the secret of this Way, which
+  was at the beginning apparently nothing more than a line of right
+  conduct, could not possibly be imparted, even by those who understood
+  it. His disciples, however, of later days proceeded to interpret the
+  term in the sense of the Absolute, the First Cause, and finally as
+  One, in whose obliterating unity all seemingly opposed conditions of
+  time and space were indistinguishably blended. This One, the source of
+  human life, was placed beyond the limits of the visible universe; and
+  for human life to return thither at death and to enjoy immortality, it
+  was only necessary to refine away all corporeal grossness by following
+  the doctrines of Lao Tz[)u]. By and by, this One came to be regarded
+  as a fixed point of dazzling luminosity in remote ether, around which
+  circled for ever and ever, in the supremest glory of motion, the souls
+  of those who had left the slough of humanity behind them. These
+  transcendental notions were entirely corrupted at a very early date by
+  the introduction of belief in an elixir of life, and later still by
+  the practice of alchemistic experiments. Opposed by Buddhism, which
+  next laid a claim for a share in the profits of popular patronage,
+  Taoism rapidly underwent a radical transformation. It became a
+  religion, borrowing certain ceremonial, vestments, liturgies, the idea
+  of a hell, arrangement of temples, &c., from its rival; which rival
+  was not slow in returning the compliment. As Chu Hsi said, "Buddhism
+  stole the best features of Taoism; Taoism stole the worst features of
+  Buddhism. It is as though one took a jewel from the other, and the
+  loser recouped the loss with a stone." At the present day there is not
+  much to choose between the two religions, which flourish peaceably
+  together. As to their temples, priests and ceremonial, it takes an
+  expert to distinguish one from the other.
+
+
+    Buddhism.
+
+  There is no trustworthy information as to the exact date at which
+  Buddhism first reached China. It is related that the emperor Ming Ti
+  (A.D. 58-76) had a dream in which a golden man appeared to him, and
+  this mysterious visitant was interpreted by the emperor's brother to
+  be none other than Sh[=a]kyamuni Buddha, the far-famed divinity of the
+  West. This shows that Buddhism must then have been known to the
+  Chinese, at any rate by hearsay. The earliest alleged appearance of
+  Buddhism in China dates from 217 B.C., when certain Shamans who came
+  to proselytize were seized and thrown into prison. They escaped
+  through the miraculous intervention of a golden man, who came to them
+  in the middle of the night and opened their prison doors. Hsue Kuan, a
+  writer of the Sung dynasty, quotes in his _Tung Chai Chi_ passages to
+  support the view that Buddhism was known in China some centuries
+  before the reign of Ming Ti; among others, the following from the _Sui
+  Shu Ching Chi Chih_: "These Buddhist writings had long been circulated
+  far and wide, but disappeared with the advent of the Ch'in dynasty,"
+  under which (see Sec. _Chinese Literature, Sec.Sec. History_) occurred the
+  Burning of the Books. It is, however, convenient to begin with the
+  alleged dream of Ming Ti, as it was only subsequent to that date that
+  Buddhism became a recognized religion of the people. It is certain
+  that in A.D. 65 a mission of eighteen members was despatched to Khotan
+  to make inquiries on the subject, and that in 67 the mission returned,
+  bringing Buddhist writings and images, and accompanied by an Indian
+  priest, Kashiapmadanga, who was followed shortly afterwards by another
+  priest, Gobharana. A temple was built for these two at Lo-yang, then
+  the capital of China, and they settled down to the work of translating
+  portions of the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese; but all that now
+  remains of their work is the S[=u]tra of Forty-two Sections,
+  translated by Kashiapmadanga. During the next two hundred and fifty
+  years an unbroken line of foreign priests came to China to continue
+  the task of translation, and to assist in spreading the faith. Such
+  work was indeed entirely in their hands, for until the 4th century the
+  Chinese people were prohibited from taking orders as priests; but by
+  that date Buddhism had taken a firm hold upon the masses, and many
+  Chinese priests were attracted towards India, despite the long and
+  dangerous journey, partly to visit the birthplace of the creed and to
+  see with their own eyes the scenes which had so fired their
+  imaginations, and partly in the hope of adding to the store of books
+  and images already available in China (see Sec. _Chinese Literature, Sec.Sec.
+  Geography and Travel_). Still, the train of Indian missionaries,
+  moving in the opposite direction, did not cease. In 401, Kumarajiva,
+  the nineteenth of the Western Patriarchs and translator of the Diamond
+  S[=u]tra, finally took up his residence at the court of the soi-disant
+  emperor, Yao Hsing. In 405 he became State Preceptor and dictated his
+  commentaries on the sacred books of Buddhism to some eight hundred
+  priests, besides composing a _sh[=a]stra_ on Reality and Semblance.
+  Dying in 417, his body was cremated, as is still usual with priests,
+  but his tongue, which had done such eminent service during life,
+  remained unharmed in the midst of the flames. In the year 520
+  B[=o]dhidharma, or Ta-mo, as he is affectionately known to the
+  Chinese, being also called the White Buddha, reached Canton, bringing
+  with him the sacred bowl of the Buddhist Patriarchate, of which he was
+  the last representative in the west and the first to hold office in
+  the east. Summoned to Nanking, he offended the emperor by asserting
+  that real merit lay, not in works, but solely in purity and wisdom
+  combined. He therefore retired to Lo-yang, crossing the swollen waters
+  of the Yangtsze on a reed, a feat which has ever since had a great
+  fascination for Chinese painters and poets. There he spent the rest of
+  his life, teaching that religion was not to be learnt from books, but
+  that man should seek and find the Buddha in his own heart. Thus
+  Buddhism gradually made its way. It had to meet first of all the
+  bitter hostility of the Taoists; and secondly, the fitful patronage
+  and opposition of the court. Several emperors and empresses were
+  infatuated supporters of the faith; one even went so far as to take
+  vows and lead the life of an ascetic, further insisting that to render
+  full obedience to the Buddhist commandment, "Thou shalt not kill," the
+  sacrificial animals were to be made of dough. Other emperors,
+  instigated by Confucian advisers, went to the opposite extreme of
+  persecution, closed all religious houses, confiscated their property,
+  and forced the priests and nuns to return to the world. From about the
+  11th century onwards Buddhism has enjoyed comparative immunity from
+  attack or restriction, and it now covers the Chinese empire from end
+  to end. The form under which it appears in China is to some extent of
+  local growth; that is to say, the Chinese have added and subtracted
+  not a little to and from the parent stock. The cleavage which took
+  place under Kanishka, ruler of the Indo-Scythian empire, about the 1st
+  century A.D., divided Buddhism into the Mah[=a]y[=a]na, or Greater
+  Vehicle, and the Hin[=a]y[=a]na, as it is somewhat contemptuously
+  styled, or Lesser Vehicle. The latter was the nearer of the two to the
+  Buddhism of Sh[=a]kyamuni, and exhibits rather the mystic and esoteric
+  sides of the faith. The former, which spread northwards and on to
+  Nepaul, Tibet, China, Mongolia and Japan, leaving southern India,
+  Burma and Siam to its rival, began early to lean towards the
+  deification of Buddha as a personal Saviour. New Buddhas and
+  B[=o]dhisatvas were added, and new worlds were provided for them to
+  live in; in China, especially, there was an enormous extension of the
+  mythological element. In fact, the Mah[=a]y[=a]na system of Buddhism,
+  inspired, as has been observed, by a progressive spirit, but without
+  contradicting the inner significance of the teachings of Buddha,
+  broadened its scope and assimilated other religio-philosophical
+  beliefs, whenever this could be done to the advantage of those who
+  came within its influence. Such is the form of this religion which
+  prevails in China, of which, however, the Chinese layman understands
+  nothing. He goes to a temple, worships the gods with prostrations,
+  lighted candles, incense, &c., to secure his particular ends at the
+  moment; he may even listen to a service chanted in a foreign tongue
+  and just as incomprehensible to the priests as to himself. He pays his
+  fees and departs, absolutely ignorant of the history or dogmas of the
+  religion to which he looks for salvation in a future state. All such
+  knowledge, and there is now not much of it, is confined to a few of
+  the more cultured priests.
+
+
+    Mardaism.
+
+  The 7th century seems to have been notable in the religious history of
+  China. Early in that century, Mazdaism, or the religion of Zoroaster,
+  based upon the worship of fire, was introduced into China, and in 621
+  the first temple under that denomination was built at Ch'ang-an in
+  Shensi, then the capital. But the harvest of converts was
+  insignificant; the religion failed to hold its ground, and in the 9th
+  century disappeared altogether.
+
+
+    Mahommedanism.
+
+  Mahommedans first settled in China in the Year of the Mission, A.D.
+  628, under Wahb-Abi-Kabha, a maternal uncle of Mahomet, who was sent
+  with presents to the emperor. Wahb-Abi-Kabha travelled by sea to
+  Canton, and thence overland to Ch'ang-an, the capital, where he was
+  well received. The first mosque was built at Canton, where after
+  several restorations, it still exists. Another mosque was erected in
+  742; but many of the Mahommedans went to China merely as traders, and
+  afterwards returned to their own country. The true stock of the
+  present Chinese Mahommedans was a small army of 4000 Arab soldiers
+  sent by the caliph Abu Giafar[14] in 755 to aid in putting down a
+  rebellion. These soldiers had permission to settle in China, where
+  they married native wives; and four centuries later, with the
+  conquests of Jenghiz Khan, large numbers of Arabs penetrated into the
+  empire and swelled the Mahommedan community. Its members are now
+  indistinguishable from the general population; they are under no civic
+  disabilities, and are free to open mosques wherever they please, so
+  long as, in common with Buddhists and Taoists, they exhibit the tablet
+  of the emperor's sovereignty in some conspicuous position.
+
+
+    Nestorianism.
+
+  In A.D. 631 the Nestorians sent a mission to China and introduced
+  Christianity under the name of the Luminous Doctrine. In 636 they were
+  allowed to settle at Ch'ang-an; and in 638 an Imperial Decree was
+  issued, stating that Olopun, a Nestorian priest who is casually
+  mentioned as a Persian, had presented a form of religion which his
+  Majesty had carefully examined and had found to be in every way
+  satisfactory, and that it would henceforth be permissible to preach
+  this new doctrine within the boundaries of the empire. Further, the
+  establishment of a monastery was authorized, to be served by
+  twenty-one priests. For more than a century after this, Nestorian
+  Christianity seems to have flourished in China. In 781 the famous
+  Nestorian Tablet, giving a rough outline of the object and scope of
+  the faith, was set up at Ch'ang-an (the modern Si-gan Fu),
+  disappearing soon afterwards in the political troubles which laid the
+  city in ruins, to be brought to light again in 1625 by Father Semedo,
+  S.J. The genuineness of this tablet was for many years in dispute,
+  Voltaire, Renan, and others of lesser fame regarding it as a pious
+  Jesuit fraud; but all doubts on the subject have now been dispelled by
+  the exhaustive monograph of Pere Havret, S.J., entitled _La Stele de
+  Si-ngan_. The date of the tablet seems to mark the zenith of Nestorian
+  Christianity in China; after this date it began to decay. Marco Polo
+  refers to it as existing in the 13th century; but then it fades out of
+  sight, leaving scant traces in Chinese literature of ever having
+  existed.
+
+
+    Manichaeism.
+
+  The Manichaeans, worshippers of the Chaldaean Mani or Man[=e]s, who
+  died about A.D. 274, appear to have found their way to China in the
+  year 694. In 719 an envoy from Tokharestan reached Ch'ang-an, bringing
+  a letter to the emperor, in which a request was made that an
+  astronomer who accompanied the mission might be permitted to establish
+  places of worship for persons of the Manichaean faith. Subsequently, a
+  number of such chapels were opened at various centres; but little is
+  known of the history of this religion, which is often confounded by
+  Chinese writers with Mazdeism, the fate of which it seems to have
+  shared, also disappearing about the middle of the 9th century.
+
+
+    Judaism.
+
+  By "the sect of those who take out the sinew," the Chinese refer to
+  the Jews and their peculiar method of preparing meat in order to make
+  it _kosher_. Wild stories have been told of their arrival in China
+  seven centuries before the Christian era, after one of the numerous
+  upheavals mentioned in the Old Testament; and again, of their having
+  carried the Pentateuch to China shortly after the Babylonish
+  captivity, and having founded a colony in Ho-nan in A.D. 72. The Jews
+  really reached China for the first time in the year A.D. 1163, and
+  were permitted to open a synagogue at the modern K'ai-feng Fu in 1164.
+  There they seem to have lived peaceably, enjoying the protection of
+  the authorities and making some slight efforts to spread their tenets.
+  There their descendants were found, a dwindling community, by the
+  Jesuit Fathers of the 17th century; and there again they were visited
+  in 1850 by a Protestant mission, which succeeded in obtaining from
+  them Hebrew rolls of parts of the Pentateuch in the square character,
+  with vowel points. After this, it was generally believed that the few
+  remaining stragglers, who seemed to be entirely ignorant of everything
+  connected with their faith, had become merged in the ordinary
+  population. A recent traveller, however, asserts that in 1909 he found
+  at K'ai-feng Fu a Jewish community, the members of which keep as much
+  as possible to themselves, worshipping in secret, and preserving their
+  ancient ritual and formulary.
+
+  See H. Hackmann, _Buddhism as a Religion_ (1910); H.A. Giles,
+  _Religions of Ancient China_ (1905); G. Smith, _The Jews at
+  K'ae-fung-foo_ (1851); Dabry de Thiersant, _Le Mahometisme en Chine_
+  (1878); P. Havret. S.J., _La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou_ (1895).
+      (H. A. GI.)
+
+
+    Christian missions.
+
+  [Christian missions, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, are
+  established in every province in China. Freedom to embrace the
+  Christian faith has been guaranteed by the Chinese government since
+  1860, and as a rule the missionaries have free scope in teaching and
+  preaching, though local disturbances are not infrequent. The number of
+  members of the Roman Catholic Church in China was reckoned by the
+  Jesuit fathers at Shanghai to be, in 1907, "about one million"; in the
+  same year the Protestant societies reckoned in all 250,000 church
+  members. By the Chinese, Roman Catholicism is called the "Religion of
+  the Lord of Heaven"; Protestantism the "Religion of Jesus." For the
+  progress and effects of Christianity in China see Sec. _History_, and
+  MISSIONS, Sec. _China_.    ED.]
+
+
+_Education and the Press._
+
+The educational system of China till nearly the close of the 19th
+century was confined in its scope to the study of Chinese classics.
+Elementary instruction was not provided by the state. The well-to-do
+engaged private tutors for their sons; the poorer boys were taught in
+small schools on a voluntary basis. No curriculum was compulsory, but
+the books used and the programme pursued followed a traditional rule.
+The boys (there were no schools for girls) began by memorizing the
+classics for four or five years. Then followed letter-writing and easy
+composition. This completed the education of the vast majority of the
+boys not intended for the public service. The chief merit of the system
+was that it developed the memory and the imitative faculty. For
+secondary education somewhat better provision was made, practically the
+only method of attaining eminence in the state being through the schools
+(see Sec. _Civil Service_). At prefectural cities and provincial capitals
+colleges were maintained at the public expense, and at these
+institutions a more or less thorough knowledge of the classics might be
+obtained. At the public examinations held periodically the exercises
+proposed were original poems and literary essays. Three degrees were
+conferred, _Siu-ts'ai_ (budding talent), _Chu-jen_ (promoted scholar)
+and _Chin-shih_ (entered scholar). The last degree was given to those
+who passed the final examination at Peking, and the successful
+candidates were also called metropolitan graduates.
+
+  The first education on western lines was given by the Roman Catholic
+  missionaries. In 1852 they founded a college for the education of
+  native priests; they also founded and maintained many primary and some
+  higher schools--mainly if not exclusively for the benefit of their
+  converts. The Protestant missions followed the example of the Roman
+  Catholics, but a new departure, which has had a wide success, was
+  initiated by the American Protestant missionary societies in founding
+  schools--primary and higher--and colleges in which western education
+  was given equally to all comers, Christian or non-Christian.
+  Universities and medical schools have also been established by the
+  missionary societies. They also initiated a movement for the education
+  of girls and opened special schools for their instruction.
+
+  Missionary effort apart, the first step towards western education was
+  the establishment of two colleges in 1861, one at Peking, the other at
+  Canton in connexion with the imperial maritime customs. These
+  institutions were known as T'ung Wen Kwan, and were provided with a
+  staff of foreign professors and teachers. These colleges were mainly
+  schools of languages to enable young Chinese to qualify as
+  interpreters in English, French, &c. Similar schools were established
+  at Canton, Fuchow and one or two other places, with but indifferent
+  results. A more promising plan was conceived in 1880, or thereabouts,
+  by the then viceroy of Nanking, who sent a batch of thirty or forty
+  students to America to receive a regular training on the understanding
+  that on their return they would receive official appointments. The
+  promise was not kept. A report was spread that these students were
+  becoming too much Americanized. They were hastily recalled, and when
+  they returned they were left in obscurity. The next step was taken by
+  the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95.
+  The viceroy wrote a book, _China's Only Hope_, which he circulated
+  throughout the empire, and in which he strongly advocated a reform of
+  the traditional educational system. His scheme was to make Chinese
+  learning the foundation on which a western education should be
+  imparted.[15] The book was one of the factors in the 1898 reform
+  movement, and Chang Chih-tung's proposals were condemned when that
+  movement was suppressed. But after the Boxer rising the Peking
+  government adopted his views, and in 1902 regulations were issued for
+  the reform of the old system of public instruction. A university on
+  western lines was established in that year at Peking, the T'ung Wen
+  Kwan at the capital being incorporated in it. The new educational
+  movement gained enormously in strength as the result of the
+  Russo-Japanese War, and in 1906 a new system, theoretically almost
+  perfect, was established. The new system comprises the study of the
+  Chinese language, literature and composition, modern sciences, history
+  and geography, foreign languages,[16] gymnastics, drill and, in the
+  higher grades, political economy, and civil and international law.
+
+  By 1910 primary and secondary government schools and schools for
+  special subjects (such as agriculture and engineering) had been
+  established in considerable numbers. In every province an Imperial
+  University was also established. The Imperial University at Peking now
+  teaches not only languages and Chinese subjects but also law,
+  chemistry, mathematics, &c. A medical school was founded at Peking in
+  1906 through the energy of British Protestant missionaries, and is
+  called the Union Medical College. When in 1908, the United States,
+  finding that the indemnity for the Boxer outrages awarded her was
+  excessive, agreed to forgo the payment of L2,500,000, China undertook
+  to spend an equal amount in sending students to America.
+
+  The general verdict of foreign observers on the working of the new
+  system up to 1910 was that in many instances the teaching was
+  ineffective, but there were notable exceptions. The best teachers,
+  next to Europeans, were foreign or mission-trained Chinese. The
+  Japanese employed as teachers were often ignorant of Chinese and were
+  not as a rule very successful. (See further Sec. _History_.) A remarkable
+  indication of the thirst for western learning and culture was the
+  translation into Chinese and their diffusion throughout the country of
+  numerous foreign standard and other works, including modern fiction.
+
+
+    Native press.
+
+  The _Peking Gazette_, which is sometimes called the oldest paper in
+  the world, is not a newspaper in the ordinary sense, but merely a
+  court gazette for publishing imperial decrees and such public
+  documents as the government may wish to give out. It never contains
+  original articles nor any discussion of public affairs. The first
+  genuine native newspaper was published at Shanghai about 1870. It was
+  termed the _Shen Pao_ or _Shanghai News_, and was a Chinese
+  speculation under foreign protection, the first editor being an
+  Englishman. It was some years before it made much headway, but success
+  came, and it was followed by various imitators, some published at
+  Shanghai, some at other treaty ports and at Hong-Kong. In 1910 there
+  were over 200 daily, weekly or monthly journals in China. The effect
+  of this mass of literature on the public mind of China is of
+  first-rate importance.
+
+  The attitude of the central government towards the native press is
+  somewhat undefined. Official registration of a newspaper is required
+  before postal facilities are given. There are no press laws, but as
+  every official is a law unto himself in these matters, there is
+  nothing to prevent him from summarily suppressing an obnoxious
+  newspaper and putting the editor in prison. The emperor, among other
+  reform edicts which provoked the _coup d'etat_ of 1898, declared that
+  newspapers were a boon to the public and appointed one of them a
+  government organ. The empress-dowager revoked this decree, and
+  declared that the public discussion of affairs of state in the
+  newspapers was an impertinence, and ought to be suppressed.
+  Nevertheless the newspapers continued to flourish, and their outspoken
+  criticism had a salutary effect on the public and on the government.
+  The official classes seem to have become alarmed at the independent
+  attitude of the newspapers, but instead of a campaign of suppression
+  the method was adopted, about 1908, of bringing the vernacular press
+  under official control. This was accomplished chiefly by the purchase
+  of the newspapers by the mandarins, with the result that at the
+  beginning of 1910 there was said to be hardly an independent native
+  daily newspaper left in China. The use of government funds to
+  subsidize or to purchase newspapers and thus to stifle or mislead
+  public opinion provoked strong protests from members of the Nanking
+  provincial council at its first sitting in the autumn of 1909. The
+  appropriation by the Shanghai Taot'ai of moneys belonging to the
+  Huangpu conservancy fund for subsidizing papers led to his impeachment
+  by a censor and to the return of the moneys.[17]     (X.)
+
+
+III. ECONOMICS
+
+_Agriculture and Industry._
+
+China is pre-eminently an agricultural country. The great majority of
+its inhabitants are cultivators of the soil. The holdings are in general
+very small, and the methods of farming primitive. Water is abundant and
+irrigation common over large areas. Stock-raising, except in Sze-ch'uen
+and Kwang-tung, is only practised to a small extent; there are few large
+herds of cattle or flocks of sheep, nor are there any large meadows,
+natural or cultivated. In Sze-ch'uen yaks, sheep and goats are reared in
+the mountains, and buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies on the plateau.
+Cattle are extensively reared in the mountainous districts of
+Kwang-tung. The camel, horse and donkey are reared in Chih-li. Forestry
+is likewise neglected. While the existing forests, found mainly in high
+regions in the provinces of Hu-nan, Fu-kien and Kwei-chow, are
+disappearing and timber has to be imported, few trees are planted. This
+does not apply to fruit trees, which are grown in great variety, while
+horticulture is also a favourite pursuit.
+
+The Chinese farmer, if his methods be primitive, is diligent and
+persevering. In the richer and most thickly populated districts terraces
+are raised on the mountain sides, and even the tops of lofty hills are
+cultivated. The nature of the soil and means of irrigation as well as
+climate are determining factors in the nature of the crops grown; rice
+and cotton, for example, are grown in the most northern as well as the
+most southern districts of China. This is, however, exceptional and each
+climatic region has its characteristic cultures.
+
+
+    Soils.
+
+  The loess soil (see Sec. _Geology_) is the chief element in determining
+  the agricultural products of north China. Loess soil bears excellent
+  crops, and not merely on the lower grounds, but at altitudes of 6000
+  and 8000 ft. Wherever loess is found the peasant can live and thrive.
+  Only one thing is essential, and that is the annual rainfall. As,
+  owing to the porous nature of loess, no artificial irrigation is
+  possible, if the rain fails the crops must necessarily fail. Thus
+  seasons of great famine alternate with seasons of great plenty. It
+  appears, also, that the soil needs little or no manuring and very
+  little tillage. From its extremely friable nature it is easily broken
+  up, and thus a less amount of labour is required than in other parts.
+  The extreme porosity of the soil probably also accounts for the length
+  of time it will go on bearing crops without becoming exhausted. The
+  rainfall, penetrating deeply into the soil in the absence of
+  stratification, comes into contact with the moisture retained below,
+  which holds in solution whatever inorganic salts the soil may
+  contain, and thus the vegetation has an indefinite store to draw
+  upon.[18]
+
+  There is no one dominant deposit in south China, where red sandstone
+  and limestone formations are frequent. Cultivation here is not
+  possible on the high elevations as in the north, but in the plains and
+  river valleys the soil is exceedingly fertile, while the lower slopes
+  of the mountains are also cultivated. In the north, moreover, but one
+  crop, in general, can be raised in the year. In the centre two and
+  sometimes three crops are raised yearly, and in the south, especially
+  in the lower basin of the Si-kiang, three crops are normally gathered.
+  In the north, too, the farmer has frequently to contend with drought
+  or with rain or floods; in the central and southern regions the
+  weather is more settled.
+
+
+    Distribution of crops.
+
+  In the north of China wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and maize are
+  the staple crops. Beans and peas are also cultivated. Rice thrives in
+  north-east Kan-suh, in some districts of Shan-si, in the extreme south
+  of Shan-tung and in parts of the Wei-ho plain in Shen-si. Cotton is
+  grown in Shen-si and Shan-tung. In Kan-suh and Shen-si two crops are
+  raised in favoured localities, cereals in spring and cotton or rice in
+  summer. Tobacco and the poppy are also grown in several of the
+  northern provinces. Rhubarb and fruit trees are largely cultivated in
+  the western part of north China.
+
+  In the central provinces tea, cotton, rice and ramie fibre are the
+  chief crops. Tea is most largely cultivated in Ngan-hui, Kiang-si,
+  Hu-peh, Hu-nan, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan. Cotton is chiefly grown in
+  Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Hu-peh. The seed is sown in May and the crops
+  gathered in September. The cotton is known as white and yellow, the
+  white variety being the better and the most cultivated. The poppy is
+  largely cultivated and, in connexion with the silk industry, the
+  mulberry tree. The mulberry is found principally in the provinces of
+  Sze-ch'uen, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang. The central provinces are also
+  noted for their gum-lac, varnish and tallow trees.
+
+  The crops of the south-eastern provinces are much the same as those of
+  the central provinces, but are predominantly rice, the sugar-cane,
+  ground-nuts and cinnamon. Tea is the chief crop in Fu-kien. The
+  sugar-cane is principally cultivated in Kwang-tung, Fu-kien and
+  Sze-ch'uen. In the south-western provinces the poppy, tea, tobacco and
+  rice are the chief crops. Wheat, maize and barley are also largely
+  raised.
+
+  While rice does not, unlike tea and cotton, form the principal crop of
+  any one province it is more universally cultivated than any other
+  plant and forms an important item in the products of all the central
+  and southern provinces. Regarding China as a whole it forms the staple
+  product and food of the country. Two chief varieties are grown, that
+  suited only to low-lying regions requiring ample water and the red
+  rice cultivated in the uplands. Next to rice the most extensively
+  cultivated plants are tea and cotton, the sugar-cane, poppy and
+  bamboo. Besides the infinite variety of uses to which the wood of the
+  bamboo is applied, its tender shoots and its fruit are articles of
+  diet.
+
+
+    Fruits.
+
+  Fruit is extensively cultivated throughout China. In the northern
+  provinces the chief fruits grown are pears, plums, apples, apricots,
+  peaches, medlars, walnuts and chestnuts, and in Kan-suh and Shan-tung
+  the jujube (q.v.). Strawberries are an important crop in Kan-suh. In
+  Shan-si, S.W. Chih-li and Shan-tung the vine is cultivated; the grapes
+  of Shan-si are reputed to produce the best wine of China. Oranges are
+  also grown in favoured localities in the north. The chief fruits of
+  the central and southern provinces are the orange, lichi, mango,
+  persimmon, banana, vine and pineapple, but the fruits of the northern
+  regions are also grown. The coco-nut and other palms flourish on the
+  southern coast.
+
+
+    The poppy.
+
+  As shown above, the poppy has been grown in almost every district of
+  China. In 1906 it was chiefly cultivated in the following provinces:
+  Yun-nan, Kwei-chow, Sze-ch'uen, Kan-suh, Shen-si, Shan-si, Shan-tung,
+  Ho-nan, Kiang-su (northern part) and Cheh-kiang. The poppy is first
+  mentioned in Chinese literature in a book written in the first half of
+  the 8th century A.D., and its medicinal qualities are referred to in
+  the _Herbalist's Treasury_ of 973. It was not then nor for centuries
+  later grown in China for the preparation of opium.[19] There is no
+  evidence to show that the Chinese ever took opium in the shape of
+  pills (otherwise than medicinally). The cultivation of the poppy for
+  the manufacture of opium began in China in the 17th century, but it
+  was not until after 1796, when the importation of foreign opium was
+  declared illegal, that the plant was cultivated on an extensive scale.
+  After 1906 large areas which had been devoted to the poppy were given
+  over to other crops, in consequence of the imperial edict aimed at the
+  suppression of opium-smoking (see Sec. _History_).
+
+_Mining._--The mineral resources of China are great, but the government
+has shown a marked repugnance to allow foreigners to work mines, and
+the mineral wealth has been very inadequately exploited. Mining
+operations are controlled by the Board of Commerce. In 1907 this board
+drew up regulations respecting the constitution of mining and other
+companies. They contained many features against which foreign powers
+protested.
+
+
+    Coal.
+
+  Coal, iron, copper and tin are the principal minerals found in China;
+  there are also extensive deposits of coal and other minerals in
+  Manchuria. In China proper the largest coal measures are found in
+  Shan-si, Hu-nan, Kwei-chow and Sze-ch'uen. There are also important
+  coalfields in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Ho-nan, Yun-nan, Hu-peh and
+  Kwang-tung--and almost all of the seven other provinces have also coal
+  measures of more or less value. The lack of transport facilities as
+  well as the aversion from the employment of foreign capital has
+  greatly hindered the development of mining. Numerous small mines have
+  been worked for a long period by the natives in the province of
+  Hu-nan. There are two principal local fields in this province, one
+  lying in the basin of the Lei river and yielding anthracite, and the
+  other in the basin of the Siang river yielding bituminous coal. Both
+  rivers drain into the Yangtsze, and there is thus an easy outlet by
+  water to Hankow. The quality of the coal, however, is inferior, as the
+  stratification has been much disturbed, and the coal-seams have been
+  in consequence crushed and broken. The largest coalfield in China lies
+  in the province of Shan-si. Coal and iron have here been worked by the
+  natives from time immemorial, but owing to the difficulty of transport
+  they have attained only a limited local circulation. The whole of
+  southern Shan-si, extending over 30,000 sq. m., is one vast coalfield,
+  and contains, according to the estimate of Baron von Richthofen,
+  enough coal to last the world at the present rate of consumption for
+  several thousand years. The coal-seams, which are from 20 to 36 ft. in
+  thickness, rest conformably on a substructure of limestone. The
+  stratification is throughout undisturbed and practically horizontal.
+  As the limestone bed is raised some 2000 ft. above the neighbouring
+  plain the coal-seams crop out in all directions. Mining is thus
+  carried on by adits driven into the face of the formation, rendering
+  the mining of the coal extremely easy. The coalfield is divided into
+  two by a mountain range of ancient granitic formation running
+  north-east and south-west, termed the Ho-shan. It is of anterior date
+  to the limestone and coal formations, and has not affected the
+  uniformity of the stratification, but it has this peculiarity, that
+  the coal on the east side is anthracite, and that on the west side is
+  bituminous. A concession to work coal and iron in certain specified
+  districts in this area was granted to a British company, the Peking
+  Syndicate, together with the right to connect the mines by railway
+  with water navigation. The syndicate built a railway in Shan-si from
+  P'ingyang to Tsi-chow-fu, the centre of a vast coalfield, and
+  connected with the main Peking-Hankow line; lines to serve coal mines
+  have also been built in Hu-nan and other provinces. The earliest in
+  date was that to the K'aip'ing collieries in the east of the province
+  of Chih-li, the railway connecting the mines with the seaport of Taku.
+  The coal at K'aip'ing is a soft bituminous coal with a large
+  proportion of dust. The output is about 1,500,000 tons per annum. A
+  mine has also been opened in the province of Hu-peh, about 60 m. below
+  Hankow, and near the Yangtsze, in connexion with iron-works.
+
+
+    Iron.
+
+  Iron ore of various qualities is found almost as widely diffused as
+  coal. The districts where it is most worked at present lie within the
+  coalfield of Shan-si, viz. at Tsi-chow-fu and P'ing-ting-chow. The ore
+  is a mixture of clay iron ore and spathic ore, together with limonite
+  and hematite. It is found abundantly in irregular deposits in the Coal
+  Measures, and is easily smelted by the natives in crucibles laid in
+  open furnaces. This region supplies nearly the whole of north China
+  with the iron required for agricultural and domestic use. The out-turn
+  must be very considerable, but no data are available for forming an
+  accurate estimate. The province of Sze-ch'uen also yields an abundance
+  of iron ores of various kinds. They are worked by the natives in
+  numerous places, but always on a small scale and for local consumption
+  only. The ores occur in the Coal Measures, predominant among them
+  being a clay iron ore. Hu-nan, Fu-kien, Cheh-kiang and Shan-tung all
+  furnish iron ores. Iron (found in conjunction with coal) is worked in
+  Manchuria.
+
+
+    Copper, tin, &c.
+
+  Copper is found chiefly in the provinces of Kwei-chow and Yun-nan,
+  where a rich belt of copper-bearing ores runs east and west across
+  both provinces, and including south Sze-ch'uen. The chief centres of
+  production are at the cities of Tung-ch'uen-fu, Chow-t'ung and
+  Ning-yuen. The mines are worked as a government monopoly, private
+  mining being nominally prohibited. The output is considerable, but no
+  statistics are published by government. Rich veins of copper ore are
+  also worked near Kiu-kiang. Tin is mined in Yun-nan, the headquarters
+  of the industry being the city of Meng-tsze, which since 1909 has been
+  connected with Hanoi by railway. This is an important industry, the
+  value of tin exported in 1908 being L600,000. Tin is also mined in
+  Hai-nan and lead in Yun-nan. Antimony ore is exported from Hu-nan;
+  petroleum is found in the upper Yangtsze region. Quicksilver is
+  obtained in Kwei-chow. Salt is obtained from brine wells in Shan-si
+  and Sze-ch'uen, and by evaporation from sea water. Excellent kaolin
+  abounds in the north-eastern part of Kiang-si, and is largely used in
+  the manufacture of porcelain.
+
+
+    Precious metals.
+
+  The Chinese government has opened small gold mines at Hai-nan, in
+  which island silver is also found. A little gold-washing is done in
+  the sandy beds of certain rivers, for instance, the Han river and the
+  upper Yangtsze, above Su-chow (Suifu), which here goes by the name of
+  the "Goldsand" river. The amount so extracted is extremely small and
+  hardly pays the labour of washing, but the existence of gold grains
+  points to a matrix higher up. The whole of south-western China has the
+  reputation of being highly metalliferous. Gold is obtained in some
+  quantities on the upper waters of the Amur river, on the frontier
+  between China and Siberia. The washings are carried on by Chinese.
+  Gold has also been found in quartz veins at P'ing-tu, in Shan-tung,
+  but hardly in paying quantities. There are silver mines in Yun-nan.
+
+
+    Silk and porcelain.
+
+  _Manufactures._--The principal native manufactures before the
+  competition of western nations made itself felt were--apart from the
+  preparation of tea and other produce for the market--those of
+  porcelain and silk. The silks and gauzes of Su-chow and Nanking in the
+  province of Kiang-su, and those of Hang-chow in Cheh-kiang, are highly
+  esteemed throughout China. Silk-weaving is still carried on solely in
+  native looms and chiefly in the cities named. The greater part of the
+  silk spun is used in China, but a considerable export trade has grown
+  up and 27% of the world's supply of raw silk is from China. The
+  reeling of silk cocoons by steam-machinery is supplanting native
+  methods. There are filatures for winding silk at Shanghai, Canton,
+  Chifu and other cities.
+
+  The most famous porcelain came from the province of Kiang-si, the seat
+  of the industry being the city of King-te-chen. Imperial works were
+  established here about the year A.D. 1000, and the finest porcelain is
+  sent to Peking for the use of the emperor. At one time 1,000,000
+  work-people were said to be employed, and the kilns numbered 600. The
+  Taiping rebels destroyed the kilns in 1850. Some of them have been
+  rebuilt. "Activity begins to reign anew, but the porcelain turned out
+  is far from equalling in colour and finish that of former times. At
+  the present day King-te-chen has but 160 furnaces and employs 160,000
+  workmen."[20] The common rice bowls sold throughout China are
+  manufactured here. The value of the export sales is said to be about
+  L500,000 yearly.
+
+
+    Cotton, &c.
+
+  The spinning and weaving of cotton on hand-looms is carried on almost
+  universally. Besides that locally manufactured, the whole of the large
+  import of Indian yarn is worked up into cloth by the women of the
+  household. Four-fifths of the clothing of the lower classes is
+  supplied by this domestic industry. Of minor industries Indian ink is
+  manufactured in Ngan-hui and Sze-ch'uen, fans, furniture, lacquer ware
+  and matting in Kwang-tung, dyes in Cheh-kiang and Chih-li, and
+  varnished tiles in Hu-nan. Paper, bricks and earthenware are made in
+  almost all the provinces.
+
+  Of industries on a large scale--other than those indicated--the most
+  important are cotton-spinning and weaving mills established by foreign
+  companies at Shanghai. Permission to carry on this industry was
+  refused to foreigners until the right was secured by the Japanese
+  treaty following the war of 1894-95. Some native-owned mills had been
+  working before that date, and were reported to have made large
+  profits. Nine mills, with an aggregate of 400,000 spindles, were
+  working in 1906, five of them under foreign management. There are also
+  four or five mills at one or other of the ports working 80,000
+  spindles more. These mills are all engaged in the manufacture of yarn
+  for the Chinese market, very little weaving being done. Chinese-grown
+  cotton is used, the staple of which is short; only the coarser counts
+  can be spun.
+
+  At certain large centres flour and rice mills have been erected and
+  are superseding native methods of treating wheat and rice; at Canton
+  there are sugar refineries. At Hanyang near Hankow are large
+  iron-works owned by Chinese. They are supplied with ore from the mines
+  at Ta-ye, 60 m. distant, and turn out (1909) about 300 steel rails a
+  day.
+
+
+_Commerce_.
+
+  The foreign trade of China is conducted through the "treaty ports,"
+  i.e. sea and river ports and a few inland cities which by the treaty
+  of Nanking (1842) that of Tientsin (1860) and subsequent treaties have
+  been thrown open to foreigners for purposes of trade. (The Nanking
+  treaty recognized five ports only as open to foreigners--Canton,[21]
+  Amoy, Fu-chow, Ning-po and Shanghai.) These places are as follows,
+  treaty ports in Manchuria being included: Amoy, Antung, Canton,
+  Chang-sha, Dairen, Chin-kiang, Chinwantao, Ch'ungk'ing, Chifu,
+  Fu-chow, Funing (Santuao), Hang-chow, Hankow, I-ch'ang, Kang-moon,
+  Kiao-chow, Kiu-kiang, K'iung-chow, Kow-loon, Lappa, Lung-chow,
+  Mengtsze, Mukden, Nanking, Nanning, Ning-po, Niu-chwang, Pakhoi,
+  Sanshui, Shanghai, Shasi, Su-chow, Swatow, Szemao, Tatungkow,
+  Tientsin, Teng-yueh, Wen-chow, Wu-chow, Wuhu, Yo-chow.
+
+  The progress of the foreign trade of China is set out in the
+  following table. The values are given both in currency and sterling,
+  but it is to be remarked that during the period when silver was
+  falling, that is, from 1875 to 1893, the silver valuation represents
+  much more accurately variations in the volume of trade than does the
+  gold valuation. Gold prices fell continuously during this period,
+  while silver prices were nearly constant. Since 1893 silver prices
+  have tended to rise, and the gold valuation is then more accurate. The
+  conversion from silver to gold is made at the rate of exchange of the
+  day, and therefore varies from year to year.
+
+
+  _Table of Imports and Exports, exclusive of Bullion._
+
+  +--------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
+  |        |          Imports.         |          Exports.         |
+  |        +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+  |  Year. |   Value in  |Equivalent in|   Value in  |Equivalent in|
+  |        |    Taels.   |  Sterling.  |    Taels.   |  Sterling.  |
+  +--------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+  |   1875 |  66,344,000 | L19,903,000 |  77,308,000 | L23,193,000 |
+  |   1885 |  84,803,000 |  22,618,000 |  73,899,000 |  19,206,000 |
+  |   1890 | 113,082,000 |  29,213,000 |  96,695,000 |  24,980,000 |
+  |   1895 | 154,685,000 |  25,136,000 | 154,964,000 |  25,181,000 |
+  |   1898 | 189,991,000 |  28,498,000 | 170,743,000 |  25,612,000 |
+  |[A]1904 | 344,060,000 |  49,315,000 | 239,486,000 |  34,326,000 |
+  |[A]1905 | 447,100,791 |  67,065,118 | 227,888,197 |  34,183,229 |
+  +--------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+  [A] This marked increase is partly owing to a more complete
+  presentation of statistics; in 1903 an additional number of vessels
+  were placed under the control of the imperial maritime customs.
+
+
+  In 1907 the net imports were valued at L67,664,222 and the exports at
+  L42,961,863. In 1908 China suffered from the general depression in
+  trade. In that year the imports were valued at L52,600,730, the
+  exports at L36,888,050. The distribution of the trade among the
+  various countries of the world is shown in the table which is given
+  below. Hong-Kong is a port for trans-shipment. The imports into China
+  from it come originally from Great Britain, India, Germany, France,
+  America, Australia, the Straits Settlements, &c., and the exports from
+  China to it go ultimately to the same countries.
+
+
+  _Imports into China._ (000's omitted.)
+
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+  |    Imports from         |1875.|1880.|1885.| 1890.| 1895.| 1905.|   1908.|
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+  |United Kingdom           |L6340|L6382|L6396|L6,357|L5,518|L1,971|  L9,647|
+  |Hong-Kong                | 8282| 8829| 9404|18,615|14,331|22,240|  20,033|
+  |India                    | 4451| 6039| 4306| 2,661| 2,753| 5,220|   4,066|
+  |Other British possessions|  396|  346|  542|   571|   732|   963|        |
+  |United States            |  304|  351|  884|   949|   827|11,538|   5,499|
+  |Continent of Europe      |     |     |     |      |      |      |        |
+  |  (except Russia)        |  230|  671|  671|   638| 1,227| 4,295|[B]3,332|
+  |Russian Empire           |  .. |  .. |  .. |   231|   309|   302|     422|
+  |Japan                    |  746| 1021| 1404| 1,909| 2,794| 9,197|   7,000|
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+
+
+  _Exports from China._ (000's omitted.)
+
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+  |    Imports from         |1875.|1880.|1885.| 1890.| 1895.| 1905.|   1908.|
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+  |United Kingdom           |L6340|L6382|L6396|L6,357|L5,518|L1,971|  L9,647|
+  |Hong-Kong                | 8282| 8829| 9404|18,615|14,331|22,240|  20,033|
+  |India                    | 4451| 6039| 4306| 2,661| 2,753| 5,220|   4,066|
+  |Other British possessions|  396|  346|  542|   571|   732|   963|        |
+  |United States            |  304|  351|  884|   949|   827|11,538|   5,499|
+  |Continent of Europe      |     |     |     |      |      |      |        |
+  |  (except Russia)        |  230|  671|  671|   638| 1,227| 4,295|[B]3,332|
+  |Russian Empire           |  .. |  .. |  .. |   231|   309|   302|     422|
+  |Japan                    |  746| 1021| 1404| 1,909| 2,794| 9,197|   7,000|
+  +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+
+
+  [B] Germany, France, Belgium and Italy only.
+
+
+  The chief imports are cotton goods, opium, rice and sugar, metals,
+  oil, coal and coke, woollen goods and raw cotton, and fish. Cotton
+  goods are by far the most important of the imports. They come chiefly
+  from the United Kingdom, which also exports to China woollen
+  manufactures, metals and machinery. China is next to India the
+  greatest consumer of Manchester goods. The export of plain cotton
+  cloths to China and Hong-Kong has for some years averaged 500,000,000
+  yds. per annum. The only competitor which Great Britain has in this
+  particular branch of trade is the United States of America, which has
+  been supplying China with increasing quantities of cotton goods. The
+  value in sterling of the total imports into China from the United
+  Kingdom long remained nearly constant, but inasmuch as the gold prices
+  were falling the volume of the export was in reality steadily growing.
+  The imports into England, however, of Chinese produce have fallen off,
+  mainly because China tea has been driven out of the English market by
+  the growth of the India and Ceylon tea trade, and also because the
+  bulk of the China silk is now shipped directly to Lyons and other
+  continental ports instead of to London, as formerly was the rule. The
+  growth of the import of Indian yarn into China has been very rapid. In
+  1884 the import was 35,000,000 lb and in 1904 it reached 217,171,066
+  lb. The imports into China from all countries for 1908 were as
+  follows:--
+
+    Opium          L4,563,000       Coal and coke   1,124,000
+    Cotton goods   14,786,000       Oil, kerosene   2,666,000
+    Raw cotton        232,000       Rice            3,543,000
+    Woollen goods     717,000       Sugar           3,514,000
+    Metals          2,956,000       Fish, &c.       1,028,000
+
+  The principal exports from China are silk and tea. These two articles,
+  indeed, up to 1880 constituted more than 80% of the whole export.
+  Owing, however, mainly to the fall in silver, and partly also to cheap
+  ocean freights, it has become profitable to place on the European
+  market a vast number of miscellaneous articles of Chinese produce
+  which formerly found no place in the returns of trade. The silver
+  prices in China did not change materially with the fall in silver, and
+  Chinese produce was thus able to compete favourably with the produce
+  of other countries. The following table shows the relative condition
+  of the export trade in 1880 and 1908:--
+
+  +---------------+-------------+-------------+
+  | Exports of    |     1880.   |     1908.   |
+  +---------------+-------------+-------------+
+  | Silk          |  L9,750,000 | L11,055,000 |
+  | Tea           |  11,774,000 |   4,384,000 |
+  | Miscellaneous |   4,058,000 |  21,448,000 |
+  +---------------+-------------+-------------+
+  |    Total      | L25,582,000 | L36,888,000 |
+  +---------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+  In the miscellaneous class the chief items of exports in 1908 were
+  beans and beancake, L3,142,000; raw cotton, L1,379,000; hides,
+  L1,028,000; straw braid, L1,002,000; furs and skin rugs, L760,000;
+  paper, L458,000; and clothing, L177,000. Sugar, tobacco, mats and
+  matting are also exported. The export of all cereals except pulse is
+  forbidden. Of the tea exported in 1908 the greater part went to Russia
+  and Siberia, the United States and Great Britain. There is a regular
+  export of gold amounting on an average to about a million sterling per
+  annum. A part of it would seem to be the hoardings of the nation
+  brought out by the high price of gold in terms of silver, but a part
+  is virgin gold derived from gold workings in Manchuria on the upper
+  waters of the Amur river.
+
+  Customs duty is levied on exports as well as imports, both being
+  assessed at rates based on a nominal 5% ad val.
+
+  _Shipping and Navigation._--Besides the over-sea trade China has a
+  large coasting and river trade which is largely carried on by British
+  and other foreign vessels. During the year 1908, 207,605 vessels, of
+  83,991,289 tons (86,600 being steamers of 77,955,525 tons), entered
+  and cleared Chinese ports.[22] Of these 28,445 vessels of 34,405,761
+  tons were British; 33,539 of 11,998,588 tons, Chinese vessels of
+  foreign type; 103,124 of 4,947,272 tons, Chinese junks; 5496 vessels
+  of 6,585,671 tons, German; 30,708 of 18,055,138 tons, Japanese; 653 of
+  998,775 tons, American; 3901 of 5,071,689 tons, French; 1033 of
+  980,635 tons, Norwegian.
+
+  Of vessels engaged in the foreign trade only the entrances during the
+  year numbered 38,556 of 12,187,140 tons, and the clearances 36,602 of
+  12,057,126 tons. The nationality of the vessels (direct foreign trade)
+  was mainly as follows:--
+
+  +-------------+--------------------+--------------------+
+  |             |     Entrances.     |     Clearances.    |
+  | Nationality +--------+-----------+--------+-----------+
+  |   1908.     |  No.   |   Tons.   |  No.   |   Tons.   |
+  +-------------+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+
+  | British     |  4,569 | 4,678,094 |  4,614 | 4,754,087 |
+  | German      |    891 | 1,195,775 |    928 | 1,124,872 |
+  | Norwegian   |    255 |   254,211 |    259 |   255,295 |
+  | French      |    468 |   629,680 |    468 |   616,883 |
+  | American    |    136 |   440,602 |    131 |   439,947 |
+  | Japanese    |  2,187 | 2,587,818 |  2,046 | 2,461,132 |
+  | Chinese     | 29,775 | 2,001,872 | 27,888 | 1,915,258 |
+  +-------------+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+
+
+  The tonnage of the Dutch, Austrian and Russian vessels cleared and
+  entered was in each case between 102,000 and 127,000.
+
+
+_Communications._
+
+  External communication is carried on by ancient caravan routes
+  crossing Central Asia, by the trans-Siberian railway, which is
+  increasingly used for passenger traffic, but chiefly by steamship,
+  the steamers being almost entirely owned by foreign companies. There
+  is regular and rapid communication with Europe (via the Suez canal
+  route) and with Japan and the Pacific coast of America. Other lines
+  serve the African and the Australasian trade. The only important
+  Chinese-owned steamers are those of the Chinese Merchants' Steam
+  Navigation Company, which has its headquarters at Shanghai.
+
+  Internal communications are by river, canal, road and railway, the
+  railways since the beginning of the 20th century having become a very
+  important factor. In 1898 the Chinese government agreed that all
+  internal waterways should be open to foreign and native steamers, and
+  in 1907 there were on the registers of the river ports for inland
+  water traffic 609 steamers under the Chinese flag and 255 under
+  foreign flags.
+
+
+    The Pioneer Line destroyed.
+
+    China's first efforts.
+
+    The era of concessions.
+
+    Administration.
+
+  _Railways._--A short line of railway between Shanghai and Wusung was
+  opened in 1875. The fate of this pioneer railway may be mentioned as
+  an introduction to what follows. The railway was really built without
+  any regular permission from the Chinese government, but it was hoped
+  that, once finished and working, the irregularity would be overlooked
+  in view of the manifest benefit to the people. This might have been
+  accomplished but for an unfortunate accident which happened on the
+  line a few months after it was opened. A Chinaman was run over and
+  killed, and this event, of course, intensified the official
+  opposition, and indeed threatened to bring about a riot. The working
+  of the line was stopped by order of the British minister, and
+  thereupon negotiations were entered into with a view to selling the
+  line to the Chinese government. A bargain was struck sufficiently
+  favourable to the foreign promoters of the line, and it was further
+  agreed that, pending payment of the instalments which were spread over
+  a year, the line should continue to be worked by the company. The
+  expectation was that when the officials once got the line into their
+  own hands, and found it a paying concern, they would continue to run
+  it in their own interest. Not so, however, did things fall out. The
+  very day that the twelve months were up the line was closed; the
+  engines were dismantled, the rails and sleepers were torn up, and the
+  whole concern was shipped off to the distant island of Formosa, where
+  carriages, axles and all the rest of the gear were dumped on the shore
+  and left for the most part to disappear in the mud. The spacious area
+  of the Shanghai station was cleared of its buildings, and thereon was
+  erected a temple to the queen of heaven by way of purifying the sacred
+  soil of China from such abomination. This put a stop for nearly twenty
+  years to all efforts on the part of foreigners to introduce railways
+  into China. The next step in railway construction was taken by the
+  Chinese themselves, and on the initiative of Li Hung-chang. In 1886 a
+  company was formed under official patronage, and it built a short
+  line, to connect the coal-mines of K'aip'ing in Chih-li with the mouth
+  of the Peiho river at Taku. The government next authorized the
+  formation of a Native Merchants' Company, under official control, to
+  build a line from Taku to Tientsin, which was opened to traffic in
+  1888. It was not, however, till nine years later, viz. in 1897, that
+  the line was completed as far as Peking. A British engineer, Mr
+  Kinder, was responsible for the construction of the railway. Meantime,
+  however, the extension had been continued north-east along the coast
+  as far as Shanhai-Kwan, and a farther extension subsequently connected
+  with the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The money for these extensions was
+  mostly found by the government, and the whole line is now known as the
+  Imperial Northern railway. The length of the line is 600 m. Meanwhile
+  the high officials of the empire had gradually been brought round to
+  the idea that railway development was in itself a good thing. Chang
+  Chih-tung, then viceroy of the Canton provinces, memorialized strongly
+  in this sense, with the condition, however, that the railways should
+  be built with Chinese capital and of Chinese materials. In particular,
+  he urged the making of a line to connect Peking with Hankow for
+  strategic purposes. The government took him at his word, and he was
+  transferred from Canton to Hankow, with authority to proceed forthwith
+  with his railway. True to his purpose, he at once set to work to
+  construct iron-works at Hankow. Smelting furnaces, rolling mills, and
+  all the machinery necessary for turning out steel rails, locomotives,
+  &c., were erected. Several years were wasted over this preliminary
+  work, and over L1,000,000 sterling was spent, only to find that the
+  works after all were a practical failure. Steel rails could be made,
+  but at a cost two or three times what they could be procured for in
+  Europe. After the Japanese War the hope of building railways with
+  Chinese capital was abandoned. A prominent official named Sheng
+  Hsuan-hwai was appointed director-general of railways, and empowered
+  to enter into negotiations with foreign financiers for the purpose of
+  raising loans. It was still hoped that at least the main control would
+  remain in Chinese hands, but the diplomatic pressure of France and
+  Russia caused even that to be given up, and Great Britain insisting on
+  equal privileges for her subjects, the future of railways in China
+  remained in the hands of the various concessionaires. But after the
+  defeat of Russia by Japan (1904-1905) the theory of the undivided
+  Chinese control of railways was resuscitated. The new spirit was
+  exemplified in the contracts for the financing and construction of
+  three railways--the Canton-Kowloon line in 1907, and the
+  Tientsin-Yangtsze and the Shanghai-Hangchow-Ning-po lines in 1908. In
+  the first of these instances the railway was mortgaged as security for
+  the loan raised for its construction, and its finance and working were
+  to be modelled on the arrangements obtaining in the case of the
+  Imperial Northern railway, under which the administration, while
+  vested in the Chinese government, was supervised by a British
+  accountant and chief engineer. In the other two instances, however, no
+  such security was offered; the Chinese government undertook the
+  unfettered administration of the foreign capital invested in the
+  lines, and the Europeans connected with these works became simply
+  Chinese employes. Moreover, in 1908 the Peking-Hankow line was
+  redeemed from Belgian concessionaires, a 5% loan of L5,000,000 being
+  raised for the purpose in London and Paris. In that year there was
+  much popular outcry against foreign concessionaires being allowed to
+  carry out the terms of their contract, and the British and Chinese
+  corporation in consequence parted with their concession for the
+  Su-chow, Ning-po and Hang-chow railway, making instead a loan of
+  L1,500,000 to the ministry of communications for the provinces through
+  which the line would run. A double difficulty was encountered in the
+  construction and management of the railways; the reconciliation of the
+  privileges accorded to foreign syndicates and governments with the
+  "Recovery of Rights" campaign, and the reconciliation of the claims of
+  the central government at Peking with the demands of the provincial
+  authorities. As to the foreigners, Great Britain, France, Germany, the
+  United States, Russia and Japan, all had claims and concessions, many
+  of them conflicting; while as between Peking and the provinces there
+  was a quarrel mainly concerned with the spoils and "squeezes" to be
+  obtained by railway construction; in some instances the provinces
+  proved more powerful than the central government, as in the case of
+  the Su-chow-Ning-po line, and notably in the matter of the
+  Tientsin-Pukau (Nanking) railway. In that case the provincial
+  authorities overrode the central government, with the result that "for
+  wholesale jobbery, waste and mismanagement the enterprise acquired
+  unenviable notoriety in a land where these things are generally
+  condoned." The good record of one or two lines notwithstanding, the
+  management of the railways under Chinese control had proved, up to
+  1910, inefficient and corrupt.[23] Nevertheless, so great was the
+  economic development following the opening of the line, that in
+  Chinese hands the Peking-Hankow railway yielded a profit.
+
+
+    The Railway systems.
+
+  The main scheme of the railway systems of China is simple. It consists
+  of lines, more or less parallel, running roughly north and south,
+  linked by cross lines with coast ports, or abutting on navigable
+  rivers. One great east and west line will run through central China,
+  from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen. Connexion with Europe is afforded by the
+  Manchuria-trans-Siberia main line, which has a general east and west
+  direction. From Harbin on this railway a branch runs south to Mukden,
+  which since 1908 has become an important railway centre. Thence one
+  line goes due south to Port Arthur; another south-east to An-tung (on
+  the Yalu) and Korea; a third south and west to Tientsin and Peking. A
+  branch from the Mukden-Tientsin line goes round the head of the Gulf
+  of Liao-tung and connects Niu-chwang with the Mukden-Port Arthur line.
+  By this route it is 470 m. from Peking to Niu-chwang.
+
+  From Peking the trunk line (completed in 1905) runs south through the
+  heart of China to Hankow on the Yangtsze-kiang. This section (754 m.
+  long) is popularly known as "the Lu-Han line," from the first part of
+  the names of the terminal stations. The continuation south of this
+  line from Hankow to Canton was in 1910 under construction. Thus a
+  great north and south connexion nearly 2000 m. long is established
+  from Canton to Harbin. From Mukden southward the line is owned and
+  worked by China.
+
+  A railway (German concession) starts from Kiao-chow and runs westward
+  through Shan-tung to Chinan Fu, whence an extension farther west to
+  join the main Lu-Han line at Cheng-ting Fu in Chih-li was undertaken.
+  Westward from Cheng-ting Fu a line financed by the Russo-Chinese Bank
+  runs to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si.
+
+  Another main north and south railway parallel to, but east of, the
+  Lu-Han line and following more or less the route of the Grand Canal,
+  is designed to connect Tientsin, Su-chow (in Kiang-su), Chin-kiang,
+  Nanking, Shanghai, Hang-chow and Ning-po. The southern section
+  (Nanking, Shanghai, &c.) was open in 1909. This Tientsin-Ning-po
+  railway connects at Chinan-Fu with the Shan-tung lines.
+
+  A third north and south line starts from Kiu-Kiang on the Yangtsze
+  below Hankow and traversing the centre of Kiang-si province will join
+  the Canton-Hankow line at Shao-Chow in Kwang-tung province. The
+  construction of the first section, Kiu-Kiang to Nanchang (76 m.),
+  began in 1910.
+
+  In southern China besides the main Canton to Hankow railway (under
+  construction) a line (120 m. long) runs from Canton to Kowloon
+  (opposite Hong-Kong), and there are local lines running inland from
+  Swatow and Fuchow. The French completed in 1909 a trunk line (500 m.
+  long) from Haiphong in Tong King to Yun-nan Fu, the capital of
+  Yun-nan, some 200 m. being in Chinese territory. The French hold
+  concessions for railways in Kwang-si and Kwang-tung. The British
+  government has the right to extend the Burma railway system through
+  Yun-nan and north to the Yangtsze.
+
+  There are local lines in Hu-nan and Ho-nan which connect with the
+  trunk line from Canton to Peking. The Peking-Kalgan line (122 m. long)
+  is a distinct undertaking. The Chinese propose to continue it another
+  530 m. north-westward to Urga in Mongolia, and an eventual junction
+  with the trans-Siberian railway in the neighbourhood of Lake Baikal is
+  contemplated. This line would greatly shorten the distance between
+  Moscow and Peking.
+
+  In 1910 there were open for traffic in China (not reckoning the
+  Russian and Japanese systems in Manchuria, _q.v._) over 3000 m. of
+  railway, and 1500 m. of trunk lines were under construction.
+
+
+    Roads, rivers, and canals.
+
+  China is traversed in all directions by roads. Very few are paved of
+  metalled and nearly all are badly kept; speaking generally, the
+  government spends nothing in keeping either the roads or canals in
+  repair. The roads in several instances are subsidiary to the canals
+  and navigable rivers as a means of communication. The ancient trade
+  routes were twelve in number, viz.[24]:--
+
+     1.  The West river route (W. from Canton).
+     2.  The Cheling Pass route (N.W. from Canton).
+     3.  The Meiling Pass route (N. from Canton).
+     4.  The Min river route (N.W. from Fu-chow).
+     5.  The Lower Yangtsze route (as far W. as Hu-peh and Hu-nan).
+     6.  The Upper Yangtsze route (from I'chang to Sze-ch'uen).
+     7.  The Kwei-chow route.
+     8.  The Han river route (Hankow to Shen-si).
+     9.  The Grand Canal (already described).
+    10.  The Shan-si route.
+    11.  The Kiakhta route.
+    12.  The Manchurian route.
+
+  Of the routes named, that by the West river commands the trade of
+  Kwang-si and penetrates to Yun-nan (where it now has to meet the
+  competition of the French railway from Tong King) and Kwei-chow. The
+  Cheling Pass route from Canton is so named as it crosses that pass
+  (1500 ft. high) to reach the water-ways of Hu-nan at Chen-chow on an
+  affluent of the Siang, and thus connects with the Yangtsze. The trade
+  of this route--whence in former times the teas of Hu-nan (Oonam) and
+  Hu-peh (Oopaek) reached Canton--has been largely diverted via Shanghai
+  and up the Yangtsze. The Canton-Hankow railway also supersedes it for
+  through traffic. The route by the Meiling Pass (1000 ft. High) links
+  Canton and Kiu-kiang. This route is used by the King-te Chen porcelain
+  works to send, to Canton the commoner ware, there to be painted with
+  florid and multicoloured designs. The Min river route serves mainly
+  the province of Fu-kien. The Lower Yangtsze is a river route, now
+  mainly served by steamers (though the salt is still carried by junks),
+  and the Upper Yangtsze is a river route also, but much more difficult
+  of navigation. The Kwei-chow route is up the river Yuen from Changte
+  and the Tung-t'ing lake. The Han river route becomes beyong Sing-nagn
+  Fu a land route over the Tsingling mountains to the capital of
+  Shen-si, and thence on to Kan-suh, Mongolia and Siberia. The Shan-si
+  route from Peking, wholly by road, calls for no detailed account; the
+  Manchurian route is now adequately served by railways. There remains
+  the important Kiakhta route. From Peking it goes to Kalgan (this
+  section is now served by a railway), whence the main route traverses
+  Mongolia, while branches serve Shan-si, Shen-si, Kan-suh, Turkestan,
+  &c. By this route go the caravans bearing tea to Siberia and Russia.
+  Other routes are from Yun-nan to Burma and from Sze-ch'uen province to
+  Tibet.
+
+  The government maintains a number of courier roads, which, like the
+  main trade roads, keep approximately to a straight line. These courier
+  roads are sometimes cut in the steep sides of mountains or run through
+  them in tunnels. They are, in the plains, 20 to 25 ft. wide and are
+  occasionally paved. The chief courier roads starting from Peking go to
+  Sze-chu'en, Yun-nan, Kweilin (in Kwang-si), Canton and Fu-chow. Canals
+  are numerous, especially in the deltas of the Yangtsze and Si-kiang.
+
+  In the centre and south of China the roads are rarely more than 5 ft.
+  broad and wheeled traffic is seldom possible. Bridges are generally of
+  stone, sometimes of wood; large rivers are crossed by bridges of
+  boats. In the north carts drawn by ponies, mules or oxen are employed;
+  in the centre and south passengers travel in sedan-chairs or in
+  wheelbarrows, or ride on ponies. Occasionally the local authorities
+  employ the corvee system to dig out the bed of a canal, but as a rule
+  roads are left to take care of themselves.
+
+  _Posts and Telegraphs._--Every important city is now connected by
+  telegraph with the capital, and the service is reasonably efficient.
+  In 1907 there were 25,913 m. of telegraph lines. Connexion is also
+  established with the British lines in Burma and the Russian lines in
+  Siberia. The Great Northern Telegraph Company (Danish) and the Eastern
+  Extension Telegraph Company (British) connect Shanghai by cable with
+  Hong-Kong, Japan, Singapore and Europe. An imperial _postal service_
+  was established in 1896 under the general control of the maritime
+  customs.[25] By an edict of November 1906 the control of the postal
+  services was transferred to the Board of Communication. The Post
+  Office serves all the open ports, and every important city in the
+  interior. There were in 1910 some 4000 native post-offices, employing
+  15,000 persons, of whom about 200 only were foreigners. The treaty
+  powers however, still maintain their separate post offices at
+  Shanghai, and several other treaty ports for the despatch and receipt
+  of mails from Europe. During the years 1901-1908 mail matters
+  increased from ten millions to two hundred and fifty-two millions of
+  items; and the 250 tons of parcels handled to 27,155 tons. In postal
+  matters China has adopted a most progressive attitude. The imperial
+  post conforms in all respects to the universal Postal Union
+  regulations.    (G. J.; X.)
+
+
+IV. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
+
+Changes in the traditional form of government in China--an autocracy
+based on parental rule--were initiated in 1905 when a commission was
+appointed to study the forms of government in other countries.[26] On
+the 1st of September 1906 an imperial edict was issued in which the
+establishment of parliamentary institutions in China was foreshadowed.
+In 1907 an advisory council--as a sort of stepping-stone to
+representative government--was established by another edict. On the
+27th of August 1908 an edict announced the convocation of a parliament
+in the ninth year from that date. An edict of the 3rd of December 1908
+reaffirmed that of the 27th of August. An edict of the 31st of October
+1909 fixed the classes from which an Imperial Assembly (or Senate) was
+to be selected, and an edict of the 9th of May 1910 gave the names of
+the senators, all of whom had been nominated by the throne. The assembly
+as thus constituted consisted of 200 members drawn from eight classes:
+(1) princes and nobles of the imperial house--16 members; (2) Manchu and
+Chinese nobles--12 members; (3) princes and nobles of dependencies--14
+members; (4) imperial clansmen other than those mentioned--6 members;
+(5) Peking officials--32 members; (6) eminent scholars--10 members; (7)
+exceptional property owners--10 members; (8) representatives of
+provincial assemblies--100 members. The national assembly, which was
+opened by the regent on the 3rd of October 1910, thus contained the
+elements of a two-chambered parliament. The edict summoning the assembly
+contained the following exhortations:--
+
+  The members should understand that this assemblage of the senate is an
+  unprecedented undertaking in China and will be the forerunner of the
+  creation of a parliament. They are earnestly desired to devote to it
+  their patriotism and sincerity, to observe proper order, and to fulfil
+  their duties in representing public opinion. Thus it is hoped that our
+  sincere wish to effect constitutional reforms in their proper order
+  and to aim at success may be duly satisfied.
+
+Concurrently with these steps towards a fundamental alteration in the
+method of government, changes were made in many departments of the
+state, and an elective element was introduced into the provincial
+administrations. The old conception of government with such
+modifications as had been made up to 1910 are set forth below.
+
+
+    The Chinese conception of government.
+
+  The laws of the state prescribe the government of the country to be
+  based on the government of the family.[27] The emperor is the sole and
+  supreme head of the state, his will being absolute alike in the
+  highest affairs and in the humblest details of private life. The
+  highest form of legislation was an imperial decree, whether
+  promulgated in general terms or to meet a special case. In either form
+  it was the law of the land, and no privilege or prescriptive right
+  could be pleaded against it. All officers of state, all judges and
+  magistrates, hold their offices entirely at the imperial pleasure.
+  They can be dismissed, degraded, punished, without reason assigned and
+  without form of trial--even without knowing by whom or of what they
+  are accused. The monarch has an advisory council, but he is not bound
+  by its advice, nor need he pretend that he is acting by and with its
+  advice and concurrence. This condition of affairs dates back to a
+  primitive state of society, which probably existed among the Chinese
+  who first developed a civilized form of government. That this system
+  should have been maintained in China through many centuries is a fact
+  into the causes of which it is worth while to inquire. We find it
+  pictured in the records which make up the _Book of History_, and we
+  find it enforced in the writings of the great apostle of patriarchal
+  institutions, Confucius, and in all the other works which go to make
+  up the Confucian Canon. The reverence with which these scriptures are
+  viewed was the principal means of perpetuating the primitive form of
+  Chinese imperialism. The contents of their pages formed the study of
+  every schoolboy, and supplied the themes at the competitive
+  examinations through which every one had to pass who sought an
+  official career. Thus the mind of the nation was constantly and almost
+  exclusively turned towards them, and their dogmas became part and
+  parcel of the national training. The whole theory of government is the
+  embodiment of parental love and filial piety. As the people are the
+  children of the emperor, so is he the _T'ien-tsze_ or the Son of
+  Heaven.
+
+
+    The emperor.
+
+  In practice the arbitrary power of the emperor is tempered in several
+  ways. Firstly, although the constitution conferred this absolute and
+  unchecked power on the emperor, it was not for his gratification but
+  that he might exercise it for the good of his people. He rules by
+  divine authority, and as the vicegerent of heaven upon earth. If he
+  rules corruptly or unjustly, heaven will send disasters and calamity
+  on the people as a reproof; if the rule becomes tyrannical, heaven may
+  withdraw its favour entirely, and then rebellion may be justified. The
+  Manchu dynasty came to the throne as foreign conquerors, nevertheless
+  they base their right to rule, not on the power of the sword, but on
+  divine approval. On this moral ground they claim the obedience of
+  their subjects, and submit themselves to the corresponding
+  obligations. The emperor, unless he has gained the throne by conquest,
+  is selected by his predecessor or by the imperial family in conclave.
+  He is usually a son (but seldom the eldest son) of his predecessor,
+  and need not be the child of the empress-consort,[28] though (other
+  things being equal) a son of the empress is preferred. Failing a son
+  another prince of the imperial house is chosen, the choice being
+  properly among the princes of a generation below that of the preceding
+  emperor, so that the new emperor may be adopted as the son of his
+  predecessor, and perform for him the due ceremonies at the ancestral
+  tablets. Apart from this ancestor-worship the emperor worships only at
+  the Altar of Heaven, leaving Buddhism, Taoism, and any other form of
+  worship to his subjects. The emperor's sacrifices and prayers to
+  heaven are conducted with great parade and ceremony. The chief of
+  these state observances is the sacrifice at the winter solstice, which
+  is performed before sunrise on the morning of the 21st of December at
+  the Temple of Heaven. The form of the altar is peculiar.
+
+  "It consists of a triple circular terrace, 210 ft. wide at the base,
+  150 in the middle, and 90 at the top.... The emperor, with his
+  immediate suite, kneels in front of the tablet of Shang-ti (The
+  Supreme Being, or Heaven), and faces the north. The platform is laid
+  with marble stones, forming nine concentric circles; the inner circle
+  consists of nine stones, cut so as to fit with close edges round the
+  central stone, which is a perfect circle. Here the emperor kneels, and
+  is surrounded first by the circles of the terraces and their enclosing
+  walls, and then by the circle of the horizon. He then seems to himself
+  and to his court to be in the centre of the universe, and turning to
+  the north, assuming the attitude of a subject, he acknowledges in
+  prayer and by his position that he is inferior to heaven, and to
+  heaven alone. Round him on the pavement are the nine circles of as
+  many heavens, consisting of nine stones, then eighteen, then
+  twenty-seven, and so on in successive multiples of nine till the
+  square of nine, the favourite number of Chinese philosophy, is reached
+  in the outermost circle of eighty-one stones."
+
+  On this occasion, also, a bullock of two years old, and without
+  blemish, is offered as a whole burnt-offering in a green porcelain
+  furnace which stands close beside the altar. The emperor's life is
+  largely occupied with ceremonial observances, and custom ordains that
+  except on state occasions he should not leave the walls of the palace.
+
+  For his knowledge of public affairs the emperor is thus largely
+  dependent upon such information as courtiers and high officers of
+  state permit to reach him.[29] The palace eunuchs have often exercised
+  great power, though their influence has been less under the Manchus
+  than was the case during previous dynasties. Though in theory the
+  throne commands the services and money of all its subjects yet the
+  crown as such has no revenues peculiarly its own. It is dependent on
+  contributions levied through the high officials on the several
+  provinces, subject always to the will of the people, and without their
+  concurrence and co-operation nothing can be done.[30] The power of the
+  purse and the power of the sword are thus exercised mediately, and the
+  autocratic power is in practice transferred to the general body of
+  high functionaries, or to that clique which for the time being has
+  the ear of the emperor, and is united enough and powerful enough to
+  impose its will on the others.
+
+
+    China governed by its civil service.
+
+  The functionaries who thus really wield the supreme power are almost
+  without exception civil officials. Naturally the court has shown an
+  inclination to choose Manchu rather than Chinese, but of late years
+  this preference has become less marked, and in the imperial
+  appointments to provincial administrations the proportion of Manchus
+  chosen was at the beginning of the 20th century not more than
+  one-fifth of the whole number. The real reason for this change is the
+  marked superiority of the Chinese, in whose hands the administration
+  is stated to be safer for the Manchu dynasty. Practically all the high
+  Chinese officials have risen through the junior ranks of the civil
+  service, and obtained their high position as the reward--so it must be
+  presumed--of long and distinguished public service.
+
+
+    Functions of the central government.
+
+  Through the weakness of some of the emperors the functions of the
+  central government gradually came to be to check the action of the
+  provincial governments rather than assume a direct initiative in the
+  conduct of affairs. "The central government may be said to criticize
+  rather than to control the action of the provincial administrations,
+  wielding, however, at all times the power of immediate removal from
+  his post of any official whose conduct may be found irregular or
+  considered dangerous to the stability of the state."[31] This was
+  written in 1877, and since then the pressure of foreign nations has
+  compelled the central government to assume greater responsibilities,
+  and the empire is now ruled from Peking in a much more effective
+  manner than was the case when Lord Napier in 1834 could find no
+  representative of the central government with whom to transact
+  business.
+
+  If the central authorities take the initiative, and issue orders to
+  the provincial authorities, it, however, does not follow that they
+  will be carried out. The orders, if unwelcome, are not directly
+  disobeyed, but rather ignored, or specious pleas are put forward,
+  showing the difficulty or impossibility of carrying them out at that
+  particular juncture. The central government always wields the power of
+  removing or degrading a recalcitrant governor, and no case has been
+  known where such an order was not promptly obeyed. But the central
+  government, being composed of officials, stand by their order, and are
+  extremely reluctant to issue such a command, especially at the bidding
+  of a foreign power. Generally the opinion of the governors and
+  viceroys has great weight with the central government.
+
+
+    Departments of the central administration.
+
+  Under the Ming dynasty the _Nuiko_ or Grand Secretariat formed the
+  supreme council of the empire. It is now of more honorific than actual
+  importance. Active membership is limited to six persons, namely, four
+  grand secretaries and two assistant grand secretaries, half of whom,
+  according to a general rule formerly applicable to nearly all the high
+  offices in Peking, must be Manchu and half Chinese. It constitutes the
+  imperial chancery or court of archives, and admission to its ranks
+  confers the highest distinction attainable by Chinese officials,
+  though with functions that are almost purely nominal. Members of the
+  grand secretariat are distinguished by the honorary title of
+  _Chung-t'ang._ The most distinguished viceroys are usually advanced to
+  the dignity of grand secretary while continuing to occupy their posts
+  in the provinces. The best known of recent grand secretaries was Li
+  Hung-chang.
+
+  Under the Manchu dynasty the Grand Council (_Chuen Chi Ch'u_) became
+  the actual privy council of the sovereign, in whose presence its
+  members daily transacted the business of the state. This council is
+  composed of a small knot of men holding various high offices in the
+  government boards at Peking. The literal meaning of Chuen Chi Ch'u is
+  "place of plans for the army," and the institution derives its name
+  from the practice established by the early emperors of the Manchu
+  dynasty of treating public affairs on the footing of a military
+  council. The usual time of transacting business is from 4 to 6 a.m. In
+  addition to the grand council and the grand secretariat there were
+  boards to supervise particular departments. By a decree of the 6th of
+  November 1906 the central administration was remodelled, subsequent
+  decrees making other changes. The administration in 1910 was carried
+  on by the following agencies:--
+
+  A. _Councils._--(1)The grand council. Its title was modified in 1906
+  and it is now known as the Grand Council of State Affairs or Privy
+  Council. It has no special function, but deals with all matters of
+  general administration and is presided over by the emperor (or
+  regent). (2) The Grand Secretariat. This body gained no increase of
+  power in 1906. (3) The advisory council or senate (_Tu Cheng Yuen_)
+  created in 1907 and containing representatives of each province. It
+  includes all members of the grand council and the grand secretariat
+  and the heads of all the executive departments.[32] The members of
+  these three bodies form advisory cabinets to the emperor.
+
+  B. _Boards._--Besides boards concerned with the affairs of the court
+  there were, before the pressure of foreign nations and the movement
+  for reform caused changes to be made, six boards charged with the
+  conduct of public affairs. They were: (1) _Li Pu_, the Board of Civil
+  Appointments, controlling all appointments in the civil service from
+  the rank of district magistrate upwards. (2) _Hu Pu_, the Board of
+  Revenue, dealing with all revenues which reached the central
+  government. (3) _Li Pu_, the Board of Ceremonies. (4) _Ping Pu_, the
+  Board of War. It controlled the provincial forces. The Manchu forces
+  were an independent organization attached to the palace. (5) _Hsing
+  Pu_, the Board of Punishments. It dealt with the criminal law only,
+  especially the punishment of officials guilty of malpractices. (6)
+  _Kung Pu_, the Board of Works. Its work was limited to the control of
+  the construction and repair of official residences.
+
+  As rearranged and enlarged there are now the following boards, given
+  in order of precedence:--
+
+  1. _Wai-wu Pu_.--This was established in 1901 in succession to the
+  _Tsung-li Yamen_,[33] which was created in 1861 after the
+  Anglo-Chinese War in 1860 as a board for foreign affairs. Previous to
+  that war, which established the right of foreign powers to have their
+  representatives in Peking, all business with Western nations was
+  transacted by provincial authorities, chiefly the viceroy at Canton.
+  The only department at Peking which dealt specially with foreign
+  affairs was the _Li Fan Yuen_, or board of control for the
+  dependencies, which regulated the affairs of Mongolia, Tibet and the
+  tributary states generally. With the advent of formally accredited
+  ambassadors from the European powers something more than this was
+  required, and a special board was appointed to discuss all questions
+  with the foreign envoys. The number was originally four, with Prince
+  Kung, a brother of the emperor Hien Feng, at their head. It was
+  subsequently raised to ten, another prince of the blood, Prince Ching,
+  becoming president. The members were spoken of collectively as the
+  prince and ministers. For a long time the board had no real power, and
+  was looked on rather as a buffer between the foreign envoys and the
+  real government. The importance of foreign affairs, however,
+  especially since the Japanese War, identified the _Yamen_ more with
+  the grand council, several of the most prominent men being members of
+  both. At the same time that the _Tsung-li Yamen_ was created, two
+  important offices were established in the provinces for dealing with
+  foreign commercial questions, viz. the superintendencies of trade for
+  the northern and southern ports. The negotiations connected with the
+  Boxer outbreak proved so conclusively that the machinery to the
+  _Tsung-li Yamen_ was of too antiquated a nature to serve the new
+  requirements, that it was determined to abolish the _Yamen_ and to
+  substitute for it a board (_Pu_) to be styled the _Wai-wu Pu_, or
+  "board of foreign affairs."
+
+  2. Board of Civil Appointments.
+
+  3. Board of Home Affairs.
+
+  4. Board of Finance and Paymaster General's Department.
+
+  5. Board of Ceremonies.
+
+  6. Army Board or Ministry of War (instituted 1906).[34]
+
+  7. Board of Judicature.
+
+  8. Board of Agriculture, Works and Commerce (instituted 1903).
+
+  9. Board of dependencies.
+
+  10. Board of Education (instituted 1903).
+
+  11. Board of Communications (instituted 1906).
+
+  Each board has one president and two vice-presidents, with the
+  exception of the Wai-wu Pu, which has a comptroller-general and two
+  presidents, and the Boards of War and Education, each of which has a
+  comptroller-general in addition to the president. According to the
+  decree of 1906 no distinction, in filling up the various boards, is to
+  be made between Manchu and Chinese.
+
+  Besides the boards named there are other departments of state, some of
+  them not limited to any one branch of the public service. The more
+  important are those that follow:--
+
+  The Censorate (_Tu Ch'a Yuen_).--An institution peculiar to China. The
+  constitution provides a paid body of men whose duty it is to inform
+  the emperor of all facts affecting the welfare of the people and the
+  conduct of government, and in particular to keep an eye on the
+  malfeasance of his officers. These men are termed _Yue shih_ (imperial
+  recorder), generally translated censors. Their office has existed
+  since the 3rd century B.C. The body consists of two presidents, a
+  Chinese and a Manchu, 24 supervising censors attached to the
+  ministries at Peking, and 56 censors, divided into fifteen divisions,
+  each division taking a particular province or area, so as to embrace
+  the whole eighteen provinces, besides one metropolitan division. The
+  censors are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even of the
+  emperor himself; to censure the manner in which all other officials
+  perform or neglect their duties and to denounce them to the throne.
+  They receive appeals made to the emperor, either by the people against
+  the officials or by subordinate officials against their superiors.
+  They exercise, in accord with the Board of Justice, an oversight over
+  all criminal cases and give their opinion whenever the death penalty
+  is to be pronounced. They superintend the working of the different
+  boards and are sometimes sent to various places as imperial
+  inspectors, hence they are called _erh mu kuan_ (the eyes and ears of
+  the emperor). The censors exercise their office at times with great
+  boldness;[35] their advice if unpalatable may be disregarded and the
+  censor in question degraded. The system of the censorate lends itself
+  to espionage and to bribery, and it is said to be more powerful for
+  mischief than for good. With the growth in influence of the native
+  press the institution appears to lose its _raison d'etre_.
+
+  The grand court of revision (_Ta-li sze_) or Court of Cassation
+  exercises, in conjunction with the Board of Justice and the Censorate,
+  a general supervision over the administration of the criminal law.
+  These bodies are styled collectively _San-fah sze_ (the Three High
+  Justices).
+
+  The Hanlin College (_Hanlin Yuen_, literally Forest of Pencils) is
+  composed of all the literate who have passed the palace examination
+  and obtained the title of _Hanlin_ or imperial academist. It has two
+  chancellors--a Manchu and a Chinese. Its functions are of a purely
+  literary character and it is of importance chiefly because the heads
+  of the college, who are presumably the most eminent scholars of the
+  empire, have the right of advising the throne on all public affairs,
+  and are eligible as members of the grand council or of the Wai-wu Pu.
+  The Chinese set fire to it during the fighting in Peking in June 1900
+  in the hope of burning out the adjoining British legation. The whole
+  of the library, containing some of the most valuable manuscripts in
+  the world, was destroyed.
+
+
+    Provincial government.
+
+  Each of the eighteen provinces of China proper, the three provinces of
+  Manchuria and the province of Sin-kiang are ruled by a viceroy placed
+  over one, two and in one instance three provinces, or by a governor
+  over a single province either under a viceroy or depending directly on
+  the central government, the viceroy or the governor being held
+  responsible to the emperor for the entire administration, political,
+  judicial, military and fiscal. The most important viceroyalties are
+  those of Chih-li, Liang-kiang and Liang-kwang. The viceroyalty of
+  Liang-kiang comprises the provinces of Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and
+  Kiang-si. The viceroy resides at Nanking and hence is sometimes called
+  the viceroy of Nanking. Similarly the viceroy of Liang-kwang
+  (comprising the provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si) through having
+  his residence at Canton is sometimes styled the viceroy of Canton. The
+  three provinces adjoining the metropolitan province of
+  Chih-li--Shan-tung, Shan-si and Ho-nan--have no viceroys over them;
+  seven provinces--including Chih-li--have no governors, the viceroy
+  officiating as governor. In provinces where there are both a viceroy
+  and a governor they act conjointly, but special departments are
+  administered by the one rather than the other. The viceroy controls
+  the military and the salt tax; the governor the civil service
+  generally.
+
+  The viceroy or governor is assisted by various other high officials,
+  all of whom down to the district magistrate are nominated from Peking.
+  The chief officials are the treasurer, the judicial commissioner or
+  provincial judge, and the commissioner of education (this last post
+  being created in 1903). The treasurer controls the finances of the
+  whole province, receiving the taxes and paying the salaries of the
+  officials. The judge, the salt commissioner, and the grain collector
+  are the only other officials whose authority extends over the whole
+  province. Each province is subdivided into prefectures ruled by
+  prefects, and each prefecture into districts ruled by a district
+  magistrate, _Chih-hsien_, the official through whom the people in
+  general receive the orders of the government. Two or more prefectures
+  are united into a _tao_ or circuit, the official at the head of which
+  is called a _Taot'ai_. Each town and village has also its unofficial
+  governing body of "gentry."[36] The officials appointed from Peking
+  hold office for three years, but they may be re-appointed once, and in
+  the case of powerful viceroys they may hold office for a prolonged
+  period. Another rule is that no official is ever appointed to a post
+  in the province of his birth; a rule which, however, did not apply to
+  Manchuria. The Peking authorities take care also in making the high
+  appointments to send men of different political parties to posts in
+  the same province.
+
+  The edict of the 6th of November 1906 initiating changes in the
+  central administration was accompanied by another edict outlining
+  changes in the provincial government, and an edict of the 22nd of July
+  1908 ordered the election of provincial assemblies. The edict made it
+  clear that the functions of the assemblies were to be purely
+  consultative. The elections took place according to the regulations,
+  the number of members allotted to each province varying from 30 (Kirin
+  province, Manchuria, and two others) to 140 in Chih-li. The franchise
+  was restricted, but the returns for the first elections showed nearly
+  1000 voters for each representative. The first meetings of the
+  assemblies were held in October 1909.
+
+_The Civil Service._--The bureaucratic element is a vital feature in
+the government of China, the holding of office being almost the only
+road to distinction. Officials are by the Chinese called collectively
+_Kwan_ (rulers or magistrates) but are known to foreigners as mandarins
+(q.v.). The mandarins are divided into nine degrees, distinguished by
+the buttons worn on the top of their caps. These are as follows:--first
+and highest, a plain red button; second, a flowered red button; third, a
+transparent blue button; fourth, an opaque blue button; fifth, an
+uncoloured glass button; sixth, an opaque white shell button; seventh, a
+plain gilt button; eighth, a gilt button with flowers in relief; ninth,
+a gilt button with engraved flowers. The buttons indicate simply rank,
+not office. The peacock feathers worn in their hats are an order granted
+as reward of merit, and indicate neither rank nor office. The Yellow
+Jacket similarly is a decoration, the most important in China.
+
+The ranks of the civil service are recruited by means of examinations.
+Up to the beginning of 1906 the subjects in which candidates were
+examined were purely Chinese and literary with a smattering of history.
+In 1906 this system was modified and an official career was opened to
+candidates who had obtained honours in an examination in western
+subjects (see Sec. _Education_). The old system is so closely identified
+with the life of China that some space must be devoted to a description
+of it.
+
+  As a general rule students preparing for the public examination read
+  with private tutors. There were neither high schools nor universities
+  where a regular training could be got. In most of the provincial
+  capitals, and at some other places, there were indeed institutions
+  termed colleges, supported to some extent from public funds, where
+  advanced students could prosecute their studies; but before the
+  movement initiated by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the
+  China-Japan War of 1894, they hardly counted as factors in the
+  national education. The private tutors, on the other hand, were
+  plentiful and cheap. After a series of preliminary trials the student
+  obtained his first qualification by examination held before the
+  literary chancellor in the prefecture to which he belonged. This was
+  termed the _Siuts'ai_, or licentiate's degree, and was merely a
+  qualification to enter for the higher examinations. The number of
+  licentiate degrees to be given was, however, strictly limited; those
+  who failed to get in were set back to try again, which they might do
+  as often as they pleased. There was no limit of age. Those selected
+  next proceeded to the great examination held at the capital of each
+  province, once in three years, before examiners sent from Peking for
+  the purpose. Here again the number who passed was strictly limited.
+  Out of 10,000 or 12,000 competitors only some 300 or 350 could obtain
+  degrees. The others, as before, must go back and try again. This
+  degree, termed _Chue jen_, or provincial graduate, was the first
+  substantial reward of the student's ambition, and of itself qualified
+  for the public service, though it did not immediately nor necessarily
+  lead to active employment. The third and final examination took place
+  at Peking, and was open to provincial graduates from all parts of the
+  empire. Out of 6000 competitors entering for this final test, which
+  was held triennially, some 325 to 350 succeeded in obtaining the
+  degree of _Chin shih_, or metropolitan graduate. These were the
+  finally selected men who became the officials of the empire.
+
+  Several other doors were, however, open by which admission to the
+  ranks of bureaucracy could be obtained. In the first place, to
+  encourage scholars to persevere, a certain number of those who failed
+  to reach the _chue jen_, or second degree, were allowed, as a reward of
+  repeated efforts, to get into a special class from which selection for
+  office might be made. Further, the government reserved to itself the
+  right to nominate the sons and grandsons of distinguished deceased
+  public servants without examination. And, lastly, by a system of
+  "recommendation," young men from favoured institutions or men who had
+  served as clerks in the boards, might be put on the roster for
+  substantive appointment. The necessities of the Chinese government
+  also from time to time compelled it to throw open a still wider door
+  of entry into the civil service, namely, admission by purchase. During
+  the T'aip'ing rebellion, when the government was at its wits' end for
+  money, formal sanction was given to what had previously been only
+  intermittently resorted to, and since then immense sums of money have
+  been received by the sale of patents of rank, to secure either
+  admission to office or more rapid promotion of those already employed.
+  As a result of this policy, the country has been saddled with
+  thousands of titular officials far in excess of the number of
+  appointments to be given away. Deserving men were kept waiting for
+  years, while inferior and less capable officials were pushed ahead,
+  because they had money wherewith to bribe their way. Nevertheless the
+  purchase system admitted into the service a number of men free from
+  that bigoted adherence to Confucian doctrine which characterizes the
+  literary classes, and more in touch with modern progress.
+
+  All candidates who succeed in entering the official ranks are eligible
+  for active employment, but as the number of candidates is far in
+  excess of the number of appointments a period of weary waiting ensues.
+  A few of the best scholars get admitted at once into the Hanlin
+  college or into one or other of the boards at Peking. The rest are
+  drafted off in batches to the various provinces to await their turn
+  for appointment as vacancies occur. During this period of waiting they
+  are termed "expectants" and draw no regular pay. Occasional service,
+  however, falls in their way, as when they are commissioned for special
+  duty in outlying districts, which they perform as _Wei yuens_, or
+  deputies of the regular officials. The period of expectancy may be
+  abridged by recommendation or purchase, and it is generally supposed
+  that this last lever must invariably be resorted to to secure any
+  lucrative local appointment. A poor but promising official is often,
+  it is said, financed by a syndicate of relations and friends, who look
+  to recoup themselves out of the customary perquisites which attach to
+  the post. Appointments to the junior provincial posts are usually left
+  to the provincial government, but the central government can always
+  interfere directly. Appointments to the lucrative posts of customs,
+  _taot'ai_, at the treaty ports are usually made direct from Peking,
+  and the officer selected is neither necessarily nor usually from the
+  provincial staff. It would perhaps be safe to say that this
+  appointment has hitherto always been the result of a pecuniary
+  arrangement of greater or less magnitude.
+
+
+    Bribery and torture.
+
+  During the first five years (1906-1910) of the new method, by which
+  candidates for the civil service were required, in addition to Chinese
+  classics, to have a knowledge of western science, great efforts were
+  made in several provinces to train up a better class of public
+  official. The old system of administration had many theoretical
+  excellencies, and there had been notable instances of upright
+  administration, but the regulation which forbade a mandarin to hold
+  any office for more than three years made it the selfish interest of
+  every office-holder to get as much out of the people within his
+  jurisdiction as he possibly could in that time. This corruption in
+  high places had a thoroughly demoralizing effect. While among the
+  better commercial classes Chinese probity in business relations with
+  foreigners is proverbial, the people generally set little or no value
+  upon truth, and this has led to the use of torture in their courts of
+  justice; for it is argued that where the value of an oath is not
+  understood, some other means must be resorted to to extract evidence.
+
+  _Justice._--The _Chih-Hsien_ or district magistrate decides ordinary
+  police cases; he is also coroner and sheriff, he hears suits for
+  divorce and breach of promise, and is a court of first instance in all
+  civil cases; "the penalty for taking a case first to a higher court is
+  fifty blows with the bamboo on the naked thigh."[37] Appeal from the
+  _Hsien_ court lies to the _Fu_, or prefectural court, and thence cases
+  may be taken to the provincial judge, who signs death warrants, while
+  there are final courts of appeal at Peking. Civil cases are usually
+  settled by trade gilds in towns and by village elders, or by
+  arbitration in rural districts. Reference has been made to the use of
+  torture. Flogging is the only form of torture which has been allowed
+  under the Manchus. The obdurate witness is laid on his face, and the
+  executioner delivers his blows on the upper part of the thighs with
+  the concave side of a split bamboo, the sharp edges of which mutilate
+  the sufferer terribly. The punishment is continued until the man
+  either supplies the evidence required or becomes insensible.
+  Punishment by bamboo was formally abolished by imperial edict in 1905,
+  and other judicial reforms were instituted. They remained largely
+  inoperative, and even in Shanghai, under the eyes of foreign
+  residents, gross cases of the infliction of torture occurred in
+  1909.[38]
+
+  For capital offences the usual modes of inflicting the extreme penalty
+  of the law are--in bad cases, such as parricides, "cutting to pieces,"
+  and for less aggravated crimes either strangulation or decapitation.
+  The culprit who is condemned to be "cut to pieces" is fastened to a
+  cross, and while thus suspended cuts are made by the executioner on
+  the fleshy parts of the body; and he is then beheaded. Strangulation
+  is reserved for lesser degrees of guilt, it being considered a
+  privilege to pass out of life with a whole body. When it has been
+  granted to a criminal of rank thus to meet his end, a silken cord is
+  sent to him at his own home. No explanatory message is considered
+  necessary, and he is left to consummate his own doom. Popular
+  sentiment regards decapitation as a peculiarly disgraceful mode of
+  death. Constant practice makes the executioners wonderfully expert in
+  the performance of their office. No block or resting-place for the
+  head is used. The neck is simply outstretched to its full length by
+  the aid of an assistant, and one blow invariably leaves the body
+  headless.
+
+
+    Consular jurisdiction.
+
+  The laws are in accord with the principle which regards the family as
+  a unit. Thus there is no bankruptcy law--if a debtor's own estate will
+  not suffice to pay his debts the deficiency must be made good by his
+  relatives; if a debtor absconds his immediate family are imprisoned.
+  By analogy if one member of a party commits an offence and the guilty
+  person cannot be detected, the whole party must suffer. Foreigners
+  residing in China resented the application of this principle of law to
+  themselves. As a result extra-territorial rights were sought by
+  European powers. They were secured by Russia as early as 1689, but it
+  was not until 1843 that any other nation acquired them. In that year
+  Great Britain obtained the right to try British subjects by its own
+  consuls, a right secured in more explicit terms by the United States
+  and France in 1844. Now eighteen powers, including Japan, have
+  consular courts for the trial of their own subjects according to the
+  laws of their native lands. Mixed courts have also been established,
+  that is, a defendant is tried in the court of his own nationality, the
+  court giving its decision under the supervision of a representative of
+  the plaintiff's nationality. In practice the Chinese have seldom sent
+  representatives to sit on the bench of consular courts, but, as the
+  Europeans lack confidence in the administration of Chinese justice, no
+  suit brought by a foreigner against a Chinese is decided without the
+  presence of an assessor of the plaintiff's nationality.
+
+
+    Army.
+
+  _Defence._--The Chinese constitution in the period before the reform
+  edicts of 1905-1906 provided for two independent sets of military
+  organizations--namely, the Manchu army and the several provincial
+  armies. On the establishment of the dynasty in 1644 the victorious
+  troops, composed mainly of Manchus, but including also Mongols and
+  Chinese, were permanently quartered in Peking, and constituted a
+  hereditary national army. The force was divided into eight banners,
+  and under one or other of these all Manchus and all the descendants of
+  the members of other nationalities were enrolled. They form the bulk
+  of the population of the "Tatar city" of Peking. Each adult male was
+  by birth entitled to be enrolled as a soldier, and by virtue of his
+  enrolment had a right to draw rations--i.e. his allowance of the
+  tribute rice, whether on active service or not. Detachments from one
+  or other of the banners were stationed as garrisons in the chief
+  provincial centres, as at Canton, Fuchow and Hang-chow, &c., and their
+  descendants still occupy the same position. As a fighting force the
+  Manchu garrisons both in the capital and in the provinces had long
+  become quite effete. In the capital, however, the _elite_ of the
+  Manchu soldiery were formed into a special corps termed the Peking
+  Field Force. Its nominal strength was 20,000, the men were armed and
+  drilled after the European fashion, and fairly well paid. There were
+  other corps of picked Manchus better paid and better armed than the
+  ordinary soldier, and it was computed that in 1901 the Manchu army in
+  or near Peking could muster 40,000, all more or less efficient.
+
+  The second organization was termed the army of the Green Standard,
+  being the Chinese provincial forces. The nominal strength was from
+  20,000 to 30,000 for each province, or about 500,000 in all; the
+  actual strength was about one-third of this. They were enrolled to
+  keep the peace within their own province, and resembled a militia or
+  local constabulary rather than a national army. They were generally
+  poorly paid and equally badly drilled and armed.
+
+  The only real fighting force which China possessed at the beginning of
+  the 20th century was made up of certain special corps which were not
+  provided for in the constitution, and consequently used to be termed
+  _yung_, "braves," or irregulars, but had acquired various distinctive
+  names. They were enlisted by provincial governors, and all had some
+  smattering of foreign drill. They were also fairly well paid and
+  armed. After the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95 some of these corps
+  were quartered near Peking and Tientsin, and came generally to be
+  spoken of as the Army of the North.
+
+  An imperial decree issued in 1901 after the Boxer rising ordered the
+  reorganization of the military forces of the empire, and on provincial
+  lines something was accomplished--especially in Chih-li under Yuan
+  Shih-k'ai, who practically created "the Army of the North." It was
+  not, however, until after the Russo-Japanese War that determined
+  efforts were made to organize a national army on western lines; an
+  army which should be responsible to the central government and not
+  dependent upon the provincial administrations. A decree of 1905
+  provided (on paper) for training schools for officers in each of the
+  provinces, middle grade military schools in selected provinces, and a
+  training college and military high school in Peking. The Army Board
+  was reorganized and steps taken to form a general staff. Considerable
+  progress had been made by 1910 in the evolution of a body of efficient
+  officers. In practice the administration remained largely
+  provincial--for instance the armament of the troops was provided by
+  the provincial governors and was far from uniform. The scheme[39]
+  contemplated the creation of a force about 400,000 strong in 36
+  divisions and in two armies, the northern and the southern.
+  Recruitment is on the voluntary principle, except in the case of the
+  Manchus, who apparently enter the new army instead of the "eight
+  banners." The terms of service are three years with the colours, three
+  in the reserve and four in the territorial army. The Japanese system
+  of training is followed. Reservists are called out for 30 days every
+  year and the territorialists for 30 days every other year.
+
+  Up to 1909 six divisions and one mixed brigade of the northern army
+  had been organized in Shan-tung, Chih-li and Ho-nan; elsewhere three
+  divisions and six mixed brigades; total strength about 60,000 with 350
+  guns. (These figures do not include all the provincial foreign trained
+  troops.) The efficiency of the troops varied; the northern army was
+  superior to the others in training and armament. About a third of the
+  60,000 men of the new army were in 1909 stationed in Manchuria (See
+  also Sec. _History_.)
+
+  An imperial edict of the 15th of September 1907 reorganized the army
+  of the Green Standard. It was placed under the control of the minister
+  of war and formed in battalions and squadrons. The duty of the troops
+  in peace time remained much as previously. In war they pass under the
+  control of regular officers, though their use outside their own
+  provinces does not seem to be contemplated.
+
+
+    Navy.
+
+  The Chinese navy in 1909 consisted of the 4300 ton cruiser "Hai Chi"
+  (two 8-in., ten 4.7-in. guns) of 24 knot original speed, three 3000
+  ton cruisers, "Hai Yung," "Hai Schew" and "Hai Shen" (three 6-in.,
+  eight 4-in. guns) of 19.5 knot original speed, some modern gunboats
+  built in Japan, a few miscellaneous vessels and some old torpedo
+  boats. With the destruction of the northern fleet by the Japanese at
+  the capture of Wei-hai-wei in 1895, the Chinese navy may be said to
+  have ceased to exist. Previously it consisted of two divisions, the
+  northern and southern, of which the former was by far the more
+  formidable. The southern was under the control of the viceroy of
+  Nanking, and took no part in the Chino-Japanese War. While the
+  northern fleet was grappling in a death-struggle, the southern was
+  lying snugly in the Yangtsze waters, the viceroy of Nanking apparently
+  thinking that as the Japanese had not attacked him there was no reason
+  why he should risk his ships.
+
+  _The New Scheme._--An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a naval
+  and military advisory board. Nimrod Sound, centrally situated on the
+  coast of Cheh-kiang, was chosen as naval base, and four naval schools
+  were ordered to be established; a navigation school at Chifu, an
+  engineering school at Whampoa, a school for naval artificers at
+  Fuchow, and a gunnery and musketry school at Nimrod Sound. A superior
+  naval college was founded at Peking. The coast defences were placed
+  under the control of the naval department, and the reorganization of
+  the dockyards undertaken. During 1910 orders for cruisers were placed
+  abroad.
+
+  _Arsenals and Dockyards._--After the loss of Port Arthur, China
+  possessed no dockyard which could dock vessels over 3000 tons. Many
+  years ago the Chinese government established at Fuchow a shipbuilding
+  yard, placing it in the hands of French engineers. Training schools
+  both for languages and practical navigation were at the same time
+  organized, and a training ship was procured and put under the command
+  of a British naval officer. Some twenty-five or thirty small vessels
+  were built in the course of as many years, but gradually the whole
+  organization was allowed to fall into decay. Except for petty repairs
+  this establishment was in 1909 valueless to the Chinese government.
+  There were also small dockyards at Kiang-nan (near Shanghai), Whampoa
+  and Taku. There are well-equipped arsenals at Shanghai and at
+  Tientsin, but as they are both placed up shallow rivers they are
+  useless for naval repairs. Both are capable of turning out heavy guns,
+  and also rifles and ammunition in large quantities. There are also
+  military arsenals at Nanking, Wuchang, Canton and Chengtu.
+
+  _Forts._--A great number of forts and batteries have been erected
+  along the coast and at the entrance to the principal rivers. Chief
+  among these, now that the Taku forts formerly commanding the entrance
+  to Tientsin have been demolished, are the Kiangyin forts commanding
+  the entrance to the Yangtsze, the Min forts at the entrance of the
+  Fuchow river, and the Bogue forts at the entrance to the Canton river.
+  These are supplied with heavy armament from the Krupp and Armstrong
+  factories.
+
+
+_Finance._
+
+In fiscal matters, as for many other purposes, the Chinese empire is an
+agglomeration of a number of quasi-independent units. Each province has
+a complete administrative staff, collects its own revenue, pays its own
+civil service, and other charges placed upon it, and out of the surplus
+contributes towards the expenses of the imperial government a sum which
+varies with the imperiousness of the needs of the latter and with its
+own comparative wealth or poverty. The imperial government does not
+collect directly any part of the revenues, unless the imperial maritime
+customs be excepted, though these, too, pass through the books of the
+provincial authorities.[40]
+
+It has hitherto been extremely difficult to obtain anything like
+trustworthy figures for the whole revenue of China, for the reason that
+no complete statistics are published by the central government at
+Peking.[41] The only available data are, first, the returns published by
+the imperial maritime customs for the duties levied on foreign trade;
+and, secondly, the memorials sent to Peking by the provincial
+authorities on revenue matters, certain of which are published from time
+to time in the _Peking Gazette_. These are usually fragmentary, being
+merely reports which the governor has received from his subordinates,
+detailing, as the case may be, the yield of the land tax or the likin
+for his particular district, with a dissertation on the causes which
+have made it more or less than for the previous period. Or the return
+may be one detailing the expenditure of such and such a department, or
+reporting the transmission of a sum in reply to a requisition of the
+board of revenue, with a statement of the source from which it has been
+met. It is only by collating these returns over a long period that
+anything like a complete statement can be made up. And even then these
+returns do not represent anything like the total of taxation paid by the
+people, but, as far as they go, they may be taken to represent the
+volume of taxation on which the Peking government can draw revenue.
+
+The following table, taken from a memorandum by Sir Robert Hart, dated
+the 25th of March 1901, shows the latest official estimate (up to 1910)
+of the revenue and expenditure of China:--
+
+            _Revenue._
+                                   Taels.[42]
+  Land tax                       26,500,000
+  Provincial duties               1,600,000
+      "      receipts (various)   1,000,000
+  Grain commutation               3,100,000
+  Salt gabelle                   13,500,000
+  Li-kin                         16,000,000
+  Native customs                  2,700,000
+  Maritime customs:--
+    General cargo                17,000,000
+    Foreign opium                 5,000,000
+    Native opium                  1,800,000
+                                 ----------
+      Total                      88,200,000
+
+             _Expenditure._
+                                   Taels.
+  Provincial                     20,000,000
+  Military and naval             35,000,000
+  Metropolitan                   10,000,000
+  Bannermen (Manchu "soldiers")   1,380,000
+  Palace                          1,100,000
+  Customs                         3,600,000
+  Legations                       1,000,000
+  River works                       940,000
+  Railways                          800,000
+  Loans                          24,000,000
+  Contingent reserve              3,300,000
+                                -----------
+      Total                     101,120,000
+
+A calculation of revenue from all sources published by the Shanghai
+_Shen Pao_ in 1908, apparently derived from official sources, gave a
+total revenue of 105,000,000 taels, or about 15 million sterling. This
+sum is obviously less than the actual figures. In 1907 Mr H.B. Morse,
+commissioner of customs and statistical secretary in the inspectorate
+general of customs, drew up the following table based on the amounts
+presumed to be paid by the tax payer:--
+
+  +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+
+  |                       |  Imperial  |  Provincial |   Local    |
+  |                       |  Adminis-  |   Adminis-  |  Adminis-  |
+  |                       |  tration.  |   tration.  |  tration.  |
+  +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+
+  |                       |   Taels.   |    Taels.   |   Taels.   |
+  |   I. Land Tax         | 25,887,000 |  67,060,000 |  9,315,000 |
+  |  II. Tribute          |  7,420,000 |  15,582,000 |  2,300,000 |
+  | III. Native Customs   |  3,790,000 |   1,290,000 |    249,000 |
+  |  IV. Salt Gabelle     | 13,050,000 |  26,000,000 | 25,000,000 |
+  |   V. Miscellaneous    |  3,856,000 |   5,998,000 |    985,000 |
+  |  VI. Foreign Customs  | 31,169,000 |   3,942,000 |  1,230,000 |
+  | VII. Li-kin           | 13,890,060 |  22,502,000 |  3,639,000 |
+  +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+
+  |      Total            | 99,062,000 | 142,374,000 | 42,718,000 |
+  +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+
+
+Mr Morse adds that the grand total shown, taels 284,150,000[43] "is an
+obviously insufficient sum on which to maintain the fabric of government
+in an empire like China, but it has been reached by calculations based
+on a few known facts and ... is offered as throwing some light on a
+subject veiled in obscurity."[44]
+
+The service of the foreign debt, together with the pressure of other
+needs--such as the cost of education and the army--made more manifest
+than previously the chaos of the Chinese fiscal system. A scheme to
+reform the national finances was promulgated under an edict of the 11th
+of January 1909, but it did not appear to be of a practical character.
+
+  _Sources of Revenue_. I. _Land Tax_.--In China, as in most oriental
+  countries, the land has from time immemorial been the mainstay of the
+  revenue. In the early years of the present dynasty there was levied
+  along with the land tax a poll tax on all adult males, but in 1712 the
+  two were amalgamated, and the whole burden was thrown upon land,
+  families not possessing land being thereafter exempted from taxation.
+  At the same time it was decreed that the amount of the land tax as
+  then fixed should be permanent and settled for all time coming. It
+  would appear from the records that this promise has been kept as far
+  as the central government has been concerned. In all its many
+  financial difficulties it does not seem ever to have tried to increase
+  the revenue by raising the land tax. The amount of tax leviable on
+  each plot is entered on the title deed, and, once entered, it cannot
+  be changed.[45] The tax on almost all lands is thus stated to be so
+  much in silver and so much in rice, wheat or whatever the principal
+  crop may be. Except in two provinces, however, the grain tax is now
+  commuted and paid in silver. The exceptions are Kiang-su and
+  Cheh-kiang, which still send forward their taxes in grain. The value
+  of the grain forwarded (generally called tribute rice) is estimated at
+  taels 6,500,000. The total collection in silver, as reported by the
+  responsible officials, amounts in round numbers to taels 25,000,000.
+  The total yield of the land tax, therefore, is taels 31,500,000, or
+  say L4,725,000. It will readily be granted that for such a large
+  country as China this is a very insignificant one. In India the land
+  tax yields about L20,000,000, and China has undoubtedly a larger
+  cultivated area, a larger population, and soil that is on the whole
+  more fertile; but it is certain that this sum by no means represents
+  the amounts actually paid by the cultivators. It is the sum which the
+  various magistrates and collectors have to account for and remit in
+  hard cash. But as nothing is allowed them for the costs of collection,
+  they add on a percentage beforehand to cover the cost. This they
+  usually do by declaring the taxes leviable not in silver, but in
+  copper "cash", which indeed is the only currency that circulates in
+  country places, and by fixing the rate of exchange to suit themselves.
+  Thus while the market rate is, say, 1500 cash to the tael, they
+  declare by general proclamation that for tax-paying purposes cash will
+  be received at the rate of 3500 or 4000 to the tael. Thus while the
+  nominal land tax in silver remains the same it is in effect doubled or
+  trebled, and, what is worse, no return is made or account required of
+  the extra sums thus levied. Each magistrate or collector is in effect
+  a farmer. The sum standing opposite the name of his district is the
+  sum which he is bound to return under penalty of dismissal, but all
+  sums which he can scrape together over and above are the perquisites
+  of office less his necessary expenses. Custom, no doubt, sets bounds
+  to his rapacity. If he went too far he would provoke a riot; but one
+  may safely say there never is any reduction, what change can be
+  effected being in the upward direction. According to the best
+  information obtainable a moderate estimate of the sums actually paid
+  by the cultivators would give two shillings per acre. This on an
+  estimate of the area under cultivation should give for the eighteen
+  provinces L19,000,000 as being actually levied, or more than four
+  times what is returned.
+
+  2. _The Salt Duty._--The trade in salt is a government monopoly. Only
+  licensed merchants are allowed to deal in it, and the import of
+  foreign salt is forbidden by the treaties. For the purpose of salt
+  administration China is divided into seven or eight main circuits,
+  each of which has its own sources of production. Each circuit has
+  carefully defined boundaries, and salt produced in one circuit is not
+  allowed to be consigned into or sold in another. There are great
+  differences in price between the several circuits, but the consumer is
+  not allowed to buy in the cheapest market. He can only buy from the
+  licensed merchants in his own circuit, who in turn are debarred from
+  procuring supplies except at the depot to which they belong.
+  Conveyance from one circuit to another is deemed smuggling, and
+  subjects the article to confiscation.
+
+  Duty is levied under two heads, the first being a duty proper, payable
+  on the issue of salt from the depot, and the second being likin levied
+  on transit or at the place of destination. The two together amount on
+  an average to about taels 1.50 per picul of 133-1/2 lb or 3s. 9d. per
+  cwt. The total collection returned by the various salt collectorates
+  amounts to taels 13,500,000 (L2,025,000) per annum. The total
+  consumption of salt for all China is estimated at 25 million piculs,
+  or nearly 1-1/2 million tons, which is at the rate of 9 lb per annum
+  per head of the population. If the above amount of taels 1.50 were
+  uniformly levied and returned, the revenue would be 37-1/2 million
+  taels instead of 13-1/2. In this calculation, however, no allowance is
+  made for the cost of collection.
+
+  3. _Likin on General Merchandise_.--By the term likin is meant a tax
+  on inland trade levied while in transit from one district to another.
+  It was originally a war tax imposed as a temporary measure to meet the
+  military expenditure required by the T'aip'ing and Mahommedan
+  rebellions of 1850-1870. It is now one of the permanent sources of
+  income, but at the same time it is in form as objectionable as a tax
+  can be, and is equally obnoxious to the native and to the foreign
+  merchant. Tolls or barriers are erected at frequent intervals along
+  all the principal routes of trade, whether by land or water, and a
+  small levy is made at each on every conceivable article of commerce.
+  The individual levy is small, but over a long transit it may amount to
+  15 or 20%. The objectionable feature is the frequent stoppages with
+  overhauling of cargo and consequent delays. By treaty, foreign goods
+  may commute all transit dues for a single payment of one-half the
+  import tariff duty, but this stipulation is but indifferently
+  observed. It must also be remembered, per contra, that dishonest
+  foreign merchants will take out passes to cover _native-owned_ goods.
+  The difficulty in securing due observance of treaty rights lies in the
+  fact that the likin revenue is claimed by the provincial authorities,
+  and the transit dues when commuted belong to the central government,
+  so that the former are interested in opposing the commutation by every
+  means in their power. As a further means of neutralizing the
+  commutation they have devised a new form of impost, viz. a terminal
+  tax which is levied on the goods after the termination of the transit.
+  The amount and frequency of likin taxation are fixed by provincial
+  legislation--that is, by a proclamation of the governor. The levy is
+  authorized in general terms by an imperial decree, but all details are
+  left to the local authorities. The yield of this tax is estimated at
+  taels 13,000,000 (Ll,950,000), a sum which probably represents
+  one-third of what is actually paid by the merchants, the balance being
+  costs of collection.
+
+  4. _Imperial Maritime Customs_.--The maritime customs is the one
+  department of finance in China which is managed with probity and
+  honesty, and this it owes to the fact that it is worked under foreign
+  control. It collects all the duties leviable under the treaties on the
+  foreign trade of China, and also all duties on the coasting trade so
+  far as carried on by vessels of foreign build, whether Chinese or
+  foreign owned. It does not control the trade in native craft, the
+  so-called junk trade, the duties on which are still levied by the
+  native custom-house officials. By arrangement between the British and
+  Chinese governments the foreign customs levy at the port of entry a
+  likin on Indian opium of taels 80 per chest, in addition to the tariff
+  duty of taels 30. This levy frees the opium from any further duty on
+  transit into the interior. The revenue of the maritime customs rose
+  from taels 8,200,000 in 1865 to taels 35,111,000 in 1905.
+
+  5. _Native Customs_,--The administration of the native customs
+  continues to be similar to what prevailed in the maritime customs
+  before the introduction of foreign supervision. Each collector is
+  constituted a farmer, bound to account for a fixed minimum sum, but
+  practically at liberty to retain all he may collect over and above. If
+  he returns more he may claim certain honorary rewards as for extra
+  diligence, but he generally manages to make out his accounts so as to
+  show a small surplus, and no more. Only imperfect and fragmentary
+  returns of the native collectorates have been published, but the total
+  revenue accruing to the Chinese government from this source did not
+  appear up to 1900 much to exceed two million taels (L300,000). In
+  November 1901 native customs offices within 15 m. of a treaty port
+  were placed under the control of the maritime customs, their revenues
+  having been hypothecated for the service of the Boxer indemnity. The
+  result was that the amount of the native customs collected by the
+  commissioners of customs increased from taels 2,206,000 in 1902 to
+  taels 3,699,000 in 1906.
+
+  6. _Duty on Native Opium_.--The collection of the duty on opium is in
+  the hands of the provincial officials, but they are required to
+  rendera separate account of duty and likin collected on the drug, and
+  to hold the sum at the disposal of the board of revenue at Peking. The
+  annual import into China of Indian opium used to amount to about
+  50,000 chests, the exact amount of opium imported in 1904 being 54,750
+  piculs, on which the Chinese government received from duty and likin
+  combined about 5-1/2 million taels (L825,000). The total amount of
+  native-grown opium was estimated in 1901 at about 400,000 chests
+  (53,000,000 lb), and if this were taxed at taels 60 per chest, which
+  in proportion to its price was a similar rate to that levied on Indian
+  opium, it should give a revenue of 24 million taels. Compared with
+  this the sums actually levied, or at least returned by the local
+  officials as levied, were insignificant. The returns gave a total levy
+  for all the eighteen provinces of only taels 2,200,000 (L330,000). The
+  anti-opium smoking campaign initiated by the Chinese government in
+  1905 affected the revenue both by the decreased importation of the
+  drug and the decrease in the area under poppy cultivation in China. In
+  1908 the opium likin revenue had fallen to taels 3,800,000.
+
+  7. _Miscellaneous_.--Besides the main and regular sources of income,
+  the provincial officials levy sums which must in the aggregate amount
+  to a very large figure, but which hardly find a place in the returns.
+  The principal are land transfer fees, pawnbrokers' and other licences,
+  duties on reed flats, commutation of corvee and personal services, &c.
+  The fee on land transfers is 3%, and it could be shown, from a
+  calculation based on the extent and value of the arable land and the
+  probable number of sales, that this item alone ought to yield an
+  annual return of between one and two millions sterling. Practically
+  the whole of this is absorbed in office expenses. Under this heading
+  should also be included certain items which though not deemed part of
+  the regular revenue, have been so often resorted to that they cannot
+  be left out of account. These are the sums derived from sale of office
+  or of brevet rank, and the subscriptions and benevolences which under
+  one plea or another the government succeeds in levying from the
+  wealthy. Excluding these, the government is always ready to receive
+  subscriptions, rewarding the donor with a grant of official rank
+  entitling him to wear the appropriate "button." The right is much
+  sought after, and indeed there are very few Chinamen of any standing
+  that are not thus decorated, for not only does the button confer
+  social standing, but it gives the wearer certain very substantial
+  advantages in case he should come into contact with the law courts.
+  The minimum price for the lowest grade is taels 120 (L18), and more of
+  course for higher grades. The proceeds of these sales go directly to
+  the Peking government, and do not as a rule figure in the provincial
+  returns. The total of the miscellaneous items accruing for the benefit
+  of the government is estimated at taels 5,500,000.
+
+  _Expenditure._--In regard to expenditure a distinction has to be drawn
+  between that portion of the revenue which is controlled by the central
+  government, and that controlled by the several provincial authorities.
+  As the provinces collect the revenue, and as the authorities there are
+  held responsible for the peace, order and good government of their
+  respective territories, it follows that the necessary expenses of the
+  provinces form a sort of first charge on the revenue. (As the tables
+  given show, the provinces spend the greater part of the revenue
+  collected.) The board of revenue at Peking, which is charged with a
+  general supervision of finance matters all over the empire, makes up
+  at the end of the year a general estimate of the funds that will be
+  required for imperial purposes during the ensuing year, and apportions
+  the amount among the several provinces and the several collectorates
+  in each province. The estimate is submitted to the emperor, and, when
+  sanctioned, instructions are sent to all the viceroys and governors in
+  that sense, who, in turn, pass them on to their subordinate officers.
+  In ordinary times these demands do not materially vary from year to
+  year, and long practice has created a sort of equilibrium between
+  imperial and provincial demands. The remittances to the capital are,
+  as a rule, forwarded with reasonable regularity, mostly in the form of
+  hard cash. There is, however, a constant pull going on between Peking
+  and the provinces--the former always asking for more, the latter
+  resisting and pleading impecuniosity, yet generally able to find the
+  amounts required. The expenses which the central government has to
+  meet are:--(1) Imperial household; (2) pay of the Manchu garrison in
+  and about Peking; (3) costs of the civil administration in the
+  capital; (4) cost of the army so far as the expenses are not borne by
+  the provinces; (5) naval expenses;[46] (6) foreign loans--interest and
+  sinking fund. To meet all these charges the Peking government for
+  several years up to 1900 drew on the provinces for about taels
+  20,000,000 (L3,000,000), including the value of the tribute rice,
+  which goes to the support of the Manchu bannermen.[47] No estimates
+  are furnished of the sums allowed under such heading. The imperial
+  household appears to receive in silver about taels 1,500,000
+  (L225,000) but it draws besides large supplies in kind from the
+  provinces, e.g. silks and satins from the imperial factories at
+  Su-chow and Hangchow, porcelain from the Kiang-si potteries, &c., the
+  cost of which is defrayed by the provinces. The imperial government
+  has also at its disposal the revenue of the foreign customs. Prior to
+  the Chino-Japanese war of 1894-95 this revenue, which, after allowing
+  for the costs of collection, amounted to about 20,000,000 taels
+  (L3,000,000), was nominally shared with the provinces in the
+  proportion of four-tenths and six-tenths. The whole of the customs
+  revenue is now pledged to foreign bondholders and absorbed by the
+  service of the several loans. Besides supplying its own wants the
+  imperial government has to provide for outlying portions of the empire
+  which are unable to maintain themselves--(1) Manchuria, (2) Kan-suh
+  and the central Asian dominion, (3) the south-western provinces of
+  Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. Manchuria, or, as it is termed, the
+  north-east frontier defence, costs about taels 2,000,000 over and
+  above its own resources. The central Asian territories constitute a
+  drain on the imperial government of about taels 4,000,000 a year. This
+  is met by subsidies from Sze-ch'uen, Shan-si, Ho-nan and other wealthy
+  provinces. Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si require aids aggregating
+  taels 2,000,000 to keep things going.
+
+  _External Debt._--Prior to the war with Japan in 1894 the foreign debt
+  of China was almost nil. A few trifling loans had been contracted at 7
+  and 8%, but they had been punctually paid off, and only a fraction of
+  one remained. The expenses of the war, however, and the large
+  indemnity of taels 230,000,000 (L34,500,000) which Japan exacted,
+  forced China for the first time into the European market as a serious
+  borrower. The sum of L6,635,000 was raised in 1894-1895 in four small
+  loans at 6 or 7% interest. In 1895 a Franco-Russian loan of fr.
+  440,000,000 (L15,820,000) was raised in Paris. Two Anglo-German loans,
+  each of L16,000,000 (one in 1896, the other in 1898) were raised
+  through the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank. The Franco-Russian loan bears
+  4% interest, the first Anglo-German 5%, the second 41/2%. The foreign
+  loans contracted up to 1900 amounted altogether to L54,455,000. The
+  charges for interest and sinking fund, which amounted to over
+  L3,000,000, were secured on the revenue of the maritime customs, and
+  on the likin taxes of certain specified provinces. The net income from
+  these two sources amounted to over taels 24,000,000, equivalent at
+  existing rate of exchange to L3,400,000, which was amply sufficient.
+
+  Between 1899 and 1907 (both years inclusive) L12,200,000 was raised on
+  loan for railway purposes. The charges on the first loan--for
+  L2,300,000--were secured on the revenue of the Imperial Northern
+  railway, the interest being 5%. The same interest was secured on the
+  other loans, save one for L1,000,000 in which the Hong Kong government
+  was concerned, which bears 4% interest.
+
+  The foreign debt also includes the indemnities exacted in 1901 by the
+  powers for the Boxer outrages. These indemnities, secured on imperial
+  revenue, are divided into five series amounting altogether to
+  L67,500,000, the amount payable on these indemnities (at 4% interest)
+  in 1907 being L2,824,425. The burden of meeting this amount was
+  apportioned between the eighteen provinces--the sums allocated ranging
+  from taels 2,500,000 for Kiang-su to taels 300,000 for Kwei-chow. In
+  1909 the grand total of China's indebtedness exceeded L140,000,000 and
+  the interest called for the payment of L7,427,450 in gold.
+
+  _Banks and Banking._--Native banks for purposes of inland exchange are
+  to be found in most large cities. They are private banks using their
+  own capital, and seldom receiving deposits from the public. The best
+  known are the Shan-si banks, which have branches all over the empire.
+  They work on a small capital, seldom over L50,000 each, and do a small
+  but profitable business by selling their drafts on distant places.
+  None of them issues notes, although they are not debarred from doing
+  so by law. They lend money on personal security, but do not advance
+  against shipments of goods. In some places there are small local
+  banks, usually called cash shops, which issue paper notes for small
+  sums and lend money out on personal security. The notes never reach
+  more than a very limited local circulation, and pass current merely on
+  the credit of the institution. There is no law regulating the
+  formation of banks or the issue of notes. _Pawnshops_ occupy a
+  prominent position in the internal economy of China. They lend on
+  deposit of personality at very high rates, 18 and 24%, and they
+  receive deposits of money from the public, usually allowing 6 to 10%.
+  They are the real banks of deposit of the country, and the better
+  class enjoy good credit. _Foreign Banks_ do a large business at
+  Shanghai and other treaty ports, and a _Government Bank_ has been
+  established at Peking.
+
+  _Currency._--In the commercial treaty between Great Britain and China
+  of 1902 China agreed to provide a uniform national coinage. An
+  imperial decree of October 1908 commanded the introduction of a
+  uniform tael currency; but another decree of May 1910 established a
+  standard currency dollar weighing 72 candareens (a candareen is the
+  100th part of the tael ounce) and subsidiary coins of fixed values in
+  decimal ratio. This decree properly enforced would introduce a much
+  needed stability into the monetary system of China.
+
+  The actual currency (1910) consists of (l) _Silver_, which may be
+  either uncoined ingots passing current by weight, or imported coins,
+  Mexican dollars and British dollars; and (2) _Copper_ "cash," which
+  has no fixed relation to silver. The standard is silver, the unit
+  being the Chinese ounce or tael, containing 565 grains. The tael is
+  not a coin, but a weight. Its value in sterling consequently
+  fluctuates with the value of silver; in 1870 it was worth about 6s.
+  8d., in 1907 it was worth 3s. 3d.[48] The name given in China to
+  uncoined silver in current use is "sycee." It is cast for convenience
+  sake into ingots weighing one to 50 taels. Its average fineness is
+  916.66 per 1000. When foreign silver is imported, say into Shanghai,
+  it can be converted into currency by a very simple process. The bars
+  of silver are sent to a quasi-public office termed the "Kung K'u," or
+  public valuers, and by them melted down and cast into ingots of the
+  customary size. The fineness is estimated, and the premium or
+  betterness, together with the exact weight, is marked in ink on each
+  ingot. The whole process only occupies a few hours, and the silver is
+  then ready to be put into use. The Kung K'u is simply a local office
+  appointed by the bankers of the place, and the weight and fineness are
+  only good for that locality. The government takes no responsibility in
+  the matter, but leaves merchants and bankers to adjust the currency as
+  they please. For purposes of taxation and payment of duties there is a
+  standard or treasury tael, which is about 10% heavier than the tael of
+  commerce in use at Shanghai. Every large commercial centre has its own
+  customary tael, the weight and therefore the value of which differ
+  from that of every other. Silver dollars coined in Mexico, and British
+  dollars coined in Bombay, also circulate freely at the open ports of
+  trade and for some distance inland, passing at a little above their
+  intrinsic value. Carolus dollars, introduced long ago and no longer
+  coined, are retained in current use in several parts of the interior,
+  chiefly the tea-growing districts. Being preferred by the people, and
+  as the supply cannot be added to, they have reached a considerable
+  premium above their intrinsic value. Provincial mints in Canton,
+  Wuchang, and other places have issued silver coins of the same weight
+  and touch as the Mexican dollar, but very few have gone into use. As
+  they possess no privilege in debt-paying power over imported Mexican
+  dollars there is no inducement for the people to take them up unless
+  they can be had at a cheaper rate than the latter, and these are laid
+  down at so small a cost above the intrinsic value that no profit is
+  left to the mint. The coinage has in consequence been almost
+  discontinued. Subsidiary coins, however, came largely into use, being
+  issued by the local mints. One coin "the hundredth part of a dollar"
+  proved very popular (the issue to the end of 1906 being computed at
+  12,500,000,000), but at rates corresponding closely to the intrinsic
+  value of the metal in it. The only coin officially issued by the
+  government--up to 1910--was the so-called copper _cash_. It is a small
+  coin which by regulation should weigh 1/16 of a tael, and should
+  contain 50 parts of copper, 40 of zinc, and 10 of lead or tin, and it
+  should bear a fixed ratio to silver of 1000 cash to one tael of
+  silver. In practice none of these conditions was observed. Being
+  issued from a number of mints, mostly provincial, the standard was
+  never uniform, and in many cases debased. Excessive issues lowered the
+  value of the coins, and for many years the average exchange was 1600
+  or more per tael. The rise in copper led to the melting down of all
+  the older and superior coins, and as for the same reason coining was
+  suspended, the result was an appreciation of the "cash," so that a
+  tael in 1909 exchanged for about 1220 cash or about 35 to a penny
+  English. Inasmuch as the "cash" bore no fixed relation to silver, and
+  was, moreover, of no uniform composition, it formed a sort of mongrel
+  standard of its own, varying with the volume in circulation.
+     (G.J.; X.)
+
+
+V. HISTORY
+
+(A)--_European Knowledge of China up to 1615._
+
+_China as known to the Ancients._--The spacious seat of ancient
+civilization which we call China has been distinguished by different
+appellations, according as it was reached by the southern sea-route or
+by the northern land-route traversing the longitude of Asia. In the
+former aspect the name has nearly always been some form of the name
+_Sin, Chin, Sinoe, China_. In the latter point of view the region in
+question was known to the ancients as the land of the _Seres_, to the
+middle ages as the empire of _Cathay_. The name of _Chin_ has been
+supposed (doubtfully) to be derived from the dynasty of _Ts'in_, which a
+little more than two centuries before the Christian era enjoyed a
+vigorous existence, uniting all the Chinese provinces under its
+authority, and extending its conquests far beyond those limits to the
+south and the west. The mention of the _Chinas_ in ancient Sanskrit
+literature, both in the laws of Manu and in the Mah[=a]bh[=a]rata, has
+often been supposed to prove the application of the name long before the
+predominance of the Ts'in dynasty. But the coupling of that name with
+the _Daradas_, still surviving as the people of Dardistan, on the Indus,
+suggests it as more probable that those _Chinas_ were a kindred race of
+mountaineers, whose name as _Shinas_ in fact likewise remains applied to
+a branch of the Dard races. Whether the _Sinim_ of the prophet Isaiah
+should be interpreted of the Chinese is probably not susceptible of any
+decision; by the context it appears certainly to indicate a people of
+the extreme east or south. The name probably came to Europe through the
+Arabs, who made the _China_ of the farther east into _Sin_, and perhaps
+sometimes into _Thin_. Hence the _Thin_ of the author of the _Periplus
+of the Erythraean Sea_, who appears to be the first extant writer to
+employ the name in this form (_i.e._ assuming Max Mueller's view that he
+belongs to the 1st century); hence also the _Sinae_ and _Thinae_ of
+Ptolemy.
+
+  It has often indeed been denied that the Sinae of Ptolemy really
+  represented the Chinese. But if we compare the statement of Marcianus
+  of Heraclea (a mere condenser of Ptolemy), when he tells us that the
+  "nations of the Sinae lie at the extremity of the habitable world, and
+  adjoin the eastern Terra Incognita," with that of Cosmas, who says, in
+  speaking of _Tzinista_, a name of which no one can question the
+  application to China, that "beyond this there is neither habitation
+  nor navigation"--we cannot doubt the same region to be meant by both.
+  The fundamental error of Ptolemy's conception of the Indian Sea as a
+  closed basin rendered it _impossible_ but that he should misplace the
+  Chinese coast. But considering that the name of _Sin_ has come down
+  among the Arabs from time immemorial as applied to the Chinese,
+  considering that in the work of Ptolemy this name certainly
+  represented the farthest known East, and considering how inaccurate
+  are Ptolemy's configurations and longitudes much nearer home, it seems
+  almost as reasonable to deny the identity of his India with ours as to
+  deny that his Sinae were Chinese.
+
+  If we now turn to the _Seres_ we find this name mentioned by classic
+  authors much more frequently and at an earlier date, for the passages
+  of Eratosthenes (in Strabo), formerly supposed to speak of a parallel
+  passing through _Thinae_--[Greek: dia Thinon]--are now known to read
+  correctly [Greek: di'Athenon]. The name _Seres_ indeed is familiar to
+  the Latin poets of the Augustan age, but always in a vague way, and
+  usually with a general reference to Central Asia and the farther East.
+  We find, however, that the first endeavours to assign more accurately
+  the position of this people, which are those of Mela and Pliny,
+  gravitate distinctly towards China in its northern aspect as the true
+  ideal involved. Thus Mela describes the remotest east of Asia as
+  occupied by the three races (proceeding from south to north), Indians,
+  Seres and Scyths; just as in a general way we might still say that
+  eastern Asia is occupied by the Indies, China and Tartary.
+
+  Ptolemy first uses the names of _Sera_ and _Serice_, the former for
+  the chief city, the latter for the country of the Seres, and as usual
+  defines their position with a precision far beyond what his knowledge
+  justified--the necessary result of his system. Yet even his definition
+  of Serice is most consistent with the view that this name indicated
+  the Chinese empire in its northern aspect, for he carries it eastward
+  to the 180th degree of longitude, which is also, according to his
+  calculation, in a lower latitude the eastern boundary of the Sinae.
+
+  Ammianus Marcellinus devotes some paragraphs to a description of the
+  Seres and their country, one passage of which is startling at first
+  sight in its seeming allusion to the Great Wall, and in this sense it
+  has been rashly interpreted by Lassen and by Reinaud. But Ammianus is
+  merely converting Ptolemy's dry tables into fine writing, and speaks
+  only of an encircling rampart of mountains within which the spacious
+  and happy valley of the Seres lies. It is true that Ptolemy makes his
+  Serice extend westward to Imaus, _i.e._ to Pamir. But the Chinese
+  empire _did_ so extend at that epoch, and we find Lieut. John Wood in
+  1838 speaking of "_China_" as lying immediately beyond Pamir, just as
+  the Arabs of the 8th century spoke of the country beyond the Jaxartes
+  as "_Sin_," and as Ptolemy spoke of "_Serice_" as immediately beyond
+  Imaus.
+
+  If we fuse into one the ancient notices of the Seres and their
+  country, omitting anomalous statements and manifest fables, the result
+  will be somewhat as follows: "The region of the Seres is a vast and
+  populous country, touching on the east the ocean and the limits of the
+  habitable world, and extending west to Imaus and the confines of
+  Bactria. The people are civilized, mild, just and frugal, eschewing
+  collisions with their neighbours, and even shy of close intercourse,
+  but not averse to dispose of their own products, of which raw silk is
+  the staple, but which included also silk-stuffs, fine furs, and iron
+  of remarkable quality." That is manifestly a definition of the
+  Chinese.
+
+  That Greek and Roman knowledge of the true position of so remote a
+  nation should at best have been somewhat hazy is nothing wonderful.
+  And it is worthy of note that the view entertained by the ancient
+  Chinese of the Roman empire and its inhabitants, under the name of
+  _Ta-thsin_, had some striking points of analogy to those views of the
+  Chinese which are indicated in the classical descriptions of the
+  Seres. There can be no mistaking the fact that in this case also the
+  great object was within the horizon of vision, yet the details
+  ascribed to it are often far from being true characteristics, being
+  only the accidents of its outer borders.
+
+_The Medieval Cathay._--"Cathay" is the name by which the Chinese empire
+was known to medieval Europe, and it is in its original form (_Kitai_)
+that China is still known in Russia and to most of the nations of
+Central Asia. West of Russia this name has long ceased to be a
+geographical expression, but it is associated with a remarkable phase in
+the history of geography and commerce. The name first became known to
+Europe in the 13th century, when the vast conquests of Jenghiz Khan and
+his house drew a new and vivid attention to Asia. For some three
+centuries previously the northern provinces of China had been detached
+from indigenous rule, and subject to northern conquerors. The first of
+these foreign dynasties was of a race called _Khitan_ issuing from the
+basin of the Sungari river, and supposed (but doubtfully) to have been
+of the blood of the modern Tunguses. The rule of this race endured for
+two centuries and originated the application of the name _Khitat_ or
+_Khitai_ to northern China. The dynasty itself, known in Chinese history
+as _Liao_, or "Iron," disappeared from China 1123, but the name remained
+attached to the territory which they had ruled.
+
+The Khitan were displaced by the Nuechih (_Nyuche_ or _Churche_) race,
+akin to the modern Manchus. These reigned, under the title of _Kin_, or
+"Golden," till Jenghiz and his Mongols invaded them in turn. In 1234 the
+conquest of the Kin empire was completed, and the dynasty extinguished
+under Ogdai (Ogotai), the son and successor of Jenghiz Khan. Forty years
+later, in the reign of Kublai, grandson and ablest successor of Jenghiz,
+the Mongol rule was extended over southern China (1276), which till
+then had remained under a native dynasty, the Sung, holding its royal
+residence in a vast and splendid city, now known as Hang-chow, but then
+as Ling-nan, or more commonly as _King-sze_, i.e. the court. The
+southern empire was usually called by the conquerors _Mantzi_ (or as
+some of the old travellers write, _Mangi_), a name which western
+Asiatics seem to have identified with _Machin_ (from the Sanskrit
+_Mahachin_), one of the names by which China was known to the traders
+from Persian and Arabian ports.
+
+The conquests of Jenghiz and his successors had spread not only over
+China and the adjoining East, but westward also over all northern Asia,
+Persia, Armenia, part of Asia Minor and Russia, threatening to deluge
+Christendom. Though the Mongol wave retired, as it seemed almost by an
+immediate act of Providence, when Europe lay at its feet, it had
+levelled or covered all political barriers from the frontier of Poland
+to the Yellow Sea, and when western Europe recovered from its alarm,
+Asia lay open, as never before or since, to the inspection of
+Christendom. Princes, envoys, priests--half-missionary,
+half-envoy--visited the court of the great khan in Mongolia; and besides
+these, the accidents of war, commerce or opportunity carried a variety
+of persons from various classes of human life into the depths of Asia.
+"'Tis worthy of the grateful remembrance of all Christian people," says
+an able missionary friar of the next age (Ricold of Monte Croce), "that
+just at the time when God sent forth into the Eastern parts of the world
+the Tatars to slay and to be slain, He also sent into the West his
+faithful and blessed servants, Dominic and Francis, to enlighten,
+instruct and build up in the faith." Whatever on the whole may be
+thought of the world's debt to Dominic, it is to the two mendicant
+orders, but especially to the Franciscans, that we owe a vast amount of
+information about medieval Asia, and, among other things, the first
+mention of _Cathay_. Among the many strangers who reached Mongolia were
+(1245-1247) John de Plano Carpini and (1253) William of Rubruk
+(Rubruquis) in French Flanders, both Franciscan friars of high
+intelligence, who happily have left behind them reports of their
+observations.
+
+  Carpini, after mentioning the wars of Jenghiz against the _Kitai_,
+  goes on to speak of that people as follows: "Now these _Kitai_ are
+  heathen men, and have a written character of their own... They seem,
+  indeed, to be kindly and polished folks enough. They have no beard,
+  and in character of countenance have a considerable resemblance to the
+  Mongols" [are _Mongoloid_, as our ethnologists would say], "but are
+  not so broad in the face. They have a peculiar language. Their betters
+  as craftsmen in every art practised by man are not to be found in the
+  whole world. Their country is very rich in corn, in wine, in gold and
+  silver, in silk, and in every kind of produce tending to the support
+  of mankind." The notice of Rubruk, shrewder and more graphic, runs
+  thus: "Farther on is Great Cathay, which I take to be the country
+  which was anciently called the Land of the Seres. For the best silk
+  stuffs are still got from them... The sea lies between it and India.
+  Those Cathayans are little fellows, speaking much through the nose,
+  and, as is general with all those eastern people, their eyes are very
+  narrow. They are first-rate artists in every kind, and their
+  physicians have a thorough knowledge of the virtues of herbs, and an
+  admirable skill in diagnosis by the pulse... The common money of
+  Cathay consists of pieces of cotton-paper, about a palm in length and
+  breadth, upon which certain lines are printed, resembling the seal of
+  Mangu Khan. They do their writing with a pencil, such as painters
+  paint with, and a single character of theirs comprehends several
+  letters, so as to form a whole word."
+
+  Here we have not only what is probably the first European notice of
+  paper-money, but a _partial_ recognition of the peculiarity of Chinese
+  writing, and a perception that puts to shame the perverse boggling of
+  later critics over the identity of these Cathayans with the Seres of
+  classic fame.
+
+But though these travellers saw Cathayans in the bazaars in the great
+khan's camps, the first actual visitors of Cathay itself were the Polo
+family, and it is to the book of Marco Polo's recollections mainly that
+Cathay owed the growing familiarity of its name in Europe during the
+14th and 15th centuries. It is, however, a great mistake to suppose, as
+has often been assumed, that the residence of the Polos in that country
+remained an isolated fact. They were but the pioneers of a very
+considerable intercourse, which endured till the decay of the Mongol
+dynasty in Cathay, i.e. for about half a century.
+
+We have no evidence that either in the 13th or 14th century Cathayans,
+i.e. Chinese, ever reached Europe, but it is possible that some did, at
+least in the former century. For, during the campaigns of Hulagu in
+Persia (1256-1265), and the reigns of his successors, Chinese engineers
+were employed on the banks of the Tigris, and Chinese astrologers and
+physicians could be consulted at Tabriz. Many diplomatic communications
+passed between the Hulaguid Ilkhans and the princes of Christendom. The
+former, as the great khan's liegemen, still received from him their
+seals of state; and two of their letters which survive in the archives
+of France exhibit the vermilion impressions of those seals in Chinese
+characters--perhaps affording the earliest specimen of that character
+which reached western Europe.
+
+Just as the Polos were reaching their native city (1295), after an
+absence of a quarter of a century, the forerunner of a new series of
+travellers was entering southern China by way of the Indian seas. This
+was John of Monte Corvino, another Franciscan who, already some fifty
+years of age, was plunging single-handed into that great ocean of
+paganism to preach the gospel according to his lights. After years of
+uphill and solitary toil converts began to multiply; coadjutors joined
+him. The Papal See became cognizant of the harvest that was being reaped
+in the far East. It made Friar John archbishop in Cambaluc (or Peking),
+with patriarchal authority, and sent him batches of suffragan bishops
+and preachers of his own order. The Roman Church spread; churches and
+Minorite houses were established at Cambaluc, at Zayton or Tsuan-chow in
+Fu-kien, at Yang-chow and elsewhere; and the missions flourished under
+the smile of the great khan, as the Jesuit missions did for a time under
+the Manchu emperors three centuries and a half later. Archbishop John
+was followed to the grave, about 1328, by mourning multitudes of pagans
+and Christians alike. Several of the bishops and friars who served under
+him have left letters or other memoranda of their experience, e.g.
+Andrew, bishop of Zayton, John of Cora, afterwards archbishop of
+Sultania in Persia, and Odoric of Pordenone, whose fame as a pious
+traveller won from the _vox populi_ at his funeral a beatification which
+the church was fain to seal. The only ecclesiastical narrative regarding
+Cathay, of which we are aware, subsequent to the time of Archbishop
+John, is that which has been gathered from the recollections of Giovanni
+de' Marignolli, a Florentine Franciscan, who was sent by Pope Benedict
+XII. with a mission to the great khan, in return for one from that
+potentate which arrived at Avignon from Cathay in 1338, and who spent
+four years (1342-1346) at the court of Cambaluc as legate of the Holy
+See. These recollections are found dispersed incoherently over a
+chronicle of Bohemia which the traveller wrote by order of the emperor
+Charles IV., whose chaplain he was after his return.
+
+But intercourse during the period in question was not confined to
+ecclesiastical channels. Commerce also grew up, and flourished for a
+time even along the vast line that stretches from Genoa and Florence to
+the marts of Cheh-kiang and Fu-kien. The record is very fragmentary and
+imperfect, but many circumstances and incidental notices show how
+frequently the remote East was reached by European traders in the first
+half of the 14th century--a state of things which it is very difficult
+to realize when we see how all those regions, when reopened to knowledge
+two centuries later, seemed to be discoveries as new as the empires
+which, about the same time, Cortes and Pizarro were conquering in the
+West.
+
+  This commercial intercourse probably began about 1310-1320. John of
+  Monte Corvino, writing in 1305, says it was twelve years since he had
+  heard any news from Europe; the only Western stranger who had arrived
+  in all that time being a certain Lombard chirurgeon (probably one of
+  the _Patarini_ who got hard measure at home in those days), who had
+  spread the most incredible blasphemies, about the Roman Curia and the
+  order of St Francis. Yet even on his first entrance to Cathay Friar
+  John had been accompanied by one Master Peter of Lucolongo, whom he
+  describes as a faithful Christian man and a great merchant, and who
+  seems to have remained many years at Peking. The letter of Andrew,
+  bishop of Zayton (1326), quotes the opinion of Genoese merchants at
+  that port regarding a question of exchanges. Odoric, who was in Cathay
+  about 1323-1327, refers for confirmation of the wonders which he
+  related of the great city of Cansay (i.e. King-sze, or Hang-chow) to
+  the many persons whom he had met at Venice since his return, who had
+  themselves been witnesses of those marvels. And Marignolli, some
+  twenty years later, found attached to one of the convents at Zayton,
+  in Fu-kien, a _fondaco_ or factory for the accommodation of the
+  Christian merchants.
+
+  But by far the most distinct and notable evidence of the importance
+  and frequency of European trade with Cathay, of which silk and silk
+  goods formed the staple, is to be found in the commercial hand-book
+  (c. 1340) of Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a clerk and factor of the
+  great Florentine house of the Bardi, which was brought to the ground
+  about that time by its dealings with Edward III. of England. This
+  book, called by its author _Libro di divisamenti di Paesi_, is a sort
+  of trade-guide, devoting successive chapters to the various ports and
+  markets of his time, detailing the nature of imports and exports at
+  each, the duties and exactions, the local customs of business,
+  weights, measures and money. The first two chapters of this work
+  contain instructions for the merchant proceeding to Cathay; and it is
+  evident, from the terms used, that the road thither was not
+  unfrequently travelled by European merchants, from whom Pegolotti had
+  derived his information. The route which he describes lay by Azov,
+  Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar (on the Jaxartes), Almalik (Gulja in Ili),
+  Kan-chow (in Kan-suh), and so to Hang-chow and Peking. Particulars are
+  given as to the silver ingots which formed the currency of Tatary, and
+  the paper-money of Cathay. That the ventures on this trade were not
+  insignificant is plain from the example taken by the author to
+  illustrate the question of expenses on the journey, which is that of a
+  merchant investing in goods there to the amount of some L12,000 (i.e.
+  in actual gold value, not as calculated by any fanciful and fallacious
+  equation of values).
+
+  Of the same remarkable phase of history that we are here considering
+  we have also a number of notices by Mahommedan writers. The
+  establishment of the Mongol dynasty in Persia, by which the great khan
+  was acknowledged as lord paramount, led (as we have already noticed in
+  part) to a good deal of intercourse. And some of the Persian
+  historians, writing at Tabriz, under the patronage of the Mongol
+  princes, have told us much about Cathay, especially Rashiduddin, the
+  great minister and historian of the dynasty (died 1318). We have also
+  in the book of the Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, who visited China
+  about 1347-1348, very many curious and in great part true notices,
+  though it is not possible to give credence to the whole of this
+  episode in his extensive travels.
+
+  About the time of the traveller first named the throne of the
+  degenerate descendants of Jenghiz began to totter to its fall, and we
+  have no knowledge of any Frank visitor to Cathay in that age later
+  than Marignolli; missions and merchants alike disappear from the
+  field. We hear, indeed, once and again of ecclesiastics despatched
+  from Avignon, but they go forth into the darkness, and are heard of no
+  more. Islam, with all its jealousy and exclusiveness, had recovered
+  its grasp over Central Asia; the Nestorian Christianity which once had
+  prevailed so widely was vanishing, and the new rulers of China
+  reverted to the old national policy, and held the foreigner at arm's
+  length. Night descended upon the farther East, covering Cathay with
+  those cities of which the old travellers had told such marvels,
+  Cambaluc and Cansay, Zayton and Chinkalan. And when the veil rose
+  before the Portuguese and Spanish explorers of the 16th century, those
+  names are heard no more. In their stead we have China, Peking,
+  Hangchow, Chinchew, Canton. Not only were the old names forgotten, but
+  the fact that those places had ever been known before was forgotten
+  also. Gradually new missionaries went forth from Rome--Jesuits and
+  Dominicans now; new converts were made, and new vicariates
+  constituted; but the old Franciscan churches, and the Nestorianism
+  with which they had battled, had alike been swallowed up in the ocean
+  of pagan indifference. In time a wreck or two floated to the
+  surface--a MS. Latin Bible or a piece of Catholic sculpture; and when
+  the intelligent missionaries called Marco Polo to mind, and studied
+  his story, one and another became convinced that Cathay and China were
+  one.
+
+  But for a long time all but a sagacious few continued to regard Cathay
+  as a region distinct from any of the new-found Indies; whilst
+  map-makers, well on into the 17th century, continued to represent it
+  as a great country lying entirely to the north of China, and
+  stretching to the Arctic Sea.
+
+  It was Cathay, with its outlying island of Zipangu (Japan), that
+  Columbus sought to reach by sailing westward, penetrated as he was by
+  his intense conviction of the smallness of the earth, and of the vast
+  extension of Asia eastward; and to the day of his death he was full of
+  the imagination of the proximity of the domain of the great khan to
+  the islands and coasts which he had discovered. And such imaginations
+  are curiously embodied in some of the maps of the early 16th century,
+  which intermingle on the same coast-line the new discoveries from
+  Labrador to Brazil with the provinces and rivers of Marco Polo's
+  Cathay.
+
+  Cathay had been the aim of the first voyage of the Cabots in 1496, and
+  it continued to be the object of many adventurous voyages by English
+  and Hollanders to the N.W. and N.E. till far on in the 16th century.
+  At least one memorable land-journey also was made by Englishmen, of
+  which the exploration of a trade-route to Cathay was a chief
+  object--that in which Anthony Jenkinson and the two Johnsons reached
+  Bokhara by way of Russia in 1558-1559. The country of which they
+  collected notices at that city was still known to them only as
+  _Cathay_, and its great capital only as _Cambaluc_.
+
+  Cathay as a supposed separate entity may be considered to come to an
+  end with the journey of Benedict Goes, the lay-Jesuit. This admirable
+  person was, in 1603, despatched through Central Asia by his superiors
+  in India with the specific object of determining whether the Cathay of
+  old European writers and of modern Mahommedans was or was not a
+  distinct region from that China of which parallel marvels had now for
+  some time been recounted. Benedict, as one of his brethren pronounced
+  his epitaph, "seeking Cathay found Heaven." He died at Suchow, the
+  frontier city of China, but not before he had ascertained that China
+  and Cathay were the same. After the publication of the narrative of
+  his journey (in the _Expeditio Christiana apud Sinas_ of Trigault,
+  1615) inexcusable ignorance alone could continue to distinguish
+  between them, but such ignorance lingered many years longer.   (H. Y.)
+
+
+(B)--_Chinese Origins._
+
+Chinese literature contains no record of any kind which might justify us
+in assuming that the nucleus of the nation may have immigrated from some
+other part of the world; and the several ingenious theories pointing to
+Babylonia, Egypt, India, Khotan, and other seats of ancient civilization
+as the starting-points of ethnical wanderings must be dismissed as
+untenable. Whether the Chinese were seated in their later homes from
+times immemorial, as their own historians assume, or whether they
+arrived there from abroad, as some foreign scholars have pretended,
+cannot be proved to the satisfaction of historical critics. Indeed,
+anthropological arguments seem to contradict the idea of any connexion
+with Babylonians, Egyptians, Assyrians, or Indians. The earliest
+hieroglyphics of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty
+(second millennium B.C.), betray the Mongol character of the nation that
+invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye wherever it
+appears in an ideograph. In a pair of eyes as shown in the most ancient
+pictorial or sculptural representations in the west, the four corners
+may be connected by a horizontal straight line; whereas lines drawn
+through the eyes of one of the oldest Chinese hieroglyphics cross each
+other at a sharp angle, as shown in the accompanying diagrams:--
+
+[Illustration: Egyptian.]
+
+[Illustration: Chinese.]
+
+This does not seem to speak for racial consanguinity any more than the
+well-known curled heads and bearded faces of Assyrian sculptures as
+compared to the straight-haired and almost beardless Chinese.
+Similarities in the creation of cultural elements may, it is true, be
+shown to exist on either side, even at periods when mutual intercourse
+was probably out of the question; but this may be due to uniformity in
+the construction of the human brain, which leads man in different parts
+of the world to arrive at similar ideas under similar conditions, or to
+prehistoric connexions which it is as impossible for us to trace now as
+is the origin of mankind itself. Our standpoint as regards the origin of
+the Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic. All we can do is
+to reproduce the tradition as it is found in Chinese literature. This
+tradition, as applying to the very earliest periods, may be nothing more
+than historical superstition, yet it has its historical importance.
+Supposing it were possible to prove that none of the persons mentioned
+in the Bible from Adam down to the Apostles ever lived, even the most
+sceptical critic would still have to admit that the history of a great
+portion of the human race has been materially affected by the belief in
+the examples of their alleged lives. Something similar may be said of
+the alleged earliest history of the Chinese with its model emperors and
+detestable tyrants, the accounts of which, whether based on reality or
+not, have exercised much influence on the development of the nation.
+
+The Chinese have developed their theories of prehistoric life.
+Speculation as to the origin and gradual evolution of their civilization
+has resulted in the expression of views by authors who may have
+reconstructed their systems from remnants of ancestral life revealed by
+excavations, or from observation of neighbouring nations living in a
+state of barbarism. This may account for a good deal of the repetition
+found in the Chinese mythological and legendary narratives, the personal
+and chronological part of which may have been invented merely as a
+framework for illustrating social and cultural progress. The scene of
+action of all the prehistoric figures from P'an-ku, the first human
+being, down to the beginning of real history has been laid in a part of
+the world which has never been anything but Chinese territory. P'an-ku's
+epoch, millions of years ago, was followed by ten distinct periods of
+sovereigns, including the "Heavenly emperors," the "Terrestrial
+emperors," and the "Human emperors," the _Yu-ch'au_ or "Nest-builders,"
+and _Sui-joen_, the "Fire Producer," the Prometheus of the Chinese, who
+borrowed fire from the stars for the benefit of man. Several of the
+characteristic phases of cultural progress and social organization have
+been ascribed to this mythological period. Authors of less fertile
+imagination refer them to later times, when the heroes of their accounts
+appear in shapes somewhat resembling human beings rather than as gods
+and demigods.
+
+The Chinese themselves look upon Fu-hi as their first historical
+emperor; and they place his lifetime in the years 2852-2738 B.C. Some
+accounts represent him as a supernatural being; and we see him depicted
+as a human figure with a fish tail something like a mermaid. He is
+credited with having established social order among his people, who,
+before him, had lived like animals in the wilds. The social chaos out of
+which Chinese society arose is described as being characterized by the
+absence of family life; for "children knew only their mothers and not
+their fathers." Fu-hi introduced matrimony; and in so doing he placed
+man as the husband at the head of the family and abolished the original
+matriarchate. This quite corresponds with his views on the dualism in
+natural philosophy, of which he is supposed to have laid the germs by
+the invention of the so-called _pa-kua_, eight symbols, each consisting
+of three parallel lines, broken or continuous. The continuous lines
+represented the male element in nature; the broken ones, the female. It
+is characteristic that the same ruler who assigned to man his position
+as the head of the family is also credited with the invention of that
+natural philosophy of the "male and female principles," according to
+which all good things and qualities were held to be male, while their
+less sympathetic opposites were female, such as heaven and earth, sun
+and moon, day and night, south and north. If these traditions really
+represent the oldest prehistoric creations of the popular mind, it would
+almost seem that the most ancient Chinese shared that naive sentiment
+which caused our own forefathers to invent gender. The difference is
+that, with us, the conception survives merely in the language, where the
+article or suffixes mark gender, whereas with the Chinese, whose
+language does not express gender, it survives in their system of
+metaphysics. For all their attempts at fathoming the secrets of nature
+are based on the idea that male or female powers are inherent in all
+matter.
+
+To the same Emperor Fu-hi are ascribed many of the elementary inventions
+which raise man from the life of a brute to that of a social being. He
+taught his people to hunt, to fish, and to keep flocks; he constructed
+musical instruments, and replaced a kind of knot-writing previously in
+use by a system of hieroglyphics. All this cannot of course be
+considered as history; but it shows that the authors of later centuries
+who credited Fu-hi with certain inventions were not quite illogical in
+starting from the matriarchal chaos, after which he is said to have
+organized society with occupations corresponding to those of a period of
+hunting, fishing and herding. This period was bound to be followed by a
+further step towards the final development of the nation's social
+condition; and we find it quite logically succeeded by a period of
+agricultural life, personified in the Emperor, Shoen-nung, supposed to
+have lived in the twenty-eighth century B.C. His name may be freely
+translated as "Divine Labourer"; and to him the Chinese ascribe the
+invention of agricultural implements, and the discovery of the medicinal
+properties of numerous plants.
+
+The third historical emperor was Huang-ti, the "Yellow emperor,"
+according to the literal translation. Ssi-ma Ts'ien, the Herodotus of
+the Chinese, begins his history with him; but Fu-hi and Shoen-nung are
+referred to in texts much older than this historian, though many details
+relating to their alleged reigns have been added in later times.
+Huang-ti extended the boundaries of the empire, described as being
+originally confined to a limited territory near the banks of the Yellow
+river and the present city of Si-an-fu. Here were the sites of cities
+used as capitals of the empire under various names during long periods
+since remote antiquity. To Huang-ti, whose reign is said to have
+commenced in 2704 according to one source and in 2491 according to
+another, are ascribed most of the cultural innovations which historians
+were not able otherwise to locate within historical times. Under
+Huang-ti we find the first mention of a nation called the Hun-yue, who
+occupied the north of his empire and with whom he is represented to have
+engaged in warfare. The Chinese identify this name with that of the
+Hiung-nu, their old hereditary enemy and the ancestors of Attila's Huns.
+Even though the details of these legendary accounts may deserve little
+confidence, there must have been an old tradition that a nation called
+the Hun-yue, occupying the northern confines of China, were the ancestors
+of the Hiung-nu tribes, well known in historical times, a scion of whose
+great khans settled in territory belonging to the king of Sogdiana
+during the first century B.C., levied tribute from his neighbours, the
+Alans, and with his small but warlike horde initiated that era of
+migrations which led to the overrunning of Europe with Central-Asiatic
+Tatars.
+
+Fu-hi, Shoen-nung and Huang-ti represent a group of rulers comprised by
+the Chinese under the name of _San-huang_, i.e. "The Three Emperors."
+Although we have no reason to deny their existence, the details recorded
+concerning them contain enough in the way of improbabilities to justify
+us in considering them as mythical creations. The chronology, too, is
+apparently quite fictitious; for the time allotted to their reigns is
+much too long as a term of government for a single human life, and, on
+the other hand, much too short, if we measure it by the cultural
+progress said to have been brought about in it. Fu-hi's period of
+hunting life must have lasted many generations before it led to the
+agricultural period represented by the name Shoen-nung; and this period
+in turn could not possibly have led within a little more than one
+hundred years to the enormous progress ascribed to Huang-ti. Under the
+latter ruler a regular board of historians is said to have been
+organized with Ts'ang-kie as president, who is known also as Shi-huang,
+i.e. "the Emperor of Historians," the reputed inventor of hieroglyphic
+writing placed by some authors into the Fu-hi period and worshipped as
+Tz'i-shoen, i.e. "God of writing," to the present day. Huang-ti is
+supposed to have been the first builder of temples, houses and cities;
+to have regulated the calendar, to which he added the intercalary month;
+and to have devised means of traffic by cars drawn by oxen and by boats
+to ply on the lakes and rivers of his empire. His wife, known as "the
+lady of Si-ling," is credited with the invention of the several
+manipulations in the rearing of silkworms and the manufacture of silk.
+The invention of certain flutes, combined to form a kind of reed organ,
+led to a deeper study of music; and in order to construct these
+instruments with the necessary accuracy a system of weights and measures
+had to be devised. Huang-ti's successors, Shau-hau, Chuan-hue, and
+Ti-k'u, were less prominent, though each of them had their particular
+merits.
+
+  _The Model Emperors._--Most of the stories regarding the "Three
+  Emperors" are told in comparatively late records. The _Shu-king_,
+  sometimes described as the "Canon of History," our oldest source of
+  pre-Confucian history, supposed to have been edited by Confucius
+  himself, knows nothing of Fu-hi, Shoen-nung and Huang-ti; but it begins
+  by extolling the virtues of the emperor _Yau_ and his successor
+  _Shun_. Yau and Shun are probably the most popular names in Chinese
+  history as taught in China. Whatever good qualities may be imagined of
+  the rulers of a great nation have been heaped upon their heads; and
+  the example of their lives has at all times been held up by
+  Confucianists as the height of perfection in a sovereign's character.
+  Yau, whose reign has been placed by the fictitious standard chronology
+  of the Chinese in the years 2357-2258, and about 200 years later by
+  the less extravagant "Annals of the Bamboo Books," is represented as
+  the patron of certain astronomers who had to watch the heavenly
+  bodies; and much has been written about the reputed astronomical
+  knowledge of the Chinese in this remote period. Names like Deguignes,
+  Gaubil, Biot and Schlegel are among those of the investigators. On the
+  other side are the sceptics, who maintain that later editors
+  interpolated statements which could have been made only with the
+  astronomical knowledge possessed by their own contemporaries.
+  According to an old legend, Shun banished "the four wicked ones" to
+  distant territories. One of these bore the name _T'au-t'ie_, i.e.
+  "Glutton"; called also San-miau. _T'au-t'ie_ is also the name of an
+  ornament, very common on the surface of the most ancient bronze
+  vessels, showing the distorted face of some ravenous animal. The
+  San-miau as a tribe are said to have been the forefathers of the
+  Tangutans, the Tibetans and the Miau-tz'i in the south-west of China.
+  This legend may be interpreted as indicating that the non-Chinese
+  races in the south-west have come to their present seats by migration
+  from Central China in remote antiquity. During Yau's reign a
+  catastrophe reminding one of the biblical deluge threatened the
+  Chinese world. The emperor held his minister of works, Kun,
+  responsible for this misfortune, probably an inundation of the Yellow
+  river such as has been witnessed by the present generation. Its
+  horrors are described with poetical exaggeration in the _Shu-king_.
+  When the efforts to stop the floods had proved futile for nine years,
+  Yau wished to abdicate, and he selected a virtuous young man of the
+  name of Shun as his successor. Among the legends told about this
+  second model emperor is the story that he had a board before his
+  palace on which every subject was permitted to note whatever faults he
+  had to find with his government, and that by means of a drum suspended
+  at his palace gate attention might be drawn to any complaint that was
+  to be made to him. Since Kun had not succeeded in stopping the floods,
+  he was dismissed and his son Yue was appointed in his stead. Probably
+  the waters began to subside of their own accord, but Yue has been
+  praised up as the national hero who, by his engineering works, saved
+  his people from utter destruction. His labours in this direction are
+  described in a special section of the Confucian account known as
+  _Yue-kung_, i.e. "Tribute of Yue." Yue's merit has in the sequel been
+  exaggerated so as to credit him with more than human powers. He is
+  supposed to have cut canals through the hills, in order to furnish
+  outlets to the floods, and to have performed feats of engineering
+  compared to which, according to Von Richthofen, the construction of
+  the St Gotthard tunnel without blasting materials would be child's
+  play, and all this within a few years.
+
+_The Hia Dynasty._--As a reward for his services Yue was selected to
+succeed Shun as emperor. He divided the empire into nine provinces, the
+description of which in the _Yue-kung_ chapter of the "Canon of History"
+bears a suspicious resemblance to later accounts. Yue's reign has been
+assigned to the years 2205-2198, and the Hia Dynasty, of which he became
+the head, has been made to extend to the overthrow in 1766 B.C. of Kie,
+its eighteenth and last emperor, a cruel tyrant of the most vicious and
+contemptible character. Among the Hia emperors we find _Chung-k'ang_
+(2159-2147), whose reign has attracted the attention of European
+scholars by the mention of an eclipse of the sun, which his court
+astronomers had failed to predict. European astronomers and sinologues
+have brought much acumen to bear on the problem involved in the
+_Shu-king_ account in trying to decide which of the several eclipses
+known to have occurred about that time was identical with the one
+observed in China under Chung-k'ang.
+
+_The Shang, or Yin, Dynasty._--This period, which preceded the classical
+Chou dynasty, is made to extend from 1766 to 1122 B.C. We must now be
+prepared to see an energetic or virtuous ruler at the head of a dynasty
+and either a cruel tyrant or a contemptible weakling at the end of it.
+It seems natural that this should be so; but Chinese historians, like
+the writers of Roman history, have a tendency to exaggerate both good
+and bad qualities. Ch'oeng-tang, its first sovereign, is represented as a
+model of goodness and of humane feeling towards his subjects. Even the
+animal world benefited by his kindness, inasmuch as he abolished all
+useless torture in the chase. His great minister I Yin, who had greatly
+assisted him in securing the throne, served two of his successors.
+P'an-koeng (1401) and Wu-ting (1324) are described as good rulers among a
+somewhat indifferent set of monarchs. The Shang dynasty, like the Hia,
+came to an end through the reckless vice and cruelty of a tyrant
+(Chou-sin with his consort Ta-ki). China had even in those days to
+maintain her position as a civilized nation by keeping at bay the
+barbarous nations by which she was surrounded. Chief among these were
+the ancestors of the Hiung-nu tribes, or Huns, on the northern and
+western boundaries. To fight them, to make pacts and compromises with
+them, and to befriend them with gifts so as to keep them out of the
+Imperial territories, had been the role of a palatinate on the western
+frontier, the duchy of Chou, while the court of China with its vicious
+emperor gave itself up to effeminate luxury. Chou-sin's evil practices
+had aroused the indignation of the palatine, subsequently known as
+Woen-wang, who in vain remonstrated with the emperor's criminal treatment
+of his subjects. The strength and integrity of Woen-wang's character had
+made him the corner-stone of that important epoch; and his name is one
+of the best known both in history and in literature. The courage with
+which he spoke his mind in rebuking his unworthy liege lord caused the
+emperor to imprison him, his great popularity alone saving his life.
+During his incarceration, extending over three years, he compiled the
+_I-king_, or "Canon of Changes," supposed to be the oldest book of
+Chinese literature, and certainly the one most extensively studied by
+the nation. Woen-wang's son, known as Wu-wang, was destined to avenge his
+father and the many victims of Chou-sin's cruelty. Under his leadership
+the people rose against the emperor and, with the assistance of his
+allies, "men of the west," possibly ancestors of the Huns, overthrew the
+Shang dynasty after a decisive battle, whereupon Chou-sin committed
+suicide by setting fire to his palace.
+
+_Chou Dynasty._--Wu-wang, the first emperor of the new dynasty, named
+after his duchy of Chou on the western frontier, was greatly assisted in
+consolidating the empire by his brother, Chou-kung, i.e. "Duke of Chou."
+As the loyal prime-minister of Wu-wang and his successor the duke of
+Chou laid the foundation of the government institutions of the dynasty,
+which became the prototype of most of the characteristic features in
+Chinese public and social life down to recent times. The brothers and
+adherents of the new sovereign were rewarded with fiefs which in the
+sequel grew into as many states. China thus developed into a
+confederation, resembling that of the German empire, inasmuch as a
+number of independent states, each having its own sovereign, were united
+under one liege lord, the emperor, styled "The Son of Heaven," who as
+high priest of the nation reigned in the name of Heaven. The emperor
+represented the nation in sacrificing and praying to God. His relations
+with his vassals and government officials, and those of the heads of the
+vassal states with their subjects as well as of the people among
+themselves were regulated by the most rigid ceremonial. The dress to be
+worn, the speeches to be made, and the postures to be assumed on all
+possible occasions, whether at court or in private life, were subject to
+regulations. The duke of Chou, or whoever may have been the creator of
+this system, showed deep wisdom in his speculations, if he based that
+immutability of government which in the sequel became a Chinese
+characteristic, on the physical and moral immutability of individuals by
+depriving them of all spontaneous action in public and private life.
+Originally and nominally the emperor's power as the ruler over his
+vassals, who again ruled in his name, was unquestionable; and the first
+few generations of the dynasty saw no decline of the original strength
+of central power. A certain loyalty based on the traditional ancestral
+worship counteracted the desire to revolt. The rightful heir to the
+throne was responsible to his ancestors as his subjects were to theirs.
+"We have to do as our ancestors did," the people argued; "and since they
+obeyed the ancestors of our present sovereign, we have to be loyal to
+him." Interference with this time-honoured belief would have amounted to
+a rupture, as it were, in the nation's religious relations, and as long
+as the people looked upon the emperor as the Son of Heaven, his moral
+power would outweigh strong armies sent against him in rebellion. The
+time came soon enough when central power depended merely on this
+spontaneous loyalty.
+
+Not all the successors of Wu-wang profited by the lessons given them by
+past history. Incapacity, excessive severity and undue weakness had
+created discontent and loosened the relations between the emperor and
+his vassals. Increase in the extent of the empire greatly added to this
+decline of central power. For the emperor's own dominion was centrally
+situated and surrounded by the several confederate states; its
+geographical position prevented it from participating in the general
+aggrandisement of China, and increase in territory, population and
+prestige had become the privilege of boundary states. Tatar tribes in
+the north and west and the aboriginal Man barbarians in the south were
+forced by warfare to yield land, or enticed to exchange it for goods, or
+induced to mingle with their Chinese neighbours, thus producing a mixed
+population combining the superior intelligence of the Chinese race with
+the energetic and warlike spirit of barbarians. These may be the main
+reasons which gradually undermined the Imperial authority and brought
+some of the confederate states to the front, so as to overshadow the
+authority of the Son of Heaven himself, whose military and financial
+resources were inferior to those of several of his vassals. A few out of
+the thirty-five sovereigns of the Chou dynasty were distinguished by
+extraordinary qualities. Mu-wang of the 10th century performed journeys
+far beyond the western frontier of his empire, and was successful in
+warfare against the Dog Barbarians, described as the ancestors of the
+Hiung-nu, or Huns. The reign of Suean-wang (827-782 B.C.) was filled with
+warfare against the Tangutans and the Huns, called Hien-yuen in a
+contemporaneous poem of the "Book of Odes"; but the most noteworthy
+reign in this century is that of the lascivious Yu-wang, the
+oppressiveness of whose government had caused a bard represented in the
+"Book of Odes" to complain about the emperor's evil ways. The writer of
+this poem refers to certain signs showing that Heaven itself is
+indignant at Yu-wang's crimes. One of these signs was an eclipse of the
+sun which had recently occurred, the date and month being clearly
+stated. This date corresponds exactly with August 29, 776 B.C.; and
+astronomers have calculated that on that precise date an eclipse of the
+sun was visible in North China. This, of course, cannot be a mere
+accident; and since the date falls into the sixth year of Yu-wang's
+reign, the coincidence is bound to increase our confidence in that part
+of Chinese history. Our knowledge of it, however, is due to mere chance;
+for the record of the eclipse would probably not have been preserved
+until our days had it not been interpreted as a kind of _tekel upharsin_
+owing to the peculiarity of the political situation. It does not follow,
+therefore, as some foreign critics assume, that the historical period
+begins as late as Yu-wang's reign. China has no architectural witnesses
+to testify to her antiquity as Egypt has in her pyramids and temple
+ruins; but the sacrificial bronze vessels of the Shang and Chou
+dynasties, with their characteristic ornaments and hieroglyphic
+inscriptions, seem to support the historical tradition inasmuch as
+natural development may be traced by the analysis of their artistic and
+paleographic phases. Counterfeiters, say a thousand years later, could
+not have resisted the temptation to introduce patterns and hieroglyphic
+shapes of later periods; and whatever bronzes have been assigned to the
+Shang dynasty, i.e. some time in the second millennium B.C., exhibit the
+Shang characteristics. The words occurring in their inscriptions,
+carefully collected, may be shown to be confined to ideas peculiar to
+primitive states of cultural life, not one of them pointing to an
+invention we may suspect to be of later origin. But, apart from this, it
+seems a matter of individual judgment how far back beyond that
+indisputable year 776 B.C. a student will date the beginning of real
+history.
+
+In the 7th century central authority had declined to such an extent that
+the emperor was merely the nominal head of the confederation, the
+hegemony in the empire falling in turn to one of the five principal
+states, for which reason the Chinese speak of a period of the "Five
+Leaders." The state of Ts'i, corresponding to North Shan-tung, had begun
+to overshadow the other states by unprecedented success in economic
+enterprise, due to the prudent advice of its prime minister, the
+philosopher Kuan-tzi. Other states attained leadership by success in
+warfare. Among these leaders we see duke Mu of T'sin (659 B.C.), a state
+on the western boundary which was so much influenced by amalgamation
+with its Hunnic neighbours that the purely Chinese states regarded it as
+a barbarian country. The emperor was in those days a mere shadow;
+several of his vassals had grown strong enough to claim and be granted
+the title "king," and they all tried to annihilate their neighbours by
+ruse in diplomacy and by force of arms, without referring to their
+common ruler for arbitration, as they were in duty bound. In this
+_bellum omnium contra omnes_ the state of Ts'in, in spite of repeated
+reverses, remained in possession of the field.
+
+  The period of this general struggle is spoken of by Chinese historians
+  as that of "The Contending States." Like that of the "Five Leaders" it
+  is full of romance; and the examples of heroism, cowardice, diplomatic
+  skill and philosophical equanimity which fill the pages of its history
+  have become the subject of elegant literature in prose and poetry. The
+  political development of the Chou dynasty is the exact counterpart of
+  that of its spiritual life as shown in the contemporaneous literature.
+  The orthodox conservative spirit which reflects the ethical views of
+  the emperor and his royal partisans is represented by the name
+  Confucius (551-479 B.C.). The great sage had collected old traditions
+  and formulated the moral principles which had been dormant in the
+  Chinese nation for centuries. His doctrines tended to support the
+  maintenance of central power; so did those of other members of his
+  school, especially Mencius. Filial love showed itself as obedience to
+  the parents in the family and as loyalty to the emperor and his
+  government in public life. It was the highest virtue, according to the
+  Confucian school. The history of the nation as taught in the
+  _Shu-king_ was in its early part merely an illustration of
+  Confucianist ideas about good and bad government. The perpetual advice
+  to rulers was: "Be like Yau, Shun and Yue, and you will be right."
+  Confucianism was dominant during the earlier centuries of the Chou
+  dynasty, whose lucky star began to wane when doctrines opposed to it
+  got the upper hand. The philosophical schools built up on the
+  doctrines of Lau-tzi had in the course of generations become
+  antagonistic, and found favour with those who did not endorse that
+  loyalty to the emperor demanded by Mencius; so had other thinkers,
+  some of whom had preached morals which were bound to break up all
+  social relations, like the philosopher of egotism, Yang Chu, according
+  to Mencius disloyalty personified and the very reverse of his ideal,
+  the duke of Chou. The egotism recommended by Yang Chu to the
+  individual had begun to be practised on a large scale by the
+  contending states, their governments and sovereigns, some of whom had
+  long discarded Confucian rites under the influence of Tatar
+  neighbours. It appears that the anti-Confucian spirit which paved the
+  way towards the final extinction of Wu-wang's dynasty received its
+  chief nourishment from the Tatar element in the population of the
+  northern and western boundary states. Among these Ts'in was the most
+  prominent. Having placed itself in the possession of the territories
+  of nearly all of the remaining states, Ts'in made war against the last
+  shadow emperor, Nan-wang who had attempted to form an alliance against
+  the powerful usurper, with the result that the western part of the
+  Chou dominion was lost to the aggressor.
+
+  Nan-wang died soon after (256 B.C.), and a relative whom he had
+  appointed regent was captured in 249 B.C., when the king of Ts'in put
+  an end to this last remnant of the once glorious Chou dynasty by
+  annexing its territory. The king had already secured the possession of
+  the Nine Tripods, huge bronze vases said to have been cast by the
+  emperor Yue as representing the nine divisions of his empire and since
+  preseryed in the treasuries of all the various emperors as a symbol of
+  Imperial power. With the loss of these tripods Nan-wang had forfeited
+  the right to call himself "Son of Heaven." Another prerogative was the
+  offering of sacrifice to Shang-ti, the Supreme Ruler, or God, with
+  whom only the emperor was supposed to communicate. The king of Ts'in
+  had performed the ceremony as early as 253 B.C.    (F. H.*)
+
+
+(C)--_From the Ts'in Dynasty to 1875._
+
+  Ts'in dynasty 249-210 B.C.
+
+  Shi Hwang-ti.
+
+  Shi Hwang-ti.
+
+After the fall of the Chou dynasty a kind of interregnum followed during
+which China was practically without an emperor. This was the time when
+the state of Ts'in asserted itself as the leader and finally as the
+master of all the contending states. Its king, Chau-siang, who died in
+251 B.C., though virtually emperor, abstained from adopting the imperial
+title. He was succeeded by his son, Hiao-wen Wang, who died after a
+three days' reign. Chwan-siang Wang, his son and successor, was a man of
+no mark. He died in 246 B.C. giving place to Shi Hwang-ti, "the first
+universal emperor." This sovereign was then only thirteen, but he
+speedily made his influence felt everywhere. He chose Hien-yang, the
+modern Si-gan Fu, as his capital, and built there a magnificent palace,
+which was the wonder and admiration of his contemporaries. He abolished
+the feudal system, and divided the country into provinces over whom he
+set officers directly responsible to himself. He constructed roads
+through the empire, he formed canals, and erected numerous and handsome
+public buildings.
+
+  Having settled the internal affairs of his kingdom, he turned his
+  attention to the enemies beyond his frontier. Chief among these were
+  the Hiung-nu Tatars, whose attacks had for years disquieted the
+  Chinese and neighbouring principalities. Against these foes he marched
+  with an army of 300,000 men, exterminating those in the neighbourhood
+  of China, and driving the rest into Mongolia. On his return from this
+  campaign he was called upon to face a formidable rebellion in Ho-nan,
+  which had been set on foot by the adherents of the feudal princes whom
+  he had dispossessed. Having crushed the rebellion, he marched
+  southwards and subdued the tribes on the south of the Nan-shan ranges,
+  i.e. the inhabitants of the modern provinces of Fu-kien, Kwang-tung
+  and Kwang-si. The limits of his empire were thus as nearly as possible
+  those of modern China proper. One monument remains to bear witness to
+  his energy. Finding that the northern states of Ts'in, Chao and Yen
+  were building lines of fortification along their northern frontier for
+  protection against the Hiung-nu, he conceived the idea of building one
+  gigantic wall, which was to stretch across the whole northern limit of
+  the huge empire from the sea to the farthest western corner of the
+  modern province of Kan-suh. This work was begun under his immediate
+  supervision in 214 B.C. His reforming zeal made him unpopular with the
+  upper classes. Schoolmen and pedants held up to the admiration of the
+  people the heroes of the feudal times and the advantages of the system
+  they administered. Seeing in this propaganda danger to the state Shi
+  Hwang-ti determined to break once and for all with the past. To this
+  end he ordered the destruction of all books having reference to the
+  past history of the empire, and many scholars were put to death for
+  failing in obedience to it. (See _infra Sec. Chinese Literature, Sec.Sec.
+  History._) The measure was unpopular and on his death (210 B.C.)
+  rebellion broke out. His son and successor Erh-shi, a weak and
+  debauched youth, was murdered after having offered a feeble resistance
+  to his enemies. His son Tsze-yung surrendered to Liu Pang, the prince
+  of Han, one of the two generals who were the leaders of the rebellion.
+  He afterwards fell into the hands of Hiang Yu, the other chieftain,
+  who put him and his family and associates to death. Hiang Yu aspiring
+  to imperial honours, war broke out between him and Liu Pang. After
+  five years' conflict Hiang Yu was killed in a decisive battle before
+  Wu-kiang. Liu Pang was then proclaimed emperor (206 B.C.) under the
+  title of Kao-ti, and the new line was styled the Han dynasty.
+
+
+  Han dynasty 206 B.C.
+
+Kao-ti established his capital at Lo-yang in Ho-nan, and afterwards
+removed it to Chang-an in Shen-si. Having founded his right to rebel on
+the oppressive nature of the laws promulgated by Shi Hwang-ti, he
+abolished the ordinances of Ts'in, except that referring to the
+destruction of the books--for, like his great predecessor, he dreaded
+the influence exercised by the _literati_--and he exchanged the worship
+of the gods of the soil of Ts'in for that of those of Han, his native
+state. His successor Hwei-ti (194-179 B.C.), however, gave every
+encouragement to literature, and appointed a commission to restore as
+far as possible the texts which had been destroyed by Shi Hwang-ti. In
+this the commission was very successful. It was discovered that in many
+cases the law had been evaded, while in numerous instances scholars were
+found to write down from memory the text of books of which all copies
+had been destroyed, though in some cases the purity of the text is
+doubtful and in other cases there were undoubted forgeries. A period of
+repose was now enjoyed by the empire. There was peace within its
+borders, and its frontiers remained unchallenged, except by the
+Hiung-nu, who suffered many severe defeats. Thwarted in their attacks on
+China, these marauders attacked the kingdom of the Yueh-chi, which had
+grown up in the western extremity of Kan-suh, and after much fighting
+drove their victims along the T'ien-shan-nan-lu to the territory between
+Turkestan and the Caspian Sea. This position of affairs suggested to the
+emperor the idea of forming an offensive and defensive alliance with the
+Yueh-chi against the Hiung-nu. With this object the general Chang K'ien
+was sent as an ambassador to western Tatary. After having been twice
+imprisoned by the Hiung-nu he returned to China. Chang K'ien had
+actually reached the court of the Yueh-chi, or Indo-Scythians as they
+were called owing to their having become masters of India later on, and
+paid a visit to the kingdom of Bactria, recently conquered by the
+Yueh-chi. His report on the several kingdoms of western Asia opened up a
+new world to the Chinese, and numerous elements of culture, plants and
+animals were then imported for the first time from the west into China.
+While in Bactria Chan K'ien's attention was first drawn to the existence
+of India, and attempts to send expeditions, though at first fruitless,
+finally led to its discovery. Under Wu-ti (140-86 B.C.) the power of the
+Hiung-nu was broken and eastern Turkestan changed into a Chinese colony,
+through which caravans could safely pass to bring back merchandise and
+art treasures from Persia and the Roman market. By the Hans the feudal
+system was restored in a modified form; 103 feudal principalities were
+created, but they were more or less under the jurisdiction of civil
+governors appointed to administer the thirteen _chows_ (provinces) into
+which the country was divided. About the beginning of the Christian era
+Wang Mang rose in revolt against the infant successor of P'ing-ti (A.D.
+1), and in A.D. 9 proclaimed himself emperor. He, however, only gained
+the suffrages of a portion of the nation, and before long his oppressive
+acts estranged his supporters. In A.D. 23 Liu Siu, one of the princes of
+Han, completely defeated him. His head was cut off, and his body was
+torn in pieces by his own soldiery.
+
+
+  Eastern Han dynasty, A.D. 23.
+
+Liu Siu, was proclaimed emperor under the title of Kwang-wu-ti, reigned
+from A.D. 58 to 76. Having fixed on Lo-yang in Ho-nan as his capital,
+the line of which he was the first emperor became known as the Eastern
+Han dynasty. It is also known as the Later Han dynasty. During the reign
+of his successor Ming-ti, A.D. 65, Buddhism was introduced from India
+into China (see ante Sec. _Religion_). About the same time the celebrated
+general Pan Ch'ao was sent on an embassy to the king of Shen-shen, a
+small state of Turkestan, near the modern Pidjan. Before long he added
+the states of Shen-shen, Khotan, Kucha and Kashgar as apanages to the
+Chinese crown, and for a considerable period the country enjoyed
+prosperity. The Han dynasty (including in the term the Eastern Han
+dynasty) has been considered the first national dynasty and is one of
+the most famous in China; nor has any ruling family been more popular.
+The Chinese, especially the northern Chinese, still call themselves "the
+sons of Han." The wealth and trade as well as the culture of the country
+was greatly developed, and the competitive examinations for literary
+degrees instituted. The homogeneity of the nation was so firmly
+established that subsequent dissensions and conquests could not alter
+fundamentally the character of the nation.
+
+
+    Wei dynasty
+
+  Towards the end of the 2nd century the power of the Eastern Hans
+  declined. In 173 a virulent pestilence, which continued for eleven
+  years, broke out. A magical cure for this plague was said to have been
+  discovered by a Taoist priest named Chang Chio, who in a single month
+  won a sufficiently large following to enable him to gain possession of
+  the northern provinces of the empire. He was, however, defeated by
+  Ts'aou Ts'aou, another aspirant to imperial honours, whose son, Ts'aou
+  P'ei, on the death of Hien-ti (A.D. 220), proclaimed himself emperor,
+  adopting the title of Wei as the appellation of his dynasty. There
+  were then, however, two other claimants to the throne, Liu Pei and Sun
+  Ch'uean, and the three adventurers agreed to divide the empire between
+  them. Ts'aou P'ei, under the title of Wen-ti, ruled over the kingdom
+  of Wei (220), which occupied the whole of the central and northern
+  portion of China. Liu Pei established the Shuh Han dynasty in the
+  modern province of Sze-ch'uen (221), and called himself Chao-lieh-ti;
+  and to Sun Ch'uean fell the southern provinces of the empire, from the
+  Yangtsze-kiang southwards, including the modern Tongking, which he
+  formed into the kingdom of Wu with Nan-king for his capital, adopting
+  for himself the imperial style of Ta-te (A.D. 222).
+
+
+    "Three kingdom" period.
+
+    Western Tsin dynasty.
+
+  China during the period of the "Three Kingdoms" was a house divided
+  against itself. Liu Pei, as a descendant of the house of Han, looked
+  upon himself as the rightful sovereign of the whole empire, and he
+  despatched an army under Chu-ko Liang to support his claims. This army
+  was met by an Oppossing force under the Wei commander Sze-ma I, of
+  whom Chinese historians say that "he led armies like a god," and who,
+  by adopting a Fabian policy, completely discomfited his adversary. But
+  the close of this campaign brought no peace to the country. Wars
+  became chronic, and the reins of power slipped out of the hands of
+  emperors into those of their generals. Foremost among these were the
+  members of the Sze-ma family of Wei. Sze-ma I left a son, Sze-ma Chao,
+  scarcely less distinguished than himself, and when Sze-ma Chao died
+  his honours descended to Sze-ma Yen, who deposed the ruling sovereign
+  of Wei, and proclaimed himself emperor of China (A.D. 265). His
+  dynasty he styled the Western Tsin dynasty, and he adopted for himself
+  the title of Wu-ti. The most noticeable event in this reign was the
+  advent of the ambassadors of the emperor Diocletian in 284. For some
+  years the neighbouring states appear to have transferred their
+  allegiance from the house of Wei to that of Tsin. Wu-ti's successors
+  proving, however, weak and incapable, the country soon fell again into
+  disorder. The Hiung-nu renewed incursions into the empire at the
+  beginning of the 4th century, and in the confusion which followed, an
+  adventurer named Liu Yuen established himself (in 311) as emperor,
+  first at P'ing-yang in Shan-si and afterwards in Lo-yang and Chang-an.
+  The history of this period is very chaotic. Numerous states sprang
+  into existence, some founded by the Hiung-nu and others by the Sien-pi
+  tribe, a Tungusic clan, inhabiting a territory to the north of China,
+  which afterwards established the Liao dynasty in China. In 419 the
+  Eastern Tsin dynasty came to an end, and with it disappeared for
+  nearly two hundred years all semblance of united authority. The
+  country became divided into two parts, the north and the south. In the
+  north four families reigned successively, two of which were of Sien-pi
+  origin, viz. the Wei and the How Chow, the other two, the Pih Ts'i and
+  the How Liang, being Chinese. In the south five different houses
+  supplied rulers, who were all of Chinese descent.
+
+
+    Suy dynasty.
+
+  This period of disorder was brought to a close by the establishment of
+  the Suy dynasty (590). Among the officials of the ephemeral dynasty of
+  Chow was one Yang Kien, who on his daughter becoming empress (578) was
+  created duke of Suy. Two years later Yang Kien proclaimed himself
+  emperor. The country, weary of contention, was glad to acknowledge his
+  undivided authority; and during the sixteen years of his reign the
+  internal affairs of China were comparatively peaceably administered.
+  The emperor instituted an improved code of laws, and added 5000
+  volumes to the 10,000 which composed the imperial library. Abroad, his
+  policy was equally successful. He defeated the Tatars and chastised
+  the Koreans, who had for a long period recognized Chinese suzerainty,
+  but were torn by civil wars and were disposed to reject her authority.
+  After his death in 604 his second son forced the heir to the throne to
+  strangle himself, and then seized the throne. This usurper, Yang-ti,
+  sent expeditions against the Tatars, and himself headed an expedition
+  against the Uighurs, while one of his generals annexed the Lu-chu
+  Islands to the imperial crown. During his reign the volumes in the
+  imperial library were increased to 54,000, and he spent vast sums in
+  erecting a magnificent palace at Lo-yang, and in constructing
+  unprofitable canals. These and other extravagances laid so heavy a
+  burden on the country that discontent began again to prevail, and on
+  the emperor's return from a successful expedition against the Koreans,
+  he found the empire divided into rebellious factions. In the troubles
+  which followed General Li Yuen became prominent. On the death of the
+  emperor by assassination this man set Kung-ti, the rightful heir, on
+  the throne (617) until such time as he should have matured his
+  schemes.
+
+
+  Tang dynasty.
+
+Kung-ti was poisoned in the following year and Li Yuen proclaimed
+himself as Kao-tsu, the first emperor of the T'ang dynasty. At this time
+the Turks were at the height of their power in Asia (see TURKS:
+_History_), and Kao-tsu was glad to purchase their alliance with money.
+But divisions weakened the power of the Turks, and T'ai-tsung (reigned
+627-650), Kao-tsu's son and successor, regained much of the position in
+Central Asia which had formerly been held by China. In 640 Hami, Turfan
+and the rest of the Turkish territory were again included within the
+Chinese empire, and four military governorships were appointed in
+Central Asia, viz. at Kucha, Khotan, Kharastan and Kashgar. At the same
+time the frontier was extended as far as eastern Persia and the Caspian
+Sea. So great was now the fame of China, that ambassadors from Nepal,
+Magadha, Persia and Constantinople (643) came to pay their court to the
+emperor. Under T'ai-tsung there was national unity and peace, and in
+consequence agriculture and commerce as well as literature flourished.
+The emperor gave direct encouragements to the Nestorians, and gave a
+favourable reception to an embassy from Mahommed (see ante Sec.
+_Religion_). On the accession of Kao-tsung (650) his wife, Wu How,
+gained supreme influence, and on the death of her husband in 683 she set
+aside his lawful successor, Chung-tsung, and took possession of the
+throne. This was the first occasion the country was ruled by a dowager
+empress. She governed with discretion, and her armies defeated the
+Khitan in the north-east and also the Tibetans, who had latterly gained
+possession of Kucha, Khotan and Kashgar. On her death, in 705,
+Chung-tsung partially left the obscurity in which he had lived during
+his mother's reign. But his wife, desiring to play a similar role to
+that enjoyed by her mother-in-law, poisoned him and set his son,
+Jui-tsung (710), on the throne. This monarch, who was weak and vicious,
+was succeeded by Yuen-tsung (713), who introduced reform into the
+administration and encouraged literature and learning. The king of
+Khokand applied for aid against the Tibetans and Arabs, and Yuen-tsung
+sent an army to his succour, but his general was completely defeated.
+During the disorder which arose in consequence of the invasion of the
+northern provinces by the Khitan, General An Lu-shan, an officer of
+Turkish descent, placed himself at the head of a revolt, and having
+secured Tung-kwan on the Yellow river, advanced on Chang-an. Thereupon
+the emperor fled, and placed his son, Su-tsung (756-762), on the throne.
+This sovereign, with the help of the forces of Khotan, Khokand and
+Bokhara, of the Uighurs and of some 4000 Arabs sent by the caliph
+Mansur, completely defeated An Lu-shan. During the following reigns the
+Tibetans made constant incursions into the western provinces of the
+empire, and T'ai-tsung (763-780) purchased the assistance of the Turks
+against those intruders by giving a Chinese princess as wife to the
+khan.
+
+  At this epoch the eunuchs of the palace gained an unwonted degree of
+  power, and several of the subsequent emperors fell victims to their
+  plots. The T'ang dynasty, which for over a hundred years had governed
+  firmly and for the good of the nation, began to decline. The history
+  of the 8th and 9th centuries is for the most part a monotonous record
+  of feeble governments, oppressions and rebellions. Almost the only
+  event worth chronicling is the iconoclastic policy of the emperor
+  Wu-tsung (841-847). Viewing the increase of monasteries and
+  ecclesiastical establishments as an evil, he abolished all temples,
+  closed the monasteries and nunneries, and sent the inmates back to
+  their families. Foreign priests were subjected to the same repressive
+  legislation, and Christians, Buddhists and Magi were bidden to return
+  whence they came. Buddhism again revived during the reign of the
+  emperor I-tsung (860-874), who, having discovered a bone of Buddha,
+  brought it to the capital in great state. By internal dissensions the
+  empire became so weakened that the prince of Liang found no difficulty
+  in gaining possession of the throne (907). He took the title of
+  T'ai-tsu, being the first emperor of the Later Liang dynasty. Thus
+  ended the T'ang dynasty, which is regarded as being the golden age of
+  Chinese literature.
+
+  Five dynasties, viz. the Later Liang, the Later T'ang, the Later Tsin,
+  the Later Han and the Later Chow, followed each other between the
+  years 907 and 960. Though the monarchs of these lines nominally held
+  sway over the empire, their real power was confined to very narrow
+  limits. The disorders which were rife during the time when the T'ang
+  dynasty was tottering to its fall fostered the development of
+  independent states, and so arose Liang in Ho-nan and Shan-tung, Ki in
+  Shen-si, Hwai-nan in Kiang-nan, Chow in Sze-ch'uen and parts of
+  Shen-si and Hu-kwang, Wu-yu[)e] in Cheh-kiang, Tsu and King-nan in
+  Hu-kwang, Ling-nan in Kwang-tung and the Uighurs in Tangut.
+
+
+  Sung dynasty.
+
+A partial end was made to this recognized disorganization when, in 960,
+General Chao Kw'ang-yin was proclaimed by the army emperor in succession
+to the youthful Kung-ti, who was compelled to abdicate. The
+circumstances of the time justified the change. It required a strong
+hand to weld the empire together again, and to resist the attacks of the
+Khitan Tatars, whose rule at this period extended over the whole of
+Manchuria and Liao-tung. Against these aggressive neighbours T'ai-tsu
+(_ne_ Chao Kw'ang-yin) directed his efforts with varying success, and he
+died in 976, while the war was still being waged. His son T'ai-tsung
+(976-997) entered on the campaign with energy, but in the end was
+compelled to conclude a peace with the Khitan. His successor, Chen-tsung
+(997-1022), paid them tribute to abstain from further incursions.
+Probably this tribute was not sent regularly; at all events, under
+Jen-tsung (1023-1064), the Khitan again threatened to invade the empire,
+and were only bought off by the promise of an annual tribute of taels
+200,000 of silver, besides a great quantity of silken piece goods.
+Neither was this arrangement long binding, and so formidable were the
+advances made by the Tatars in the foilowing reigns, that Hwei-tsung
+(1101-1126) invited the Nuechih Tatars to expel the Khitan from
+Liao-tung. This they did, but having once possessed themselves of the
+country they declined to yield it to the Chinese, and the result was
+that a still more aggressive neighbour was established on the
+north-eastern frontier of China. The Nuechih or Kin, as they now styled
+themselves, overran the provinces of Chih-li, Shen-si, Shan-si and
+Ho-nan, and during the reign of Kao-tsung (1127-1163) they advanced
+their conquests to the line of the Yangtsze-kiang. From this time the
+Sung ruled only over southern China; while the Kin or "Golden" dynasty
+reign"d in the north. The Kin made Chung-tu, which occupied in part the
+site of the modern Peking, their usual residence. The Sung fixed their
+capital at Nanking and afterwards at Hangchow. Between them and the Kin
+there was almost constant war.
+
+
+  Mongol invasion: 12th century.
+
+During this period the Mongols began to acquire power in eastern Asia,
+and about the beginning of the 12th century the forces of Jenghiz Khan
+(q.v.) invaded the north-western frontier of China and the principality
+of Hia, which at that time consisted of the modern provinces of Shen-si
+and Kan-suh. To purchase the good-will of the Mongols the king of Hia
+agreed to pay them a tribute, and gave a princess in marriage to their
+ruler. In consequence of a dispute with the Kin emperor Wei-shao Wang,
+Jenghiz Khan determined to invade Liao-tung. He was aided by the
+followers of the Khitan leader Yeh-lue Ts'u-ts'ai, and in alliance with
+this general he captured Liao-yang, the capital city.
+
+  After an unsuccessful invasion of China in 1212, Jenghiz Khan renewed
+  the attack in 1213. He divided his armies into four divisions, and
+  made a general advance southwards. His soldiers swept over Ho-nan,
+  Chih-li and Shan-tung, destroying upwards of ninety cities. It was
+  their boast that a horseman might ride without stumbling over the
+  sites where those cities had stood. Panic-stricken, the emperor moved
+  his court from Chung-tu to K'ai-feng Fu, much against the advice of
+  his ministers, who foresaw the disastrous effect this retreat would
+  have on the fortunes of Kin. The state of Sung, which up to this time
+  had paid tribute, now declined to recognize Kin as its feudal chief,
+  and a short time afterwards declared war against its quondam ally.
+  Meanwhile, in 1215, Yeh-lue Ts'u-ts'ai advanced into China by the
+  Shan-hai Kwan, and made himself master of Peking, one of the few
+  cities in Chih-li which remained to Kin. After this victory his nobles
+  wished him to proclaim himself emperor, but he refused, being mindful
+  of an oath which he had sworn to Jenghiz Khan. In 1216 Tung-kwan, a
+  mountain pass on the frontiers of Ho-nan and Shen-si, and the scene of
+  numerous dynastic battles (as it is the only gateway between
+  north-eastern and north-western China), was taken by the invaders. As
+  the war dragged on the resistance offered by the Kin grew weaker and
+  weaker. In 1220 Chi-nan Fu, the capital of Shan-tung, was taken, and
+  five years later Jenghiz Khan marched an army westward into Hia and
+  conquered the forces of the king. Two years later (1227) Jenghiz Khan
+  died.
+
+  With the view to the complete conquest of China by the Mongols,
+  Jenghiz declined to nominate either of the eldest two sons who had
+  been born to his Chinese wives as his heir, but chose his third son
+  Ogdai, whose mother was a Tatar. On hearing of the death of Jenghiz
+  Khan the Kin sent an embassy to his successor desiring peace, but
+  Ogdai told them there would be no peace for them until their dynasty
+  should be overthrown. Hitherto the Mongols had been without any code
+  of laws. But the consolidation of the nation by the conquests of
+  Jenghiz Khan made it necessary to establish a recognized code of laws,
+  and one of the first acts of Ogdai was to form such a code. With the
+  help also of Yeh-lue Ts'u-ts'ai, he established custom-houses in
+  Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shan-si and Liao-tung; and for this purpose
+  divided these provinces into ten departments. Meanwhile the war with
+  the Kin was carried on with energy. In 1230 Si-gan Fu was taken, and
+  sixty important posts were captured. Two years later, Tu-le, brother
+  of Ogdai, took Feng-siang Fu and Han-chung Fu, in the flight from
+  which last-named place 100,000 persons are said to have perished.
+  Following the course of the river Han in his victorious career, this
+  general destroyed 140 towns and fortresses, and defeated the army of
+  Kin at Mount San-feng.
+
+
+    The Kin dynasty overthrown.
+
+  In 1232 the Mongols made an alliance with the state of Sung, by which,
+  on condition of Sung helping to destroy Kin, Ho-nan was to be the
+  property of Sung for ever. The effect of this coalition soon became
+  apparent. Barely had the Kin emperor retreated from K'ai-feng Fu to
+  Ju-ning Fu in Ho-nan when the former place fell into the hands of the
+  allies. Next fell Loyang, and the victorious generals then marched on
+  to besiege Ju-ning Fu. The presence of the emperor gave energy to the
+  defenders, and they held out until every animal in the city had been
+  killed for food, until every old and useless person had suffered death
+  to lessen the number of hungry mouths, until so many able-bodied men
+  had fallen that the women manned the ramparts, and then the allies
+  stormed the walls. The emperor burned himself to death in his palace,
+  that his body might not fall into the hands of his enemies. For a few
+  days the shadow of the imperial crown rested on the head of his heir
+  Chang-lin, but in a tumult which broke out amongst his followers he
+  lost his life, and with him ended the "Golden" dynasty.
+
+  Notwithstanding the treaty between Ogdai and Sung, no sooner were the
+  spoils of Kin to be divided than war broke out again between them, in
+  prosecuting which the Mongol armies swept over the provinces of
+  Sze-ch'uen, Hu-kwang, Kiang-nan and Ho-nan, and were checked only when
+  they reached the walls of Lu-chow Fu in Ngan-hui. Ogdai died in 1241,
+  and was nominally succeeded by his grandson Cheliemen. But one of his
+  widows, Tolickona, took possession of the throne, and after exercising
+  rule for four years, established her son Kwei-yew as great khan. In
+  1248 his life was cut short, and the nobles, disregarding the claims
+  of Cheliemen, proclaimed as emperor Mangu, the eldest son of Tu-le.
+  Under this monarch the war against Sung was carried on with energy,
+  and Kublai, outstripping the bounds of Sung territory, made his way
+  into the province of Yun-nan, at that time divided into a number of
+  independent states, and having attached them to his brother's crown he
+  passed on into Tibet, Tongking and Cochin-China, and thence striking
+  northwards entered the province of Kwang-si.
+
+
+  Kublai Khan emperior.
+
+On the death of Mangu in 1259 Kublai (q.v.) ascended the throne. Never
+in the history of China was the nation more illustrious, nor its power
+more widely felt, than under his sovereignty. During the first twenty
+years of his reign Sung kept up a resistance against his authority.
+Their last emperor Ping-ti, seeing his cause lost, drowned himself in
+the sea. The Sung dynasty, which had ruled southern China 320 years,
+despite its misfortunes is accounted one of the great dynasties of
+China. During its sway arts and literature were cultivated and many
+eminent writers flourished. His enemies subdued, Kublai Khan in 1280
+assumed complete jurisdiction as emperor of China. He took the title of
+Shit-su and founded what is known as the Yuen dynasty. He built a new
+capital close to Chung-tu, which became known as Kaanbaligh (city of the
+khan), in medieval European chronicles, Cambaluc, and later as Peking.
+At this time his authority was acknowledged "from the Frozen Sea, almost
+to the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of Hindustan, Arabia and
+the westernmost parts of Asia, all the Mongol princes as far as the
+Dnieper declared themselves his vassals, and brought regularly their
+tribute." It was during this reign that Marco Polo visited China, and he
+describes in glowing colours the virtues and glories of the "great
+khan." His rule was characterized by discretion and munificence. He
+undertook public works, he patronized literature, and relieved the
+distress of the poor, but the Chinese never forgot that he was an alien
+and regarded him as a barbarian. He died unregretted in 1294. His son
+had died during his lifetime, and after some contention his grandson
+Timur ascended the throne under the title of Yuen-cheng. This monarch
+died in 1307 after an uneventful reign, and, as he left no son,
+Wu-tsung, a Mongol prince, became emperor. To him succeeded Jen-tsung in
+1312, who made himself conspicuous by the honour he showed to the memory
+of Confucius, and by distributing offices more equally between Mongols
+and Chinese than had hitherto been done. This act of justice gave great
+satisfaction to the Chinese, and his death ended a peaceful and
+prosperous reign in 1320. At this time there appears to have been a
+considerable commercial intercourse between Europe and China. But after
+Jen-tsung's death the dynasty fell on evil days. The Mongols in adopting
+Chinese civilization had lost much of their martial spirit. They were
+still regarded as alien by the Chinese and numerous secret societies
+were formed to achieve their overthrow. Jen-tsung's successors were weak
+and incapable rulers, and in the person of Shun-ti (1333-1368) were
+summed up the vices and faults of his predecessors. Revolts broke out,
+and finally this descendant of Jenghiz Khan was compelled to fly before
+Chu Yueen-chang, the son of a Chinese labouring man. Deserted by his
+followers, he sought refuge in Ying-chang Fu, and there the last of the
+Yueen dynasty died. These Mongol emperors, whatever their faults, had
+shown tolerance to Christian missionaries and Papal legates (see _ante_
+Sec. _The Medieval Cathay_).
+
+
+  Ming dynasty.
+
+Chu Yueen-chang met with little opposition, more especially as his first
+care on becoming possessed of a district was to suppress lawlessness and
+to establish a settled government. In 1355 he captured Nanking, and
+proclaimed himself duke of Wu, but carefully avoided adopting any of the
+insignia of royalty. Even when master of the empire, thirteen years
+later, he still professed to dislike the idea of assuming the imperial
+title. His scruples were overcome, and he declared himself emperor in
+1368. He carried his arms into Tatary, where he subdued the last
+semblance of Mongol power in that direction, and then bent his steps
+towards Liao-tung. Here the Mongols defended themselves with the bravery
+of despair, but unavailingly, and the conquest of this province left
+Hung-wu, as the founder of the new or Ming ("Bright") dynasty styled
+himself, without a foe in the empire.
+
+  All intercourse with Europe seems now to have ceased until the
+  Portuguese arrived in the 16th century, but Hung-wu cultivated
+  friendly relations with the neighbouring states. As a quondam Buddhist
+  priest he lent his countenance to that religion to the exclusion of
+  Taoism, whose priests had for centuries earned the contempt of all but
+  the most ignorant by their pretended magical arts and their search
+  after the philosopher's stone. Hung-wu died in 1398 and was succeeded
+  by his grandson Kien-Wen. Aware that the appointment of this
+  youth--his father was dead--would give offence to the young emperor's
+  uncles, Hung-wu had dismissed them to their respective governments.
+  However, the prince of Yen, his eldest surviving son, rose in revolt
+  as soon as the news reached him of his nephew's accession, and after
+  gaining several victories over the armies of Kien-wen he presented
+  himself before the gates of Nanking, the capital. Treachery opened the
+  gates to him, and the emperor having fled in the disguise of a monk,
+  the victorious prince became emperor and took the title of Yung-lo
+  (1403). At home Yung-lo devoted himself to the encouragement of
+  literature and the fine arts, and, possibly from a knowledge that
+  Kien-wen was among the Buddhist priests, he renewed the law
+  prohibiting Buddhism. Abroad he swept Cochin-China and Tongking within
+  the folds of his empire and carried his arms into Tatary, where he
+  made new conquests of waste regions, and erected a monument of his
+  victories. He died in 1425, and was succeeded by his son Hung-hi.
+
+  Hung-hi's reign was short and uneventful. He strove to promote only
+  such mandarins as had proved themselves to be able and honest, and to
+  further the welfare of the people. During the reign of his successor,
+  Sueen-te (1426-1436), the empire suffered the first loss of territory
+  since the commencement of the dynasty. Cochin-China rebelled and
+  gained her independence. The next emperor, Cheng-t'ung (1436), was
+  taken prisoner by a Tatar chieftain, a descendant of the Yueen family
+  named Yi-sien, who had invaded the northern Erovinces. Having been
+  completely defeated by a Chinese force from Liao-tung, Yi-sien
+  liberated his captive, who reoccupied the throne, which during his
+  imprisonment (1450-1457) had been held by his brother King-ti. The two
+  following reigns, those of Cheng-hwa (1465-1488) and of Hung-chi
+  (1488-1506), were quiet and peaceful.
+
+
+    Struggle with Japan for Korea.
+
+  The most notable event in the reign of the next monarch, Cheng-te
+  (1506-1522), was the arrival of the Portuguese at Canton (1517). From
+  this time dates modern European intercourse with China. Cheng-te
+  suppressed a formidable insurrection headed by the prince of Ning, but
+  disorder caused by this civil war encouraged the foreign enemies of
+  China. From the north came a Tatar army under Yen-ta in 1542, during
+  the reign of Kia-tsing, which laid waste the province of Shen-si, and
+  even threatened the capital, and a little later a Japanese fleet
+  ravaged the littoral provinces. Ill-blood had arisen between the two
+  peoples before this, and a Japanese colony had been driven out of
+  Ningpo by force and not without bloodshed a few years previously.
+  Kia-tsing (d. 1567) was not equal to such emergencies, and his son
+  Lung-king (1567-1573)sought to placate the Tatar Yen-ta by making him
+  a prince of the empire and giving him commercial privileges, which
+  were supplemented by the succeeding emperor Wan-li (1573-1620) by the
+  grant of land in Shen-si. During the reign of this sovereign, in the
+  year 1592, the Japanese successfully invaded Korea, and Taikosarna,
+  the regent of Japan, was on the point of proclaiming himself king of
+  the peninsula, when a large Chinese force, answering to the invitation
+  of the king, appeared and completely routed the Japanese army, at the
+  same time that the Chinese fleet cut off their retreat by sea. In this
+  extremity the Japanese sued for peace, and sent an embassy to Peking
+  to arrange terms. But the peace was of short duration. In 1597 the
+  Japanese again invaded Korea, defeated the Chinese army, destroyed the
+  Chinese fleet and ravaged the coast. Suddenly, however, when in the
+  full tide of conquest, they evacuated Korea, which again fell under
+  the direction of China. Four years later the missionary Matteo Ricci
+  (q.v.) arrived at the Chinese court; and though at first the emperor
+  was inclined to send him out of the country, his abilities gradually
+  won for him the esteem of the sovereign and his ministers, and he
+  remained the scientific adviser of the court until his death in 1610.
+
+
+  Manchu invasion: 17th century.
+
+About this time the Manchu Tatars, goaded into war by the injustice they
+were constantly receiving at the hands of the Chinese, led an army into
+China (in 1616) and completely defeated the force which was sent against
+them. Three years later they gained possession of the province of
+Liao-tung. These disasters overwhelmed the emperor, and he died of a
+broken heart in 1620.
+
+In the same year T'ien-ming, the Manchu sovereign, having declared
+himself independent, moved the court to San-ku, to the east of Mukden,
+which, five years later, he made his capital. In 1627 Ts'ung-cheng, the
+last emperor of the Ming dynasty, ascended the Chinese throne. In his
+reign English merchants first made their appearance at Canton. The
+empire was now torn by internal dissensions. Rebel bands, enriched by
+plunder, and grown bold by success, began to assume the proportion of
+armies. Two rebels, Li Tsze-ch'eng and Shang K'o-hi, decided to divide
+the empire between them. Li besieged K'ai-feng Fu, the capital of
+Ho-nan, and so long and closely did he beleaguer it that in the
+consequent famine human flesh was regularly sold in the markets. At
+length an imperial force came to raise the siege, but fearful of meeting
+Li's army, they cut through the dykes of the Yellow River, "China's
+Sorrow," and flooded the whole country, including the city. The rebels
+escaped to the mountains, but upwards of 200,000 inhabitants perished in
+the flood, and the city became a heap of ruins (1642). From K'ai-feng Fu
+Li marched against the other strongholds of Ho-nan and Shen-si, and was
+so completely successful that he determined to attack Peking. A
+treacherous eunuch opened the gates to him, on being informed of which
+the emperor committed suicide. When the news of this disaster reached
+the general-commanding on the frontier of Manchu Tatary, he, in an
+unguarded moment, concluded a peace with the Manchus, and invited them
+to dispossess Li Tsze-ch'eng. The Manchus entered China, and after
+defeating a rebel army sent against them, they marched towards Peking.
+On hearing of the approach of the invaders, Li Tsze-ch'eng, after having
+set fire to the imperial palace, evacuated the city, but was overtaken,
+and his force was completely routed.
+
+
+  Ta-ts'ing dynasty.
+
+The Chinese now wished the Manchus to retire, but, having taken
+possession of Peking, they proclaimed the ninth son of T'ien-ming
+emperor of China under the title of Shun-chi, and adopted the name of
+Ta-ts'ing, or "Great Pure," for the dynasty (1644). Meanwhile the
+mandarins at Nanking had chosen an imperial prince to ascend the throne.
+At this most inopportune moment "a claimant" to the throne, in the
+person of a pretended son of the last emperor, appeared at court. While
+this contention prevailed inside Nanking the Tatar army appeared at the
+walls. There was no need for them to use force. The gates were thrown
+open, and they took possession of the city without bloodshed. Following
+the conciliatory policy they had everywhere pursued, they confirmed the
+mandarins in their offices and granted a general amnesty to all who
+would lay down their arms. As the Tatars entered the city the emperor
+left it, and after wandering about for some days in great misery, he
+drowned himself in the Yangtsze-kiang. Thus ended the Ming dynasty, and
+the empire passed again under a foreign yoke. By the Mings, who partly
+revived the feudal system by making large territorial grants to members
+of the reigning house, China was divided into fifteen provinces; the
+existing division into eighteen provinces was made by the Manchus.
+
+  All accounts agree in stating that the Manchu conquerors are
+  descendants of a branch of the family which gave the Kin dynasty to
+  the north of China; and in lieu of any authentic account of their
+  early history, native writers have thrown a cloud of fable over their
+  origin (see MANCHURIA). In the 16th century they were strong enough to
+  cope with their Chinese neighbours. Doubtless the Mings tried to check
+  their ambition by cruel reprisals, but against this must be put
+  numerous Manchu raids into Liao-tung.
+
+  The accession to the throne of the emperor Shun-chi did not restore
+  peace to the country. In Kiang-si, Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and Kwang-si
+  the adherents of the Ming dynasty defended themselves vigorously but
+  unsuccessfully against the invaders, while the pirate Cheng Chi-lung,
+  the father of the celebrated Coxinga, kept up a predatory warfare
+  against them on the coast. Eventually he was induced to visit Peking,
+  where he was thrown into prison and died. Coxinga, warned by his
+  father's example, determined to leave the mainland and to seek an
+  empire elsewhere. His choice fell on Formosa, and having driven out
+  the Dutch, who had established themselves in the island in 1624, he
+  held possession until the reign of K'ang-hi, when (1682) he resigned
+  in favour of the imperial government. Meanwhile a prince of the house
+  of Ming was proclaimed emperor in Kwang-si, under the title of
+  Yung-li. The Tatars having reduced Fu-kien and Kiang-si, and having
+  taken Canton after a siege of eight months, completely routed his
+  followers, and Yung-li was compelled to fly to Pegu. Some years later,
+  with the help of adherents in Yun-nan and Kwei-chow, he tried to
+  regain the throne, but his army was scattered, and he was taken
+  prisoner and strangled. Gradually opposition to the new regime became
+  weaker and weaker, and the shaved head with the pig-tail--the symbol
+  of Tatar sovereignty--became more and more adopted. In 1651 died Ama
+  Wang, the uncle of Shun-chi, who had acted as regent during his
+  nephew's minority, and the emperor then assumed the government of the
+  state. He appears to have taken a great interest in science, and to
+  have patronized Adam Schaal, a German Jesuit, who was at that time
+  resident at Peking. It was during his reign (1656) that the first
+  Russian embassy arrived at the capital, but as the envoy declined to
+  _kowtow_ before the emperor he was sent back without having been
+  admitted to an audience.
+
+  After an unquiet reign of seventeen years Shun-chi died (1661). and
+  was succeeded by his son K'ang-hi. He came into collision with the
+  Russians, who had reached the Amur regions about 1640 and had built a
+  fort on the upper Amur; but by the Treaty of Nerchinsk, concluded in
+  1689 (the first treaty made between China and a European power), the
+  dispute was settled, the Amur being taken as the frontier. K'ang-hi
+  was indefatigable in administering the affairs of the empire, and he
+  devoted much of his time to literary and scientific studies under the
+  guidance of the Jesuits. The dictionary of the Chinese language,
+  published under his superintendence, proves him to have been as great
+  a scholar as his conquests over the Eleuths show him to have been
+  famous as a general. During one of his hunting expeditions to Mongolia
+  he caught a fatal cold, and he died in 1721. Under his rule Tibet was
+  added to the empire, which extended from the Siberian frontier to
+  Cochin-China, and from the China Sea to Turkestan. During his reign
+  there was a great earthquake at Peking, in which 400,000 people are
+  said to have perished.
+
+  K'ien-lung, who began to reign in 1735, was ambitious and warlike. He
+  marched an army into Hi, which he converted into a Chinese province,
+  and he afterwards added eastern Turkestan to the empire. Twice he
+  invaded Burma, and once he penetrated into Cochin-China, but in
+  neither country were his arms successful. He is accused of great
+  cruelty towards his subjects, which they repaid by rebelling against
+  him. During his reign the Mahommedan standard was first raised in
+  Kan-suh. (Since the Mongol conquest in the 13th century there had been
+  a considerable immigration of Moslems into western China; and numbers
+  of Chinese had become converts). But the Mussulmans were unable to
+  stand against the imperial troops; their armies were dispersed; ten
+  thousand of them were exiled; and an order was issued that every
+  Mahommedan in Kan-suh above the age of fifteen should be put to death
+  (1784).
+
+  K'ien-lung wrote incessantly, both poetry and prose, collected
+  libraries and republished works of value. His campaigns furnished him
+  with themes for his verses, and in the Summer Palace was found a
+  handsome manuscript copy of a laudatory poem he composed on the
+  occasion of his war against the Gurkhas. This was one of the most
+  successful of his military undertakings. His generals marched 70,000
+  men into Nepal to within 60 miles of the British frontiers, and having
+  subjugated the Gurkhas they received the submission of the Nepalese,
+  and acquired an additional hold over Tibet (1792). In other directions
+  his arms were not so successful. There is no poem commemorating the
+  campaign against the rebellious Formosans, nor lament over the loss of
+  100,000 men in that island, and the last few years of his reign were
+  disturbed by outbreaks among the Miao-tsze, hill tribes living in the
+  mountains in the provinces of Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. In 1795, after a
+  reign of sixty years, K'ien-lung abdicated in favour of his fifteenth
+  son, who adopted the title of Kia-k'ing as the style of his reign.
+  K'ien-lung died at the age of eighty-eight in 1798.
+
+
+  Trade with Europe.
+
+During the reign of K'ien-lung commerce between Europe and Canton--the
+only Chinese port then open to foreign trade--had attained important
+dimensions. It was mainly in the hands of the Portuguese, the British
+and the Dutch. The British trade was then a monopoly of the East India
+Company. The trade, largely in opium, tea and silk, was subject to many
+exactions and restrictions,[49] and many acts of gross injustice were
+committed on the persons of Englishmen. To obtain some redress the
+British government at length sent an embassy to Peking (1793) and Lord
+Macartney was chosen to represent George III. on the occasion. The
+mission was treated as showing that Great Britain was a state tributary
+to China, and Lord Macartney was received with every courtesy. But the
+concessions he sought were not accorded, and in this sense his mission
+was a failure.
+
+Kia-k'ing's reign was disturbed and disastrous. In the northern and
+western provinces, rebellion after rebellion broke out, due in a great
+measure to the carelessness, incompetency and obstinacy of the emperor,
+and the coasts were infested with pirates, whose number and organization
+enabled them for a long time to hold the imperial fleet in check.
+Meanwhile the condition of the foreign merchants at Canton had not
+improved, and to set matters on a better footing the British government
+despatched a second ambassador in the person of Lord Amherst to Peking
+in 1816. As he declined to _kowtow_ before the emperor, he was not
+admitted to the imperial presence and the mission proved abortive.
+Destitute of all royal qualities, a slave to his passions, and the
+servant of caprice, Kia-k'ing died in 1820. The event fraught with the
+greatest consequences to China which occurred in his reign (though at
+the time it attracted little attention) was the arrival of the first
+Protestant missionary, Dr R. Morrison (q.v.), who reached Canton in
+1807.
+
+Tao-kwang (1820-1850), the new emperor, though possessed in his early
+years of considerable energy, had no sooner ascended the throne than he
+gave himself up to the pursuit of pleasure. The reforms which his first
+manifestoes foreshadowed never seriously occupied his attention.
+Insurrection occurred in Formosa, Kwang-si, Ho-nan and other parts of
+the empire, and the Triad Society, which had originated during the reign
+of K'ang-hi, again became formidable.
+
+
+  War with Great Britain, 1840.
+
+More important to the future of the country than the internal
+disturbances was the new attitude taken at this time towards China by
+the nations of Europe. Hitherto the European missionaries and traders in
+China had been dependent upon the goodwill of the Chinese. The
+Portuguese had been allowed to settle at Macao (q.v.) for some
+centuries; Roman Catholic missionaries since the time of Ricci had been
+alternately patronized and persecuted; Protestant missionaries had
+scarcely gained a foothold; the Europeans allowed to trade at Canton
+continued to suffer under vexatious regulations--the Chinese in general
+regarded Europeans as barbarians, "foreign devils." Of the armed
+strength of Europe they were ignorant. They were now to be undeceived,
+Great Britain being the first power to take action. The hardships
+inflicted on the British merchants at Canton became so unbearable that
+when, in 1834, the monopoly of the East India Company ceased, the
+British government sent Lord Napier as minister to superintend the
+foreign trade at that port. Lord Napier was inadequately supported, and
+the anxieties of his position brought on an attack of fever, from which
+he died at Macao after a few months' residence in China. The chief cause
+of complaint adduced by the mandarins was the introduction of opium by
+the merchants, and for years they attempted by every means in their
+power to put a stop to its importation. At length Captain (afterwards
+Admiral Sir Charles) Elliot, the superintendent of trade, in 1839 agreed
+that all the opium in the hands of Englishmen should be given up to the
+native authorities, and he exacted a pledge from the merchants that they
+would no longer deal in the drug. On the 3rd of April 20,283 chests of
+opium were handed over to the mandarins and were by them destroyed. The
+surrender of the opium led to further demands by Lin Tze-su, the Chinese
+imperial commissioner, demands which were considered by the British
+government to amount to a _casus belli_, and in 1840 war was declared.
+In the same year the fleet captured Chusan, and in the following year
+the Bogue Forts fell, in consequence of which operations the Chinese
+agreed to cede Hong-Kong to the victors and to pay them an indemnity of
+6,000,000 dollars. As soon as this news reached Peking, Ki Shen, who had
+succeeded Commissioner Lin, was dismissed from his post and degraded,
+and Yi Shen, another Tatar, was appointed in his room. Before the new
+commissioner reached his post Canton had fallen into the hands of Sir
+Hugh Gough, and shortly afterwards Amoy, Ning-po, Tinghai in Chusan,
+Chapu, Shanghai and Chin-kiang Fu shared the same fate. Nanking would
+also have been captured had not the imperial government, dreading the
+loss of the "Southern Capital," proposed terms of peace. Sir Henry
+Pottinger, who had succeeded Captain Elliot, concluded, in 1842, a
+treaty with the imperial commissioners, by which the four additional
+ports of Amoy, Fu-chow, Ningpo and Shanghai were declared open to
+foreign trade, and an indemnity of 21,000,000 dollars was to be paid to
+the British.
+
+
+    Hien-feng emperor.
+
+    T'ai-p'ing rebellion.
+
+  On the accession of Hien-feng in 1850, a demand was raised for the
+  reforms which had been hoped for under Tao-kwang, but Hien-feng
+  possessed in an exaggerated form the selfish and tyrannical nature of
+  his father, together with a voluptuary's craving for every kind of
+  sensual pleasure. For some time Kwang-si had been in a very disturbed
+  state, and when the people found that there was no hope of relief from
+  the oppression they endured, they proclaimed a youth, who was said to
+  be the representative of the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, as
+  emperor, under the title of T'ien-te or "Heavenly Virtue." From
+  Kwang-si the revolt spread into Hu-peh and Hu-nan, and then languished
+  from want of a leader and a definite political cry. When, however,
+  there appeared to be a possibility that, by force of arms and the
+  persuasive influence of money, the imperialists would re-establish
+  their supremacy, a leader presented himself in Kwang-si, whose energy
+  of character, combined with great political and religious enthusiasm,
+  speedily gained for him the suffrages of the discontented. This was
+  Hung Siu-ts'uean. He proclaimed himself as sent by heaven to drive out
+  the Tatars, and to restore in his own person the succession to China.
+  At the same time, having been converted to Christianity and professing
+  to abhor the vices and sins of the age, he called on all the virtuous
+  of the land to extirpate rulers who were standing examples of all that
+  was base and vile in human nature. Crowds soon flocked to his
+  standard. T'ien-te was deserted; and putting himself at the head of
+  his followers (who abandoned the practice of shaving the head), Hung
+  Siu-ts'uean marched northwards and captured Wu-ch'ang on the
+  Yangtsze-kiang, the capital of Hu-peh. Then, moving down the river, he
+  proceeded to the attack of Nanking. Without much difficulty Hung
+  Siu-ts'uean in 1853 established himself within its walls, and
+  proclaimed the inauguration of the T'ai-p'ing dynasty, of which he
+  nominated himself the first emperor under the title of T'ien Wang or
+  "Heavenly king." During the next few years his armies penetrated
+  victoriously as far north as Tientsin and as far east as Chin-kiang
+  and Su-chow, while bands of sympathizers with his cause appeared in
+  the neighbourhood of Amoy. As if still further to aid him in his
+  schemes, Great Britain declared war against the Tatar dynasty in 1857,
+  in consequence of an outrage known as the "Arrow" affair (see PARKES,
+  SIR HARRY SMITH). In December 1857 Canton was taken by the British,
+  and a further blow was struck against the prestige of the Manchu
+  dynasty by the determination of Lord Elgin, who had been sent as
+  special ambassador, to go to Peking and communicate directly with the
+  emperor. In May 1858 the Taku Forts were taken, and Lord Elgin went up
+  the Peiho to Tientsin _en route_ for the capital. At Tientsin,
+  however, imperial commissioners persuaded him to conclude a treaty
+  with them on the spot, which treaty it was agreed should be ratified
+  at Peking in the following year. When, however, Sir Frederick Bruce,
+  who had been appointed minister to the court of Peking, attempted to
+  pass Taku to carry out this arrangement, the vessels escorting him
+  were treacherously fired on from the forts and he was compelled to
+  return. Thereupon Lord Elgin was again sent out with full powers,
+  accompanied by a large force under the command of Sir Hope Grant. The
+  French (to seek reparation for the murder of a missionary in Kwang-si)
+  took part in the campaign, and on the 1st of August 1860 the allies
+  landed without meeting with any opposition at Pei-tang, a village 12
+  m. north of Taku. A few days later the forts at that place were taken,
+  and thence the allies marched to Peking. Finding further resistance to
+  be hopeless, the Chinese opened negotiations, and as a guarantee of
+  their good faith surrendered the An-ting gate of the capital to the
+  allies. On the 24th of October 1860 the treaty of 1858 was ratified by
+  Prince Kung and Lord Elgin, and a convention was signed under the
+  terms of which the Chinese agreed to pay a war indemnity of 8,000,000
+  taels. The right of Europeans to travel in the interior was granted
+  and freedom guaranteed to the preaching of Christianity. The customs
+  tariff then agreed upon legalized the import of opium, though the
+  treaty of 1858, like that of 1842, was silent on the subject.
+
+  Great Britain and France were not the only powers of Europe with whom
+  Hien-feng was called to deal. On the northern border of the empire
+  Russia began to exercise pressure. Russia had begun to colonize the
+  lower Amur region, and was pressing towards the Pacific. This was a
+  remote region, only part of the Chinese empire since the Manchu
+  conquest, and by treaties of 1858 and 1860 China ceded to Russia all
+  its territory north of the Amur and between the Ussuri and the Pacific
+  (see AMUR, province). The Russians in their newly acquired land
+  founded the port of Vladivostok (q.v.).
+
+
+    T'ung-chi emperor; dowager empress regent.
+
+  Hien-feng died in the summer of the year 1861, leaving the throne to
+  his son T'ung-chi (1861-1875), a child of five years old, whose
+  mother, Tsz'e Hsi (1834-1908), had been raised from the place of
+  favourite concubine to that of Imperial Consort. The legitimate
+  empress, Tsz'e An, was childless, and the two dowagers became joint
+  regents. The conclusion of peace with the allies was the signal for a
+  renewal of the campaign against the T'ai-p'ings, and, benefiting by
+  the friendly feelings of the British authorities engendered by the
+  return of amicable relations, the Chinese government succeeded in
+  enlisting Major Charles George Gordon (q.v.) of the Royal Engineers in
+  their service. In a suprisingly short space of time this officer
+  formed the troops, which had formerly been under the command of an
+  American named Ward, into a formidable army, and without delay took
+  the field against the rebels. From that day the fortunes of the
+  T'ai-p'ings declined. They lost city after city, and, finally in July
+  1864, the imperialists, after an interval of twelve years, once more
+  gained possession of Nanking. T'ien Wang committed suicide on the
+  capture of his capital, and with him fell his cause. Those of his
+  followers who escaped the sword dispersed throughout the country, and
+  the T'ai-p'ings ceased to be.
+
+  With the measure of peace which was then restored to the country trade
+  rapidly revived, except in Yun-nan, where the Mahommedan rebels, known
+  as Panthays, under Suleiman, still kept the imperial forces at bay.
+  Against these foes the government was careless to take active
+  measures, until in 1872 Prince Hassan, the adopted son of Suleiman,
+  was sent to England to gain the recognition of the queen for his
+  father's government. This step aroused the susceptibilities of the
+  imperial government, and a large force was despatched to the scene of
+  the rebellion. Before the year was out the Mahommedan capital Ta-li Fu
+  fell into the hands of the imperialists, and the followers of Suleiman
+  were mercilessly exterminated. In February 1873 the two dowager
+  empresses resigned their powers as regents. This long-expected time
+  was seized upon by the foreign ministers to urge their right of
+  audience with the emperor, and on the 29th of June 1873 tne privilege
+  of gazing on the "sacred countenance" was accorded them.
+
+
+    Accession of Kwang-su, 1875.
+
+  The emperor T'ung-chi died without issue, and the succession to the
+  throne, for the first time in the annals of the Ts'ing dynasty, passed
+  out of the direct line. As already stated, the first emperor of the
+  Ts'ing dynasty, Shih-tsu Hwangti, on gaining possession of the throne
+  on the fall of the Ming, or "Great Bright" dynasty, adopted the title
+  of Shun-chi for his reign, which began in the year 1644. The legendary
+  progenitor of these Manchu rulers was Aisin Gioro, whose name is said
+  to point to the fact of his having been related to the race of
+  Nue-chih, or Kin, i.e. Golden Tatars, who reigned in northern China
+  during the 12th and 13th centuries. K'ang-hi (1661-1722) was the third
+  son of Shun-chi; Yung-cheng (1722-1735) was the fourth son of
+  K'ang-hi; K'ien-lung (1736-1795) was the fourth son of Yung-cheng;
+  Kia-k'ing (1796-1820) was the fifteenth son of K'ien-lung; Tao-Kwang
+  (1821-1850) was the second son of Kia-k'ing; Hien-feng (1851-1861) was
+  the fourth of the nine sons who were born to the emperor Tao-kwang;
+  and T'ung-chi (1862-1875) was the only son of Hien-feng. The choice
+  now fell upon Tsai-t'ien (as he was called at birth), the infant son
+  (born August 2, 1872) of Yi-huan, Prince Chun, the seventh son of the
+  emperor Tao-kwang and brother of the emperor Hien-feng; his mother was
+  a sister of the empress Tsz'e Hsi, who, with the aid of Li Hung-chang,
+  obtained his adoption and proclamation as emperor, under the title of
+  Kwang-su, "Succession of Glory."
+
+
+    Imperial family nomenclature and rank.
+
+  In order to prevent the confusion which would arise among the princes
+  of the imperial house were they each to adopt an arbitrary name, the
+  emperor K'ang-hi decreed that each of his twenty-four sons should have
+  a _personal_ name consisting of two characters, the first of which
+  should be _Yung_, and the second should be compounded with the
+  determinative _shih_, "to manifest," an arrangement which would, as
+  has been remarked, find an exact parallel in a system by which the
+  sons in an English family might be called Louis _Edward_, Louis
+  _Edwin_, Louis _Edwy_, Louis _Edgar_ and so on. This device obtained
+  also in the next generation, all the princes of which had _Hung_ for
+  their first name, and the emperor K'ien-lung (1736-1795) extended it
+  into a system, and directed that the succeeding generations should
+  take the four characters _Yung_, _Mien_, _Yih_ and _Tsai_
+  respectively, as the first part of their names. Eight other
+  characters, namely, _P'u_, _Yu_, _Heng_, _K'i_, _Tao_, _K'ai_,
+  _Tseng_, _Ki_, were subsequently added, thus providing generic names
+  for twelve generations. With the generation represented by Kwang-su
+  the first four characters were exhausted, and any sons of the emperor
+  Kwang-su would therefore have been called _P'u_. By the ceremonial law
+  of the "Great Pure" dynasty, twelve degrees of rank are distributed
+  among the princes of the imperial house, and are as follows: (1)
+  Ho-shih Tsin Wang, prince of the first order; (2) To-lo Keun Wang,
+  prince of the second order; (3) To-lo Beileh, prince of the third
+  order; (4) Ku-shan Beitsze, prince of the fourth order; 5 to 8, Kung,
+  or duke (with distinctive designations); 9 to 12, Tsiang-keun, general
+  (with distinctive designations). The sons of emperors usually receive
+  patents of the first or second order on their reaching manhood, and on
+  their sons is bestowed the title of _Beileh_. A _Beileh's_ sons become
+  _Beitsze_; a Beitsze's sons become _Kung_, and so on.    (R. K. D.; X.)
+
+
+(D)--_From 1875 to 1901._
+
+  The two dowager-empresses.
+
+The accession to the throne of Kwang-su in January 1875 attracted little
+notice outside China, as the supreme power continued to be vested in the
+two dowager-empresses--the empress Tsz'e An, principal wife of the
+emperor Hien-feng, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi, secondary wife of the same
+emperor, and mother of the emperor T'ung-chi. Yet there were
+circumstances connected with the emperor Kwang-su's accession which
+might well have arrested attention. The emperor T'ung-chi, who had
+himself succumbed to an ominously brief and mysterious illness, left a
+young widow in an advanced state of pregnancy, and had she given birth
+to a male child her son would have been the rightful heir to the throne.
+But even before she sickened and died--of grief, it was officially
+stated, at the loss of her imperial spouse--the dowager-empresses had
+solved the question of the succession by placing Kwang-su on the throne,
+a measure which was not only in itself arbitrary, but also in direct
+conflict with one of the most sacred of Chinese traditions. The solemn
+rites of ancestor-worship, incumbent on every Chinaman, and, above all,
+upon the emperor, can only be properly performed by a member of a
+younger generation than those whom it is his duty to honour. The emperor
+Kwang-su, being a first cousin to the emperor T'ung-chi, was not
+therefore qualified to offer up the customary sacrifices before the
+ancestral tablets of his predecessor. The accession of an infant in the
+place of T'ung-Tchi achieved, however, for the time being what was
+doubtless the paramount object of the policy of the two empresses,
+namely, their undisturbed tenure of the regency, in which the junior
+empress Tsz'e Hsi, a woman of unquestionable ability and boundless
+ambition, had gradually become the predominant partner.
+
+
+  Murder of Mr Margary.
+
+The first question that occupied the attention of the government under
+the new reign was one of the gravest importance, and nearly led to a war
+with Great Britain. The Indian government was desirous of seeing the old
+trade relations between Burma and the south-west provinces, which had
+been interrupted by the Yun-nan rebellion, re-established, and for that
+purpose proposed to send a mission across the frontier into China. The
+Peking government assented and issued passports for the party, which was
+under the command of Colonel Browne. Mr A.R. Margary, a young and
+promising member of the China consular service, who was told off to
+accompany the expedition as interpreter, was treacherously murdered by
+Chinese at the small town of Manwyne and almost simultaneously an attack
+was made on the expedition by armed forces wearing Chinese uniform
+(January 1875). Colonel Browne with difficulty made his way back to
+Bhamo and the expedition was abandoned.
+
+
+  Chifu convention 1876.
+
+Tedious negotiations followed, and, more than eighteen months after the
+outrage, an arrangement was come to on the basis of guarantees for the
+future, rather than vengeance for the past. The arrangement was embodied
+in the Chifu convention, dated 13th September 1876. The terms of the
+settlement comprised (1) a mission of apology from China to the British
+court; (2) the promulgation throughout the length and breadth of the
+empire of an imperial proclamation, setting out the right of foreigners
+to travel under passport, and the obligation of the authorities to
+protect them; and (3) the payment of indemnity. Additional articles were
+subsequently signed in London relative to the collection of likin on
+Indian opium and other matters.
+
+
+  Revolt in Central Asia.
+
+  Imperial consolidation.
+
+Simultaneously with the outbreak of the Mahommedan rebellion in Yun-nan,
+a similar disturbance had arisen in the north-west provinces of Shen-si
+and Kan-suh. This was followed by a revolt of the whole of the Central
+Asian tribes, which for two thousand years had more or less acknowledged
+the imperial sway. In Kashgaria a nomad chief named Yakub Beg, otherwise
+known as the Atalik Gh[=a]zi, had made himself amir, and seemed likely
+to establish a strong rule. The fertile province of Kulja or Ili, lying
+to the north of the T'ianshan range, was taken possession of by Russia
+in 1871 in order to put a stop to the prevailing anarchy, but with a
+promise that when China should have succeeded in re-establishing order
+in her Central Asian dominions it should be given back. The interest
+which was taken in the rebellion in Central Asia by the European powers,
+notably by the sultan of Turkey and the British government, aroused the
+Chinese to renewed efforts to recover their lost territories, and, as in
+the case of the similar crisis in Yun-nan, they undertook the task with
+sturdy deliberation. They borrowed money--L1,600,000--for the expenses
+of the expedition, this being the first appearance of China as a
+borrower in the foreign markets, and appointed the viceroy, Tso
+Tsung-t'ang, commander-in-chief. By degrees the emperor's authority was
+established from the confines of Kan-suh to Kashgar and Yarkand, and
+Chinese garrisons were stationed in touch with the Russian outpost in
+the region of the Pamirs (December 1877). Russia was now called upon to
+restore Kulja, China being in a position to maintain order. China
+despatched Chung-how, a Manchu of the highest rank, who had been
+notoriously concerned in the Tientsin massacre of 1870, to St Petersburg
+to negotiate a settlement. After some months of discussion a document
+was signed (September 1879), termed the treaty of Livadia, whereby China
+recovered, not indeed the whole, but a considerable portion of the
+territory, on her paying to Russia five million roubles as the cost of
+occupation. The treaty was, however, received with a storm of
+indignation in China. Memorials poured in from all sides denouncing the
+treaty and its author. Foremost among these was one by Chang Chih-tung,
+who afterwards became the most distinguished of the viceroys, and
+governor-general of Hu-peh and Hu-nan provinces. Prince Chun, the
+emperor's father, came into prominence at this juncture as an advocate
+for war, and under these combined influences the unfortunate Chung-how
+was tried and condemned to death (3rd of March 1880). For some months
+warlike preparations went on, and the outbreak of hostilities was
+imminent. In the end, however, calmer counsels prevailed. It was decided
+to send the Marquis Tseng, who in the meantime had become minister in
+London, to Russia to negotiate. A new treaty which still left Russia in
+possession of part of the Ili valley was ratified on the 19th of August
+1881. The Chinese government could now contemplate the almost complete
+recovery of the whole extensive dominions which had at any time owned
+the imperial sway. The regions directly administered by the officers of
+the emperor extended from the borders of Siberia on the north to Annam
+and Burma on the south, and from the Pacific Ocean on the east to
+Kashgar and Yarkand on the west. There was also a fringe of tributary
+nations which still kept up the ancient forms of allegiance, and which
+more or less acknowledged the dominioi of the central kingdom. The
+principal tributary nations then were Korea, Lu-chu, Annam, Burma and
+Nepal.
+
+
+  Korea and Japan.
+
+Korea was the first of the dependencies to come into notice. In 1866
+some Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered, and about the same time
+an American vessel was burnt in one of the rivers and her crew murdered.
+China refused satisfaction; both to France and America, and suffered
+reprisals to be made on Korea without protest. America and Japan both
+desired to conclude commercial treaties for the opening up of Korea, and
+proposed to negotiate with China. China refused and referred them to the
+Korean government direct, saying she was not wont to interfere in the
+affairs of her vassal states. As a result Japan concluded a treaty in
+1876, in which the independence of Korea was expressly recognized. This
+was allowed to pass without protest, but as other nations proceeded to
+conclude treaties on the same terms China began to perceive her mistake,
+and endeavoured to tack on to each a declaration by the king that he was
+in fact a tributary--a declaration, however, which was quietly ignored.
+Japan, however, was the only power with which controversy immediately
+arose. In 1882 a faction fight, which had long been smouldering, broke
+out, headed by the king's father, the Tai Won Kun, in the course of
+which the Japanese legation was attacked and the whole Japanese colony
+had to flee for their lives. China sent troops, and by adroitly
+kidnapping the Tai Won Kun, order was for a time restored. The Japanese
+legation was replaced, but under the protection of a strong body of
+Japanese troops. Further revolutions and riots followed, in which the
+troops of the two countries took sides, and there was imminent danger of
+war. To obviate this risk, it was agreed in 1885 between Count Ito and
+Li Hung-Chang that both sides should withdraw their troops, the king
+being advised to engage officers of a third state to put his army on
+such a footing as would maintain order, and each undertook to give the
+other notice should it be found necessary to send troops again. In this
+way a _modus vivendi_ was established which lasted till 1894.
+
+
+  Domestic affairs, 1875-1882.
+
+We can only glance briefly at the domestic affairs of China during the
+period 1875-1882. The years 1877-1878 were marked by a famine in
+Shan-si and Shan-tung, which for duration and intensity has probably
+never been equalled. It was computed that 12 or 13 millions perished. It
+was vainly hoped that this loss of life, due mainly to defective
+commumcations, would induce the Chinese government to listen to
+proposals for railway construction. The Russian scare had, however,
+taught the Chinese the value of telegraphs, and in 1881 the first line
+was laid from Tientsin to Shanghai. Further construction was continued
+without intermission from this date. A beginning also was made in naval
+affairs. The arsenal at Fuchow was turning out small composite gunboats,
+a training ship was bought and put under the command of a British
+officer. Several armoured cruisers were ordered from England, and some
+progress was made with the fortifications of Port Arthur and
+Wei-hai-wei. Forts were also built and guns mounted at Fuchow, Shanghai,
+Canton and other vulnerable points. Money for these purposes was
+abundantly supplied by the customs duties on foreign trade, and China
+had learnt that at need she could borrow from the foreign banks on the
+security of this revenue.
+
+In 1881 the senior regent, the empress Tsz'e An, was carried off by a
+sudden attack of heart disease, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi remained in
+undivided possession of the supreme power during the remainder of the
+emperor Kwang-su's minority. Li Hung-Chang, firmly established at
+Tientsin, within easy reach of the capital, as viceroy of the home
+province of Chih-li and superintendent of northern trade, enjoyed a
+larger share of his imperial mistress's favour than was often granted by
+the ruling Manchus to officials of Chinese birth, and in all the graver
+questions of foreign policy his advice was generally decisive.
+
+
+  Tongking and Hanoi.
+
+While the dispute with Japan was still going on regarding Korea, China
+found herself involved in a more serious quarrel in respect of another
+tributary state which lay on the southern frontier. By a treaty made
+between France and Annam in 1874, the Red river or Songkoi, which rising
+in-south-western China, flows through Tongking, was opened to trade,
+together with the cities of Haiphong and Hanoi situated on the delta.
+The object of the French was to find a trade route to Yun-nan and
+Sze-ch'uen from a base of their own, and it was hoped the Red river
+would furnish such a route. Tongking at this time, however, was infested
+with bands of pirates and cut-throats, many of whom were Chinese rebels
+or ex-rebels who had been driven across the frontier by the suppression
+of the Yun-nan and Taiping rebellions, conspicuous among them being an
+organization called the Black Flags. And when in 1882 France sent troops
+to Tongking to restore order (the Annamese government having failed to
+fulfil its promises in that respect) China began to protest, claiming
+that Annam was a vassal state and under her protection.
+
+
+    Troubles with France.
+
+  France took no notice of the protest, declaring that the claim had
+  merely an archaeological interest, and that, in any case, China in
+  military affairs was a _quantite negligeable_. France found, however,
+  that she had undertaken a very serious task in trying to put down the
+  forces of disorder (see TONGKING). The Black Flags were, it was
+  believed, being aided by money and arms from China, and as time went
+  on, the French were more and more being confronted with regular
+  Chinese soldiers. Several forts, well within the Tongking frontier,
+  were known to be garrisoned by Chinese troops. Operations continued
+  with more or less success during the winter and spring of 1883-1884.
+  Both sides, however, were desirous of an arrangement, and in May 1884
+  a convention was signed between Li Hung-Chang and a Captain Fournier,
+  who had been commissioned _ad hoc_, whereby China agreed to withdraw
+  her garrisons and to open her frontiers to trade, France agreeing, on
+  her part, to respect the fiction of Chinese suzerainty, and guarantee
+  the frontier from attack by brigands. No date had been fixed in the
+  convention for the evacuation of the Chinese garrisons, and Fournier
+  endeavoured to supplement this by a memorandum to Li Hung-Chang, at
+  the same time announcing the fact to his government. In pursuance of
+  this arrangement the French troops proceeded to occupy Langson on the
+  date fixed (21st June 1884). The Chinese commandant refused to
+  evacuate, alleging, in a despatch which no one in the French camp was
+  competent to translate, that he had received no orders, and begged for
+  a short delay to enable him to communicate with his superiors. The
+  French commandant ordered an attack, which was repulsed with severe
+  loss. Mutual recriminations ensued. From Paris there came a demand for
+  a huge indemnity as reparation for the insult. The Peking government
+  offered to carry out the convention, and to pay a small indemnity for
+  the lives lost through the misunderstanding. This was refused, and
+  hostilities recommenced, or, as the French preferred to call them,
+  reprisals, for the fiction was still kept up that the two countries
+  were not at war. Under cover of this fiction the French fleet
+  peaceably entered the harbour of Fuchow, having passed the forts at
+  the entrance to the river without hindrance. Once inside, they
+  attacked and destroyed the much inferior Chinese fleet which was then
+  quietly at anchor, destroying at the same time a large part of the
+  arsenal which adjoins the anchorage (23rd August 1884). Retracing its
+  steps, the French fleet attacked and destroyed with impunity the forts
+  which were built to guard the entrance to the Min river, and could
+  offer no resistance to a force coming from the rear. After this
+  exploit the French fleet left the mainland and continued its reprisals
+  on the coast of Formosa. Kelung, a treaty port, was bombarded and
+  taken, October 4th. A similar attempt, however, on the neighbouring
+  port of Tamsui was unsuccessful, the landing party having been driven
+  back to their ships with severe loss. The attempt was not renewed, and
+  the fleet thereafter confined itself to a semi-blockade of the island,
+  which was prolonged into 1885 but led to no practical results.
+  Negotiations for peace, however, which had been for some time in
+  progress through the mediation of Sir Robert Hart, were at this
+  juncture happily concluded (April 1885). The terms were practically
+  those of the Fournier convention of the year before, the demand for an
+  indemnity having been quietly dropped.
+
+
+  Increased prestige of China.
+
+China, on the whole, came out of the struggle with greatly increased
+prestige. She had tried conclusions with a first-class European power
+and had held her own. Incorrect conclusions as to the military strength
+of China were consequently drawn, not merely by the Chinese
+themselves--which was excusable--but by European and even British
+authorities, who ought to have been better informed. War vessels were
+ordered by China both from England and Germany, and Admiral Lang, who
+had withdrawn his services while the war was going on, was re-engaged
+together with a number of British officers and instructors. The
+completion of the works at Port Arthur was taken in hand, and a
+beginning was made in the construction of forts at Wei-hai-wei as a
+second naval base. A new department was created for the control of naval
+affairs, at the head of which was placed Prince Chun, father of the
+emperor, who since the downfall of Prince Kung in 1884 had been taking a
+more and more prominent part in public affairs.
+
+
+  1885-1894.
+
+From 1885 to 1894 the political history of China does not call for
+extended notice. Two incidents, however, must be recorded, (1) the
+conclusion in 1886 of a convention with Great Britain, in which the
+Chinese government undertook to recognize British sovereignty in Burma,
+and (2) the temporary occupation of Port Hamilton by the British fleet
+(May 1885-February 1887). In 1890 Admiral Lang resigned his command of
+the Chinese fleet. During a temporary absence of Lang's colleague,
+Admiral Ting, the Chinese second in command, claimed the right to take
+charge--a claim which Admiral Lang naturally resented. The question was
+referred to Li Hung-Chang, who decided against Lang, whereupon the
+latter threw up his commission. From this point the fleet on which so
+much depended began to deteriorate. Superior officers again began to
+steal the men's pays, the ships were starved, shells filled with
+charcoal instead of powder were supplied, accounts were cooked, and all
+the corruption and malfeasance that were rampant in the army crept back
+into the navy.
+
+
+  War with Japan, 1894.
+
+  European intervention.
+
+The year 1894 witnessed the outbreak of the war with Japan. In the
+spring, complications again arose with Japan over Korea, and hostilities
+began in July. The story of the war is told elsewhere (see
+CHINO-JAPANESE WAR), and it is unnecessary here to recount the details
+of the decisive victory of Japan. A new power had arisen in the Far
+East, and when peace was signed by Li Hung-Chang at Shimonoseki on the
+17th of April 1895 it meant the beginning of a new epoch. The terms
+included the cession of Liao-tung peninsula, then in actual occupation
+by the Japanese troops, the cession of Formosa, an indemnity of H. taels
+200,000,000 (about L30,000,000) and various commercial privileges.
+
+The signature of this treaty brought the European powers on the scene.
+It had been for some time the avowed ambition of Russia to obtain an
+ice-free port as an outlet to her Siberian possessions--an ambition
+which was considered by British statesmen as not unreasonable. It did
+not, therefore, at all suit her purposes to see the rising power of
+Japan commanding the whole of the coast-line of Korea. Accordingly in
+the interval between the signature and the ratification of the treaty,
+invitations were addressed by Russia to the great powers to intervene
+with a view to its modification on the ground of the disturbance of the
+balance of power, and the menace to China which the occupation of Port
+Arthur by the Japanese would involve. France and Germany accepted the
+invitation, Great Britain declined. In the end the three powers brought
+such pressure to bear on Japan that she gave up the whole of her
+continental acquisitions, retaining only the island of Formosa. The
+indemnity was on the other hand increased by H. taels 30,000,000. For
+the time the integrity of China seemed to be preserved, and Russia,
+France and Germany could pose as her friends. Evidence was, however,
+soon forthcoming that Russia and France had not been disinterested in
+rescuing Chinese territory from the Japanese grasp. Russia now obtained
+the right to carry the Siberian railway across Chinese territory from
+Stryetensk to Vladivostok, thus avoiding a long detour, besides giving a
+grasp on northern Manchuria. France obtained, by a convention dated the
+20th of June 1895, a rectification of frontier in the Mekong valley and
+certain railway and mining rights in Kiang-si and Yun-nan. Both powers
+obtained concessions of land at Hankow for the purposes of a settlement.
+Russia was also said to have negotiated a secret treaty, frequently
+described as the "Cassini Convention," but more probably signed by Li
+Hung-Chang at Moscow, giving her the right in certain contingencies to
+Port Arthur, which was to be refortified with Russian assistance. And by
+way of further securing her hold, Russia guaranteed a 4% loan of
+L15,000,000 issued in Paris to enable China to pay off the first
+instalment of the Japanese indemnity.
+
+
+  Mekong valley dispute, 1895.
+
+The convention between France and China of the 20th of June 1895 brought
+China into sharp conflict with Great Britain. China, having by the Burma
+convention of 1886 agreed to recognize British sovereignty over Burma,
+her quondam feudatory, also agreed to a delimitation of boundaries at
+the proper time. Effect was given to this last stipulation by a
+subsequent convention concluded in London (1st of March 1894), which
+traced the boundary line from the Shan states on the west as far as the
+Mekong river on the east. In the Mekong valley there were two
+semi-independent native territories over which suzerainty had been
+claimed in times gone by both by the kings of Ava and by the Chinese
+emperors. These territories were named Meng Lun and Kiang Hung--the
+latter lying partly on one side and partly on the other of the Mekong
+river, south of the point where it issues from Chinese territory. The
+boundary line was so drawn as to leave both these territories to China,
+but it was stipulated that China should not alienate any portion of
+these territories to any other power without the previous consent of
+Great Britain. Yielding to French pressure, and regardless of the
+undertaking she had entered into with Great Britain, China, in the
+convention with France in June 1895, so drew the boundary line as to
+cede to France that portion of the territory of Kiang Hung which lay on
+the left bank of the Mekong. Compensation was demanded by Great Britain
+from China for this breach of faith, and at the same time negotiations
+were entered into with France. These resulted in a joint declaration by
+the governments of France and Great Britain, dated the 15th of January
+1896, by which it was agreed as regards boundary that the Mekong from
+the point of its confluence with the Nam Huk northwards as far as the
+Chinese frontier should be the dividing line between the possessions or
+spheres of influence of the two powers. It was also agreed that any
+commercial privileges obtained by either power in Yun-nan or Sze-ch'uen
+should be open to the subjects of the other. The negotiations with China
+resulted in a further agreement, dated the 4th of February 1897, whereby
+considerable modifications in favour of Great Britain were made in the
+Burma boundary drawn by the 1894 convention.
+
+
+  Kiaochow, Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei.
+
+While Russia and France were profiting by what they were pleased to call
+the generosity of China, Germany alone had so far received no reward for
+her share in compelling the retrocession of Liao-tung; but, in November
+1897, she proceeded to help herself by seizing the Bay of Kiaochow in
+the province of Shan-tung. The act was done ostensibly in order to
+compel satisfaction for the murder of two German missionaries. A cession
+was ultimately made by way of a lease for a term of ninety-nine
+years--Germany to have full territorial jurisdiction during the
+continuance of the lease, with liberty to erect fortifications, build
+docks, and exercise all the rights of sovereignty. In December the
+Russian fleet was sent to winter in Port Arthur, and though this was at
+first described as a temporary measure, its object was speedily
+disclosed by a request made, in January 1898, by the Russian ambassador
+in London that two British cruisers, then also anchored at Port Arthur,
+should be withdrawn "in order to avoid friction in the Russian sphere of
+influence." They left shortly afterwards, and their departure in the
+circumstances was regarded as a blow to Great Britain's prestige in the
+Far East. In March the Russian government peremptorily demanded a lease
+of Port Arthur and the adjoining anchorage of Talienwan--a demand which
+China could not resist without foreign support. After an acrimonious
+correspondence with the Russian government Great Britain acquiesced in
+the _fait accompli_. The Russian occupation of Port Arthur was
+immediately followed by a concession to build a line of railway from
+that point northwards to connect with the Siberian trunk line in north
+Manchuria. As a counterpoise to the growth of Russian influence in the
+north, Great Britain obtained a lease of Wei-hai-wei, and formally took
+possession of it on its evacuation by the Japanese troops in May 1898.
+
+
+  "Open door," and "spheres of influence."
+
+After much hesitation the Chinese government had at last resolved to
+permit the construction of railways with foreign capital. An influential
+official named Sheng Hsuan-hwai was appointed director-general of
+railways, and empowered to enter into negotiations with foreign
+capitalists for that purpose. A keen competition thereupon ensued
+between syndicates of different nationalities, and their claims being
+espoused by their various governments, an equally keen international
+rivalry was set up. Great Britain, though intimating her preference for
+the "open door" policy, meaning equal opportunity for all, yet found
+herself compelled to fall in with the general movement towards what
+became known as the "spheres of influence" policy, and claimed the
+Yangtsze valley as her particular sphere. This she did by the somewhat
+negative method of obtaining from the Chinese government a declaration
+that no part of the Yangtsze valley should be alienated to any foreign
+power. A more formal recognition of the claim, as far as railway
+enterprise was concerned, was embodied in an agreement (28th of April
+1899) between Great Britain and Russia, and communicated to the Chinese
+government, whereby the Russian government agreed not to seek for any
+concessions within the Yangtsze valley, including all the provinces
+bordering on the great river, together with Cheh-kiang and Ho-nan, the
+British government entering into a similar undertaking in regard to the
+Chinese dominions north of the Great Wall.[50]
+
+  In 1899 Talienwan and Kiaochow were respectively thrown open by Russia
+  and Germany to foreign trade, and, encouraged by these measures, the
+  United States government initiated in September of the same year a
+  correspondence with the great European powers and Japan, with a view
+  to securing their definite adhesion to the "open door" policy. The
+  British government gave an unqualified approval to the American
+  proposal, and the replies of the other powers, though more guarded,
+  were accepted at Washington as satisfactory. A further and more
+  definite step towards securing the maintenance of the "open door" in
+  China was the agreement concluded in October 1900 between the British
+  and German governments. The signatories, by the first two articles,
+  agreed to endeavour to keep the ports on the rivers and littoral free
+  and open to international trade and economic activity, and to uphold
+  this rule for all Chinese territory as far as (_wo_ in the German
+  counterpart) they could exercise influence; not to use the existing
+  complications to obtain territorial advantages in Chinese dominions,
+  and to seek to maintain undiminished the territorial condition of the
+  Chinese empire. By a third article they reserved their right to come
+  to a preliminary understanding for the protection of their interests
+  in China, should any other power use those complications to obtain
+  such territorial advantages under any form whatever. On the submission
+  of the agreement to the powers interested, Austria, France, Italy and
+  Japan accepted its principles without express reservation--Japan first
+  obtaining assurances that she signed on the same footing as an
+  original signatory. The United States accepted the first two articles,
+  but expressed no opinion on the third. Russia construed the first as
+  limited to ports actually open in regions where the two signatories
+  exercise "their" influence, and favourably entertained it in that
+  sense, ignoring the reference to other forms of economic activity. She
+  fully accepted the second, and observed that in the contingency
+  contemplated by the third, she would modify her attitude according to
+  circumstances.
+
+  Meanwhile, negotiations carried on by the British minister at Peking
+  during 1898 resulted in the grant of very important privileges to
+  foreign commerce. The payment of the second instalment of the Japanese
+  indemnity was becoming due, and it was much discussed how and on what
+  terms China would be able to raise the amount. The Russian government,
+  as has been stated, had made China a loan of the sum required for the
+  first portion of the indemnity, viz. L15,000,000, taking a charge on
+  the customs revenue as security. The British government was urged to
+  make a like loan of L16,000,000 both as a matter of friendship to
+  China and as a counterpoise to the Russian influence. An arrangement
+  was come to accordingly, on very favourable terms financially to the
+  Chinese, but at the last moment they drew back, being overawed, as
+  they said, by the threatening attitude of Russia. Taking advantage of
+  the position which this refusal gave him, the British minister
+  obtained from the Tsung-Li-Yamen, besides the declaration as to the
+  non-alienation of the Yangtsze valley above mentioned, an undertaking
+  to throw the whole of the inland waterways open to steam traffic. The
+  Chinese government at the same time undertook that the post of
+  inspector-general of customs (then held by Sir Robert Hart) should
+  always be held by an Englishman so long as the trade of Great Britain
+  was greater than that of any other nation. Minor concessions were also
+  made, but the opening of the waterways was by far the greatest advance
+  that had been made since 1860.
+
+  Of still greater importance were the railway and mining concessions
+  granted during the same year (1898). The Chinese government had been
+  generally disposed to railway construction since the conclusion of the
+  Japanese War, but hoped to be able to retain the control in their own
+  hands. The masterful methods of Russia and Germany had obliged them to
+  surrender this control so far as concerned Manchuria and Shan-tung. In
+  the Yangtsze valley, Sheng, the director-general of railways, had been
+  negotiating with several competing syndicates. One of these was a
+  Franco-Belgian syndicate, which was endeavouring to obtain the trunk
+  line from Hankow to Peking. A British company was tendering for the
+  same work, and as the line lay mainly within the British sphere it was
+  considered not unreasonable to expect it should be given to the
+  latter. At a critical moment, however, the French and Russian
+  ministers intervened, and practically forced the Yamen to grant a
+  contract in favour of the Franco-Belgian company. The Yamen had a few
+  days before explicitly promised the British minister that the contract
+  should not be ratified without his having an opportunity of seeing it.
+  As a penalty for this breach of faith, and as a set-off to the
+  Franco-Belgian line, the British minister required the immediate grant
+  of all the railway concessions for which British syndicates were then
+  negotiating, and on terms not inferior to those granted to the Belgian
+  line. In this way all the lines in the lower Yangtsze, as also the
+  Shan-si Mining Companies' lines, were secured. A contract for a trunk
+  line from Canton to Hankow was negotiated in the latter part of 1898
+  by an American company.
+
+
+  The reform movement, 1898
+
+There can be little doubt that the powers, engrossed in the diplomatic
+conflicts of which Peking was the centre, had entirely underrated the
+reactionary forces gradually mustering for a struggle against the
+aggressive spirit of Western civilization. The lamentable consequences
+of administrative corruption and incompetence, and the superiority of
+foreign methods which had been amply illustrated by the Japanese War,
+had at first produced a considerable impression, not only upon the more
+enlightened commercial classes, but even upon many of the younger
+members of the official classes in China. The dowager-empress, who, in
+spite of the emperor Kwang-su having nominally attained his majority,
+had retained practical control of the supreme power until the conflict
+with Japan, had been held, not unjustly, to blame for the disasters of
+the war, and even before its conclusion the young emperor was adjured by
+some of the most responsible among his own subjects to shake himself
+free from the baneful restraint of "petticoat government," and himself
+take the helm. In the following years a reform movement, undoubtedly
+genuine, though opinions differ as to the value of the popular support
+which it claimed, spread throughout the central and southern provinces
+of the empire. One of the most significant symptoms was the relatively
+large demand which suddenly arose for the translations of foreign works
+and similar publications in the Chinese language which philanthropic
+societies, such as that "for the Diffusion of Christian and General
+Knowledge amongst the Chinese," had been trying for some time past to
+popularize, though hitherto with scant success. Chinese newspapers
+published in the treaty ports spread the ferment of new ideas far into
+the interior. Fifteen hundred young men of good family applied to enter
+the foreign university at Peking, and in some of the provincial towns
+the Chinese themselves subscribed towards the opening of foreign
+schools. Reform societies, which not infrequently enjoyed official
+countenance, sprang up in many of the large towns, and found numerous
+adherents amongst the younger _literati_. Early in 1898 the emperor, who
+had gradually emancipated himself from the dowager-empress's control,
+summoned several of the reform leaders to Peking, and requested their
+advice with regard to the progressive measures which should be
+introduced into the government of the empire. Chief amongst these
+reformers was Kang Yu-wei, a Cantonese, whose scholarly attainments,
+combined with novel teachings, earned for him from his followers the
+title of the "Modern Sage." Of his more or less active sympathizers who
+had subsequently to suffer with him in the cause of reform, the most
+prominent were Chang Yin-huan, a member of the grand council and of the
+Tsung-Li-Yamen, who had represented his sovereign at Queen Victoria's
+jubilee in 1897; Chin Pao-chen, governor of Hu-nan; Liang Chichao, the
+editor of the reformers' organ, _Chinese Progress_; Su Chiching, a
+reader of the Hanlin College, the educational stronghold of Chinese
+conservatism; and his son Su In-chi, also a Hanlin man, and provincial
+chancellor of public instruction in Hu-nan.
+
+It soon became evident, that there was no more enthusiastic advocate of
+the new ideas than the emperor himself. Within a few months the
+vermilion pencil gave the imperial sanction to a succession of edicts
+which, had they been carried into effect, would have amounted to a
+revolution as far-reaching as that which had transformed Japan thirty
+years previously. The fossilized system of examinations for the public
+service was to be altogether superseded by a new schedule based on
+foreign learning, for the better promotion of which a number of temples
+were to be converted into schools for Western education; a state
+department was to be created for the translation and dissemination of
+the standard works of Western literature and science; even the scions of
+the ruling Manchu race were to be compelled to study foreign languages
+and travel abroad; and last, but not least, all useless offices both in
+Peking and in the provinces were to be abolished. A further edict was
+even reported to be in contemplation, doing away with the _queue_ or
+pigtail, which, originally imposed upon the Chinese by their Manchu
+conquerors as a badge of subjection, had gradually become the most
+characteristic and most cherished feature of the national dress. But the
+bureaucracy of China, which had battened for centuries on corruption and
+ignorance, had no taste for self-sacrifice. Other vested interests felt
+themselves equally threatened, and behind them stood the whole latent
+force of popular superstition and unreasoning conservatism.
+
+
+  The Empress's coup d'etat.
+
+The dowager-empress saw her opportunity. The Summer Palace, to which she
+had retired, had been for some time the centre of resistance to the new
+movement, and in the middle of September 1898 a report became current
+that, in order to put an end to the obstruction which hampered his
+reform policy, the emperor intended to seize the person of the
+dowager-empress and have her deported into the interior. Some colour was
+given to this report by an official announcement that the emperor would
+hold a review of the foreign-drilled troops at Tientsin, and had
+summoned Yuan Shihkai, their general, to Peking in order to confer with
+him on the necessary arrangements. But the reformers had neglected to
+secure the goodwill of the army, which was still entirely in the hands
+of the reactionaries. During the night of the 20th of September the
+palace of the emperor was occupied by the soldiers, and on the following
+day Kwang-su, who was henceforth virtually a prisoner in the hands of
+the empress, was made to issue an edict restoring her regency. Kang
+Yu-wei, warned at the last moment by an urgent message from the emperor,
+succeeded in escaping, but many of the most prominent reformers were
+arrested, and six of them were promptly executed. The _Peking Gazette_
+announced a few days later that the emperor himself was dangerously ill,
+and his life might well have been despaired of had not the British
+minister represented in very emphatic terms the serious consequences
+which might ensue if anything happened to him. Drastic measures were,
+however, adopted to stamp out the reform movement in the provinces as
+well as in the capital. The reform edicts were cancelled, the reformers'
+associations were dissolved, their newspapers suppressed, and those who
+did not care to save themselves by a hasty recantation of their errors
+were imprisoned, proscribed or exiled. In October the reaction had
+already been accompanied by such a recrudescence of anti-foreign feeling
+that the foreign ministers at Peking had to bring up guards from the
+fleet for the protection of the legations, and to demand the removal
+from the capital of the disorderly Kan-suh soldiery which subsequently
+played so sinister a part in the troubles of June 1900. But the
+unpleasant impression produced by these incidents was in a great measure
+removed by the demonstrative reception which the empress Tsz'e Hsi gave
+on the 15th of October to the wives of the foreign representatives--an
+act of courtesy unprecedented in the annals of the Chinese court.
+
+
+  The Boxer movement, 1900.
+
+The reactionary tide continued to rise throughout the year 1899, but it
+did not appear materially to affect the foreign relations of China.
+Towards the end of the year the brutal murder of Mr Brooks, an English
+missionary, in Shan-tung, had compelled attention to a popular movement
+which had been spreading rapidly throughout that province and the
+adjoining one of Chih-li with the connivance of certain high officials,
+if not under their direct patronage. The origin of the "Boxer" movement
+is obscure. Its name is derived from a literal translation of the
+Chinese designation, "the fist of righteous harmony." Like the kindred
+"Big Sword" Society, it appears to have been in the first instance
+merely a secret association of malcontents chiefly drawn from the lower
+classes. Whether the empress Tsz'e Hsi and her Manchu advisers had
+deliberately set themselves from the beginning to avert the danger by
+deflecting what might have been a revolutionary movement into
+anti-foreign channels, or whether with Oriental heedlessness they had
+allowed it to grow until they were powerless to control it, they had
+unquestionably resolved to take it under their protection before the
+foreign representatives at Peking had realized its gravity. The outrages
+upon native Christians and the threats against foreigners generally went
+on increasing. The Boxers openly displayed on their banners the device:
+"Exterminate the foreigners and save the dynasty," yet the
+representatives of the powers were unable to obtain any effective
+measures against the so-called "rebels," or even a definite condemnation
+of their methods.[51]
+
+Four months (January-April 1900) were spent in futile interviews with
+the Tsung-Li-Yamen. In May a number of Christian villages were destroyed
+and native converts massacred near the capital. On the 2nd of June two
+English missionaries, Mr Robinson and Mr Norman, were murdered at Yung
+Ching, 40 m. from Peking. The whole country was overrun with bands of
+Boxers, who tore up the railway and set fire to the stations at
+different points on the Peking-Tientsin line. Fortunately a mixed body
+of marines and bluejackets of various nationalities, numbering 18
+officers and 389 men, had reached Peking on the 1st of June for the
+protection of the legations. The whole city was in a state of turmoil.
+Murder and pillage were of daily occurrence. The reactionary Prince Tuan
+(grandson of the emperor Tao-kwang) and the Manchus generally, together
+with the Kan-suh soldiery under the notorious Tung-fu-hsiang, openly
+sided with the Boxers. The European residents and a large number of
+native converts took refuge in the British legation, where preparations
+were hastily made in view of a threatened attack. On the 11th the
+chancellor of the Japanese legation, Mr Sugiyama, was murdered by
+Chinese soldiers. On the night of the 13th most of the foreign
+buildings, churches and mission houses in the eastern part of the Tatar
+city were pillaged and burnt, and hundreds of native Christians
+massacred. On the 20th of June the German minister, Baron von Ketteler,
+was murdered whilst on his way to the Tsung-Li-Yamen. At 4 P.M. on the
+afternoon of the 20th the Chinese troops opened fire upon the legations.
+The general direction of the defence was undertaken by Sir Claude
+Macdonald, the British minister.
+
+
+  International expedition.
+
+Meanwhile Peking had been completely cut off since the 14th from all
+communication with the outside world, and in view of the gravity of the
+situation, naval and military forces were being hurried up by all the
+powers to the Gulf of Chih-li. On the 10th of June Admiral Sir E.
+Seymour had already left Tientsin with a mixed force of 2000 British,
+Russian, French, Germans, Austrians, Italians, Americans and Japanese,
+to repair the railway and restore communications with Peking. But his
+expedition met with unexpectedly severe resistance, and it had great
+difficulty in making good its retreat after suffering heavy losses. When
+it reached Tientsin again on the 26th of June, the British contingent of
+915 men had alone lost 124 killed and wounded out of a total casualty
+list of 62 killed and 218 wounded. The Chinese had in the meantime made
+a determined attack upon the foreign settlements at Tientsin, and
+communication between the city and the sea being also threatened, the
+Taku forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho were captured by the allied
+admirals on the 17th. The situation at Tientsin nevertheless continued
+precarious, and it was not till the arrival of considerable
+reinforcements that the troops of the allied powers were able to assume
+the offensive, taking the native city by storm on July 14th, at a cost,
+however, of over 700 killed and wounded. Even in this emergency
+international jealousy had grievously delayed the necessary
+concentration of forces. No power was so favourably situated to take
+immediate action as Japan, and the British government, who had strongly
+urged her to act speedily and energetically, undertook at her request to
+sound the other powers with regard to her intervention. No definite
+objection was raised, but the replies of Germany and Russia barely
+disguised their ill-humour. Great Britain herself went so far as to
+offer Japan the assistance of the British treasury, in case financial
+difficulties stood in the way, but on the same day on which this
+proposal was telegraphed to Tokyo (6th of July), the Japanese government
+had decided to embark forthwith the two divisions which it had already
+mobilized. By the beginning of August one of the Indian brigades had
+also reached Tientsin together with smaller reinforcements sent by the
+other powers, and thanks chiefly to the energetic counsels of the
+British commander, General Sir Alfred Gaselee, a relief column,
+numbering 20,000 men, at last set out for Peking on the 4th of August, a
+British naval brigade having started up river the previous afternoon.
+After a series of small engagements and very trying marches it arrived
+within striking distance of Peking on the evening of the 13th. The
+Russians tried to steal a march upon the allies during the night, but
+were checked at the walls and suffered heavy losses. The Japanese
+attacked another point of the walls the next morning, but met with
+fierce opposition, whilst the Americans were delayed by getting
+entangled in the Russian line of advance. The British contingent was
+more fortunate, and skilfully guided to an unguarded water-gate, General
+Gaselee and a party of Sikhs were the first to force their way through
+to the British legation. About 2 p.m. on the afternoon of the 14th of
+August, the long siege was raised.
+
+
+  Siege of the Peking legations.
+
+For nearly six weeks after the first interruption of communications, no
+news reached the outside world from Peking except a few belated
+messages, smuggled through the Chinese lines by native runners, urging
+the imperative necessity of prompt relief. During the greater part of
+that period the foreign quarter was subjected to heavy rifle and
+artillery fire, and the continuous fighting at close quarters with the
+hordes of Chinese regulars, as well as Boxers, decimated the scanty
+ranks of the defenders. The supply of both ammunition and food was
+slender. But the heroism displayed by civilians and professional
+combatants alike was inexhaustible. In their anxiety to burn out the
+British legation, the Chinese did not hesitate to set fire to the
+adjoining buildings of the Hanlin, the ancient seat of Chinese classical
+learning, and the storehouse of priceless literary treasures and state
+archives. The _Fu_, or palace, of Prince Su, separated only by a canal
+from the British legation, formed the centre of the international
+position, and was held with indomitable valour by a small Japanese force
+under Colonel Sheba, assisted by a few Italian marines and volunteers of
+other nationalities and a number of Christian Chinese. The French
+legation on the extreme right, and the section of the city wall held
+chiefly by Germans and Americans, were also points of vital importance
+which had to bear the brunt of the Chinese attack.
+
+  Little is known as to what passed in the councils of the Chinese court
+  during the siege.[52] But there is reason to believe that throughout
+  that period grave divergences of opinion existed amongst the highest
+  officials. The attack upon the legations appears to have received the
+  sanction of the dowager-empress, acting upon the advice of Prince Tuan
+  and the extreme Manchu party, at a grand council held during the night
+  of the 18th/19th June, upon receipt of the news of the capture of the
+  Taku forts by the international forces. The emperor himself, as well
+  as Prince Ching and a few other influential mandarins, strongly
+  protested against the empress's decision, but it was acclaimed by the
+  vast majority of those present. Three members of the Tsung-Li-Yamen
+  were publicly executed for attempting to modify the terms of an
+  imperial edict ordering the massacre of all foreigners throughout the
+  provinces, and most of the Manchu nobles and high officials, and the
+  eunuchs of the palace, who played an important part in Chinese
+  politics throughout the dowager-empress's tenure of power, were heart
+  and soul with the Boxers. But it was noted by the defenders of the
+  legations that Prince Ching's troops seldom took part, or only in a
+  half-hearted way, in the fighting, which was chiefly conducted by
+  Tung-fu-hsiang's soldiery and the Boxer levies. The modern artillery
+  which the Chinese possessed was only spasmodically brought into play.
+  Nor did any of the attacking parties ever show the fearlessness and
+  determination which the Chinese had somewhat unexpectedly displayed on
+  several occasions during the fighting at and around Tientsin.
+  Nevertheless, the position of the defenders at the end of the first
+  four weeks of the siege had grown well-nigh desperate. Mining and
+  incendiarism proved far greater dangers than shot and shell. Suddenly,
+  just when things were looking blackest, on the 17th of July the
+  Chinese ceased firing, and a sort of informal armistice secured a
+  period of respite for the beleaguered Europeans. The capture of the
+  native city of Tientsin by the allied forces had shaken the
+  self-confidence of the Chinese authorities, who had hitherto not only
+  countenanced, but themselves directed the hostilities.[53] Desultory
+  fighting, nevertheless, continued, and grave fears were entertained
+  that the approach of the relief column would prove the signal for a
+  desperate attempt to rush the legations. The attempt was made, but
+  failed. The relief, however, came not a day too soon. Of the small
+  band of defenders which, including civilian volunteers, had never
+  mustered 500, 65 had been killed and 131 wounded. Ammunition and
+  provisions were almost at an end. Even more desperate was the
+  situation at the Pei-tang, the Roman Catholic northern cathedral and
+  mission house, where, with the help of a small body of French and
+  Italian marines, Mgr Favier had organized an independent centre of
+  resistance for his community of over 3000 souls. Their rations were
+  absolutely exhausted when, on the 15th of August, a relief party was
+  despatched to their assistance from the legations.
+
+
+  Looting of Peking.
+
+The ruin wrought in Peking during the two months' fighting was
+appalling. Apart from the wholesale destruction of foreign property in
+the Tatar city, and of Chinese as well as European buildings in the
+vicinity of the legations, the wealthiest part of the Chinese city had
+been laid in ashes. The flames from a foreign drug store fired by the
+Boxers had spread to the adjoining buildings, and finally consumed the
+whole of the business quarter with all its invaluable stores of silks,
+curiosities, furs, &c. The retribution which overtook Peking after its
+capture by the international forces was scarcely less terrible. Looting
+was for some days almost universal. Order was, however, gradually
+restored, first in the Japanese and then in the British and American
+quarters, though several months elapsed before there was any real
+revival of native confidence.
+
+
+  Flight of the Chinese court.
+
+So unexpected had been the rapid and victorious advance of the allies,
+that the dowager-empress with the emperor and the rest of the court did
+not actually leave Peking until the day after the legations had been
+relieved. But the northern and western portions of the Tatar city had
+not yet been occupied, and the fugitives made good their escape on the
+15th. When the allies some days later marched through the Forbidden
+City, they only found a few eunuchs and subordinate officials in charge
+of the imperial apartments. At the end of September, Field Marshal Count
+von Waldersee, with a German expeditionary force of over 20,000 men,
+arrived to assume the supreme command conferred upon him with the more
+or less willing assent of the other powers.
+
+
+  Restoration of order.
+
+The political task which confronted the powers after the occupation of
+Peking was far more arduous than the military one. The action of the
+Russians in Manchuria, even in a treaty port like Niu-chwang, the
+seizure of the railway line not only to the north of the Great Wall, but
+also from Shan-hai-kwan to Peking, by the Russian military authorities,
+and the appropriation of an extensive line of river frontage at Tientsin
+as a Russian "settlement," were difficult to reconcile with the pacific
+assurances of disinterestedness which Russia, like the rest of the
+powers, had officially given. Great anxiety prevailed as to the effect
+of the flight of the Chinese court in other parts of the empire. The
+anti-foreign movement had not spread much beyond the northern provinces,
+in which it had had the open support of the throne and of the highest
+provincial officials. But among British and Americans alone, over 200
+defenceless foreigners, men, women and children, chiefly missionaries,
+had fallen victims to the treachery of high-placed mandarins like Yue
+Hsien, and hundreds of others had had to fly for their lives, many of
+them owing their escape to the courageous protection of petty officials
+and of the local gentry and peasantry. In the Yangtsze valley order had
+been maintained by the energy of the viceroys of Nanking and Wu-chang,
+who had acted throughout the critical period in loyal co-operation with
+the British consuls and naval commanders, and had courageously
+disregarded the imperial edicts issued during the ascendancy of the
+Boxers. After some hesitation, an Indian brigade, followed by French,
+German and Japanese contingents, had been landed at Shanghai for the
+protection of the settlements, and though the viceroy, Liu Kun-yi, had
+welcomed British support, and even invited the joint occupation of the
+Yangtsze forts by British and Chinese troops, the appearance of other
+European forces in the Yangtsze valley was viewed with great suspicion.
+In the south there were serious symptoms of unrest, especially after Li
+Hung-Chang had left Canton for the north, in obedience, as he alleged at
+the time, to an imperial edict which, there is reason to believe, he
+invented for the occasion. The Chinese court, after one or two
+intermediate halts, had retired to Si-gan-fu, one of the ancient
+capitals of the empire, situated in the inaccessible province of
+Shen-si, over 600 m. S.W. of Peking. The influence of the
+ultra-reactionaries, headed by Prince Tuan and General Tung-fu-hsiang,
+still dominated its councils, although credentials were sent to Prince
+Ching and to Li Hung-Chang, who, after waiting upon events at Shanghai,
+had proceeded to Peking, authorizing them to treat with the powers for
+the re-establishment of friendly relations.
+
+
+  Measures of reparation.
+
+The harmony of the powers, which had been maintained with some
+difficulty up to the relief of the legations, was subjected to a severe
+strain as soon as the basis of negotiations with the Chinese government
+came to be discussed. While for various reasons Russia, Japan and the
+United States were inclined to treat China with great indulgence,
+Germany insisted upon the signal punishment of the guilty officials as a
+_conditio sine qua non_, and in this she had the support not only of the
+other members of the Triple Alliance, but also of Great Britain, and to
+some extent even of France, who, as protector of the Roman Catholic
+Church in Eastern countries, could not allow the authors of the
+atrocities committed upon its followers to escape effectual punishment.
+It was not until after months of laborious negotiations that the demands
+to be formally made upon the Chinese government were embodied in a joint
+note signed by all the foreign ministers on the 20th and 21st of
+December 1900. The demands were substantially as follows:
+
+  Honourable reparation for the murder of von Ketteler and of Mr
+  Sugiyama, to be made in a specified form, and expiatory monuments to
+  be erected in cemeteries where foreign tombs had been desecrated. "The
+  most severe punishment befitting their crimes" was to be inflicted on
+  the personages designated by the decree of the 21st of September, and
+  also upon others to be designated later by the foreign ministers, and
+  the official examinations were to be suspended in the cities where
+  foreigners had been murdered or ill-treated. An equitable indemnity,
+  guaranteed by financial measures acceptable to the powers, was to be
+  paid to states, societies and individuals, including Chinese who had
+  suffered because of their employment by foreigners, but not including
+  Chinese Christians who had suffered only on account of their faith.
+  The importation or manufacture of arms or _materiel_ was to be
+  forbidden; permanent legation guards were to be maintained at Peking,
+  and the diplomatic quarter was to be fortified, while communication
+  with the sea was to be secured by a foreign military occupation of the
+  strategic points and by the demolition of the Chinese forts, including
+  the Taku forts, between the capital and the coast. Proclamations were
+  to be posted throughout China for two years, threatening death to the
+  members of anti-foreign societies, and recording the punishment of the
+  ringleaders in the late outrages: and the viceroys, governors and
+  provincial officials were to be declared by imperial edict
+  responsible, on pain of immediate dismissal and perpetual disability
+  to hold office, for anti-foreign outbreaks or violations of treaty
+  within their jurisdictions. China was to facilitate commercial
+  relations by negotiating a revision of the commercial treaties. The
+  Tsung-Li-Yamen was to be reformed and the ceremonial for the reception
+  of foreign ministers modified as the powers should demand. Compliance
+  with these terms was declared to be a condition precedent to the
+  arrangement of a time limit to the occupation of Peking and of the
+  provinces by foreign troops.
+
+Under instructions from the court, the Chinese plenipotentiaries affixed
+their signatures on the 14th of January 1901 to a protocol, by which
+China pledged herself to accept these terms in principle, and the
+conference of ministers then proceeded to discuss the definite form in
+which compliance with them was to be exacted. This further stage of the
+negotiations proved even more laborious and protracted than the
+preliminary proceedings. No attempt was made to raise the question of
+the dowager-empress's responsibility for the anti-foreign movement, as
+Russia had from the first set her face against the introduction of what
+she euphemistically termed "the dynastic question." But even with regard
+to the punishment of officials whose guilt was beyond dispute, grave
+divergences arose between the powers. The death penalty was ultimately
+waived in the case even of such conspicuous offenders as Prince Tuan and
+Tung-fu-hsiang, but the notorious Yue Hsien and two others were
+decapitated by the Chinese, and three other metropolitan officials were
+ordered to commit suicide, whilst upon others sentences of banishment,
+imprisonment and degradation were passed, in accordance with a list
+drawn up by the foreign representatives. The question of the punishment
+of provincial officials responsible for the massacre of scores of
+defenceless men, women and children was unfortunately reserved for
+separate treatment, and when it came up for discussion it became
+impossible to preserve even the semblance of unanimity, the Russian
+minister at once taking issue with his colleagues, although he had
+originally pledged himself as formally as the others to the principle.
+Count Lamsdorff frankly told the British ambassador at St Petersburg
+that Russia took no interest in missionaries, and as the foreigners
+massacred in the provinces belonged mostly to that class, she declined
+to join in the action of the other powers.
+
+
+  Russia and Manchuria.
+
+The real explanation of Russia's cynical secession from the concert of
+powers on this important issue must be sought in her anxiety to
+conciliate the Chinese in view of the separate negotiations in which she
+was at the same time engaged with China in respect of Manchuria. When
+the Boxer movement was at its height at the end of June 1900, the
+Chinese authorities in Manchuria had wantonly "declared war" against
+Russia, and for a moment a great wave of panic seems to have swept over
+the Russian administration, civil and military, in the adjoining
+provinces. The reprisals exercised by the Russians were proportionately
+fierce. The massacre at Blagovyeshchensk, where 5000 Chinese--men, women
+and children--were flung into the Amur by the Cossacks, was only one
+incident in the reign of terror by which the Russians sought to restore
+their power and their prestige. The resistance of the Chinese troops was
+soon overcome, and Russian forces overran the whole province, occupying
+even the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The Russian government officially
+repudiated all responsibility for the proclamations issued by General
+Gribsky and others, foreshadowing, if not actually proclaiming, the
+annexation of Chinese territory to the Russian empire. But Russia was
+clearly bent on seizing the opportunity for securing a permanent hold
+upon Manchuria. In December 1900 a preliminary agreement was made
+between M. Korostovetz, the Russian administrator-general, and Tseng,
+the Tatar general at Mukden, by which the civil and military
+administration of the whole province was virtually placed under Russian
+control. In February 1901 negotiations were opened between the Russian
+government and the Chinese minister at St Petersburg for the conclusion
+of a formal convention of a still more comprehensive character. In
+return for the restoration to China of a certain measure of civil
+authority in Manchuria, Russia was to be confirmed in the possession of
+exclusive military, civil and commercial rights, constituting in all but
+name a protectorate, and she was also to acquire preferential rights
+over all the outlying provinces of the Chinese empire bordering on the
+Russian dominions in Asia. The clauses relating to Chinese Turkestan,
+Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Mongolia were subsequently stated to have
+been dropped, but the convention nevertheless provoked considerable
+opposition both in foreign countries and amongst the Chinese themselves.
+Most of the powers, including Germany, who, however, denied that the
+Anglo-German agreement of the 16th of October 1900 applied to
+Manchuria,[54] advised the Chinese government not to pursue separate
+negotiations with one power whilst collective negotiations were in
+progress at Peking, and both Japan and Great Britain pressed for
+definite information at St Petersburg with regard to the precise tenor
+of the proposed convention. At the same time the two viceroys of the
+lower Yangtsze memorialized the throne in the strongest terms against
+the convention, and these protests were endorsed not only by the great
+majority of Chinese officials of high rank throughout the provinces, but
+by popular meetings and influential guilds and associations. Ultimately
+the two viceroys, Chang Chih-tung and Liu Kun-yi,[55] took the extreme
+step of warning the throne that they would be unable to recognize the
+convention, even if it were ratified, and notwithstanding the pressure
+exercised in favour of Russia by Li Hung-Chang, the court finally
+instructed the Chinese minister at St Petersburg to decline his
+signature. The attitude of Japan, where public feeling ran high, was
+equally significant, and on the 3rd of April the Russian government
+issued a circular note to the powers, stating that, as the generous
+intentions of Russia had been misconstrued, she withdrew the proposed
+convention.
+
+
+  The peace protocol, 1901.
+
+The work of the conference at Peking, which had been temporarily
+disturbed by these complications, was then resumed. Friction between
+European troops of different nationalities and an Anglo-Russian dispute
+over the construction of certain roads and railway sidings at Tientsin
+showed that an international occupation was fraught with manifold
+dangers. The question of indemnities, however, gave rise to renewed
+friction. Each power drew up its own claim, and whilst Great Britain,
+the United States and Japan displayed great moderation, other powers,
+especially Germany and Italy, put in claims which were strangely out of
+proportion to the services rendered by their military and naval forces.
+It was at last settled that China should pay altogether an indemnity of
+450 million taels, to be secured (1) on the unhypothecated balance of
+the customs revenue administered by the imperial maritime customs, the
+import duties being raised forthwith to an effective 5% basis; (2) on
+the revenues of the "native" customs in the treaty ports; (3) on the
+total revenues of the salt gabelle. Finally the peace protocol was drawn
+up in a form which satisfied all the powers as well as the Chinese
+court. The formal signature was, however, delayed at the last moment by
+a fresh difficulty concerning Prince Chun's penitential mission to
+Berlin. This prince, an amiable and enlightened youth,[56] son of the
+Prince Chun who was the emperor Hien-feng's brother, and thus himself
+half-brother to the emperor Kwang-su, had reached Basel towards the end
+of August on his way to Germany, when he was suddenly informed that he
+and his suite would be expected to perform _kowtow_ before the German
+emperor. The prince resented this unexpected demand, and referred home
+for instructions. The Chinese court appear to have remained obdurate,
+and the German government perceived the mistake that had been made in
+exacting from the Chinese prince a form of homage which Western
+diplomacy had for more than a century refused to yield to the Son of
+Heaven, on the ground that it was barbarous and degrading. The point was
+waived, and Prince Chun was received in solemn audience by the emperor
+William at Potsdam on the 4th of September. Three days later, on the 7th
+of September, the peace protocol was signed at Peking.
+
+The articles recorded the steps to be taken to satisfy the demands of
+the powers as to commerce. Article 11 provided for the amendment of
+existing treaties of commerce and navigation, and for river conservancy
+measures at Tientsin and Shanghai. The British government appointed a
+special commission, with Sir J. Mackay, member of the council of India,
+as chief commissioner, to proceed to Shanghai to carry on the
+negotiations, and a commercial treaty was signed at Shanghai on the 6th
+of September 1902, by which existing obstacles to foreign trade, such as
+_likin_, &c., were removed, regulations were made for facilitating
+steamer navigation on inland waters, and several new ports were opened
+to foreign commerce.
+
+In accordance with the terms of the protocol, all the foreign troops,
+except the legation guards, were withdrawn from Peking on the 17th of
+September, and from the rest of Chih-li, except the garrisons at the
+different points specified along the line of communications, by the 22nd
+of September. On the 7th of October it was announced that the Chinese
+court had left Si-gan-fu on its way back to the northern capital. A
+month later (7th of November) the death of Li Hung-Chang at Peking
+removed, if not the greatest of Chinese statesmen, at any rate the one
+who had enjoyed the largest share of the empress-dowager's confidence.
+    (V. C.)
+
+
+(E)--_From 1901 to 1910._
+
+  "Awakening of China."
+
+The events connected with the Boxer rising and its suppression
+demonstrated even more forcibly than had the war with Japan in 1894-1895
+the necessity for the adoption of Western methods in many departments
+of life and administration if China was to maintain the position of a
+great power. The necessity for a thorough reform of the administration
+was widely recognized in 1901, and among the progressive classes of the
+community much disappointment was manifested because the powers had
+failed to insist, in the conditions of peace, on a reorganization of the
+machinery of government. The Yangtsze viceroys, the viceroy at Canton,
+Yuan Shih-kai and other high mandarins repeatedly memorialized the
+throne to grant effective reforms. While at Si-gan-fu the court did in
+fact issue several reform decrees, but at the same time all authority
+remained in the hands of reactionaries. There had been an awakening in
+China, but another lesson--afforded a few years later by the
+Russo-Japanese War--was needed before the reform party was able to gain
+real power.
+
+For three or four years following the signing of the peace protocol of
+1901 it seemed indeed that there would be little change in the system of
+government, though in some directions a return to the old state of
+affairs was neither possible nor desired. On the 7th of January 1902 the
+court returned to Peking--a step which marked the restoration, more or
+less, of normal conditions. The failure of the Boxer movement, in which,
+as has been shown, she was deeply implicated, had impressed upon the
+dowager empress the need for living on better terms with foreign powers,
+but the reform edicts issued from Si-gan-fu remained largely
+inoperative, though some steps were taken to promote education on
+Western lines, to readjust the land tax, and especially to reorganize
+the military forces (though on provincial rather than on a national
+basis). The building of railways was also pushed on, but the dowager
+empress was probably at heart as reactionary as she had proved in 1898.
+The emperor himself from his return to Peking until the day of his death
+appeared to have little influence on public affairs. The most
+disquieting feature of the situation in the years immediately following
+the return of the court to Peking was the continued efforts of Russia to
+obtain full control of Manchuria and a predominant influence in north
+China. The Chinese government was powerless to stem the advance of
+Russia, and the dowager empress herself was credited with indifference
+to the fate of Manchuria. It was the menace to other powers, notably
+Japan, involved in Russia's action which precipitated an issue in which
+the destinies of China were involved. Before considering the results of
+that struggle (the Russo-Japanese War) the chief events of the years
+1902-1905 may be outlined.
+
+
+  Relations with Europeans.
+
+The dowager empress from the day of her return from Si-gan-fu set
+herself to conciliate the foreign residents in Peking. Many foreign
+onlookers were gathered on the wall of the Tatar city to witness the
+return of the court, and to these the dowager empress made a deep bow
+twice, an apparently trivial incident which made a lasting impression.
+On the 1st of February following the dowager empress received the ladies
+of the various embassies, when she bewailed the attack on the legations,
+entertained her guests to tea and presented each with articles of
+jewelry, and from that time onward, as occasion offered, Tsz'e Hsi
+exchanged compliments and civilities with the foreign ladies in Peking.
+Moreover, Sir Robert Hart--after having been nearly forty years in
+China--was now presented at court, as well as Bishop Favier and others.
+Henceforth attacks on foreigners received no direct encouragement at
+court. Tung Fu-hsiang,[57] who had been banished to the remote province
+of Kan-suh, had at his command there his old Boxer troops, and his
+attitude caused anxiety at the end of 1902. He was said to have received
+support from Prince Tuan--who had been obliged to retire to
+Mongolia--but events proved that the power or the intention of these
+reactionaries to create trouble had been miscalculated. There were
+indeed serious Boxer disturbances in Sze-ch'uen in 1902, but they were
+put down by a new viceroy sent from Peking. Notwithstanding the murder
+of fifteen missionaries during 1902-1905, there was in general a marked
+improvement in the relations between the missionaries, the official
+classes and the bulk of the people, and an eagerness was shown in
+several provinces to take advantage of their educational work. This was
+specially marked in Hu-nan, a province which had been for long hostile
+to missionary endeavours. Illustrative of the attitude of numbers of
+high officials was the attendance of the viceroy of Sze-ch'uen, with the
+whole of his staff, at the opening in 1905 at Cheng-tu of new buildings
+of the Canadian Methodist Mission. This friendly attitude towards the
+missions was due in part to the influence of Chinese educated abroad and
+also, to a large extent, to the desire to take advantage of Western
+culture. The spread of this new spirit was coincident with an agitation
+for independence of foreign control and the determination of the Chinese
+to use modern methods to attain their ends. Thus in 1905 there was an
+extensive boycott of American goods throughout China, as a retaliatory
+measure for the exclusion of Chinese from the United States. Regarding
+China as a whole the attitude of the people towards Europeans was held
+to indicate that the general view was, not that the Boxer teaching was
+false, but that the spirits behind Western religion were more powerful
+than those behind Boxer-dom. The spiritual prestige of Christianity and
+respect for the power of the foreigner were direct outcomes of the
+failure of the Boxers.[58] The British expedition to Tibet in 1904, the
+occupation of Lhassa in August of that year, the flight of the Dalai
+Lama to Mongolia, gave grave concern to the Chinese government--which
+showed much persistence in enforcing its suzerain rights in Tibet--but
+did not, apparently, cause any ill-feeling towards Great Britain among
+the Chinese people--who viewed with seeming equanimity the flight of the
+head of the Buddhist religion from the headquarters of that faith. The
+country generally was peaceful, a rebellion in Kwang-si--where a
+terrible famine occurred in 1903--being suppressed in 1904 by the forces
+of the viceroy at Canton.
+
+
+  Commercial and railway progress.
+
+The expiatory measures required of China in connexion with the Boxer
+rising were carried through. China during 1902 recovered possession of
+the Peking-Tientsin railway and of the city of Tientsin, which was
+evacuated by the foreign troops in August of that year. The foreign
+troops were also all withdrawn from Shanghai by January 1903. The
+conclusion of a new commercial treaty between Great Britain and China in
+September 1902 has already been recorded. The payment of the indemnity
+instalments occasioned some dispute owing to the fall in silver in 1902,
+but the rise in the value of the tael in subsequent years led China to
+agree to the payment of the indemnity on a gold basis. The increase in
+revenue was a notable feature of the maritime customs in 1903-1905. This
+result was in part due to the new arrangements under the commercial
+treaty of 1902, and in part to the opening up of the country by
+railways. In especial the great trunk line from Peking to Hankow was
+pushed on. The line, including a bridge nearly 2 m. long over the Yellow
+river was completed and opened for traffic in 1905. The first section of
+the Shanghai-Nanking railway was opened in the same year. At this time
+the Chinese showed a strong desire to obtain the control of the various
+lines. During 1905, for instance, the Canton-Hankow railway concession
+was repurchased by the Chinese government from an American company,
+while the Pekin Syndicate, a British concern, also sold their railway in
+Ho-nan to the Chinese government.
+
+
+  Manchuria.
+
+Russia's action regarding Manchuria overshadowed, however, all other
+concerns during this period. The withdrawal of the proposed
+Russo-Chinese agreement of 1901 has been chronicled. The Russian
+government had, however, no intention of abandoning its hold on
+Manchuria. It aimed not only at effective military control but the
+reservation to Russian subjects of mining, railway and commercial
+rights. Both the sovereignty of China and the commercial interests of
+other nations were menaced. This led to action by various powers. The
+preamble of the Anglo-Japanese treaty of the 30th of January 1902
+declared the main motives of the contracting parties to be the
+maintenance of the independence and territorial integrity of China and
+Korea, and the securing of equal opportunities in those countries for
+the commerce and industry of all nations, i.e. the policy of the "open
+door." Protests were lodged by Great Britain, Japan and the United
+States against the grant of exclusive rights to Russian subjects in
+Manchuria. Russia asserted her intention to respect the commercial
+rights of other nations, and on the 8th of April 1902 an agreement was
+signed at Peking which appeared to show the good faith of the Russian
+government, as it provided for the withdrawal of the Russian troops in
+Manchuria within eighteen months from that date. In accordance with this
+agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang railway was transferred to China
+in October 1902 and the district between Shan-hai-kwan and the Liao
+river evacuated by Russia. But it soon appeared that Russia's hold on
+the country had not relaxed. Advantage was taken of the terms of
+concession granted in August 1896 to the Russo-Chinese Bank[59] to erect
+towns for Russian colonists and to plant garrisons along the line of
+railway, and to exclude Chinese jurisdiction altogether from the railway
+zone. The so-called evacuation became in fact the concentration of the
+Russian forces along the line of railway. Moreover, the maritime customs
+at Niu-chwang were retained by the Russo-Chinese Bank despite protests
+from the Chinese imperial authorities, and a Russian civil
+administration was established at that port. The evacuation of southern
+Manchuria should have taken place in April 1903, but in that month,
+instead of fulfilling the conditions of the 1902 agreement, the Russian
+charge d'affaires in Peking made a series of further demands upon China,
+including the virtual reservation of the commerce of Manchuria for
+Russian subjects. Though Russia officially denied to the British and
+American governments that she had made these demands, it was
+demonstrated that they had been made. The United States and Japan
+thereupon insisted that China should conclude with them commercial
+treaties throwing open Mukden and two ports on the Yalu river to foreign
+trade. The American treaty was signed on the 8th of October 1903--the
+day fixed for the complete evacuation of Manchuria by Russia--and the
+Japanese treaty on the day following. Both treaties provided that the
+ports should be opened after ratifications had been exchanged. From fear
+of Russia China, however, delayed the ratification of the treaties.
+Meantime, in August 1903, a regular through railway service between
+Moscow and Port Arthur was established. In the same month a Russian
+Viceroyalty of the Far East was created which in effect claimed
+Manchuria as a Russian province. In September Russia withdrew some of
+the demands she had made in April, but her concessions proved illusory.
+When the 8th of October passed and it was seen that the Russians had not
+withdrawn their troops[60] there issued for a time threats of war from
+Peking. Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, who had at his command
+some 65,000 troops trained by Japanese officers, pressed on the
+government the necessity of action. At this point Japan intervened. Her
+interests were vitally affected by Russia's action not only in
+Manchuria, but in Korea, and seeing that China was powerless the
+Japanese government negotiated directly with St Petersburg. In these
+negotiations Russia showed that she would not yield her position in
+either country except to force. Japan chose the issue of war and proved
+successful.
+
+
+  Lessons of the Russo-Japanese War.
+
+The Russo-Japanese War did not very greatly alter China's position in
+Manchuria. In the southern part of that country Japan succeeded to the
+special privileges Russia had wrung from China (including the lease of
+Port Arthur); in the north Russia remained in possession of the railway
+zone. For Japan's position as at once the legatee of special privileges
+and the champion of China's territorial integrity and "the open door"
+see JAPAN, Sec. _History_. However, the attitude of Japan was more
+conciliatory than that of Russia had been; Mukden and other places were
+thrown open to foreign trade and Chinese civil administration was
+re-established. The important results of the war, so far as China was
+concerned, were not to be looked for in Manchuria, but in the new spirit
+generated in the Chinese. They had been deeply humiliated by the fact
+that in the struggle between Russia and Japan China had been treated as
+a negligible quantity, and that the war had been fought on Chinese
+territory. The lesson which the loot of Peking and the fall of the
+Boxers in 1900 had half taught was now thoroughly mastered; the
+awakening of China was complete. The war had shown that when an Eastern
+race adopted Western methods it was capable of defeating a European
+nation.
+
+
+  Army reform.
+
+It was fortunate that among the influential advisers of the throne at
+this time (1905-1908) were Prince Chun (the prince who had visited
+Germany in 1901), Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, and Chang
+Chih-tung, the viceroy of Hu-kwang (i.e. the provinces of Hu-peh and
+Hu-nan), all men of enlightened and strong character. In 1907 both the
+viceroys named were summoned to Peking and made members of the grand
+council, of which Prince Ching, a man of moderate views, was president.
+Yuan Shih-kai was an open advocate of a reform of the civil service, of
+the abolition of Manchu privileges, of education and other matters. He
+had specially advocated the reconstitution of the military forces of the
+empire, and in Chih-li in 1905 he demonstrated before a number of
+foreign military attaches the high efficiency attained by the forces of
+the metropolitan province. The success achieved by Yuan Shih-kai in this
+direction incited Chang Chih-tung to follow his example, while a decree
+from the throne called upon the princes and nobles of China to give
+their sons a military education. The formerly despised military
+profession was thus made honourable, and with salutary effects. The
+imperial princes sought high commands, officers were awarded ranks and
+dignities comparable with those of civil servants, and the pay of the
+troops was increased. The new foreign drilled northern army was called
+upon to furnish a large proportion of a force sent under Prince Su into
+Mongolia--a country which had been on the point of falling into the
+hands of Russia, but over which, as one result of the Russo-Japanese
+War, China recovered control. In 1906 a step was taken towards the
+formation of a national army by withdrawing portions of the troops from
+provincial control and placing them under officers responsible to the
+central government, which also took over the charge of the provincial
+arsenals. In the years which followed further evidence was given of the
+earnestness and success with which the military forces were being
+reorganized. Less attention was given to naval affairs, but in the
+autumn of 1909 a naval commission under Tsai Hsuen, a brother of the
+emperor Kwang-su, was sent to Europe to report on the steps necessary
+for the re-establishment of a fleet. Previously (in 1907) societies had
+been started in several provinces to collect funds for naval purposes.
+
+
+  A parliamentary constitution promised.
+
+The most striking evidence of the change which had occurred was,
+however, the appointment (in 1905) of an Imperial Commission, headed by
+Prince Tsai Tse, to study the administrative systems of foreign
+countries with a view to the possible establishment of a representative
+government in China. The revolutionary nature of this proposal excited
+indignation among the adherents to the old order, and a bomb was thrown
+among the commissioners as they were preparing to leave Peking.[61]
+After visiting Japan, America and Europe the commission returned to
+Peking in July 1906.[62] A committee over which Prince Ching presided
+was appointed to study the commission's report, and on the 1st of
+September following an edict was issued in which the establishment of a
+parliamentary form of government was announced, at a date not fixed. To
+fit the country for this new form of government (the edict went on to
+declare) the administration must be reformed, the laws revised,
+education promoted and the finances regulated. This edict, moreover, was
+but one of many edicts issued in 1906 and following years which showed
+how great a break with the past was contemplated. In November 1906 two
+edicts were issued with the object of reorganizing the central
+administrative offices. Their effect was to simplify the conduct of
+business, many useless posts being abolished, while an audit board was
+created to examine the national accounts. In November 1907 another edict
+was promulgated stating that for the present the formation of Houses of
+Lords and of Commons to determine all public questions was not
+practicable, but that it was proposed, as a preliminary measure, to
+create an Imperial Assembly. At the same time a scheme of provincial
+councils was ordered to be prepared. A more definite step followed in
+1908 when a decree (dated the 27th of August) announced the convocation
+of a parliament in the ninth year from that date.
+
+
+  The control of the Maritime Customs.
+
+One of the changes made in the public offices brought China into
+conflict with Great Britain. On the 9th of May 1906 a decree appointed
+Chinese commissioners to control the Imperial Maritime Customs.[63] This
+was the only department of the government under European (British)
+control, and the only department also against which no charge of
+inefficiency or corruption could be brought. The change decreed by China
+was in accord with the new national sentiment, but by all the foreign
+powers interested it was felt that it would be a retrograde step if the
+customs were taken out of the control of Sir Robert Hart (q.v.), who had
+been since 1863 inspector-general of the customs. The British secretary
+of state for foreign affairs (Sir Edward Grey) at once protested against
+the decree of the 6th of May, pointing out that the continuation of the
+established system had been stipulated for in the loan agreements of
+1896 and 1898. As a result of this and other representations the Board
+of Control of the Customs was late in 1906 made a department of the
+Board of Finance. The Chinese controllers-general continued in office,
+and despite the assurances given to Great Britain by China (in a note of
+the 6th of June 1906) that the appointment of the controllers-general
+was not intended to interfere with the established system of
+administration, the absolute authority of Sir Robert Hart was
+weakened.[64] Sir Robert Hart returned to England in 1908 "on leave of
+absence," Sir Robert Bredon, the deputy inspector-general, being placed
+in charge of the service under the authority of the Board of Control, of
+which on the 5th of April 1910 it was announced that he had been
+appointed a member. This step was viewed with disfavour by the British
+government, for, unless Sir Robert Bredon's post was to be merely a
+sinecure, it imposed two masters on the maritime customs. On the 20th of
+April Sir Robert Bredon severed his connexion with the Board of Control.
+At the same time Mr F.A. Aglen (the Commissioner of Customs at Hankow)
+became acting Inspector General (Sir Robert Hart being still nominally
+head of the service). The attempt on the part of the Chinese to control
+the customs was evidence of the strength of the "young China" or
+Recovery of Rights party--the party which aspired to break all the
+chains, such as extra-territoriality, which stamped the country as not
+the equal of the other great nations.[65]
+
+
+  The anti-opium agitation.
+
+In the steps taken to suppress opium smoking evidence was forthcoming of
+the earnestness with which the governing body in China sought to better
+the condition of the people. Opium smoking followed, in China, the
+introduction of tobacco smoking, and is stated to have been introduced
+from Java and Formosa in the early part of the 17th century. The first
+edict against the habit was issued in 1729. At that time the only
+foreign opium introduced was by the Portuguese from Goa, who exported
+about 200 chests[66] a year. In 1773 English merchants in India entered
+into the trade, which in 1781 was taken over by the East India
+Company--the import in 1790 being over 4000 chests. In 1796 the
+importation of foreign opium was declared contraband, and between 1839
+and 1860 the central government attempted, without success, to suppress
+the trade. It was legalized in 1858 after the second "opium war" with
+Great Britain. At that time the poppy was extensively grown in China,
+and the bulk of the opium smoked was, and continued to be, of home
+manufacture. But after 1860 the importation of opium from India greatly
+increased. Opium was also imported from Persia (chiefly to Formosa,
+which in 1895 passed into the possession of Japan). The total foreign
+import in 1863 was some 70,000 piculs,[67] in 1879 it was 102,000
+piculs, but in 1905 had fallen to 56,000 piculs. The number of opium
+smokers in China in the early years of the 20th century was estimated at
+from 25 to 30 millions. The evil effects of opium smoking were fully
+recognized, and Chang Chih-tung, one of the most powerful of the
+opponents of the habit, was high in the councils of the dowager-empress.
+On the 20th of September 1906 an edict was issued directing that the
+growth, sale and consumption of opium should cease in China within ten
+years, and ordering the officials to take measures to execute the
+imperial will. The measures promulgated, in November following, made the
+following provisions:--
+
+  (1) The cultivation of the poppy to be restricted annually by
+  one-tenth of its existing area; (2) all persons using opium to be
+  registered; (3) all shops selling opium to be gradually closed, and
+  all places where opium is smoked to discontinue the practice within
+  six months; (4) anti-opium societies to be officially encouraged, and
+  medicines distributed to cure the opium-smoking habit; (5) all
+  officials were requested to set an example to the people, and all
+  officials under sixty were required to abandon opium smoking within
+  six months or to withdraw from the service of the state.
+
+It was estimated that the suppression of opium smoking would entail a
+yearly loss of revenue of over L1,600,000, a loss about equally divided
+between the central and provincial governments. The first step taken to
+enforce the edict was the closing of the opium dens in Peking on the
+last day of 1906.
+
+  During 1907 the opium dens in Shanghai, Canton, Fu-chow and many other
+  large cities were closed, and restrictions on the issue of licences
+  were introduced in the foreign settlements; even the eunuchs of the
+  palace were prohibited from smoking opium under severe penalties. The
+  central government continued during 1908 and 1909 to display
+  considerable energy in the suppression of the use of opium, but the
+  provincial authorities were not all equally energetic. It was noted in
+  1908 that while in some provinces--even in Yun-nan, where its
+  importance tc trade and commerce and its use as currency seemed to
+  render it very difficult to do anything effective--the governor and
+  officials were whole-hearted in carrying out the imperial regulations,
+  in other provinces--notably in Kwei-chow and in the provinces of the
+  lower Yangtsze valley--great supineness was exhibited in dealing with
+  the subject. Lord William Cecil, however, stated that travelling in
+  1909 between Peking and Hankow, through country which in 1907 he had
+  seen covered with the poppy, he could not then see a single poppy
+  flower, and that going up the Yangtsze he found only one small patch
+  of poppy cultivation.[68] The Peking correspondent of _The Times_, in
+  a journey to Turkestan in the early part of 1910, found that in
+  Shen-si province the people's desire to suppress the opium trade was
+  in advance of the views of the government. Every day trains of opium
+  carts were passed travelling under official protection. But in the
+  adjoining province of Shan-si there had been complete suppression of
+  poppy cultivation and in Kan-suh the officials were conducting a very
+  vigorous campaign against the growth of the poppy.[69]
+
+  In their endeavours to suppress opium smoking the Chinese government
+  appealed to the Indian government for help, and in 1907 received a
+  promise that India would decrease the production of opium annually by
+  one-tenth for four years and subsequently if China did likewise. The
+  Indian government also assented to Indian opium being taxed equally
+  with Chinese opium, but China did not raise the duty on foreign opium.
+  In 1908 the Indian government undertook to reduce the amount of opium
+  exported by 5100 chests yearly. In the same year the opium dens in
+  Hong-Kong were closed. In February 1909, on the initiative of the
+  United States, an international conference was held at Shanghai to
+  consider the opium trade and habit. At this conference the Chinese
+  representative claimed that the consumption of opium had already been
+  reduced by one-half--a claim not borne out by the ascertained facts.
+  The conference was unable to suggest any heroic measures, but a number
+  of proposals were agreed to (including the closing of opium dens in
+  the foreign settlements), tending to the restriction of the opium
+  trade. The conference also dealt with another and growing habit in
+  China--the use of morphia.[70] Japan agreed to prohibit the export of
+  morphia to China, a prohibition to which the other powers had
+  previously agreed.
+
+
+  Education.
+
+The attempts to reform the educational system of China on a
+comprehensive scale date from the year of the return of the court to
+Peking after the Boxer troubles. In 1902 regulations were sanctioned by
+the emperor which aimed at remodelling the methods of public
+instruction. These regulations provided among other things for the
+establishment at Peking of a university giving instruction in Western
+learning, a technical college, and a special department for training
+officials and teachers. A much more revolutionary step was taken in
+September 1905 when a decree appeared announcing as from the beginning
+of 1906 the abolition of the existing method of examinations. The new
+system was to include the study of modern sciences, history, geography
+and foreign languages, and in the higher grades political economy and
+civil and international law. Thousands of temples were converted to
+educational purposes. In Canton, in 1907, the old examination hall was
+demolished to make way for a college with every appliance on Western
+lines. Equal zeal was noticeable in such conservative cities as
+Si-gan-fu, and in remote provinces like Kan-suh. By May 1906 fifteen
+so-called universities had been founded. Moreover, many young Chinese
+went abroad to acquire education--in Japan alone in 1906 there were
+13,000 students. In the same year primary schools for girls were
+established.[71] Perhaps the most striking evidence of the new spirit
+regarding education was the tenour of a communication to the throne from
+the head of the Confucian family. On the 31st of December 1906 an
+imperial edict had appeared raising Confucius to the same rank as Heaven
+and Earth--an action taken to indicate the desire of the government to
+emphasize the value of ethical training. In thanking the throne for the
+honour conferred on his ancestor the head of the family urged that at
+the new college founded at the birth-place of Confucius the teaching
+should include foreign languages, physical culture, political science
+and military drill.[72]
+
+While China, with the consent of the emperor and the empress-dowager,
+and under the guidance of Prince Ching, Yuan Shih-kai and Chang
+Chih-tung, was endeavouring to bring about internal reforms, her
+attitude to foreign powers was one of reserve and distrust. This was
+especially marked in the negotiations with Japan and with Russia
+concerning Manchuria, and was seen also in the negotiations with Great
+Britain concerning Tibet. It was not until April 1908, after four
+years' negotiations, that a convention with Great Britain respecting
+Tibet was signed, Chinese suzerain rights being respected. In September
+the Dalai Lama arrived in Peking from Mongolia and was received by the
+emperor, who also gave audience to a Nepalese mission.[73]
+
+
+  Death of the emperor and of the dowager empress.
+
+The emperor Kwang-su had witnessed, without being able to guide, the new
+reform movement. In August 1908 an edict was issued in his name
+announcing the convocation of a parliament in nine years' time. In
+November he died. His death occasioned no surprise, as disquieting
+reports about his health had been current since July, but the
+announcement that the dowager empress died on the 15th of November (the
+day after that on which the emperor was officially stated to have died)
+was totally unexpected. She had celebrated her birthday on the 3rd of
+November and appeared then to be in good health. The empress dowager had
+taken part in the choice of a successor to the throne, Kwang-su's
+valedictory edict had been drawn up under her supervision, and it is
+believed that the emperor died some days previous to the date officially
+given for his death. Kwang-su died childless and was succeeded by his
+infant nephew Pu-Yi (born on the 8th of February 1906), a son of Prince
+Chun, who was appointed regent. Prince Chun--himself then only
+twenty-six years old--had exercised considerable influence at court
+since his mission to Germany in 1901, and was one of the most
+enlightened of the Manchu princes. The death of the dowager empress
+removed a powerful obstacle to a reformed regime, and with her passed
+away the last prominent representative of the old era in China.
+
+
+  Accession of Hsuan Tung.
+
+The accession to the throne of Pu-Yi, who was given as reigning title
+Hsuan Tung ("promulgating universally"), was unaccompanied by
+disturbances, save for an outbreak at Ngan-king, easily suppressed.
+Prince Chun had the support of Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung,[74]
+the two most prominent Chinese members of the government at Peking--and
+thus a division between the Manchus and Chinese was avoided. On the 2nd
+of December 1908 the young emperor was enthroned with the usual rites.
+On the day following another edict, which, it was stated, had had the
+approval of the late dowager empress, was issued, reaffirming that of
+the 27th of August regarding the grant of a parliamentary constitution
+in nine years' time, and urging the people to prepare themselves for the
+change. Other edicts sought to strengthen the position of the regent as
+_de facto_ emperor. Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung received the title
+of Grand Guardians of the Heir, and the year 1908 closed with the chief
+Chinese members of the government working, apparently, in complete
+harmony with the regent.
+
+
+  Dismissal of Yuan Shih-kai.
+
+  Agreement with Japan.
+
+On the 1st of January 1909, however, the political situation was rudely
+disturbed by the dismissal from office of Yuan Shih-kai. This step led
+to representations by the British and American ministers to Prince
+Ching, the head of the foreign office, by whom assurances were given
+that no change of policy was contemplated by China, while the regent in
+a letter to President Taft reiterated the determination of his
+government to carry through its reform policy. The dismissal of Yuan
+Shih-kai was believed by the Chinese to be due to his "betrayal" of the
+emperor Kwang-su in the 1898 reform movement. He had nevertheless
+refused to go to extremes on the reactionary side, and in 1900, as
+governor of Shan-tung, he preserved a neutrality which greatly
+facilitated the relief of the Peking legations. During the last years
+of the life of the dowager empress it was his influence which largely
+reconciled her to the new reform movement. Yet Kwang-su had not
+forgotten the _coup d'etat_ of 1898, and it is alleged that he left a
+testament calling upon his brother the prince regent to avenge the
+wrongs he had suffered.[75] During the greater part of the year there
+was serious estrangement between China and Japan, but on the 4th of
+September a convention was signed which settled most of the points in
+dispute respecting Manchuria and Korea. In Korea the boundary was
+adjusted so that Chientao, a mountainous district in eastern Manchuria
+regarded as the ancestral home of the reigning families of China and
+Korea, was definitely assigned to China; while in Manchuria, both as to
+railways and mines, a policy of co-operation was substituted for one of
+opposition.[76] Although Japan had made substantial concessions, those
+made by China in return provoked loud complaints from the southern
+provinces--the self-government society calling for the dismissal of
+Prince Ching. In northern Manchuria the Russian authorities had assumed
+territorial jurisdiction at Harbin, but on the 4th of May an agreement
+was signed recognizing Chinese jurisdiction.[77]
+
+
+  The control of railways.
+
+The spirit typified by the cry of "China for the Chinese" was seen
+actively at work in the determined efforts made to exclude foreign
+capital from railway affairs. The completion in October 1909 of the
+Peking-Kalgan railway was the cause of much patriotic rejoicing. The
+railway, a purely Chinese undertaking, is 122 m. long and took four
+years to build. It traversed difficult country, piercing the Nan K'ow
+Pass by four tunnels, one under the Great Wall being 3580 ft. long.
+There was much controversy between foreign financiers, generally backed
+by their respective governments, as to the construction of other lines.
+In March 1909 the Deutschasiatische Bank secured a loan of L3,000,000
+for the construction of the Canton-Hankow railway. This concession was
+contrary to an undertaking given in 1905 to British firms and was
+withdrawn, but only in return for the admittance of German capital in
+the Sze-ch'uen railway. After prolonged negotiations an agreement was
+signed in Paris on the 24th of May 1910 for a loan of L6,000,000 for the
+construction of the railway from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen, in which British,
+French, German and American interests were equally represented. In
+January 1910 the French line from Hanoi to Yunnan-fu was opened;[78] the
+railway from Shanghai to Nanking was opened for through traffic in 1909.
+
+
+  Provincial Assemblies constituted. A senate formed.
+
+The progress of the anti-opium movement and the dispute over the control
+of the Imperial Maritime Customs have already been chronicled. A notable
+step was taken in 1909 by the institution of elected assemblies in each
+of the provinces. The franchise on which the members were elected was
+very limited, and the assemblies were given consultative powers only.
+They were opened on the 14th of October (the 1st day of the 9th moon).
+The businesslike manner in which these assemblies conducted their work
+was a matter of general comment among foreign observers in China.[79] In
+February 1910 decrees appeared approving schemes drawn up by the
+Commission for Constitutional Reforms, providing for local government in
+prefectures and departments and for the reform of the judiciary. This
+was followed on the 9th of May by another decree summoning the senate to
+meet for the first time on the 1st day of the 9th moon (the 3rd of
+October 1910). All the members of the senate were nominated, and the
+majority were Manchus. Neither to the provincial assemblies nor to the
+senate was any power of the purse given, and the drawing up of a budget
+was postponed until 1915.[80]
+
+
+  Anti-dynastic movements. Riots in Hu-nan.
+
+The efforts of the central government to increase the efficiency of the
+army and to re-create a navy were continued in 1910. China was credited
+with the intention of spending L40,000,000 on the rehabilitation of its
+naval and military forces. It was estimated in March 1910 that there
+were about 200,000 foreign-trained men, but their independent spirit and
+disaffection constituted a danger to internal peace. The danger was
+accentuated by the mutual jealousy of the central and provincial
+governments. The anti-dynastic agitation, moreover, again seemed to be
+growing in strength. In April 1910 there was serious rioting at
+Changsha, Hu-nan, a town whence a few years previously had issued a
+quantity of anti-foreign literature of a vile kind. The immediate causes
+of the riots seem to have been many: rumours of the intention of the
+foreign powers to dismember China, the establishment of foreign firms at
+Changsha competing with native firms and exporting rice and salt at a
+time when the province was suffering from famine, and the approach of
+Halley's comet. Probably famine precipitated the outbreak, which was
+easily crushed, as was also a rising in May at Yung chow, a town in the
+south of Hu-nan. Much mission and mercantile property was wrecked at
+Changsha, but the only loss of life was the accidental drowning of three
+Roman Catholic priests.
+
+
+  The regent's policy.
+
+An edict of the 17th of August 1910 effected considerable and unexpected
+changes in the personnel of the central government. Tang Shao-yi, a
+former lieutenant of Yuan Shih-kai, was appointed president of the Board
+of Communications, and to him fell the difficult task of reconciling
+Chinese and foreign interests in the development of the railway system.
+Sheng Kung-pao regarded as the chief Chinese authority on currency
+questions, and an advocate of the adoption of a gold standard, was
+attached to the Board of Finance to help in the reforms decreed by an
+edict of May of the same year (see ante, _Currency_). The issue of the
+edict was attributed to the influence with the regent of Prince
+Tsai-tao, who had recently returned from a tour in Europe, where he had
+specially studied questions of national defence. The changes made among
+the high officials tended greatly to strengthen the central
+administration. The government had viewed with some disquiet the
+Russo-Japanese agreement of the 4th of July concerning Manchuria (which
+was generally interpreted as in fact lessening the authority of China in
+that country); it had become involved in another dispute with Great
+Britain, which regarded some of the measures taken to suppress opium
+smoking as a violation of the terms of the Chifu convention, and its
+action in Tibet had caused alarm in India. Thus the appointment to high
+office of men of enlightenment, pledged to a reform policy, was
+calculated to restore confidence in the policy of the Peking
+authorities. This confidence would have been greater had not the changes
+indicated a struggle for supreme power between the regent and the
+dowager empress Lung Yu, widow of Kwang-su.
+
+The strength of the various movements at work throughout China was at
+this time extremely difficult to gauge; the intensity of the desire for
+the acquisition of Western knowledge was equalled by the desire to
+secure the independence of the country from foreign control. The second
+of these desires gave the force it possessed to the anti-dynastic
+movement. At the same time some of the firmest supporters of reform were
+found among the Manchus, nor did there seem to be any reason to doubt
+the intention of the regent--if he retained power--to guide the nation
+through the troubled period of transition into an era of constitutional
+government and the full development of the resources of the empire.
+    (X.)
+
+
+PLATE I.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--KU K'AI-CHIH. TOILET SCENE. (British Museum. 4th
+Cent. A.D.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ATTRIBUTED TO WU TAOTZUe. SAKYAMUNI. (8th Cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--CHAO MENG-FU, AFTER WANG WEI (8th CENT.). SCENE
+ON THE WANG CH'UAN. (Dated 1309. British Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--HSUe HSI. BIRD ON APPLE-BOUGH. (10th Cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--CHIEN SHUN-CHU. THE EMPEROR HUAN-YEH. (15th
+Cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--KIU YING. COURT LADIES. (British Museum. 15th
+Cent.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--EAGLE. By LIN LIANG. (15th Cent. British
+Museum.)]
+
+Figs. 2, 4, and 5 are reproduced by permission of the Kokka Company,
+Tokyo.
+
+
+PLATE II
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--TEMPLE VASE (c. 1200 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--WINE VASE (c. 1000 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11--WINE VASE (c. 600 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--INLAID VESSEL (C. 500 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--WINE VESSEL (c. 100 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--INLAID VASE (c. 200 A.D.). In possession of
+C.J. Holmes.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--VASE (c. 1450 A.D.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--WINE VESSEL (c. 1450 A.D.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--TEMPLE VASE (c. 1700 A.D.).]
+
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.--Knowledge of the ancient history of China is
+  necessarily derived from the native writers on the subject.
+  Fortunately, the Chinese have always regarded the preservation of the
+  national records as a matter of supreme importance. Confucius set an
+  example in this respect, and has preserved for us in the _Spring and
+  Autumn Annals_ and the _Shu-king_, or _Book of History_, records of
+  his country's progress during the past and then present centuries. The
+  celebrated emperor Shih Hwang-ti, in establishing the empire,
+  attempted to strengthen his cause by destroying all works on the
+  national history. But so strongly was the historical sense inculcated
+  in the people that immediately on the death of the tyrant the
+  nation's records were again brought to light, and have been carefully
+  preserved and edited since that time. Prof. Legge's translation of the
+  _Spring and Autumn Annals_ and the _Shu-king, or Book of History_, in
+  the "Sacred Books of the East" series, have opened for students the
+  stores of historical knowledge which were at the command of Confucius,
+  and European writers on Chinese history have found in the dynastic
+  annals a never-failing source of valuable information. It was from
+  these works and epitomes of these that de Maillac gathered the facts
+  for his celebrated _Histoire generale de la Chine_, and it is from
+  similar sources that all other writers on Chinese history have drawn
+  their inspiration.
+
+  The following works on ancient and modern Chinese history may be
+  specially mentioned: J.A. de Moyria de Maillac, _Histoire generale de
+  la Chine_ (1777), &c.; J B. du Halde, _General History of China_ (4
+  vols., 1736); M. de Guignes, _Voyages a Peking ..._ (3 vols., 1808);
+  D. Boulger, _A History of China_ (3 vols., 1881); Valentine Chirol,
+  _The Far Eastern Question_ (1896); E.R. Huc, _The Chinese Empire_ (2
+  vols., 1855); T.T. Meadows, _The Chinese and their Rebellions_ (1856);
+  G. Pauthier, _Histoire des relations politiques de la Chine avec les
+  puissances occidentales depuis les temps les plus anciens jusqu'a nos
+  jours ..._ (1859); Sir George Staunton, _Notes of Proceedings and
+  Occurrences during the British Embassy to Peking in 1816_ (1824);
+  _Chinese Expansion historically reviewed_, a paper read before the
+  Central Asian Society by Baron Suyematsu on January 11, 1905; F.
+  Hirth, _Ancient History of China_ (New York, 1908); Prof. Herbert A.
+  Giles's _Chinese Biographical Dictionary_ (1897) is a storehouse of
+  biographical detail and anecdote.
+
+  For Chinese relations with foreign powers see H. Cordier, _Histoire
+  des relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales, 1860-1902_
+  (3 vols., Paris, 1901-1902); _Hertslet's China Treaties. Treaties,
+  &c., between Great Britain and China, and between China and Foreign
+  Powers, and Orders in Council, &c., affecting British Interests in
+  China_ (3rd ed., revised by G.G.P. Hertslet and E. Parkes, London,
+  1908); J.O. Bland and E. Backhouse, _China under the Empress Dowager_
+  (London, 1910). More general works are Sir R.K. Douglas, _China_,
+  history since the time of Marco Polo (London, 1899); E.H. Parker,
+  _China; Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce_ (London, 1901); _China,
+  Past and Present_ (London, 1903); A.J. Sargent, _Anglo-Chinese
+  Commerce and Diplomacy_--mainly in the 19th century (Oxford, 1907).
+  For current affairs see the authorities cited in the footnotes.
+
+
+VI. CHINESE ART
+
+1. _Painting._--Painting is the pre-eminent art of China, which can
+boast of a succession of great painters for at least twelve centuries.
+Though the Chinese have an instinctive gift for harmonious colour, their
+painting is above all an art of _line_. It is intimately connected with
+writing, itself a fine art demanding the same skill and supple power in
+the wielding of the brush. The most typical expression of the Chinese
+genius in painting is the ink sketch, such as the masters of the Sung
+dynasty most preferred and the Japanese from the 15th century adopted
+for an abiding model. Utmost vigour of stroke was here combined with
+utmost delicacy of modulation. Rich colour and the use of gold are an
+integral part of the Buddhist pictures, though in the masterpieces of
+the religious painters a grand rhythm of linear design gives the
+fundamental character. Exquisite subdued colour is also found in the
+"flower and bird pieces" and still-life subjects of the Sung artists,
+and becomes more emphatic and variegated in the decorative artists of
+the Ming period.
+
+Not to represent facts, but to suggest a poetic idea (often perfumed, so
+to speak, with reminiscence of some actual poem), has ever been the
+Chinese artist's aim. "A picture is a voiceless poem" is an old saying
+in China, where very frequently the artist was a literary man by
+profession. Oriental critics lay more stress on loftiness of sentiment
+and tone than on technical qualities. This idealist temper helps to
+explain the deliberate avoidance of all emphasis on appearances of
+material solidity by means of chiaroscuro, &c., and the exclusive use of
+the light medium of water-colour. The Chinese express actual dislike for
+the representation of relief. Whoever compares the painting of Europe
+with that of Asia (and Chinese painting is the central type for the one
+continent, as Italian may claim to be for the other) must first
+understand this contrast of aim. The limitations of the Chinese are
+great, but these limitations save them from mistaking advances in
+science for advances in art, and from petty imitation of fact. Their
+religious painting has great affinity with the early religious art of
+Italy (e.g. that of Siena). But the ideas of the Renaissance, its
+scientific curiosity, its materialism, its glorification of human
+personality, are wholly missing in China. For Europe, Man is ever the
+hero and the foreground--hence the dominant study of the nude, and the
+tendency to thronged compositions, with dramatic motives of effort and
+conflict. The Chinese artists, weak in the plastic, weak in the
+architectural sense, paint mostly in a lyric mood, with a contemplative
+ideal. Hence the value given to space in their designs, the
+semi-religious passion for nature, and the supremacy of landscape.
+Beauty is found not only in pleasant prospects, but in wild solitudes,
+rain, snow and storm. The life of things is contemplated and portrayed
+for its own sake, not for its uses in the life of men. From this point
+of view the body of Chinese painting is much more modern in conception
+than that of Western art. Landscape was a mature and free art in China
+more than a thousand years ago, and her school of landscape is the
+loftiest yet known to the world. Nor was man ever dissociated from
+nature. As early as the 4th century Ku K'ai-chih says that in painting a
+certain noble character he must give him a fit background of great peaks
+and deep ravines. Chinese painting, in sum, finely complements rather
+than poorly supplements that of Europe; where the latter is strong, it
+is weak; but in certain chosen provinces it long ago found consummate
+expression for thoughts and feelings scarcely yet expressed with us.
+
+
+  History: Early periods (to A.D. 618).
+
+The origin of Chinese painting is lost in legend, though there is no
+reason to doubt its great antiquity. References in literature prove that
+by the 3rd century B.C. it was a developed art. To this period is
+ascribed the invention of the hair-brush, in the use of which as an
+instrument both for writing and drawing the Chinese have attained
+marvellous skill; the usual material for the picture being woven silk,
+or, less often and since the 1st century A.D., paper. In early times
+wood panels were employed; and large compositions were painted on walls
+prepared with white lime. These mural decorations have all disappeared.
+History and portraiture seem to have been the prevailing subjects; a
+secular art corresponding to the social ideals of Confucianism. Yet long
+before the introduction of Buddhism (A.D. 67) with its images and
+pictures, we find that the two great symbolic figures of the Chinese
+imagination, the Tiger and the Dragon--typifying the forces of Nature
+and the power of the Spirit--had been evolved in art; and to imaginative
+minds the mystic ideas of Lao Tzue and the legends of his hermit
+followers proved a fruitful field for artistic motives of a kind which
+Buddhism was still more to enrich and multiply. Early classifications
+rank Buddhist and Taoist subjects together as one class.
+
+With the 2nd century A.D. we come to individual names of artists and to
+the beginnings of landscape. Ku K'ai-chih (4th century) ranks as one of
+the greatest names of Chinese art. A painting by him now in the British
+Museum (Plate I. fig. 1) shows a maturity which has nothing tentative
+about it. The dignified and elegant types are rendered with a mastery of
+sensitive brush-line which is not surpassed in later art. Ku K'ai-chih
+painted all kinds of subjects, but excelled in portraiture. During the
+next century the criticism of painting was formulated in six canons by
+Hsieh Ho. Rhythm, organic or structural beauty, is the supreme quality
+insisted on.
+
+
+  T'ang dynasty (A.D. 618-907).
+
+During the T'ang dynasty the empire expanded to its utmost limits,
+stretching as far as the Persian Gulf. India was invaded; Buddhism,
+taught by numbers of Indian missionaries, became firmly established, and
+controlled the ideals and imaginations of the time. The vigorous style
+of a great era was impressed upon the T'ang art, which culminated in Wu
+Taotzue, universally acknowledged as the greatest of all Chinese
+painters. It is doubtful if any of his work remains. The picture
+reproduced (Plate I. fig. 2) was long attributed to him, but is now
+thought to be of later date, like the two landscapes well known under
+his name in Japan. Wu Taotzue seems to have given supreme expression to
+the central subject of Buddhist art, the Nirvana of Buddha, who lies
+serenely asleep, with all creation, from saints and kings to birds and
+beasts, passionately bewailing him. The composition is known from
+Japanese copies; and it is in fact from the early religious schools of
+Japan that we can best conjecture the grandeur of the T'ang style. Wu
+Taotzue excelled in all subjects: other masters are best known for some
+particular one. Han Kan was famous for his horses, the models for
+succeeding generations of painters, both Chinese and Japanese. A
+specimen of his brush is in the British Museum; and in the same
+collection is a long roll which gives a glimpse of the landscape of this
+age. It is a copy by a great master of the Yuen dynasty, Chao Meng-fu,
+from a famous painting by Wang Wei, representing scenes on the Wang
+Ch'uan, the latter's home (Plate I. fig. 3 shows a fragment). With the
+T'ang age landscape matured, and two schools arose, one headed by Wang
+Wei, the other by Li Ssue-hsuen. The style of Wang Wei, who was equally
+famous as a poet, had a romantic idealist character--disdainful of mere
+fact--which in later developments created the "literary man's picture"
+of the Southern school, as opposed to the vigorous naturalism of the
+North.
+
+
+  Five dynasties (A.D. 907-960).
+
+Next come five brief dynasties, memorable less for any corporate style
+or tradition, than for some fine painters like Hsue Hsi, famous for his
+flowers, and Huang Ch'uan, a great master in a delicate style. Two
+pictures by him, fowls and peonies, of extraordinary beauty, are in the
+British Museum.
+
+
+  Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280).
+
+The empire, which had been broken up, was reunited, though shorn of its
+outer dependencies, under the house of Sung. This was an age of culture
+in which the freedom of the individual was proclaimed anew; glorious in
+art as in poetry and philosophy; the period which for Asia stands in
+history as the Periclean age for Europe.
+
+  The religious paintings of Li Lung-mien, the grandest of Sung masters,
+  if less forcible than those of T'ang, were unsurpassed in harmonious
+  rhythm of design and colour. But the most characteristic painting of
+  this period is in landscape and nature-subjects. With a passion
+  unmatched in Europe till Wordsworth's day, the Sung artists portrayed
+  their delight in mountains, mists, plunging torrents, the flight of
+  the wild geese from the reed-beds, the moonlit reveries of sages in
+  forest solitudes, the fisherman in his boat on lake or stream. To them
+  also, steeped in the Zen philosophy of contemplation, a flowering
+  branch was no mere subject for a decorative study, but a symbol of the
+  infinite life of nature. A mere hint to the spectator's imagination is
+  often all that they rely on; proof of the singular fulness and reality
+  of the culture of the time. The art of suggestion has never been
+  carried farther. Such traditional subjects as "Curfew from a Distant
+  Temple" and "The Moon over Raging Waves" indicate the poetic
+  atmosphere of this art. Ma Yuan, Hsia Kuei and the emperor Hwei-tsung
+  are among the greatest landscape artists of this period. They belong
+  to the South Sung school, which loved to paint the gorges and towering
+  rock-pinnacles of the Yangtsze. The sterner, less romantic scenery of
+  the Hwang-Ho inspired the Northern school, of which Kuo Hsi and Li
+  Ch'eng were famous among many others. Muh Ki was one of the greatest
+  masters of the ink sketch; Chao Tan Lin was famed for his tigers; Li
+  Ti for his flowers as for his landscapes; Mao I for still-life: to
+  name a few among a host.
+
+
+  Yuen dynasty (A.D. 1280-1368).
+
+The Mongol dynasty continues in art the Sung tradition. Chao Meng-fu,
+the greatest master of his time, belongs to both periods, and ranks with
+the highest names in Chinese painting. A landscape by him, copied from
+Wang Wei, has been already mentioned as in the British Museum, which
+also has two specimens of Yen Hui, a painter less known in his own
+country than in Japan. He painted especially figures of Taoist legend.
+The portrait by Ch'ien Shun-chue (Plate I. fig. 5) is a fine example of
+purity of line and lovely colour, reminding us of Greek art.
+
+
+  Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644).
+
+The simplicity of motive and directness of execution which had been the
+strength of the Sung art gradually gave way during the Ming era to
+complicated conceptions and elaborate effects. The high glow of life
+faded; the lyrical temper and impassioned work of the Sung time were
+replaced by love of ornament and elegance. In this respect Kiu Ying is
+typical of the period, with his richly coloured scenes from court life
+(Plate I. fig. 6). None the less, there were a number of painters who
+still upheld the grander style of earlier ages. The greatest of these
+was Lin Liang (Plate I. fig. 7), whose brush work, if somewhat coarser,
+is as powerful as that of the Sung masters. But though individual
+painters of the first rank preserved the Ming age from absolute decline,
+it cannot be said that any new development of importance took place in a
+vitalizing direction.
+
+
+  Tsing dynasty (from A.D. 1644).
+
+The present dynasty prolongs the history of Ming art. The literary
+school of the South became more prominent, sending out offshoots in
+Japan. There has been no movement of national life to be reflected in
+art, though a great body of admirable painting has been produced, down
+to the present day. The four landscape masters known as the "four
+Wangs," Yuen Shou-p'ing and Wu Li are pre-eminent names.
+
+  SOURCES AND AUTHORITIES.--While the designs on porcelain, screens,
+  &c., have long been admired in the West, the paintings of which these
+  are merely reproductions have been utterly ignored. Ignorance has
+  gained authority with time, till the very existence of a great school
+  of Chinese painting has been denied. Materials for study are scanty.
+  Fires, wars and the recent armed ravages of Western civilization have
+  left but little. The profound indifference of the Chinese to European
+  admiration has prevented their collections from being known. The
+  Japanese, always enthusiastic students and collectors of the
+  continental art, claim (whether justly or not, is hard to ascertain)
+  that the finest specimens are now in their country. Many of these are
+  reproduced in the invaluable Tokyo publications, the _Kokka_, Mr
+  Tajima's _Select Relics_, &c., with Japanese criticisms in English. Of
+  actual paintings the British Museum possesses a fair number, and the
+  Louvre a few, of real importance. Copies and forgeries abound.
+
+  See H.A. Giles, _Introduction to the History of Chinese Pictorial Art_
+  (1905); F. Hirth, _Scraps from a Collector's Note-Book_ (1905),
+  (supplements Giles's work and especially valuable for the art of the
+  Ch'ing dynasty); S.W. Bushell, _Chinese Art_, vol. ii. (1906); K.
+  Okakura, _Ideals of the East_ (1903); M. Paleologue, _L'Art chinois_
+  (1887); W. Anderson, _Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings_
+  (1886); Sei-ichi Taki, "Chinese Landscape Painting," _The Kokka_, Nos.
+  191, &c. (1906); _Chinesische Malereien aus der Sammlung Hirth_
+  (Catalogue of an exhibition held at Dresden) (1897); W. von Seidlitz,
+  article in _Kunstchronik_ (1896-1897), No. 16.
+
+2. _Engraving_.--According to native historians, the art of printing
+from wooden blocks was invented in China in the 6th century A.D., when
+it was employed for the publication of texts. The earliest evidence we
+have for the existence of woodcuts made to reproduce pictures or
+drawings is a passage in a work by Chang Yen-yuean, from which it appears
+that these were not made before the beginning of the T'ang dynasty,
+under which that author lived. The method employed was to cut the design
+with a knife on the plank of the wood, in the manner followed by
+European artists till the end of the 18th century, when engraving with a
+burin on boxwood ousted the older process. The Japanese borrowed the art
+from China; and in Japan a whole school of artists arose who worked
+specially for the woodcutters and adapted their designs to the
+limitations of the material employed. In China the art has remained
+merely reproductive, and its history is therefore of less interest.
+_Printing in colours_ was known to the Chinese in the 17th century, and
+probably earlier. In the British Museum is a set of prints brought from
+the East by Kaempfer in 1693, in which eight colours and elaborate
+_gauffrage_ are used. Some fine albums of colour prints have been issued
+in China, but nothing equal in beauty to the prints produced in Japan by
+the co-operation of woodcutter and designer. _Engraving on copper_ was
+introduced to China by the Jesuits, and some well-known sets of prints
+illustrating campaigns in Mongolia were made in the 18th century. But
+the method has never proved congenial to the artists of the Far East.
+
+  See Sir R.K. Douglas, _Guide to the Chinese and Japanese Illustrated
+  Books_ (British Museum, 1887); W. Anderson, _Japanese Wood Engraving_
+  (1895).
+
+3. _Architecture_.--In architecture the Chinese genius has found but
+limited and uncongenial expression. A nation of painters has built
+picturesquely, but this picturesqueness has fought against the
+attainment of the finest architectural qualities. There has been little
+development; the arch, for instance, though known to the Chinese from
+very early times, has been scarcely used as a principle of design, and
+the cupola has been undiscovered or ignored; and though foreign
+architectural ideas were introduced under the influence of the Buddhist
+and Mahommedan religions, these were more or less assimilated and
+subdued to the dominant Chinese design. Ruins scarcely exist and no
+building earlier than the 11th century A.D. is known; but we know from
+records that the forms of architecture still prevalent imitate in
+essentials those of the 4th and 5th centuries B.C. and doubtless
+represent an immemorial tradition.
+
+The grand characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pre-eminent
+importance of the roof. The _t'ing_ is the commonest model of building.
+The roof is the main feature; in fact the _t'ing_ consists of this roof,
+massive and immense, with recurved edges, and the numerous short columns
+on which the roof rests. The columns are of wood, the straight stems of
+the _nanmu_ being specially used for this purpose. The walls are not
+supports, but merely fill in, with stone or brickwork, the spaces
+between the columns. The scheme of construction is thus curiously like
+that of the modern American steel-framed building, though the external
+form may be derived from the tent of primitive nomads. The roof, being
+the preponderant feature, is that on which the art of the architect has
+been concentrated. A double or a triple roof may be devised; the ridges
+and eaves may be decorated with dragons and other fantastic animals, and
+the eaves underlaid with carved and lacquered woodwork; the roof itself
+is often covered with glazed tiles of brilliant hue. In spite of
+efforts, sometimes desperate, to give variety and individual character
+by ornament and detail, the general impression is one of poverty of
+design. "Chinese buildings are usually one-storeyed and are developed
+horizontally as they are increased in size or number. The principle
+which determines the plan of projection is that of symmetry" (Bushell).
+All important buildings must face the south, and this uniform
+orientation increases the general architectural monotony produced by a
+preponderance of horizontal lines.
+
+A special characteristic of Chinese architecture is the _pai-lou_, an
+archway erected only by special authority, usually to commemorate famous
+persons. The _pai-lou_ is commonly made of wood with a tiled roof, but
+sometimes is built entirely of stone, as is the gateway at the avenue of
+the Ming tombs. A magnificent example of the _pai-lou_ is that on the
+avenue leading to Wo Fo Ssue, the temple of the Sleeping Buddha, near
+Peking. This is built of marble and glazed terra-cotta. The _pai-lou_,
+like the Japanese _torii_, derives its origin from the _toran_ of Indian
+_stupas_. Lofty towers called _t'ai_, usually square and of stone, seem
+to have been a common type of important building in early times. They
+are described in old books as erected by the ancient kings and used for
+various purposes. The towers of the Great Wall are of the same
+character, and are made of stone, with arched doors and windows. Stone,
+though plentiful in most provinces of the empire, has been singularly
+little used by the Chinese, who prefer wood or brick. M. Paleologue
+attributes this preference of light and destructible materials to the
+national indifference of the Chinese to posterity and the future, their
+enthusiasm being wholly devoted to their ancestors and the past.
+
+Temples are designed on the general _t'ing_ model. The Temple of Heaven
+is the most imposing of the Confucian temples, conspicuous with its
+covering of deep-blue tiles and its triple roof. Near this is the great
+Altar of Heaven, consisting of three circular terraces with marble
+balustrades. Buddhist temples are built on the general plan of secular
+residences, and consist of a series of rectangular courts with the
+principal building in the centre, the lesser at the sides. Lama temples
+differ little from these except in the interior decorations and
+symbolism. Mahommedan mosques are far simpler and severer in internal
+arrangement, but outwardly these also are in the Chinese style.
+
+The _pagoda_ (Chinese _taa_), the type of Chinese architecture most
+familiar to the West, probably owes its peculiar form to Buddhist
+influence. In the pagoda alone may be found some trace of a religious
+imagination such as in Europe made Gothic architecture so full and
+splendid an expression of the aspiring spirit. The most famous pagoda
+was the Porcelain Tower of Nanking, destroyed by the T'aip'ing rebels in
+1854. This was covered with slabs of faience coated with coloured
+glazes. The ordinary pagoda is built of brick on a stone foundation; it
+is octagonal with thirteen storeys.
+
+No Chinese buildings show more beauty than some of the graceful stone
+bridges for which the neighbourhood of Peking has been famous for
+centuries.
+
+  See M. Paleologue, _L'Art chinois_ (1887): S.W. Bushell, _Chinese
+  Art_, vol. i. (1904); J. Fergusson, _History of Architecture_;
+  Professor Chuta Ito, articles in _The Kokka_, Nos. 197, 198.
+       (L. B.)
+
+4. _Sculpture_.--Except in the casting and decoration of bronze vessels
+the Chinese have not obtained distinction as sculptors. They have
+practised sculpture in stone from an early period, but the incised
+reliefs of the 2nd century B.C., a number of which are figured in
+Professor E. Chavannes's standard work,[81] while they display a certain
+spirit, lack the true plastic sense, and though the power of the Chinese
+draughtsmen increased rapidly under the T'ang and Sung dynasties, their
+work in stone showed no parallel progress. The feeling for solidity,
+which in Japan was a natural growth, was always somewhat exotic in
+China. With the impulse given to the arts by Buddhism a school of
+sculpture arose. The pilgrim Fa Hsien records sculpture of distinctive
+Chinese type in the 5th century. But Indian models dominated the art.
+Colossal Buddhas of stone were typical of the T'ang era. Little,
+however, remains of these earlier times, and such true sculpture in
+stone, wood or ivory as we know dates from the 14th and succeeding
+centuries. The well-known sculptures on the arch at Chu Yung Kuan (A.D.
+1345) are Hindu in style, though not without elements of breadth and
+strength, which seem to promise a greater development than actually took
+place. The colossal figures guarding the approach to the Ming tombs
+(15th century) show that the national taste rapidly became conventional
+and petrified so far as monumental sculpture was concerned, though
+occasional examples of devotional or portrait sculpture on a smaller
+scale in wood and ivory are found, which in power, grace, sincerity and
+restraint can rank with the work of more gifted nations. Such pieces,
+however, are extremely rare, and at South Kensington the ivory "Kwanyin
+and Child" (274. 1898) is a solitary example. As a rule the Chinese
+sculptor valued his art in proportion to the technical difficulties it
+conquered. He thus either preferred intractable materials like jade or
+rock-crystal, or, if he wrought in wood, horn or ivory, sought to make
+his work curious or intricate rather than beautiful. There is,
+nevertheless, beauty of a kind in Chinese bowls of jade, and there is
+dignity in some of the pieces of rock-crystal, but the bulk of the
+carving done in wood, horn and ivory does not deserve a moment's serious
+thought from the aesthetic point of view. The few fine specimens may be
+referred to the earlier part of the Ming dynasty when Chinese art in
+general was sincere and simple. After the middle of the 15th century
+there set in the taste for profuse ornament which injured all subsequent
+Chinese work, and wholly ruined Chinese sculpture.
+
+_Bronzes._--In Chinese bronzes we have a more consistent and exceptional
+form of plastic art, which can be traced continuously for some three
+thousand years. These bronzes take the form of ritual or honorific
+vessels, and the archaic shapes used in the service of the prehistoric
+religion of the country are repeated and copied with slight changes in
+decoration or detail to the present day.
+
+The oldest extant specimens, chiefly derived from the sack of the Summer
+Palace at Peking, may be referred to the Shang and Chow dynasties
+(1766-255 B.C.). These ancient pieces have a certain savage monumental
+grandeur of design, are usually covered with a rich and thick patina of
+red, green and brown, and are decorated with simple patterns--scrolls,
+zigzag lines and a form of what is known as the Greek key-pattern
+symbolizing respectively waves, mountains and storm clouds. The animal
+forms used are those of the _tao-tieh_ (glutton), a fabulous monster
+(possibly a conventionalized tiger) representing the powers of the
+earth, the serpent and the bull. These two last in later pieces combine
+to form the dragon, representing the power of the air. In the Chow
+dynasty libation vessels were also made in the form of a deer, a ram or
+a rhinoceros. These characteristics are shown in figures 9-17, Plate II.
+Fig. 9 is a temple vessel of a shape still in use, but which must date
+from before 1000 B.C. With this massive piece may be contrasted the
+flower-like wine vase shown in fig. 10, a favourite shape which is the
+prototype of some of the most graceful forms of Chinese porcelain and
+Japanese bronze. Its date is about 1000 B.C. The large wine vase shown
+in fig. 11 is some 400 years later. On the body appears the head of the
+tao-tieh, on the handles are superbly modelled serpents. The technique,
+which in the previous pieces was somewhat rude, has now become perfect,
+yet the menacing majestic feeling remains. We see it no less clearly in
+fig. 12, a marvellous vessel richly inlaid with gold and silver and
+covered with an emerald-green patina. It may date from about 500 B.C.,
+and indicates that even in this remote epoch the Chinese were not only
+daring and powerful artists but also master-craftsmen in metal.
+
+It is indeed at this period that the art reaches its climax. The
+monumental grandeur of the Shang specimens is often allied to
+clumsiness; the later work, if more elaborate, is always less powerful.
+Nevertheless, it is to a later period that ninety-nine out of a hundred
+Chinese bronzes must be referred, and the great majority belong either
+to the Han and succeeding dynasties (220 B.C.-A.D. 400), or to the
+Renaissance of the arts which culminated under the Ming dynasty a
+thousand years later.
+
+The characteristics of the first of these periods is the free use of
+small solid figures of animals as decoration--the phoenix, the elephant,
+the frog, the ox, the tortoise, and occasionally men; shapes grow less
+austere and less significant, as a comparison between figures 11 and 13
+will indicate; then towards the end of the 2nd century A.D. the
+influence of Buddhism is felt in the general tendency towards suavity of
+form (fig. 14). This vase is most delicately though sparingly inlaid
+with silver and a few touches of gold. Some small pieces, very richly
+and delicately inlaid and covered with a magnificent emerald-green
+patina, belonging to this period, form a connecting link between the
+inlaid work of the Chow dynasty and that of the Sung and Ming dynasties.
+The mirrors with Graeco-Bactrian designs, a conclusive proof of the
+external influences brought to bear upon Chinese art, are also
+attributed to the Han epoch.
+
+  The troubled period between A.D. 400 and A.D. 960, in spite of the
+  interval of activity under the T'ang dynasty, produced, it would seem,
+  but few bronzes, and those few were of no distinct or noteworthy
+  style. Under the Sung dynasty the arts revived, and to this time some
+  of the most splendid specimens of inlaid work belong--pieces of
+  workmanship and taste no less perfect than that of the Japanese, in
+  which the gold and silver of the earlier work are occasionally
+  reinforced with malachite and lapis-lazuli. The coming of Kublai Khan
+  and the Yuen dynasty (1280-1367) once more brought the East into
+  contact with the West, and to this time we may assign certain fine
+  pieces of Persian form such as pilgrim bottles. The vessels bearing
+  Arabic inscriptions belong to the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), with which
+  the modern history of Chinese art begins.
+
+  The work done while the Ming dynasty was still young provides the
+  student of Chinese art with many problems, and in one or two cases
+  even the South Kensington authorities assign to pre-Christian times
+  pieces that are clearly of Ming workmanship. The tendency of the
+  period was eclectic and archaistic. The products of earlier days were
+  reproduced with perfect technical command of materials, and with
+  admirable taste; it is indeed by an excess of these qualities that
+  archaistic Ming work may be distinguished from the true archaic. In
+  fig. 15 we see how the Ming bronze worker took an earlier Buddhistic
+  form of vase and gave it a new grace that amounted almost to artifice.
+  A parallel might be found among the products of the so-called _art
+  nouveau_ of to-day, in which old designs are revived with just that
+  added suavity or profusion of curvature that robs them of character.
+  Fig. 16 again might be mistaken almost for a piece of the Chow
+  dynasty, were not the grandeur of its form modified by just so much
+  harmony in the curvature of the body and neck, and by just so much
+  finish in the details as to rob the design of the old majestic vigour
+  and to mark it as the splendid effort of an age of culture, and not
+  the natural product of a period of strength.
+
+  It is, however, in the inlaid pieces that the difference tells most
+  clearly. Here we find the monstrous forms of the Shang and Chow
+  dynasties revived by men who appreciated their spirit but could not
+  help making the revival an excuse for the display of their own
+  superior skill. The monstrous vases and incense-burners of the past
+  thus appear once more, but are now decorated with a delicate
+  embroidery of inlay, are polished and finished to perfection, but lose
+  therewith just the rudeness of edge and outline which made the older
+  work so gravely significant. At times even some grandly planned vessel
+  will appear with such a festoon of pretty tracery wreathed about it
+  that the incongruity is little short of ridiculous, and we recognize
+  we have passed the turning-point to decline.
+
+  Decline indeed came rapidly, and to the latter part of the Ming epoch
+  we must assign those countless bronzes where dragons and flowers and
+  the stock symbols of happiness, good luck and longevity sprawl
+  together in interminable convolutions. When once we reach this stage
+  of contortion, of elaborate pierced and relief work, we come to the
+  place in history of Chinese bronzes where serious study may cease,
+  except in so far as the study of the symbols themselves throws light
+  upon the history of Chinese procelain (see CERAMICS). One class of
+  bronze alone needs a word of notice, namely, the profusely decorated
+  pieces which have a Tibetan origin, and are obviously no older than
+  the end of the Ming period. Of these fig. 17 will serve as a specimen,
+  and a comparison with fig. 9 will show how the softer rounded forms
+  and jewelled festoons of Hindu-Greek taste enervated the grand
+  primitive force of the earlier age, and that neither the added
+  delicacy of texture and substance nor the vastly increased dexterity
+  of workmanship can compensate for the vanished majesty.    (C. J. H.)
+
+
+VII. THE CHINESE LANGUAGE
+
+_Colloquial._--In treating of Chinese, it will be found convenient to
+distinguish, broadly, the spoken from the written language and to deal
+with each separately. This is a distinction which would be out of place
+if we had to do with any European, or indeed most Oriental languages.
+Writing, in its origin, is merely a symbolic representation of speech.
+But in Chinese, as we shall see, for reasons connected with the peculiar
+nature ot the script, the two soon began to move along independent and
+largely divergent lines. This division, moreover, will enable us to
+employ different methods of inquiry more suited to each. With regard to
+the colloquial, it is hardly possible to do more than consider it in the
+form or forms in which it exists at the present day throughout the
+empire of China. Although Chinese, like other living languages, must
+have undergone gradual changes in the past, so little can be stated with
+certainty about these changes that an accurate survey of its evolution
+is quite out of the question. Obviously a different method is required
+when we come to the written characters. The familiar line, "Litera
+scripta manet, volat irrevocabile verbum," is truer perhaps of Chinese
+than of any other tongue. We have hardly any clue as to how Chinese was
+spoken or pronounced in any given district 2000 years ago, although
+there are written remains dating from long before that time; and in
+order to gain an insight into the structure of the characters now
+existing, it is necessary to trace their origin and development.
+
+
+  The dialects.
+
+Beginning with the colloquial, then, and taking a linguistic survey of
+China, we find not one spoken language but a number of dialects, all
+clearly of a common stock, yet differing from one another as widely as
+the various Romance languages in southern Europe--say, French, Italian
+and Spanish. Most of these dialects are found fringing the coast-line of
+China, and penetrating but a comparatively short way into the interior.
+Starting from the province of Kwang-tung in the south, where the
+Cantonese and farther inland the Hakka dialects are spoken, and
+proceeding northwards, we pass in succession the following dialects:
+Swatow, Amoy--these two may almost be regarded as one--Foochow, Wenchow
+and Ningpo. Farther north we come into the range of the great dialect
+popularly known as Mandarin (_Kuan hua_ or "official language"), which
+sweeps round behind the narrow strip of coast occupied by the various
+dialects above-mentioned, and dominates a hinterland constituting nearly
+four-fifths of China proper. Mandarin, of which the dialect of Peking,
+the capital since 1421, is now the standard form, comprises a
+considerable number of sub-dialects, some of them so closely allied that
+the speakers of one are wholly intelligible to the speakers of another,
+while others (e.g. the vernaculars of Yangchow, Hankow or Mid-China and
+Ss[)u]-ch'uan) may almost be considered as separate dialects. Among all
+these, Cantonese is supposed to approximate most nearly to the primitive
+language of antiquity, whereas Pekingese perhaps has receded farthest
+from it. But although philologically and historically speaking Cantonese
+and certain other dialects may be of greater interest, for all practical
+purposes Mandarin, in the widest sense of the term, is by far the most
+important. Not only can it claim to be the native speech of the majority
+of Chinamen, but it is the recognized vehicle of oral communication
+between all Chinese officials, even in cases where they come from the
+same part of the country and speak the same _patois_. For these
+reasons, all examples of phraseology in this article will be given in
+Pekingese.
+
+So far, stress has been laid chiefly on the dissimilarity of the
+dialects. On the other hand, it must be remembered that they proceed
+from the same parent stem, are spoken by members of the same race, and
+are united by the bond of writing which is the common possession of all,
+and cannot be regarded as derived from one more than from another. They
+also share alike in the two most salient features of Chinese as a whole:
+(1) they are all monosyllabic, that is, each individual word consists of
+only one syllable; and (2) they are strikingly poor in vocables, or
+separate sounds for the conveyance of speech. The number of these
+vocables varies from between 800 and 900 in Cantonese to no more than
+420 in the vernacular of Peking. This scanty number, however, is eked
+out by interposing an aspirate between certain initial consonants and
+the vowel, so that for instance _p'u_ is distinguished from _pu_. The
+latter is pronounced with little or no emission of breath, the "p"
+approximating the farther north one goes (e.g. at Niuchwang) more
+closely to a "b." The aspirated _p'u_ is pronounced more like our
+interjection "Pooh!" To the Chinese ear, the difference between the two
+is very marked. It will be found, as a rule, that an Englishman imparts
+a slight aspirate to his p's, t's, k's and ch's, and therefore has
+greater difficulty with the unaspirated words in Chinese. The aspirates
+are better learned by the ear than by the eye, but in one way or another
+it is essential that they be mastered by any one who wishes to make
+himself intelligible to the native.
+
+The influence of the Mongolian population, assisted by the progress of
+time, has slowly but surely diminished the number of vocables in
+Pekingese. Thus the initials _ts_ and _k_, when followed by the vowel
+_i_ (with its continental value) have gradually become softer and more
+assimilated to each other, and are now all pronounced _ch_. Again, all
+consonantal endings in _t_ and _k_, such as survive in Cantonese and
+other dialects, have entirely disappeared from Pekingese, and _n_ and
+_ng_ are the only final consonants remaining. Vowel sounds, on the other
+hand, have been proportionately developed, such compounds as _ao, ia,
+iao, iu, ie, ua_ occurring with especial frequency. (It must be
+understood, of course, that the above are only equivalents, not in all
+cases very exact, for the sounds of a non-alphabetic language.)
+
+An immediate consequence of this paucity of vocables is that one and the
+same sound has to do duty for different words. Reckoning the number of
+words that an educated man would want to use in conversation at
+something over four thousand, it is obvious that there will be an
+average of ten meanings to each sound employed. Some sounds may have
+fewer meanings attached to them, but others will have many more. Thus
+the following represent only a fraction of the total number of words
+pronounced _shih_ (something like the "shi" in shirt): [Ch] "history,"
+[Ch] "to employ," [Ch] "a corpse," [Ch] "a market," [Ch] "an army," [Ch]
+"a lion," [Ch] "to rely on," [Ch] "to wait on," [Ch] "poetry," [Ch]
+"time," [Ch] "to know," [Ch] "to bestow," [Ch] "to be," [Ch] "solid,"
+[Ch] "to lose," [Ch] "to proclaim," [Ch] "to look at," [Ch] "ten," [Ch]
+"to pick up," [Ch] "stone," [Ch] "generation," [Ch] "to eat," [Ch] "a
+house," [Ch] "a clan," [Ch] "beginning," [Ch] "to let go," [Ch] "to
+test," [Ch] "affair," [Ch] "power," [Ch] "officer," [Ch] "to swear,"
+[Ch] "to pass away," [Ch] "to happen." It would be manifestly impossible
+to speak without ambiguity, or indeed to make oneself intelligible at
+all, unless there were some means of supplementing this deficiency of
+sounds. As a matter of fact, several devices are employed through the
+combination of which confusion is avoided. One of these devices is the
+coupling of words in pairs in order to express a single idea. There is a
+word [Ch] _ko_ which means "elder brother." But in speaking, the sound
+_ko_ alone would not always be easily understood in this sense. One must
+either reduplicate it and say _ko-ko_, or prefix [Ch] (_ta_, "great")
+and say _ta-ko_. Simple reduplication is mostly confined to family
+appellations and such adverbial phrases as [Ch][Ch] _man-man_, "slowly."
+But there is a much larger class of pairs, in which each of the two
+components has the same meaning. Examples are: [Ch][Ch] _k'ung-p'a_,
+"to be afraid," [Ch][Ch] _kao-su_, "to tell," [Ch][Ch] _shu-mu_, "tree,"
+[Ch][Ch] _p'i-fu_, "skin," [Ch][Ch] _man-ying_, "full," [Ch][Ch]
+_ku-tu_, "solitary." Sometimes the two parts are not exactly synonymous,
+but together make up the sense required. Thus in [Ch][Ch] _i-shang_,
+"clothes," _i_ denotes more particularly clothes worn on the upper part
+of the body, and _shang_ those on the lower part. [Ch][Ch] _feng-huang_
+is the name of a fabulous bird, _feng_ being the male, and _kuang_ the
+female. In another very large class of expressions, the first word
+serves to limit and determine the special meaning of the second:
+[Ch][Ch] "milk-skin," "cream"; [Ch][Ch] "fire-leg," "ham"; [Ch][Ch]
+"lamp-cage," "lantern"; [Ch][Ch] "sea-waist," "strait." There are,
+besides, a number of phrases which are harder to classify. Thus, [Ch]
+_hu_ means "tiger." But in any case where ambiguity might arise,
+_lao-hu_, "old tiger," is used instead of the monosyllable. [Ch]
+(another _hu_) is "fox," and [Ch] _li_, an animal belonging to the
+smaller cat tribe. Together, _hu-li_, they form the usual term for fox.
+[Ch][Ch] _chih tao_ is literally "to know the way," but has come to be
+used simply for the verb "to know." These pairs or two-word phrases are
+of such frequent occurrence, that the Chinese spoken language might
+almost be described as bi-syllabic. Something similar is seen in the
+extensive use of suffixes or enclitics, attached to many of the
+commonest nouns. [Ch] _nue_ is the word for "girl," but in speech
+[Ch][Ch] _nue-tz[)u]_ or [Ch][Ch] _nue-'rh_ is the form used. [Ch] and
+[Ch] both mean child, and must originally have been diminutives. A
+fairly close parallel is afforded by the German suffix _chen_, as in
+_Maedchen_. The suffix [Ch], it may be remarked, belongs especially to
+the Peking vernacular. Then, the use of so-called numeratives will often
+give some sort of clue as to the class of objects in which a substantive
+may be found. When in pidgin English we speak of "one piecee man" or
+"three piecee dollar," the word _piecee_ is simply a Chinese numerative
+in English dress. Even in ordinary English, people do not say "four
+cattle" but "four _head_ of cattle." But in Chinese the use of
+numeratives is quite a distinctive feature of the language. The
+commonest of them, [Ch] _ko_, can be used indifferently in connexion
+with almost any class of things, animal, vegetable or mineral. But there
+are other numeratives--at least 20 or 30 in everyday use--which are
+strictly reserved for limited classes of things with specific
+attributes. [Ch] _mei_, for instance, is the numerative of circular
+objects such as coins and rings; [Ch] _k'o_ of small globular
+objects--pearls, grains of rice, &c.; [Ch] _k'ou_ classifies things
+which have a mouth--bags, boxes and so forth; [Ch] _chien_ is used of
+all kinds of affairs; [Ch] _chang_ of chairs and sheets of paper; [Ch]
+_chih_ (literally half a pair) is the numerative for various animals,
+parts of the body, articles of clothing and ships; [Ch] _pa_ for things
+which are grasped by a handle, such as fans and knives.
+
+This by no means exhausts the list of devices by which the difficulties
+of a monosyllabic language are successfully overcome. Mention need only
+be made, however, of the system of "tones," which, as the most curious
+and important of all, has been kept for the last.
+
+
+  The tones.
+
+The tones may be defined as regular modulations of the voice by means of
+which different inflections can be imparted to the same sound. They may
+be compared with the half-involuntary modulations which express
+emotional feeling in our words. To the foreign ear, a Chinese sentence
+spoken slowly with the tones clearly brought out has a certain sing-song
+effect. If we speak of the tones as a "device" adopted in order to
+increase the number of vocables, this must be understood rather as a
+convenient way of explaining their practical function than as a
+scientific account of their origin. It is absurd to suppose the tones
+were deliberately invented in order to fit each written character with a
+separate sound. A tone may be said to be as much an integral part of the
+word to which it belongs as the sound itself; like the sound, too, it is
+not fixed once and for all, but is in a constant, though very gradual,
+state of evolution. This fact is proved by the great differences of
+intonation in the dialects. Theoretically, four tones have been
+distinguished--the even, the rising, the sinking and the entering--each
+of which falls again into an upper and a lower series. But only the
+Cantonese dialect possesses all these eight varieties of tone (to which
+a ninth has been added), while Pekingese, with which we are especially
+concerned here, has no more than four: the even upper, the even lower,
+the rising and the sinking. The history of the tones has yet to be
+written, but it appears that down to the 3rd century B.C. the only tones
+distinguished were the [Ch] "even," [Ch] "rising" and [Ch] "entering."
+Between that date and the 4th century A.D. the [Ch] sinking tone was
+developed. In the 11th century the even tone was divided into upper and
+lower, and a little later the entering tone finally disappeared from
+Pekingese. The following monosyllabic dialogue gives a very fair idea of
+the quality of the four Pekingese tones--_1st tone_: Dead (spoken in a
+raised monotone, with slightly plaintive inflection); _2nd tone_: Dead?
+(simple query); _3rd tone_: Dead? (an incredulous query long drawn out);
+_4th tone_: Dead! (a sharp and decisive answer). The native learns the
+tones unconsciously and by ear alone. For centuries their existence was
+unsuspected, the first systematic classification of them being
+associated with the name of Shen Yo, a scholar who lived A.D. 441-513.
+The Emperor Wu Ti was inclined to be sceptical, and one day said to him:
+"Come, tell me, what are these famous four tones?" "They are
+[Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] whatever your Majesty pleases to make them," replied
+Shen Yo, skilfully selecting for his answer four words which
+illustrated, and in the usual order, the four tones in question.
+Although no native is ever taught the tones separately, they are none
+the less present in the words he utters, and must be acquired
+consciously or unconsciously by any European who wishes to be
+understood. It is a mistake, however, to imagine that every single word
+in a sentence must necessarily be given its full tonic force. Quite a
+number of words, such as the enclitics mentioned above, are not
+intonated at all. In others the degree of emphasis depends partly on the
+tone itself, partly on its position in the sentence. In Pekingese the
+3rd tone (which is really the second in the ordinary series, the 1st
+being subdivided into upper and lower) is particularly important, and
+next to it in this respect comes the 2nd (that is, the lower even, or
+2nd division of the 1st). It may be said, roughly, that any speaker
+whose second and third tones are correct will at any rate be understood,
+even if the 1st and 4th are slurred over.
+
+
+  The characters.
+
+  Pictorial characters.
+
+It is chiefly, however, on its marvellous script and the rich treasures
+of its literature that the Chinese language depends for its unique
+fascination and charm. If we take a page of printed Chinese or carefully
+written manuscript and compare it with a page, say, of Arabic or
+Sanskrit, the Chinese is seen at once to possess a marked characteristic
+of its own. It consists of a number of wholly independent units, each of
+which would fit into a small square, and is called a character. These
+characters are arranged in columns, beginning on the right-hand side of
+the page and running from top to bottom. They are _words_, inasmuch as
+they stand for articulate sounds expressing root-ideas, but they are
+unlike our words in that they are not composed of alphabetical elements
+or letters. Clearly, if each character were a distinct and arbitrarily
+constructed symbol, only those gifted with exceptional powers of memory
+could ever hope to read or write with fluency. This, however, is far
+from being the case. If we go to work synthetically and first see how
+the language is built up, it will soon appear that most Chinese
+characters are susceptible of some kind of analysis. We may accept as
+substantially true the account of native writers who tell us that means
+of communication other than oral began with the use of knotted cords,
+similar to the _quippus_ of ancient Mexico and Peru, and that these were
+displaced later on by the practice of notching or scoring rude marks on
+wood, bamboo and stone. It is beyond question that the first four
+numerals, as written with simple horizontal strokes, date from this
+early period. Notching, however, carries us but a little way on the road
+to a system of writing, which in China, as elsewhere, must have sprung
+originally from pictures. In Chinese writing, especially, the
+indications of such an origin are unmistakable, a few characters,
+indeed, even in their present form, being perfectly recognizable as
+pictures of objects pure and simple. Thus, for "sun" the ancient Chinese
+drew a circle with a dot in it: [Ch], now modified into [Ch]; for "moon"
+[Ch], now [Ch]; for "God" they drew the anthropomorphic figure [Ch],
+which in its modern form appears as [Ch]; for "mountains" [Ch], now [Ch];
+for "child" [Ch], now [Ch]; for "fish" [Ch], now [Ch]; for "mouth" a
+round hole, now [Ch]; for "hand" [Ch], now [Ch]; for "well" [Ch], now
+written without the dot. Hence we see that while the origin of all
+writing is pictographic, in Chinese alone of living languages certain
+pictures have survived, and still denote what they had denoted in the
+beginning. In the script of other countries they were gradually
+transformed into hieroglyphic symbols, after which they either
+disappeared altogether or became further conventionalized into the
+letters of an alphabet. These picture-characters, then, accumulated
+little by little, until they comprised all the common objects which
+could be easily and rapidly delineated--sun, moon, stars, various
+animals, certain parts of the body, tree, grass and so forth, to the
+number of two or three hundred. The next step was to a few compound
+pictograms which would naturally suggest themselves to primitive man:
+[Ch] the sun just above the horizon = "dawn"; [Ch] trees side by side =
+"a forest"; [Ch] a mouth with something solid coming out of it = "the
+tongue"; [Ch] a mouth with vapor or breath coming out of it = "words."
+
+
+  Suggestive compounds.
+
+  Phonetic characters.
+
+But a purely pictographic script has its limitations. The more complex
+natural objects hardly come within its scope; still less the whole body
+of abstract ideas. While writing was still in its infancy, it must have
+occurred to the Chinese to join together two or more pictorial
+characters in order that their association might suggest to the mind
+some third thing or idea. "Sun" and "moon" combined in this way make the
+character [Ch], which means "bright"; woman and child make [Ch] "good";
+"fields" and "strength" (that is, labour in the fields) produce the
+character [Ch] "male"; two "men" on "earth" [Ch] signifies "to
+sit"--before chairs were known; the "sun" seen through "trees" [Ch]
+designates the east; [Ch] has been explained as (1) a "pig" under a
+"roof," the Chinese idea, common to the Irish peasant, of home, and also
+(2) as "several persons" under "a roof," in the same sense; a "woman"
+under a "roof" makes the character [Ch] "peace"; "words" and "tongue"
+[Ch] naturally suggest "speech"; two hands ([Ch], in the old form [Ch])
+indicate friendship; "woman" and "birth" [Ch] = "born of a woman," means
+"clan-name," showing that the ancient Chinese traced through the mother
+and not through the father. Interesting and ingenious as many of these
+combinations are, it is clear that their number, too, must in any
+practical system of writing be severely limited. Hence it is not
+surprising that this class of characters, correctly called ideograms, as
+representing ideas and not objects, should be a comparatively small one.
+Up to this point there seemed to be but little chance of the written
+language reaching a free field for expansion. It had run so far on lines
+sharply distinct from those of ordinary speech. There was nothing in the
+character _per se_ which gave the slightest clue to the sound of the
+word it represented. Each character, therefore, had to be learned and
+recognized by a separate effort of memory. The first step in a new, and,
+as it ultimately proved, the right direction, was the borrowing of a
+character already in use to represent another word identical in sound,
+though different in meaning. Owing to the scarcity of vocables noted
+above, there might be as many as ten different words in common use, each
+pronounced _fang_. Out of those ten only one, we will suppose, had a
+character assigned to it--namely [Ch] "square" (originally said to be a
+picture of two boats joined together). But among the other nine was
+_fang_, meaning "street" or "locality," in such common use that it
+became necessary to have some means of writing it. Instead of inventing
+an altogether new character, as they might have done, the Chinese took
+[Ch] "square" and used it also in the sense of "locality." This was a
+simple expedient, no doubt, but one that, applied on a large scale,
+could not but lead to confusion. The corresponding difficulty which
+presented itself in speech was overcome, as we saw, by many devices, one
+of which consisted in prefixing to the word in question another which
+served to determine its special meaning. A native does not say _fang_
+simply when he wishes to speak of a place, but _li-fang_ "earth-place."
+Exactly the same device was now adopted in writing the character. To
+_fang_ "square" was added another part meaning "earth," in order to show
+that the _fang_ in question had to do with location on the earth's
+surface. The whole character thus appeared as [Ch]. Once this phonetic
+principle had been introduced, all was smooth sailing, and writing
+progressed by leaps and bounds. Nothing was easier now than to provide
+signs for the other words pronounced _fang_. "A room" was [Ch]
+door-_fang_; "to spin" was [Ch] silk-_fang_; "fragrant" was [Ch]
+herbs-_fang_; "to inquire" was [Ch] words-_fang_; "an embankment," and
+hence "to guard against," was [Ch] mound-_fang_; "to hinder" was [Ch]
+woman-_fang_. This last example may seem a little strange until we
+remember that man must have played the principal part in the development
+of writing, and that from the masculine point of view there is something
+essentially obstructive and unmanageable in woman's nature. It may be
+remarked, by the way, that the element "woman" is often the
+determinative in characters that stand for unamiable qualities, e.g.
+[Ch][Ch] "jealous," [Ch][Ch] "treacherous," [Ch] "false" and [Ch]
+"uncanny." This class of characters, which constitutes at least
+nine-tenths of the language, has received the convenient name of
+_phonograms_. It must be added that the formation of the phonogram or
+phonetic compound did not always proceed along such simple lines as in
+the examples given above, where both parts are pictorial characters, one
+the "phonetic," representing the sound, and the other, commonly known as
+the "radical," giving a clue to the sense. In the first place, most of
+the phonetics now existing are not simple pictograms, but themselves
+more or less complex characters made up in a variety of ways. On
+analysing, for instance, the word [Ch] _hsuen_, "to withdraw," we find it
+is composed of the phonetic [Ch] combined with the radical [Ch], an
+abbreviated form of [Ch] "to walk." But [Ch] _sun_ means "grandson," and
+is itself a suggestive compound made up of the two characters [Ch] "a
+son" and [Ch] "connect." The former character is a simple pictogram, but
+the latter is again resolvable into the two elements [Ch] "a down stroke
+to the left" and [Ch] "a strand of silk," which is here understood to be
+the radical and appears in its ancient form as [Ch], a picture of
+cocoons spun by the silkworm. Again, the sound is in most cases given by
+no means exactly by the so-called phonetic, a fact chiefly due to the
+pronunciation having undergone changes which the written character was
+incapable of recording. Thus, we have just seen that the phonetic of
+[Ch] is not _hsuen_ but _sun_. There are extreme cases in which a
+phonetic provides hardly any clue at all as to the sound of its
+derivatives. The character [Ch], for example, which by itself is
+pronounced _ch'ien_, appears in combination as the modern phonetic of
+[Ch] _k'an_, [Ch] _juan_, [Ch] _yin_ and [Ch] _ch'ui_; though in the
+last instance it was not originally the phonetic but the radical of a
+character which was analysed as [Ch] _ch'ien_, "to emit breath" from
+[Ch] "the mouth," the whole character being a suggestive compound rather
+than an illustration of radical and phonetic combined. In general,
+however, it may be said that the "final" or rhyme is pretty accurately
+indicated, while in not a few cases the phonetic does give the exact
+sound for all its derivatives. Thus, the characters in which the element
+[Ch] enters are pronounced _chien, ch'ien, hsien_ and _lien_; but [Ch]
+and its derivatives are all _i_. A considerable number of phonetics are
+nearly or entirely obsolete as separate characters, although their
+family of derivatives may be a very large one. [Ch], for instance, is
+never seen by itself, yet [Ch], [Ch], and [Ch] are among the most
+important characters in the language. Objections have been raised in
+some quarters to this account of the phonetic development of Chinese. It
+is argued that the primitives and sub-primitives, whereby is meant any
+character which is capable of entering into combination with another,
+have really had some influence on the meaning, and do not merely possess
+a phonetic value. But insufficient evidence has hitherto been advanced
+in support of this view.
+
+The whole body of Chinese characters, then, may conveniently be divided
+up, for philological purposes, into pictograms, ideograms and
+phonograms. The first are pictures of objects, the second are composite
+symbols standing for abstract ideas, the third are compound characters
+of which the more important element simply represents a spoken sound. Of
+course, in a strict sense, even the first two classes do not directly
+represent either objects or ideas, but rather stand for sounds by which
+these objects and ideas have previously been expressed. It may, in fact,
+be said that Chinese characters are "nothing but a number of more or
+less ingenious devices for suggesting spoken words to a reader." This
+definition exposes the inaccuracy of the popular notion that Chinese is
+a language of ideographs, a mistake which even the compilers of the
+_Oxford English Dictionary_ have not avoided. Considering that all the
+earliest characters are pictorial, and that the vast majority of the
+remainder are constructed on phonetic principles, it is absurd to speak
+of Chinese characters as "symbolizing the idea of a thing, without
+expressing the name of it."
+
+
+  The "Six Scripts."
+
+The Chinese themselves have always been diligent students of their
+written language, and at a very early date (probably many centuries
+B.C.) evolved a sixfold classification of characters, the so-called
+[Ch][Ch] _liu shu_, very inaccurately translated by the Six Scripts,
+which may be briefly noticed:--
+
+1. [Ch][Ch] _chih shih_, indicative or self-explanatory characters. This
+is a very small class, including only the simplest numerals and a few
+others such as [Ch] "above" and [Ch] "below."
+
+2. [Ch][Ch] _hsiang hsing_, pictographic characters.
+
+3. [Ch][Ch] _hsing sheng_ or [Ch][Ch] _hsieh sheng_, phonetic compounds.
+
+4. [Ch][Ch] _hui i_, suggestive compounds based on a natural association
+of ideas. To this class alone can the term "ideographs" be properly
+applied.
+
+5. [Ch][Ch] _chuan chu_. The meaning of the name has been much disputed,
+some saying that it means "turned round"; e.g. [Ch] _mu_ "eye" is now
+written [Ch]. Others understand it as comprising a few groups of
+characters nearly related in sense, each character consisting of an
+element common to the group, together with a specific and detachable
+part; e.g. [Ch], [Ch], and [Ch], all of which have the meaning "old."
+This class may be ignored altogether, seeing that it is concerned not
+with the origin of characters but only with peculiarities in their use.
+
+6. [Ch][Ch] _chia chieh_, borrowed characters, as explained above, that
+is, characters adopted for different words simply because of the
+identity of sound.
+
+The order of this native classification is not to be taken as in any
+sense chronological. Roughly, it may be said that the development of
+writing followed the course previously traced--that is, beginning with
+indicative signs, and going on with pictograms and ideograms, until
+finally the discovery of the phonetic principle did away with all
+necessity for other devices in enlarging the written language. But we
+have no direct evidence that this was so. There can be little doubt that
+phonetic compounds made their appearance at a very early date, probably
+prior to the invention of a large number of suggestive compounds, and
+perhaps even before the whole existing stock of pictograms had been
+fashioned. It is significant that numerous words of daily occurrence,
+which must have had a place in the earliest stages of human thought,
+are expressed by phonetic characters. We can be fairly certain, at any
+rate, that the period of "borrowed characters" did not last very long,
+though it is thought that traces of it are to be seen in the habit of
+writing several characters, especially those for certain plants and
+animals, indifferently with or without their radicals. Thus [Ch][Ch] "a
+tadpole" is frequently written [Ch][Ch], without the part meaning
+"insect" or "reptile."
+
+
+    Styles of writing.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  In the very earliest inscriptions that have come down to us, the
+  so-called [Ch][Ch] _ku-wen_ or "ancient figures," all the
+  above-mentioned forms occur. None are wholly pictorial, with one or
+  two unimportant exceptions. These early inscriptions are found on
+  bronzes dating from the half-legendary period extending from the
+  beginning of the Shang dynasty in the 18th century B.C., or possibly
+  earlier, down to a point in the reign of King Hsuean of the Chou
+  dynasty, generally fixed at 827 B.C. They have been carefully
+  reproduced and for the most part deciphered by painstaking Chinese
+  archaeologists, and form the subject of many voluminous works. The
+  following may be taken as a specimen, in which it will be noticed that
+  only the last character is unmistakably pictorial: This is read:
+  [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch]--"Shen made [this] precious _ting_." These ancient
+  bronzes, which mainly take the shape of bells, cauldrons and
+  sacrificial utensils, were until within the last decade our sole
+  source of information concerning the origin and early history of
+  Chinese writing. But recently a large number of inscribed bone
+  fragments have been excavated in the north of China, providing new and
+  unexpected matter for investigation. The inscriptions on these bones
+  have already furnished a list of nearly 2500 separate characters, of
+  which not more than about 600 have been so far identified. They appear
+  to be responses given by professional soothsayers to private
+  individuals who came to them seeking the aid of divination in the
+  affairs of their daily life. It is difficult to fix their date with
+  much exactitude. The script, though less archaic than that of the
+  earlier bronzes, is nevertheless of an exceedingly free and irregular
+  type. Judging by the style of the inscriptions alone, one would be
+  inclined to assign them to the early years of the Chou dynasty, say
+  1100 B.C. But Mr L.C. Hopkins thinks that they represent a mode of
+  writing already obsolete at the time of their production, and retained
+  of set purpose by the diviners from obscurantist motives, much as the
+  ancient hieroglyphics were employed by the Egyptian priesthood. He
+  would therefore date them about 500 years later, or only half a
+  century before the birth of Confucius. If that is so, they are merely
+  late specimens of the "ancient figures" appearing long after the
+  latter had made way for a new and more conventionalized form of
+  writing. This new writing is called in Chinese [Ch] _chuan_, which is
+  commonly rendered by the word Seal, for the somewhat unscientific
+  reason that many ages afterwards it was generally adopted for use on
+  seals. Under the Chou dynasty, however, as well as the two succeeding
+  it, the meaning of the word was not "seal," but "sinuous curves," as
+  made in writing. It has accordingly been suggested that this epoch
+  marks the first introduction into China of the brush in place of the
+  bamboo or wooden pencil with frayed end which was used with some kind
+  of colouring matter or varnish. There are many arguments both for and
+  against this view; but it is unquestionable, at any rate, that the
+  introduction of a supple implement like the brush at the very time
+  when the forms of characters were fast becoming crystallized and
+  fixed, would be sufficient to account for a great revolution in the
+  style of writing. Authentic specimens of the [Ch][Ch] _ta chuan_,
+  older or Greater Seal writing, are exceedingly rare. But it is
+  generally believed that the inscriptions on the famous stone drums,
+  now at Peking, date from the reign of King Hsuean, and they may
+  therefore with practical certainty be cited as examples of the Greater
+  Seal in its original form. These "drums" are really ten roughly
+  chiselled mountain boulders, which were discovered in the early part
+  of the 7th century, lying half buried in the ground near Feng-hsiang
+  Fu in the province of Shensi. On them are engraved ten odes, a
+  complete ode being cut on each drum, celebrating an Imperial hunting
+  and fishing expedition in that part of the country. A facsimile of one
+  of these, taken from an old rubbing and reproduced in Dr Bushell's
+  _Handbook of Chinese Art_, shows that great strides had been made in
+  this writing towards symmetry, compactness and conventionalism. The
+  vogue of the Greater Seal appears to have lasted until the reign of
+  the First Emperor, 221-210 B.C. (see _History_), when a further
+  modification took place. For many centuries China had been split up
+  into a number of practically independent states, and this circumstance
+  seems to have led to considerable variations in the styles of writing.
+  Having succeeded in unifying the empire, the First Emperor proceeded,
+  on the advice of his minister Li Ss[)u], to standardize its script by
+  ordaining that only the style in use in his own state of Ch'in should
+  henceforward be employed throughout China. It is clear, then, that
+  this new style of writing was nothing more than the Greater Seal
+  characters in the form they had assumed after several centuries of
+  evolution, with numerous abbreviations and modifications. It was
+  afterwards known as the [Ch][Ch] _hsiao chuan_, or Lesser Seal, and is
+  familiar to us from the _Shuo Wen_ dictionary (see _Literature_).
+  Though a decided improvement on what had gone before, the Lesser Seal
+  was destined to have but a short career of undisputed supremacy.
+  Reform was in the air; and something less cumbrous was soon felt to be
+  necessary by the clerks who had to supply the immense quantity of
+  written reports demanded by the First Emperor. Thus it came about that
+  a yet simpler and certainly more artistic form of writing was already
+  in use, though not universally so, not long after the decree
+  abolishing the Greater Seal. This [Ch][Ch] _li shu_, or "official
+  script," as it is called, shows a great advance on the Seal character;
+  so much so that one cannot help suspecting the traditional account of
+  its invention. It is perhaps more likely to have been directly evolved
+  from the Greater Seal. If the Lesser Seal was the script of the
+  semi-barbarous state of Ch'in, we should certainly expect to find a
+  more highly developed system of writing in some of the other states.
+  Unlike the Seal, the _li shu_ is perfectly legible to one acquainted
+  only with the modern character, from which indeed it differs but in
+  minor details. How long the Lesser Seal continued to exist side by
+  side with the _li shu_ is a question which cannot be answered with
+  certainty. It was evidently quite obsolete, however, at the time of
+  the compilation of the _Shuo Wen_, about a hundred years after the
+  Christian era. As for the Greater Seal and still earlier forms of
+  writing, they were not merely obsolete but had fallen into utter
+  oblivion before the Han Dynasty was fifty years old. When a number of
+  classical texts were discovered bricked up in old houses about 150
+  B.C., the style of writing was considered so singular by the literati
+  of the period that they refused to believe it was the ordinary ancient
+  character at all, and nicknamed it _k'o-t'ou shu_, "tadpole
+  character," from some fancied resemblance in shape. The theory that
+  these tadpole characters were not Chinese but a species of cuneiform
+  script, in which the wedges might possibly suggest tadpoles, must be
+  dismissed as too wildly improbable for serious consideration; but we
+  may advert for a moment to a famous inscription in which the real
+  tadpole characters of antiquity are said to appear. This is on a stone
+  tablet alleged to have been erected on Mount Heng in the modern Hupeh
+  by the legendary Emperor Yue, as a record of his labours in draining
+  away the great flood which submerged part of China in the 23rd century
+  B.C. After more than one fruitless search, the actual monument is said
+  to have been discovered on a peak of the mountain in A.D. 1212, and a
+  transcription was made, which may be seen reproduced as a curiosity in
+  Legge's _Classics_, vol. iii. For several reasons, however, the whole
+  affair must be regarded as a gross imposture.
+
+  Out of the "official script" two other forms were soon developed,
+  namely the [Ch][Ch] _ts'ao shu_, or "grass character," which so
+  curtails the usual strokes as to be comparable to a species of
+  shorthand, requiring special study, and the [Ch][Ch] _hsing shu_ or
+  running hand, used in ordinary correspondence. Some form of grass
+  character is mentioned as in use as early as 200 B.C. or thereabouts,
+  though how nearly it approximated to the modern grass hand it is hard
+  to say; the running hand seems to have come several centuries later.
+  The final standardization of Chinese writing was due to the great
+  calligraphist Wang Hsi-chih of the 4th century, who gave currency to
+  the graceful style of character known as [Ch][Ch] _k'ai shu_,
+  sometimes referred to as the "clerkly hand." When block-printing was
+  invented some centuries later, the characters were cut on this model,
+  which still survives at the present day. It is no doubt owing to the
+  early introduction of printing that the script of China has remained
+  practically unchanged ever since. The manuscript rolls of the T'ang
+  and preceding dynasties, recently discovered by Dr Stein in Turkestan,
+  furnish direct evidence of this fact, showing as they do a style of
+  writing not only clear and legible but remarkably modern in
+  appearance.
+
+  The whole history of Chinese writing, then, is characterized by a slow
+  progressive development which precludes the idea of sharply-marked
+  divisions between one period and another. The Chinese themselves,
+  however, have canonized quite a series of alleged inventors, starting
+  from Fu Hsi, a mythical emperor of the third millennium B.C., who is
+  said to have developed a complete system of written characters from
+  the markings on the back of a dragon-horse; hence, by the way, the
+  origin of the dragon as an Imperial emblem. As a rule, the credit of
+  the invention of the art of writing is given to Ts'ang Chieh, a being
+  with fabulous attributes, who conceived the idea of a written language
+  from the markings of birds' claws upon the sand. The diffusion of the
+  Greater Seal script is traced to a work in fifteen chapters published
+  by Shih Chou, historiographer in the reign of King Hsuean. The Lesser
+  Seal, again, is often ascribed to Li Ss[)u] himself, whereas the
+  utmost he can have done in the matter was to urge its introduction
+  into common use. Likewise, Ch'eng Mo, of the 3rd century B.C., is
+  supposed to have invented the _li shu_ while in prison, and one
+  account attributes the Lesser Seal to him as well; but the fact is
+  that the whole history of writing, as it stands in Chinese authors, is
+  in hopeless confusion.
+
+_Grammar._--When about to embark on the study of a foreign language, the
+student's first thought is to provide himself with two indispensable
+aids--a dictionary and a grammar. The Chinese have found no difficulty
+in producing the former (see _Literature_). Now what as to the grammar?
+He might reasonably expect a people so industrious in the cultivation of
+their language to have evolved some system of grammar which to a certain
+degree would help to smooth his path. And yet the contrary is the case.
+No set of rules governing the mutual relations of words has ever been
+formulated by the Chinese, apparently because the need of such rules has
+never been felt. The most that native writers have done is to draw a
+distinction between [Ch][Ch] and [Ch][Ch] "full" and "empty words,"
+respectively, the former being subdivided into [Ch][Ch] "living words"
+or verbs, and [Ch][Ch] "dead words" or noun-substantives. By "empty
+words" particles are meant, though sometimes the expression is loosely
+applied to abstract terms, including verbs. The above meagre
+classification is their nearest approach to a conception of grammar in
+our sense. This in itself does not prove that a Chinese grammar is
+impossible, nor that, if constructed, it might not be helpful to the
+student. As a matter of fact, several attempts have been made by
+foreigners to deduce a grammatical system which should prove as rigid
+and binding as those of Western languages, though it cannot be said that
+any as yet has stood the test of time or criticism. Other writers have
+gone to the other extreme, and maintained that Chinese has no grammar at
+all. In this dictum, exaggerated as it sounds, there is a very
+substantial amount of truth. Every Chinese character is an indivisible
+unit, representing a sound and standing for a root-idea. Being free from
+inflection or agglutination of any kind, it is incapable of indicating
+in itself either gender, number or case, voice, mood, tense or person.
+Of European languages, English stands nearest to Chinese in this
+respect, whence it follows that the construction of a hybrid jargon like
+pidgin English presents fewer difficulties than would be the case, for
+instance, with pidgin German. For pidgin English simply consists in
+taking English words and treating them like Chinese characters, that is,
+divesting them of all troublesome inflections and reducing them to a set
+of root-ideas arranged in logical sequence. "You wantchee my no
+wantchee" is nothing more nor less than literally rendered Chinese:
+[Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] "Do you want me or not?" But we may go further, and
+say that no Chinese character can be definitely regarded as being any
+particular part of speech or possessing any particular function
+absolutely, apart from the general tenor of its context. Thus, taken
+singly, the character [Ch] conveys only the general idea "above" as
+opposed to "below." According to its place in the sentence and the
+requirements of common sense, it may be a noun meaning "upper person"
+(that is, a ruler); an adjective meaning "upper," "topmost" or "best";
+an adverb meaning "above"; a preposition meaning "upon"; and finally a
+verb meaning "to mount upon," or "to go to." [Ch] is a character that
+may usually be translated "to enter" as in [Ch][Ch] "to enter a door";
+yet in the locution [Ch][Ch] "enter wood," the verb becomes causative,
+and the meaning is "to put into a coffin." It would puzzle grammarians
+to determine the precise grammatical function of any of the words in the
+following sentence, with the exception of [Ch] (an interrogative, by the
+way, which here happens to mean "why" but in other contexts is
+equivalent to "how," "which" or "what"): [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] "Affair why
+must ancient," or in more idiomatic English, "Why necessarily stick to
+the ways of the ancients in such matters?" Or take a proverbial saying
+like [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch], which may be correctly rendered "The less
+a man has seen, the more he has to wonder at." It is one thing, however,
+to translate it correctly, and another to explain how this translation
+can be inferred from the individual words, of which the bald equivalents
+might be given as: "Few what see, many what Strange." To say that
+"strange" is the literal equivalent of [Ch] does not mean that [Ch] can
+be definitely classed as an adjective. On the other hand, it would be
+dangerous even to assert that the word here plays the part of an active
+verb, because it would be equally permissible to translate the above
+"Many things are strange to one who has seen but little."
+
+  Chinese grammar, then, so far as it deals with the classification of
+  separate words, may well be given up as a bad job. But there still
+  remains the art of syntax, the due arrangement of words to form
+  sentences according to certain established rules. Here, at any rate,
+  we are on somewhat firmer ground; and for many years the dictum that
+  "the whole of Chinese grammar depends upon position" was regarded as a
+  golden key to the written language of China. It is perfectly true that
+  there are certain positions and collocations of words which tend to
+  recur, but when one sits down to formulate a set of hard-and-fast
+  rules governing these positions, it is soon found to be a thankless
+  task, for the number of qualifications and exceptions which will have
+  to be added is so great as to render the rule itself valueless.
+  [Ch][Ch] means "on a horse," [Ch][Ch] "to get on a horse." But it will
+  not do to say that a preposition becomes a verb when placed before the
+  substantive, as many other prepositions come before and not after the
+  words they govern. If we meet such a phrase as [Ch][Ch], literally
+  "warn rebels," we must not mentally label [Ch] as a verb and [Ch] as a
+  substantive, and say to ourselves that in Chinese the verb is followed
+  immediately by its object. Otherwise, we might be tempted to
+  translate, "to warn the rebels," whereas a little reflection would
+  show us that the conjunction of "warning" and "rebels" naturally leads
+  to the meaning "to warn (the populace or whoever it may be) _against_
+  the rebels." After all our adventurous incursions into the domain of
+  syntax, we are soon brought back to the starting-point and are obliged
+  to confess that each particular passage is best interpreted on its own
+  merits, by the logic of the context and the application of common
+  sense. There is no reason why Chinese sentences should not be
+  dissected, by those who take pleasure in such operations, into
+  subject, copula and predicate, but it should be early impressed upon
+  the beginner that the profit likely to accrue to him therefrom is
+  infinitesimal. As for fixed rules of grammatical construction, so far
+  from being a help, he will find them a positive hindrance. It should
+  rather be his aim to free his mind from such trammels, and to accustom
+  himself to look upon each character as a root-idea, not a definite
+  part of speech.
+
+_The Book Language._--Turning now to some of the more salient
+characteristics of the book language, with the object of explaining how
+it came to be so widely separated from common speech, we might
+reasonably suppose that in primitive times the two stood in much closer
+relation to each other than now. But it is certainly a striking fact
+that the earliest literary remains of any magnitude that have come down
+to us should exhibit a style very far removed from any possible
+colloquial idiom. The speeches of the Book of History (see _Literature_)
+are more manifestly fictitious, by many degrees, than the elaborate
+orations in Thucydides and Livy. If we cannot believe that Socrates
+actually spoke the words attributed to him in the dialogues of Plato,
+much less can we expect to find the _ipsissima verba_ of Confucius in
+any of his recorded sayings. In the beginning, all characters doubtless
+represented spoken words, but it must very soon have dawned on the
+practical Chinese mind that there was no need to reproduce in writing
+the bisyllabic compounds of common speech. _Chien_ "to see," in its
+written form [Ch], could not possibly be confused with any other
+_chien_, and it was therefore unnecessary to go to the trouble of
+writing [Ch][Ch] _k'an-chien_ "look-see," as in colloquial. There was a
+wonderful outburst of literary activity in the Confucian era, when it
+would seem that the older and more cumbrous form of Seal character was
+still in vogue. If the mere manual labour of writing was so great, we
+cannot wonder that all superfluous particles or other words that could
+be dispensed with were ruthlessly cut away. So it came about that all
+the old classical works were composed in the tersest of language, as
+remote as can be imagined from the speech of the people. The passion for
+brevity and conciseness was pushed to an extreme, and resulted more
+often than not in such obscurity that detailed commentaries on the
+classics were found to be necessary, and have always constituted an
+important branch of Chinese literature. After the introduction of the
+improved style of script, and when the mechanical means of writing had
+been simplified, it may be supposed that literary diction also became
+freer and more expansive. This did happen to some extent, but the
+classics were held in such veneration as to exercise the profoundest
+influence over all succeeding schools of writers, and the divorce
+between literature and pooular speech became permanent and
+irreconcilable. The book language absorbed all the interest and energy
+of scholars, and it was inevitable that this elevation of the written
+should be accompanied by a corresponding degradation of the spoken word.
+This must largely account for the somewhat remarkable fact that the art
+of oratory and public speaking has never been deemed worthy of
+cultivation in China, while the comparatively low position occupied by
+the drama may also be referred to the same cause. At the same time, the
+term "book language," in its widest sense, covers a multitude of styles,
+some of which differ from each other nearly as much as from ordinary
+speech. The department of fiction (see _Literature_), which the lettered
+Chinaman affects to despise and will not readily admit within the
+charmed circle of "literature," really constitutes a bridge spanning the
+gulf between the severer classical style and the colloquial; while an
+elegant terseness characterises the higher-class novel, there are others
+in which the style is loose and shambling. Still, it remains true that
+no book of any first-rate literary pretensions would be easily
+intelligible to any class of Chinamen, educated or otherwise, if read
+aloud exactly as printed. The public reader of stories is obliged to
+translate, so to speak, into the colloquial of his audience as he goes
+along. There is no inherent reason why the conversation of everyday life
+should not be rendered into characters, as is done in foreign handbooks
+for teaching elementary Chinese; one can only say that the Chinese do
+not think it worth while. There are a few words, indeed, which, though
+common enough in the mouths of genteel and vulgar alike, have positively
+no characters to represent them. On the other hand, there is a vast
+store of purely book words which would never be used or understood in
+conversation.
+
+The book language is not only nice in its choice of words, it also has
+to obey special rules of construction. Of these, perhaps the most
+apparent is the carefully marked antithesis between characters in
+different clauses of a sentence, which results in a kind of parallelism
+or rhythmic balance. This parallelism is a noticeable feature in
+ordinary poetical composition, and may be well illustrated by the
+following four-line stanza:
+
+"[Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] The bright sun completes its course behind the
+mountains; [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] The yellow river flows away into the
+sea. [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] Would you command a prospect of a thousand
+_li_? [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] Climb yet one storey higher." In the first
+line of this piece, every single character is balanced by a
+corresponding one in the second: [Ch] white by [Ch] yellow, [Ch] sun by
+[Ch] river, and so on. In the 3rd and 4th lines, where more laxity is
+generally allowed, every word again has its counterpart, with the sole
+exception of [Ch] "wish" and [Ch] "further."
+
+The question is often asked: What sort of instrument is Chinese for the
+expression of thought? As a medium for the conveyance of historical
+facts, subtle emotions or abstruse philosophical conceptions, can it
+compare with the languages of the Western world? The answers given to
+this question have varied considerably. But it is noteworthy that those
+who most depreciate the qualities of Chinese are, generally speaking,
+theorists rather than persons possessing a profound first-hand knowledge
+of the language itself. Such writers argue that want of inflection in
+the characters must tend to make Chinese hard and inelastic, and
+therefore incapable of bringing out the finer shades of thought and
+emotion. Answering one a priori argument with another, one might fairly
+retort that, if anything, flexibility is the precise quality to be
+predicated of a language in which any character may, according to the
+requirements of the context, be interpreted either as noun, verb or
+adjective. But all such reasoning is somewhat futile. It will scarcely
+be contended that German, being highly inflected, is therefore superior
+in range and power to English, from which inflections have largely
+disappeared. Some of the early Jesuit missionaries, men of great natural
+ability who steeped themselves in Oriental learning, have left very
+different opinions on record. Chinese appeared to them as admirable for
+the superabundant richness of its vocabulary as for the conciseness of
+its literary style. And among modern scholars there is a decided
+tendency to accept this view as embodying a great deal more truth than
+the other.
+
+Another question, much debated years ago, which time itself is now
+satisfactorily answering, was whether the Chinese language would be able
+to assimilate the vast stock of new terminology which closer contact
+with the West would necessarily carry with it. Two possible courses, it
+seemed, were open: either fresh characters would be formed on the
+radical-phonetic principle, or the new idea might be expressed by the
+conjunction of two or more characters already existing. The former
+expedient had been tried on a limited scale in Japan, where in the
+course of time new characters were formed on the same principle as of
+old, which were yet purely Japanese and find no place in a Chinese
+dictionary. But although the field for such additions was boundless, the
+Chinese have all along been chary of extending the language in this way,
+probably because these modern terms had no Chinese sound which might
+have suggested some particular phonetic. They have preferred to adopt
+the other method, of which [Ch][Ch][Ch] (rise-descend-machine) for
+"lift," and [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] (discuss-govern-country-assembly) for
+"parliament" are examples. Even a metaphysical abstraction like The
+Absolute has been tentatively expressed by [Ch][Ch] (exclude-opposite);
+but in this case an equivalent was already existing in the Chinese
+language.
+
+A very drastic measure, strongly advocated in some quarters, is the
+entire abolition of all characters, to be replaced by their equivalent
+sounds in letters of the alphabet. Under this scheme [Ch] would figure
+as _jen_ or _ren_, [Ch] as _ma_, and so on. But the proposal has fallen
+extremely flat. The vocables, as we have seen, are so few in number that
+only the colloquial, if even that, could possibly be transcribed in this
+manner. Any attempt to transliterate classical Chinese would result in a
+mere jumble of sounds, utterly unintelligible, even with the addition of
+tone-marks. There is another aspect of the case. The characters are a
+potent bond of union between the different parts of the Empire with
+their various dialects. If they should ever fall into disuse, China will
+have taken a first and most fatal step towards internal disruption. Even
+the Japanese, whose language is not only free from dialects, but
+polysyllabic and therefore more suitable for romanization, have utterly
+refused to abandon the Chinese script, which in spite of certain
+disadvantages has hitherto triumphantly adapted itself to the needs of
+civilized intercourse.
+
+  See P. Premare, _Notitiae Linguae Sinicae_ (1831); Ma Kien-chung, _Ma
+  shih wen t'ung_ (1899); L.C. Hopkins, _The Six Scripts_ (1881) and
+  _The Development of Chinese Writing_ (1910); H.A. Giles, _A
+  Chinese-English Dictionary_ (2nd ed., 1910).    (H. A. GI.; L. GI.)
+
+
+VIII. CHINESE LITERATURE
+
+The literature of China is remarkable (1) for its antiquity, coupled
+with an unbroken continuity down to the present day; (2) for the variety
+of subjects presented, and for the exhaustive treatment which, not only
+each subject, but also each subdivision, each separate item, has
+received, as well as for the colossal scale on which so many literary
+monuments have been conceived and carried out; (3) for the accuracy of
+its historical statements, so far as it has been possible to test them;
+and further (4) for its ennobling standards and lofty ideals, as well as
+for its wholesome purity and an almost total absence of coarseness and
+obscenity.
+
+No history of Chinese literature in the Chinese language has yet been
+produced; native scholars, however, have adopted, for bibliographical
+purposes, a rough division into four great classes. Under the first of
+these, we find the Confucian Canon, together with lexicographical,
+philological, and other works dealing with the elucidation of words.
+Under the second, histories of various kinds, officially compiled,
+privately written, constitutional, &c.; also biography, geography and
+bibliography. Under the third, philosophy, religion, e.g. Buddhism; the
+arts and sciences, e.g. war, law, agriculture, medicine, astronomy,
+painting, music and archery; also a host of general works, monographs,
+and treatises on a number of topics, as well as encyclopaedias. The
+fourth class is confined to poetry of all descriptions, poetical
+critiques, and works dealing with the all-important rhymes.
+
+_Poetry._--Proceeding chronologically, without reference to Chinese
+classification, we have to begin, as would naturally be expected, with
+the last of the above four classes. Man's first literary utterances in
+China, as elsewhere, took the form of verse; and the earliest Chinese
+records in our possession are the national lyrics, the songs and
+ballads, chiefly of the feudal age, which reaches back to over a
+thousand years before Christ. Some pieces are indeed attributed to the
+18th century B.C.; the latest bring us down to the 6th century B.C. Such
+is the collection entitled _Shih Ching_ (or _She King_), popularly known
+as the Odes, which was brought together and edited by Confucius, 551-479
+B.C., and is now included among the Sacred Books, forming as it does an
+important portion of the Confucian Canon. These Odes, once over three
+thousand in number, were reduced by Confucius to three hundred and
+eleven; hence they are frequently spoken of as "the Three Hundred." They
+treat of war and love, of eating and drinking and dancing, of the
+virtues and vices of rulers, and of the misery and happiness of the
+people. They are in rhyme. Rhyme is essential to Chinese poetry; there
+is no such thing as blank verse. Further, the rhymes of the Odes have
+always been, and are still, the only recognized rhymes which can be used
+by a Chinese poet, anything else being regarded as mere jingle. Poetical
+licence, however, is tolerated; and great masters have availed
+themselves freely of its aid. One curious result of this is that whereas
+in many instances two given words may have rhymed, as no doubt they did,
+in the speech of three thousand years ago, they no longer rhyme to the
+ear in the colloquial of to-day, although still accepted as true and
+proper rhymes in the composition of verse.
+
+  It is noticeable at once that the Odes are mostly written in lines of
+  four words, examples of lines consisting of any length from a single
+  word to eight, though such do exist, being comparatively rare. These
+  lines of four words, generally recognized as the oldest measure in
+  Chinese poetry, are frequently grouped as quatrains, in which the
+  first, second and fourth lines rhyme; but very often only the second
+  and fourth lines rhyme, and sometimes there are groups of a larger
+  number of lines in which occasional lines are found without any rhyme
+  at all. A few stray pieces, as old as many of those found among the
+  Odes, have been handed down and preserved, in which the metre consists
+  of two lines of three words followed by one line of seven words. These
+  three lines all rhyme, but the rhyme changes with each succeeding
+  triplet. It would be difficult to persuade the English reader that
+  this is a very effective measure, and one in which many a gloomy or
+  pathetic tale has been told. In order to realise how a few Chinese
+  monosyllables in juxtaposition can stir the human heart to its lowest
+  depths, it is necessary to devote some years to the study of the
+  language.
+
+  At the close of the 4th century B.C., a dithyrambic measure, irregular
+  and wild, was introduced and enjoyed considerable vogue. It has indeed
+  been freely adopted by numerous poets from that early date down to the
+  present day; but since the 2nd century B.C. it has been displaced from
+  pre-eminence by the seven-word and five-word measures which are now,
+  after much refinement, the accepted standards for Chinese poetry. The
+  origin of the seven-word metre is lost in remote antiquity; the
+  five-word metre was elaborated under the master-hand of Mei Sheng, who
+  died 140 B.C. Passing over seven centuries of growth, we reach the
+  T'ang dynasty, A.D. 618-905, the most brilliant epoch in the history
+  of Chinese poetry. These three hundred years produced an
+  extraordinarily large number of great poets, and an output of verse of
+  almost incredible extent. In 1707 an anthology of the T'ang poets was
+  published by Imperial order; it ran to nine hundred books or sections,
+  and contained over forty-eight thousand nine hundred separate poems. A
+  copy of this work is in the Chinese department of the University
+  Library at Cambridge.
+
+  It was under the T'ang dynasty that a certain finality was reached in
+  regard to the strict application of the tones to Chinese verse. For
+  the purposes of poetry, all words in the language were ranged under
+  one or the other of two tones, the _even_ and the _oblique_, the
+  former now including the two even tones, of which prior to the 11th
+  century there was only one, and the latter including the rising,
+  sinking and entering tones of ordinary speech. The incidence of these
+  tones, which may be roughly described as sharps and flats, finally
+  became fixed, just as the incidence of certain feet in Latin metres
+  came to be governed by fixed rules. Thus, reading downward from right
+  to left, as in Chinese, a five-word stanza may run:
+
+    Sharp      Flat       Flat       Sharp
+    sharp      flat       flat       sharp
+    flat       sharp      flat       sharp
+      o          o          o          o
+    flat       sharp      sharp      flat
+    sharp      flat       sharp      flat
+
+  A seven-word stanza may run:
+
+    Flat       Sharp      Sharp
+    flat       sharp      sharp      flat
+    sharp      flat       flat       sharp
+    sharp      flat       flat       sharp
+      o          o          o          o
+    flat       sharp      flat       flat
+    flat       sharp      sharp      flat
+    sharp      flat       sharp      sharp
+
+  The above are only two metres out of many, but enough perhaps to give
+  to any one who will read them with a pause or quasi-caesura, as marked
+  by o in each specimen, a fair idea of the rhythmic lilt of Chinese
+  poetry. To the trained ear, the effect is most pleasing; and when this
+  scansion, so to speak, is united with rhyme and choice diction, the
+  result is a vehicle for verse, artificial no doubt, and elaborate, but
+  admirably adapted to the genius of the Chinese language. Moreover, in
+  the hands of the great poets this artificiality disappears altogether.
+  Each word seems to slip naturally into its place; and so far from
+  having been introduced by violence for the ends of prosody, it appears
+  to be the very best word that could have been chosen, even had there
+  been no trammels of any kind, so effectually is the art of the poet
+  concealed by art. From the long string of names which have shed lustre
+  upon this glorious age of Chinese poetry, it may suffice for the
+  present purpose to mention the following, all of the very first rank.
+
+  Meng Hao-jan, A.D. 689-740, failed to succeed at the public
+  competitive examinations, and retired to the mountains where he led
+  the life of a recluse. Later on, he obtained an official post; but he
+  was of a timid disposition, and once when the emperor, attracted by
+  his fame, came to visit him, he hid himself under the bed. His
+  hiding-place was revealed by Wang Wei, a brother poet who was present.
+  The latter, A.D. 699-759, in addition to being a first-rank poet, was
+  also a landscape-painter of great distinction. He was further a firm
+  believer in Buddhism; and after losing his wife and mother, he turned
+  his mountain home into a Buddhist monastery. Of all poets, not one has
+  made his name more widely known than Li Po, or Li T'ai-po, A.D.
+  705-762, popularly known as the Banished Angel, so heavenly were the
+  poems he dashed off, always under the influence of wine. He is said to
+  have met his death, after a tipsy frolic, by leaning out of a boat to
+  embrace the reflection of the moon. Tu Fu, A.D. 712-770, is generally
+  ranked with Li Po, the two being jointly spoken of as the chief poets
+  of their age. The former had indeed such a high opinion of his own
+  poetry that he prescribed it for malarial fever. He led a chequered
+  and wandering life, and died from the effects of eating roast beef and
+  drinking white wine to excess, immediately after a long fast. Po
+  Chue-i, A.D. 772-846, was a very prolific poet. He held several high
+  official posts, but found time for a considerable output of some of
+  the finest poetry in the language. His poems were collected by
+  Imperial command, and engraved upon tablets of stone. In one of them
+  he anticipates by eight centuries the famous ode by Malherbe, _A Du
+  Perrier, sur la mort de sa fille_.
+
+  The T'ang dynasty with all its glories had not long passed away before
+  another imperial house arose, under which poetry flourished again in
+  full vigour. The poets of the Sung dynasty, A.D. 960-1260, were many
+  and varied in style; but their work, much of it of the very highest
+  order, was becoming perhaps a trifle more formal and precise. Life
+  seemed to be taken more seriously than under the gay and
+  pleasure-loving T'angs. The long list of Sung poets includes such
+  names as Ss[)u]-ma Kuang, Ou-yang Hsiu and Wang An-shih, to be
+  mentioned by and by, the first two as historians and the last as
+  political reformer. A still more familiar name in popular estimation
+  is that of Su Tung-p'o, A.D. 103-1101, partly known for his romantic
+  career, now in court favour, now banished to the wilds, but still more
+  renowned as a brilliant poet and writer of fascinating essays.
+
+  The Mongols, A.D. 1260-1368, who succeeded the Sungs, and the Mings
+  who followed the Sungs and bring us down to the year 1644, helped
+  indeed, especially the Mings, to swell the volume of Chinese verse,
+  but without reaching the high level of the two great poetical periods
+  above-mentioned. Then came the present dynasty of Manchu Tatars, of
+  whom the same tale must be told, in spite of two highly-cultured
+  emperors, K'ang Hsi and Ch'ien Lung, both of them poets and one of
+  them author of a collection containing no fewer than 33,950 pieces,
+  most of which, it must be said, are but four-line stanzas, of no
+  literary value whatever. It may be stated in this connexion that
+  whereas China has never produced an epic in verse, it is not true that
+  all Chinese poems are quite short, running only to ten or a dozen
+  lines at the most. Many pieces run to several hundred lines, though
+  the Chinese poet does not usually affect length, one of his highest
+  efforts being the four-line stanza, known as the "stop-short," in
+  which "the words stop while the sense goes on," expanding in the mind
+  of the reader by the suggestive art of the poet. The "stop-short" is
+  the converse of the epigram, which ends in a satisfying turn of
+  thought to which the rest of the composition is intended to lead up;
+  it aims at producing an impression which, so far from being final, is
+  merely the prelude to a long series of visions and of feelings. The
+  last of the four lines is called the "surprise line"; but the
+  revelation it gives is never a complete one: the words stop, but the
+  sense goes on. Just as in the pictorial art of China, so in her
+  poetic art is suggestiveness the great end and aim of the artist.
+  Beginners are taught that the three canons of verse composition are
+  lucidity, simplicity and correctness of diction. Yet some critics have
+  boldly declared for obscurity of expression, alleging that the
+  piquancy of a thought is enhanced by its skilful concealment. For the
+  foreign student, it is not necessary to accentuate the obscurity and
+  difficulty even of poems in which the motive is simple enough. The
+  constant introduction of classical allusions, often in the vaguest
+  terms, and the almost unlimited licence as to the order of words,
+  offer quite sufficient obstacles to easy and rapid comprehension.
+  Poetry has been defined by one Chinese writer as "clothing with words
+  the emotions which surge through the heart." The chief moods of the
+  Chinese poet are a pure delight in the varying phenomena of nature,
+  and a boundless sympathy with the woes and sufferings of humanity.
+  Erotic poetry is not absent, but it is not a feature proportionate in
+  extent to the great body of Chinese verse; it is always restrained,
+  and never lapses from a high level of purity and decorum. In his love
+  for hill and stream which he peoples with genii, and for tree and
+  flower which he endows with sentient souls, the Chinese poet is
+  perhaps seen at his very best; his views of life are somewhat too
+  deeply tinged with melancholy, and often loaded with an overwhelming
+  sadness "at the doubtful doom of human kind." In his lighter moods he
+  draws inspiration, and in his darker moods consolation from the
+  wine-cup. Hard-drinking, not to say drunkenness, seems to have been
+  universal among Chinese poets, and a considerable amount of talent has
+  been expended upon the glorification of wine. From Taoist, and
+  especially from Buddhist sources, many poets have obtained glimpses to
+  make them less forlorn; but it cannot be said that there is any
+  definitely religious poetry in the Chinese language.
+
+_History._--One of the labours undertaken by Confucius was connected
+with a series of ancient documents--that is, ancient in his day--now
+passing under a collective title as _Shu Ching_ (or _Shoo King_), and
+popularly known as the Canon, or Book, of History. Mere fragments as
+some of these documents are, it is from their pages of unknown date that
+we can supplement the pictures drawn for us in the Odes, of the early
+civilization of China. The work opens with an account of the legendary
+emperor Yao, who reigned 2357-2255 B.C., and was able by virtue of an
+elevated personality to give peace and happiness to his "black-haired"
+subjects. With the aid of capable astronomers, he determined the summer
+and winter solstices, and calculated approximately the length of the
+year, availing himself, as required, of the aid of an intercalary month.
+Finally, after a glorious reign, he ceded the throne to a man of the
+people, whose only claim to distinction was his unwavering practice of
+filial piety. Chapter ii. deals with the reign, 2255-2205 B.C., of this
+said man, known in history as the emperor Shun. In accordance with the
+monotheism of the day, he worshipped God in heaven with prayer and burnt
+offerings; he travelled on tours of inspection all over his then
+comparatively narrow empire; he established punishments, to be tempered
+with mercy; he appointed officials to superintend forestry, care of
+animals, religious observances, and music; and he organized a system of
+periodical examinations for public servants. Chapter iii. is devoted to
+details about the Great Yue, who reigned 2205-2197 B.C., having been
+called to the throne for his engineering success in draining the empire
+of a mighty inundation which early western writers sought to identify
+with Noah's Flood. Another interesting chapter gives various
+geographical details, and enumerates the articles, gold, silver, copper,
+iron, steel, silken fabrics, feathers, ivory, hides, &c., &c., brought
+in under the reign of the Great Yue, as tribute from neighbouring
+countries. Other chapters include royal proclamations, speeches to
+troops, announcements of campaigns victoriously concluded, and similar
+subjects. One peculiarly interesting document is the Announcement
+against Drunkenness, which seems to have been for so many centuries a
+national vice, and then to have practically disappeared as such. For the
+past two or three hundred years, drunkenness has always been the
+exception rather than the rule. The Announcement, delivered in the 12th
+century B.C., points out that King Wen, the founder of the Chou dynasty,
+had wished for wine to be used only in connexion with sacrifices, and
+that divine favours had always been liberally showered upon the people
+when such a restriction had been observed. On the other hand, indulgence
+in strong drink had invariably attracted divine vengeance, and the fall
+and disruption of states had often been traceable to that cause. Even
+on sacrificial occasions, drunkenness is to be condemned. "When,
+however, you high officials and others have done your duty in
+ministering to the aged and to your sovereign, you may then eat to
+satiety and drink to elevation." The Announcement winds up with an
+ancient maxim, "Do not seek to see yourself reflected in water, but in
+others,"--whose base actions should warn you not to commit the same;
+adding that those who after a due interval should be unable to give up
+intemperate habits would be put to death. It is worth noting, in
+concluding this brief notice of China's earliest records, that from
+first to last there is no mention whatever of any distant country from
+which the "black-haired people" may have originally come; no vestige of
+any allusion to any other form of civilization, such as that of
+Babylonia, with its cuneiform script and baked-clay tablets, from which
+an attempt has been made to derive the native-born civilization of
+China. A few odd coincidences sum up the chief argument in favour of
+this now discredited theory.
+
+    Annals of the Lu state.
+
+  The next step lands us on the confines, though scarcely in the domain,
+  of history properly so called. Among his other literary labours,
+  Confucius undertook to produce the annals of Lu, his native state; and
+  beginning with the year 722 B.C., he carried the record down to his
+  death in 479, after which it was continued for a few years, presumably
+  by Tso-ch'iu Ming, the shadowy author of the famous Commentary, to
+  which the text is so deeply indebted for vitality and illumination.
+  The work of Confucius is known as the _Ch'un Ch'iu_, the Springs and
+  Autumns, q.d. Annals. It consists of a varying number of brief entries
+  under each year of the reign of each successive ruler of Lu. The
+  feudal system, initiated more than four centuries previously, and
+  consisting of a number of vassal states owning allegiance to a central
+  suzerain state, had already broken hopelessly down, so far as
+  allegiance was concerned. For some time, the object of each vassal
+  ruler had been the aggrandizement of his own state, with a view either
+  to independence or to the hegemony, and the result was a state of
+  almost constant warfare. Accordingly, the entries in the _Ch'un Ch'iu_
+  refer largely to covenants entered into between contracting rulers,
+  official visits from one to another of these rulers, their births and
+  deaths, marriages, invasions of territory, battles, religious
+  ceremonies, &c., interspersed with notices of striking natural
+  phenomena such as eclipses, comets and earthquakes, and of important
+  national calamities, such as floods, drought and famine. For instance,
+  Duke Wen became ruler of Lu in 625 B.C., and under his 14th year, 612
+  B.C., we find twelve entries, of which the following are specimens:--
+
+  2. In spring, in the first month, the men of the Chu State invaded our
+  southern border.
+
+  3. In summer, on the I-hai day of the fifth month, P'an, Marquis of
+  the Ch'i State, died.
+
+  5. In autumn, in the seventh month, there was a comet, which entered
+  Pei-ton ([Greek: abgd] in Ursa Major).
+
+  9. In the ninth month, a son of the Duke of Ch'i murdered his ruler.
+
+  Entry 5 affords the earliest trustworthy instance of a comet in China.
+  A still earlier comet is recorded in what is known as The Bamboo
+  Annals, but the genuineness of that work is disputed.
+
+  It will be readily admitted that the _Ch'un Ch'iu_, written throughout
+  in the same style as the quotations given, would scarcely enable one
+  to reconstruct in any detail the age it professes to record. Happily
+  we are in possession of the _Tso Chuan_, a so-called commentary,
+  presumably by some one named Tso, in which the bald entries in the
+  work of Confucius are separately enlarged upon to such an extent and
+  with such dramatic brilliancy that our commentary reads more like a
+  prose epic than "a treatise consisting of a systematic series of
+  comments or annotations on the text of a literary work." Under its
+  guidance we can follow the intrigues, the alliances, the treacheries,
+  the ruptures of the jealous states which constituted feudal China; in
+  its picture pages we can see, as it were with our own eyes,
+  assassinations, battles, heroic deeds, flights, pursuits and the
+  sufferings of the vanquished from the retribution exacted by the
+  victors. Numerous wise and witty sayings are scattered throughout the
+  work, many of which are in current use at the present day.
+
+
+    The Historical Record.
+
+  History as understood in Europe and the west began in China with the
+  appearance of a remarkable man. Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, who flourished
+  145-87 B.C., was the son of an hereditary grand astrologer, also an
+  eager student of history and the actual planner of the great work so
+  successfully carried out after his death. By the time he was ten years
+  of age, Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien was already well advanced with his studies;
+  and at twenty he set forth on a round of travel which carried him to
+  all parts of the empire. Entering the public service, he was employed
+  upon a mission of inspection to the newly-conquered regions of
+  Ss[)u]ch'uan and Yuennan; in 110 B.C. his father died, and he stepped
+  into the post of grand astrologer. After devoting some time and energy
+  to the reformation of the calendar, he took up the work which had
+  been begun by his father and which was ultimately given to the world
+  as the _Shih Chi_, or Historical Record. This was arranged under five
+  great headings, namely, (l) Annals of Imperial Reigns, (2)
+  Chronological Tables, (3) Monographs, (4) Annals of Vassal Princes,
+  and (5) Biographies.
+
+
+    Burning of the Books.
+
+  The Historical Record begins with the so-called Yellow Emperor, who is
+  said to have come to the throne 2698 B.C. and to have reigned a
+  hundred years. Four other emperors are given, as belonging to this
+  period, among whom we find Yao and Shun, already mentioned. It was
+  China's Golden Age, when rulers and ruled were virtuous alike, and all
+  was peace and prosperity. It is discreetly handled in a few pages by
+  Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, who passes on to the somewhat firmer but still
+  doubtful ground of the early dynasties. Not, however, until the Chou
+  dynasty, 1122-255 B.C., had held sway for some three hundred years can
+  we be said to have reached a point at which history begins to separate
+  itself definitely from legend. In fact, it is only from the 8th
+  century before Christ that any trustworthy record can be safely dated.
+  With the 3rd century before Christ, we are introduced to one of the
+  feudal princes whose military genius enabled him to destroy beyond
+  hope of revival the feudal system which had endured for eight hundred
+  years, and to make himself master of the whole of the China of those
+  days. In 221 B.C. he proclaimed himself the "First Emperor," a title
+  by which he has ever since been known. Everything, including
+  literature, was to begin with his reign; and acting on the advice of
+  his prime minister, he issued an order for the burning of all books,
+  with the exception only of works relating to medicine, divination and
+  agriculture. Those who wished to study law were referred for oral
+  teaching to such as had already qualified in that profession. To carry
+  out the scheme effectively, the First Emperor made a point of
+  examining every day about 120 lb weight of books, in order to get rid
+  of such as he considered to be useless; and he further appointed a
+  number of inspectors to see that his orders were carried out. The
+  result was that about four hundred and sixty scholars were put to
+  death for having disobeyed the imperial command, while many others
+  were banished for life. This incident is known as the Burning of the
+  Books; and there is little doubt that, but for the devotion of the
+  literati, Chinese literature would have had to make a fresh start in
+  212 B.C. As it was, books were bricked up in walls and otherwise
+  widely concealed in the hope that the storm would blow over; and this
+  was actually the case when the Ch'in (Ts'in) dynasty collapsed and the
+  House of Han took its place in 206 B.C. The Confucian books were
+  subsequently recovered from their hiding-places, together with many
+  other works, the loss of which it is difficult now to contemplate.
+  Unfortunately, however, a stimulus was provided, not for the recovery,
+  but for the manufacture of writings, the previous existence of which
+  could be gathered either from tradition or from notices in the various
+  works which had survived. Forgery became the order of the day; and the
+  modern student is confronted with a considerable volume of literature
+  which has to be classified as genuine, doubtful, or spurious,
+  according to the merits of each case. To the first class belongs the
+  bulk, but not all, of the Confucian Canon; to the third must be
+  relegated such books as the _Tao Te Ching_, to be mentioned later on.
+
+  Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, dying in 87 B.C., deals of course only with the
+  opening reigns of the Han dynasty, with which he brings to a close the
+  first great division of his history. The second division consists of
+  chronological tables; the third, of eight monographs on the following
+  topics: (1) Rites and Ceremonies, (2) Music, (3) Natural Philosophy,
+  (4) The Calendar, (5) Astronomy, (6) Religion, (7) Water-ways, and (8)
+  Commerce. On these eight a few remarks may not be out of place, (1)
+  The Chinese seem to have been in possession, from very early ages, of
+  a systematic code of ceremonial observances, so that it is no surprise
+  to find the subject included, and taking an important place, in
+  Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien's work. The _Li Chi_, or Book of Rites, which now
+  forms part of the Confucian Canon, is however a comparatively modern
+  compilation, dating only from the 1st century B.C. (2) The
+  extraordinary similarities between the Chinese and Pythagorean systems
+  of music force the conclusion that one of these must necessarily have
+  been derived from the other. The Jesuit Fathers jumped to the
+  conclusion that the Greeks borrowed their art from the Chinese; but it
+  is now common knowledge that the Chinese scale did not exist in China
+  until two centuries after its appearance in Greece. The fact is that
+  the ancient Chinese works on music perished at the Burning of the
+  Books; and we are told that by the middle of the 2nd century B.C. the
+  hereditary Court music-master was altogether ignorant of his art. What
+  we may call modern Chinese music reached China through Bactria, a
+  Greek kingdom, founded by Diodotus in 256 B.C., with which intercourse
+  had been established by the Chinese at an early date. (3) The term
+  Natural Philosophy can only be applied by courtesy to this essay,
+  which deals with twelve bamboo tubes of varying lengths, by means of
+  which, coupled with the twenty-eight zodiacal constellations and with
+  certain calendaric accords, divine communication is established with
+  the influences of the five elements and the points of the compass
+  corresponding with the eight winds. (4) In this connexion, it is worth
+  noting that in 104 B.C. the Chinese first adopted a cycle of nineteen
+  years, a period which exactly brings together the solar and the lunar
+  years; and further that this very cycle is said to have been
+  introduced by Meton, 5th century B.C., and was adopted at Athens about
+  330 B.C., probably reaching China, via Bactria, some two centuries
+  afterwards. (5) This chapter deals specially with the sun, moon and
+  five planets, which are supposed to aid in the divine government of
+  mankind. (6) Refers to the solemn sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, as
+  performed by the emperor upon the summit of Mt. T'ai in Shan-tung. (7)
+  Refers to the management of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow river, so often
+  spoken of as "China's Sorrow," and also of the numerous canals with
+  which the empire is intersected. (8) This chapter, which treats of the
+  circulation of money, and its function in the Chinese theory of
+  political economy, is based upon the establishment in 110 B.C. of
+  certain officials whose business it was to regularize commerce. It was
+  their duty to buy up the chief necessaries of life when abundant and
+  when prices were in consequence low, and to offer these for sale when
+  there was a shortage and when prices would otherwise have risen
+  unduly. Thus it was hoped that a stability in commercial transactions
+  would be attained, to the great advantage of the people. The fourth
+  division of the _Shih Chi_ is devoted to the annals of the reigns of
+  vassal princes, to be read in connexion with the imperial annals of
+  the first division. The final division, which is in many ways the most
+  interesting of all, gives biographical notices of eminent or notorious
+  men and women, from the earliest ages downwards, and enables us to
+  draw conclusions at which otherwise it would have been impossible to
+  arrive. Confucius and Mencius, for instance, stand out as real
+  personages who actually played a part in China's history; while all we
+  can gather from the short life of Lao Tz[)u], a part of which reads
+  like an interpolation by another hand, is that he was a more or less
+  legendary individual, whose very existence at the date usually
+  assigned to him, 7th and 6th centuries B.C., is altogether doubtful.
+  Scattered among these biographies are a few notices of frontier
+  nations; e.g. of the terrible nomads known as the Hsiung-nu, whose
+  identity with the Huns has now been placed beyond a doubt.
+
+  Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien's great work, on which he laboured for so many vears
+  and which ran to five hundred and twenty-six thousand five hundred
+  words, has been described somewhat at length for the following reason.
+  It has been accepted as the model for all subsequent dynastic
+  histories, of which twenty-four have now been published, the whole
+  being produced in 1747 in a uniform edition, bound up (in the
+  Cambridge Library) in two hundred and nineteen large volumes. Each
+  dynasty has found its historian in the dynasty which supplanted it;
+  and each dynastic history is notable for the extreme fairness with
+  which the conquerors have dealt with the vanquished, accepting without
+  demur such records of their predecessors as were available from
+  official sources. The T'ang dynasty, A.D. 618-906, offers in one sense
+  a curious exception to the general rule. It possesses two histories,
+  both included in the above series. The first of these, now known as
+  the Old T'ang History, was ultimately set aside as inaccurate and
+  inadequate, and a New T'ang History was compiled by Ou-yang Hsiu, a
+  distinguished scholar, poet and statesman of the 11th century.
+  Nevertheless, in all cases, the scheme of the dynastic history has,
+  with certain modifications, been that which was initiated in the 1st
+  century B.C. by Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien.
+
+
+    The Mirror of History.
+
+  The output of history, however, does not begin and end with the
+  voluminous records above referred to, one of which, it should be
+  mentioned, was in great part the work of a woman. History has always
+  been a favourite study with the Chinese, and innumerable histories of
+  a non-official character, long and short, complete and partial,
+  political and constitutional, have been showered from age to age upon
+  the Chinese reading world. Space would fail for the mere mention of a
+  tithe of such works; but there is one which stands out among the rest
+  and is especially enshrined in the hearts of the Chinese people. This
+  is the _T'ung Chien_, or Mirror of History, so called because "to view
+  antiquity as though in a mirror is an aid in the administration of
+  government." It was the work of a statesman of the 11th century, whose
+  name, by a coincidence, was Ss[)u]-ma Kuang. He had been forced to
+  retire from office, and spent nearly all the last sixteen years of his
+  life in historical research. The Mirror of History embraces a period
+  from the 5th century B.C. down to A.D. 960. It is written in a
+  picturesque style; but the arrangement was found to be unsuited to the
+  systematic study of history. Accordingly, it was subjected to
+  revision, and was to a great extent reconstructed by Chu Hsi, the
+  famous commentator, who flourished A.D. 1130-1200, and whose work is
+  now regarded as the standard history of China.
+
+_Biography._--In regard to biography, the student is by no means limited
+to the dynastic histories. Many huge biographical collections have been
+compiled and published by private individuals, and many lives of the
+same personages have often been written from different points of view.
+There is nothing very much by which a Chinese biography can be
+distinguished from biographies produced in other parts of the world. The
+Chinese writer always begins with the place of birth, but he is not so
+particular about the year, sometimes leaving that to be gathered from
+the date of death taken in connexion with the age which the person may
+have attained. Some allusion is usually made to ancestry, and the steps
+of an official career, upward by promotion or downward by disgrace, are
+also carefully noted.
+
+_Geography and Travel._--There is a considerable volume of Chinese
+literature which comes under this head; but if we exclude certain brief
+notices of foreign countries, there remains nothing in the way of
+general geography which had been produced prior to the arrival of the
+Jesuit Fathers at the close of the 16th century. Up to that period
+geography meant the topography of the Chinese empire; and of
+topographical records there is a very large and valuable collection.
+Every prefecture and department, some eighteen hundred in all, has each
+its own particular topography, compiled from records and from tradition
+with a fullness that leaves nothing to be desired. The buildings,
+bridges, monuments of archaeological interest, &c., in each district,
+are all carefully inserted, side by side with biographical and other
+local details, always of interest to residents and often to the outside
+public. An extensive general geography of the empire was last published
+in 1745; and this was followed by a chronological geography in 1794.
+
+
+  Fa Hsien.
+
+The Chinese have always been fond of travel, and hosts of travellers
+have published notices, more or less extensive, of the different parts
+of the empire, and even of adjacent nations, which they visited either
+as private individuals or, in the former case, as officials proceeding
+to distant posts. With Buddhism came the desire to see the country which
+was the home of the Buddha; and several important pilgrimages were
+undertaken with a view to bring back images and sacred writings to
+China. On such a journey the Buddhist priest, Fa Hsien, started in A.D.
+399; and after practically walking the whole way from central China,
+across the desert of Gobi, on to Khoten, and across the Hindu Kush into
+India, he visited many of the chief cities of India, until at length
+reaching Calcutta he took ship, and after a most adventurous voyage, in
+the course of which he remained two years in Ceylon, he finally arrived
+safely, in A.D. 414, with all his books, pictures, and images, at a spot
+on the coast of Shan-tung, near the modern German port of Kiao-chow.
+
+
+  Hsuean Tsang.
+
+Another of these adventurous priests was Hsuean Tsang (wrongly, Yuean
+Chwang), who left China on a similar mission in 629, and returned in
+645, bringing with him six hundred and fifty-seven Buddhist books,
+besides many images and pictures, and one hundred and fifty relics. He
+spent the rest of his life in translating, with the help of other
+learned priests, these books into Chinese, and completed in 648 the
+important record of his own travels, known as the Record of Western
+Countries.
+
+
+  Lao Tz[)u].
+
+_Philosophy._--Even the briefest _resume_ of Chinese philosophical
+literature must necessarily include the name of Lao Tz[)u], although his
+era, as seen above, and his personality are both matters of the vaguest
+conjecture. A number of his sayings, scattered over the works of early
+writers, have been pieced together, with the addition of much
+incomprehensible jargon, and the whole has been given to the world as
+the work of Lao Tz[)u] himself, said to be of the 6th century B.C.,
+under the title of the _Tao Te Ching_. The internal evidence against
+this book is overwhelming; e.g. one quotation had been detached from the
+writer who preserved it, with part of that writer's text clinging to
+it--of course by an oversight. Further, such a treatise is never
+mentioned in Chinese literature until some time after the Burning of the
+Books, that is, about four centuries after its alleged first appearance.
+Still, after due expurgation, it forms an almost complete collection of
+such apophthegms of Lao Tz[)u] as have come down to us, from which the
+reader can learn that the author taught the great doctrine of
+Inaction--Do nothing, and all things will be done. Also, that Lao Tz[)u]
+anticipated the Christian doctrine of returning good for evil, a
+sentiment which was highly reprobated by the practical mind of
+Confucius, who declared that evil should be met by justice. Among the
+more picturesque of his utterances are such paradoxes as, "He who knows
+how to shut, uses no bolts; yet you cannot open. He who knows how to
+bind uses no ropes; yet you cannot untie"; "The weak overcomes the
+strong; the soft overcomes the hard," &c.
+
+
+    Chuang Tz[)u].
+
+  These, and many similar subtleties of speech, seem to have fired the
+  imagination of Chuang Tz[)u], 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., with the
+  result that he put much time and energy into the glorification of Lao
+  Tz[)u] and his doctrines. Possessed of a brilliant style and a master
+  of irony, Chuang Tz[)u] attacked the schools of Confucius and Mo Ti
+  (see below) with so much dialectic skill that the ablest scholars of
+  the age were unable to refute his destructive criticisms. His pages
+  abound in quaint anecdotes and allegorical instances, arising as it
+  were spontaneously out of the questions handled, and imparting a
+  lively interest to points which might otherwise have seemed dusty and
+  dull. He was an idealist with all the idealist's hatred of a
+  utilitarian system, and a mystic with all the mystic's contempt for a
+  life of mere external activity. Only thirty-three chapters of his work
+  now remain, though so many as fifty-three are known to have been still
+  extant in the 3rd century; and even of these, several complete
+  chapters are spurious, while in others it is comparatively easy to
+  detect here and there the hand of the interpolator. What remains,
+  however, after all reductions, has been enough to secure a lasting
+  place for Chuang Tz[)u] as the most original of China's philosophical
+  writers. His book is of course under the ban of heterodoxy, in common
+  with all thought opposed to the Confucian teachings. His views as
+  mystic, idealist, moralist and social reformer have no weight with the
+  aspirant who has his way to make in official life; but they are a
+  delight, and even a consolation, to many of the older men, who have no
+  longer anything to gain or to lose.
+
+
+    Confucius.
+
+  Confucius, 551-479 B.C., who imagined that his Annals of the Lu State
+  would give him immortality, has always been much more widely
+  appreciated as a moralist than as an historian. His talks with his
+  disciples and with others have been preserved for us, together with
+  some details of his personal and private life; and the volume in which
+  these are collected forms one of the Four Books of the Confucian
+  Canon. Starting from the axiomatic declaration that man is born good
+  and only becomes evil by his environment, he takes filial piety and
+  duty to one's neighbour as his chief themes, often illustrating his
+  arguments with almost Johnsonian emphasis. He cherished a shadowy
+  belief in a God, but not in a future state of reward or punishment for
+  good or evil actions in this world. He rather taught men to be
+  virtuous for virtue's sake.
+
+
+    Mencius.
+
+    Mo Ti.
+
+    Yang Chu.
+
+    Hsuen Tz[)u].
+
+    Yang Hsiung.
+
+  The discourses of Mencius, who followed Confucius after an interval of
+  a hundred years, 372-289 B.C., form another of the Four Books, the
+  remaining two of which are short philosophical treatises, usually
+  ascribed to a grandson of Confucius. Mencius devoted his life to
+  elucidating and expanding the teachings of the Master; and it is no
+  doubt due to him that the Confucian doctrines obtained so wide a
+  vogue. But he himself was more a politician and an economist (see
+  below) than a simple preacher of morality; and hence it is that the
+  Chinese people have accorded to him the title of The Second Sage. He
+  is considered to have effectually "snuffed out" the heterodox school
+  of Mo Ti, a philosopher of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. who
+  propounded a doctrine of "universal love" as the proper foundation for
+  organized society, arguing that under such a system all the calamities
+  that men bring upon one another would altogether disappear, and the
+  Golden Age would be renewed. At the same time Mencius exposed the
+  fallacies of the speculations of Yang Chu, 4th century B.C., who
+  founded a school of ethical egoism as opposed to the exaggerated
+  altruism of Mo Ti. According to Mencius, Yang Chu would not have
+  parted with one hair of his body to save the whole world, whereas Mo
+  Ti would have sacrificed all. Another early philosopher is Hsuen
+  Tz[)u], 3rd century B.C. He maintained, in opposition to Mencius, who
+  upheld the Confucian dogma, and in conformity with Christian doctrine,
+  that the nature of man at his birth is evil, and that this condition
+  can only be changed by efficient moral training. Then came Yang
+  Hsiung, 53-18 B.C., who propounded an ethical criterion midway between
+  the rival positions insisted on by Mencius and Hsuen Tz[)u], teaching
+  that the nature of man at birth is neither good nor evil, but a
+  mixture of both, and that development in either direction depends
+  wholly upon circumstances.
+
+
+    Huai-nan Tz[)u].
+
+  There is a voluminous and interesting work, of doubtful age, which
+  passes under the title of _Huai-nan Tz[)u]_, or the Philosopher of
+  Huai-nan. It is attributed to Liu An, prince of Huai-nan, who died 122
+  B.C., and who is further said to have written on alchemy; but alchemy
+  was scarcely known in China at the date of his death, being introduced
+  about that time from Greece. The author, whoever he may have been,
+  poses as a disciple of Lao Tz[)u]; but the speculations of Lao Tz[)u],
+  as glorified by Chuang Tz[)u], were then rapidly sinking into vulgar
+  efforts to discover the elixir of life. It is very difficult in many
+  cases of this kind to decide what books are, and what books are not,
+  partial or complete forgeries. In the present instance, the aid of the
+  _Shuo Wen_, a dictionary of the 1st century A.D. (see below), may be
+  invoked, but not in quite so satisfactory a sense as that in which it
+  will be seen lower down to have been applied to the _Tao Te Ching_.
+  The _Shuo Wen_ contains a quotation said to be taken from _Huai-nan
+  Tz[)u]_; but that quotation cannot be found in the work under
+  consideration. It may be argued that the words in question may have
+  been taken from another work by the same author; but if so, it becomes
+  difficult to believe that a book, more than two hundred years old,
+  from which the author of the _Shuo Wen_ quoted, should have been
+  allowed to perish without leaving any trace behind. China has produced
+  its Bentleys in considerable numbers; but almost all of them have
+  given their attention to textual criticism of the Confucian Canon, and
+  few have condescended to examine critically the works of heterodox
+  writers. The foreign student therefore finds himself faced with many
+  knotty points he is entirely unable to solve.
+
+
+    Wang Ch'ung.
+
+  Of Wang Ch'ung, a speculative and materialistic philosopher, A.D.
+  27-97, banned by the orthodox for his attacks on Confucius and
+  Mencius, only one work has survived. it consists of eighty-four essays
+  on such topics as the nature of things, destiny, divination, death,
+  ghosts, poisons, miracles, criticisms of Confucius and Mencius,
+  exaggeration, sacrifice and exorcism. According to Wang Ch'ung, man,
+  endowed at birth sometimes with a good and sometimes with an evil
+  nature, is informed with a vital fluid, which resides in the blood and
+  is nourished by eating and drinking, its two functions being to
+  animate the body and keep in order the mind. It is the source of all
+  sensation, passing through the blood like a wave. When it reaches the
+  eyes, ears and mouth, the result is sight, hearing and speech
+  respectively. Disturbance of the vital fluid leads to insanity.
+  Without the fluid, the body cannot be maintained; without the body,
+  the fluid loses its vitality. Therefore, argues Wang Ch'ung, when the
+  body perishes and the fluid loses its vitality, each being dependent
+  on the other, there remains nothing for immortality in a life beyond
+  the grave. Ghosts he held to be the hallucinations of disordered
+  minds, and miracles to be natural phenomena capable of simple
+  explanations. His indictments of Confucius and Mencius are not of a
+  serious character; though, as regards the former, it must be borne in
+  mind that the Chinese people will not suffer the faintest aspersion on
+  the fair fame of their great Sage. It is related in the _Lun Yue_ that
+  Confucius paid a visit to the notoriously immoral wife of one of the
+  feudal nobles, and that a certain disciple was "displeased" in
+  consequence, whereupon the Master swore, saying, "If I have done any
+  wrong, may the sky fall and crush me!" Wang Ch'ung points out that the
+  form of oath adopted by Confucius is unsatisfactory and fails to carry
+  conviction. Had he said, "May I be struck dead by lightning!" his
+  sincerity would have been more powerfully attested, because people are
+  often struck dead by lightning; whereas the fall of the sky is too
+  remote a contingency, such a thing never having been known to happen
+  within the memory of man. As to Mencius, there is a passage in his
+  works which states that a thread of predestination runs through all
+  human life, and that those who accommodate themselves will come off
+  better in the end than those who try to oppose; it is in fact a
+  statement of the [Greek: ouk uper moron] principle. On this Wang
+  Ch'ung remarks that the will of God is consequently made to depend on
+  human actions; and he further strengthens his objection by showing
+  that the best men have often fared worst. For instance, Confucius
+  never became emperor; Pi Kan, the patriot, was disembowelled; the bold
+  and faithful disciple, Tz[)u] Lu, was chopped into small pieces.
+
+
+    Book of Changes.
+
+  But the tale of Chinese philosophers is a long one. It is a department
+  of literature in which the leading scholars of all ages have mostly
+  had something to say. The great Chu Hsi, A.D. 1130-1200, whose fame is
+  chiefly perhaps that of a commentator and whose monument is his
+  uniform exegesis of the Confucian Canon, was also a voluminous writer
+  on philosophy. He took a hand in the mystery which surrounds the _I
+  Ching_ (or _Yih King_), generally known as the Book of Changes, which
+  is held by some to be the oldest Chinese work and which forms part of
+  the Confucian Canon. It is ascribed to King Wen, the virtual founder
+  of the Chou dynasty, 1122-249 B.C., whose son became the first
+  sovereign and posthumously raised his father to kingly rank. It
+  contains a fanciful system of divination, deduced originally from
+  eight diagrams consisting of triplet combinations of a line and a
+  broken line, either one of which is necessarily repeated twice, and in
+  two cases three times, in the same combination. Thus there may be
+  three lines [Illustration], or three broken lines [Illustration], and
+  other such combinations as [Illustration] and [Illustration].
+  Confucius declared that he would like to give another fifty years to
+  the elucidation of this puzzling text. Shao Yung, A.D. 1011-1077,
+  sought the key in numbers: Ch'eng I., A.D. 1033-1107, in the eternal
+  fitness of things. "But Chu Hsi alone," says a writer of the 17th
+  century, "was able to pierce through the meaning and appropriate the
+  thoughts of the inspired man who composed it." No foreigner, however,
+  has been able quite to understand what Chu Hsi did make of it, and
+  several have gone so far as to set all native interpretations aside in
+  favour of their own. Thus, the _I Ching_ has been discovered by one to
+  be a calendar of the lunar year; by another, to contain a system of
+  phallic worship; and by a third, to be a vocabulary of the language of
+  a tribe, whose very existence had to be postulated for the purpose.
+
+
+    Kuan Chung.
+
+  _Political Economy._--This department of literature has been by no
+  means neglected by Chinese writers. So early as the 7th century B.C.
+  we find Kuan Chung, the prime minister of the Ch'i state, devoting his
+  attention to economic problems, and thereby making that state the
+  wealthiest and the strongest of all the feudal kingdoms. Beginning
+  life as a merchant, he passed into the public service, and left behind
+  him at death a large work, parts of which, as we now possess it, may
+  possibly have come direct from his own hand, the remainder being
+  written up at a later date in accordance with the principles he
+  inculcated. His ideal State was divided into twenty-one parts, fifteen
+  of which were allotted to officials and agriculturists, and six to
+  manufacturers and traders. His great idea was to make his own state
+  self-contained; and accordingly he fostered agriculture in order to be
+  independent in time of war, and manufactures in order to increase his
+  country's wealth in time of peace. He held that a purely agricultural
+  population would always remain poor; while a purely manufacturing
+  population would risk having its supplies of raw material cut off in
+  time of war. He warmly encouraged free imports as a means of enriching
+  his countrymen, trusting to their ability, under these conditions, to
+  hold their own against foreign competition. He protected capital, in
+  the sense that he considered capitalists to be necessary for the
+  development of commerce in time of peace, and for the protection of
+  the state in time of war.
+
+  Mencius (see above) was in favour of heavily taxing merchants who
+  tried to engross for the purpose of regrating, that is, to buy up
+  wholesale for the purpose of retailing at monopoly prices; he was in
+  fact opposed to all trusts and corners in trade. He was in favour of a
+  tax to be imposed upon such persons as were mere consumers, living
+  upon property which had been amassed by others and doing no work
+  themselves. No tax, however, was to be exacted from property-owners
+  who contributed by their personal efforts to the general welfare of
+  the community. The object of the tax was not revenue, but the
+  prevention of idleness with its attendant evil consequences to the
+  state.
+
+
+    Wang An-shih.
+
+  Wang An-shih, the Reformer, or Innovator, as he has been called,
+  flourished A.D. 1021-1086. In 1069 he was appointed state councillor,
+  and forthwith entered upon a series of startling reforms which have
+  given him a unique position in the annals of China. He established a
+  state monopoly in commerce, under which the produce of a district was
+  to be used first for the payment of taxes, then for the direct use of
+  the district itself, and the remainder was to be purchased by the
+  government at a cheap rate, either to be held until there was a rise
+  in price, or to be transported to some other district in need of it.
+  The people were to profit by fixity of prices and escape from further
+  taxation; and the government, by the revenue accruing in the process
+  of administration. There was also to be a system of state advances to
+  cultivators of land; not merely to the needy, but to all alike. The
+  loan was to be compulsory, and interest was to be paid on it at the
+  rate of 2% per month. The soil was to be divided into equal areas and
+  taxed according to its fertility in each case, without reference to
+  the number of inhabitants contained in each area. All these, and other
+  important reforms, failed to find favour with a rigidly conservative
+  people, and Wang An-shih lived long enough to see the whole of his
+  policy reversed.
+
+
+    Sun-Tz[)u].
+
+  _Military Writers._--Not much, relatively speaking, has been written
+  by the Chinese on war in general, strategy or tactics. There is,
+  however, one very remarkable work which has come down to us from the
+  6th century B.C., as to the genuineness of which there now seems to be
+  no reasonable doubt. A biographical notice of the author, Sun Wu, is
+  given in the _Shih Chi_ (see above), from which we learn that "he knew
+  how to handle an army, and was finally appointed General." His work,
+  entitled the _Art of War_, is a short treatise in thirteen chapters,
+  under the following headings: "Laying Plans," "Waging War," "Attack by
+  Stratagem," "Tactical Dispositions," "Energy," "Weak Points and
+  Strong," "Manoeuvring," "Variation of Tactics," "The Army on the
+  March," "Terrain," "The Nine Situations," "The Attack by Fire," and
+  "The Use of Spies." Although the warfare of Sun Wu's day was the
+  warfare of bow and arrow, of armoured chariots and push of pike,
+  certain principles inseparably associated with successful issue will
+  be found enunciated in his work. Professor Mackail, in his _Latin
+  Literature_ (p. 86), declares that Varro's _Imagines_ was "the first
+  instance in history of the publication of an illustrated book." But
+  reference to the Art Section of the history of the Western Han
+  dynasty, 206 B.C.-A.D. 25, will disclose the title of fifteen or
+  sixteen illustrated books, one of which is Sun Wu's _Art of War_.
+
+
+    Hsue Kuang-ch'i.
+
+  _Agriculture._--In spite of the high place accorded to agriculturists,
+  who rank second only to officials and before artisans and traders, and
+  in spite of the assiduity with which agriculture has been practised in
+  all ages, securing immunity from slaughter for the ploughing ox--what
+  agricultural literature the Chinese possess may be said to belong
+  entirely to modern times. Ch'en Fu of the 12th century A.D. was the
+  author of a small work in three parts, dealing with agriculture,
+  cattle-breeding and silkworms respectively. There is also a well-known
+  work by an artist of the early 13th century, with forty-six woodcuts
+  illustrating the various operations of agriculture and weaving. This
+  book was reprinted under the emperor K'ang Hsi, 1662-1723, and new
+  illustrations with excellent perspective were provided by Chiao
+  Ping-chen, an artist who had adopted foreign methods as introduced by
+  the famous Jesuit, Matteo Ricci. The standard work on agriculture,
+  entitled _Nung Cheng Ch'uean Shu_, was compiled by Hsue Kuang-ch'i,
+  1562-1634, generally regarded as the only influential member of the
+  mandarinate who has ever become a convert to Christianity. It is in
+  sixty sections, the first three of which are devoted to classical
+  references. Then follow two sections on the division of land, six on
+  the processes of husbandry, none on hydraulics, four on agricultural
+  implements, six on planting, six on rearing silkworms, four on trees,
+  one on breeding animals, one on food and eighteen on provision against
+  a time of scarcity.
+
+
+    Pen Ts'no.
+
+  _Medicine and Therapeutics._--The oldest of the innumerable medical
+  works of all descriptions with which China has been flooded from time
+  immemorial is a treatise which has been credited to the Yellow Emperor
+  (see above), 2698-2598 B.C. It is entitled _Plain Questions of the
+  Yellow Emperor_, or _Su Wen_ for short, and takes the form of
+  questions put by the emperor and answered by Earl Ch'i, a minister,
+  who was himself author of the _Nei Ching_, a medical work no longer in
+  existence. Without accepting the popular attribution of the _Su Wen_,
+  it is most probable that it is a very old book, dating back to several
+  centuries before Christ, and containing traditional lore of a still
+  more remote period. The same may be said of certain works on cautery
+  and acupuncture, both of which are still practised by Chinese doctors;
+  and also of works on the pulse, the variations of which have been
+  classified and allocated with a minuteness hardly credible. Special
+  treatises on fevers, skin-diseases, diseases of the feet, eyes, heart,
+  &c., are to be found in great quantities, as well as veterinary
+  treatises on the treatment of diseases of the horse and the domestic
+  buffalo. But in the whole range of Chinese medical literature there is
+  nothing which can approach the _Pen Ts'ao_, or _Materia Medica_,
+  sometimes called the Herbal, a title (i.e. _Pen Ts'ao_) which seems to
+  have belonged to some book of the kind in pre-historic ages. The work
+  under consideration was compiled by Li Shih-chen, who completed his
+  task in 1578 after twenty-six years' labour. No fewer than eighteen
+  hundred and ninety-two species of drugs, animal, vegetable and
+  mineral, are dealt with, arranged under sixty-two classes in sixteen
+  divisions; and eight thousand one hundred and sixty prescriptions are
+  given in connexion with the various entries. The author professes to
+  quote from the original _Pen Ts'ao_, above mentioned; and we obtain
+  from his extracts an insight into some curious details. It appears
+  that formerly the number of recognized drugs was three hundred and
+  sixty-five in all, corresponding with the days of the year. One
+  hundred and twenty of these were called _sovereigns_ (cf. a sovereign
+  prescription); and were regarded as entirely beneficial to health,
+  taken in any quantity or for any time. Another similar number were
+  called _ministers_; some of these were poisonous, and all had to be
+  used with discretion. The remaining one hundred and twenty-five were
+  _agents_; all very poisonous, but able to cure diseases if not taken
+  in over-doses. The modern _Pen Ts'ao_, in its sixteen divisions, deals
+  with drugs classed under water, fire, earth, minerals, herbs, grain,
+  vegetables, fruit, trees, clothes and utensils, insects, fishes,
+  crustacea, birds, beasts and man. In each case the proper name of the
+  drug is first given, followed by its explanation, solution of doubtful
+  points, correction of errors, means of identification by taste, use in
+  prescriptions, &c. The work is fully illustrated, and there is an
+  index to the various medicines, classed according to the complaints
+  for which they are used.
+
+  _Divination, &c._--The practice of divination is of very ancient date
+  in China, traceable, it has been suggested, back to the Canon of
+  Changes (see above), which is commonly used by the lettered classes
+  for that purpose. A variety of other methods, the chief of which is
+  astrology, have also been adopted, and have yielded a considerable
+  bulk of literature. Even the officially-published almanacs still mark
+  certain days as suitable for certain undertakings, while other days
+  are marked in the opposite sense. The spirit of Zadkiel pervades the
+  Chinese empire. In like manner, geomancy is a subject on which many
+  volumes have been written; and the same applies to the pseudo sciences
+  of palmistry, physiognomy, alchemy (introduced from Greek sources) and
+  others.
+
+  _Painting._--Calligraphy, in the eyes of the Chinese, is just as much
+  a fine art as painting; the two are, in fact, considered to have come
+  into existence together, but as might be expected the latter occupies
+  the larger space in Chinese literature, and forms the subject of
+  numerous extensive works. One of the most important of these is the
+  _Hsuean Ho Hua P'u_, the author of which is unknown. It contains
+  information concerning two hundred and thirty-one painters and the
+  titles of six thousand one hundred and ninety-two of their pictures,
+  all in the imperial collection during the dynastic period _Hsuean Ho_,
+  A.D. 1119-1126, from which the title is derived. The artists are
+  classified under one of the following ten headings, supposed to
+  represent the line in which each particularly excelled: Religion,
+  Human Figures, Buildings, Barbarians (including their Animals),
+  Dragons and Fishes, Landscape, Animals, Flowers and Birds, The Bamboo,
+  Vegetables and Fruits.
+
+  _Music._--The literature of music does not go back to a remote period.
+  The Canon of Music, which was formerly included in the Confucian
+  Canon, has been lost for many centuries; and the works now available,
+  exclusive of entries in the dynastic histories, are not older than the
+  9th century A.D., to which date may be assigned the _Chieh Ku Lu_, a
+  treatise on the deerskin drum, said to have been introduced into China
+  from central Asia, and evidently of Scythian origin. There are several
+  important works of the 16th and 17th centuries, in which the history
+  and theory of music are fully discussed, and illustrations of
+  instruments are given, with measurements in each case, and the special
+  notation required.
+
+  _Miscellaneous._--Under this head may be grouped a vast number of
+  works, many of them exhaustive, on such topics as archaeology, seals
+  (engraved), numismatics, pottery, ink (the miscalled "Indian"),
+  mirrors, precious stones, tea, wine, chess, wit and humour, even
+  cookery, &c. There is, indeed, hardly any subject, within reasonable
+  limits, which does not find some corner in Chinese literature.
+
+
+    Lung Wei Pi Shu.
+
+  _Collections_.--Reprints of miscellaneous books and pamphlets in a
+  uniform edition, the whole forming a "library," has long been a
+  favourite means of disseminating useful (and other) information. Of
+  these, the _Lung Wei Pi Shu_ may be taken as a specimen. In bulk it
+  would be about the equivalent of twenty volumes, 8vo, of four hundred
+  pages to each. Among its contents we find the following. A handbook of
+  phraseology, with explanations; a short account of fabulous regions to
+  the N., S., E. and W.; notes on the plants and trees of southern
+  countries; biographical sketches of ninety-two wonderful personages;
+  an account of the choice of an empress, with standard measurements of
+  the height, length of limb, &c., of the ideal woman; "Pillow Notes" (a
+  term borrowed by the Japanese), or jottings on various subjects,
+  ranging from the Creation to an account of Fusang, a country where the
+  trees are thousands of feet high and of vast girth, thus supporting
+  the California, as opposed to the Mexico, identification of Fusang;
+  critiques on the style of various poets, and on the indebtedness of
+  each to earlier writers; a list of the most famous bronze vessels cast
+  by early emperors, with their dimensions, inscriptions, &c.; a
+  treatise on the bamboo; a list of famous swords, with dates of forging
+  and inscriptions; an account of the old Mongol palace, previous to its
+  destruction by the first Ming emperor; notes on the wild tribes of
+  China; historical episodes; biographical notices of one hundred and
+  four poets of the present dynasty; notes on archaeological,
+  supernatural and other topics, first published in the 9th century;
+  notes for bibliophiles on the care of books, and on paper, ink,
+  pictures and bric-a-brac; a collection of famous criminal cases; night
+  thoughts suggested by a meteor. Add to the above, numerous short
+  stories relating to magic, dreams, bilocation, and to almost every
+  possible phase of supernatural manifestation, and the reader will have
+  some idea of what he may expect in an ordinary "library" of a popular
+  character. It must always be remembered that with the Chinese, style
+  is of paramount importance. Documents, the subject-matter of which
+  would be recognized to be of no educative value, would still be
+  included, if written in a pleasing style, such as might be serviceable
+  as a model.
+
+  _Individual Authors_.--In a similar manner it has always been
+  customary for relatives or friends, sometimes for the trade, to
+  publish the "complete works" of important and often unimportant
+  writers; usually, soon after death. And as literary distinction has
+  hitherto almost invariably led to high office under the state, the
+  collected works of the great majority of authors open with selected
+  Memorials to the Throne and other documents of an official character.
+  The public interest in these may have long since passed away; but they
+  are valued by the Chinese as models of a style to be imitated, and the
+  foreign student occasionally comes across papers on once burning
+  questions arising out of commercial or diplomatic intercourse with
+  western nations. Then may follow--the order is not always the
+  same--the prefaces which the author contributed from time to time to
+  the literary undertakings of his friends. Preface-writing is almost a
+  department of Chinese literature. No one ever thinks of publishing a
+  book without getting one or more of his capable associates to provide
+  prefaces, which are naturally of a laudatory character, and always
+  couched in highly-polished and obscure terms, the difficulty of the
+  text being often aggravated by a fanciful and almost illegible script.
+  Prefaces written by emperors, many examples of which may be seen, are
+  of course highly esteemed, and are generally printed in coloured ink.
+  The next section may comprise biographical notices of eminent men and
+  women, or of mere local celebrities, who happened to die in the
+  author's day. Then will follow Records, a title which covers
+  inscriptions carved on the walls of new buildings, or on memorial
+  tablets, and also notes on pictures which the author may have seen,
+  places which he may have visited, or allegorical incidents which he
+  may have imagined. Then come disquisitions, or essays on various
+  subjects; researches, being short articles of archaeological interest;
+  studies or monographs; birthday congratulations to friends or to
+  official colleagues; announcements, as to deities, a cessation of
+  whose worship is threatened if the necessary rain or fair weather be
+  not forthcoming; funeral orations, letters of condolence, &c. The
+  above items will perhaps fill half a dozen volumes; the remaining
+  volumes, running to twenty or thirty in all, as the case may be, will
+  contain the author's poetry, together with his longer and more serious
+  works. The essential of such a collection is, in Chinese eyes, its
+  completeness.
+
+
+  San Kuo Chih.
+
+  Hung Lou Meng.
+
+  Liao Chai.
+
+_Fiction_.--Although novels are not regarded as an integral part of
+literature proper, it is generally conceded that some novels may be
+profitably studied, if for no other reason, from the point of view of
+style. With the novel, however, we are no longer on perfectly safe
+ground in regard to that decency which characterizes, as has been above
+stated, the vast mass of Chinese literature. Chinese novels range, in
+this sense, from the simplest and most unaffected tale of daily life,
+down to low--not the lowest--depths of objectionable pornography. The
+_San Kuo Chih_, an historical romance based upon a period of disruption
+at the close of the 2nd century A.D., is a delightful book, packed with
+episodes of battle, heroism, self-sacrifice, skilful strategy, and all
+that goes to make up a stirring picture of strenuous times. Its author,
+who might almost have been Walter Scott, cannot be named for certain;
+but the work itself probably belongs to the 13th century, a date at
+which the novel begins to make its appearance in China. Previous to that
+time, there had been current an immense quantity of stories of various
+kinds, but nothing like a novel, as we understand the term. From the
+13th century onwards, the growth of the novel was continuous; and
+finally, in the 17th century, a point was reached which is not likely to
+be surpassed. The _Hung Lou Meng_, the author of which took pains, for
+political reasons, to conceal his identity, is a creation of a very high
+order. Its plot is intricate and original, and the _denouement_
+startlingly tragic. In the course of the story, the chief clue of which
+is love, woven in with intrigue, ambition, wealth, poverty, and other
+threads of human life, there occur no fewer than over four hundred
+characters, each one possessed of a distinctive personality drawn with
+marvellous skill. It contains incidents which recall the licence
+tolerated in Fielding; but the coarseness, like that of Fielding, is
+always on the surface, and devoid of the ulterior suggestiveness of the
+modern psychological novel. But perhaps no work of fiction has ever
+enjoyed such vogue among literary men as a collection of stories, some
+graceful, some weird, written in 1679 by P'u Sungling, a disappointed
+candidate at the public examinations. This collection, known as the
+_Liao Chai_, is exceedingly interesting to the foreign student for its
+sidelights on folklore and family life; to the native scholar, who
+professes to smile at the subject-matter as beyond the pale of genuine
+literature, it is simply invaluable as an expression of the most
+masterly style of which his language is capable.
+
+
+  Hsi Hsiang Chi.
+
+_Drama._--Simultaneously with the appearance of the novel, stage-plays
+seem to have come into existence in China. In the earliest ages there
+were set dances by trained performers, to the accompaniment of music and
+singing; and something of the kind, more or less ornate as regards the
+setting, has always been associated with solemn and festive occasions.
+But not until the days of the Mongol rule, A.D. 1260-1368, can the drama
+proper be said to have taken root and flourished in Chinese soil. The
+probability is that both the drama and the novel were introduced from
+Central Asia in the wake of the Mongol conquerors; the former is now
+specially essential to the everyday happiness of the Chinese people, who
+are perhaps the most confirmed playgoers in the world. There is an
+excellent collection of one hundred plays of the Mongol dynasty, with an
+illustration to each, first published in 1615; there is also a further
+large collection, issued in 1845, which contains a great number of plays
+arranged under sixty headings, according to the style and purport of
+each, besides many others. There is one famous play of the Mongol period
+which deals largely in plot and passion, and is a great favourite with
+the educated classes. It is entitled _Hsi Hsiang Chi_, or the Story of
+the Western Pavilion; and as if there was a doubt as to the reception
+which would be accorded to the work, a minatory sentence was inserted in
+the prolegomena: "If any one ventures to call this book indecent, he
+will certainly have his tongue torn out in hell." So far as the written
+play is concerned, its language is altogether unobjectionable; on the
+stage, by means of gag and gesture, its presentation is often unseemly
+and coarse. What the Chinese playgoer delights in, as an evening's
+amusement, is a succession of plays which are more of the nature of
+sketches, slight in construction and generally weak in plot, some of
+them based upon striking historical episodes, and others dealing with a
+single humorous incident.
+
+  _Dictionaries._--The _Erh Ya_, or Nearing the Standard, is commonly
+  classed as a dictionary, and is referred by native scholars generally
+  to the 12th century B.C. The entries are arranged under nineteen
+  heads, to facilitate reference, and explain a large number of words
+  and phrases, including names of beasts, birds, plants and fishes. The
+  work is well illustrated in the large modern edition; but the actual
+  date of composition is an entirely open question, and the insertion of
+  woodcuts must necessarily belong to a comparatively late age (see
+  _Military Writers_).
+
+
+    Shuo Wen.
+
+  With the _Shuo Wen_, or Explanation of Written Words, we begin the
+  long list of lexicographical works which constitute such a notable
+  feature in Chinese literature. A scholar, named Hsue Shen, who died
+  about A.D. 120, made an effort to bring together and analyse all the
+  characters it was possible to gather from the written language as it
+  existed in his own day. He then proceeded to arrange these
+  characters--about ten thousand in all--on a system which would enable
+  a student to find a given word without having possibly to search
+  through the whole book. To do this, he simply grouped together all
+  such as had a common part, more or less indicative of the meaning of
+  each, much as though an English dictionary were to consist of such
+  groups as
+
+    Dog-days
+    Dog-kennel
+    Dog-collar
+    Dog-meat
+    Dog-nap
+
+  and so on.
+
+    Horse-collar
+    Horse-flesh
+    Horse-back
+    Horse-fly
+    Horse-chestnut
+
+  and so on.
+
+  Hsue Shen selected five hundred and forty of these common parts, or
+  Radicals (see _Language_), a number which, as will be seen later on,
+  was found to be cumbrously large; and under each Radical he inserted
+  all the characters belonging to it, but with no particular order or
+  arrangement, so that search was still, in many cases, quite a
+  laborious task. The explanations given were chiefly intended to
+  establish the pictorial origin of the language; but whereas no one now
+  disputes this as a general conclusion, the steps by which Hsue Shen
+  attempted to prove his theory must in a large number of instances be
+  dismissed as often inadequate and sometimes ridiculous. Nevertheless,
+  it was a great achievement; and the _Shuo Wen_ is still indispensable
+  to the student of the particular script in vogue a century or two
+  before Christ. It is also of value in another sense. It may be used,
+  with discretion, in testing the genuineness of an alleged ancient
+  document, which, if an important or well-known document before the age
+  of Hsue Shen, would not be likely to contain characters not given in
+  his work. Under this test the _Tao Te Ching_, for instance, breaks
+  down (see _Huai-nan Tz[)u]_).
+
+  Passing over a long series of dictionaries and vocabularies which
+  appeared at various dates, some constructed on Hsue Shen's plan, with
+  modifications and improvements, and others, known as phonetic
+  dictionaries, arranged under the finals according to the Tones, we
+  come to the great standard lexicon produced under the auspices, and
+  now bearing the name of the emperor K'ang Hsi, A.D. 1662-1723.
+
+
+    Phonetic dictionaries.
+
+  But before proceeding, a rough attempt may be made to exhibit in
+  English terms the principle of the phonetic as compared with the
+  radical dictionary described above. In the spoken language there would
+  occur the word _light_, the opposite of dark, and this would be
+  expressed in writing by a certain symbol. Then, when it became
+  necessary to write down _light_, the opposite of heavy, the result
+  would be precisely what we see in English. But as written words
+  increased, always with a limited number of vocables (see _Language_),
+  this system was found to be impracticable, and Radicals were inserted
+  as a means of distinguishing one kind of _light_ from another, but
+  without altering the original sound. Now, in the phonetic dictionary
+  the words are no longer arranged in such groups as
+
+    Sun-light
+    Sun-beam
+    Sun-stroke
+    Sun-god, &c.
+
+  according to the Radicals, but in such groups as
+
+    Sun-light
+    Moon-light
+    Foot-light
+    Gas-light, &c.
+
+  according to the phonetics, all the above four being pronounced simply
+  _light_, without reference to the radical portion which guides towards
+  the limited sense of the term. So, in a phonetic dictionary, we should
+  have such a group as
+
+    Brass-bound
+    Morocco-bound
+    Half-bound
+    Spell-bound
+    Homeward-bound
+    Wind-bound
+
+  and so on, all the above six being pronounced simply _bound_. To
+  return to "K'ang Hsi," as the lexicon in question is familiarly
+  styled, the total number of characters given therein amounts to over
+  forty-four thousand, grouped no longer under the five hundred and
+  forty Radicals of Hsue Shen, but under the much more manageable number
+  of two hundred and fourteen, as already used in earlier dictionaries.
+  Further, as the groups of characters would now be more than four times
+  as large as in the _Shuo Wen_, they were subdivided under each Radical
+  according to the number of strokes in the other, or phonetic part of
+  the character. Thus, adopting letters as strokes, for the purpose of
+  illustration, we should have "dog-nap" in the group of Radical "dog"
+  and three strokes, while "dog-days" and "dog-meat" would both be found
+  under Radical "dog" with four strokes, and so on. The two hundred and
+  fourteen Radicals are themselves arranged in groups according to the
+  number of strokes; so that it is not a very arduous task to turn up
+  ordinary characters in a Chinese dictionary. Finally, although Chinese
+  is a monosyllabic and non-alphabetic language, a method has been
+  devised, and has been in use since the 3rd century A.D., by which the
+  sound of any word can be indicated in a dictionary otherwise than by
+  simply quoting a word of similar sound, which of course may be equally
+  unknown to the searcher. Thus, the sound of a word pronounced _ching_
+  can be exhibited by selecting two words, one having the initial _ch_,
+  and the other a final _ing_. E.g. the sound _ching_ is given as _chien
+  ling_; that is _ch[ien l]ing = ching_.
+
+  _The Concordance._--Considering the long unbroken series of years
+  during which Chinese literature has always, in spite of many losses,
+  been steadily gaining in bulk, it is not astonishing to find that
+  classical, historical, mythological and other allusions to personages
+  or events of past times have also grown out of all proportion to the
+  brain capacity even of the most brilliant student. Designed especially
+  to meet this difficulty, there are several well-known handbooks,
+  elementary and advanced, which trace such allusions to their source
+  and provide full and lucid explanations; but even the most extensive
+  of these is on a scale incommensurate with the requirements of the
+  scholar. Again, it is due to the emperor K'ang Hsi that we possess one
+  of the most elaborate compilations of the kind ever planned and
+  carried to completion. The _P'ei Wen Yuen Fu_, or Concordance to
+  Literature, is a key, not only to allusions in general, but to all
+  phraseology, including allusions, idiomatic expressions and other
+  obscure combinations of words, to be found in the classics, in the
+  dynastic histories, and in all poets, historians, essayists, and
+  writers of recognized eminence in their own lines. No attempt at
+  explanation is given; but enough of the passage, or passages, in which
+  the phrase occurs, is cited to enable the reader to gather the meaning
+  required. The trouble, of course, lies with the arrangement of these
+  phrases in a non-alphabetic language. Recourse has been had to the
+  Rhymes and the five Tones (see _Language_); and all phrases which end
+  with the same word form one of a number of groups which appear under
+  the same Rhyme, the Rhymes themselves being distributed over five
+  Tones. Thus, to find any phrase, the first point is to discover what
+  is its normal Rhyme; the next is to ascertain the Tone of that Rhyme.
+  Then, under this Tone-group the Rhyme-word will be found, and under
+  the Rhyme-word group will be found the final word of the phrase in
+  question. It will now only remain to run through this last group of
+  phrases, all of which have this same final word, and the search--so
+  vast is the collection--will usually yield a satisfactory result. The
+  _P'ei Wen Yuen Fu_ runs of course to many volumes; a rough estimate
+  shows it to contain over fifteen million words.
+
+
+    Yuan Lo Ta Tien.
+
+  _Encyclopaedias._--In their desire to bring together condensed, yet
+  precise, information on a large variety of subjects, the Chinese may
+  be said to have invented the encyclopaedia. Though not the earliest
+  work of this kind, the _T'ai P'ing Yue Lan_ is the first of any great
+  importance. It was produced towards the close of the 10th century
+  A.D., under the direct supervision of the emperor, who is said to have
+  examined three sections every day for about a year, the total number
+  of sections being one thousand in all, arranged under fifty-five
+  headings. Another similar work, dealing with topics drawn from the
+  lighter literature of China, is the _T'ai P'ing Kuang Chi_, which was
+  issued at about the same date as the last-mentioned. Both of these,
+  and especially the former, have passed through several editions. They
+  help to inaugurate the great Sung dynasty, which for three centuries
+  to follow effected so much in the cause of literature. Other
+  encyclopaedias, differing in scope and in plan, appeared from time to
+  time, but it will be necessary to concentrate attention upon two only.
+  The third emperor of the Ming dynasty, known as Yung Lo, A.D.
+  1403-1425, issued a commission for the production of a work on a scale
+  which was colossal even for China. His idea was to collect together
+  all that had ever been written in the four departments of (1) the
+  Confucian Canon, (2) History, (3) Philosophy and (4) General
+  Literature, including astronomy, geography, cosmogony, medicine,
+  divination, Buddhism, Taoism, arts and handicrafts; and in 1408 such
+  an encyclopaedia was laid before the Throne, received the imperial
+  approval and was named _Yung Lo Ta Tien_, or The Great Standard of
+  Yung Lo. To achieve this, 3 commissioners, with 5 directors, 20
+  sub-directors and a staff of 2141 assistants, had laboured for the
+  space of five years. Its contents ran to no fewer than 22,877 separate
+  sections, to which must be added an index filling 60 sections. Each
+  section contained about 20 leaves, making a total of 917,480 pages for
+  the whole work. Each page consisted of sixteen columns of characters
+  averaging twenty-five to each column, or a total of 366,992,000
+  characters, to which, in order to bring the amount into terms of
+  English words, about another third would have to be added. This
+  extraordinary work was never printed, as the expense would have been
+  too great, although it was actually transcribed for that purpose; and
+  later on, two more copies were made, one of which was finally stored
+  in Peking and the other, with the original, in Nanking. Both the
+  Nanking copies perished at the fall of the Ming dynasty; and a similar
+  fate overtook the Peking copy, with the exception of a few odd
+  volumes, at the siege of the legations in 1900. The latter was bound
+  up in 11,100 volumes, covered with yellow silk, each volume being 1
+  ft. 8 in. in length by 1 ft. in breadth, and averaging over 1/2 in. in
+  thickness. This would perhaps be a fitting point to conclude any
+  notice of Chinese encyclopaedias, but for the fact that the work of
+  Yung Lo is gone while another encyclopaedia, also on a huge scale,
+  designed and carried out sonic centuries later, is still an important
+  work of reference.
+
+
+    T'u Shu.
+
+  The _T'u Shu Chi Ch'eng_ was planned, and to a great extent made
+  ready, under instructions from the emperor K'ang Hsi (see above), and
+  was finally brought out by his successor, Yung Cheng, 1723-1736.
+  Intended to embrace all departments of knowledge, its contents were
+  distributed over six leading categories, which for want of better
+  equivalents may be roughly rendered by (l) Heaven, (2) Earth, (3) Man,
+  (4) Arts and Sciences, (5) Philosophy and (6) Political Science. These
+  were subdivided into thirty-two classes; and in the voluminous index
+  which accompanies the work a further attempt was made to bring the
+  searcher into still closer touch with the individual items treated.
+  Thus, the category Heaven is subdivided into four classes,
+  namely--again, for want of better terms--(_a_) The Sky and its
+  Manifestations, (_b_) The Seasons, (_c_) Astronomy and Mathematics and
+  (_d_) Natural Phenomena. Under these classes come the individual
+  items; and here it is that the foreign student is often at a loss. For
+  instance, class _a_ includes Earth, in its cosmogonic sense, as the
+  mother of mankind; Heaven, in its original sense of God; the Dual
+  Principle in nature; the Sun, Moon and Stars; Wind; Clouds; Rainbow;
+  Thunder and Lightning; Rain; Fire, &c. But Earth is itself a
+  geographical category; and all strange phenomena relating to many of
+  the items under class _a_ are recorded under class _d_. Category No.
+  6, marked as Political Science, contains such classes as Ceremonial,
+  Music and Administration of Justice, alongside of Handicrafts, making
+  it essential to study the arrangement carefully before it is possible
+  to consult the work with ease. Such preliminary trouble is, however,
+  well repaid, the amount of information given on any particular subject
+  being practically coextensive with what is known about that subject.
+  The method of presenting such information, with variations to suit the
+  nature of the topics handled, is to begin with historical excerpts,
+  chronologically arranged. These are usually followed by sometimes
+  lengthy essays dealing with the subject as a theme, taken from the
+  writings of qualified authors, and like all the other entries, also
+  chronologically arranged. Then come elegant extracts in prose and
+  verse, in all of which the subject may be simply mentioned and not
+  treated as in the essays. After these follow minor notices of
+  incidents, historical and otherwise, and all kinds of anecdotes,
+  derived from a great variety of sources. Occasionally, single poetical
+  lines are brought together, each contributing, some thought or
+  statement germane to the subject, expressed in elegant or forcible
+  terms; and also, wherever practicable, biographies of men and women
+  are inserted.
+
+  Chronological and other tables are supplied where necessary, as well
+  as a very large number of illustrations, many of these being
+  reproductions of woodcuts from earlier works. It is said that the _T'u
+  Shu Chi Ch'eng_ was printed from movable copper type cast by the
+  Jesuit Fathers employed by the emperor K'ang Hsi at Peking; also that
+  only a hundred copies were struck off, the type being then destroyed.
+  An 8vo edition of the whole encyclopaedia was issued at Shanghai in
+  1889; this is bound up in sixteen hundred and twenty-eight handy
+  volumes of about two hundred pages each. A copy of the original
+  edition stands on the shelves of the British Museum, and a translation
+  of the Index has recently been completed.
+
+_Manuscripts and Printing._--At the conclusion of this brief survey of
+Chinese literature it may well be asked how such an enormous and
+ever-increasing mass has been handed down from generation to generation.
+According to the views put forth by early Chinese antiquarians, the
+first written records were engraved with a special knife upon bamboo
+slips and wooden tablets. The impracticability of such a process, as
+applied to books, never seems to have dawned upon those writers; and
+this snowball of error, started in the 7th century, long after the knife
+and the tablet had disappeared as implements of writing, continued to
+gather strength as time went on. Recent researches, however, have placed
+it beyond doubt that when the Chinese began to write in a literary
+sense, as opposed to mere scratchings on bones, they traced their
+characters on slips of bamboo and tablets of wood with a bamboo pencil,
+frayed at one end to carry the coloured liquid which stood in the place
+of ink. The knife was used only to erase. So things went on until about
+200 B.C., when it would appear that a brush of hair was substituted for
+the bamboo pencil; after which, silk was called into requisition as an
+appropriate vehicle in connexion with the more delicate brush. But silk
+was expensive and difficult to handle, so that the invention of paper in
+A.D. 105 by a eunuch, named Ts'ai Lun, came as a great boon, although it
+seems clear that a certain kind of paper, made from silk floss, was in
+use before his date. However that may be, from the 1st century onwards
+the Chinese have been in possession of the same writing materials that
+are in use at the present day.
+
+In A.D. 170, Ts'ai Yung, who rose subsequently to the highest offices of
+state, wrote out on stone in red ink the authorized text of the Five
+Classics, to be engraved by workmen, and thus handed down to posterity.
+The work covered forty-six huge tablets, of which a few fragments are
+said to be still in existence. A similar undertaking was carried out in
+837, and the later tablets are still standing at a temple in the city of
+Hsi-an Fu, Shensi. With the T'ang dynasty, rubbings of famous
+inscriptions, wherein the germ of printing may be detected, whether for
+the style of the composition or for the calligraphic excellence of the
+script, came very much into vogue with scholars and collectors. It is
+also from about the same date that the idea of multiplying on paper
+impressions taken from wooden blocks seems to have arisen, chiefly in
+connexion with religious pictures and prayers. The process was not
+widely applied to the production of books until the 10th century, when
+in A.D. 932 the Confucian Canon was printed for the first time. In 981
+orders were issued for the _T'ai P'ing Kuang Chi_, an encyclopaedia
+extending to many volumes (see above) to be cut on blocks for printing.
+Movable types of baked clay are said to have been invented by an
+alchemist, named Pi Sheng, about A.D. 1043; and under the Ming dynasty,
+1368-1644, these were made first of wood, and later of copper or lead,
+but movable types have never gained the favour accorded to
+block-printing, by means of which most of China's great typographical
+triumphs have been achieved. The process is, and always has been, the
+same all over China. Two consecutive pages of a book, separated by a
+column containing the title, number of section, and number of leaf, are
+written out and pasted face downwards on a block of wood (_Lindera
+tz[)u]-mu_, Hemsl.). This paper, where not written upon, is cut away
+with sharp tools, leaving the characters in relief, and of course
+backwards, as in the case of European type. The block is then inked, and
+an impression is taken off, on one side of the paper only. This sheet is
+then folded down the middle of the separating column above mentioned, so
+that the blank halves come together, leaving two pages of printed matter
+outside; and when enough sheets have been brought together, they are
+stabbed at the open ends and form a volume, to be further wrapped in
+paper or pasteboard, and labelled with title, &c. It is almost
+superfluous to say that the pages of a Chinese book must not be cut.
+There is nothing inside, and, moreover, the column bearing the title and
+leaf-number would be cut through. The Chinese newspapers of modern times
+are all printed from movable types, an ordinary fount consisting of
+about six to seven thousand characters.
+
+  See J. Legge, _The Chinese Classics_ (1861-1872); A. Wylie, _Notes on
+  Chinese Literature_ (1867); E. Chavannes, _Memoires historiques_
+  (1895-1905); H.A. Giles, _Chuang Tz[)u]_ (1889), _A Chinese
+  Biographical Dictionary_ (1898), and _A History of Chinese Literature_
+  (1901); A. Forke, _Lun-Heng_ (1907); F. Hirth, _The Ancient History of
+  China_ (1908); L. Giles, _Sun Tz[)u]_ (1910).    (H. A. GI.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] As to the origin of the names China and Cathay (the medieval
+    name) see below Sec. _History_. According to one theory the name China
+    is of Malay origin, designating originally the region now called
+    Indo-China, but transferred in early times to China proper. By the
+    Chinese the country is often called _Shih-pa-sheng_, "the Eighteen
+    Provinces," from the number of its great territorial divisions. It
+    is also called _Chung-kwo_, "the Middle Kingdom," properly used of
+    the central part of China, and _Hwa-kwo_, "the Flowery Kingdom."
+
+  [2] A Chinese mile, _li_, or _le_ = 0.36 English mile.
+
+  [2] For the Grand Canal the chief authority is Dominique Gandar, S.J.,
+    "Le Canal Imperial. Etude historique et descriptive," _Varietes
+    sinologiques_ No. 4 (Shanghai, 1903); see also Stenz, "Der
+    Kaiserkanal," in _Beitraegen zur Kolonialpolitik_, Band v. (Berlin,
+    1903-1904), and the works of Ney Elias, Sir J.F. Davis, A.
+    Williamson, E.H. Parker and W.R. Carles.
+
+  [4] Nevertheless there is considerable local traffic. The transit
+    trade with Shan-tung, passing the Chin-kiang customs and using some
+    250 m. of the worst part of the canal, was valued in 1905 at
+    3,331,000 taels.
+
+  [5] The portion of the wall which abutted on to the sea has been
+    destroyed.
+
+  [6] See the _Geog. Jnl._ (Feb. and March 1907). For a popular
+    account of the wall, with numerous photographs, see _The Great Wall
+    of China_ (London, 1909), by W.E. Giel, who in 1908 followed its
+    course from east to west. Consult also A. Williamson, _Journey in
+    North China_ (London, 1870); Martin, "La Grande Muraille de la
+    Chine," _Revue scientifique_ (1891).
+
+  [7] For Shanghai the figures are compiled from twenty-six years'
+    observations. See _China Sea Directory_, vol. iii. (4th ed., 1904)
+    p. 660.
+
+  [8] The thermometer registered 23 deg. F. in January 1893, on the river
+    28 m. below Canton. This is the lowest reading known. Ibid, pp.
+    104-105.
+
+  [9] See W.W. Rockhill, _Inquiry into the Population of China_
+    (Washington, 1904).
+
+  [10] For a bibliography of works relating to the aboriginal races of
+    China see Richard's _Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire_
+    (1908 ed.), pp. 371-373.
+
+  [11] Evidences of the social changes taking place in China are to be
+    found in the strong movement for the education of girls, and in the
+    formation of societies, under official patronage, to prevent the
+    binding of women's feet.
+
+  [12] It must be remembered that there is great variety in the
+    costumes worn in the various provinces. The particulars here given
+    are of the most general styles of dress.
+
+  [13] Richard's _Comprehensive Geography_, &c. (1908 edition), pp.
+    340-341.
+
+  [14] Otherwise Ab[=u] Ja'far Ibn Mahommed al-Mans[=u]r (see CALIPHATE,
+    C. Sec. 2).
+
+  [15] For a summary of Chang Chih-tung's treatise, see _Changing
+    China_ (1910 edition), chap. xxii.
+
+  [16] It was announced in June 1910 that the throne had approved a
+    recommendation of the Board of Education that English should be the
+    official language for scientific and technical education, and that
+    the study of English should be compulsory in all provincial
+    scientific and technical schools.
+
+  [17] See _The Times_ of the 19th of February and the 3rd of May 1910.
+
+  [18] Another peculiarity of loess in China is that it lends itself
+    readily to the excavation of dwellings for the people. In many
+    places whole villages live in cave dwellings dug out in the vertical
+    wall of loess. They construct spiral staircases, selecting places
+    where the ground is firm, and excavate endless chambers and recesses
+    which are said to be very comfortable and salubrious.
+
+  [19] See J. Edkins, _The Poppy in China_, and H.B. Morse, _The Trade
+    and Administration of the Chinese Empire_, chap. xi.
+
+  [20] Richard's _Comprehensive Geography, &c._ (1908 edition), p. 144.
+
+  [21] In the 18th century foreign trade was restricted to Canton. In
+    the 17th century, however, the Dutch traded to Formosa and Amoy, and
+    the English to Amoy also. The Portuguese traded with Canton as early
+    as 1517. For the early intercourse between Portugal and China see
+    the introductory chapter in Donald Ferguson's _Letters from
+    Portuguese Captives in Canton_ (Bombay, 1902).
+
+  [22] From _The Statesman's Year Book_, 1910 edition.
+
+  [23] See _The Times_ of the 28th of March 1910.
+
+  [24] See Morse, _op. cit._ chap. x.
+
+  [25] The maritime customs had established a postal service for its
+    own convenience in 1861, and it first gave facilities to the general
+    public in 1876. An organized service for the conveyance of
+    government despatches has existed in China for many centuries, and
+    the commercial classes maintain at their own expense a system
+    ("letter hongs") for the transmission of correspondence.
+
+  [26] For the causes leading to this movement and the progress of
+    reform see Sec. _History_.
+
+  [27] For recent authoritative accounts of the government of China
+    see H.B. Morse, _The Trade and Administration of the Chinese
+    Empire_, chap. iii.; Richard's _Comprehensive Geography_, &c., Bk.
+    I. Sec. v., and _The Statesman's Year Book_.
+
+  [28] The empress-consort is chosen by the emperor from a number of
+    girls selected by his ministers from the families of Manchu nobles.
+    From the same candidates the emperor also selects
+    secondary-empresses (usually not more than four). Concubines, not
+    limited in number, are chosen from the daughters of Manchu nobles
+    and free-men. All the children are equally legitimate.
+
+  [29] Recent emperors have been children at accession and have been
+    kept in seclusion.
+
+  [30] See "Democratic China" in H.A. Giles, _China and the Chinese_.
+
+  [31] W.F. Mayers, _The Chinese Government_ (1878).
+
+  [32] This body is superseded by the Imperial Senate summoned to meet
+    for the first time on the 3rd of October 1910.
+
+  [33] Yamen is the name given to the residences of all high
+    officials. Tsung-li Yamen = the bureau for managing each (foreign)
+    kingdom's affairs.
+
+  [34] An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a naval and military
+    advisory board. Up to that time the navy was controlled by the
+    viceroys at Canton, Nanking, Fu-chow and Tientsin; the viceroys at
+    Canton and Tientsin being ministers superintendent of the southern
+    and northern ports respectively.
+
+  [35] Thus in 1910 Prince Ching, president of the grand council, was,
+    for the third time, impeached by censors, being denounced as an "old
+    treacherous minister," who filled the public service with a crowd of
+    men as unworthy as himself. The censor who made the charge was
+    stripped of his office (see _The Times_ of the 30th of March 1910).
+
+  [36] For details of local government see Richard's _Comprehensive
+    Geography_, 1908 edition, pp. 301 et seq.
+
+  [37] Morse, op. cit., 1908 edition, p. 76
+
+  [38] See _The Times_ of the 28th of February 1910.
+
+  [39] See _The Statesman's Year-Book_ (1910 edition).
+
+  [40] A few of the old native customs stations, which are deemed
+    perquisites of the imperial court, may also be excepted, as, for
+    instance, the native custom-house at Canton, Hwei Kwan on the Grand
+    Canal, and various stations in the neighbourhood of Peking.
+
+  [41] The production of a budget in 1915 was promised in one of the
+    reform edicts of 1908.
+
+  [42] In this article the tael used as a standard is the Haikwan (i.e.
+    customs) tael, worth about 3s. It fluctuates with the value of
+    silver.
+
+  [43] Roughly L43,000,000.
+
+  [44] _Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire_ (1910), p. 118.
+
+  [45] Temporary reductions are granted in provinces affected by
+    rebellion, drought or flood.
+
+  [46] Information as to what extent the expenses of the new army and
+    navy are met by the central government is lacking.
+
+  [47] To meet the expenditure on interest and redemption of the
+    indemnities for the Boxer outrages the Peking government required
+    the provincial authorities to increase their annual remittances by
+    taels 18,700,000 during the years 1902-1910.
+
+  [48] It must be remembered that the Haikwan tael is here indicated.
+
+  [49] See Morse's _Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire_,
+    chap. ix.
+
+  [50] A supplementary exchange of notes of the same date excepted
+    from the scope of this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang
+    extension which had already been conceded to the Hongkong & Shanghai
+    Bank.
+
+  [51] The religious aspect of the Boxer movement gave it strength.
+    Its disciples believed that the spirits which defended China were
+    incensed by the introduction of Western methods and ideals. Many of
+    them believed themselves to be invulnerable to any Western weapon.
+    (See Lord W. Cecil, _Changing China_, 1910, ch. i.)
+
+  [52] The diary of a Manchu noble printed in _China under the Empress
+    Dowager_ (1910) by J.O. Bland and E. Backhouse throws light on the
+    subject. It was to Jung-Lu, father-in-law of Prince Chin, that the
+    legations owed their escape from extermination.
+
+  [53] It was at this time (July 17th) that the intense anxiety of the
+    civilized world with regard to the fate of the besieged reached its
+    culminating point. Circumstantial accounts of the fall of the
+    legations and the massacre of their inmates were circulated in
+    Shanghai and found general credence. It was not till near the end of
+    the month that an authentic message from the American minister
+    proved these fears to be premature.
+
+  [54] In negotiating this agreement Lord Salisbury appears to have
+    been largely influenced by the aggressive features of Russia's
+    action in North China, while Germany appears to have been actuated
+    by a desire to forestall isolated action by Great Britain in the
+    Yangtsze basin. In Germany the agreement was known as the Yangtsze
+    Agreement. Great Britain held, however, that it applied equally to
+    Manchuria.
+
+  [55] Liu Kun-yi died in 1902. In the same year died Tao-mu, the
+    viceroy of Canton. In these men China lost two of her most capable
+    and enlightened officials.
+
+  [56] Prince Chun was born in 1882. He was the first member of the
+    imperial family to be sent on a foreign mission.
+
+  [57] Tung Fu-hsiang died in 1908. A sum of some L80,000 belonging to
+    him, and left in the provincial treasury, was appropriated for works
+    of public utility (see _The Times_, April 9th, 1910).
+
+  [58] Lord W. Cecil, op. cit. p. 9.
+
+  [59] This institution was nominally a private concern which financed
+    the Manchurian railway, but it acted as part of the Russian
+    government machinery. The existence of the contract of the 27th of
+    August 1896 was frequently denied until expressly admitted by the
+    Russo-Chinese agreement of the 8th of April 1902.
+
+  [60] On the 8th of October the Russian troops had been withdrawn
+    from Mukden, but they reoccupied the town on the 28th of the same
+    month, Admiral Alexeiev, the viceroy of the Far East, alleging that
+    the inertia of the Chinese officials seriously hindered the work of
+    extending civilization in Manchuria.
+
+  [61] The form of outrage, probably the first of its kind in China,
+    was itself a symptom of the changed times. The bomb injured Prince
+    Tsai Tse and another commissioner, and the departure of the
+    commission was consequently delayed some months.
+
+  [62] In 1907 further commissions were appointed, on the initiative
+    of Yuan Shih-kai, to study specifically the constitutions of Great
+    Britain, Germany and Japan.
+
+  [63] This department was organized at Shanghai in 1854. The Taiping
+    rebels being in possession of the native city, the collection of
+    customs dues, especially on foreign ships, was placed in the hands
+    of foreigners. This developed into a permanent institution, the
+    European staff being mainly British.
+
+  [64] The British official view, as stated in parliament on the 27th
+    of April 1910, was that the changes resulting from the creation of
+    the Board of Control had, so far, been purely departmental changes
+    of form, and that the position of the inspector-general remained
+    unaltered.
+
+  [65] See _The Times_ of the 21st of April and 11th of May 1910.
+
+  [66] A chest contained from 135 lb to 160 lb.
+
+  [67] A picul = 133-1/2 lb.
+
+  [68] _Changing China_, p. 118.
+
+  [69] See _The Times_ of 7th and 8th of March and 8th of April 1910.
+
+  [70] The first recorded importation of morphia into China was in
+    1892, and it is suggested that it was first used as an anti-opium
+    medicine. Morphia-taking, however, speedily became a vice, and in
+    1902 over 195,000 oz. of morphia were imported (enough for some
+    300,000,000 injections). To check the evil the Chinese government
+    during 1903 imposed a tax of about 200% _ad valorem_, with the
+    result that the imports declared to the customs fell in 1905 to 54
+    oz. only. The falling off was explained "not by a diminished demand,
+    but by smuggling" (Morse's _Trade and Administration of the Chinese
+    Empire_, p. 351).
+
+  [71] A regulation by the ministry of education, dated the 14th of
+    January 1910, ordered that no girl should be admitted to school
+    dressed in foreign clothes or with unnatural (i.e. bound) feet.
+
+  [72] For the growth of the education movement see _The Times_, 4th
+    of September 1909.
+
+  [73] The Dalai Lama left Peking in December 1908 on his return to
+    Lhassa, which he reached in November 1909. Differences had arisen
+    between him and the Chinese government, which sought to make the
+    spiritual as well as the temporal power of the Dalai Lama dependent
+    on his recognition by the emperor of China. Early in 1910 the Dalai
+    Lama, in consequence of the action of the Chinese amban in Lhassa,
+    fled from that city and sought refuge in India.
+
+  [74] Chang Chih-tung died in October 1909. He was a man of considerable
+    ability, and one whose honesty and loyalty had never been doubted. He
+    was noted as an opponent of opium smoking, and for over thirty years
+    had addressed memorials to the throne against the use of the drug.
+
+  [75] See _The Times_ of the 7th of September 1909.
+
+  [76] Proposals made early in 1910 by the American secretary of state
+    for the neutralization of the Manchurian railway received no
+    support.
+
+  [77] By a convention signed on July 4th, 1910, Russia and Japan agreed
+    to "maintain and respect" the _status quo_ in Manchuria.
+
+  [78] See the _Quinzaine coloniale_ of the 10th of December 1909.
+
+  [79] See _The Times_ of the 20th of January 1910.
+
+  [80] See for the prospects of reform _The Times_ of 30th May 1910.
+
+  [81] _La Sculpture sur pierre en Chine ait temps des deux dynasties
+    Han_ (Paris, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+CHINA, the common name for ware made of porcelain, given because it came
+from China, where the first vitrified, translucent, white ware was
+produced. The Portuguese or Italians gave it the name of "porcelain"
+(q.v.). English usage was influenced by India and the East, where the
+Persian _ch[=i]n[=i]_ was widely prevalent as the name of the ware. This
+is seen also in some of the earlier forms and pronunciations, e.g.
+_chiney_, _cheney_, and later _chaney_ (see CERAMICS; and for
+"china-clay" KAOLIN).
+
+
+
+
+CHINANDEGA, or CHINENDEGA, the capital of the department of Chinandega
+in western Nicaragua, 10 m. N.N.E. of the seaport of Corinto by the
+Corinto-Managua railway. Pop. (1900) about 12,000. Chinandega is the
+centre of a fertile corn-producing district, and has a large transit
+trade owing to its excellent situation on the chief Nicaraguan railway.
+Its manufactures include coarse cloth, pottery and Indian feather
+ornaments. Cotton, sugar-cane and bananas are cultivated in the
+neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+CHI-NAN FU, the capital of Shan-tung, China, in 36 deg. 40' N., 117 deg.
+1' E. Pop. about 100,000. It is situated in one of the earliest settled
+districts of the Chinese empire. The city, which lies in the valley of
+the present channel of the Yellow river (Hwang-Ho), and about 4 m. south
+of the river, is surrounded by a triple line of defence. First is the
+city wall, strongly built and carefully guarded, outside this a granite
+wall, and beyond this again a mud rampart. Three springs outside the
+west gate throw up streams of tepid water to a height of about 2 ft.
+This water, which is highly prized for its healing qualities, fills the
+moat and forms a fine lake in the northern quarter of the city.
+
+Chi-nan Fu was formerly famous for its manufacture of silks and of
+imitation precious stones. It is now the chief commercial entrepot of
+Western Shan-tung but no longer a manufacturing centre. A highway
+connects it with the Yellow river, and it is joined by a railway 280 m.
+long to Kiaochow. The city has a university for instruction on Western
+lines, and an efficient military school. American Presbyterians began
+mission work in the city in 1873; it is also the see of a Roman Catholic
+bishop.
+
+
+
+
+CHINCHA ISLANDS, three small islands in the Pacific Ocean, about 12 m.
+from the coast of Peru (to which country they belong), opposite the town
+of Pisco, and 106 m. distant from Callao, in 13 deg. 38' S., 76 deg. 28' W.
+The largest of the group, known as the North Island or Isla del Norte, is
+only four-fifths of a mile in length, and about a third in breadth. They
+are of granitic formation, and rise from the sea in precipitous cliffs,
+worn into countless caves and hollows, which furnish convenient
+resting-places for the sea-fowl. Their highest points attain an
+elevation of 113 ft. The islands have yielded a few remains of the
+Chincha Indian race. They were formerly noted for vast deposits of
+guano, and its export was begun by the Peruvian government in 1840. The
+supply, however, was exhausted in 1874. In 1853-1854 the Chincha Islands
+were the chief object in a contest known as the Guano War between
+President Echenique and General Castilla; and in April 1864 they were
+seized by the Spanish rear-admiral Pinzon in order to bring the Peruvian
+government to apologize for its treatment of Spanish immigrants.
+
+
+
+
+CHINCHEW, or CHINCHU, the name usually given in English charts to an
+ancient and famous port of China in the province of Fu-kien, of which
+the Chinese name is _Ch'ueanchow-fu_ or _Ts'ueanchow-fu_. It stands in 24
+deg. 57' N., 118 deg. 35' E. The walls have a circuit of 7 or 8 m., but
+embrace much vacant ground. The chief exports are tea and sugar, tobacco,
+china-ware, nankeens, &c. There are remains of a fine mosque, founded by
+the Arab traders who resorted thither. The English Presbyterian Mission
+has had a chapel in the city since about 1862. Beyond the northern
+branch of the Min (several miles from the city) there is a suburb called
+Loyang, approached by the most celebrated bridge in China.
+
+Ch'ueanchow, owing to the obstruction of its harbour by sand banks, has
+been supplanted as a port by Amoy, and its trade is carried on through
+the port of Nganhai. It is still, however, a large and populous city. It
+was in the middle ages the great port of Western trade with China, and
+was known to the Arabs and to Europeans as _Zait[=u]n_ or _Zayton_, the
+name under which it appears in Abulfeda's geography and in the Mongol
+history of Rash[=i]ddud[=i]n, as well as in Ibn Batuta, Marco Polo and
+other medieval travellers. Some argument has been alleged against the
+identity of Zayton with Ch'ueanchow, and in favour of its being rather
+Changchow (a great city 60 m. W.S.W. of Ch'ueanchow), or a port on the
+river of Changchow near Amoy. "Port of Zayton" may have embraced the
+great basin called Amoy Harbour, the chief part of which lies within the
+_Fu_ or department of Ch'ueanchow; but there is hardly room for doubt
+that the Zayton of Marco Polo and Abulfeda was the Ch'ueanchow of the
+Chinese. Ibn Batuta informs us that a rich silk texture made here was
+called _Zait[=u]niya_; and there can be little doubt that this is the
+real origin of the word "Satin," _Zettani_ in medieval Italian,
+_Aceytuni_ in Spanish.
+
+
+
+
+CHINCHILLA, a small grey hopping rodent mammal (_Chinchilla lanigera_),
+of the approximate size of a squirrel, inhabiting the eastern slopes of
+the Andes in Chile and Bolivia, at altitudes between 8000 and 12,000 ft.
+It typifies not only the genus _Chinchilla_, but the family
+_Chinchillidae_, for the distinctive features of which see RODENTIA. The
+ordinary chinchilla is about 10 in. in length, exclusive of the long
+tail, and in the form of its head somewhat resembles a rabbit. It is
+covered with a dense soft fur 3/4 in. long on the back and upwards of an
+inch in length on the sides, of a delicate French grey colour, darkly
+mottled on the upper surf ace and dusky white beneath; the ears being
+long, broad and thinly covered with hair. Chinchillas live in burrows,
+and these subterranean dwellings undermine the ground in some parts of
+the Chilean Andes to such an extent as to cause danger to travellers on
+horseback. They associate in communities, forming their burrows among
+loose rocks, and coming out to feed in the early morning and towards
+sunset. They feed chiefly on roots and grasses, in search of which they
+often travel considerable distances; and when eating they sit on their
+haunches, holding their food in their fore-paws. The Indians in hunting
+them employ the grison (_Galictis vittata_), a member of the weasel
+family, which is trained to enter the crevices of the rocks where the
+chinchillas lie concealed during the day. The fur (q.v.) of this rodent
+was prized by the ancient Peruvians, who made coverlets and other
+articles with the skin, and at the present day the skins are exported in
+large numbers to Europe, where they are made into muffs, tippets and
+trimmings. That chinchillas have not under such circumstances become
+rare, if not extinct, is owing to their extraordinary fecundity, the
+female usually producing five or six young twice a year. They are docile
+in disposition, and thus well fitted for domestication. The Peruvian
+chinchilla (_C. brevicaudata_) is larger, with relatively shorter ears
+and tail; while still larger species constitute the genus _Lagidium_,
+ranging from the Andes to Patagonia, and distinguished by having four in
+place of five front-toes, more pointed ears, and a somewhat differently
+formed skull. (See also VISCACHA).    (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHINDE, a town of Portuguese East Africa, chief port for the Zambezi
+valley and British Central Africa, at the mouth of the Chinde branch of
+the Zambezi, in 18 deg. 40' S., 36 deg. 30' E. Pop. (1907) 2790, of whom
+218 were Europeans. Large steamers are unable to cross the bar, over which
+the depth of water varies from 10 to 18 ft. Chinde owes its existence to
+the discovery in 1889 that the branch of the river on the banks of which
+it is built is navigable from the ocean (see ZAMBEZI). The Portuguese in
+1891 granted on lease for 99 years an area of 5 acres--subsequently
+increased to 25--to the British government, on which goods in transit to
+British possessions could be stored duty free. This block of land is
+known as the British Concession, or British Chinde. The prosperity of
+the town largely depends on the transit trade with Nyasaland and North
+East Rhodesia. There is also a considerable export from Portuguese
+districts, sugar, cotton and ground nuts being largely cultivated in the
+Zambezi valley, and gold and copper mines worked.
+
+
+
+
+CHINDWIN, a river of Burma, the largest tributary of the Irrawaddy, its
+entire course being in Burmese territory. It is called Ningthi by the
+Manipuris. The Chindwin is formed by the junction of the Tanai, the
+Tawan and the Taron or Turong, but it is still uncertain which is the
+main stream. The Tanai has hitherto been looked on as the chief source.
+It rises in about 25 deg. 30' N. and 97 deg. E., on the Shwedaung-gyi peak
+of the Kumon range, 12 m. N. of Mogaung, and flows due N. for the first
+part of its course until it reaches the Hukawng valley, when it turns to
+the W. and flows through the middle of the plain to the end of the
+valley proper. There it curves round to the S., passes through the Taron
+or Turong valley, takes the name of the Chindwin, and maintains a
+general southerly course until it enters the Irrawaddy, after flowing
+through the entire length of the Upper and Lower Chindwin districts, in
+about 21 deg. 30' N. and 95 deg. 15' E. Its extreme outlets are 22 m.
+apart, the interval forming a succession of long, low, partially populated
+islands. The most southerly mouth of the Chindwin is, according to
+tradition, an artificial channel, cut by one of the kings of Pag[=a]n. It
+was choked up for many centuries until in 1824 it was opened out by an
+exceptional flood. The Tanai (it is frequently called Tanaikha, but _kha_
+is merely the Kachin word for river), as long as it retains that name, is
+a swift, clear river, from 50 to 300 yds. wide and from 3 to 15 ft. deep.
+The river is navigated by native boats in the Hukawng valley, but launches
+cannot come up from the Chindwin proper because of the reefs below Taro.
+
+  The Taron, Turong or Towang river seems to be the real main source of
+  the Chindwin. It flows into the Hukawng valley from the north, and has
+  a swift current with a succession of rapids. Its sources are in the
+  hills to the south of Sadiya, rising from 10,000 to 11,000 ft. above
+  sea-level. It flows through a deep valley, with a general E. and W.
+  direction, as far as its junction with the Loglai. It then turns S.,
+  and after draining an intricate system of hills, breaks into the
+  Hukawng valley a few miles N. of Saraw, and joins or receives the
+  Tanai about 10 m. above Kintaw village. Except the Tanai, the chief
+  branches of the Upper Chindwin rise in mountains that are covered at
+  least with winter snows. Below the Hukawng valley the Chindwin is
+  interrupted at several places by fails or transverse reefs. At the
+  village of Haksa there is a fall, which necessitates transhipment from
+  large boats to canoes. Not far below this the Uyu river comes in on
+  the left bank at Homalin, and from this point downwards the steamers
+  of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company ply for the greater part of the
+  year. The Uyu flows through a fertile and well-cultivated valley, and
+  during the rainy season it is navigable for a distance of 150 m. from
+  its mouth by steamers of light draught. Ordinarily regular steam
+  communication with Homalin ceases in the dry weather, but from Kindat,
+  nearly 150 m. below it, there are weekly steamers all the year round.
+  Below Kindat the only considerable affluent of the Chindwin is the
+  Myit-tha, which receives the Chin hills drainage. The Chindwin rises
+  considerably during the rains, but in March and April it is here and
+  there so shallow as to make navigation difficult even for small steam
+  launches. Whirlpools and narrows and shifting sandbanks also give some
+  trouble, but much has been done to improve navigation since the
+  British annexation. Kindat, the headquarters of the Upper Chindwin
+  district, and Monywa of the Lower, are on the banks of the river.
+     (J. G. SC.)
+
+
+
+
+CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER, two districts in the Sagaing division of
+Upper Burma. Upper Chindwin has an area of 19,062 sq. m., and a
+population, according to the census of 1901, of 154,551. Lower Chindwin
+has an area of 3480 sq. m., and a population of 276,383. Upper Chindwin
+lies to the north of the lower district, and is bounded on the N. by the
+Chin, N[=a]ga and Kachin hills; on the E. they are bounded by the
+Myitkyina, Katha and Shwebo districts; Lower Chindwin is bounded on the
+S. by the Pakokku and Sagaing districts; and both districts are bounded
+on the W. by the Chin hills, and by Pakokku on the southern stretch. The
+western portion of both districts is hilly, and the greater part of
+Upper Chindwin is of the same character. Both have valuable teak
+forests. The total rainfall averages in Lower Chindwin 27 and in Upper
+Chindwin 60 in. Coal exists in extensive fields, but these are not very
+accessible. Rice forms the great crop, but a certain amount of til-seed
+and of indigo is also cultivated. Kindat, a mere village, is the
+headquarters of the upper district, and Monywa, with a population of
+7869, of the lower. Both are on the Chindwin river, and are served by
+the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. Alon, close to Monywa,
+and formerly the headquarters, is the terminus of the railway from
+Sagaing westwards, which was opened in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+CHINESE PAVILLON, TURKISH CRESCENT, TURKISH JINGLE, or JINGLING JOHNNY
+(Fr. _chapeau chinois_; Ger. _tuerkischer Halbmond, Schellenbaum_; Ital.
+_cappello chinese_), an instrument of percussion of indefinite
+sonorousness, i.e. not producing definite musical tones. The _chapeau
+chinois_ was formerly an adjunct in military bands, but never in the
+orchestra, where an instrument of somewhat similar shape, often confused
+with it and known as the _Glockenspiel_ (q.v.), is occasionally called
+into requisition. The Chinese pavilion consists of a pole about 6 ft.
+high terminating in a conical metal cap or pavilion, hung with small
+jingling bells and surmounted by a crescent and a star. Below this
+pavilion are two or more metal bands forming a fanciful double crescent
+or squat lyre, likewise furnished with tiny bells. The two points of the
+crescent are curved over, ending in fanciful animal heads from whose
+mouths hang low streaming tails of horse-hair. The Chinese pavilion is
+played by shaking or waving the pole up and down and jingling the bells,
+a movement which can at best be but a slow one repeated once or at most
+twice in a bar to punctuate the phrases and add brilliancy to the
+military music. The Turkish crescent or "jingling Johnny," as it was
+familiarly called in the British army bands, was introduced by the
+Janissaries into western Europe. It has fallen into disuse now, having
+been replaced by the glockenspiel or steel harmonica. Edinburgh
+University possesses two specimens.[1] In the 18th century at
+Bartholomew Fair one of the chief bands hired was one well known as
+playing in London on winter evenings in front of the Spring-Garden
+coffee house and opposite Wigley's. This band consisted of a double
+drum, a Dutch organ (see BARREL-ORGAN), a tambourine, a violin, pipes
+and the Turkish jingle.[2] (K.S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Captain C.R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of Musical
+    Instruments_ (London, 1891), p. 233.
+
+  [2] See Hone's _Everyday Book_, i. 1248.
+
+
+
+
+CHINGFORD, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary division of
+Essex, England, 101/2 m. N. of London (Liverpool Street station) by the
+Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4373. It lies between the river Lea
+and the western outskirts of Epping Forest. The church of All Saints has
+Early English and Perpendicular remains. Queen Elizabeth's or Fair Mead
+hunting lodge, a picturesque half-timbered building, is preserved under
+the Epping Forest Preservation Act. A majestic oak, one of the finest
+trees in the Forest, stands near it. Buckhurst Hill (an urban district;
+pop. 4786) lies to the N.E.
+
+
+
+
+CHINGLEPUT, or CHENGALPAT, a town and district of British India, in the
+Madras presidency. The town, situated 36 m. by rail from Madras, had a
+population in 1901 of 10,551. With Chandragiri in North Arcot,
+Chingleput was once the capital of the Vijayanagar kings, after their
+overthrow by the Mussulmans at Talikota in 1565. In 1639 a chief,
+subject to these kings, granted to the East India Company the land on
+which Fort St George now stands. The fort built by the Vijayanagar kings
+in the 16th century was of strategic importance, owing to its swampy
+surroundings and the lake that flanked its side. It was taken by the
+French in 1751, and was retaken in 1752 by Clive, after which it proved
+invaluable to the British, especially when Lally in his advance on
+Madras left it unreduced in his rear. During the wars of the British
+with Hyder Ali it withstood his power, and afforded a refuge to the
+natives; and in 1780, after the defeat of Colonel W. Baillie, the army
+of Sir Hector Munro here found refuge. The town is noted for its
+manufacture of pottery, and carries on a trade in rice.
+
+The DISTRICT OF CHINGLEPUT surrounds the city of Madras, stretching
+along the coast for about 115 m. The administrative headquarters are at
+Saidapet. Area, 3079 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 1,312,122, showing an increase
+of 9% in the decade. Salt is extensively manufactured all along the
+coast. Cotton and silk weaving is also largely carried on, and there are
+numerous indigo vats, tanneries and an English cigar factory.
+
+CHIN HILLS, a mountainous district of Upper Burma. It lies on the border
+between the Lushai districts of Eastern Bengal and Assam and the plains
+of Burma, and has an area of 8000 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Assam and
+Manipur, S. by Arakan, E. by Burma, and W. by Tippera and the Chittagong
+hill tracts. The Chins, Lushais and Kukis are to the north-east border
+of India what the Pathan tribes are to the north-west frontier. In 1895
+the Chin Hills were declared a part of the province of Burma, and
+constituted a scheduled district which is now administered by a
+political officer with headquarters at Falam. The tract forms a
+parallelogram 250 m. from N. to S. by 100 to 150 m. wide. The country
+consists of a much broken and contorted mass of mountains, intersected
+by deep valleys. The main ranges run generally N. to S., and vary in
+height from 5000 to 9000 ft., among the most important being the Letha
+or Tang, which is the watershed between the Chindwin and Manipur rivers;
+the Imbukklang, which divides the Sokte tribe from the Whenchs and sheds
+the water from its eastern slopes into Upper Burma and that from its
+western slopes into Arakan; and the Rong-klang, which with its
+prolongations is the main watershed of the southern hills, its eastern
+slopes draining into the Myittha and thus into the Chindwin, while the
+western fall drains into the Boinu river, which winding through the
+hills discharges itself eventually in the Bay of Bengal. The highest
+peak yet discovered is the Liklang, between Rawywa and Lungno, some 70
+m. S. of Haka (nearly 10,000 ft.).
+
+  It is supposed that the Kukis of Manipur, the Lushais of Bengal and
+  Assam, and the Chins originally lived in Tibet and are of the same
+  stock; their form of government, method of cultivation, manners and
+  customs, beliefs and traditions all point to one origin. The slow
+  speech, the serious manner, the respect for birth and the knowledge of
+  pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous
+  method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the
+  clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body,
+  mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of
+  combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy
+  discouragement and panic in defeat, are common traits. The Chins,
+  Lushais and Kukis were noted for the secrecy of their plans, the
+  suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed in retreating
+  to their fastnesses. After committing a raid they have been known to
+  march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a meal or
+  sleeping, so as to escape from any parties which might follow them.
+  The British, since the occupation of Upper Burma, have been able to
+  penetrate the Chin-Lushai country from both sides at once. The
+  pacification of the Chin Hills is a triumph for British
+  administration. Roads, on which Chin coolies now readily work, have
+  been constructed in all directions. The rivers have been bridged; the
+  people have taken up the cultivation of English vegetables, and the
+  indigenous districts have been largely developed. The Chin Hills had a
+  population (1901 census) of 87,189, while the Chins in Burma totalled
+  179,292. The Pakokku Chin Hills, which form a separate tract, have an
+  area of 2260 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 13,116.    (J. G. SC.)
+
+
+
+
+CHINKIANG, or CHEN-KIANG-FU, a treaty port of China, in the province of
+Kiang-su, on the Yangtsze-kiang above Shanghai, from which it is distant
+160 m. It is in railway communication both with Shanghai and Nanking (40
+m. distant), and being at the point where the Grand Canal running N. and
+S. intersects the Yangtsze, which runs E. and W., is peculiarly well
+situated to be a commercial entrepot. The total value of exports and
+imports for 1904 was L4,632,992; estimated pop. 168,000. In the war of
+1842 it yielded to the British only after a desperate resistance. It was
+laid waste by the T'aip'ing rebels in 1853, and was recaptured by the
+imperial forces in 1858.
+
+
+
+
+CHINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894-95). The causes of this conflict arose out of
+the immemorial rivalry of China and Japan for influence in Korea. In the
+16th century a prolonged war in the peninsula had ended with the failure
+of Japan to make good her footing on the mainland--a failure brought
+about largely by lack of naval resources. In more modern times (1875,
+1882, 1884) Japan had repeatedly sent expeditions to Korea, and had
+fostered the growth of a progressive party in Seoul. The difficulties of
+1884 were settled between China and Japan by the convention of Tientsin,
+wherein it was agreed that in the event of future intervention each
+should inform the other if it were decided to despatch troops to the
+peninsula. Nine years later the occasion arose. A serious rebellion
+induced the Korean government to apply for military assistance from
+China. Early in June 1894 a small force of Chinese troops were sent to
+Asan, and Japan, duly informed of this action, replied by furnishing her
+minister at Seoul with an escort, rapidly following up this step by the
+despatch of about 5000 troops under Major-General Oshima. A complicated
+situation thus arose. Chinese troops were present in Korea by the
+request of the government to put down rebellion. The Japanese controlled
+the capital, and declined to recognize Korea as a tributary of China.
+But she proposed that the two powers should unite to suppress the
+disturbance and to inaugurate certain specified reforms. China
+considered that the measures of reform must be left to Korea herself.
+The reply was that Japan considered the government of Korea "lacking in
+some of the elements which are essential to responsible independence."
+By the middle of July war had become inevitable unless the Peking
+government were willing to abandon all claims over Korea, and as Chinese
+troops were already in the country by invitation, it was not to be
+expected that the shadowy suzerainty would be abandoned.
+
+At Seoul the issue was forced by the Japanese minister, who delivered an
+ultimatum to the Korean government on the 20th of July. On the 23rd the
+palace was forcibly occupied. Meanwhile China had despatched about 8000
+troops to the Yalu river. The outbreak of war thus found the Japanese
+in possession of Seoul and ready to send large forces to Korea, while
+the Chinese occupied Asan (about 40 m. south of the capital), and had a
+considerable body of troops in Manchuria in addition to those despatched
+to the Yalu river. To Japan the command of the sea was essential for the
+secure transport and supply of her troops. Without it the experience of
+the war of the 16th century would be repeated. China, too, could only
+utilize overland routes to Korea by submitting to the difficulties and
+delays entailed. To both powers the naval question was thus important.
+
+  By the time war was finally declared (August 1) hostilities had
+  already begun. On the 25th of July Oshima set out from Seoul to attack
+  the Chinese at Asan. On the 29th he won a victory at Soeng-hwan, but
+  the Chinese commander escaped with a considerable part of his forces
+  by a detour to Ping-Yang (Phyong-Yang). Meanwhile a portion of the
+  Japanese fleet had encountered some Chinese warships and transports
+  off Phung-Tao, and scored an important success, sinking, amongst other
+  vessels, the transport "Kowshing" (July 25). The loss of more than
+  1000 Chinese soldiers in this vessel materially lightened Oshima's
+  task. The intention of the Chinese to crush their enemies between
+  their forces at Asan and Ping-Yang was completely frustrated, and the
+  Japanese obtained control of all southern Korea.
+
+  Reinforcements from Japan were now pouring into Korea, in spite of the
+  fact that the rival navies had not yet tried conclusions, and General
+  Nozu, the senior Japanese officer present, soon found himself in a
+  position to move on Ping-Yang. Three columns converged upon the place
+  on the 15th of September, and in spite of its strong walls carried it,
+  though only after severe fighting.
+
+  Nearly all the troops on either side had been conveyed to the scene of
+  war by sea, though the decisive contest for sea supremacy was still to
+  be fought. The Chinese admiral Ting with the Northern Squadron (which
+  alone took part in the war) had hitherto remained inactive in
+  Wei-hai-wei, and on the other side Vice-Admiral Ito's fleet had not
+  directly interfered with the hostile transports which were reinforcing
+  the troops on the Yalu. But two days after the battle of Ping-Yang,
+  Ting, who had conveyed a large body of troops to the mouth of the
+  Yalu, encountered the Japanese fleet on his return journey off
+  Hai-Yang-Tao on the 17th of September. The heavy battleships
+  "Chen-Yuen" and "Ting-Yuen" constituted the strongest element of the
+  Chinese squadron, for the Japanese, superior as they were in every
+  other factor of success, had no vessels which could compare with these
+  in the matter of protection. Ting advanced in a long irregular line
+  abreast; the battleships in the centre, the lighter vessels on the
+  wings. Ito's fast cruisers steamed in line ahead against the Chinese
+  right wing, crushing their weaker opponents with their fire. In the
+  end the Chinese fleet was defeated and scattered, but the two heavy
+  battleships drew off without serious injury. This battle of the Yalu
+  gave Japan command of the sea, but Ito continued to act with great
+  caution. The remnants of the vanquished fleet took refuge in Port
+  Arthur, whence after repairs Ting proceeded to Wei-hai-wei.
+
+  The victory of Ping-Yang had cleared Korea of the Chinese troops, but
+  on the lower Yalu--their own frontier--large forces threatened a
+  second advance. Marshal Yamagata therefore took the offensive with his
+  1st army, and on the 24th and 25th of October, under great
+  difficulties--though without serious opposition from the enemy--forced
+  the passage of the river and occupied Chiulien-cheng. Part of the
+  Chinese force retired to the north-east, part to Feng-hwang-cheng and
+  Hsiu-yuen (Siu-Yen). The Japanese 1st army advanced several columns
+  towards the mountains of Manchuria to secure its conquests and prepare
+  for a future advance. General Tachimi's brigade occupied
+  Feng-hwang-cheng on the 29th of October. On the 7th of November a
+  column from the Yalu took Takushan, and a few days later a converging
+  attack from these two places was made upon Hsiu-yuen, which was
+  abandoned by the Chinese. Meanwhile Tachimi, skirmishing with the
+  enemy on the Mukden and Liao-Yang roads, found the Chinese in force. A
+  simultaneous forward move by both sides led to the action of
+  Tsao-ho-ku (November 30), after which both sides withdrew--the Chinese
+  to the line of the mountains covering Hai-cheng, Liao-Yang and Mukden,
+  with the Tatar general Ikotenga's force, 14,000 strong, on the
+  Japanese right north-east of Feng-hwang-cheng; and the Japanese to
+  Chiulien-cheng, Takushan and Hsiu-yuen. The difficulties of supply in
+  the hills were almost insurmountable, and no serious advance was
+  intended by the Japanese until January 1895, when it was to be made in
+  co-operation with the 2nd army. This army, under Marshal Oyama, had
+  been formed in September and at first sent to Chemulpo as a support to
+  the forces under Yamagata; but its chief task was the siege and
+  capture of the Chinese fortress, dockyard and arsenal of Port Arthur.
+
+  The Liao-Tong peninsula was guarded by the walled city of Kinchow and
+  the forts of Ta-lien-wan (Dalny under the Russian regime, and Tairen
+  under the Japanese) as well as the fortifications around Port Arthur
+  itself. On the 24th of October the disembarkation of the 2nd army
+  began near Pi-tsze-wo, and the successive columns of the Japanese
+  gradually moved towards Kinchow, which was carried without difficulty
+  on the 6th of November. Even less resistance was offered by the modern
+  forts of Ta-lien-wan. The Japanese now held a good harbour within a
+  few miles of the main fortress. Here they landed siege artillery, and
+  on the 17th of November the advance was resumed. The attack was made
+  on the 19th at dawn. Yamaji's division (Nogi's and Nishi's brigades)
+  after a trying night march assaulted and carried the western defences
+  and moved upon the town. Hasegawa in the centre, as soon as Yamaji
+  began to appear in rear of his opponents in the northern forts, pushed
+  home his attack with equal success, and by 3 P.M. practically all
+  resistance was at an end. The Japanese paid for this important success
+  with but 423 casualties. Meanwhile the Chinese general Sung, who had
+  marched from Hai-cheng to engage the 2nd army, appeared before
+  Kinchow, where he received on the 22nd a severe repulse at the hands
+  of the Japanese garrison. Marshal Oyama subsequently stationed his
+  advanced guard towards Hai-cheng, the main body at Kinchow, and a
+  brigade of infantry at Port Arthur. Soon after this overtures of peace
+  were made by China; but her envoy, a foreigner unfurnished with
+  credentials, was not received by the Tokyo government.
+
+  The Japanese 1st army (now under General Nozu) at Antung and
+  Feng-hwang-cheng prepared, in spite of the season, to move across the
+  mountains, and on the 3rd of December General Katsura left Antung for
+  Hai-cheng. His line of march was by Hsi-mu-cheng, and strong flank
+  guards followed parallel routes on either side. The march was
+  accomplished safely and Hai-cheng occupied on the 13th of December. In
+  the meantime Tachimi had moved northward from Feng-hwang-cheng, in
+  order to distract the attention of the Chinese from Hai-cheng, and
+  there were some small engagements between this force and that of
+  Ikotenga, who ultimately retired beyond the mountains to Liao-Yang.
+  Sung had already left Kai-ping to secure Hai-cheng when he heard of
+  the fall of that place; his communications with Ikotenga being now
+  severed, he swerved to the north-west and established a new base at
+  Niu-chwang. Once on his new line Sung moved upon Hai-cheng. As it was
+  essential that he should be prevented from joining forces with
+  Ikotenga, General Katsura marched out of Hai-cheng to fight him. At
+  Kang-wang-tsai (December 19th) the Chinese displayed unusual
+  steadiness, and it cost the Japanese some 343 casualties to dislodge
+  the enemy. The victors returned to Hai-cheng exhausted with their
+  efforts, but secure from attack for some time to come. The advanced
+  troops of the 2nd army (Nogi's brigade) were now ready to advance, and
+  only the Kai-ping garrison (left behind by Sung) barred their junction
+  with Katsura. At Kai-ping (January 10th) the resistance of the Chinese
+  was almost as steady as at Kang-wang-tsai, and the Japanese lost 300
+  killed and wounded in their successful attack. In neither of these
+  actions was the defeated force routed, nor did it retire very far. On
+  the 17th of January and again on the 22nd Ikotenga attacked Hai-cheng
+  from the north, but was repulsed.
+
+  Meanwhile the 2nd army, still under Oyama, had undertaken operations
+  against Wei-hai-wei, the second great fortress and dockyard of
+  northern China, where Admiral Ting's squadron had been refitting since
+  the battle of the Yalu; and it was hoped that both armies would
+  accomplish their present tasks in time to advance in the summer
+  against Peking itself. On the 18th of January a naval demonstration
+  was made at Teng-chow-fu, 70 m. west of Wei-hai-wei, and on the 19th
+  the Japanese began their disembarkation at Yung-cheng Bay, about 12 m.
+  from Wei-hai-wei. The landing was scarcely opposed, and on the 26th
+  the Japanese advance was begun. The south-eastern defences of
+  Wei-hai-wei harbour were carried by the 6th division, whilst the 2nd
+  division reached the inner waters of the bay, driving the Chinese
+  before them. The fleet under Ito co-operated effectively. On the night
+  of the 4th-5th of February the Chinese squadron in harbour was
+  attacked by ten torpedo boats. Two boats were lost, but the
+  armour-clad "Ting-Yuen" was sunk. On the following night a second
+  attack was made, and three more vessels were sunk. On the 9th the
+  "Ching-Yuen" was sunk by the guns in one of the captured forts. On the
+  12th Admiral Ting wrote to Admiral Ito offering to surrender, and then
+  took poison, other officers following his example. Wei-hai-wei was
+  then dismantled by the Japanese, who recovered the remnant of the
+  Chinese squadron, including the "Chen Yuen," and the 2nd army
+  concentrated at Port Arthur for the advance on Peking.
+
+  While this campaign was in progress the Chinese despatched a second
+  peace mission, also with defective credentials. The Japanese declined
+  to treat, and the mission returned to China. In February the Chinese
+  made further unsuccessful attacks on Hai-cheng. Yamaji near Kai-ping
+  fought a severe action on the 21st, 22nd and 23rd of February at
+  Taping-shan against a part of Sung's army under General Ma-yu-kun.
+  This action was fought with 2 ft. of snow on the ground, the
+  thermometer registering zero F., and no less than 1500 cases of
+  frost-bite were reported. It was the intention of General Nozu, after
+  freeing the Hai-cheng garrison from Ikotenga, to seize Niu-chwang
+  port. Two divisions converged on An-shan-chan, and the Chinese,
+  threatened in front and flank, retired to Liao-Yang. Meanwhile two
+  more attacks on Hai-cheng had been repulsed. The 3rd and 5th divisions
+  then moved on Niu-chwang, and Yamaji's 1st division at Kai-ping joined
+  in the advance. The column from An-shan-chan stormed Niu-chwang, which
+  was obstinately defended, and cost the stormers nearly 400 men. All
+  three divisions converged on Niu-chwang port (Ying-kow), and the
+  final engagement took place at Tien-chwang-tai, which was captured on
+  the 9th of March. The Chinese forces in Manchuria being thoroughly
+  broken and dispersed, there was nothing to prevent the Japanese from
+  proceeding to the occupation of Peking, since they could, after the
+  break-up of the ice, land and supply large forces at Shan-hai-kwan,
+  within 170 m. of the capital. Two more Japanese divisions were sent
+  out, with Prince Komatsu as supreme commander. Seven divisions were at
+  Port Arthur ready to embark, when negotiations were reopened. Li
+  Hung-Chang proceeded to Shimonoseki, where the treaty was signed on
+  the 17th of April 1895. An expedition was sent towards the end of
+  March to the Pescadores, and later the Imperial Guard division was
+  sent to Formosa.
+
+  It is impossible to estimate the Chinese losses in the war. The
+  Japanese lost 4177 men by death in action or by sickness, and 56,862
+  were wounded or disabled by sickness, exclusive of the losses in the
+  Formosa and Pescadores expeditions. Nearly two-thirds of these losses
+  were incurred by the 1st army in the trying winter campaign in
+  Manchuria.
+
+  The most important works dealing with the war are: Vladimir,
+  _China-Japan War_ (London, 1896); Jukichi Inouye, _The Japan-China
+  War_ (Yokohama, &c., 1896); du Boulay, _Epitome of the China-Japanese
+  War_ (London, 1896), the official publication of the British War
+  Office; Atteridge, _Wars of the Nineties_, pp. 535-636 (London, 1899);
+  von Kunowski and Fretzdorff, _Der japanisch-chinesische Krieg_
+  (Leipzig, 1895); von Mueller, _Der Krieg zwischen China und Japan_
+  (Berlin, 1895); Bujac, _Precis de quelques campagnes contemporaines:
+  II. La Guerre sino-japonaise_ (Paris and Limoges).
+
+
+
+
+CHINON, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Vienne, 32m. S.W.
+of Tours on the State railway. Pop. (1906) 4071. Chinon lies at the foot
+of the rocky eminence which is crowned by the ruins of the famous
+castle. Its narrow, winding streets contain many houses of the 15th and
+16th centuries. The oldest of its churches, St Mexme, is in the
+Romanesque style, but only the facade and nave are left. The church of
+St Etienne dates from the 15th century, that of St Maurice from the
+12th, 15th and 16th centuries. The castle, which has undergone
+considerable modern restoration, consists of three portions. That to the
+east, the Chateau de St Georges, built by Henry II. of England, has
+almost vanished, only the foundation of the outer wall remaining. The
+Chateau du Milieu (11th to 15th centuries) comprises the keep, the
+Pavilion de l'Horloge and the Grand Logis, in the principal apartment of
+which the first meeting between Joan of Arc and Charles VII. took place.
+Of the Chateau du Coudray, which is separated by a moat from the Chateau
+du Milieu, the chief remains are the Tour du Moulin (10th century) and
+two less ancient towers. A statue of Rabelais, who was born in the
+vicinity of the town, stands on the river-quay. Chinon has trade in
+wheat, brandy, red wine and plums. Basket and rope manufacture, tanning
+and cooperage are among its industries. Chinon (Caino) existed before
+the Roman occupation of Gaul, and was from early times an important
+fortress. It was occupied by the Visigoths, and subsequently, after
+forming part of the royal domain, came to the counts of Touraine and
+from them to the counts of Anjou. Henry II. often resided in the castle,
+and died there. The place was taken by Philip Augustus in 1205 after a
+year's siege.
+
+
+
+
+CHINOOK, a tribe of North American Indians, dwelling at the mouth of the
+Columbia river, Washington. They were fishermen and traders, and used
+huge canoes of hollowed cedar trunks. The tribe is practically extinct,
+but the name survives in the trade language known as "Chinook jargon."
+This has been analysed as composed of two-fifths Chinook, two-fifths
+other Indian tongues, and the rest English and Canadian French; but the
+proportion of English has tended to increase. The Chinookan linguistic
+family includes a number of separate tribes.
+
+The name CHINOOK is also applied to a wind which blows from W. or N.
+over the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it descends as a dry wind
+warm in winter and cool in summer (cf. _Foehn_). It is due to a cyclone
+passing northward, and continues from a few hours to several days. It
+moderates the climate of the eastern Rockies, the snow melting quickly
+on account of its warmth and vanishing on account of its dryness, so
+that it is said to "lick up" the snow from the slopes.
+
+  See Gill, _Dictionary of Chinook Jargon_ (Portland, Ore., 1891); Boas,
+  "Chinook Texts," in _Smithsonian Report_, Bureau of Ethnology
+  (Washington, 1894); J.C. Pilling, "Bibliography of Chinookan
+  Languages," _Smithsonian Report_, Bureau of Ethnology (Washington,
+  1893); Horatio Hale, _Manual of Oregon Trade Language_ (London, 1890);
+  G.C. Shaw, _The Chinook Jargon_ (Seattle, 1909); _Handbook of American
+  Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CHINSURA, a town of British India, on the Hugli river, 24 m. above
+Calcutta, formerly the principal Dutch settlement in Bengal. The Dutch
+erected a factory here in 1656, on a healthy spot of ground, much
+preferable to that on which Calcutta is situated. In 1759 a British
+force under Colonel Forde was attacked by the garrison of Chinsura on
+its march to Chandernagore, but in less than half an hour the Dutch were
+entirely routed. In 1795, during the Napoleonic wars, the settlement was
+occupied by a British garrison. At the peace of 1814 it was restored to
+the Dutch. It was among the cessions in India made by the king of the
+Netherlands in 1825 in exchange for the British possessions in Sumatra.
+Hugli College is maintained by government; and there are a number of
+schools, several of which are carried on by Scottish Presbyterian
+missionaries. Chinsura is included in the Hugli municipality.
+
+
+
+
+CHINTZ, a word derived from the Hindu _ch[=i]nt_, spotted or variegated.
+This name was given to a kind of stained or painted calico produced in
+India. It is now applied to a highly glazed printed calico, commonly
+made in several colours on a light ground and used for bed hangings,
+covering furniture, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHIOGGIA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
+Venice, from which it is 181/2 m. S. by sea. Pop. (1901) 21,384 (town),
+31,218 (commune). It is inhabited mostly by fishermen, and is situated
+upon an island at the S. end of the lagoons. It is traversed by one main
+canal, La Vena. The peculiar dialect and customs of the inhabitants
+still survive to some extent. It is of earlier origin than Venice, and
+indeed is probably identical with the Roman Portus Aedro, or Ebro,
+though its name is derived from the Roman Fossa Claudia, a canalized
+estuary which with the two mouths of the Meduacus (Brenta) went to form
+the harbour. In 672 it entered the league of the cities of the lagoons,
+and recognized the authority of the doge. In 809 it was almost destroyed
+by Pippin, but in 1110 was made a city, remaining subject to Venice,
+whose fortunes it thenceforth followed. It was captured after a
+determined resistance by the Genoese in 1379, but recovered in 1380.
+Chioggia is connected by rail with Rovigo, 35 m. to the south-west.
+   (T. AS.)
+
+_Naval War of Chioggia (1378-80)._--The naval war of 1378-1380, carried
+on by Venice against the Genoese and their allies, the lord of Carrara
+and the king of Hungary, is of exceptional interest as one in which a
+superior naval power, having suffered disaster in its home waters, and
+having been invaded, was yet able to win in the end by holding out till
+its squadrons in distant seas could be recalled for its defence.
+
+  When the war began in the spring of 1378, Venice was mainly concerned
+  for the safety of its trading stations in the Levant and the Black
+  Sea, which were exposed to the attacks of the Genoese. The more
+  powerful of the two fleets which it sent out was despatched into the
+  eastern Mediterranean under Carlo Zeno, the bailiff and captain of
+  Negropont. A smaller force was sent to operate against the Genoese in
+  the western Mediterranean, and was placed under the command of Vettor
+  Pisani. The possessions of Venice on the mainland, which were then
+  small, were assailed by Francesco Carrara and the Hungarians. Her only
+  ally in the war, Bernabo Visconti of Milan, gave her little help on
+  this side, but his mercenaries invaded the territory of Genoa. The
+  danger on land seemed trifling to Venice so long as she could keep the
+  sea open to her trade and press the war against the Genoese in the
+  Levant.
+
+  During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were carried
+  out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the Genoese
+  stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their squadrons
+  to action on the 30th of May 1378 off Punta di Anzio to the south of
+  the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in a gale by 10
+  Venetian against 11 Genoese galleys. The Genoese admiral, Luigi de'
+  Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and others were wrecked.
+  Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for Famagusta in Cyprus,
+  then held by Genoa. If Pisani had directed his course to Genoa itself,
+  which was thrown into a panic by the defeat at Anzio, it is possible
+  that he might have dictated peace, but he thought his squadron too
+  weak, and preferred to follow the Genoese galleys which had fled to
+  Famagusta. During the summer of 1378 he was employed partly in
+  attacking the enemy in Cyprus, but mainly in taking possession of the
+  Istrian and Dalmatian towns which supported the Hungarians from fear
+  of the aggressive ambition of Venice. He was ordered to winter on the
+  coast of Istria, where his crews suffered from exposure and disease.
+  Genoa, having recovered from the panic caused by the disaster at
+  Anzio, decided to attack Venice at home while the best of her ships
+  were absent with Carlo Zeno. She sent a strong fleet into the Adriatic
+  under Luciano Doria. Pisani had been reinforced early in the spring of
+  1378, but when he was sighted by the Genoese fleet of 25 sail off Pola
+  in Istria on the 7th of May, he was slightly outnumbered, and his
+  crews were still weak. The Venetian admiral would have preferred to
+  avoid battle, and to check an attack on Venice itself, by threatening
+  the Genoese fleet from his base on the Istrian coast. He was forced
+  into battle by the commissioner (_proveditore_) Michael Steno, who as
+  agent of the senate had authority over the admiral. The Venetians were
+  defeated with the loss of all their galleys except six. Luciano Doria
+  fell in the battle, and the Genoese, who had suffered severely, did
+  not at once follow up their success. On the arrival of his successor,
+  Pietro Doria, with reinforcements, they appeared off the Lido, the
+  outer barrier of the lagoon of Venice, in July, and in August they
+  entered on a combined naval and military attack on the city, in
+  combination with the Carrarese and the Hungarians. The Venetians had
+  closed the passages through the outer banks except at the southern
+  end, at the island of Brondolo, and the town of Chioggia. The barrier
+  here approaches close to the mainland, and the position facilitated
+  the co-operation of the Genoese with the Carrarese and Hungarians, but
+  Chioggia is distant from Venice, which could only be reached along the
+  canals across the lagoon. The Venetians had taken up the buoys which
+  marked the fairway, and had placed a light squadron on the lagoon. The
+  allies, after occupying the island of Brondolo, attacked, and on the
+  13th of August took the town of Chioggia with its garrison of 3000
+  men.
+
+  There appeared to be nothing to prevent the enemy from advancing to
+  the city of Venice except the difficult navigation of the lagoon. The
+  senate applied for peace, but when the Genoese replied that they were
+  resolved to "bit and bridle the horses of Saint Mark" the Venetians
+  decided to fight to the end. Vettor Pisani, who had been imprisoned
+  after the defeat at Pola, but who possessed the confidence of the
+  people and the affection of the sailors, was released and named
+  commander-in-chief against the wish of the aristocracy. Under his
+  guidance the Venetians adopted a singularly bold and ingenious policy
+  of offensive defence. The heavy Genoese vessels were much hampered by
+  the shallow water and intricate passages through the lagoon. By taking
+  advantage of their embarrassment and his own local knowledge, Pisani
+  carried out a series of movements which entirely turned the tables on
+  the invaders. Between the 23rd and 25th of August he executed a
+  succession of night attacks, during which he sank vessels laden with
+  stores not only in the canals leading through the lagoon to Venice,
+  but in the fairways leading from Chioggia to the open sea round both
+  ends of the island of Brondolo. The Genoese were thus shut in at the
+  very moment when they thought they were about to besiege Venice.
+  Pisani stationed the galleys under his command in the open sea outside
+  Brondolo, and during the rest of the year blockaded the enemy closely.
+  The distress of the Venetians themselves was great, but the Doge
+  Andrea Contarini and the nobles set an example by sharing the general
+  hardships, and taking an oath not to return to Venice till they had
+  recovered Chioggia. Carlo Zeno had long since been ordered to return,
+  but the slowness and difficulty of communication and movement under
+  14th century conditions delayed his reappearance. The besiegers of
+  Chioggia were at the end of their powers of endurance, and Pisani had
+  been compelled to give a promise that the siege would be raised, when
+  Zeno's fleet reached the anchorage off Brondolo on the 1st of January
+  1380. The attack on Chioggia was now pressed with vigour. The Genoese
+  held out resolutely in the hope of relief from home. But the resources
+  of Genoa had been taxed to fit out the squadrons she had already sent
+  to sea. It was not until the 12th of May 1380 that her admiral, Matteo
+  Maruffo, was able to reach the neighbourhood of Brondolo with a
+  relieving force. By this time the Venetians had recovered the island,
+  and their fleet occupied a fortified anchorage from which they refused
+  to be drawn. Maruffo could do nothing, and on the 24th of June 1380
+  the defenders of Chioggia surrendered. The crisis of the war was past.
+  Venice, being now safe at home, recovered the command of the sea, and
+  before the close of the year was able to make peace as a conqueror.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--S. Romanin, _Storia documentata di Venezia_ (Venice,
+  1855); W.C. Hazlitt, _History of the Venetian Republic_ (London,
+  1860); Horatio F. Brown, _Venice_ (London, 1893). (D.H.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIOS, an island on the west coast of Asia Minor, called by the Greeks
+Chios ([Greek: Chios, 's te Chio]) and by the Turks Saki Adasi; the soft
+pronunciation of [CHI] before [iota] in modern Greek, approximating to
+_sh_, caused [Greek: Chio] to be Italianized as Scio. It forms, with the
+islands of Psara, Nikaria, Leros, Calymnus and Cos, a sanjak of the
+Archipelago vilayet. Chios is about 30 m. long from N. to S., and from 8
+to 15 m. broad; pop. 64,000. It well deserves the epithet "craggy"
+([Greek: paipaloessa]) of the Homeric hymn. Its figs were noted in
+ancient times, but wine and gum mastic have always been the most
+important products. The climate is healthy; oranges, olives and even
+palms grow freely. The wine grown on the N.W. coast, in the district
+called by Strabo Ariusia, was known as _vinum Arvisium_. Early in the
+7th century B.C. Glaucus of Chios discovered the process of welding iron
+([Greek: kollesis]: see J.G. Frazer's _Pausanias_, note on x. 16. 1,
+vol. v. pp. 313-314), and the iron stand of a large crater whose parts
+were all connected by this process was constructed by him, and preserved
+as one of the most interesting relics of antiquity at Delphi. The long
+line of Chian sculptors (see GREEK ART) in marble bears witness to the
+fame of Chian art. In literature the chief glory of Chios was the school
+of epic poets called Homeridae, who helped to create a received text of
+Homer and gave the island the reputation of being the poet's birthplace.
+The chief town, Chios (pop. 16,000), is on the E. coast. A theatre and a
+temple of Athena Poliuchus existed in the ancient city. About 6 m. N. of
+the city there is a curious monument of antiquity, commonly called "the
+school of Homer"; it is a very ancient sanctuary of Cybele, with an
+altar and a figure of the goddess with her two lions, cut out of the
+native rock on the summit of a hill. On the west coast there is a
+monastery of great wealth with a church founded by Constantine IX.
+Monomachus (1042-1054). Starting from the city and encompassing the
+island, one passes in succession the promontory Posidium; Cape Phanae,
+the southern extremity of Chios, with a harbour and a temple of Apollo;
+Notium, probably the south-western point of the island; Laii, opposite
+the city of Chios, where the island is narrowest; the town Bolissus (now
+Volisso), the home of the Homerid poets; Melaena, the north-western
+point; the wine-growing district Ariusia; Cardamyle (now Cardhamili);
+the north-eastern promontory was probably named Phlium, and the
+mountains that cross the northern part of the island Pelinaeus or
+Pellenaeus.
+
+  The history of Chios is very obscure. According to Pherecydes, the
+  original inhabitants were Leleges, while according to other accounts
+  Thessalian Pelasgi possessed the island before it became an Ionian
+  state. The name Aethalia, common to Chios and Lemnos in very early
+  times, suggests the original existence of a homogeneous population in
+  these and other neighbouring islands. Oenopion, a mythical hero, son
+  of Dionysus or of Rhadamanthus, was an early king of Chios. His
+  successor in the fourth generation, Hector, united the island to the
+  Ionian confederacy (Pausan. vii. 4), though Strabo (xiv. p. 633)
+  implies an actual conquest by Ionian settlers. The regal government
+  was at a later time exchanged for an oligarchy or a democracy. The
+  names of two tyrants, Amphiclus and Polytecnus, are mentioned. The
+  products of the island were largely exported on the ships of Miletus,
+  with which city Chios formed a close mercantile alliance in opposition
+  to the rival league of Phocaea and Samos. Similar commercial
+  considerations determined the Chians in their attitude towards the
+  Persian conquerors: in 546 they submitted to Cyrus as eagerly as
+  Phocaea resisted him; during the Ionian revolt their fleet of 100 sail
+  joined the Milesians in offering a desperate opposition at Lade (494).
+  The island was subsequently punished with great rigour by the
+  Persians. The Chian ships, under the tyrant Strattis, served in the
+  Persian fleet at Salamis. After its liberation in 479 Chios joined the
+  Delian League and long remained a firm ally of the Athenians, who
+  allowed it to retain full autonomy. But in 413 the island revolted,
+  and was not recaptured. After the Peloponnesian War it took the first
+  opportunity to renew the Athenian alliance, but in 357 again seceded.
+  As a member of the Delian League it had regained its prosperity, being
+  able to equip a fleet of 50 or 60 sail. Moreover, it was reputed one
+  of the best-governed states in Greece, for although it was governed
+  alternately by oligarchs and democrats neither party persecuted the
+  other severely. It was not till late in the 4th century that civil
+  dissension became a danger to the state, leaving it a prey to Idrieus,
+  the dynast of Caria (346), and to the Persian admiral Memnon (333).
+  During the Hellenistic age Chios maintained itself in a virtually
+  independent position. It supported the Romans in their Eastern wars,
+  and was made a "free and allied state." Under Roman and Byzantine rule
+  industry and commerce were undisturbed, its chief export at this time
+  being the Arvisian wine, which had become very popular. After
+  temporary occupations by the Seljuk Turks (1089-1092) and by the
+  Venetians (1124-1125, 1172, 1204-1225), it was given in fief to the
+  Genoese family of Zaccaria, and in 1346 passed definitely into the
+  hands of a Genoese _maona_, or trading company, which was organized in
+  1362 under the name of "the Giustiniani." This mercantile brotherhood,
+  formerly a privileged class, alone exploited the mastic trade; at the
+  same time the Greeks were allowed to retain their rights of
+  self-government and continued to exercise their industries. In 1415
+  the Genoese became tributary to the Ottomans. In spite of occasional
+  secessions which brought severe punishment upon the island (1453,
+  1479), the rule of the Giustiniani was not abolished till 1566. Under
+  the Ottoman government the prosperity of Chios was hardly affected.
+  But the island underwent severe periods of suffering after its capture
+  and reconquest from the Florentines (1595) and the Venetians
+  (1694-1695), which greatly reduced the number of the Latins. Worst of
+  all were the massacres of 1822, which followed upon an attack by some
+  Greek insurgents executed against the will of the natives. In 1881
+  Chios was visited by a very severe earthquake in which over 5600
+  persons lost their lives and more than half the villages were
+  seriously damaged. The island has now recovered its prosperity. There
+  is a harbour at Castro, and steam flour-mills, foundries and tanneries
+  have been established. Rich antimony and calamine mines are worked by
+  a French undertaking, and good marble is quarried by an Italian
+  company.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Strabo xiv. pp. 632 f.; Athenaeus vi. 265-266; Herodotus
+  i. 160-165, vi. 15-31; Thucydides viii. 14-61; _Corpus Inscr.
+  Atticarum_, iv. (2), pp. 9, 10; H. Houssaye in _Revue des deux
+  mondes_, xlvi. (1876), pp. 1 ff.; T. Bent in _Historical Review_
+  (1889), pp. 467-480; Fustel de Coulanges, _L'Ile de Chio_ (ed.
+  Jullian, Paris, 1893); for coinage, B.V. Head, _Historia numorum_
+  (Oxford, 1887), pp. 513-515, and NUMISMATICS: _Greek_.     (E. GR.;
+  M. O. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS (d. 1779), the most famous of English cabinetmakers.
+The materials for the biography of Chippendale are exceedingly scanty,
+but he is known to have been the son of Thomas Chippendale I., and is
+believed to have been the father of Thomas Chippendale III. His father
+was a cabinet-maker and wood-carver of considerable repute in Worcester
+towards the beginning of the 18th century, and possibly he originated
+some of the forms which became characteristic of his son's work. Thus a
+set of chairs and settees was made, apparently at Worcester, for the
+family of Bury of Knateshill, at a period when the great cabinetmaker
+could have been no more than a boy, which are practically identical with
+much of the work that was being turned out of the family factory as late
+as the 'sixties of the 18th century. Side by side with the Queen Anne or
+early Georgian feeling of the first quarter of the 18th century we find
+the interlaced splats and various other details which marked the
+Chippendale style. By 1727 the elder Chippendale and his son had removed
+to London, and at the end of 1749 the younger man--his father was
+probably then dead--established himself in Conduit Street, Long Acre,
+whence in 1753 he removed to No. 60 St Martin's Lane, which with the
+addition of the adjoining three houses remained his factory for the rest
+of his life. In 1755 his workshops were burned down; in 1760 he was
+elected a member of the Society of Arts; in 1766 his partnership with
+James Ranni was dissolved by the latter's death.
+
+It has always been exceedingly difficult to distinguish the work
+executed in Chippendale's factory and under his own eye from that of the
+many copyists and adapters who throughout the second half of the 18th
+century--the golden age of English furniture--plundered remorselessly.
+Apart from his published designs, many of which were probably never made
+up, we have to depend upon the very few instances in which his original
+accounts enable us to earmark work which was unquestionably his. For
+Claydon House, the seat of the Verneys in Buckinghamshire, he executed
+much decorative work, and the best judges are satisfied that the Chinese
+bedroom there was designed by him. At Harewood House, the seat of the
+earl of Harewood in Yorkshire, we are on firmer ground. The house was
+furnished between 1765 and 1771, and both Robert Adam and Chippendale
+were employed upon it. Indeed, there is unmistakable evidence to show
+that certain work, so closely characteristic of the Adams that it might
+have been assigned to them without hesitation, was actually produced by
+Chippendale. This may be another of the many indications that
+Chippendale was himself an imitator, or it may be that Adam, as
+architect, prescribed designs which Chippendale's cabinetmakers and
+carvers executed. Chippendale's bills for this Adam work are still
+preserved. Stourhead, the famous house of the Hoares in Wiltshire,
+contains much undoubted Chippendale furniture, which may, however, be
+the work of Thomas Chippendale III.; at Rowton Castle, Shropshire,
+Chippendale's bills as well as his works still exist.
+
+Our other main source of information is _The Gentleman and Cabinet
+Maker's Director_, which was published by Thomas Chippendale in 1754.
+This book, the most important collection of furniture designs issued up
+to that time in England, contains one hundred and sixty engraved plates,
+and the list of subscribers indicates that the author had acquired a
+large and distinguished body of customers. The book is of folio size;
+there was a second edition in 1759, and a third in 1762.
+
+In the rather bombastic introduction Chippendale says that he has been
+encouraged to produce the book "by persons of distinction and taste, who
+have regretted that an art capable of so much perfection and refinement
+should be executed with so little propriety and elegance." He has some
+severe remarks upon critics, from which we may assume that he had
+already suffered at their hands. Perhaps, indeed, Chippendale may have
+been hinted at in the caustic remarks of Isaac Ware, surveyor to the
+king, who bewailed that it was the misfortune of the world in his day
+"to see an unmeaning scrawl of C's inverted and looped together, taking
+the place of Greek and Roman elegance even in our most expensive
+decorations. It is called French, and let them have the praise of it!
+The Gothic shaft and Chinese bell are not beyond nor below it in
+poorness of imitation." It is the more likely that these barbs were
+intended for Chippendale, since he was guilty not only of many essays in
+Gothic, but of a vast amount of work in the Chinese fashion, as well as
+in the flamboyant style of Louis XV. The _Director_ contains examples of
+each of the manners which aroused the scorn of the king's surveyor.
+Chippendale has even shared with Sir William Chambers the obloquy of
+introducing the Chinese style, but he appears to have done nothing worse
+than "conquer," as Alexandre Dumas used to call it, the ideas of other
+people. Nor would it be fair to the man who, whatever his occasional
+extravagances and absurdities, was yet a great designer and a great
+transmuter, to pretend that all his Chinese designs were contemptible.
+Many of them, with their geometrical lattice-work and carved tracery,
+are distinctly elegant and effective. Occasionally we find in one piece
+of furniture a combination of the three styles which Chippendale most
+affected at different periods--Louis XV., Chinese and Gothic--and it
+cannot honestly be said that the result is as incongruous as might have
+been expected. Some of his most elegant and attractive work is derived
+directly from the French, and we cannot doubt that the inspiration of
+his famous ribbon-backed chair came directly from some of the more
+artistic performances in rococo.
+
+The primary characteristic of his work is solidity, but it is a solidity
+which rarely becomes heaviness. Even in his most lightsome efforts, such
+as the ribbon-backed chair, construction is always the first
+consideration. It is here perhaps that he differs most materially from
+his great successor Sheraton, whose ideas of construction were eccentric
+in the extreme. It is indeed in the chair that Chippendale is seen at
+his best and most characteristic. From his hand, or his pencil, we have
+a great variety of chairs, which, although differing extensively in
+detail, may be roughly arranged in three or four groups, which it would
+sometimes be rash to attempt to date. He introduced the cabriole leg,
+which, despite its antiquity, came immediately from Holland; the claw
+and ball foot of ancient Oriental use; the straight, square,
+uncompromising early Georgian leg; the carved lattice-work Chinese leg;
+the pseudo-Chinese leg; the fretwork leg, which was supposed to be in
+the best Gothic taste; the inelegant rococo leg with the curled or
+hoofed foot; and even occasionally the spade foot, which is supposed to
+be characteristic of the somewhat later style of Hepplewhite. His
+chair-backs were very various. His efforts in Gothic were sometimes
+highly successful; often they took the form of the tracery of a church
+window, or even of an ovalled rose window. His Chinese backs were
+distinctly geometrical, and from them he would seem to have derived some
+of the inspiration for the frets of the glazed book-cases and cabinets
+which were among his most agreeable work. The most attractive feature of
+Chippendale's most artistic chairs--those which, originally derived from
+Louis Quinze models, were deprived of their rococo extravagances--is the
+back, which, speaking generally, is the most elegant and pleasing thing
+that has ever been done in furniture. He took the old solid or slightly
+pierced back, and cut it up into a light openwork design exquisitely
+carved--for Chippendale was a carver before everything--in a vast
+variety of designs ranging from the elaborate and extremely elegant, if
+much criticized, ribbon back, to a comparatively plain but highly
+effective splat. His armchairs, however, often had solid or stuffed
+backs. Next to his chairs Chippendale was most successful with settees,
+which almost invariably took the shape of two or three conjoined chairs,
+the arms, backs and legs identical with those which he used for single
+seats. He was likewise a prolific designer and maker of book-cases,
+cabinets and escritoires with doors glazed with fretwork divisions. Some
+of those which he executed in the style which in his day passed for
+Gothic are exceedingly handsome and effective. We have, too, from his
+hand many cases for long clocks, and a great number of tables, some of
+them with a remarkable degree of Gallic grace. He was especially
+successful in designing small tables with fretwork galleries for the
+display of china. His mirrors, which were often in the Chinese taste or
+extravagantly rococo, are remarkable and characteristic. In his day the
+cabinetmaker still had opportunities for designing and constructing the
+four-post bedstead, and some of Chippendale's most graceful work was
+lavished upon the woodwork of the lighter, more refined and less
+monumental four-poster, which, thanks in some degree to his initiative,
+took the place of the massive Tudor and the funereally hung Jacobean
+bed. From an organ case to a washhand-stand, indeed, no piece of
+domestic furniture came amiss to this astonishing man, and if sometimes
+he was extravagant, grotesque or even puerile, his level of achievement
+is on the whole exceedingly high.
+
+Since the revival of interest in his work he has often been criticized
+with considerable asperity, but not always justly. Chippendale's work
+has stood the supreme test of posterity more completely than that of any
+of his rivals or successors; and, unlike many men of genius, we know him
+to have been warmly appreciated in his lifetime. He was at once an
+artist and a prosperous man of business. His claims to distinction are
+summed up in the fact that his name has by general consent been attached
+to the most splendid period of English furniture.
+
+Chippendale was buried on the 13th of November 1779, apparently at the
+church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and administration of his intestate
+estate was granted to his widow Elizabeth. He left four children, Thomas
+Chippendale III., John, Charles and Mary. He was one of the assignees in
+bankruptcy of the notorious Theresa Cornelys of Soho Square, of whom we
+read in Casanova and other scandalous chronicles of the time. Thomas
+Chippendale III. succeeded to the business of his father and
+grandfather, and for some years the firm traded under the style of
+Chippendale & Haig. The factory remained in St Martin's Lane, but in
+1814 an additional shop was opened at No. 57 Haymarket, whence it was in
+1821 removed to 42 Jermyn Street. Like his father, Thomas Chippendale
+III. was a member of the Society of Arts; and he is known to have
+exhibited five pictures at the Royal Academy between 1784 and 1801. He
+died at the end of 1822 or the beginning of 1823.    (J. P. -B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIPPENHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham
+parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94 m. W. of London by the
+Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5074. Chippenham is governed by a
+mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 361 acres. It lies in a
+hollow on the south side of the Upper Avon, here crossed by a
+picturesque stone bridge of 21 arches. St Andrew's church, originally
+Norman of the 12th century, has been enlarged in different styles. A
+paved causeway running for about 4 m. between Chippenham Cliff and Wick
+Hill is named after Maud Heath, said to have been a market-woman, who
+built it in the 15th century, and bequeathed an estate for its
+maintenance. After the decline of its woollen and silk trades,
+Chippenham became celebrated for grain and cheese markets. There are
+also manufactures of broadcloth, churns, condensed milk,
+railway-signals, guns and carriages; besides bacon-curing works, flour
+mills, tanneries and large stone quarries. Bowood, the seat of the
+marquess of Lansdowne, is 3-1/2 m. S.E. of Chippenham. Lanhill barrow,
+or Hubba's Low, 2-1/2 m. N.W., is an ancient tomb containing a
+_kistvaen_ or sepulchral chamber of stone; it is probably British,
+though tradition makes it the grave of Hubba, a Danish leader.
+
+Chippenham (_Chepeham, Chippeham_) was the site of a royal residence
+where in 853 AEthelwulf celebrated the marriage of his daughter
+AEthelswitha with Burhred, king of Mercia. The town also figured
+prominently in the Danish invasion of the 9th century, and in 933 was
+the meeting-place of the witan. In the Domesday Survey Chippenham
+appears as a crown manor and is not assessed in hides. The town was
+governed by a bailiff in the reign of Edward I., and returned two
+members to parliament from 1295, but it was not incorporated until 1553,
+when a charter from Mary established a bailiff and twelve burgesses and
+endowed the corporation with certain lands for the maintenance of two
+parliamentary burgesses and for the repair of the bridge over the Avon.
+In 1684 this charter was surrendered to Charles II., and in 1685 a new
+charter was received from James II., which was shortly abandoned in
+favour of the original grant. The Representation Act of 1868 reduced the
+number of parliamentary representatives to one, and the borough was
+disfranchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The derivation of
+Chippenham from _cyppan_, to buy, implies that the town possessed a
+market in Saxon times. When Henry VII. introduced the clothing
+manufacture into Wiltshire, Chippenham became an important centre of the
+industry, which has lapsed. A prize, however, was awarded to the town
+for this commodity at the Great Exhibition of 1851.
+
+
+
+
+CHIPPEWA[1] FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Chippewa county,
+Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, about 100 m. E. of St Paul,
+Minnesota, and 12 m. N.E. of Eau Claire, Wisconsin. Pop. (1890) 8670;
+(1900) 8094; (1910, census) 8893. It is served by the Minneapolis, St
+Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago,
+Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by the electric line to Eau Claire.
+The first settlement on the site was made in 1837; and the city was
+chartered in 1870.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the Chippewa Indians see OJIBWAY, of which the word is a
+    popular adaptation.
+
+
+
+
+CHIPPING CAMPDEN, a market town in the northern parliamentary division
+of Gloucestershire, England, on the Oxford and Worcester line of the
+Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1542. It is picturesquely situated
+towards the north of the Cotteswold hill-district. The many interesting
+ancient houses afford evidence of the former greater importance of the
+town. The church of St James is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a
+number of brasses of the 15th and 16th centuries and several notable
+monumental tombs. A ruined manor house of the 16th century and some
+almshouses complete, with the church, a picturesque group of buildings;
+and Campden House, also of the 16th century, deserves notice.
+
+Apart from a medieval tradition preserved by Robert de Brunne that it
+was the meeting-place of a conference of Saxon kings, the earliest
+record of Campden (_Campedene_) is in Domesday Book, when Earl Hugh is
+said to hold it, and to have there fifty villeins. The number shows that
+a large village was attached to the manor, which in 1173 passed to Hugh
+de Gondeville, and about 1204 to Ralph, earl of Chester. The borough
+must have grown up during the 12th century, for both these lords granted
+the burgesses charters which are known from a confirmation of 1247,
+granting that they and all who should come to the market of Campedene
+should be quit of toll, and that if any free burgess of Campedene should
+come into the lord's amerciament he should be quit for 12d. unless he
+should shed blood or do felony. Probably Earl Ralph also granted the
+town a portman-mote, for the account of a skirmish in 1273 between the
+men of the town and the county mentions a bailiff and implies the
+existence of some sort of municipal government. In 1605 Campedene was
+incorporated, but it never returned representatives to parliament.
+Camden speaks of the town as a market famous for stockings, a relic of
+that medieval importance as a mart for wool that had given the town the
+name of Chipping.
+
+
+
+
+CHIPPING NORTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Banbury
+parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, 26 m. N.W. of Oxford by
+a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3780. It lies on the
+steep flank of a hill, and consists mainly of one very wide street. The
+church of St Mary the Virgin, standing on the lower part of the slope,
+is a fine building of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, the
+hexagonal porch and the clerestory being good examples of the later
+style. The town has woollen and glove factories, breweries and an
+agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 2456 acres. Chipping Norton (_Chepyngnorton_) was
+probably of some importance in Saxon times. At the Domesday Survey it
+was held in chief by Ernulf de Hesding; it was assessed at fifteen
+hides, and comprised three mills. It returned two members to parliament
+as a borough in 1302 and 1304-1305, but was not represented after this
+date, and was not considered to be a borough in 1316. The first and only
+charter of incorporation was granted by James I., in 1608; it
+established a common council consisting of 2 bailiffs and 12 burgesses;
+a common clerk, 2 justices of the peace, and 2 serjeants-at-mace; and a
+court of record every Monday. In 1205 William Fitz-Alan was granted a
+four days' fair at the feast of the Invention of the Cross; and in 1276
+Roger, earl of March, was granted a four days' fair at the feast of St
+Barnabas. In the reign of Henry VI. the market was held on Wednesday,
+and a fair was held at the Translation of St Thomas Becket. These
+continued to be held in the reign of James I., who annulled the former
+two fairs, and granted fairs at the feasts of St Mark, St Matthew, St
+Bartholomew, and SS. Simon and Jude.
+
+
+
+
+CHIQUITOS (Span, "very small"), a group of tribes in the province of
+Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, and between the head waters of the
+rivers Mamore and Itenez. When their country was first invaded they fled
+into the forests, and the Spaniards, coming upon their huts, the
+doorways of which are built excessively low, supposed them to be dwarfs:
+hence the name. They are in fact well formed and powerful, of middle
+height and of an olive complexion. They are an agricultural people, but
+made a gallant resistance to the Spaniards for nearly two centuries. In
+1691, however, they made the Jesuit missionaries welcome, and rapidly
+became civilized. The Chiquito language was adopted as the means of
+communication among the converts, who soon numbered 50,000, representing
+nearly fifty tribes. Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 the
+Chiquitos became decadent, and now number short of 20,000. Their houses,
+regularly ranged in streets, are built of adobes thatched with coarse
+grass. They manufacture copper boilers for making sugar and understand
+several trades, weave ponchos and hammocks and make straw hats. They are
+fond of singing and dancing, and are a gentle-mannered and hospitable
+folk. The group is now divided into forty tribes.
+
+
+
+
+CHIROMANCY (from Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, and [Greek: manteia],
+divination), the art of telling the character or fortune of persons by
+studying the lines of the palms of the hands (see PALMISTRY).
+
+
+
+
+CHIRON, or CHEIRON, in Greek mythology, one of the Centaurs, the son of
+Cronus and Philyra, a sea nymph. He dwelt at the foot of Mount Pelion,
+and was famous for his wisdom and knowledge of the healing art. He
+offers a remarkable contrast to the other Centaurs in manners and
+character. Many of the most celebrated heroes of Greece were brought up
+and instructed by him (Apollodorus iii. 10. 13). Accidentally pierced by
+a poisoned arrow shot by Heracles, he renounced his immortality in
+favour of Prometheus, and was placed by Zeus among the stars as the
+constellation _Sagittarius_ (Apollodorus ii. 5; Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 414).
+In a Pompeian wall-painting he is shown teaching Achilles to play the
+lyre.
+
+  See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopaedie_ and W.H. Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+CHIROPODIST (an invented word from Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, and [Greek:
+pous], foot), properly one who treats the ailments of the hands and
+feet, or is consulted as to keeping them in good condition; the use of
+the word is now restricted, however, to the care of the toes,
+"manicurist" having been invented for the corresponding attentions to
+the fingers. The word was first introduced in 1785, by a "corncutter" in
+Davies Street, London.
+
+
+
+
+CHIROPTERA (Greek for "hand-wings"), an order of mammals containing the
+bats, all of which are unique in the class in possessing the power of
+true flight, and have their fore-limbs specially modified for this
+purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Skeleton and Wing-Membranes of the Noctule Bat
+(_Pipistrellus noctula_).
+
+  c, Clavicle.
+  h, Humerus.
+  r, Radius.
+  u, Ulna.
+  d1, First digit.
+  d2, d3, d4, d5, Other digits of the fore-limb
+      supporting wm, the wing-membrane.
+  m, m, Metacarpal bones.
+  ph1, First phalanx.
+  ph2, Second phalanx.
+  ph3, Third phalanx.
+  am, Antebrachial membrane.
+  f, Femur.
+  t, Tibia.
+  fb, Fibula.
+  c, Calcar supporting im, the interfemoral membrane.
+  pcb, Post-calcaneal lobe.]
+
+The mammals comprised in this order are at once distinguished by the
+possession of true wings; this peculiarity being accompanied by other
+modifications of bodily structure having relation to aerial locomotion.
+Thus, in direct contrast to all other mammals, in which locomotion is
+chiefly effected by action from behind, and the hind-limbs consequently
+greatly preponderate in size over the fore, in the Chiroptera the
+fore-limbs, being the agents in propelling the body forward during
+flight, immensely exceed the short and weak hinder extremities. The
+thorax, giving origin to the great muscles which sustain flight, and
+containing the proportionately large lungs and heart, is remarkably
+capacious; and the ribs are flattened and close together; while the
+shoulder-girdle is greatly developed in comparison with the weak pelvis.
+The fore-arm (fig. 1) consists of a rudimentary ulna, a long curved
+radius, and a carpus of six bones supporting a thumb and four elongated
+fingers, between which, the sides of the body, and the hinder
+extremities a thin expansion of skin, the wing-membrane, is spread. The
+knee is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind-limb,
+outwards by the wing-membrane; an elongated cartilaginous process (the
+calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from the inner side of
+the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports part of the posterior
+margin of an accessory membrane of flight, extending from the tail or
+posterior extremity of the body to the hind-limbs, and known as the
+interfemoral membrane. The penis is pendent; the testes are abdominal
+or inguinal; the teats, usually two in number, thoracic; the uterus is
+simple or with more or less long cornua; the placenta discoidal and
+deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend backwards
+over the cerebellum. The teeth comprise incisors, canines, premolars and
+molars; and the dental formula never exceeds i. 2/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/8, m.
+3/3; total 38. Despite the forward position of the teats, which is
+merely an adaptive feature, bats are evidently mammals of low
+organization, and are most nearly related to the Insectivora.
+
+In consequence of the backward direction of the knee, a bat, when placed
+on the ground, rests on all fours, having the knees directed upwards,
+while the foot is rotated forwards and inwards on the ankle. Walking is
+thus a kind of shuffle; but, notwithstanding a general belief, bats can
+take wing from the walking posture.
+
+The bones of the skeleton are characterized by their slenderness and the
+great size of the medullary canals in those of the extremities. The
+vertebral column is short, and the vertebrae differ but slightly in
+number and form throughout the group. The general number of dorso-lumbar
+vertebrae is 17, whereof 12 are dorsal; the cervical vertebrae are
+broad, but short. Except in fruit-bats (_Pteropodidae_), the vertebrae,
+from the third cervical backwards, are devoid of spinous processes. From
+the first dorsal to the last lumbar the vertebral column forms a single
+curve, most pronounced in the lumbar region. The bodies of the vertebrae
+are but slightly movable on each other, and in old individuals become
+partially welded. The caudal vertebrae are cylindrical bones without
+processes; their number and length varying in allied species. The
+development of these vertebrae is correlated with habits, the long tail
+in the insectivorous species supporting and controlling the position of
+the interfemoral membrane which aids bats in their doubling motions when
+in pursuit of insects by acting as a rudder, and assists them in the
+capture of the larger insects. In the fruit-bats this is not required,
+and the tail is rudimentary or absent. In all bats the presternum has a
+prominent keel for the attachment of the great pectoral muscles.
+
+The shape of the skull varies greatly; but post-orbital processes are
+developed only in some _Pteropodidae_ and a few _Nycteridae_ and
+_Emballonuridae_; in _Pteropus leucopterus_ alone does a process from
+the zygomatic arch meet the post-orbital so as to complete the orbital
+ring. Zygomatic arches, though slender, are present in all except in
+some of the species of _Phyllostomatidae_.
+
+The milk-teeth differ from those of all other mammals in that they are
+unlike those of the permanent series. They are slender, with pointed
+recurved cusps, and are soon shed, but exist for a short time with the
+permanent teeth. In the _Rhinolophidae_ the milk-teeth are absorbed
+before birth. The permanent teeth exhibit great variety, sometimes even
+in the same family, as in _Phyllostomatidae_, whilst in other families,
+as _Rhinolophidae_, the resemblance between the dentition of species
+differing in many respects is remarkable. In all they are provided with
+well-developed roots, and their crowns are acutely tuberculate, with
+more or less well-defined W-shaped cusps, in the insectivorous species,
+or variously hollowed out or longitudinally grooved in the frugivorous
+kinds.
+
+The shoulder-girdle varies but slightly, the clavicle being long, strong
+and curved; and the scapula large, oval and triangular, with a long
+curved coracoid process. The humerus, though long, is scarcely
+two-thirds the length of the radius; and the rudimentary ulna is welded
+with the radius. A sesamoid bone exists in the tendon of the triceps
+muscle. The upper row of the carpus consists of the united scaphoid,
+lunar and cuneiform bones.
+
+The "hand" has five digits, the first, fourth and fifth of which consist
+each of a metacarpal and two phalanges; but in the second and third the
+number of phalanges is different in certain families. The first digit
+terminates in a claw, most developed in the frugivorous species, in most
+of which the second digit is also clawed, although in other bats this
+and the remaining digits are unarmed.
+
+In the weak pelvis the ilia are long and narrow, while in most species
+the pubes of opposite sides are loosely united in front in males, and
+widely separated in females; in the _Rhinolophidae_ alone they form a
+symphysis. Only in the _Molossinae_ is there a well-developed fibula; in
+the rest this bone is either very slender or cartilaginous and
+ligamentous in its upper third, or reduced to a small bony process
+above the heel, or absent. The foot consists of a short tarsus, and of
+slender, laterally compressed toes, with much-curved claws.
+
+Although the brain is of a low type, probably no animals possess so
+delicate a sense of touch as Chiroptera. In ordinary bats tactile organs
+exist, not only in the bristles on the sides of the muzzle, but in the
+sensitive structures forming the wing-membranes and ears, while in many
+species leaf-like expansions surrounding the nasal apertures or
+extending backwards behind them are added. These nose-leaves are made up
+partly of the extended and thickened integument of the nostrils, and
+partly of the glandular eminences occupying the sides of the muzzle, in
+which in other bats the sensitive bristles are implanted.
+
+In no mammals are the ears so developed or so variable in form; in most
+insectivorous species they are longer than the head, while in the
+long-eared bat their length nearly equals that of the head and body. The
+form is characteristic in each of the families; in most the "earlet," or
+tragus, is large, in some cases extending nearly to the outer margin of
+the conch; its office appears to be to intensify and prolong the waves
+of sound by producing undulations in them. In the _Rhinolophidae_, the
+only family of insectivorous bats wanting the tragus, the auditory
+bullae reach their greatest size, and the nasal appendages their highest
+development. In frugivorous bats the ear is simple and but slightly
+variable. In all bats the ears are extremely mobile, each independently
+at will.
+
+The oesophagus is narrow, especially in blood-sucking vampires. The
+stomach presents two types of structure, corresponding respectively to
+the two divisions of the order, Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera; in
+the former the pyloric extremity is, with one exception, elongated and
+folded upon itself, in the latter simple; an exceptional type is met
+with in the blood-suckers, where the cardiac extremity is elongated,
+forming a long appendage. The intestine is comparatively short, varying
+from one and a half to four times the length of the head and body;
+longest in the frugivorous, shortest in the insectivorous species. In
+_Rhinopoma_ and _Megaderma_ a small caecum has been found. The liver is
+characterized by the great size of the left lateral lobe, which
+occasionally equals half that of the whole organ; the right and left
+lateral fissures are usually very deep; in Megachiroptera the spigelian
+lobe is, with one exception, ill defined or absent, and the caudate is
+generally large; but in Microchiroptera the former lobe is large, while
+the caudate is small. The gall-bladder is generally well developed.
+
+In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of slender,
+long, cylindrical bones connecting the basi-hyoid with the skull, while
+the pharynx is short, and the larynx shallow with feebly developed vocal
+cords, and guarded by a short pointed epiglottis. In the African
+epauletted bats, _Epomophorus_, the pharynx is long and capacious, the
+aperture of the larynx far removed from the fauces, and, opposite to it,
+opens a canal, leading from the nasal chambers, and extending along the
+back of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls are
+ossified; the hyoids are unconnected, except by muscle with the skull;
+while the cerato-hyals and epi-hyals are cartilaginous and expanded,
+entering into the formation of the walls of the pharynx, and (in males
+of some species) supporting the orifices of a pair of air-sacs
+communicating with the pharynx (fig. 2).
+
+The extent and shape of the wings generally depend on the form of the
+bones of the fore-limbs, and on the presence or absence of the tail. The
+wings consist of an "antebrachial membrane," which extends from the
+point of the shoulder along the humerus and more or less of the fore-arm
+to the base of the thumb, the metacarpal bone of which is partially or
+wholly included in it; the "wing-membrane" spread out between the
+elongated fingers, and extending along the sides of the body to the
+posterior extremities, generally reaching to the feet; and the
+"interfemoral membrane," the most variable of all, which is supported
+between the extremity of the body, the legs and the calcar (fig. 1). The
+antebrachial and wing membranes are most developed in species fitted
+only for aerial locomotion which when at rest hang with the body
+enveloped in the wings; but in the _Emballonuridae_, and also in the
+_Molossinae_, which are the best fitted for terrestrial progression, the
+antebrachial membrane is reduced to a small size, and not developed
+along the fore-arm, leaving the thumb quite free, while the
+wing-membrane is narrow and folded in repose under the forearm. The
+relative development of the interfemoral membrane has been referred to
+in connexion with the caudal vertebrae. Its small size in the
+frugivorous and blood-sucking species, which do not require it, is
+easily understood. Scent-glands and pouches opening on the surface of
+the skin are developed in many species, but in most cases more so in
+males than in females (fig. 3). As rule, bats produce only a single
+offspring at a birth, which for some time is carried about by the female
+parent clinging to the fur of her breast; but certain North American
+bats commonly give birth to three or four young ones at a time, which
+are carried about in the same manner.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Head and Neck of _Epomophorus franqueti_ (adult
+male). From Dobson. The anterior (_a.ph.s_) and posterior (_p.ph.s_)
+pharyngeal sacs are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the
+points where they communicate with the pharynx; _s_, thin membranous
+partition in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of
+opposite sides; _s.m_, sterno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior
+from the posterior sac.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Frontal Sac and Nose-Leaf in Male and Female
+Masked Bat (_Phyllorhina larvata_). From Dobson.]
+
+Bats are divisible into two suborders, Megachiroptera and
+Microchiroptera.
+
+
+  _Megachiroptera_.
+
+    Fruit-eating bats.
+
+  The first of these comprises the fruit-eating species, which are
+  generally of large size, with the crowns of the cheek-teeth smooth and
+  marked with a longitudinal groove. The bony palate is continued behind
+  the last molar, narrowing slowly backwards; there are three phalanges
+  in the index finger, the third phalange being terminated generally by
+  a claw; the sides of the ear form a ring at the base; the tail, when
+  present, is inferior to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane;
+  the pyloric extremity of the stomach is generally much elongated; and
+  the spigelian lobe of the liver is ill-defined or absent, while the
+  caudate is well developed. This group is limited to the tropical and
+  sub-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.
+
+  All the members of this suborder are included in the single family
+  _Pteropodidae_, the first representatives of which are the African
+  epauletted bats, forming the genus _Epomophorus_. In this the dental
+  formula is _i._ 2/2 (or 1/2), _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ 1/2. Tail short or
+  absent, when present free from the interfemoral membrane; second
+  finger with a claw; premaxillae united in front. The species are
+  strictly limited to Africa south of the Sahara, and are distinguished
+  by the large and long head, expansible and often folded lips, and the
+  white tufts of hair on the margins of the ears. The males are provided
+  with glandular pouches, situated in the skin of the side of the neck
+  near the point of the shoulder, which are rudimentary or absent in
+  females. In the males they are lined with glandular membrane, from
+  which long coarse yellowish hairs project to form conspicuous
+  epaulet-like tufts on the shoulders. The males often have a pair of
+  air-sacs extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath the
+  integument of the neck, in the position shown in fig. 2. These bats
+  appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which their
+  voluminous lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow without
+  loss. The huge and ugly West African hammer-headed bat, _Hypsignathus
+  monstrosus_, represents an allied genus distinguished by the absence
+  of shoulder-pouches, and the presence of leaf-like expansions of skin
+  on the front of the muzzle, and of distinct cusps on the outer sides
+  of the cheek-teeth. The great majority of the bats of this group,
+  commonly known as "flying-foxes," are included in the typical genus
+  _Pteropus_, of which the dental formula is _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._
+  3/3, _m._ 2/3. All are of large size, and the absence of a tail, the
+  long pointed muzzle, and the woolly fur covering the neck render their
+  recognition easy. One of the species, _P. edulis_, inhabiting Java,
+  measures 5 ft. across the fully extended wings, and is the largest
+  member of the order.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Head of a Flying-Fox or Fruit-Bat (_Pteropus
+  personatus_). From Gray.]
+
+  The range of the genus extends from Madagascar through the Seychelles
+  to India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Japan, New Guinea,
+  Australia and Polynesia. Although two species inhabit the Comoro
+  Islands, scarcely 200 m. from the mainland, not one is found in
+  Africa; while the common Indian species is closely allied to the
+  Madagascar flying-fox. The Malay Archipelago and Australia form the
+  headquarters of these bats, which in some places occur in countless
+  multitudes. The colonies exhale a strong musky odour, and when awake
+  the occupants utter a loud incessant chatter. Wallace's fruit-bat of
+  Celebes and Macassar has been made the type of a separate genus, as
+  _Styloctenium wallacei_. In _Roussettus_ (or _Cynonycteris_) the
+  dentition is as in _Pteropus_, but the tail is short, and the fur of
+  the nape of the neck not different from that of the back: its
+  distribution accords with that of _Pteropus_, except that it includes
+  Africa and does not reach farther east than New Ireland. _R.
+  aegyptiacus_ inhabits the chambers of the Great Pyramid and other
+  deserted buildings in Egypt, and is probably the species figured in
+  Egyptian frescoes. _Boneia_, with two species, from Celebes, differs
+  in having only two upper incisors. _Harpyionycteris_ and
+  _Scotonycteris_, respectively from the Philippines and West Africa,
+  are represented by a single species each; but of _Cynopterus_, which
+  is mainly confined to the Indo-Malay countries, there are some
+  half-score different kinds. The dentition is _i._ 2/[2 or 1], _c._
+  1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3, the muzzle is shorter than in _Roussettus_,
+  with the upper lip grooved in front as in _Pteropus_, while the tail
+  and fur resemble those of the former genus. These bats are extremely
+  voracious, a specimen of the Indian _C. marginatus_ having eaten a
+  banana twice its own weight in three hours. Among several Austro-Malay
+  genera, such as _Ptenochirus_ and _Balionycteris_, the tube-nosed bats
+  of the genus _Gelasinus_ (or _Harpyia_) are remarkable for the
+  conformation of the nostrils (fig. 5). _Cephalotes_, with one species,
+  ranging from Celebes to the Solomon group, has the dentition _i._ 1/1,
+  _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ 2/3, premaxillae not united in front,
+  nostrils simple, muzzle short, index finger without a claw, tail
+  short. As in _Gelasinus_, the wing-membrane arises from the middle
+  line of the back, to which it is attached by a longitudinal thin
+  process of skin; the wings are naked, but the back covered with hair.
+  _Leipenyx_ is an allied West African genus with one species.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Head of Papuan Tube-Nosed Bat (_Gelasinus
+  major_). From G.E. Dobson.]
+
+  The foregoing belong to the typical subfamily _Pteropodinae_, while
+  the remainder represent a second group, _Carponycterinae_ (or
+  _Macroglossinae_), characterized by having the facial part of the
+  skull produced, the molar teeth narrow, and scarcely raised above the
+  gum, and the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior
+  third, and armed with long recurved papillae near the tip. The single
+  representative of the first genus, _Notopteris macdonaldi_, inhabiting
+  Fiji, New Guinea and the New Hebrides, is distinguished from other
+  bats of this family by the length of its tail, which is nearly as long
+  as the forearm. The dentition is _i._ 2/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._
+  2/2, while the index finger has no claw, and the wings arise from the
+  spine. _Eonycteris_, with the dentition _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3,
+  _m._ 2/3, is also represented by a single species, _E. spelaea_, from
+  Tenasserim, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, which has
+  somewhat the appearance of a _Roussettus_, but the absence of a claw
+  in the index finger and the presence of the characteristic tongue and
+  teeth at once distinguish it. _Carponycteris_ (_Macroglossus_) and
+  _Melonycteris_, the former with several and the latter with a single
+  species, are closely allied Indo-Malay and Papuan genera, the index
+  finger in both having a claw, but the number of the teeth being the
+  same as in _Eonycteris_. _C. minimus_ is the smallest known species of
+  the suborder, much smaller than the serotine bat of Europe, with the
+  fore-arm scarcely longer than that of the long-eared bat. It is nearly
+  as common in certain parts of Burma as _Cynopterus marginatus_, and
+  extends eastwards through the Malay Archipelago as far as New Ireland,
+  where it is associated with _Melonycteris melanops_, distinguished by
+  its larger size and the total absence of the tail. An allied small
+  _Carpopycteris_ inhabits India. _Trygenycteris_ (_Megaloglossus_)
+  _woermanni_, of West Africa, is the only member of the group occurring
+  west of the Himalaya. _Callinycteris_ of Celebes, with the dentition
+  _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/2, _m._ 3/3, has a short tail and no
+  index-claws, while _Nesonycteris_ of the Solomons, with the dentition
+  _i._ 2/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3, differs by the absence of the
+  tail.
+
+
+  _Microchiroptera._
+
+    Insect-eating bats.
+
+  The second and larger suborder, the Microchiroptera, includes all the
+  insectivorous species, the majority of which are of relatively small
+  size as compared with the Megachiroptera. In these bats, with a few
+  specialized exceptions, the crowns of the cheek-teeth are surmounted
+  by sharp cusps, divided by transverse grooves. In the skull the bony
+  palate narrows abruptly and is not continued backwards laterally
+  behind the last molar; there is one rudimentary phalange (rarely two
+  or none) in the index finger, which is never terminated by a claw; the
+  outer and inner sides of the ear commence interiorly from separate
+  points of origin; the tail, when present, is contained in the
+  interfemoral membrane, or appears on its upper surface; the stomach,
+  except in the blood-sucking group, is simple; and the spigelian lobe
+  of the liver large, and the caudate generally small.
+
+  The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in genera (to say
+  nothing of species) that only some of the more important types can be
+  mentioned.
+
+  Brief references have already been made to the manner in which in many
+  or most of these bats the tail aids in the capture of prey. From the
+  observations of C. Oldham, it appears that these bats, when walking,
+  carry the tail downwards and forwards, so that the membrane connecting
+  this organ with the hind-legs forms a kind of pouch or bag. If a large
+  insect be encountered the bat seizes it with a snatch, and slightly
+  spreading its folded wings and pressing them on the ground in order to
+  steady itself, brings its feet forwards so as to increase the capacity
+  of the tail-pouch, into which, by bending its neck and thrusting its
+  head beneath the body, it pushes the insect. Although the latter,
+  especially if large, will often struggle violently, when once in the
+  pouch it but rarely escapes, from which it is subsequently extracted
+  and devoured. It is assumed that the same method of capture is
+  employed when on the wing; and a naturalist who has observed the
+  long-eared bat picking moths off willows states that the bat always
+  hovers when taking off the moth, and bends up the tail so as to form a
+  receptacle for the insect as it drops.
+
+  In the _Rhinolophidae_, Horse-shoe and Leaf-nosed bats of the Old
+  World, the nose-leaf is developed and surrounds the nasal apertures,
+  which are situated in a depression on the upper surface of the muzzle
+  so as to look upwards; the ears are large and generally separate,
+  without trace of a tragus or earlet; the premaxillae are rudimentary,
+  suspended from the nasal cartilages, and support a single pair of
+  small incisors; the molars have acute W-shaped cusps; the skull is
+  large, and the nasal bones which support the nose-leaf much expanded
+  vertically and laterally. In females a pair of teat-like appendages
+  are found in front of the pubis; and the long tail extends to the
+  margin of the interfemoral membrane. The middle finger has two
+  phalanges, but the index is rudimentary. The fibula is rudimentary.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Head of Mitred Horseshoe Bat (_Rhinolophus
+  mitratus_). From Dobson.]
+
+  The _Rhinolophidae_ are the most highly organized of insectivorous
+  bats, in which the osseous and cutaneous systems reach the fullest
+  development. Compared with theirs, the bones of the extremities and
+  the wings of other bats appear coarsely formed, and their teeth seem
+  less perfectly fitted to crush the hard bodies of insects. The
+  complicated nasal appendages reach their highest development, and the
+  differences in their form afford characters in the discrimination of
+  the species, which resemble one another closely in dentition and the
+  colour of the fur.
+
+  In the first subfamily, _Rhinolophinae_, the first toe has two, and
+  the other toes three phalanges each; and the ilio-pectineal spine is
+  not connected by bone with the antero-inferior surface of the ilium.
+  In the horseshoe bats, _Rhinolophus_, the dentition is i. 1/2, c. 1/1,
+  p. 2/3, m. 3/8, the nose-leaf has a central process behind and between
+  the nasal orifices, with the posterior extremity lanceolate, and the
+  antitragus large. Among the numerous forms _R. luctus_ is the largest,
+  and inhabits elevated hill-tracts in India and Malaysia; _R.
+  hipposiderus_ of Europe, extending into south England and Ireland, is
+  one of the smallest; and _R. ferrum-equinum_ represents the average
+  size of the species, which are mainly distinguished from one another
+  by the form of the nose-leaf. The last-named species extends from
+  England to Japan, and southward to the Cape of Good Hope, but is
+  represented by a number of local races. When sleeping, the horseshoe
+  bats, at least in some instances, suspend themselves head downwards,
+  with the wings wrapped round the body after the manner of fruit bats.
+  The posture of ordinary bats is quite different, and while the lesser
+  horseshoe (_R. hipposiderus_) alights from the air in an inverted
+  position, other bats, on first coming to rest, do so with the head
+  upwards, and then reverse their position.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Head of Squirrel Leaf-Bat (_Phyllorhina
+  calcarata_). From Dobson.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Head of Persian Leaf-Bat. (_Triaenops
+  persicus_). From Dobson.]
+
+  In the second subfamily, _Hippo-siderinae_ (formerly called
+  _Phyllorhinae_), the toes are equal and include two phalanges each,
+  while the ilio-pectineal spine is united by a bony isthmus with a
+  process derived from the antero-inferior surface of the ilium.
+  _Hipposiderus, Cloeeotis, Rhinonycteris, Triaenops, Anthops_ and
+  _Coelops_ represent this subfamily. _Hipposiderus_ (_Phyllorhina_),
+  with many species, ranging over Asia, Africa and Australasia, and the
+  dental formula i. 1/2, c. 1/1, p. 2/2, or 1/2, m. 3/3, differs from
+  _Rhinolophus_ in the form of the nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate
+  behind (fig. 6), and is unprovided with a central process covering the
+  nostrils; the largest species, _H. armiger_, appears to be the most
+  northerly, having been taken at Amoy in China, and in the Himalaya at
+  an elevation of 5500 ft. Many are provided with a frontal sac behind
+  the nose-leaf, rudimentary in females (see fig. 7), which can be
+  everted at pleasure; the sides of this sac secrete a waxy substance,
+  and its extremity supports a tuft of straight hairs. _Rhinonycteris_,
+  represented by _R. aurantia_ from Australia, and _Triaenops_. by _T.
+  persicus_ from Persia and other species from Africa and Madagascar,
+  are closely allied genera. _Triaenops_ (fig. 8) is characterized by
+  the remarkable form of its nasal appendages and ears, and the presence
+  of a bony projection from the upper extremity of the second phalange
+  of the fourth finger. _Coelops_ (_C. Frithi_), from the Bengal
+  Sanderbans, Java and Siam is distinguished by the peculiar form of its
+  nose-leaf and the length of the metacarpal bone of the index finger,
+  as well as by the shortness of the calcar and interfemoral membrane.
+  _Cloeeotis_ is represented by a single East African species, and
+  _Anthops_ by one from the Solomon Islands characterized by the
+  nose-leaf covering the whole front of the face.
+
+
+    False vampires.
+
+  The next family, _Nycteridae_, which is also Old World, is a small
+  one, nearly allied to the last, in which it is included by Prof. Max
+  Weber as a subfamily under the name of _Myadermatinae_. It differs by
+  the presence of a small tragus in the ears, which are united at their
+  bases; and by the nasal chamber not being inflated. The premaxillae
+  are either small and separated in front, or rudimentary; and the first
+  phalange of the middle finger when in repose is laid back on the
+  metacarpus. There are only pectoral teats.
+
+  Of the two genera, _Megaderma_, as represented by the five species of
+  false vampires, is distinguished by the absence of ossified
+  premaxillae and upper incisors (i. 0/2, p. (2 or 1)/2), the
+  cylindrical narrow muzzle surmounted by an erect nose-leaf the base of
+  which conceals the nasal orifices, the immense joined ears with large
+  bifid tragus, and the great extent of the interfemoral membrane, in
+  the base of which the short tail is concealed. _M. gigas_ (fig. 9),
+  from central Queensland, is the largest species of the genus, and of
+  the suborder. _M. lyra_, common in India (fore-arm 2.7 in.), has been
+  caught in the act of sucking the blood, while flying, from a small bat
+  which it afterwards devoured. The range of the genus includes Africa,
+  the Indo-Malay countries and Australasia. _Nycteris_, which is common
+  to Africa and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, has ossified
+  premaxillae and upper incisors (_i._ 2/3, _p._ 1/2), and a long tail;
+  but lacks a nose-leaf. As in _Megaderma_, the frontal bones are deeply
+  hollowed and expanded laterally, the muzzle presents a similar
+  cylindrical form, and the lower jaw also projects; but, instead of a
+  nose-leaf, the face is marked by a deep longitudinal sharp-edged
+  groove extending from the nostrils to the band connecting the base of
+  the large ears; the sides of this depression being margined as far
+  back as the eyes by small horizontal cutaneous appendages. With the
+  exception of _N. javanica_, the species are limited to Africa.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--The False Vampire (_Megaderma gigas_). From
+  Dobson.]
+
+
+    Vampires.
+
+  According to the classification followed by Dr G.E. Dobson, the
+  extensive family of New World bats known as _Phyllostomatidae_ was
+  widely sundered from the two preceding groups; but in Prof. Max
+  Weber's system they are placed next one another--an arrangement which
+  has the great advantage of bringing together all the bats furnished
+  with nose-leaves. It is indeed probable that the vampires, as the
+  members of the present family may be collectively termed, are the New
+  World representatives of the Old World _Rhinolophidae_ and
+  _Nycteridae_.
+
+  The _Phyllostomatidae_ are characterized by the presence of a
+  nose-leaf, or of lappets on the chin, but the nostrils are not
+  directed upwards. The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal cavity form
+  simple plates (much as in the two preceding families). The premaxillae
+  are always well developed, with their palatal portions forming a
+  suture and denning the boundaries of distinct palatine foramina (in
+  place of being rudimentary, as in _Nycteridae_ and _Rhinolophidae_).
+  The large ears have a tragus. The middle finger has three phalanges,
+  and the index one. There is an incomplete fibula. The tail may be
+  either long or short. Generally the dentition is _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1,
+  _p._ 2/3, _m._ 3/3.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Head of Blainville's Vampire (_Mormops
+  blainvillei_). From Dobson.]
+
+  All the bats of this family may be readily recognized by the presence
+  of a well-developed third phalange in the middle finger, associated
+  either with a distinct nose-leaf, or with central upper incisors, or
+  with both. Unlike the _Rhinolophidae_, their eyes are generally large
+  and the tragus is well developed, maintaining almost the same form
+  throughout the species, however much the other parts of the body may
+  vary. Their fur is of a dull colour, and the face and back are often
+  marked with white streaks. A few species, probably all those with the
+  tail and interfemoral membrane well developed, feed principally on
+  insects, while the greater number of the species of the groups
+  _Vampyreae_ and _Glossophageae_ appear to live on a mixed diet of
+  insects and fruits, and the _Desmodonteae_, of which two species are
+  known, are true blood-suckers, and have their teeth and intestinal
+  tract specially modified in accordance with their habits. The group is
+  practically limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of Central
+  and South America, although one species of _Otopterus_ reaches
+  California. In the first subfamily, _Mormopsinae_ (_Lobostominae_),
+  the nostrils open by simple apertures at the extremity of the muzzle
+  in front, not margined by a distinct nose-leaf; while, in
+  compensation, the chin is furnished with expanded leaf-like
+  appendages. The tail is short. It includes two genera. In
+  _Chilonycteris_ the crown of the head is moderately elevated above the
+  face-line, and the basi-cranial axis is almost in the same plane as
+  the facial, while in _Mormops_ (fig. 10) the crown of the head is
+  greatly elevated above the face-line, and the basi-cranial axis is
+  nearly at right angles to the facial; _i._ 2/2, _p._ 2/3, in both
+  genera. As regards the species of _Chilonycteris_, the most striking
+  feature is the occurrence of a rufous and a dark brown phase in each.
+  In some the two phases are very marked, but in others they are
+  connected by intermediate shades. Here may be mentioned the two
+  species of tropical American hare-lipped bats, forming the genus
+  _Noctilio_, which presents characters common to this and the following
+  family, to which latter it is often referred. The typical _N.
+  leporinus_ is a bat of curious aspect, with strangely folded lips,
+  erect skin-processes on the chin, and enormous feet and claws. The two
+  middle incisors are close together, and so large as to conceal the
+  small outer ones, while in the lower jaw there are but two small
+  incisors; the premolars numbering 1/2. These bats live near the coast,
+  and feed on small crabs and fishes.
+
+  Most of the remaining members of the family are included in the
+  subfamily _Phyllostomatinae_, characterized by the presence of a
+  distinct nose-leaf and the warty chin. The clitoris is imperforate,
+  whereas it is perforated in the _Mormopsinae_. The incisors are
+  generally 2/2 (occasionally 2/1), and the molars well developed. The
+  subfamily is divided into a number of groups or sections. The first of
+  them, the _Vampyreae_, is characterized as follows: Muzzle long and
+  narrow in front, the distance between the eyes generally less than
+  (rarely equal to) that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle;
+  nose-leaf horseshoe-shaped in front, lanceolate behind; interfemoral
+  membrane well developed; tail generally distinct, rarely absent; inner
+  margin of the lips not fringed; _i._ 2/2 or 2/1, _p._ 2/2 or 2/3;
+  molars with W-shaped cusps, usually well developed.
+
+  Nearly all the _Vampyreae_ appear to be insectivorous, so that the
+  term cannot be considered indicative of habits; but a few, if not all,
+  probably supplement their insect diet with fruit. _Vampyrus spectrum_
+  (the largest bat in the New World) is said to be wholly frugivorous,
+  and _Otopterus waterhousei_ appears to prey occasionally on smaller
+  bats. The genera may be arranged in two subgroups according as the
+  tail is produced to the margin of the interfemoral membrane or
+  perforates it to appear on its upper surface. In the first division
+  are included three genera, _Lonchorhina_, _Otopterus_ (or _Macrotus_)
+  and _Dolichophyllum_ (or _Macrophyllum_), the first represented by _L.
+  aurita_, characterized by an extraordinary long nose-leaf, and
+  peculiarly large ears and tragus. In the second subsection are
+  included _Vampyrus_, _Chrotopterus_, _Tonatia_ (_Lophostoma_)
+  _Micronycteris_, _Glyphonycteris_, _Trachyops_, _Phylloderma_,
+  _Phyllostoma_, _Anthorhina_ (_Tylostoma_), _Mimon_, _Hemiderma_
+  (_Carollia_) and _Rhinophylla_; all, with the exception of the last,
+  distinguished chiefly by the form of the skull and the presence or
+  absence of the second lower premolar. _Phyllostoma hastatum_, next in
+  point of size to _Vampyrus spectrum_, is a well-known species in South
+  America; _P. elongatum_ (fig. 11) differs in its smaller size and
+  larger nose-leaf. _Hemiderma brevicauda_, a small species, closely
+  resembles _Glossophaga soricina_, and forms a connecting link between
+  this and the next group. _Rhinophylla pumilio_ is the smallest species
+  of the family; further distinguished by the absence of a tail, the
+  narrowness of its molars, which do not form W-shaped cusps, and the
+  small size of the last upper molar, characters connecting it and the
+  group with the _Stenodermateae_. Both in _Hemiderma_ and _Rhinophylla_
+  the zygomatic arch is incomplete.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Head of Lesser Javelin Vampire (_Phyllostoma
+  elongatura_).]
+
+  The next subsection, _Glossophageae_, presents the following
+  distinctive features: Muzzle long and narrow; tongue long and
+  extensible, attenuated towards the tip, and beset with long filiform
+  recurved papillae; lower lip with a wide groove above, and in front
+  margined by small warts; nose-leaf small; tail short or none; _i._
+  2/2, _p._ 2/3 or 3/3 or 2/2, _m._ 3/3 or 2/3 or 2/2; teeth narrow;
+  molars with narrow W-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent;
+  lower incisors small or deciduous. The species included in this group
+  represent some ten genera, distinguished principally by differences in
+  the form and number of the teeth, and the presence or absence of the
+  zygomatic, arch of the skull. In _Glossophaga_ and _Phyllonycteris_
+  the upper incisors form a continuous row between the canines. In
+  _Monophyllus_ and _Leptonycteris_ (_Ischnoglossa_) they are separated
+  into pairs by a narrow interval in front; while in _Lonchoglossa_,
+  _Glossonycteris_ and _Choeronycteris_ they are widely separated and
+  placed in pairs near the canines. In the first four of these genera
+  the lower incisors are present (at least to a certain age), in the
+  last three they are deciduous even in youth. The zygomatic arch is
+  wanting in _Phyllonycteris_, _Glossonycteris_ and _Choeronycteris_.
+  The typical species is _Glossophaga soricina_, which, as already
+  mentioned, closely resembles _Hemiderma brevicauda_, both in form
+  and dentition. Its long brush-tipped tongue (which it possesses in
+  common with other species of the group) is used to lick out the pulpy
+  contents of fruits having hard rinds. The food of the species of this
+  group appears to consist of both fruit and insects, and the long
+  tongue may be used for extracting the latter from the deep corollas of
+  flowers. Other genera are _Lonchophylla_, _Rhithronycteris_,
+  _Hylonycteris_ and _Lychonycteris_, each with a single species (in
+  1904).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Head of Long-tongued Vampire (_Choeronycteris
+  mexicana_), showing brush-tipped tongue. From Dobson.]
+
+  The third group, _Stenodermateae_, presents the following
+  characteristics:--Muzzle very short and generally broad in front, the
+  distance between the eyes nearly always exceeding (rarely equalling)
+  the distance from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; nose-leaf
+  short, horseshoe-shaped in front, lanceolate behind (except in
+  _Brachyphylla_ and _Centurio_); interfemoral membrane concave behind;
+  tail none; inner margin of the lips fringed with conical papillae;
+  _i._ 2/2 or 2/1, _p._ 2/2, _m._ 3/3 or 2/3 or 2/2; cheek-teeth broad
+  (except in _Sturnira_), molars with concave or flat crowns margined
+  externally by raised cutting-edges. Although the _Stenodermateae_ are
+  generally easily distinguished from the _Vampyreae_ by the shortness
+  and breadth of the muzzle and the form of the cheek-teeth, certain
+  species of the latter resemble the former in external appearance,
+  agreeing almost absolutely in the form of the nose-leaf, the ears and
+  the tragus, and the warts on the chin. These resemblances show that,
+  while the form of the teeth and jaws has become modified to suit the
+  food, the external characters have remained much the same, and
+  indicate the common origin of the two sections. The food of these bats
+  appears to be wholly or in great part fruit. The species are divided
+  into some eleven genera, mostly distinguished by the form of the skull
+  and teeth. _Artibeus_ includes the frugivorous _A. perspicillatus_.
+  _Stenoderma achradophilum_, found in Jamaica and Cuba, with the last,
+  from which it is scarcely distinguishable externally except by its
+  much smaller size, differs in the absence of the horizontal plate of
+  the premaxillae on the palate. _Sturnira lilium_, while agreeing with
+  these in the form of the nose-leaf and ears, differs from all the
+  species of the family in its longitudinally-grooved molars, which
+  resemble those of the _Pteropodidae_ more closely than those of any
+  other bats; and the presence of tufts of long differently-coloured
+  hairs over glands in the sides of the neck is another character in
+  common with that group. _Centurio senex_ (fig. 13) is the type of a
+  small genus distinguished from _Stenoderma_ and other genera of this
+  group by the absence of a distinct nose-leaf. Some naturalists make
+  this genus the type of a distinct subgroup, _Centurioneae_. Up to 1904
+  the genera, exclusive of _Centurio_, included in the _Stenodermateae_
+  were _Artibeus_ (with several sub-genera), _Vampyrops_ (also with
+  subgenera), _Mesophylla_, _Chiroderma_, _Stenoderma_ (with 3
+  subgenera), _Ectophylla_, _Ametrida_ (with 2 sub-genera), _Pygoderma_,
+  _Sturnira_ and _Brachyphylla_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Head of Masked Vampire (_Centurio senex_).
+  From Dobson.]
+
+  The third subfamily, _Desmodontieae_, is represented only by the
+  blood-sucking bats, and distinguished by having _i._ 1/2, of which the
+  upper pair are cutting, the rudimentary molars, the very short
+  interfemoral membrane, and the blood-sucking habit. They are further
+  characterized as follows: Muzzle short and conical; nose-leaf
+  distinct; _p._ 2/3, _m._ 1/1 or 0/0; upper incisors occupying the
+  whole space between the canines; premolars narrow, with sharp-edged
+  longitudinal crowns; molars rudimentary or absent; stomach elongated,
+  and intestiniform. There are two genera, _Desmodus_, without calcar or
+  molars, and _Diphylla_, with a short calcar and a single rudimentary
+  molar on each side--restricted to Central and South America. _Desmodus
+  rufus_, the commoner species, is a little larger than the noctule bat,
+  and abundant in certain parts of South America, where it is
+  troublesome owing to its attacks upon domestic animals, sucking their
+  blood and leaving them weakened from repeated bleedings. (See
+  VAMPIRE.)
+
+
+    Free-tailed bats.
+
+  The fourth family of bats, unlike any of the three previous ones, has
+  a cosmopolitan distribution. These free-tailed bats, as they are
+  conveniently called, constituting the family _Emballonuridae_, present
+  the following distinctive features. The nostrils are of normal form
+  and without a nose-leaf. The premaxillae have their palatal portion
+  imperfectly developed, and united by a slender process with the
+  maxillae. The ears are large, with a small tragus. The middle finger
+  has two phalanges, and the index generally a single one. The fibula is
+  incomplete. The tail is generally short, and always partly free from
+  the interfemoral membrane. There is generally only a single pair of
+  upper incisors, separated by gaps from the canines, and from one
+  another in the middle line.
+
+  The distinctive feature of these bats is the free tail-tip, which
+  pierces the interfemoral membrane to appear on its upper surface, and
+  may project beyond its margin. As a rule, these bats may also be
+  recognized by the peculiar form of the muzzle, which is obliquely
+  truncated, the nostrils projecting more or less in front beyond the
+  lower lip, by the first phalange of the middle finger being folded in
+  repose forwards on the upper surface of the metacarpal bone, and by
+  the upper incisors. Although cosmopolitan, these bats rarely extend
+  north or south of the thirtieth parallels of latitude.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ear of _Emballonura raffrayana_. From
+  Dobson.]
+
+  The family may be divided into two subfamilies, of which the
+  _Emballonurinae_ is characterized by the incomplete premaxillae, the
+  presence of only one phalange in the index finger, and the short tail.
+  The dental formula is generally _i._ 1/3 (sometimes 2/3 or 1/2), _c._
+  1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ 3/3. This subfamily may be further subdivided into
+  subgroups or sections of which the first, _Embalionurae_, is
+  characterized by the slender tail perforating the interfemoral
+  membrane, so as to appear on its upper surface; the legs long, with a
+  slender fibula; the incisors weak; and the premolars 2/2. The typical
+  genus _Emballonura_ presents the following features: _i._ 2/3,
+  extremity of the muzzle more or less produced beyond the lower lip,
+  forehead flat. The genus contains several species, inhabiting islands
+  from Madagascar through the Malay Archipelago and Siam to the
+  Navigator Islands. _Coleura_, with _i._ 1/3, the extremity of the
+  muzzle broad, and the forehead concave, has two species from East
+  Africa and the Seychelles. _Rhynchonycteris_ is distinguished from
+  _Coleura_ by the produced extremity of the muzzle. The single species,
+  _R. naso_, from Central and South America, is common in the vicinity
+  of streams, where it is usually found during the day resting on the
+  vertical faces of rocks, or on trunks of trees growing over water; it
+  escapes notice owing to the greyish colour of the fur of the body and
+  of small tufts on the antebrachial membrane counterfeiting the
+  weathered surfaces of rocks and bark. As evening approaches it appears
+  on the wing, flying close to the water. _Saccopteryx_ has _i._ 1/3 and
+  the antibrachial membrane with a pouch opening on its upper surface;
+  it contains several species from Central and South America. This sac
+  is developed only in the male and in the female is rudimentary. In
+  adult males a valvular longitudinal opening occupies the upper surface
+  of the membrane leading into a small pouch, the interior of which is
+  lined with a glandular membrane secreting an unctuous reddish
+  substance with a strong ammoniacal odour. Allied genera are the
+  tropical American _Peropteryx_ and the Brazilian _Cormura_. The
+  various species of tomb-bats (_Taphozous_) inhabit the tropical and
+  subtropical parts of all the eastern hemisphere except Polynesia, and
+  are distinguished by the cartilaginous premaxillaries, the deciduous
+  pair of upper incisors, and the presence of only two pairs of lower
+  incisors. Most of the species have a glandular sac (fig. 15) between
+  the angles of the lower jaw, more developed in males than in females,
+  in some species absent in the latter. An open throat-sac is wanting in
+  _T. melanopogon_, but about its position are the openings of small
+  pores, the secretion from which probably causes the hairs to grow
+  long, forming the black beard found in many males. The three tropical
+  American white bats, _Diclidurus_, with _i._ 1/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/2,
+  _m._ 3/3, resemble _Taphozous_ in the form of the head and ears, but,
+  besides other characters, differ from all other bats in possessing a
+  pouch, opening off the centre of the interior surface of the
+  interfemoral membrane; the extremity of the tail enters this, and
+  perforates its base.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Heads of Tomb-Bat (_Taphozous longimanus_),
+  showing relative development of throat-sacs in male and female. From
+  Dobson.]
+
+  The second subfamily of the _Emballonuridae_, _Rhinopomatinae_, is
+  represented only by the genus _Rhinopoma_, with several species
+  ranging from Egypt through Arabia to India, Burma and Sumatra. The
+  premaxillae (fig. 16) are complete; the index finger has two
+  phalanges; the tail is very long and mouselike; and the dental formula
+  _i._ 1/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 1/2, _m._ 2/3. Dr G.E. Dobson has remarked
+  that these mouse-tailed bats might be elevated to the rank of a
+  family, for it is difficult to determine their affinities, a kind of
+  cross relationship attaching them to the _Nycteridae_ on the one hand
+  and to the _Emballonuridae_ on the other. These bats, distinguished
+  from all other Microchiroptera by the presence of two phalanges in the
+  index finger and the long and slender tail projecting far beyond the
+  narrow interfemoral membrane, inhabit the subterranean tombs in Egypt
+  and deserted buildings generally from north-east Africa to Burma and
+  Sumatra.
+
+
+    Typical bats.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Skull of Mouse-tailed Bat (_Rhinopoma
+  microphyllum_). X2. (From Dobson.)]
+
+  The last group, according to the system adopted by Prof. Max Weber, is
+  that of the _Vespertilionidae_, which includes such typical bats as
+  the pipistrelle, the noctule, and the long-eared species. By Mr G.S.
+  Miller[1] the first section of the family--_Natalinae_--is regarded as
+  of family rank, while the last section, or _Molossinae_, is included
+  by Dr G.E. Dobson in the _Emballonuridae_, from the typical forms of
+  which its members differ widely in tail-structure. In this extended
+  sense the family, which has a cosmopolitan distribution, may be
+  defined as follows:--The nostrils are normal and without a nose-leaf.
+  The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal chamber are involuted. The
+  palatine processes of the premaxillae do not form a suture. The ear is
+  mostly large, with a tragus. The middle finger (except in
+  _Thyroptera_) has two phalanges. The fibula is usually rudimentary.
+  The tail is long and does not perforate the interfemoral membrane. The
+  incisors are generally 2/3 or 1/2, but may be reduced to 1/1 in the
+  _Molossinae_.
+
+  In the first subfamily, _Natalinae_, which is exclusively tropical
+  American, the other upper incisors are separated from one another and
+  from the canines; palatine processes of the premaxillae are at least
+  partially developed; and the dental formula is _i._ 2/3, _c._ 1/1,
+  _p._ {2 or 3}/3, _m._ 3/3. In general appearance these bats recall the
+  more typical _Vespertilionidae_, although the form of the muzzle is
+  suggestive of the _Mormopsinae_ among the _Phyllostomatidae_. Again,
+  while the form of the skull is vespertilione, the relation of the
+  vomer to the front end of the premaxillae is of the phyllostomine
+  type. The molars and incisors are likewise vespertilione, whereas the
+  premolars are as distinctly phyllostomine. Finally, while the third,
+  or middle, finger normally has two phalanges, as in typical
+  _Vespertilionidae_, the second of these is elongated and in
+  _Thyroptera_ divided into two, as in _Phyllostomatidae_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Head of _Chilonatalus micropus_. x2. (From
+  Dobson.)]
+
+  The first two genera, _Furipterus_ and _Amorphochilus_, each have a
+  single species, the latter being distinguished from the former by the
+  wide separation of the nostrils and the backward prolongation of the
+  palate. In both the crown of the head is elevated, the thumb and first
+  phalange of the middle finger are very short, and the premolars are
+  2/3. The same elevation of the crown characterizes the genera
+  _Natalus_ and _Chilonatalus_ (fig. 17), in which the premolars are
+  3/3: in general appearance these bats are very like the Old World
+  vespertilionine genus _Cerivoula_, except for the short triangular
+  tragus. Lastly, _Thyroptera_ includes two species distinguished by an
+  additional phalange in the middle finger and by accessory
+  clinging-organs attached to the extremities. In _Thyroptera tricolor_,
+  _i._ 2/3, _p._ 3/3, from Brazil, these have the appearance of small,
+  circular, stalked, hollow disks (fig. 18), resembling miniature
+  sucking-cups of cuttle-fishes, and are attached to the inferior
+  surfaces of the thumbs and the soles of the feet. By their aid the bat
+  is able to maintain its hold when creeping over smooth vertical
+  surfaces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Suctorial Disks in _Thyroptera tricolor_,
+  _a_, side, and _b_, concave surface, of thumb disk; _c_, foot with
+  disk, and calcar with projections (all much enlarged). (From Dobson.)]
+
+  The second or typical subfamily, _Vespertilioninae_, includes all the
+  remaining members of the family with the exception of the aberrant
+  _Molossinae_. The upper incisors are in proximity to the canines; the
+  premaxillae widely separated; the ears medium or large; the dental
+  formula is _i._ 2/3 (or 1/3), _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3 (2/3, 2/2, or 1/2),
+  _m._ 3/3; and the fibula very small and imperfect. All the members of
+  this large cosmopolitan group are closely allied, and differ chiefly
+  by external characters. They may be divided into subgroups. In the
+  first of these, the _Plecoteae_, of which the long-eared bat
+  (_Plecotus auritus_) is the type, the crown of the head is but
+  slightly raised above the face-line, the upper incisors are close to
+  the canines, and the nostrils are margined behind by grooves an the
+  upper surface of the muzzle, or by rudimentary nose-leaves; the ears
+  being generally very large and united. Of the six genera, _Plecotus_,
+  with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/3, has three species:--one the long-eared
+  European bat referred to above; _P. macrotis_, restricted to North
+  America, is distinguished by the great size of the glandular
+  prominences of the sides of the muzzle, which meet in the centre above
+  and behind the nostrils; the third species being also American. The
+  second, _Barbastella_, with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/2, distinguished by its
+  dentition and by the outer margin of the ear being carried forwards
+  above the mouth and in front of the eye, includes the European
+  barbastelle bat, _B. barbastellus_, and _B. darjelingensis_ from the
+  Himalaya. _Otonycteris_, _i._ 1/3, _pm._, 1/2, connecting this group
+  with the _Vespertilioneae_, is represented by _O. hemprichii_, from
+  North Africa and the Himalaya, and an Arabian species. The next two
+  genera are distinguished by the presence of a rudimentary nose-leaf:
+  _Nyctophilus_, _i._ 1/3, _p._ 1/2, with three species from
+  Australasia; and _Antrozous_, _i._ 1/2, _p._ 1/2, distinguished from
+  all the other members of the subfamily by having but two lower
+  incisors, and from other _Plecoteae_ by the separate ears; the two
+  species inhabit California. The sixth genus, _Euderma_, is also
+  represented by a Californian species.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Head of _Scotophilus emarginatus_. (From
+  Dobson.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Head of _Cerivoula hardwickei_. (From
+  Dobson.)]
+
+  The second group _Vespertilioneae_, with about thirteen genera,
+  includes the great majority of the species; and a large number of
+  these may be classed under _Vespertilio_, which is divisible into
+  subgenera, differing from one another in the number of premolars, and
+  often ranked as separate genera. One group is represented by _V._
+  (_Histiolus_) _magellanicus_, a species remarkable for its extreme
+  southern range, its relatives being also South American. A second
+  group, with _p._ 1/2, includes the British serotine, _V._
+  (_Eptesicus_) _serotinus_, of Europe and northern Asia, and
+  represented in North America by the closely allied _V._ (_E._)
+  _fuscus_. In the typical group, which includes the Old World _V.
+  murinus_, one species, _V. borealis_, ranges to the Arctic circle. The
+  European noctule, _V._ (_Pierygistes_) _noctula_, and Leisler's bat,
+  _V._ (_P._) _leisleri_, represent another group; and the common
+  pipistrelle, _V._ (_Pipistrellus_) _pipistrellus_, yet another, with
+  _p._ 2/2. The only other group that need be mentioned is one
+  represented by the North American _V._ (_Lasionycteris_)
+  _noctivagans_, with _p._ 2/3. The African _Laeephotes_, the Chinese
+  _Ia_, and the Papuan _Philetor_ are allied genera, each with a single
+  species. _Chalinolobus_ and _Glauconycteris_ have the same general
+  dental character as _Vespertilio_, but are distinguished by the
+  presence of a lobe projecting from the lower lip near the gape; the
+  former, with _p._ 2/2, is represented by five Australasian species,
+  one of which extends into New Zealand; while the latter, with _p._
+  1/2, is African. The species of _Glauconycteris_ are noticeable for
+  their peculiarly thin membranes traversed by distinct reticulations
+  and parallel lines. _Scotophilus_, with _i._ 1/3, _p._ 1/2, includes
+  several species, restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions of
+  the eastern hemisphere, though widely distributed within these limits.
+  These bats, though approaching certain species of _Vespertilio_ in
+  many points, are distinguished by the single (in place of two) pair of
+  unicuspidate upper incisors separated by a wide space and placed close
+  to the canines, by the small transverse first lower premolar crushed
+  in between the canine and second premolar, and, generally, by their
+  conical, nearly naked, muzzles and thick leathery membranes. _S.
+  temmincki_ is the commonest bat in India, and appears often before the
+  sun has touched the horizon. _S. gigas_, from equatorial Africa, is
+  the largest species. _Nycticejus_, with the same dental formula as
+  _Scotophilus_, is distinguished, by the first lower premolar not being
+  crushed in between the adjoining teeth, and the comparatively greater
+  size of the last upper molar. It includes only the North American _N.
+  humeralis_ (_crepuscularis_), a bat scarcely larger than the
+  pipistrelle. The hairy-membraned bats of the genus _Lasiurus_
+  (_Atalapha_), with _i._ 1/3, _p._ 2/2 or 1/2, are also limited to the
+  New World, and generally characterized by the interfemoral membrane
+  being more or less covered with hair and by the peculiar form of the
+  tragus, which is expanded above and abruptly curved inwards. In those
+  species which have two upper premolars the first is extremely small
+  and internal to the tooth-row. The genus, which is divided into
+  _Lasiurus_ proper and _Dasypterus_, is further characterized by the
+  presence of four teats in the female, and by the general production
+  of three or four offspring at a birth. _Rhogeessa_ and _Tomopeas_ are
+  allied tropical American types. _Murina_, with the subgenus
+  _Harpiocephalus_, has _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/2, and includes several small
+  bats distinguished by the prominent tube-like nostrils and hairy
+  interfemoral membrane. _M. suilla_, from Java, the Malay and
+  neighbouring islands, is a well-known species, and the closely allied
+  _M. hilgendorfi_ is from Japan. The remaining species are from the
+  Himalaya, Tibet and Ceylon; and apparently restricted to the
+  hill-tracts of the countries in which they are found. Next to
+  _Vespertilio_ the genus _Myotis_ (divisible into several subgenera),
+  with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 3/3, includes the largest number of species, and
+  has rather a wider geographical distribution in both hemispheres, one
+  species being recorded from the Navigator Islands. The species may be
+  recognized by the peculiar character of the pairs of upper incisors on
+  each side, the cusps of which diverge from each other, by the large
+  number of premolars, of which the second upper is always small, and by
+  the oval elongated ear and narrow tragus. The British _M. bechsteini_
+  and _M. nattereri_ are examples of this group. _Cerivoula_
+  (_Kerivoula_), which also has _p._ 3/3, is distinguished by the
+  parallel upper incisors and the large second upper premolar. There are
+  numerous African and Indo-Malayan species, of which _C. picta_, from
+  India and Indo-Malay, is characterized by its brilliant orange fur,
+  and membranes variegated with orange and black. The genus includes
+  delicately formed insectivorous, tropical, forest-haunting bats, whose
+  colouring approximates them to the ripe bananas among which they often
+  pass the daytime.
+
+  Another subgroup, _Minioptereae_, is represented solely by the genus
+  _Miniopterus_, with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/3. The incisors are separated
+  from one another in front and from the canines; the first phalange of
+  the middle finger is very short, the crown of the head elevated, and
+  the tail long. The genus is represented by some half-dozen Old World
+  species, among which the typical _M. schreibersi_ ranges from Europe,
+  southern Asia, and Africa to Japan and Australasia.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Head of Mastiff-bat (_Molossus glaucinus_).
+  (From Dobson.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Head of _Nyctinomops macrotis_. (From
+  Dobson.)]
+
+  The last subfamily is that of the _Molossinae_, included by Dobson in
+  the family _Emballonuridae_. In this group the premaxillae are in
+  contact or but very slightly separated; the ears are large, with the
+  tragus small; the dental formula is _i._ 1/1 (1/2 or 1/3), _c._ 1/1,
+  _p._ 1/2 (2/2), _m._ 3/3; and the fibula is strongly developed. In
+  their blunt muzzles and many other features these bats undoubtedly
+  resemble the _Emballonuridae_, from the typical members of which they
+  differ by the production of the thick tail far beyond the margin of
+  the interfemoral membrane. They are further characterized by their
+  broad and stout feet, in which the first, and in most cases also the
+  fifth, toe is thicker than the rest, and furnished with long bent
+  hairs; and by the presence of callosities at the base of the thumbs,
+  and a single pair of large upper incisors occupying the centre of the
+  space between the canines. The feet are free from the wing-membrane,
+  which folds up under the fore-arm and legs; the interfemoral membrane
+  is retractile, being movable backwards and forwards along the tail;
+  this power of varying its superficial extent confers on these bats
+  great dexterity in changing the direction of flight. All are able to
+  walk or crawl well, and spend much of their time on trees. The genus
+  _Chiromeles_, with _i._ 1/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 1/2, _m._ 3/3, the first
+  hind-toe much larger than and separate from the others, and the widely
+  sundered ears, is represented by _C. torquata_, a large bat of
+  peculiar aspect, inhabiting the Indo-Malay countries. This species is
+  nearly naked, a collar only of thinly spread hairs half surrounding
+  the neck, and is remarkable for its enormous throat-sac and
+  nursing-pouches. The former consists of a semicircular fold of skin
+  forming a pouch round the neck beneath, concealing the orifices of
+  subcutaneous pectoral glands which discharge an oily fluid of
+  offensive smell. The nursing-pouch is formed on each side by an
+  extension of a fold of skin from the side of the body to the inferior
+  surfaces of the humerus and femur. In the anterior part of this pouch
+  the teat is placed. The typical genus _Molossus_ (fig. 21) includes
+  the mastiff-bats, characterized by the dental formula _i._ 1/1 or 1/2,
+  _p._ 1/2 or 2/2; and by the upper incisors being close together in
+  front. The genus is restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions
+  of the New World. _M. obscurus_, a small species common in tropical
+  America, inhabits the hollow trunks of palms and other trees and the
+  roofs of houses. The males and females live apart (as is the case in
+  most if not all bats). In West Africa the mastiff-bats are represented
+  by _Eomops_, with one species; while _Nyctinomops_ includes a number
+  of tropical American species more nearly related to the next genus, in
+  which some of them (fig. 22) were formerly included. The widely spread
+  _Nyctinomus_, with _i._ 1/3 or 1/2, _p._ 2/2 or 1/2, and the upper
+  incisors separate in front, includes numerous species inhabiting the
+  tropical and subtropical parts of both hemispheres. The lips of the
+  bats of this genus are even more expansible than in _Molossus_, in
+  many of the species (fig. 22) showing vertical wrinkles. _N.
+  toeniotis_ (or _cestonii_), one of the largest species, alone extends
+  into Europe, as far north as Switzerland. _N. johorensis_, from the
+  Malay Peninsula, is remarkable for the extraordinary form of its ears.
+  _N. brasiliensis_ is common in tropical America, and extends as far
+  north as California.
+
+
+    Myzopoda and Mystacops.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Thumb and leg and foot of New Zealand bat
+  (_Mystacops tuberculatus_), enlarged. (From Dobson.)]
+
+  Here may be conveniently noticed two very rare and aberrant bats,
+  _Myzopoda_ (or _Myxopoda_) _aurita_ of Madagascar, and _Mystacops_ (or
+  _Mystacina_) _tuberculatas_ of New Zealand, the latter of which is
+  believed to be well-nigh, if not entirely, exterminated. Their
+  systematic position and affinities are somewhat uncertain; but in the
+  opinion of O. Thomas[2] the former should typify a separate family,
+  _Myzopodidae_, in which the latter may also find a place. From all
+  other bats _Myzopoda_ is distinguished by the presence of a peculiar
+  mushroom-shaped organ at the base of the large ear, and by the union
+  of the tragus with the latter, on the inner base of which it forms a
+  small projection. There are three phalanges in the middle finger; and
+  the whole inferior surface of the thumb supports a large sessile
+  horseshoe-shaped adhesive pad, with the circular margin directed
+  forwards and notched along its edge, while a smaller pad occupies part
+  of the sole of the hind-foot. Mr Thomas regards this bat as related on
+  the one hand to the subfamily _Mormopsinae_ of the _Phyllostomatidae_,
+  and on the other to the _Natalinae_ among the _Vespertilionidae_; both
+  these groups being regarded by him as of family rank.
+
+  _Mystacops_ resembles _Myzopoda_ in having three phalanges to the
+  middle finger, but differs in that the tail perforates the
+  interfemoral membrane to appear on its upper surface in the manner
+  characteristic of the _Emballonuridae_. The greater part of the
+  wing-membrane is exceedingly thin, but a narrow portion along the
+  fore-arm, the sides of the body, and the legs, is thick and leathery,
+  and beneath this thickened portion the wings are folded. Other
+  peculiarities of structure are found in the form of the claws of the
+  thumbs and toes, each of which has a small heel projecting from its
+  concave surface near the base, also in the sole of the foot and
+  inferior surface of the leg, as shown in fig. 23. The plantar surface,
+  including the toes, is covered with soft and very lax, deeply wrinkled
+  skin, and each toe is marked by a central longitudinal groove with
+  short grooves at right angles to it. The lax wrinkled integument is
+  continued along the inferior flattened surface of the ankle and leg.
+  These peculiarities appear to be related to climbing habits in the
+  species.
+
+
+_Extinct Bats_.
+
+Palaeontology tells us nothing with regard to the origin of the
+Chiroptera, all the known fossil species, some of which date back to the
+Oligocene, being more or less closely allied to existing types, and
+therefore of comparatively little interest. The origin of the order from
+primitive insectivorous mammals must have taken place at least as early
+as the Lower Eocene. It is, however, noteworthy that several of the
+earlier extinct species appear to be related to the _Rhinolophidae_,
+which is the most generalized family of the order. Remains of
+_Pteropodidae_ belonging to existing genera occur in the caves of
+tropical countries in the eastern hemisphere; and the skeleton of an
+extinct generic type, _Archaeopteropus_, has been obtained from the
+Miocene lignite of Italy, which indicates a form to a certain extent
+transitional in character between typical fruit-bats and the
+insectivorous bats. The tail, for instance, which in most modern
+fruit-bats is rudimentary, with only three or four vertebrae, in the
+fossil has eight complete vertebrae; while the teeth of the extinct
+form are distinctly cusped. Whether, however, the tail is longer than in
+the existing _Notopteris_ of Fiji and New Guinea, or whether the molars
+are more distinctly cusped than is the case with the Solomon Island
+_Pteropus_ (_Pteralopex_), is not stated. Still, the fact that the
+Miocene fruit-bat does show certain signs of approximation to the
+insectivorous (and more generalized) section of the order is of
+interest. Of the Oligocene forms, _Pseudorhinolophus_ of Europe is
+apparently a member of the _Rhinolophidae_; but the affinities of
+_Alastor_ and _Vespertiliavus_, which are likewise European, are more
+doubtful, although the latter may be related to _Taphozous_. The North
+American _Vespertilio_ (_Vesperugo_) _anemophilus_ and the European _V.
+aquensis_ and _V. parisiensis_ are, on the other hand, members of the
+_Vespertilionidae_, the last being apparently allied to the serotine
+(_V. serotinus_).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The above article is based to some extent on the article
+  in the 9th edition of this work by G.E. Dobson, whose British Museum
+  "Catalogue" is, however, now obsolete. Professor H. Winge's
+  "Jordfundae og nulevende Flagermus (Chiroptera)," published in _E.
+  Mus. Lundi_ (Copenhagen, 1892), contains much valuable information;
+  and for _Pteropodidae_ Dr P. Matschie's _Megachiroptera_ (Berlin,
+  1899), should be consulted. For the rest the student must refer to
+  namerous papers by G.M. Allen, K. Andersen, F.A. Jentink, G.S. Miller,
+  T.S. Palmer, A.G. Rehn, O. Thomas and others, in various English and
+  American zoological serials, all of which are quoted in the volumes of
+  the _Zoological Record_.    (R. L.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vol. xii. (1899).
+
+  [2] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, 1904), vol. ii.
+
+
+CHIRU, a graceful Tibetan antelope (_Pantholops Hodgsoni_), of which the
+bucks are armed with long, slender and heavily-ridged horns of an
+altogether peculiar type, while the does are hornless. Possibly this
+handsome antelope may be the original of the mythical unicorn, a single
+buck when seen in profile looking exactly as if it had but one long
+straight horn. Although far from uncommon, chiru are very wary, and
+consequently difficult to approach. They are generally found in small
+parties, although occasionally in herds. They inhabit the desolate
+plateau of Tibet, at elevations of between 13,000 and 18,000 ft., and,
+like all Tibetan animals, have a firm thick coat, formed in this
+instance of close woolly hair of a grey fawn-colour. The most peculiar
+feature about the chiru is, however, its swollen, puffy nose, which is
+probably connected with breathing a highly rarefied atmosphere. A second
+antelope inhabiting the same country as the chiru is the goa (_Gazella
+picticaudata_), a member of the gazelle group characterized by the
+peculiar form of the horns of the bucks and certain features of
+coloration, whereby it is markedly distinguished from all its kindred
+save one or two other central Asian species. The chiru, which belongs to
+the typical or antilopine section of antelopes, is probably allied to
+the saiga.    (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+CHIRURGEON, one whose profession it is to cure disease by operating with
+the hand. The word in its original form is now obsolete. It derives from
+the Mid. Eng. _cirurgien_ or _sirurgien_, through the Fr. from the Gr.
+[Greek: cheirourgos], one who operates with the hand (from [Greek:
+cheir], hand, [Greek: ergon], work); from the early form is derived the
+modern word "surgeon." "Chirurgeon" is a 16th century reversion to the
+Greek origin. (See SURGERY.)
+
+
+
+
+CHISEL (from the O. Fr. _cisel_, modern _ciseau_, Late Lat. _cisellum_,
+a cutting tool, from _caedere_, to cut), a sharp-edged tool for cutting
+metal, wood or stone. There are numerous varieties of chisels used in
+different trades; the carpenter's chisel is wooden-handled with a
+straight edge, transverse to the axis and bevelled on one side; stone
+masons' chisels are bevelled on both sides, and others have oblique,
+concave or convex edges. A chisel with a semicircular blade is called a
+"gouge." The tool is worked either by hand-pressure or by blows from a
+hammer or mallet. The "cold chisel" has a steel edge, highly tempered to
+cut unheated metal. (See TOOL.)
+
+
+
+
+CHISLEHURST, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parliamentary division
+of Kent, England, 11-1/4 m. S.E. of London, by the South-Eastern &
+Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 7429. It is situated 300 ft. above
+sea-level, on a common of furze and heather in the midst of picturesque
+country. The church of St Nicholas (Perpendicular with Early English
+portions, but much restored) has a tomb of the Walsingham family, who
+had a lease of the manor from Elizabeth; Sir Francis Walsingham, the
+statesman, being born here in 1536. Another statesman of the same age,
+Sir Nicholas Bacon, was born here in 1510. Near the church is an ancient
+cockpit. The mortuary chapel attached to the Roman Catholic church of St
+Mary was built to receive the body of Napoleon III., who died at Camden
+Place in 1873; and that of his son was brought hither in 1879. Both were
+afterwards removed to the memorial chapel at Farnborough in Hampshire.
+Camden Place was built by William Camden, the antiquary, in 1609, and in
+1765 gave the title of Baron Camden to Lord Chancellor Pratt. The house
+was the residence not only of Napoleon III., but of the empress Eugenie
+and of the prince imperial, who is commemorated by a memorial cross on
+Chislehurst Common. The house and grounds are now occupied by a golf
+club. There are many villa residences in the neighbourhood of
+Chislehurst.
+
+
+
+
+CHISWICK, an urban district in the Ealing parliamentary division of
+Middlesex, England, suburban to London, on the Thames, 71/2 m. W. by S. of
+St Paul's cathedral. Pop. (1901) 29,809. The locality is largely
+residential, but there are breweries, and the marine engineering works
+of Messrs Thornycroft on the river. Chiswick House, a seat of the duke
+of Devonshire, is surrounded by beautiful grounds; here died Fox (1806)
+and Canning (1827). The gardens near belonged till 1903 to the Royal
+Horticultural Society. The church of St Nicholas has ancient portions,
+and in the churchyard is the tomb of William Hogarth the painter, with
+commemorative lines by David Garrick. Hogarth's house is close at hand.
+Chiswick Hall, no longer extant, was formerly a country seat for the
+masters and sanatorium for the scholars of Westminster school. Here in
+1811 the Chiswick Press was founded by Charles Whittingham the elder, an
+eminent printer (d. 1840).
+
+
+
+
+CHITA, a town of east Siberia, capital of Transbaikalia, on the Siberian
+railway, 500 m. E. of Irkutsk, on the Chita river, half a mile above its
+confluence with the Ingoda. Pop. (1883) 12,600; (1897) 11,480. The
+Imperial Russian Geographical Society has a museum here. Several of the
+palace revolutionaries, known as Decembrists, were banished to this
+place from St Petersburg in consequence of the conspiracy of December
+1825. The inhabitants support themselves by agriculture and by trade in
+furs, cattle, hides and tallow bought from the Buriats, and in
+manufactured wares imported from Russia and west Siberia.
+
+
+
+
+CHITALDRUG, a district and town in the native state of Mysore, India.
+The district has an area of 4022 sq. m. and a population (1901) of
+498,795. It is distinguished by its low rainfall and arid soil. It lies
+within the valley of the Vedavati or Hagari river, mostly dry in the hot
+season. Several parallel chains of hills, reaching an extreme height of
+3800 ft., cross the district; otherwise it is a plain. The chief crops
+are cotton and flax; the chief manufactures are blankets and cotton
+cloth. The west of the district is served by the Southern Mahratta
+railway. The largest town in the district is Davangere (pop. 10,402).
+The town of CHITALDRUG, which is the district headquarters (pop. 1901,
+5792), was formerly a military cantonment, but this was abandoned on
+account of its unhealthiness. It has massive fortifications erected
+under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sahib towards the close of the 18th century;
+and near it on the west are remains of a city of the 2nd century A.D.
+
+
+
+
+CHITON, the name[1] given to fairly common littoral animals of rather
+small size which belong to the phylum Mollusca, and, in the possession
+of a radula in the buccal cavity, resemble more especially the
+Gastropoda. Their most important characteristic in comparison with the
+latter is that they are, both in external and internal structure,
+bilaterally symmetrical. The dorsal integument or mantle bears, not a
+simple shell, but eight calcareous plates in longitudinal series
+articulating with each other. The ventral surface forms a flat creeping
+"foot," and between mantle and foot is a pallial groove in which there
+is on each side a series of gills. Originally the Chitons were placed
+with the limpets, _Patella_, in Cuvier's _Cyclobranchia_, an order of
+the Gastropoda. In 1876 H. von Jhering demonstrated the affinities of
+_Neomenia_ and _Chaetoderma_, vermiform animals destitute of shell, with
+the Chitons, and placed them all in a division of worms which he named
+Amphineura. The discovery by A.A.W. Hubrecht in 1881 of a typical
+molluscan radula and odontophore in a new genus _Proneomenia_, allied to
+_Neomenia_, showed that the whole group belonged to the Mollusca. E. Ray
+Lankester (_Ency. Brit._, 9th ed., 1883) placed them under the name
+Isopleura as a subclass of Gastropoda. Paul Pelseneer (1906) raised the
+group to the rank of a class of Mollusca, under von Jhering's name
+Amphineura.
+
+The Amphineura are divided into two orders: (1) the Polyplacophora, or
+Chitons; (2) the Aplacophora, or forms without shells, _Neomenia_,
+_Chaetoderma_ and their allies.
+
+Order I.--POLYPLACOPHORA
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Three views of Chiton.
+
+  A. Dorsal view of _Chiton Wosnessenksii_, Midd., showing the eight
+  shells. (After Middendorf.)
+
+  B. View from the pedal surface of a species of Chiton from the Indian
+  Ocean, _p_, foot; _o_, mouth (at the other end of the foot is seen the
+  anus raised on a papilla); _kr_, oral fringe; _br_, the numerous
+  ctenidia (branchial plumes); spreading beyond these, and all round the
+  animal, is the mantle-skirt. (After Cuvier.)
+
+  C. The same species of Chiton, with the shells removed and the dorsal
+  integument reflected, _b_, buccal mass; _m_, retractor muscles of the
+  buccal mass; _ov_, ovary; _od_, oviduct; _i_, coils of intestines;
+  _ao_, aorta; _c'_, left auricle; _c_, ventricle.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pallial eye and aesthetes of _Acanthopleura
+spiniger_ (Moseley).]
+
+Each of the eight valves of the shell is made up of two distinct
+calcareous layers: (a) an outer or upper called the tegmentum, which is
+visible externally; (b) a deeper layer called articulamentum which is
+porcellaneous, quite compact, and entirely covered by the tegmentum. In
+the lower forms the two layers are coextensive and have smooth edges,
+but in the higher forms the articulamentum projects laterally beyond and
+beneath the tegmentum into the substance of the mantle. These
+projections are termed insertion plates; they are usually slit or
+notched to form teeth, the edges of which may be smooth and sharp, or
+may be crenulated. The anterior margin of each valve except the first is
+provided with two projections called sutural laminae which underlie the
+posterior margin of the preceding valve.
+
+[Illustration: From Lankester, _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+FIG. 3.--Ventral aspect of three species of Polyplacophora showing
+position of gills.
+
+  A. _Lepidopleurus benthus_.
+
+  B. _Boreochiton cinereus_.
+
+  C. _Schizochiton incisus_. _a_, anus; _f_, foot; _g_, gills; _m_,
+  mouth; _pa_, mantle; _pa'_, anal lobe of mantle; _ps_, pallial slit;
+  _te_, pallial tentacles.]
+
+The tegmentum is formed by the fold of mantle covering the edge of the
+articulamentum, and extends over the latter from the sides. It is the
+first part of the shell formed in development. The tegmentum is much
+reduced in _Acanthochiton_, and absent in the adult _Cryptochiton_. The
+tegmentum is pierced by numerous vertical ramified canals which contain
+epithelial papillae of the epidermis. These papillae form pallial
+sense-organs, containing nerve-end bulbs, covered by a dome of cuticle,
+and innervated from the pallial nerve-cords. They are termed according
+to their size, micraesthetes and megalaesthetes. In the common species
+of _Chiton_ and many others of the family _Chitonidae_ the
+megalaesthetes are developed into definite eyes, the most complicated of
+which have retina, pigment within the eye, cornea and crystalline lens
+(intra-pigmental eyes) (fig. 2). The eyes are arranged in rows running
+diagonally from the median anterior beak of each valve to its lateral
+borders There may be only one such row on either side, or many rows. In
+some species the total number present amounts to thousands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagrams of the alimentary canal of Amphineura
+(from Hubrecht).]
+
+  A. Neomenia and Proneomenia.
+  B. Chaetoderma.
+  C.  Chiton.
+  _o_, Mouth.
+  _a_, Anus.
+  _d_, Alimentary canal.
+  _l_, Liver (digestive gland).]
+
+  _Branchiae._--The series of gills may extend the whole length of the
+  body in the pallial groove, or may be confined to the posterior end.
+  Each gill has the structure of a typical molluscan ctenidium,
+  consisting of an axis bearing an anterior and posterior row of
+  filaments or lamellae. The gills are thus metamerically repeated;
+  there may be from four to eighty pairs, but there is often a numerical
+  asymmetry on the two sides. The largest pair of branchiae is placed
+  immediately behind the renal openings and corresponds to the single
+  pair of other molluscs, the organs being repeated anteriorly only
+  (Metamacrobranchs) or anteriorly and posteriorly (Mesomacrobranchs).
+
+  _Intestine._--The digestive tube in the Polyplacophora, which are
+  herbivorous, is longer than the body, and thrown into a few coils, the
+  anus being median and posterior. The mouth leads into the buccal
+  cavity, on the ventral side of which opens the radular caecum. Each
+  transverse row of teeth of the radula contains 17 teeth, one of which
+  is median, while the second and the fifth on each side are enlarged.
+  Two pairs of glands open into the buccal cavity, and at the junction
+  of pharynx and oesophagus is another pair called the sugar glands. The
+  stomach is surrounded by the liver or digestive gland, consisting of
+  two lobes which are symmetrical in the young animals, but in the adult
+  the right lobe is anterior and smaller.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Diagrams of the excretory and reproductive
+  organs of Amphineura (after Hubrecht).
+
+    A, Chaetoderma.
+    B, Neomenia.
+    C, Proneomenia.
+    D, Chiton.
+    O, Ovary.
+    P, Pericardium.
+    N, Nephridium.
+    u, External aperture of nephridium.
+    g, External aperture of the genital duct of Chiton.
+    r, Rectum.
+    Cl, Cloacal or pallial chamber of Neomeniae and Chaetoderma.
+    Br, Ctenidia (branchial plumes).]
+
+  _Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs._--As in other molluscs the
+  coelom is represented by a large pericardial cavity, situated above
+  the intestine posteriorly, and a generative sac which is single and
+  median and situated in front of the pericardium, except in the
+  _Nuttalochiton hyadesi_, where the gonads are in a similar position,
+  but are paired. The excretory organs are coelomoducts with an internal
+  ciliated opening into the pericardium and an opening to the exterior.
+  Both the openings are close together, the external opening being just
+  in front of the principal gill near the posterior end of the body. The
+  renal tube is doubled on itself, its middle part where the bend occurs
+  being situated more or less anteriorly. The excretory surface is
+  increased by numerous ramified caeca which extend beneath the body
+  wall laterally and ventrally, and open into the tube (fig. 6). The
+  sexes are distinct, and the ovary is frequently greenish in colour,
+  the testis red. The gonad is transversely wrinkled and lies between
+  the aorta and the intestine, extending from the pericardium to the
+  anterior end of the body. A simple gonaduct on each side arises from
+  the gonad near its posterior end and passes first forwards, then
+  backwards, and lastly outwards to the external opening in the pallial
+  groove, anterior to the renal aperture. There may be from one to nine
+  gills between the genital and renal pores.
+
+  _Heart and Vascular System._--The heart is enclosed in the
+  pericardium, and consists of a median elongated ventricle and a pair of
+  lateral auricles, so that the structure somewhat resembles that in
+  the Lamellibranchiata. The openings of the auricles into the
+  ventricle vary in different forms. In many of the lower forms
+  (_Lepidopleuridae, Mopalidae, Ischnochitonidae_) the opening on each
+  side is single and anterior. In the true _Chitonidae_ there are generally
+  two apertures on each side, and in two species three or four, another
+  instance of the tendency to metameric repetition in the group.
+  The auricles are connected with one another posteriorly behind the
+  ventricle. The ventricle leads into a single anterior median aorta.
+  As in other molluscs, the arteries do not extend far, but lead into
+  inter-visceral blood-spaces. The venous blood is conducted from
+  the tissues to a large sinus on either side above the pallial groove,
+  and from this sinus passes to the gills by an afferent vessel in each
+  gill on the internal or pedal margin of the axis. The oxygenated
+  blood is carried from each gill by an efferent vessel on the external
+  or pallial side of the axis to another longitudinal vessel which leads
+  to the auricle on each side.
+
+  [Illustration: After Haller (_Arbeiten zool. Instit._), Vienna, 1882.
+
+  FIG. 6.--Dissection of the renal organs (nephridia) of _Chiton siculus._
+
+    F,  Foot.
+    L, Edge of the mantle not removed in the front part of the specimen.
+    s.o., Oesophagus.
+    af, Anus.
+    gg, Genital duct.
+    go, External opening of the same.
+    eg, Stem of the nephridium leading to no, its external aperture.
+    nk, Reflected portion of the nephridial stem.
+    ng, Fine caeca of the nephridium, which are seen ramifying
+         transversely over the whole inner surface of the pedal muscular
+         mass.]
+
+  _Nervous System._--There are no well-marked specialized ganglia in the
+  central nervous system, nerve-cells being distributed uniformly along
+  the cords. There are two pairs of longitudinal cords, a pedal pair
+  situated ventrally and united beneath the intestine by numerous
+  commissures, and a pallial pair situated laterally and continuous with
+  one another above the rectum (fig. 7). The four cords are all
+  connected anteriorly with the cerebral commissure which lies above the
+  buccal mass anteriorly. From the points where the cords meet the
+  cerebral commissure, arise on each an anterior labial commissure and a
+  stomatogastric commissure. The letter bears two ganglion swellings,
+  the buccal ganglia. The labial commissure gives off a subradular
+  commissure which also bears two ganglia, these being in close relation
+  to a special sense-organ called the subradular organ, an epithelial
+  projection with nerve-endings, lying in front of the radula and
+  probably gustatory in function. One osphradium or branchial olfactory
+  organ is usually present on each side, on either side of the anus on
+  the inner wall of the mantle, near the base of the last gill. In
+  _Lepidopleuridae_ an osphradium occurs at the base of each gill. The
+  sense organs of the shell-valves have already been described.
+
+  _Development._--The eggs may be laid separately invested by a
+  chitinous envelope, or as in _Ischnochiton magdalenensis_ they may
+  form strings containing nearly 200,000 eggs, or the ova may be
+  retained in the pallial groove and undergo development there, as in
+  _Chiton polii_ and _Hemiarthrum setulosum_. One species
+  _Callistochiton viviparus_ is viviparous and its ova develop without a
+  larval stage in the maternal oviduct. Segmentation is total and at
+  first regular, and is followed by invagination, the blastopore passing
+  to the position of the future mouth. By the development of a ciliated
+  ring just in front of the mouth the embryo becomes a trochosphere. In
+  the centre of the praeoral lobe is a tuft of cilia. Just behind the
+  ciliated ring is a pair of larval eyes which disappear in the adult;
+  these correspond to the cephalic eyes of Lamellibranchs. An ectodemic
+  invagination forms a large mucous gland on the foot, which is more or
+  less atrophied in adult life. The gonads originate by proliferation of
+  the anterior wall of the pericardium. The shell-valves arise as
+  transverse thickenings of the dorsal cuticle behind the ciliated ring,
+  the tegmentum being the first part formed.
+
+
+  _Classification_.
+
+  [Illustration: After Hubrecht, loc. cit.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Diagrams of the nervous system of Amphineura.
+
+    A, Proneomenia.
+    B, Neomenia.
+    C, Chaetoderma.
+    D, Chiton.
+    c, Cerebral ganglia.
+    s, Sublingual ganglia.
+    v, Pedal (ventral) nerve-cord.
+    l, Visceral (lateral) nerve-cord.
+    pc. Post-anal junction of the visceral nerve-cords.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Gegenbaur, _Elements of Comp.  Anatomy._
+
+  FIG. 8.--Anterior part of the nervous system of _Chiton cinereus_,
+  in more detail.
+
+    B, Buccal ganglia (concerned with the odontophore).
+    C, Cerebral nerve-mass.
+    P, Pedal ganglion and commencement of pedal nerve-cord.
+    pl, Visceral nerve-cord. The sublingual ganglia are not lettered.]
+
+  Suborder I. EOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry.--Tegmentum coextensive with
+  articulamentum, or the latter projecting in smooth unslit plates.
+
+    Fam. 1. _Lepidopleuridae._--Terminal margins of end valves never
+    elevated; form oval or oblong. _Lepidopleurus cancellatus_, Sow.
+    North Atlantic and Mediterranean; various abyssal species. _Hanleya
+    hanleyi_, Bean, north Atlantic. _Hemiarthrum Microplax_. The extinct
+    _Gryptochitonidae_, Pilsbry, with other Palaeozoic genera, narrow
+    and elongated in form with terminal margins of end valves elevated,
+    belong to this group.
+
+  Suborder II. MESOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry.--Insertion plates well developed
+  and slit.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Ischnochitonidae._--All the valves with slits, and the
+    inner layer well covered by the outer.
+
+      Subfam. 1. _Ischnochitoninae._--No shell-eyes: sutural laminae
+      separated; slits in the valves 1-7 do not correspond with the ribs
+      of the tegmentum. _Ischnochiton, Trachydermon, Chaetopleura,
+      Stenoplax, Stenoradsia_.
+
+      Subfam. 2. _Callochitoninae._ With shell-eyes and united sutural
+      laminae. _Callochiton laevis_, North Atlantic and Mediterranean.
+
+      Subfam. 3. _Callistoplacinae._ No shell-eyes, slits in the valves
+      1-7 corresponding with the ribs of the tegmentum. _Callistochiton_
+      (viviparous). _Nuttalochiton._
+
+    Fam. 3. _Mopaliidae._ Each intermediate valve with a single slit;
+    girdle hairy. _Mopalia, Placiphorella, Plaxiphora, Placophoropsis._
+
+    Fam. 4. _Acanthochitonidae._ Valves immersed in the girdle, with
+    small tegmentum. _Acanthochiton_ (A_. fascicularis_, North Atlantic
+    and Mediterranean). _Spongiochiton, Katharina, Amicula, Cryptochiton_
+    (_C. stelleri_, arctic).
+
+    Fam. 5. _Cryptoplacidae._ Vermiform, with thick girdle and small
+    valves; insertion and sutural plates strongly drawn forward, sharp
+    and smooth. _Cryptoplax, Choneplax._
+
+  Suborder III. TELEOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry.--All the valves, or at least
+  the seven anterior, with insertion plates cut into teeth by slits.
+
+    Fam. 6. _Chitonidae._ Characters of the suborder.
+
+      Subfam. 1. _Chitoninae._ No extra-pigmental eyes; insertion plates
+      with pectinations between the fissures. _Chiton, Eudoxochiton,
+      Trachyodon, Radsia._
+
+      Subfam. 2. _Toniciinae._ Extra-pigmental shell-eyes. _Tonicia,
+      Acanthopleura, Enoplochiton, Onithochiton, Schizochiton, Lorica,
+      Loricella, Liolophura._
+
+
+ Order 2.--APLACOPHORA, von Jhering.
+
+_Chaetoderma_ was first described by S. Loven, in 1841, and was for a
+long time believed to be a Gephyrean worm. _Neomenia_, mentioned first
+by Michael Sars in 1868 under the name _Solenopus_, was afterwards
+included among the Opisthobranchs by J. Koren and D.C. Danielssen. C.
+Gegenbaur placed the two genera in a division of Vermes which he called
+Solenogastres.
+
+The chief points in which the Aplacophora differ from the Polyplacophora
+are: (1) they are worm-like in shape; (2) there is no distinct foot, and
+the mantle bears no shell-valves, but only numerous calcareous spicules;
+(3) the digestive tube is straight.
+
+_Neomenia_ and its allies are marine animals living at depths of 15 to
+800 fathoms on soft muddy ground; they are found crawling on corals and
+hydrozoa, on which they feed. The British genera are: _Neomenia,
+Rhopalomenia_ and _Myzomenia_. They have been taken in nearly all seas
+except the South Atlantic and S.E. and N.W. Pacific. About forty species
+are known. _Chaetoderma_, of which nine species have been described, has
+similar habits and distribution, but feeds chiefly on Protozoa. The
+order Aplacophora is divided into two suborders.
+
+  Suborder I. NEOMENIOMORPHA.--Aplacophora with a distinct longitudinal
+  ventral groove; bisexual with paired genital glands and no distinct
+  liver. The whole of the skin except the ventral groove corresponds to
+  the mantle of _Chiton_. The cuticle, in some species very thick,
+  contains numerous spicules which are long, hollow and calcified; they
+  are secreted by epithelial papillae. In some species there are also
+  sensory papillae comparable to the aesthetes of Chitons. A small
+  longitudinal projection in the ventral groove represents the foot.
+  Into the groove open mucous glands, a large one anteriorly and another
+  opening into a posteriorly cloacal, branchial cavity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Neomenia carinata_, Tullberg (after Tullberg).
+
+    A, Lateral view.
+    B, Ventral view.
+    C, Dorsal view.
+    D, Ventral view of a more extended specimen.
+    a, Anterior.
+    b, Posterior extremity.
+    c, Furrow, in which the narrow foot is concealed.]
+
+  _Branchiae._--In _Neomeniidae_ and most of the _Parameniidae_ there is
+  a circlet of gills on the inner walls of the cloacal chamber. These
+  gills are simple folds or laminae of the body wall. In other species
+  they are absent.
+
+  _Intestine._---The mouth opens into a muscular pharynx lined by a
+  thick cuticle. Into the pharyngeal cavity open salivary glands and
+  radular sac. The former are paired and ventral, and open on a
+  subradular prominence. In some species there is a second dorsal pair.
+  _Neomenia_ and other genera have no salivary glands.
+
+  The radula when present comprises several transverse rows of teeth,
+  and each transverse row may have several teeth (polystichous), two
+  teeth (distichous), or one tooth (monostichous). It is a curious fact
+  that in the original type _Neomenia_ the radula is entirely absent, as
+  it likewise is in several genera of _Proneomeniidae_. The oesophagus
+  is short and leads into a long, straight stomach, provided with
+  numerous symmetrical lateral caeca. The stomach opens into a short
+  straight rectum which opens into the branchial chamber.
+
+  _Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs._--The coelom differs from that
+  of the Chitons in the fact that the cavities of the genital organs are
+  continuous with it, and in the fact that there is only one pair of
+  coelomoducts resembling the renal organs of Chitons, but serving also
+  as genital ducts. The gonads are paired and hermaphrodite, they form a
+  pair of anterior prolongations of the pericardium, extending nearly to
+  the anterior end of the body. Ova are developed on the median,
+  spermatozoa on the outer wall of each genital tube. The pericardium is
+  ciliated internally on its dorsal and lateral walls. The urino-genital
+  tubes arise from the posterior angles of the pericardium, pass first
+  forwards, then backwards, and unite to open by a common opening into
+  the cloaca below the anus except in _Strophomenia_, where the openings
+  are separate. Usually each tube is provided with caecal appendages on
+  its proximal portion, and these serve as vesiculae seminales, while
+  the distal portion is enlarged and glandular and secretes the
+  egg-shell.
+
+  _Heart and Vascular System._--There is a heart in the pericardium
+  consisting of a median ventricle attached, except in _Neomenia_, to
+  the dorsal wall of the pericardium, and in _Neomenia_ a pair of
+  auricular ducts returning blood from the gills to the ventricle. The
+  aorta is not independent as in Chitons, but is a sinus like the other
+  channels of the circulation. A single median ventral sinus passes
+  backwards to the gills or cloaca. The blood is coloured red by
+  haemoglobin in blood corpuscles.
+
+  _Nervous System._--Ganglionic enlargements are more conspicuous than
+  in the Chitons. In front of the buccal mass is a median cerebral
+  ganglion. From this pass off two pairs of cords, the pleural and
+  pedal, in _Proneomenia_ separate from their origin, in _Neomenia_
+  united at first and diverging at a pleural ganglion. The pedal cords
+  anteriorly form a pair of pedal ganglia united by a thick commissure.
+  The supra-rectal commissure may be present and bear an ovoid ganglion;
+  or may be wanting. With regard to sense organs the epithelial papillae
+  of the mantle have been mentioned. There is also in some genera a
+  median retractile sensory papilla on the dorsal posterior surface
+  above the rectum, not covered by the cuticle.
+
+  _Development_ has only been described in _Myzomenia banyulensis_, by
+  G. Pruvot. It closely resembles in the early stages that of Chitons.
+  The external surface of the trochosphere is formed of a number of
+  ciliated test-cells. The ectoderm behind the ciliated ring develops
+  spicules, and the post-oral region of the larva elongates. Later the
+  ciliated ring or velum disappears and seven imbricated calcareous
+  plates, made up of flattened spicules, are formed on the dorsal
+  surface. This appears to indicate that the Neomeniomorpha are
+  descended from _Chiton_-like ancestors, and that they have lost their
+  shell valves.
+
+    _Classification of the_ NEOMENIOMORPHA.--Fam. 1. _Lepidomeniidae._
+    Slender, tapering behind, with subventral cloacal orifice; thin
+    cuticle without papillae; flattened spicules; no gills.
+    _Lepidomenia, Ismenia, Ichthyodes, Stylomenia, Dondersia,
+    Nematomenia, Myzomenia, M. banyulensis_, Mediterranean and Plymouth.
+
+    Fam. 2. _Neomeniidae._ Short, truncate in front and behind; cloacal
+    orifice transverse; gills present; rather thin cuticle; no radula.
+    _Neomenia_ (_N. carinata_, N. Atlantic and N. and N.W. Scotland),
+    _Hemimenia_.
+
+    Fam. 3. _Proneomeniidae._ Elongated, cylindrical, rounded at both
+    ends; thick cuticle with acicular spicules; radula polystichous or
+    wanting. _Proneomenia, Amphimenia, Echinomenia, Rhopalomenia_ (_R.
+    aglaopheniae_, Mediterranean and Plymouth), _Notomenia, Pruvotia,
+    Strophomenia_.
+
+    Fam. 4. _Parameniidae._ Short and truncated in front; thick cuticle,
+    often without papillae; gills and radula present. _Paramenia,
+    Macellomenia, Pararhopalia, Dinomenia, Cyclomenia, Proparamenia,
+    Uncimenia, Kruppomenia._
+
+  Suborder II. CHAETODERMOMORPHA.--Aplacophora without distinct ventral
+  groove, with single median unisexual gonad, with differentiated
+  hepatic sac, and with cloacal chamber furnished with two bipectinate
+  gills. There are only two genera in this suborder: _Chaetoderma_, and
+  _Limifossor_ from Alaska. The characters therefore are very uniform.
+  The body is worm-like and cylindrical, the posterior half a little
+  thicker than the anterior; the posterior extremity forms the enlarged
+  funnel-like branchial or cloacal chamber. The anterior extremity is
+  also somewhat enlarged. The whole surface is uniformly covered with
+  short compressed calcareous spicula embedded in the cuticle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Chaetoderma nitidulum_, Loven (after Graff).
+  The cephalic enlargement is to the left, the anal chamber (reduced
+  pallial chamber, containing the concealed pair of ctenidia) to the
+  right.]
+
+  _Branchiae._--The single pair of branchiae are placed symmetrically
+  right and left of the anus, and each has the structure of a ctenidium
+  bearing a row of lamellae on each side as in the Polyplacophora.
+
+  _Intestine._--The mouth is anterior, terminal and crescentic, and
+  beneath it is a rounded ventral shield. On the floor of the pharynx or
+  buccal mass is a rudimentary radula, which in many species consists of
+  a single large tooth, bearing two small teeth or a row of teeth. In
+  other species the radula is more of the usual type consisting of
+  several transverse rows of two or three teeth each. Two pairs of
+  salivary glands open into the buccal cavity. The digestive tube is
+  straight and simple, wider in its anterior part, into which opens the
+  duct of the hepatic caecum (fig. 4, B). The latter extends backwards
+  on the ventral side of the intestine.
+
+  _Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs._--These are closely similar in
+  their relations to those of the Neomeniomorpha. The chief difference
+  is that the gonad or generative portion of the coelom is single and
+  median, opening into the pericardium by a single posterior aperture.
+  The excretory organs or coelomoducts arise from the posterior corners
+  of the pericardium, run forwards and then backwards to open by
+  separate apertures lateral to the gills (fig. 5, A). There are no
+  accessory generative organs.
+
+  _The heart and vascular system_ are similar to those of the
+  Neomeniomorpha, the only important differences being that the
+  ventricle is nearly free in the pericardial cavity, and that the
+  latter is traversed by the retractor muscles of the gills.
+
+  _Nervous System._--There are two closely connected cerebral ganglia,
+  from which arise the usual two pairs of nerve cords. Pallial and pedal
+  on each side are closer together than in the other groups, and
+  posteriorly they unite into a supra-rectal cord provided with a median
+  ganglionic enlargement (fig. 7, C). A small stomatogastric commissure
+  bearing two small ganglia arises from the cerebral ganglia and
+  surrounds the oesophagus.
+
+  The development is at present entirely unknown.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Amphineura._
+
+The most important theoretical question concerning the Amphineura is how
+far do they represent the original condition of the ancestral mollusc?
+That is to say, we have to inquire which of their structural features is
+primitive and which modified. Their bilateral symmetry is obviously to
+be regarded as primitive, and the nervous system shows an original
+condition from which that of the asymmetrical twisted Gastropods can be
+derived. But in many other features both external and internal the three
+principal divisions differ so much from one another that we have to
+consider in the case of each organ-system which condition is the more
+primitive. According to Paul Pelseneer the Polyplacophora are the most
+archaic, the Aplacophora being specialized in (1) the great reduction of
+the foot, (2) the disappearance of the shell (_Cryploplax_ among the
+Polyplacophora showing both reductions in progress), (3) the
+disappearance of the radula. But it is a widely recognized principle of
+morphology that a much modified animal is by no means modified to the
+same degree in all its organs. A form which is primitive on the whole
+may show a more advanced stage of evolution in some particular system of
+organs than another animal which is on the whole more highly developed
+and specialized. Thus the independent metamerism of certain organs in
+the Chitons is not primitive but acquired within the group: e.g. the
+shell valves and the ctenidia. And although embryology seems to prove
+that the Neomeniomorphs are derived from forms with a series of
+shell-valves, nevertheless it seems probable that the calcareous
+spicules which alone are present in adult Aplacophora preceded the solid
+shell in evolution.
+
+It is held by some morphologists that the mollusc body is unsegmented,
+and therefore is to be compared to a single segment of a Chaetopod or
+Arthropod. In this case there should be only one pair of coelomoducts in
+the adult, the pair of true nephridia which should also occur being
+represented by the larval nephridia. There should also be only a single
+coelom, or a pair of lateral coelomic cavities. On this view then the
+Aplacophora are more primitive than the Polyplacophora in the relations
+of coelom, gonad and coelomoducts; and the genital ducts of the Chitons
+have arisen either by metameric repetition within the group, or by the
+gradual loss of an original connexion between the generative sac and the
+renal tube, as in Lamellibranchs and Gastropods, the generative sac
+acquiring a separate duct and opening to the exterior on each side.
+
+  LITERATURE.--A. Sedgwick, "On certain Points in the Anatomy of
+  Chiton," _Proc. R. Soc. Lond._ xxxiii., 1881; J. Blumrich, "Das
+  Integument der Chitonen," _Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool._ lii., 1891; A.C.
+  Haddon, "Report on the Polyplacophora," _Challenger Reports. Zool._
+  pt. xliii., 1886; H.N. Moseley, "On the presence of Eyes in the Shells
+  of certain Chitonidae, and on the structure of these Organs," _Quart.
+  Journ. Mic. Sci._ new ser. xxv., 1885; A.A.W. Hubrecht, "Proneomenia
+  Sluiteri," _Nied. Arch. f. Zool._ Suppl. 1., 1881; A. Kowalewsky and
+  A.F. Marion, "Contr. a l'histoire des Solenogastres ou Aplacophores,"
+  _Ann. Mus. Marseille, Zool._ iii., 1887; A. Kowalewsky, "Sur le genre
+  Chaetoderma," _Arch. de zool. exper_. (3) ix., 1901; P. Pelseneer,
+  "Mollusca," _Treatise on Zoology_, edited by E. Ray Lankester, pt. v.,
+  1906; E. Ray Lankester, "Mollusca," in the 9th ed. of this
+  Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much indebted.    (J. T. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Gr. [Greek: chiton] was a garment in the shape of a loose
+    tunic, varying at different periods: see COSTUME: _Greek_.
+
+
+
+
+
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