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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 2 + "Chicago, University of" to "Chiton" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 20, 2010 [EBook #31329] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VI SLICE II<br /><br /> +Chicago, University of to Chiton</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 180%;">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CHILPERIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CHICANE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CHILTERN HILLS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CHICHELEY, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CHILTERN HUNDREDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CHICHEN-ITZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CHILWA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CHIMAERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CHICHESTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CHIMAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CHICKAMAUGA CREEK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CHIME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CHICKASAWS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CHIMERE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CHICKASHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CHIMESYAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CHICKEN-POX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CHIMKENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CHICLANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CHIMNEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CHICOPEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CHIMNEYPIECE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CHICORY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CHIMPANZEE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CHIDAMBARAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CHINA</a> (country)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CHIEF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CHINA</a> (porcelain)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CHIEMSEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CHINANDEGA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CHIENG MAI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CHI-NAN FU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CHIERI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CHINCHA ISLANDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CHIETI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CHINCHEW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CHI-FU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CHINCHILLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CHIGI-ALBANI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CHINDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CHIGWELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CHINDWIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CHIH-LI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CHIHUAHUA</a> (state of Mexico)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CHINESE PAVILLON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CHIHUAHUA</a> (city of Mexico)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CHINGFORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CHILAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CHINGLEPUT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CHILBLAINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CHIN HILLS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CHILD, SIR FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CHINKIANG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CHINO-JAPANESE WAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CHILD, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CHINON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CHILD, SIR JOSIAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CHINOOK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CHILD, LYDIA MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CHINSURA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CHILD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CHINTZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CHILDEBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CHIOGGIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CHILDERIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CHIOS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CHIPPENHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CHIPPEWA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CHILDRENITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CHIPPING CAMPDEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CHILDREN’S COURTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CHIPPING NORTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CHILDREN’S GAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CHIQUITOS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CHIROMANCY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CHILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CHIRON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CHILEAN CIVIL WAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CHIROPODIST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CHIROPTERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CHILIASM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CHIRU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CHILLÁN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CHIRURGEON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CHILLIANWALLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CHISEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CHILLICOTHE</a> (city in Missouri, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CHISLEHURST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CHILLICOTHE</a> (city in Ohio, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CHISWICK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CHITA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CHILOÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CHITALDRUG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CHILON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CHITON</a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span></p> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span>, one of the great educational +institutions of the United States, established under Baptist +auspices in the city of Chicago, and opened in 1892.<a name="FnAnchor_1a" id="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Though +the president and two-thirds of the trustees are always Baptists, +the university is non-sectarian except as regards its divinity +school. An immense ambition and the extraordinary organizing +ability shown by its first president, William R. Harper, determined +and characterized the remarkable growth of the university’s +first decade of activity. The grounds include about 140 +acres. Of these about 60 acres—given in part by Marshall +Field and laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted—border the +Midway Plaisance, connecting Washington and Jackson parks. +On these grounds the main part of the university stands. The +buildings are mostly of grey limestone, in Gothic style, and +grouped in quadrangles. The Mitchell tower is a shortened +reproduction of Magdalen tower, Oxford, and the University +Commons, Hutchinson Hall, is a duplicate of Christ Church hall, +Oxford. Dormitories accommodate about a fifth of the students. +The quadrangles include clubs, dining halls, dormitories, +gymnasiums, assembly halls, recitation halls, laboratories and +libraries. In the first college year, 1892-1893, there were 698 +students; in that of 1907-1908 there were 5038,<a name="FnAnchor_2a" id="FnAnchor_2a" href="#Footnote_2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> of whom 2186 +were women. There are faculties of arts, literature, science, +divinity,<a name="FnAnchor_3a" id="FnAnchor_3a" href="#Footnote_3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> medicine (organized in 1901), law (1902), education, +and commerce and administration. The astronomical department, +the Yerkes Observatory, is located on William’s Bay, +Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, about 65 m. from Chicago. It has the +largest refracting telescope in the world (clear aperture 40 in., +focal length about 61 ft.). The Chicago Institute, founded and +endowed by Mrs Anita McCormick Blaine as an independent +normal school, became a part of the university in 1901. The +school of education, as a whole, brings under university influence +hundreds of children from kindergarten age upwards to young +manhood and womanhood, apart from the university classes +proper. Chicago was the second university of the country +to give its pedagogical department such scope in the union +of theory and practice. The nucleus of the library (450,000 +volumes in 1908) was purchased in Berlin soon after the university’s +organization, in one great collection of 175,000 volumes. +Scholarly research has been fostered in every possible way, and +the university press has been active in the publication of various +departmental series and the following periodicals:—<i>Biblical +World</i>, <i>American Journal of Theology, American Journal of +Semitic Languages and Literatures, American Journal of Sociology, +Journal of Political Economy, Modern Philology, Classical +Philology, Classical Journal, Journal of Geology, Astrophysical +Journal, Botanical Gazette, Elementary School Teacher and +School Review.</i> The courses in the College of Commerce and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span> +Administration link the university closely with practical life. +In extension work the university has been active from the +beginning, instruction being given not only by lectures but by +correspondence (a novel and unique feature among American +universities); in the decade 1892-1902, 1715 persons were +prepared by the latter method for matriculation in the university +(11.6% of the total number of matriculants in the decade). +Extension lectures were given in twenty-two states. At Chicago +the work of the university is continuous throughout the year: +the “summer quarter” is not as in other American schools a +supplement to the teaching year, but an integral part; and it +attracts the teachers of the middle western states and of the +south. In the work of the first two years, known together as +the Junior College, men and women are in the main given separate +instruction; but in the Senior College years unrestricted co-education +prevails. Students are mainly controlled by self-government +in small groups (“the house system”). Relations +with “affiliated” (private) colleges and academies and “co-operating” +(public) high-schools also present interesting features.</p> + +<p>The value of the property of the university in 1908 was about +$25,578,000. Up to the 30th of June 1908 it had received from +gifts actually paid $29,651,849, of which $22,712,631 were given +by John D. Rockefeller.<a name="FnAnchor_4a" id="FnAnchor_4a" href="#Footnote_4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The value of buildings in 1908 was +$4,508,202, of grounds $4,406,191, and of productive funds +$14,186,235. Upon the death of President Harper, Harry Pratt +Judson (b. 1849), then head professor of political science and +dean of the faculties of arts, became acting president, and on +the 20th of January 1907 he was elected president.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Decennial Publications</i> of the University (since 1903), especially +vol. i. for details of history and administration.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1a" id="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A small Baptist college of the same name—-established in 1855 +on land given by S.A. Douglas—went out of existence in 1886.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2a" id="Footnote_2a" href="#FnAnchor_2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> If, however, the total is reckoned on the basis of nine months +of residence the figure for 1907-1908 would be 3202.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3a" id="Footnote_3a" href="#FnAnchor_3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The Divinity School has a graduate department and three +under-graduate departments, doing work in English, in Danish and +Norwegian, and in Swedish. Allied with the Divinity School of the +University is the “Disciples’ Divinity House” (1894), a theological +school of the Disciples of Christ.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4a" id="Footnote_4a" href="#FnAnchor_4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The words “founded by John D. Rockefeller” follow the title +of the university on all its letterheads and official documents. +Mr Rockefeller would not allow his name to be a part of the title, +nor has he permitted the designation of any building by his name. +President Harper was selected by him to organize the university, +and it was his will that the president and two-thirds of the trustees +should be “always” Baptists. President Harper more than once +stated most categorically that contrary to prevalent beliefs no donor +of funds to the university “has ever (1902) by a single word or act +indicated his dissatisfaction with the instruction given to students +in the university, or with the public expression of opinion made by +any officer of the university”; and certainly so far as the public +press reveals, no other university of the country has had so many +professors who have in various lines, including economics, expressed +radical views in public.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICANE<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span>, the pettifogging subterfuge and delay of sharp +law-practitioners, also any deliberate attempt to gain unfair +advantage by petty tricks. A more common English form of +the word is “chicanery.” “Chicane” is technically used also +as a term in the game of bridge for the points a player may score +if he holds no trumps. The word is French, derived either from +<i>chaugān</i>, Persian for the stick used in the game of “polo,” still +played on foot and called <i>chicane</i> in Languedoc (the military use +of <i>chicaner</i>, to take advantage of slight variations in ground, +suits this derivation), or from <i>chic</i>, meaning little or petty, from +the Spanish <i>chico</i>, small, which appears in the phrase “<i>chic à +chic</i>,” little by little.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICHELEY, HENRY<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1364-1443), English archbishop, +founder of All Souls College, Oxford, was born at Higham Ferrers, +Northamptonshire, in 1363 or 1364. Chicheley told the pope in +1443, in asking leave to retire from the archbishopric, that he +was in his eightieth year. He was the third and youngest son +of Thomas Chicheley, who appears in 1368 in still extant town +records of Higham Ferrers as a suitor in the mayor’s court, and +in 1381-1382, and again in 1384-1385, was mayor: in fact, for a +dozen years he and Henry Barton, school master of Higham +Ferrers grammar school, and one Richard Brabazon, filled the +mayoralty in turns. His occupation does not appear; but his +eldest son, William, is on the earliest extant list (1373) of the +Grocers’ Company, London. On the 9th of June 1405 Chicheley +was admitted, in succession to his father, to a burgage in Higham +Ferrers. His mother, Agnes Pincheon, is said to have been of +gentle birth. There is therefore no foundation in fact for the +silly story (copied into the <i>Diet. Nat. Biog.</i> from a local historian, +J. Cole, Wellingborough, 1838) that Henry Chicheley was picked +up by William of Wykeham when he was a poor ploughboy +“eating his scanty meal off his mother’s lap,” whatever that +means. The story was unknown to Arthur Duck, fellow of All +Souls, who wrote Chicheley’s life in 1617. It is only the usual +attempt, as in the cases of Whittington, Wolsey and Gresham, +to exaggerate the rise of a successful man. The first recorded +appearance of Henry Chicheley himself is at New College, Oxford, +as Checheley, eighth among the undergraduate fellows, in July +1387, in the earliest extant hall-book, which contains weekly +lists of those dining in Hall. It is clear from Chicheley’s position +in the list, with eleven fellows and eight scholars, or probationer-fellows, +below him, that this entry does not mark his first appearance +in the college, which had been going on since 1375 at least, +and was chartered in 1379. He must have come from Winchester +College in one of the earliest batches of scholars from that college, +the sole feeder of New College, not from St John Baptist College, +Winchester, as guessed by Dr William Hunt in the <i>Dict. Nat. +Biog.</i> (and repeated in Mr Grant Robertson’s <i>History of All +Souls College</i>) to cover the mistaken supposition that St Mary’s +College was not founded till 1393. St Mary’s College was in +fact formally founded in 1382, and the school had been going on +since 1373 (A.F. Leach, <i>History of Winchester College</i>), while no +such college as St John’s College at Winchester ever existed.</p> + +<p>Chicheley appears in the Hall-books of New College up to the +year 1392/93, when he was a B.A. and was absent for ten weeks +from about the 6th of December to the 6th of March, presumably +for the purpose of his ordination as a sub-deacon, which was +performed by the bishop of Derry, acting as suffragan to the +bishop of London. He was then already beneficed, receiving a +royal ratification of his estate as parson of Llanvarchell in the +diocese of St Asaph on the 20th of March 1391/92 (<i>Cal. Pat. +Rolls</i>). In the Hall-book, marked 1393/94, but really for 1394/95, +Chicheley’s name does not appear. He had then left Oxford +and gone up to London to practise as an advocate in the principal +ecclesiastical court, the court of arches. His rise was +rapid. Already on the 8th of February 1395/96 he was on a +commission with several knights and clerks to hear an appeal +in a case of <i>John Molton, Esquire v. John Shawe, citizen of London</i>, +from Sir John Cheyne, kt., sitting for the constable of England in +a court of chivalry. Like other ecclesiastical lawyers and civil +servants of the day; he was paid with ecclesiastical preferments. +On the 13th of April 1396 he obtained ratification of the parsonage +of St Stephen’s, Walbrook, presented on the 30th of March +by the abbot of Colchester, no doubt through his brother Robert, +who restored the church and increased its endowment. In 1397 +he was made archdeacon of Dorset by Richard Mitford, bishop +of Salisbury, but litigation was still going on about it in the papal +court till the 27th of June 1399, when the pope extinguished the +suit, imposing perpetual silence on Nicholas Bubwith, master of +the rolls, his opponent. In the first year of Henry IV. Chicheley +was parson of Sherston, Wiltshire, and prebendary of Nantgwyly +in the college of Abergwilly, North Wales; on the 23rd of February +1401/2, now called doctor of laws, he was pardoned for +bringing in, and allowed to use, a bull of the pope “providing” +him to the chancellorship of Salisbury cathedral, and canonries +in the nuns’ churches of Shaftesbury and Wilton in that +diocese; and on the 9th of January 1402/3 he was archdeacon +of Salisbury. This year his brother Robert was senior sheriff of +London. On the 7th of May 1404, Pope Boniface IX. provided +him to a prebend at Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held +prebends at Salisbury, Lichfield, St Martin’s-le-Grand and +Abergwyly, and the living of Brington. On the 9th of January +1405 he found time to attend a court at Higham Ferrers and be +admitted to a burgage there. In July 1405 Chicheley began a +diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman pope Innocent +VII., who was professing his desire to end the schism in the +papacy by resignation, if his French rival at Avignon would do +likewise. Next year, on the 5th of October 1406, he was sent +with Sir John Cheyne to Paris to arrange a lasting peace and +the marriage of Prince Henry with the French princess Marie, +which was frustrated by her becoming a nun at Poissy next year. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span> +In 1406 renewed efforts were made to stop the schism, and +Chicheley was one of the envoys sent to the new pope Gregory +XII. Here he utilized his opportunities. On the 31st of August +1407 Guy Mone (he is always so spelt and not Mohun, and was +probably from one of the Hampshire Meons; there was a John +Mone of Havant admitted a Winchester scholar in 1397), bishop +of St David’s, died, and on the 12th of October 1407 Chicheley +was by the pope provided to the bishopric of St David’s. Another +bull the same day gave him the right to hold all his benefices +with the bishopric.</p> + +<p>At Siena in July 1408 he and Sir John Cheyne, as English +envoys, were received by Gregory XII. with special honour, +and Bishop Repingdon of Lincoln, ex-Wycliffite, was one of the +new batch of cardinals created on the 18th of September 1408, +most of Gregory’s cardinals having deserted him. These, +together with Benedict’s revolting cardinals, summoned a general +council at Pisa. In November 1408 Chicheley was back at +Westminster, when Henry IV. received the cardinal archbishop +of Bordeaux and determined to support the cardinals at Pisa +against both popes. In January 1409 Chicheley was named with +Bishop Hallum of Salisbury and the prior of Canterbury to +represent the Southern Convocation at the council, which opened +on the 25th of March 1409, arriving on the 24th of April. +Obedience was withdrawn from both the existing popes, and +on the 26th of June a new pope elected instead of them. +Chicheley and the other envoys were received on their return +as saviours of the world; though the result was summed up by +a contemporary as trischism instead of schism, and the Church +as giving three husbands instead of two. Chicheley now became +the subject of a leading case, the court of king’s bench deciding, +after arguments reheard in three successive terms, that he could +not hold his previous benefices with the bishopric, and that, spite +of the maxim <i>Papa potest omnia</i>, a papal bull could not supersede +the law of the land (<i>Year-book</i> ii. H. iv. 37, 59, 79). Accordingly +he had to resign livings and canonries wholesale (April 28, 1410). +As, however, he had obtained a bull (August 20, 1409) enabling +him to appoint his successors to the vacated preferments, +including his nephew William, though still an undergraduate +and not in orders, to the chancellorship of Salisbury, and a +prebend at Lichfield, he did not go empty away. In May 1410 +he went again on an embassy to France; on the 11th of +September 1411 he headed a mission to discuss Henry V.’s +marriage with a daughter of the duke of Burgundy; and he was +again there in November. In the interval Chicheley found time +to visit his diocese for the first time and be enthroned at St +David’s on the 11th of May 1411. He was with the English +force under the earl of Arundel which accompanied the duke of +Burgundy to Paris in October 1411 and there defeated the +Armagnacs, an exploit which revealed to England the weakness +of the French. On the 30th of November 1411 Chicheley, with +two other bishops and three earls and the prince of Wales, knelt +to the king to receive public thanks for their administration. +That he was in high favour with Henry V. is shown by his being +sent with the earl of Warwick to France in July 1413 to conclude +peace. Immediately after the death of archbishop Arundel he +was nominated by the king to the archbishopric, elected on the +4th of March, translated by papal bull on the 28th of April, and +received the pall without going to Rome for it on the 24th +of July.</p> + +<p>These dates are important as they help to save Chicheley from +the charge, versified by Shakespeare (<i>Henry V.</i> act i. sc. 2) +from Hall’s <i>Chronicle</i>, of having tempted Henry V. into the +conquest of France for the sake of diverting parliament from +the disendowment of the Church. There is no contemporary +authority for the charge, which seems to appear first in Redman’s +rhetorical history of Henry V., written in 1540 with an eye +to the political situation at that time. As a matter of fact, the +parliament at Leicester, in which the speeches were supposed +to have been made, began on the 30th of April 1414 before +Chicheley was archbishop. The rolls of parliament show that he +was not present in the parliament at all. Moreover parliament +was so far from pressing disendowment that on the petition of +the Commons it passed a savage act against the heresies +“commonly called Lollardry” which “aimed at the destruction of +the king and all temporal estates,” making Lollards felons and +ordering every justice of the peace to hunt down their schools, +conventicles, congregations and confederacies.</p> + +<p>In his capacity of archbishop, Chicheley remained what he +had always been chiefly, the lawyer and diplomatist. He was +present at the siege of Rouen, and the king committed to him +personally the negotiations for the surrender of the city in +January 1419 and for the marriage of Katherine. He crowned +Katherine at Westminster (20th February 1421), and on the 6th +of December baptized her child Henry VI. He was of course a +persecutor of heretics. No one could have attained or kept the +position of archbishop at the time without being so. So he +presided at the trial of John Claydon, Skinner and citizen of +London, who after five years’ imprisonment at various times +had made public abjuration before the late archbishop, Arundel, +but now was found in possession of a book in English called +<i>The Lanterne of Light</i>, which contained the heinous heresy that +the principal cause of the persecution of Christians was the +illegal retention by priests of the goods of this world, and that +archbishops and bishops were the special seats of antichrist. +As a relapsed heretic, he was “left to the secular arm” by +Chicheley. On the 1st of July 1416 Chicheley directed a half-yearly +inquisition by archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On the +12th of February 1420 proceedings were begun before him +against William Taylor, priest, who had been for fourteen years +excommunicated for heresy, and was now degraded and burnt +for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to saints, +but only to God. A striking contrast was exhibited in October +1424, when a Stamford friar, John Russell, who had preached +that any religious <i>potest concumbere cum muliere</i> and not mortally +sin, was sentenced only to retract his doctrine. Further persecutions +of a whole batch of Lollards took place in 1428. The records +of convocation in Chicheley’s time are a curious mixture of +persecutions for heresy, which largely consisted in attacks on +clerical endowments, with negotiations with the ministers of the +crown for the object of cutting down to the lowest level the +clerical contributions to the public revenues in respect of their +endowments. Chicheley was tenacious of the privileges of his +see, and this involved him in a constant struggle with Henry +Beaufort, bishop of Winchester. In 1418, while Henry V. +was alive, he successfully protested against Beaufort’s being +made a cardinal and legate <i>a latere</i> to supersede the legatine +jurisdiction of Canterbury. But during the regency, after Henry +VI.’s accession, Beaufort was successful, and in 1426 became +cardinal and legate. This brought Chicheley into collision with +Martin V. The struggle between them has been represented +as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the encroachments of +the papacy on the Church of England. In point of fact it was +almost wholly personal, and was rather an incident in the +rivalry between the duke of Gloucester and his half-brother, +Cardinal Beaufort, than one involving any principle. Chicheley, +by appointing a jubilee to be held at Canterbury in 1420, “after +the manner of the Jubilee ordained by the Popes,” threatened +to divert the profits from pilgrims from Rome to Canterbury. +A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on the 19th +of March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated “to +ensnare simple souls and extort from them a profane reward, +thereby setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the +Roman pontiff, to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted +by God” (<i>Cal. Pap. Reg.</i> vii. 12). Chicheley also incurred the +papal wrath by opposing the system of papal provision which +diverted patronage from English to Italian hands, but the +immediate occasion was to prevent the introduction of the bulls +making Beaufort a cardinal. Chicheley had been careful enough +to obtain “Papal provisions” for himself, his pluralities, his +bishopric and archbishopric.</p> + +<p>But, after all, it is not as archbishop or statesman, persecutor, +papalist or antipapalist that Chicheley is remembered, but +for his educational foundations. He endowed a hutch, <i>i.e.</i> chest or +loan-fund for poor scholars at New College, and another for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span> +university of Oxford at large. He founded no less than three +colleges, two at Oxford, one at Higham Ferrers, while there is +reason to believe that he suggested and inspired the foundation +of Eton and of King’s College. His first college at Oxford, in +perishing, gave birth to St John’s College, which now holds its +site. This was St Bernard’s College, founded by Chicheley +under licence in mortmain in 1437 for Cistercian monks, on the +model of Gloucester Hall and Durham College for the southern +and northern Benedictines. Nothing more than a site and +building was required by way of endowment, as the young +monks, who were sent there to study under a provisor, were +supported by the houses of the order to which they belonged. +The site was five acres, and the building is described in the +letters patent “as a fitting and noble college mansion in honour +of the most glorious Virgin Mary and St Bernard in Northgates +Street outside the Northgate of Oxford.” It was suppressed +with the Cistercian abbeys in 1539, and granted on the 11th of +December 1546 to Christ Church, Oxford, who sold it to Sir +Thomas Pope in 1553 for St John’s College.</p> + +<p>The college at Higham Ferrers was a much earlier design. +On the 2nd of May 1422 Henry V., in right of the duchy of +Lancaster, “hearing that Chicheley inflamed by the pious +fervour of devotion intended to enlarge divine service and other +works of piety at Higham Ferrers, in consideration of his fruitful +services, often crossing the seas, yielding to no toils, dangers or +expenses ... especially in the conclusion of the present final +peace with our dearest father the king of France,” granted for +300 marks (£200) licence to found, on three acres at Higham +Ferrers, a perpetual college of eight chaplains and four clerks, +of whom one was to teach grammar and the other song ... “and +six choristers to pray for himself and wife and for Henry IV. +and his wife Mary ... and to acquire the alien priory of +Merseye in Essex late belonging to St Ouen’s, Rouen,” as +endowment. A papal bull having also been obtained, on the 28th of +August 1425, the archbishop, in the course of a visitation of +Lincoln diocese, executed his letters patent founding the college, +dedicating it to the Virgin, St Thomas à Becket and St Edward +the Confessor, and handed over the buildings to its members, the +vicar of Higham Ferrers being made the first master or warden. +He further endowed it in 1434 with lands in Bedfordshire and +Huntingdonshire, and his brothers, William and Robert, gave +some houses in London in 1427 and 1438. The foundation was +closely modelled on Winchester College, with its warden and +fellows, its grammar and song schoolmasters, but a step in +advance was made by the masters being made fellows and so +members of the governing body. Attached was also a bede or +almshouse for twelve poor men. Both school and almshouse had +existed before, and this was merely an additional endowment. +The whole endowment was in 1535 worth some £200 a year, about +a fifth of that of Winchester College. Unfortunately, All Souls +being a later foundation, the college at Higham Ferrers was not +affiliated to it, and so fell with other colleges not part of the +universities. On the 18th of July 1542 it was surrendered to +Henry VIII., and its possessions granted to Robert Dacres on +condition of maintaining the grammar school and paying the +master £10 a year, the same salary as the headmasters of Winchester +and Eton, and maintaining the almshouse. Both still +exist, but the school has been deprived of its house, and the +Fitzwilliam family, who now own the lands, still continue to pay +only £10 a year.</p> + +<p>All Souls College was considerably later. The patent for it, +dated 20th of May 1438, is for a warden and 20 scholars, to be +called “the Warden and College of the souls of all the faithful +departed,” to study and pray “for the soul of King Henry VI. +and the souls of Henry V., Thomas, duke of Clarence, and all +the dukes, earls, barons, knights, squires and other nobles and +subjects of our father who during the time and in the service +of our father and ourselves ended their lives in the wars of the +kingdom of France, and for the souls of all the faithful departed.” +For this, the king granted Berford’s Hall, formerly Charleston’s +Inn, which Chicheley’s trustees had granted to him so as to +obtain a royal grant and indefeasible title. Richard Andrews, +the king’s secretary, like Chicheley himself a scholar of +Winchester and fellow of New College, was named as first warden. +A papal bull for the college was obtained on the 21st of June +1439; and further patents for endowments from the 11th of +May 1441 to the 28th of January 1443, when a general confirmation +charter was obtained, for which £1000 (£30,000 at least of +our money) was paid. It is commonly represented that the +endowment was wholly derived from alien priories bought by +Chicheley from the crown. In truth, not so large a proportion +of the endowment of All Souls was derived from this source as +was that of New College. The only alien priories granted were +Abberbury in Oxfordshire, Wedon Pinkney in Northamptonshire, +Romney in Kent, and St Clare and Llangenith in Wales, +all very small affairs, single manors and rectories, and these +did not form a quarter of the whole endowment. The rest, +particularly the manor of Edgware, which made the fortune of +the college, was bought from private owners. Early in 1443 the +college was opened by Chicheley with four bishops in state. +The statutes, not drawn up until the end of April 1443, raised +the number of the college to forty. Like the college buildings, +they are almost an exact copy of those of New College, <i>mutatis +mutandis</i>. The college is sometimes described as being different +from other colleges in being merely a large chantry to pray for +the souls of the dead warriors. But it was no more a chantry +than the other colleges, all of which, like the monasteries and +collegiate churches, were to pray for their founders’ and other +specified souls. Indeed, All Souls was more of a lay foundation +than its model. For while at New College only twenty out of +seventy fellows were to study law instead of arts, philosophy and +theology, at All Souls College sixteen were to be “jurists” +and only twenty-four “artists”; and while at New College +there were ten chaplains and three clerks necessarily, at All +Souls the number was not defined but left optional; so that +there are now only one chaplain and four bible clerks.</p> + +<p>Ten days after he sealed the statutes, on the 12th of April +1443, Chicheley died and was buried in Canterbury cathedral +on the north side of the choir, under a fine effigy of himself +erected in his lifetime. There is what looks like an excellent +contemporary portrait in one of the windows of All Souls College, +which is figured in the <i>Victoria County History</i> for Hampshire, +ii. 262.</p> +<div class="author">(A. F. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICHEN-ITZA<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chichen</span>, an ancient ruined city of +Yucatan, Mexico, situated 22 m. W. of Valladolid. The name +is derived from that of the Itza, a tribe of the great Mayan +stock, which formerly inhabited the city, and <i>chichen</i>, having +reference probably to two wells or pools which doubtless originally +supplied the inhabitants with water and are still in existence. +The history of the city is unknown, though it is regarded as probable +that it preserved its independence long after the Spaniards +had taken possession of the rest of the district. The area covered +by the ruins is approximately 1 sq. m., and other remains are +found in the neighbouring forest. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>: <i>Archaeology</i>.)</p> + + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span>, +<span class="sc">Baron</span> (1563-1625), lord-deputy of Ireland, second son of Sir +John Chichester of Raleigh, Devonshire, by Gertrude, daughter +of Sir William Courtenay of Powderham, was born at Raleigh +in May 1563, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. +He commanded a ship against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and +is said to have served under Drake in his expedition of 1595. +Having seen further service abroad, he was sent to Ireland at +the end of 1598, and was appointed by the earl of Essex to the +governorship of Carrickfergus. When Essex returned to England, +Chichester rendered valuable service under Mountjoy in the +war against the rebellious earl of Tyrone, and in 1601 Mountjoy +recommended him to Cecil in terms of the highest praise as the +fittest person to be entrusted with the government of Ulster. +On the 15th of October 1604 Chichester was appointed lord-deputy +of Ireland. He announced his policy in a proclamation +wherein he abolished the semi-feudal rights of the native Irish +chieftains, substituting for them fixed dues, while their tenants +were to become dependent “wholly and immediately upon his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span> +majesty.” Tyrone and other Irish clan chieftains resented this +summary interference with their ancient social organization, +and their resistance was strengthened by the ill-advised measures +against the Roman Catholics which Chichester was compelled +to take by the orders of the English ministers. He himself was +moderate and enlightened in his views on this matter, and it +was through his influence that the harshness of the anti-Catholic +policy was relaxed in 1607. Meantime his difficulties with the +Irish tribal leaders remained unsolved. But in 1607, by “the +flight of the Earls” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">O’neill</a></span>), he was relieved of the presence +of the two formidable Ulster chieftains, the earls of Tyrone and +Tyrconnell. Chichester’s policy for dealing with the situation +thus created was to divide the lands of the fugitive earls among +Irishmen of standing and character; but the plantation of +Ulster as actually carried out was much less favourable and +just to the native population than the lord-deputy desired. +In 1613 Chichester was raised to the peerage as Baron Chichester +of Belfast, and in the following year he went to England to give +an account of the state of Ireland. On his return to Ireland he +again attempted to moderate the persecuting policy against +the Irish Catholics which he was instructed to enforce; and +although he was to some extent successful, it was probably +owing to his opposition to this policy that he was recalled in +November 1614. The king, however, told him “You may rest +assured that you do leave that place with our very good grace +and acceptation of your services”; and he was given the post +of lord-treasurer of Ireland. After living in retirement for some +years, Chichester was employed abroad in 1622; in the following +year he became a member of the privy council. He died on the +19th of February 1625 and was buried at Carrickfergus.</p> + +<p>Lord Chichester married Lettice, daughter of Sir John Perrot +and widow of Walter Vaughan of Golden Grove. He had no +children, and his title became extinct at his death. The heir +to his estates was his brother Sir Edward Chichester (d. 1648), +governor of Carrickfergus, who in 1625 was created Baron +Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of Carrickfergus. +This nobleman’s eldest son Arthur (1606-1675), who distinguished +himself as Colonel Chichester in the suppression of the rebellion +of 1641, was created earl of Donegall in 1647, and was succeeded +in his titles by his nephew, whose great-grandson, Arthur, 5th +earl of Donegall, was created Baron Fisherwick in the peerage +of Great Britain (the other family titles being in the peerage of +Ireland) in 1790, and earl of Belfast and marquess of Donegall +in the peerage of Ireland in 1791. The present marquess of +Donegall is his descendant.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S.R. Gardiner in <i>Dict. Nat. Biog</i>. and <i>History of England, +1603-1642</i> (London, 1883); Fynes Moryson, <i>History of Ireland, +1599-1603</i> (Dublin, 1735).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J .M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICHESTER<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>, a city and municipal borough in the Chichester +parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 69 m. S.S.W. from +London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. +(1901) 12,224. It lies in a plain at the foot of a spur of the South +Downs, a mile from the head of Chichester Harbour, an inlet +of the English Channel. The cathedral church of the Holy +Trinity was founded towards the close of the 11th century, after +the see had been removed to Chichester from Selsey in 1075. +The first church was consecrated in 1108, but fires in 1114 and +1187 caused building to continue steadily until the close of the +13th century. Bishop Ralph Luffa (1091-1123) was the first +great builder, and was followed by Seffrid II. (1180-1204). +Norman work appears in the nave (arcade and triforium), choir +(arcade) and elsewhere; but there is much very beautiful +Early English work, the choir above the arcade and the eastern +part being especially fine. The nave is remarkable in having +double aisles on each side, the outer pair being of the 13th century. +The church is also unique among English cathedrals in the +possession of a detached campanile, a massive and beautiful +Perpendicular structure with the top storey octagonal. The +principal modern restorations are the upper part of the north-west +tower, which copies the Early English work of that on the +south-west; and the fine central tower and spire, which had +been erected at different periods in the 14th century, but collapsed, +doing little damage to the fabric, in 1861. Under the +direction of Sir Gilbert Scott and others they were reconstructed +with scrupulous care in preserving the original plan. The Lady +chapel at the east end is in the main early Decorated, but greatly +restored; the library is a fine late Norman vaulted room; the +cloisters are Perpendicular and well restored; and the bishop’s +palace retains an Early English chapel. The cathedral is 393 ft. +long within, 131 ft. across the transepts, and 90 ft. across the +nave with its double aisles. The height of the spire is 277 ft.</p> + +<p>At the junction of the four main streets of the town stands +the market cross, an exquisite octagonal structure in ornate +Perpendicular style, built by Bishop Story, c. 1500, perhaps the +finest of its kind in the United Kingdom. The hospital of St +Mary was founded in the 12th century, but the existing buildings +are in a style transitional from Early English to Decorated. +Its use as an almshouse is maintained. Other ancient buildings +are the churches of St Olave, in the construction of which Roman +materials were used; and of St Andrew, where is the tomb of +the poet William Collins, whose memorial with others by the +sculptor Flaxman is in the cathedral; the Guildhall, formerly +a Grey Friars’ chapel, of the 13th century; the Canon Gate +leading into the cathedral close; and the Vicars College. The +city retains a great part of its ancient walls, which have a circuit +of about a mile and a half, and, at least in part, follow the line +of Roman fortifications. The principal modern buildings, +besides churches and chapels, are the council house, corn +exchange, market house, and museum of the Chichester Literary +Society. The grammar school was founded in 1497 by Bishop +Story. There is a large cattle market, and the town has a considerable +agricultural trade, with breweries and tanneries. A +canal connects with Chichester Harbour. The diocese includes +the whole county of Sussex except a few parishes, with very +small portions of Kent and Surrey. The municipal borough is +under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, +1538 acres.</p> + +<p>The Romano-British town on this site was perhaps Regnum +or Regni. Many inscriptions, pottery, coins, &c., have been +found, and part of the medieval walls contain a Roman cave. +An interesting inscription from this site is preserved at Goodwood. +Situated on one Roman road in direct connexion with London +and another leading from east to west, Chichester (<i>Cissaceaster</i>, +<i>Cicestre</i>) remained of considerable importance under the South +Saxon kings. In 967 King Edgar established a mint here. +Though Domesday Book speaks of one hundred and forty-two +burgages in Chichester and a charter of Henry I. mentions the +borough, the earliest extant charter is that granted by Stephen, +confirming to the burgesses their customs and rights of the +borough and gild merchant as they had them in the time of his +grandfather. This was confirmed by Henry II. Under Henry +III. the fee farm rent was £38: 10s., but this was reduced by a +charter of 10 Edward II. to £36, the customs of wool, hides and +skins being reserved to the king. Edward III. directed that +the Sussex county court should be held at Chichester, and this +was confirmed in the following year. Confirmations of the +previous charters were also granted by Edward III., Richard II., +Henry VI., Edward IV., and Henry VII, who gave the mayor +and citizens cognizance of all kinds of pleas of assize touching +lands and hereditaments of freehold tenure. A court leet, court +of record and bailiffs’ court of liberties still exist. The charters +were also confirmed by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Philip and +Mary, and Elizabeth. In 1604 the city was incorporated under +a mayor and aldermen. Since 1295, when it first returned a +member, Chichester has been regularly represented in parliament. +Throughout the middle ages Chichester was a place of great +commercial importance, Edward III. establishing a wool staple +here in 1348. Fairs were granted by Henry I. and Henry VII, +Fuller mentions the Wednesday market as being famous for +corn, while Camden speaks of that on Saturday as the greatest +for fish in the county. The markets and a fair on the 20th of +October are still held.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Sussex</i>; Alexander Hay, <i>History of +Chichester</i> (Chichester, 1804).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span></p> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICKAMAUGA CREEK<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span>, a small tributary of the Tennessee +river, which it joins near Chattanooga, Tennessee, U.S.A. It +gives its name to the great battle of Chickamauga in the American +Civil War, fought on the 19-20th of September 1863, between +the Federal army of the Cumberland under Major-General +W.S. Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General +Braxton Bragg. For the general operations of Rosecrans’ army +in 1863 see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span>. A successful war of manœuvre +had brought the army of the Cumberland from Murfreesboro +to Decherd, Tenn., and Bragg’s army lay on the Tennessee at +and above Chattanooga. Rosecrans was expected by the enemy +to manœuvre so as to gain touch with the Union forces in the +upper Tennessee valley, but he formed an entirely different plan +of operations. One part of the army demonstrated in front of +Chattanooga, and the main body secretly crossed the river about +Stevenson and Bridgeport (September 4th). The country was +mountainous, the roads few and poor, and the Federals had to +take full supplies of food, forage and ammunition with them, +but Rosecrans was an able commander, his troops were in good +hands, and he accepted the risks involved. These were intensified +by the want of good maps, and, in the event, at one moment the +army was placed in a position of great danger. A corps under A. +McD. McCook moved south-eastward across the ridges to Alpine, +another under Thomas marched via Trenton on McLemore’s +Cove. The presence of Federal masses in Lookout Valley caused +Bragg to abandon Chattanooga at once, and the object of the +manœuvre was thus accomplished; but owing to the want of +good maps the Union army was at the same time exposed to +great danger. The head of Thomas’s column was engaged at +Dug Gap, on the 11th, against the flank guard of Bragg’s army, +and at the time McCook was far away to the south, and Crittenden’s +corps, which had occupied Chattanooga on the 9th, was +also at a distance. Thomas was isolated, but Rosecrans, like +every other commander under whom he served, placed unbounded +confidence in his tenacity, and if Bragg was wrong in +neglecting to attack him on the 14th, subsequent events went far +to disarm criticism. By the 18th of September Rosecrans had +at last collected his army on Chickamauga Creek covering Chattanooga. +But Bragg had now received heavy reinforcements, +and lay, concentrated for battle, on the other side of the Creek.</p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:700px; height:505px" + src="images/img130.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The terrain of the battle of Chickamauga (19th-20th of +September) had little influence on its course. Both armies lay +in the plain, the two lines roughly parallel. Bragg’s intention +was to force his attack home on Rosecrans’ left wing, thus cutting +him off from Chattanooga and throwing him back into the +mountain country whence he had come. On the 19th a serious +action took place between the Confederate right and Rosecrans’ +left under Thomas. On the 20th the real battle began. The +Confederates, in accordance with Bragg’s plans, pressed hard +upon Thomas, to whom Rosecrans sent reinforcements. One +of the divisions detached from the centre for this purpose was +by inadvertence taken out of the first line, and before the gap +could be filled the Confederate central attack, led by Longstreet +and Hood, the fighting generals of Lee’s army, and carried out by +veteran troops from the Virginian battlefields, cut the Federal +army in two. McCook’s army corps, isolated on the Federal +right, was speedily routed, and the centre shared its fate. +Rosecrans himself was swept off the field in the rout of half of his +army. But Thomas was unshaken. He re-formed the left wing +in a semicircle, and aided by a few fresh brigades from Rossville, +resisted for six hours the efforts of the whole Confederate army. +Rosecrans in the meantime was rallying the fugitives far to the +rear near Chattanooga itself. The fury of Bragg’s assault spent +itself uselessly on the heroic divisions under Thomas, who +remained on the field till night and then withdrew in good order +to Rossville. Here he remained on the 21st, imposing respect +upon the victors. On the 22nd Rosecrans had re-established +order, and Thomas fell back quietly to Chattanooga, whither +Bragg slowly pursued. For the subsequent events of the campaign +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chattanooga</a></span>. The losses in the battle bear witness to a +severity in the fighting unusual even in the American Civil War. +Of 70,000 Confederates engaged at least 18,000 were killed and +wounded, and the Federals lost 16,000 out of about 57,000. +The battlefield has been converted into a national park, and was +used during the Spanish American War (1898) as a place of +mobilization for the U.S. volunteers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICKASAWS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span>, a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean +stock, now settled in the western part of Oklahoma. +Their former range was northern Mississippi and portions of +Tennessee. According to their own tradition and the evidence +of philology, they are closely connected with the Creeks and +Choctaws; and they believe that they emigrated with these +tribes from the west, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the +district that now forms the north-east part of the state of that +name. Here they were visited by De Soto in 1540. From the +first they were hostile to the French colonists. With the English, +on the other hand, their relations were more satisfactory. In +1786 they made a treaty with the United States; and in 1793 +they assisted the whites in their operations against the Creeks. +In the early years of the 19th century part of their territory +was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion of the tribe +migrated to Arkansas; and in 1832-1834, the remainder, +amounting to about 3600, surrendered to the United States the +6,442,400 acres of which they were still possessed, and entered +into a treaty with the Choctaws for incorporation with that tribe. +In 1855, however, they effected a separation of this union, with +which they had soon grown dissatisfied, and by payment to +the Choctaws of $150,000 obtained a complete right to their +present territory. In the Civil War they joined the Confederates +and suffered in consequence; but their rights were restored by +the treaty of 1865. In 1866 they surrendered 7,000,000 acres; +and in 1873 they adopted their former slaves. They had an +independent government consisting of a governor, a senate, +and a house of representatives; but tribal government virtually +ceased in 1906. The Chickasaws of pure or mixed blood numbered +4826 in 1900, and with the fully admitted “citizens,” <i>i.e.</i> the +freed slaves and adopted whites, the whole nation amounted to +some 10,000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICKASHA<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Grady county, +Oklahoma, U.S.A., near the Washita river, about 45 m. S.S.W. +of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1900) 3209; (1907) 7862, including +1643 negroes; (1910) 10,320. Chickasha is served by the St Louis +& San Francisco, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and the +Oklahoma Central railways. It is the trade centre of a very +fertile section of the Washita Valley, whose principal products +are Indian corn, cotton, fruits and vegetables and live-stock. +The city has various manufactures, including flour, cotton-seed +oil, lumber, furniture and farm implements. Chickasha was +founded in 1892 and was chartered as a city in 1899.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICKEN-POX<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (Syn. <i>varicella</i>, a Low Latin diminutive of +<i>variola</i>), a specific contagious disease characterized by an +eruption of vesicles in the skin. The disease usually occurs in +epidemics, and is one of childhood, the patients being generally +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span> +between two and six years old. The incubation period is from +ten to fifteen days; there are practically no prodromal symptoms, +the only indication being a slight amount of fever for some +twenty-four hours, after which the eruption makes its appearance. +A number of raised red papules appear on the trunk, either on +the back or chest; in from twelve to twenty-four hours these +develop into tense vesicles filled with a clear fluid, which in +another thirty-six hours or so becomes opalescent. During the +fourth day these vesicles dry and shrivel up, and the scabs fall +off, leaving as a rule no scar. Fresh spots appear during the first +three days, so that at the end of that time they can be seen +in all stages of growth and decay. The eruption is most marked +on the chest, but it also occurs on the face and limbs, and on the +mucous membrane of the mouth and palate. The temperature +begins to fall after the appearance of the rash, but a certain slight +amount may persist after the disappearance of all symptoms. +It rarely rises above 102 F. The disease runs a very favourable +course in the majority of cases, and after effects are rare. One +attack does not confer immunity, and in numerous cases one +individual has had three attacks. The diet should be light, +and the patient should be prevented from scratching the spots, +which would lead to ulceration and scarring. After the first +few days there is no necessity to confine the patient to bed. +In the large majority of cases, it is easy to distinguish the disease +from smallpox, but in certain patients it is very difficult. The +chief points in the differential diagnosis are as follows. (1) In +chicken-pox the rash is distributed chiefly on the trunk, and +less on the limbs. (2) Some of the vesicles are oval, whereas in +smallpox they are always hemispherical. They are also more +superficial, and have not at the outset the hard shotty feeling +of the more virulent disease. (3) The vesicles attain their full +growth within twelve to twenty-four hours. (4) The pustules +are usually monocular. (5) There is no prodromal period.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICLANA<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chiclana de la Frontera</span>, a town of southern +Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Cadiz. +Pop. (1900) 10,868. Chiclana occupies a fertile valley, watered +by the river Lirio, and sheltered, on the north and south, by +low hills covered with vines and plantations. It faces the gulf +of Cadiz, 3 m. W., and, from its mild climate and pleasant +surroundings, is the favourite summer residence of the richer +Cadiz merchants; its hot mineral springs also attract many +visitors. In the neighbourhood are the Roman ruins of Chiclana +la Vieja, the town of Medina Sidonia (<i>q.v.</i>), and, about 5 m. S., +the battlefield of Barrosa, where the British under Sir Thomas +Graham (Lord Lynedoch) defeated the French under Marshal +Victor, on the 5th of March 1811.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICOPEE<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., +situated on the E. side of the Connecticut river, at the mouth +of the Chicopee river, immediately N. of Springfield. Pop. +(1890) 14,050; (1900) 19,167, of whom 8139 were foreign-born; +(1910, census) 25,401. Chicopee is served by the Boston & +Maine railway. The city, which has an area of about 25 +sq. m., contains five villages. Chicopee Center, Chicopee Falls, +Willimansett, Fairview and Aldenville. Chicopee Falls lies on +both sides of the Chicopee river, which falls some 70 ft. in less +than 3 m. and furnishes valuable power for manufactories. The +most important products are cotton goods (two large factories +having, together, about 200,000 spindles), fire-arms (especially +the Stevens rifles), tools, rubber and elastic goods, sporting +goods, swords, automobiles and agricultural implements. Here, +too, is a bronze statuary foundry, in which some of the finest +monuments, bronze doors, &c., in the country have been cast, +including the doors of the Capitol at Washington. The bronze +casting industry here was founded by Nathan Peabody Ames +(1803-1847), who was first a sword-maker and in 1836 began +the manufacture of cannon and church bells. The total value +of the city’s factory product in 1905 was $7,715,653, an increase +of 43.2% in five years. There is a public library. The +municipality owns and operates the water-works system and the +electric lighting plant. Chicopee was settled about 1638, was +set off from Springfield as an independent township in 1848, +and was chartered as a city in 1890. Chicopee Falls was the +home of Edward Bellamy. The name of the city is an Indian +word meaning “cedar-tree” or “birch-bark place.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHICORY<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>. The chicory or succory plant, <i>Cichorium Intybus</i> +(natural order, Compositae), in its wild state is a native of Great +Britain, occurring most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by +road-sides. It has a long fleshy tap-root, a rigid branching hairy +stem rising to a height of 2 or 3 ft.—the leaves around the base +being lobed and toothed, not unlike those of the dandelion. +The flower heads are of a bright blue colour, few in number, and +measure nearly an inch and a half across. Chicory is cultivated +much more extensively on the continent of Europe—in Holland, +Belgium, France and Germany—than in Great Britain; and +as a cultivated plant it has three distinct applications. Its roots +roasted and ground are used as a substitute for, adulterant of, +or addition to coffee; both roots and leaves are employed as +salads; and the plant is grown as a fodder or herbage crop +which is greedily consumed by cattle. In Great Britain it is +chiefly in its first capacity, in connexion with coffee, that chicory +is employed. A large proportion of the chicory root used for +this purpose is obtained from Belgium and other neighbouring +continental countries; but a considerable quantity is cultivated +in England, chiefly in Yorkshire. For the preparation of chicory +the older stout white roots are selected, and after washing they +are sliced up into small pieces and kiln-dried. In this condition +the material is sold to the chicory roaster, by whom it is roasted +till it assumes a deep brown colour; afterwards when ground +it is in external characteristics very like coffee, but is destitute +of its pleasing aromatic odour. Neither does the roasted chicory +possess any trace of the alkaloid caffeine which gives their +peculiar virtues to coffee and tea. The fact, however, that for +over a hundred years it has been successfully used as a substitute +for or recognized addition to coffee, while in the meantime +innumerable other substances have been tried for the same purpose +and abandoned, indicates that it is agreeable and harmless. +It gives the coffee additional colour, bitterness and body. It is at +least in very extensive and general use; and in Belgium especially +its infusion is largely drunk as an independent beverage.</p> + +<p>The blanched leaves are much esteemed by the French as a +winter salad known by the name of <i>Barbe de capucin</i>. When +intended for winter use, chicory is sown in May or June, commonly +in drills, and the plants are thinned out to 4 in. apart. If at +first the leaves grow very strong, they are cut off, perhaps in +the middle of August, about an inch from the ground, so as to +promote the production of new leaves, and check the formation +of flower-stems. About the beginning of October the plants +are raised from the border, and all the large leaves cut off; the +roots are also shortened, and they are then planted pretty closely +together in boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when +needful. When frost comes on, the boxes are protected by any +kind of litter and haulm. As the salad is wanted, they are removed +into some place having a moderately increased temperature, +and where there is no light. Each box affords two crops +of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for cutting when +about 6 in. long. Another mode of obtaining the young leaves +of this plant in winter is to sow seeds in a bed of light rich mould, +or in boxes in a heat of from 55° to 60°, giving a gentle watering +as required. The leaves will be fit to be cut in a fortnight after +sowing, and the plants will afford a second crop.</p> + +<p>In Belgium a variety of chicory called <i>Witloef</i> is much preferred +as a salad to the French <i>Barbe de capucin</i>. The seeds +are sown and the plants thinned out like those of the ordinary +sort. They are eventually planted in light soil, in succession, +from the end of October to February, at the bottom of trenches +a foot or more in depth, and covered over with from 2 to 3 ft. +of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks, according to +the heat applied, the heads are fit for use and should be cut +before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced +in frames on a mild hot-bed, or in a mushroom-house, in the same +way as sea-kale. In Belgium the fresh roots are boiled and eaten +with butter, and throughout the Continent the roots are stored +for use as salads during winter.</p> + +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Endive</a></span> (<i>Cichorium endivia</i>).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span></p> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIDAMBARAM<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chedumbrum</span>, a town of British India, +in the South Arcot district of Madras, 7 m. from the coast and +151 m. S. of Madras by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,909. The pagodas +at Chidambaram are the oldest in the south of India, and portions +of them are gems of art. Here is supposed to have been the +northern frontier of the ancient Chola kingdom, the successive +capitals of which were Uriyur on the Cauvery, Combaconum +and Tanjore. The principal temple is sacred to Siva, and is +said to have been rebuilt or enlarged by a leper emperor, who +came south on a pilgrimage and was cured by bathing in the +temple tank; upwards of 60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every +December. It contains a “hall of a thousand pillars,” one of +numerous such halls in India, the exact number of pillars in +this case being 984; each is a block of solid granite, and the +roof of the principal temple is of copper-gilt. Three hundred +of the highest-caste Brahmins live with their families within +the temple enclosure.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIEF<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>chef</i>, head, Lat. <i>caput</i>), the head or upper +part of anything, and so, in heraldry, the upper part of the +escutcheon, occupying one-third of the whole. When applied +to a leading personage, a head man or one having the highest +authority, the term chief or chieftain (Med. Lat. <i>capitanus</i>, +O. Fr. <i>chevetaine</i>) is principally confined to the leader of a clan or +tribe. The phrase “in chief” (Med. Lat. <i>in capite</i>) is used in +feudal law of the tenant who holds his fief direct from the lord +paramount (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIEMSEE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span>, also called <span class="sc">Bayrisches Meer</span>, the largest lake in +Bavaria, lying on a high plateau 1600 ft. above the sea, between +the rivers Inn (to which it drains through the Alz) and Salzach. +With a length of 6 and a breadth of 9 m., it has an area of about +33 sq. m., and contains three islands, Herrenwörth, Frauenwörth +and Krautinsel. The first, which has a circumference of 6½ m. +and is beautifully wooded, is remarkable for the romantic castle +which Louis II. of Bavaria erected here. It was the seat of a +bishop from 1215 to 1805, and until 1803 contained a Benedictine +monastery. The shores of the lake are flat on the north and south +sides, but its other banks are flanked by undulating hills, which +command beautiful and extensive views. The waters are clear +and it is well stocked with trout and carp; but the fishing rights +are strictly preserved. Steamers ply on the lake, and the railway +from Rosenheim to Salzburg skirts the southern shores.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIENG MAI<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span>, the capital of the Lao state of the same name +and of the provincial division of Siam called Bayap, situated in +99° 0′ E., 18° 46′ N. The town, enclosed by massive but decaying +walls, lies on the right bank of the river Me Ping, one of the +branches of the Me Nam, in a plain 800 ft. above sea-level, +surrounded by high, wooded mountains. It has streets intersecting +at right angles, and an enceinte within which is the palace +of the Chao, or hereditary chief. The east and west banks of the +river are connected by a fine teak bridge. The American Presbyterian +Mission, established here in 1867, has a large number of +converts and has done much good educational work. Chieng +Mai, which the Burmese have corrupted into Zimmé, by which +name it is known to many Europeans, has long been an important +trade centre, resorted to by Chinese merchants from the north +and east, and by Burmese, Shans and Siamese from the west and +south. It is, moreover, the centre of the teak trade of Siam, in +which many Burmese and several Chinese and European firms +are engaged. The total value of the import and export trade +of the Bayap division amounts to about £2,500,000 a year. The +Siamese high commissioner of Bayap division has his headquarters +in Chieng Mai, and though the hereditary chief continues +as the nominal ruler, as is also the case in the other Lao states +of Nan, Prè, Lampun, Napawn Lampang and Tern, which make +up the division, the government is entirely in the hands of that +official and his staff. The government forest department, +founded in 1896, has done good work in the division, and the +conservator of forests has his headquarters in Chieng Mai. +The headquarters of an army division are also situated here. +A British consul resides at Chieng Mai, where, in addition to the +ordinary law courts, there is an international court having +jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties. +The population, about 20,000, consists mainly of Laos, with many +Shans, a few Burmese, Chinese and Siamese and some fifty +Europeans. Hill tribes (Ka) inhabit the neighbouring mountains +in large numbers.</p> + +<p>Chieng Mai was formerly the capital of a united Lao kingdom, +which, at one time independent, afterwards subject to Burma +and then to Siam, and later broken up into a number of states, has +finally become a provincial division of Siam. In 1902 a rising +of discontented Shans took place in Bayap which at one time +seemed serious, several towns being attacked and Chieng Mai +itself threatened. The disturbance was quelled and the malcontents +eventually hunted out, but not without losses which included +the commissioner of Prè and a European officer of gendarmerie.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIERI<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the +province of Turin, 13 m. S.E. by rail and 8 m. by road from the +town of Turin. Pop. (1901) 11,929 (town), 13,803 (commune). +Its Gothic cathedral, founded in 1037 and reconstructed in 1405, +is the largest in Piedmont, and has a 13th century octagonal +baptistery. Chieri was subject to the bishop of Turin in the 9th +and 10th centuries, it became independent in the 11th century. +In 1347 it submitted voluntarily to Count Amedeus VI. of Savoy +to save itself from the marquis of Monferrato, and finally came +under the dominion of Savoy in the 16th century. In 1785 it +was made into a principality of the duke of Aosta. It was an +early centre of trade and manufacture; and in the middle of +the 15th century produced about 100,000 pieces of cotton +goods per annum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Cibrario, <i>Delle storie di Chieri</i> (Turin, 1855).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIETI<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span>, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province +of Chieti, and the seat of an archbishop, 140 m. E.N.E. of Rome +by rail, and 9 m. W. of Castellammare Adriatico. Pop. (1901) +26,368. It is situated at a height of 1083 ft. above sea-level, +3 m. from the railway station, from which it is reached by an +electric tramway. It commands a splendid view of the Apennines +on every side except the east, where the Adriatic is seen. It is +an active modern town, upon the site of the ancient <i>Teate +Marrucinorum</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), with woollen and cotton manufactories +and other smaller industries. The origin of the see of Chieti dates +from the 4th century, S. Justinus being the first bishop. The +cathedral has been spoilt by restoration, and the decoration of +the exterior is incomplete; the Gothic campanile of 1335 is, +however, fine. The cathedral possesses two illuminated missals. +Close by is the town hall, which contains a small picture gallery, +in which, in 1905, was held an important exhibition of ancient +Abruzzese art. The de Laurentiis family possesses a private +collection of some importance. To the north of Chieti is the +octagonal church of S. Maria del Tricaglio, erected in 1317, which +is said (without reason) to stand upon the site of a temple of +Diana. The order of the Theatines, founded in 1524, takes its +name from the city. Under the Lombards Chieti formed part +of the duchy of Benevento; it was destroyed by Pippin in 801, +but was soon rebuilt and became the seat of a count. The +Normans made it the capital of the Abruzzi.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHI-FU<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Chefoo</span>, or <span class="sc">Yen-t‘ai</span> (as it is called by the natives), +a seaport of northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf +of Chih-li, in the province of Shan-tung, near the mouth of the +Yi-ho, about 30 m. E. of the city of Têng-chow-fu. It was +formerly quite a small place, and had only the rank of an unwalled +village; but it was chosen as the port of Têng-chow, opened +to foreign trade in 1858 by the treaty of Tientsin, and it is now +the residence of a Tao-t‘ai, or intendant of circuit, the centre of +a gradually increasing commerce, and the seat of a British +consulate, a Chinese custom-house, and a considerable foreign +settlement. The native town is yearly extending, and though +most of the inhabitants are small shop-keepers and coolies of the +lowest class, the houses are for the most part well and solidly +built of stone. The foreign settlement occupies a position +between the native town and the sea, which neither affords a +convenient access for shipping nor allows space for any great +extension of area. Its growth, however, has hitherto been +steady and rapid. Various streets have been laid out, a large +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span> +hotel erected for the reception of the visitors who resort to the +place as a sanatorium in summer, and the religious wants of the +community are supplied by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant +church. Though the harbour is deep and extensive, and possessed +of excellent anchorage, large vessels have to be moored at a +considerable distance from the shore. Chi-fu has continued to +show fair progress as a place of trade, but the total volume is +inconsiderable, having regard to the area it supplies. In 1880 +the total exports and imports were valued at £2,724,000, in +1899 they amounted to £4,228,000, and in 1904 to £4,909,908. +In 1895 there entered the port 905 vessels representing a tonnage +of 835,248 tons, while in 1905 the number of vessels had risen to +1842, representing a tonnage of 1,492,514 tons. The imports +are mainly woollen and cotton goods, iron and opium, and the +exports include bean cake, bean oil, peas, raw silk, straw-braid, +walnuts, a coarse kind of vermicelli, vegetables and dried fruits. +Communication with the interior is only by roads, which are +extremely defective, and nearly all the traffic is by pack animals. +From its healthy situation and the convenience of its anchorage, +Chi-fu has become a favourite rendezvous for the fleets of the +European powers in Chinese waters, and consequently it has +at times been an important coaling station. It lies in close +proximity to Korea, Port Arthur and Wei-hai-Wei, and it +shared to some extent in the excitement to which the military +and naval operations in these quarters gave rise. The Chi-fu +convention was signed here in 1876 by Sir Thomas Wade and +Li-Hung-Chang.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIGI-ALBANI<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span>, the name of a Roman princely family of +Sienese extraction descended from the counts of Ardenghesca. +The earliest authentic mention of them is in the 13th century, +and they first became famous in the person of Agostino Chigi +(d. 1520), an immensely rich banker who built the palace and +gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by +Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments; +Pope Julius II. made him practically his finance minister and +gave him the privilege of quartering his own (Della Rovere) +arms with those of the Chigi. Fabio Chigi, on being made pope +(Alexander VII.) in 1655, conferred the Roman patriciate on his +family, and created his nephew Agostino prince of Farnese and +duke of Ariccia, and the emperor Leopold I. created the latter +<i>Reichsfürst</i> (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in 1659. In +1712 the family received the dignity of hereditary marshals of +the Church and guardians of the conclaves, which gave them a +very great importance on the death of every pope. On the +marriage in 1735 of another Agostino Chigi (1710-1769) with +Giulia Albani, heiress of the Albani, a Venetian patrician family, +said to be of Albanian origin, her name was added to that of Chigi. +The family owns large estates at Siena.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i>, vol. iii. (Berlin, +1868); <i>Almanach de Gotha</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIGWELL<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span>, a parish and residential district in the Epping +parliamentary division of Essex, England; with stations +(Chigwell Lane and Chigwell) on two branches of the Great +Eastern railway, 12 m. N.E. from London. Pop. (1901) 2508. +The old village church of St Mary, principally Perpendicular, +has a Norman south door. The village lies in a branch of the +Roding valley, fragments of Hainault Forest lying to the south +and east, bordering the village of Chigwell Row. The village of +Chigwell appears in the Domesday survey. The pleasant scenery +of the neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers both of +visitors and of residents from London, is described in Dickens’s +novel, <i>Barnaby Rudge</i>, and the King’s Head Inn, Dickens’s +“Maypole,” still stands. The old grammar school, founded by +Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (d. 1631), whose fine +memorial brass is in St Mary’s church, has become one of the +minor modern institutions of the English public school type. +William Penn attended school at Chigwell from his home at Wanstead.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIH-LI<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (“Direct Rule”), the metropolitan province of +China, in which is situated Peking, the capital of the empire. +It contains eleven prefectural cities, and occupies an area of +58,950 sq. m. The population is 29,400,000, the vast majority +of whom are resident in the plain country. This province forms +part of the great delta plain of China proper, 20,000 sq. m. of +which are within the provincial boundaries; the remainder of +the territory consists of the mountain ranges which define its +northern and western frontier. The plain of Chih-li is formed +principally by detritus deposited by the Pei-ho and its tributary +the Hun-ho (“muddy river”), otherwise known as the Yung-ting-ko, +and other streams having their sources in mountains of +Shan-si and other ranges. It is bounded E. by the Gulf of +Chih-li and Shan-tung, and S. by Shan-tung and Ho-nan. The +proportion of Mahommedans among the population is very +large. In Peking there are said to be as many as 20,000 Mahommedan +families, and in Pao-ting Fu, the capital of the province, +there are about 1000 followers of the prophet. The extremes of +heat and cold in Chih-li are very marked. During the months of +December, January and February the rivers are frozen up, and +even the Gulf of Chih-li is fringed with a broad border of ice. +There are four rivers of some importance in the province: the +Pei-ho, with the Hun-ho, which rises in the mountains in Mongolia +and, flowing to the west of Peking, forms a junction with the +Pei-ho at Tientsin; the Shang-si-ho, which rises in the mountains +on the north of the province of Shan-si, and takes a south-easterly +course as far as the neighbourhood of Ki Chow, from which point +it trends north-east and eventually joines the Hun-ho some 15 m. +above Tientsin; the Pu-to-ho, which rises in Shan-si, and after +running a parallel course to Shang-si-ho on the south, empties +itself in the same way into the Hun-ho; and the Lan-ho, which +rises in Mongolia, enters the province on the north-east after +passing to the west of Jehol, passes the city of Yung-p‘ing Fu +in its course (which is south-easterly) through Chih-li, and from +thence winds its way to the north-eastern boundary of the Gulf +of Chih-li. The province contains three lakes of considerable +size. The largest is the Ta-lu-tsze Hu, which lies in 37° 40′ N. +and 115° 20′ E.; the second in importance is one which is +situated to the east of Pao-ting Fu; and the third is the Tu-lu-tsze +Hu, which lies east by north of Shun-te Fu. Four high +roads radiate from Peking, one leading to Urga by way of +Süan-hwa Fu, which passes through the Great Wall at Chang-kiu +K‘ow; another, which enters Mongolia through the Ku-pei K‘ow +to the north-east, and after continuing that course as far as +Fung-ning turns in a north-westerly direction to Dolonnor; a +third striking due east by way of T‘ung-chow and Yung-p‘ing Fu +to Shan-hai Kwan, the point where the Great Wall terminates +on the coast; and a fourth which trends in a south-westerly +direction to Pao-ting Fu and on to T‘ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si. +The mountain ranges to the north of the province abound with +coal, notably at Chai-tang, T‘ai-gan-shan, Miao-gan-ling, and +Fu-tao in the Si-shan or Western Hills. “At Chai-tang,” wrote +Baron von Richthofen, “I was surprised to walk over a regular +succession of coal-bearing strata, the thickness of which, estimating +it step by step as I proceeded gradually from the lowest to +the highest strata, exceeds 7000 ft.” The coal here is anthracite, +as is also that at T‘ai-gan-shan, where are found beds of greater +value than any in the neighbourhood of Peking. In Süan-hwa +Fu coal is also found, but not in such quantities as in the places +above named. Iron and silver also exist in small quantities in +different parts of the province, and hot and warm springs are +very common at the foot of the hills along the northern and +western edges of the province. The principal agricultural products +are wheat, kao-liang, oats, millet, maize, pulse and +potatoes. Fruits and vegetables are also grown in large +quantities. Of the former the chief kinds are pears, apples, +plums, apricots, peaches, persimmons and melons. Tientsin is +the Treaty Port of the province.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIHUAHUA<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span>, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded +N. and N.E. by the United States (New Mexico and Texas), +E. by Coahuila, S. by Durango, and W. by Sinaloa and Sonora. +Pop. (1895) 260,008; (1900) 327,784. Area, 87,802 sq. m. +The surface of the state is in great part an elevated plateau, +sloping gently toward the Rio Grande. The western side, however, +is much broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which +form elevated valleys of great fertility. An arid sandy plain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span> +extending from the Rio Grande inland for 300 to 350 m. is quite +destitute of vegetation where irrigation is not used. There is +little rainfall in this region and the climate is hot and dry. The +more elevated plateaus and valleys have the heavier rainfall, +but the average for the state is barely 39 in.; an impermeable +clay substratum prevents its absorption by the soil, and the +bare surface carries it off in torrents. The great Bolsón de +Mapimí depression, in the S.E. part of the state, was once +considered to be an unreclaimable desert, but experiments with +irrigation have shown its soil to be highly fertile, and the conversion +of the narrow valleys of the sierras on the west into +irrigation reservoirs promises to reclaim a considerable part of +its area. The only river of consequence is the Conchos, which +flows north and north-east into the Rio Grande across the whole +length of the state. In the north there are several small streams +flowing northward into lakes. Agriculture has made little +progress in Chihuahua, and the scarcity of water will always +be a serious obstacle to its development outside the districts +where irrigation is practicable. The climate and soil are favourable +to the production of wheat, Indian corn, beans, indigo, +cotton and grapes, from which wine and brandy are made. +The principal grape-producing district is in the vicinity of +Ciudad Juárez. Stock-raising is an important industry in the +mountainous districts of the west, where there is excellent +pasturage for the greater part of the year. The principal industry +of the state, however, is mining—its mineral resources +including gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead and coal. The +silver mines of Chihuahua are among the richest in Mexico, and +include the famous mining districts of Batopilas, Chihuahuilla, +Cosihuiriachic, Jesús María, Parral, and Santa Eulalia or +Chihuahua el Viejo. There are more than one hundred of these +mines, and the total annual yield at the end of the 19th century +was estimated at $4,500,000. The state is traversed from +north to south by the Mexican Central railway, and there are +short branches to some of the mining districts.</p> + +<p>Chihuahua originally formed part of the province of Nueva +Viscaya, with Durango as the capital. In 1777 the northern +provinces, known as the Provincias Internas, were separated +from the viceroyalty, and in 1786 the provinces were reorganized +as intendencias, but Chihuahua was not separated from Durango +until 1823. An effort was made to overthrow Spanish authority +in 1810, but its leader Hidalgo and two of his lieutenants were +captured and executed, after which the province remained +passive until the end of the struggle. The people of the state +have been active partizans in most of the revolutionary outbreaks +in Mexico, and in the war of 1862-66 Chihuahua was loyal to +Juárez. The principal towns are the capital Chihuahua, El +Parral, 120 m. S.S.E. of the state capital, in a rich mining district +(pop. 14,748 in 1900), Ciudad Juárez and Jimenez, 120 m. S.E. +of Chihuahua (pop. 5881 in 1900).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIHUAHUA<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>, a city of Mexico, capital of the above state, +on the Chihuahua river, about 1000 m. N.W. of Mexico City +and 225 m. S. by E. of El Paso. Pop. (1895) 18,279; (1900) +30,405. The city stands in a beautiful valley opening northward +and hemmed in on all other sides by spurs of the Sierra Madre. +It is 4635 ft. above sea-level, and its climate is mild and healthy. +The city is laid out regularly, with broad streets, and a handsome +plaza with a monument to Hidalgo and his companions of the +revolution of 1810, who were executed here. The most noteworthy +of its public buildings is the fine old parish church of +San Francisco, begun in 1717 and completed in 1789, one of the +best specimens of 18th-century architecture in Mexico. It was +built, it is said, with the proceeds of a small tax on the output of +the Santa Eulalia mine. Other prominent buildings are the +government palace, the Porfirio Diaz hospital, the old Jesuit +College (now occupied by a modern institution of the same +character), the mint, and an aqueduct built in the 18th century. +Chihuahua is a station on the Mexican Central railway, and has +tramways and telephones. Mining is the principal occupation +of the surrounding district, the famous Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua +el Viejo mines being about 12 m. from the city. Next in importance +is agriculture, especially fruit-growing. Manufacturing +is making good progress, especially the weaving of cotton fabrics +by modern methods. The manufacture of cotton and woollen +goods are old industries in Chihuahua, but the introduction of +American skill and capital toward the end of the 19th century +placed them on an entirely new footing. The manufacture +of gunpowder for mining operations is another old industry.</p> + +<p>Chihuahua was founded between 1703 and 1705 as a mining +town, and was made a villa in 1715 with the title San Felipe el +Real de Chihuahua. Because of the rich mines in its vicinity +it soon became one of the most prosperous towns in northern +Mexico, although the state was constantly raided by hostile +Indians. In 1763 it had a population of nearly 5000. The war +of independence was followed by a period of decline, owing to +political disorder and revolution, which lasted until the presidency +of General Porfirio Diaz. In the war between Mexico and the +United States, Chihuahua was captured on the 1st of March +1847, by Colonel A.W. Doniphan, and again on the 7th of March +by General Price. In 1864 President Juárez made the city his +provisional capital for a short time.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILAS<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span>, a hill village in the North-West Frontier Province +of India. It is dominated by a fort on the left bank of the +Indus, about 50 m. below Bunji, 4100 ft. above sea-level. It +was occupied by a British force early in 1893, when a determined +attack was made on the place by the Kohistanis from the Indus +valley districts to the south-west, aided by contingents from +Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus. Its +importance consists in its position with reference to the Kashmir-Gilgit +route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected with +Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its +command of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit +from the Punjab frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil +pass. By the Kashmir route Gilgit is 400 m. from the rail-head +at Rawalpindi. The Kagan route would bring it 100 m. nearer, +but the unsettled condition of the country through which the +road passes has been a bar to its general use.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILBLAINS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Kibe</span>; <i>Erythema pernio</i>), a mild form of +frostbite, affecting the fingers or toes and other parts, and causing +a painful inflammatory swelling, with redness and itching of +the affected part. The chief points to be noticed in its aetiology +are (1) that the lesions occur in the extremities of the circulation, +and (2) that they are usually started by rapid changes from +heat to cold or vice versa. The treatment is both general and +local. In the general treatment, if a history of blanching fingers +(fingers or hands going “dead”) can be obtained, the chilblains +may be regarded as mild cases of Raynaud’s disease, and these +improve markedly under a course of nitrites. Cardiac tonics are +often helpful, especially in those cases where there is some +attendant lesion of the heart. But the majority of cases improve +wonderfully on a good course of a calcium salt, <i>e.g.</i> calcium +lactate or chloride; fifteen grains three times a day will answer +in most cases. The patient should wash in soft tepid water, and +avoid extremes of heat and cold. In the local treatment, two +drugs are of great value in the early congestive stage—ichthyol +and formalin. Ichthyol, 10 to 20% in lanoline spread on linen +and worn at night, often dispels an attack at the beginning. +Formalin is equally efficacious, but requires more skill in its use. +It can be used as an ointment, 10 to 50% for delicate skins, stronger +for coarser skins. It should be replaced occasionally by lanoline. +If the stage of ulceration has been reached, a paste made from +the following prescription, spread thickly on linen and frequently +changed, soon cures:—Hydrarg. ammoniat. gr. v., ichthyol +ɱx, pulveris zinci oxidi ʒiv, vaseline ℥ss.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILD, SIR FRANCIS<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1642-1713), English banker, was a +Wiltshire man, who, having been apprenticed to a goldsmith, +became himself a London goldsmith in 1664. In 1671 he married +Elizabeth (d. 1720), daughter of another goldsmith named +William Wheeler (d. 1663), and with his wife’s stepfather, +Robert Blanchard (d. 1681), took over about the same time the +business of goldsmiths hitherto carried on by the Wheelers. +This was the beginning of Child’s Bank. Child soon gave up +the business of a goldsmith and confined himself to that of a +banker. He inherited some wealth and was very successful in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span> +business; he was jeweller to the king, and lent considerable +sums of money to the government. Being a freeman of the city +of London, Child was elected a member of the court of common +council in 1681; in 1689 he became an alderman, and in the +same year a knight. He served as sheriff of London in 1691 +and as lord mayor in 1699. His parliamentary career began +about this time. In 1698 he was chosen member of parliament +for Devizes and in 1702 for the city of London, and was again +returned for Devizes in 1705 and 1710. He died on the 4th of +October 1713, and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Sir +Francis, who was a benefactor to Christ’s hospital, bought +Osterley Park, near Isleworth, now the residence of his +descendant the earl of Jersey.</p> + +<p>Child had twelve sons. One, Sir Robert, an alderman, died +in 1721. Another, Sir Francis (c. 1684-1740), was lord mayor +of London in 1732, and a director of the East India Company. +He was chosen member of parliament for the city of London in +1722, and was member for Middlesex from 1727 until his death. +After the death of the younger Sir Francis at Fulham on the +20th of April 1740 the banking business passed to his brother +Samuel, and the bank is still owned by his descendants, the +principal proprietor being the earl of Jersey. Child’s Bank was +at first conducted at the Marygold, next Temple Bar in Fleet +Street, London; and the present bank occupies the site formerly +covered by the Marygold and the adjacent Devil tavern.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1825-1896), American scholar and +educationist, was born in Boston on the 1st of February 1825. +He graduated at Harvard in 1846, taking the highest rank in his +class in all subjects; was tutor in mathematics in 1846-1848; +and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in history, political +economy and English. After two years of study in Europe, in +1851 he succeeded Edward T. Channing as Boylston professor +of rhetoric, oratory and elocution. Child studied the English +drama (having edited <i>Four Old Plays</i> in 1848) and Germanic +philology, the latter at Berlin and Göttingen during a leave of +absence, 1849-1853; and he took general editorial supervision +of a large collection of the British poets, published in Boston in +1853 and following years. He edited Spenser (5 vols., Boston, +1855), and at one time planned an edition of Chaucer, but contented +himself with a treatise, in the <i>Memoirs of the American +Academy of Arts and Sciences</i> for 1863, entitled “Observations +on the Language of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales,” which did +much to establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation and +scansion as now generally understood. His largest undertaking, +however, grew out of an original collection, in his British Poets +series, of <i>English and Scottish Ballads</i>, selected and edited by +himself, in eight small volumes (Boston, 1857-1858). Thenceforward +the leisure of his life—much increased by his transfer, +in 1876, to the new professorship of English—was devoted to +the comparative study of British vernacular ballads. He accumulated, +in the university library, one of the largest folklore +collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than printed +sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all +other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative +hearing to popular versions still surviving. At last his final +collection was published as <i>The English and Scottish Popular +Ballads</i>, at first in ten parts (1882-1898), and then in five +quarto volumes, which remain the authoritative treasury of their +subject. Professor Child worked—and overworked—to the last, +dying in Boston on the 11th of September 1896, having completed +his task save for a general introduction and bibliography. +A sympathetic biographical sketch was prefixed to the work by +his pupil and successor George L. Kittredge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILD, SIR JOHN<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (d. 1690), governor of Bombay, and in fact +if not in name the first governor-general of the British settlements +in India, was born in London. He was sent as a little boy to his +uncle, the chief of the factory at Rajapur; and in 1682 was +appointed chief of the East India Company’s affairs at Surat +and Bombay, while at the same time his brother, Sir Josiah +Child (<i>q.v.</i>), was governor of the company at home. The two +brothers showed themselves strong men and guided the affairs +of the company through the period of struggle between the +Moguls and Mahrattas. They have been credited by history +with the change from unarmed to armed trade on the part of the +company; but as a matter of fact both of them were loth to +quarrel with the Mogul. War broke out with Aurangzeb in 1689, +but in the following year Child had to sue for peace, one of the +conditions being that he should be expelled from India. He +escaped this expulsion by his death in 1690.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILD, SIR JOSIAH<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1630-1699), English merchant, +economist and governor of the East India Company, was born in +London in 1630, the second son of Richard Child, a London +merchant of old family. After serving his apprenticeship in +the business, to which he succeeded, he started on his own account +at Portsmouth, as victualler to the navy under the Commonwealth, +when about twenty-five. He amassed a comfortable +fortune, and became a considerable stock-holder in the East India +Company, his interest in India being accentuated by the fact +that his brother John (<i>q.v.</i>) was making his career there. He +was returned to parliament in 1659 for Petersfield; and in later +years sat for Dartmouth (1673-1678) and for Ludlow (1685-1687). +He was made a baronet in 1678. His advocacy, both by +speech and by pen, under the pseudonym of Philopatris, of the +East India Company’s claims to political power, as well as to +the right of restricting competition with its trade, brought him +to the notice of the shareholders, and he became a director in +1677, and, subsequently, deputy-governor and governor. In +this latter capacity he was for a considerable time virtually the +sole ruler of the company, and directed its policy as if it were his +own private business. He and his brother have been credited +with the change from unarmed to armed traffic; but the actual +renunciation of the Roe doctrine of unarmed traffic by the +company was resolved upon in January 1686, under Governor +Sir Joseph Ash, when Child was temporarily out of office. He +died on the 22nd of June 1699. Child made several important +contributions to the literature of economics; especially <i>Brief +Observations concerning Trade and the Interest of Money</i> (1668), +and <i>A New Discourse of Trade</i> (1668 and 1690). He was a +moderate in those days of the “mercantile system,” and has +sometimes been regarded as a sort of pioneer in the development +of the free-trade doctrines of the 18th century. He made various +proposals for improving British trade by following Dutch example, +and advocated a low rate of interest as the “<i>causa causans</i> +of all the other causes of the riches of the Dutch people.” This +low rate of interest he thought should be created and maintained +by public authority. Child, whilst adhering to the doctrine of +the balance of trade, observed that a people cannot always sell +to foreigners without ever buying from them, and denied that +the export of the precious metals was necessarily detrimental. +He had the mercantilist partiality for a numerous population, +and became prominent with a new scheme for the relief and +employment of the poor; it is noteworthy also that he advocated +the reservation by the mother country of the sole right of trade +with her colonies. Sir Josiah Child’s eldest son, Richard, was +created Viscount Castlemain in 1718 and earl of Tylney in 1731.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Macaulay, <i>History of England</i>, vol. iv.; +R. Grant, <i>Sketch of the History of the East India Company</i> (1813); +D. Macpherson, <i>Annals of Commerce</i> (1805); +B. Willson, <i>Ledger and Sword</i> (1903).</p> +<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILD, LYDIA MARIA<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1802-1880), American author, was +born at Medford, Massachusetts, on the 11th of February 1802. +She was educated at an academy in her native town and by her +brother Convers Francis (1795-1863), a Unitarian minister and +from 1842 to 1863 Parkman professor in the Harvard Divinity School. +Her first stories, <i>Hobomok</i> (1824) and <i>The Rebels</i> (1825), +were popular successes. She was a schoolmistress until 1828, +when she married David Lee Child (1794-1874), a brilliant but +erratic Boston lawyer and journalist. From 1826 to 1834 she +edited <i>The Juvenile Miscellany</i>, the first children’s monthly +periodical in the United States. About 1831 both she and her +husband began to identify themselves with the anti-slavery +cause, and in 1833 she published <i>An Appeal for that Class of +Americans called Africans</i>, a stirring portrayal of the evils of +slavery, and an argument for immediate abolition, which had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span> +a powerful influence in winning recruits to the anti-slavery cause. +Henceforth her time was largely devoted to the anti-slavery +cause. From 1840 to 1844, assisted by her husband, she edited +the <i>Anti-Slavery Standard</i> in New York City. After the Civil War she +wrote much in behalf of the freedmen and of Indian rights. +She died at Wayland, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October +1880. In addition to the books above mentioned, she wrote many +pamphlets and short stories and <i>The (American) Frugal Housewife</i> +(1829), one of the earliest American books on domestic +economy, <i>The Mother’s Book</i> (1831), a pioneer cook-book +republished in England and Germany, <i>The Girls’ Own Book</i> +(1831), <i>History of Women</i> (2 vols., 1832), <i>Good Wives</i> (1833), +<i>The Anti-Slavery Catechism</i> (1836), <i>Philothea</i> (1836), a +romance of the age of Pericles, perhaps her best book, <i>Letters from New +York</i> (2 vols., 1843-1845), <i>Fact and Fiction</i> (1847), <i>The Power +of Kindness</i> (1851), <i>Isaac T. Hopper: a True Life</i> (1853), <i>The +Progress of Religious Ideas through Successive Ages</i> (3 vols., 1855), +<i>Autumnal Leaves</i> (1857), <i>Looking Toward Sunset</i> (1864), <i>The +Freedman’s Book</i> (1865), <i>A Romance of the Republic</i> (1867), +and <i>Aspirations of the World</i> (1878).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Letters of Lydia Maria Child, with a Biographical Introduction +by J.G. Whittier</i> (Boston, 1883); and a chapter in T.W. +Higginson’s <i>Contemporaries</i> (Boston, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILD<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span>, the common term for the offspring of human beings, +generally below the age of puberty; the term is the correlative +of “parent,” and applies to either sex, though some early dialectical +uses point to a certain restriction to a girl. The word is +derived from the A.S. <i>cild</i>, an old Teutonic word found in English +only, in other Teutonic languages <i>kind</i> and its variants being used, +usually derived from the Indo-European root <i>ken</i>, seen in Gr. +<span class="grk" title="genos">γένος</span>, Lat. <i>genus</i>, and Eng. “kin”; <i>cild</i> has been +held to be a modification of the same root, but the true root is +<i>kilth</i>, seen in Goth. <i>kilthei</i>, womb, an origin which appears +in the expressions “child-birth,” “to be with child,” and the like; the +plural in A.S. was <i>cild</i>, and later <i>cildru</i>, which in northern +M.E. became <i>childre or childer</i>, a form dialectically extant, and in +southern English <i>childeren</i> or <i>children</i> (with the plural +termination -en, as in “brethren”). There are several particular uses of +“child” in the English version of the Bible, as of a young man in the +“Song of the three holy children,” of descendants or members +of a race, as in “children of Abraham,” and also to express +origin, giving a description of character, as “children of darkness.” +During the 13th and 14th centuries “child” was used, +in a sense almost amounting to a title of dignity, of a young man +of noble birth, probably preparing for knighthood. In the +<i>York Mysteries</i> of about 1440 (quoted in the <i>New English +Dictionary</i>) occurs “be he churl or child,” obviously referring +to gentle birth, cf. William Bellenden’s translation (1553) of +Livy (ii. 124) “than was in Rome ane nobill childe ... namit +Caius Mucius.” The spelling “childe” is frequent in modern +usage to indicate its archaic meaning. Familiar instances are +in the line of an old ballad quoted in <i>King Lear</i>, “childe Roland +to the dark tower came,” and in Byron’s <i>Childe Harold</i>. With +this use may be compared the Spanish and Portuguese <i>Infante</i> +and <i>Infanta</i>, and the early French use of <i>Valet</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Child-study.</i>—The physical, psychological and educational +development of children, from birth till adulthood, has provided +material in recent years for what has come to be regarded as +almost a distinct part of comparative anthropological or sociological +science, and the literature of adolescence (<i>q.v.</i>) and of +“child-study” in its various +aspects has attained considerable +proportions. In England +the British Child Study +Association was founded in +1894, its official organ being +the <i>Paidologist</i>, while similar +work is done by the Childhood +Society, and, to a certain +extent, by the Parents’ +National Educational Union +(which issues the <i>Parents’ Review</i>). +In America, where specially valuable work has +been done, several universities have encouraged the study +(notably Chicago, while under the auspices of Professor John +Dewey); and Professor G. Stanley Hall’s initiative has +led to elaborate inquiries, the principal periodical for the +movement being the <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>. The impetus to this +study of the child’s mind and capacities was given by the classic +work of educationists like J.A. Comenius, J.H. Pestalozzi, and +F.W.A. Froebel, but more recent writers have carried it +much further, notably W.T. Preyer (<i>The Mind of the Child</i>, 1881), +whose psychological studies stamp him as one of the chief +pioneers in new methods of investigation. Other authorities of +first-rate importance (their chief works only being given here) are +J. Sully (<i>Studies of Childhood</i>, 1896), Earl Barnes (<i>Studies in +Education</i>, 1896, 1902), J.M. Baldwin (<i>Mental Development in the +Child and the Race</i>, 1895), Sigismund (<i>Kind und Welt</i>, 1897), +A.F. Chamberlain (<i>The Child</i>, 1900), G. Stanley Hall +(<i>Adolescence</i>, 1904; he had from 1882 been the leader in America of +such investigations), H. Holman and R. Langdon Down (<i>Practical Child +Study</i>, 1899), E.A. Kirkpatrick (<i>Fundamentals of Child-study</i>, +1903), and Prof. Tracy of Toronto (<i>Psychology of Childhood</i>, +5th ed., 1901); while among a number of contributions worth +particular attention may be mentioned W.B. Drummond’s excellent +summary, <i>Introduction to Child Study</i> (1907), which deals +succinctly with methods and results; Irving King’s <i>Psychology +of Child Development</i> (1906, useful for its bibliography); Prof. +David R. Major’s <i>First Steps in Mental Growth</i> (1906); and +Miss M. Shinn’s <i>Notes an the Development of a Child</i> (1893) and +Mrs Louise E. Hogan’s <i>Study of a Child</i> (1898), which are +noteworthy among individual and methodical accounts of what +children will do. In such books as those cited a great deal of +important material has been collected and analysed, and a +number of conclusions suggested which bear both on psychology +and the science of education; but it must be borne in mind, +as regards a great deal of the voluminous literature of the subject, +that it is often more pertinent to general psychology and +hygiene than to any special conclusions as to the essential nature +of a child—whatever “<i>a</i> child” generically may be as the special +object of a special science. The child, after all, is in a transition +stage to an adult, and there is often a tendency in modern “child +students” to interpret the phenomena exhibited by a particular +child with a <i>parti pris</i>, or to exaggerate child-study—which is +really interesting as providing the knowledge of growth towards +full human equipment—as though it involved the discovery of +some distinct form of animal, of separate value on its own account.</p> + +<p><i>Growth.</i>—Into the psychical characteristics and development +of the child and all the interesting educational problems involved +it is impossible to enter here, and reference must be made to the +works cited above. But a knowledge of the more important +features of normal physical development has a constant importance. +Some of these, as matters of comparative physiology or +pathology, are dealt with in other articles in this work. One of +these chief matters of interest is weight and height, and this is +naturally affected by race, nutrition and environment. But +while the standard in different countries somewhat differs, the +British average for healthy children may here be followed. +At birth the average weight of a baby is a little over 7 ℔ and the +length about 20 in. The following are the averages for weight +and height, taking the age in years of the child at the last +birthday:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="data"> + +<tr><td class="tcc ptb1" colspan="16"><i>Height, in inches.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Age.</td> + <td class="tcc allb">1</td> <td class="tcc allb">2</td> + <td class="tcc allb">3</td> <td class="tcc allb">4</td> + <td class="tcc allb">5</td> <td class="tcc allb">6</td> + <td class="tcc allb">7</td> <td class="tcc allb">8</td> + <td class="tcc allb">9</td> <td class="tcc allb">10</td> + <td class="tcc allb">11</td> <td class="tcc allb">12</td> + <td class="tcc allb">13</td> <td class="tcc allb">14</td> + <td class="tcc allb">15</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Girls</td> <td class="tcl rlb">28.7</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">32.5</td> <td class="tcl rlb">35</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">38</td> <td class="tcl rlb">40.5</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">42.8</td> <td class="tcl rlb">44.5</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">46.6</td> <td class="tcl rlb">48.7</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">51</td> <td class="tcl rlb">53.1</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">55.6</td> <td class="tcl rlb">57.7</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">59.8</td> <td class="tcl rlb">60.9</td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Boys</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">29</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">32.5</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">35</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">38</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">41</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">44</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">46</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">47</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">49</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">51.8</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">53.5</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">55</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">57</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">59.3</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">62</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc ptb1" colspan="16"><i>Weight, in pounds.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Age.</td> + <td class="tcc allb">1</td> <td class="tcc allb">2</td> + <td class="tcc allb">3</td> <td class="tcc allb">4</td> + <td class="tcc allb">5</td> <td class="tcc allb">6</td> + <td class="tcc allb">7</td> <td class="tcc allb">8</td> + <td class="tcc allb">9</td> <td class="tcc allb">10</td> + <td class="tcc allb">11</td> <td class="tcc allb">12</td> + <td class="tcc allb">13</td> <td class="tcc allb">14</td> + <td class="tcc allb">15</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Girls</td> <td class="tcl rlb">19.8</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">25.5</td> <td class="tcl rlb">30</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">34</td> <td class="tcl rlb">39.2</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">41.7</td> <td class="tcl rlb">47.5</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">52.1</td> <td class="tcl rlb">55.5</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">62</td> <td class="tcl rlb">68</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">76.4</td> <td class="tcl rlb">87.2</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">96.7</td> <td class="tcl rlb">102.7</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Boys</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">20.5</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">26.5</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">31.2</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">35</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">41.2</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">44.4</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">49.7</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">54.9</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">60.4</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">67.5</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">72</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">76.7</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">82.6</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">92</td> <td class="tcl rlb bb">106</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span></p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children, Law Relating to</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children’s Courts</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children’s Games</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infant</a></span>; &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILDEBERT<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span>, the name of three Frankish kings.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Childebert I.</span> (d. 558) was one of the four sons of Clovis. +In the partition of his father’s realm in 511 he received as his +share the town of Paris, and the country to the north as far as +the river Somme, and to the west as far as the English Channel, +with the Armorican peninsula. In 524, after the murder of +Chlodomer’s children, Childebert annexed the cities of Chartres +and Orleans. He took part in the various expeditions against +the kingdom of Burgundy, and in 534 received as his share +of the spoils of that kingdom the towns of Mâcon, Geneva and +Lyons. When Vitiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence +to the Franks in 535, the possession of Arles and Marseilles was +guaranteed to Childebert by his brothers. Childebert also made +a series of expeditions against the Visigoths of Spain; in 542 he +took possession of Pampeluna with the help of his brother +Clotaire I., and besieged Saragossa, but was forced to retreat. +From this expedition he brought back to Paris a precious relic, +the tunic of St Vincent, in honour of which he built at the gates +of Paris the famous monastery of St Vincent, known later as St +Germain-des-Prés. He died without issue in 558, and was +buried in the abbey he had founded, where his tomb has been +discovered.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Nouveaux documents sur le tombeau de Childebert à +Saint-Germain-des-Prés,” in the <i>Bulletin de la Société des +Antiquaires</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Childebert II.</span> (570-595), king of Austrasia, was a son of +Sigebert. When his father was assassinated in 575, Childebert +was taken from Paris by Gundobald, one of his faithful <i>leudes</i>, +to Metz, where he was recognized as sovereign. He was then +only five years old, and during his long minority the power +was disputed between his mother Brunhilda and the nobles. +Chilperic, king at Paris, and King Gontran of Burgundy, sought +alliance with Childebert, who was adopted by both in turn. +But after the assassination of Chilperic in 584, and the dangers +occasioned to the Frankish monarchy by the expedition of +Gundobald in 585, Childebert threw himself unreservedly into +the arms of Gontran. By the pact of Andelot in 587 Childebert +was recognized as Gontran’s heir, and with his uncle’s help he +quelled the revolts of the nobles and succeeded in seizing the +castle of Woëwre. Many attempts were made on his life by +Fredegond, who was anxious to secure Gontran’s inheritance +for her son Clotaire II. On the death of Gontran in 592 Childebert +annexed the kingdom of Burgundy, and even contemplated +seizing Clotaire’s estates and becoming sole king of the Franks. +He died, however, in 595. Childebert II. had had relations with +the Byzantine empire, and fought in 585 in the name of the +emperor Maurice against the Lombards in Italy.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Childebert III.</span> was one of the last and feeblest of the +Merovingians. A son of King Theuderich III., he succeeded +his brother Clovis III. in 695, and reigned until 711.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See B. Krusch, “Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Könige,” +in <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, xxii. 451-490.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. PF.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILDERIC<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>, the name of three Frankish kings.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Childeric I.</span> (c. 437-481), king of the Salian Franks, succeeded +his father Merwich (Merwing) as king about. 457. With his tribe +he was established around the town of Tournai, on lands which +he had received as a <i>foederatus</i> of the Romans, and for some time +he kept the peace with his allies. About 463, in conjunction +with the Roman general Egidius, he fought against the Visigoths, +who hoped to extend their dominion along the banks of the Loire; +after the death of Egidius he assisted Count Paul in attempting +to check an invasion of the Saxons. Paul having perished in the +struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from some Saxons, followed +them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and massacred +them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who +wished to invade Italy. These are all the facts known about him. +The stories of his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight +years in Thuringia with King Basin and his wife Basine; of his +return when a faithful servant advised him that he could safely +do so by sending to him half of a piece of gold which he had broken +with him; and of the arrival at Tournai of Queen Basine, whom +he married, are entirely legendary. After the fall of the Western +Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric regarded himself +as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in 481 +and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis (<i>q.v.</i>), afterwards +king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered in 1653, when +numerous precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a +figure of the king, were found.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Childeric II.</span> (c. 653-673), king of Austrasia, was a son of +the Frankish king Clovis II., and in 660, although a child, was +proclaimed king of Austrasia, while his brother, Clotaire III., +ruled over the rest of the dominions of Clovis. After the death +of Clotaire in 670 he became ruler of the three Frankish kingdoms, +Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, but soon quarrelled with +some supporters in Neustria, and was assassinated whilst +hunting. He was buried at St Germain near Paris.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Childeric III.</span> (d. c. 751), king of the Franks, was the last king +of the Merovingian dynasty. The throne had been vacant for +seven years when the mayors of the palace, Carloman and Pippin +the Short, decided in 743 to recognize Childeric as king. We +cannot say whose son he was, or what bonds bound him to the +Merovingian family. He took no part in public business, which +was directed, as before, by the mayors of the palace. When in +747 Carloman retired into a monastery, Pippin resolved to take +the royal crown for himself; taking the decisive step in 751 +after having received the celebrated answer of Pope Zacharias +that it were better to name king him who possessed the power +than him who possessed it not. Childeric was dethroned and +placed in the monastery of St Omer; his son, Theuderich, was +imprisoned at Saint-Wandrille.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Junghans, <i>Die Geschichte der fränkischen Könige Childerich +und Clodovech</i> (Göttingen, 1857); J.J. Chiflet, <i>Anastasis Childerici I. +Francorum regis</i> (Antwerp, 1655); J.B.D. Cochet, <i>Le Tombeau de +Childeric I, roi des Francs</i> (Paris, 1859); and E. Lavisse, <i>Histoire +de France</i>, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1827-1896), British +statesman, was born in London on the 25th of June 1827. On +leaving Cambridge he went out to Australia (1850), and became +a member of the government of Victoria, but in 1857 returned +to England as agent-general of the colony. Entering parliament +in 1860 as Liberal member for Pontefract (a seat that he continued +to hold till 1885), he became civil lord of the admiralty in +1864, and in 1865 financial secretary to the treasury. Childers +occupied a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone +ministries. He was first lord of the admiralty from 1868 to 1871, +and as such inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Ill-health +compelled his resignation of office in 1871, but next year he +returned to the ministry as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. +From 1880 to 1882 he was secretary for war, a post he accepted +somewhat unwillingly; and in that position he had to bear the +responsibility for the reforms which were introduced into the +war office under the parsimonious conditions which were then +part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the Egyptian +War occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy; +and also the Boer War, in which he and his colleagues showed to +less advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was chancellor of the +exchequer, and the beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter +year was the occasion of the government’s fall. Defeated at +the general election at Pontefract, he was returned as a Home +Ruler (one of the few Liberals who adopted this policy before +Mr Gladstone’s conversion) in 1886 for South Edinburgh, and +was home secretary in the ministry of 1886. When the first +Home Rule bill was introduced he demurred privately to its +financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his +threat of resignation. He retired from parliament in 1892, and +died on the 29th of January 1896, his last piece of work being +the drafting of a report for the royal commission on Irish financial +relations, of which he was chairman. Childers was a capable and +industrious administrator of the old Liberal school, and he did his +best, in the political conditions then prevailing, to improve the +naval and military administration while he was at the admiralty +and war office. His own bent was towards finance, but no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span> +striking reform is associated with his name. His most ambitious +effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of consols in 1884, +but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the +subsequent conversion in 1888.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Life</i> (1901) of Mr Childers, by his son, throws some interesting +side-lights on the inner history of more than one Gladstonian cabinet.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1838-1876), English Oriental +scholar, son of the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at +Nice, was born in 1838. In 1860 he received an appointment in +the civil service of Ceylon, which he retained until 1864, when +he was compelled to return to England owing to ill-health. He +had studied Pāli during his residence in Ceylon, under +Yátrámullé Unnánsé, a learned Buddhist for whom he cherished +a life-long respect, and he had gained an insight into the Sinhalese +character and ways of thought. In 1869 he published the first +Pāli text ever printed in England, and began to prepare a Pāli +dictionary, the first volume of which was published in 1872, and +the second and concluding volume in 1875. In the following +year it was awarded the Volney prize by the Institute of France, +as being the most important philological work of the year. He +was a frequent contributor to the Journal of the Royal Asiatic +Society, in which he published the <i>Mahā-parinibbāna Sutta</i>, +the Pāli text giving the account of the last days of Buddha’s +life. In 1872 he was appointed sub-librarian at the India Office, +and in the following year he became the first professor of Pāli +and Buddhist literature at University College, London. He died +in London on the 25th of July 1876.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>. English law has always +in theory given to children the same remedies as to adults for +ill-usage, whether by their parents or by others, and has never +recognized the <i>patria potestas</i> as known to the earlier Roman +law; and while powers of discipline and chastisement have been +regarded as necessarily incident to paternal authority, the father +is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done to them. The only +points in which infancy created a defect in civil status were that +infants were subject to the restraints on complete freedom of +action involved in their being in the legal custody of the father, +and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers +and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in +amount and severity to the nature of the fault committed and +the age and mental capacity of the child punished. But the +court of chancery, in delegated exercise of the authority of the +sovereign as <i>parens patriae</i>, always asserted the right to take +from parents, and if necessary itself to assume the wardship of +children where parental rights were abused or serious cruelty +was inflicted, the power being vested in the High Court of +Justice. Abuse of the power of correction was regarded as +giving a cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if +attended by fatal results rendered the parent liable to indictment +for murder or manslaughter.</p> + +<p>The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children +undoubtedly changed considerably with the relaxation of the +accepted standard of severity in domestic or scholastic discipline +and with the growth of new ideas as to the duties of parents to +children, which in their latest developments tend enormously +to enlarge the parental duties without any corresponding increase +of filial obligations.</p> + +<p>Starting from the earlier conception, which limited ill-treatment +legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common +law came to recognize criminal liability in cases where persons, +bound under duty or contract to supply necessaries to a child, +unable by reason of its tender years to provide for itself, wilfully +neglected to supply them, and thereby caused the death of the +child or injury to its health, although no actual assault had been +committed. Questions have from time to time arisen as to what +could be regarded as necessary within this rule; and quite apart +from legislation, popular opinion has influenced courts of justice +in requiring more from parents and employers than used to be +required. But parliament has also intervened to punish +abandonment or exposure of infants of under two years, whereby +their lives are endangered, or their health has been or is likely +to be permanently injured (Offences against the Person Act of +1861, s. 27), and the neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or +servants (same act, s. 26, and Conspiracy and Protection of +Property Act 1875, s. 6). By the Poor Law Amendment Act +1868, parents were rendered <i>summarily</i> punishable who wilfully +neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid or +lodging for their children under fourteen years of age in their +custody, whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be +seriously injured. This enactment (now superseded by later +legislation) made no express exception in favour of parents who +had not sufficient means to do their duty without resort to the +poor law, and was construed as imposing criminal liability on +parents whose peculiar religious tenets caused them advisedly +to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick child.</p> + +<p>The chief progress in the direction of adequate protection for +children prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the +subject than in the institution of an effective system of police, +whereby it became possible to discover and repress cruelty +punishable under the ordinary law. It is quite inaccurate to +say that children had very few rights in England, or that animals +were better protected. But before the constitution of the present +police force, and in the absence of any proper system of public +prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless cases of neglect +and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as nobody’s +business, because there was no person ready to undertake in +the public interest the protection of the children of cruel or +negligent parents. In 1889 a statute was passed with the special +object of preventing cruelty to children. This act was superseded +in 1894 by a more stringent act, which was repealed by the +Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act 1904, in its turn superseded +for the most part by the Children Act 1908, which introduced +many new provisions in the law relating to children and specifically +deals with the offence of “cruelty” to them. This offence +can only be committed by a person over sixteen in respect of a +child under sixteen of whom he has “custody,” “charge” or +“care.” The act presumes that a child is in the custody of its +parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent, +or of its guardians or persons liable by law to maintain it; that +it is in the charge of a person to whom the parent has committed +such charge (<i>e.g.</i> a schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a +person who has actual possession or control of it. Cruelty is +defined as consisting in assault, ill-treatment (falling short of +actual assault), neglect, abandonment or exposure of the child +in a manner likely to cause <i>unnecessary</i> suffering or injury to +health, including injury to or loss of sight, hearing or limb, or +any organ of the body or any mental derangement; and the +act or omission must be wilful, <i>i.e.</i> deliberate and intentional, +and not merely accidental or inadvertent. The offence may be +punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender +may be sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was directly +or indirectly interested in any sum of money payable on the +death of the child, <i>e.g.</i> by having taken out a policy permitted +under the Friendly Societies Acts. A parent or other person +legally liable to maintain a child or young person will be deemed +to have “neglected” him by failure to provide adequate food, +clothing, medical aid, or lodging, or if in the event of inability +to provide such food, &c., by failure to take steps to procure the +same under acts relating to the relief of the poor.</p> + +<p>These statutes overlap the common law and the statutes +already mentioned. Their real efficacy lies in the main in the +provisions which facilitate the taking of evidence of young +children, in permitting poor law authorities to prosecute at the +expense of the rates, and in permitting a constable on arresting +the offender to take the child away from the accused, and the +court of trial on conviction to transfer the custody of the child +from the offender to some fit and willing person, including any +society or body corporate established for the reception of poor +children or for the prevention of cruelty to children. The provisions +of the acts as to procedure and custody extend not only +to the offence of cruelty but also to all offences involving bodily +injury to a child under sixteen, such as abandonment, assault, +kidnapping and illegally engaging a child in a dangerous public +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span> +performance. The act of 1908 also makes an endeavour to +check the heavy mortality of infants through “overlaying,”<a name="FnAnchor_1b" id="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +enacting that where it is proved that the death of an infant +under three years of age was caused by suffocation whilst the +infant was in bed with some other person over the age of sixteen, +and that that person was at the time of going to bed under the +influence of drink, that other person shall be deemed to have +neglected the child in manner likely to cause injury to its +health, as mentioned above. The acts have been utilized with +great zeal and on the whole with much discretion by various +philanthropic societies, whose members make it their business +to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all classes +in society, and particularly by the Society for the Prevention +of Cruelty to Children, which is incorporated under royal charter +of the 28th of May 1895, for the purposes <i>inter alia</i> of preventing +the public and private wrongs of children, and the corruption +of their morals and of taking action to enforce the laws for +their protection.</p> + +<p>The act of 1908 enacted more stringent provisions against +baby-farming (<i>q.v.</i>). The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897 +did not apply where only one child was taken, but now by the +act of 1908, where a person undertakes for reward the nursing +and maintenance of one or more infants under the age of <i>seven</i> +years apart from their parents or having no parents, he must +give notice in writing to the local authority within forty-eight +hours from the reception of the child. If an infant is already +in the care of a person without reward and he undertakes to +continue the nursing for reward, such undertaking is a reception +of the child. The notice to the local authority must state the +name, sex, date and place of birth of the infant, the name and +address of the person receiving the infant and of the person from +whom the infant was received. Notice must also be given of +any change of address of the person having the care of the infant, +or of the death of the infant, or of its removal to the care of some +other person, whose name and address must also be given. It +is the duty of local authorities to provide for the carrying-out +in their districts of that portion of the act which refers to nursing +and maintenance of infants, to appoint infants’ protection +visitors, to fix the number of infants which any person may +retain for nursing, to remove infants improperly kept, &c. +Relatives or legal guardians of an infant who undertake its +nursing and maintenance, hospitals, convalescent homes, or +institutions, established for the protection and care of infants, +and conducted in good faith for religious and charitable purposes, +as well as boarding schools at which efficient elementary education +is given, are exempt from the provisions of the act.</p> + +<p>The acts of 1904 and 1908 deal with many other offences in +relation to children and young persons. The act of 1904 introduced +restrictions on the employment of children which lie on +the border land between cruelty and the regulation of child +labour. It prohibits custodians of children from taking them, +or letting them be, in the street or in public-houses to sing, +play, perform or sell between 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> These provisions +apply to boys under fourteen and girls under sixteen. +There are further prohibitions (1) on allowing children under +eleven to sing, play, perform or be exhibited for profit, or offer +anything for sale in public-houses or places of public amusement +at any hour without a licence from a justice, which is +granted only as to children over ten and under stringent conditions; +(2) on allowing children under sixteen to be trained as +acrobats, contortionists, or circus performers, or for any dangerous +performance; and the Children’s Dangerous Performances Act +1879, as amended in 1897, makes it an offence to employ a male +young person under sixteen and a female under eighteen in a +dangerous public performance.</p> + +<p>The act of 1908 renders liable to a fine not exceeding £25, or +alternatively, or in addition thereto, imprisonment with or without +hard labour for any term not exceeding three months, any +custodian, &c., of any child or young person who allows him to +be in any street, premises or place for the purpose of begging +or receiving alms, or of inducing the giving of alms, whether +or not there is a pretence of singing, playing, performing or +offering anything for sale. An important departure in the act +of 1908 was the attempt to prevent the exposure of children +to the risk of burning. Any custodian, &c., of a child under +seven who allows that child to be in a room Containing an open +grate not sufficiently protected to guard against the risk of +burning or scalding is liable on summary conviction to a fine +not exceeding £10. Provision is made against allowing children +between the ages of four and sixteen to be in brothels; it is also +made a misdemeanour if any custodian, &c., of a girl under +sixteen causes or encourages her seduction or prostitution, and +any person having the custody of a young girl may be bound +over to exercise proper care if it is shown to the satisfaction of a +court of summary jurisdiction, on the complaint of any person, +that she is exposed to such risk.</p> + +<p>The act of 1908, following legislation in many parts of the +United States and in some of the British colonies, places a penalty +on selling tobacco to any person apparently under the age of +sixteen, whether for his own use or not. It empowers constables +and park keepers to seize tobacco in the possession of any +person apparently under sixteen found smoking in any street +or public place, as well as to search them; it also empowers +a court, of summary jurisdiction to prevent automatic machines +for the sale of tobacco being used by young persons. The act +also contains useful provisions empowering the clearing of a +court whilst a child or young person is giving evidence in certain +cases (<i>e.g.</i> of decency or morality), and the forbidding children +(other than infants in arms) being present in court during the +trial of other persons; it places a penalty on pawnbrokers taking +an article in pawn from children under fourteen; and on vagrants +for preventing children above the age of five receiving education. +It puts a penalty on giving intoxicating liquor to any child +under the age of five, except upon the orders of a duly qualified +medical practitioner, or in case of sickness, or other urgent +cause; also upon any holder of the licence of any licensed +premises who allows a child to be at any time in the bar of the +licensed premises; or upon any person who causes or attempts +to cause a child to be in the bar of licensed premises other than +railway refreshment rooms or premises used for any purpose +to which the holding of a licence is merely auxiliary, or where +the child is there simply for the purpose of passing through to +some other part of the premises. It makes provision for the +safety of children at entertainments, and consolidates the law +relating to reformatory and industrial schools, and to juvenile +offenders (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Juvenile Offenders</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the act of 1908, “child” is denned as a person under the +age of fourteen years, and “young person” as a person who is +fourteen years and upwards and under the age of sixteen years. +The act applies to Scotland and Ireland. In the application of +the act to Ireland exception is made relative to the exclusion +of children from bars of licensed premises, in the case of a child +being on licensed premises where a substantial part of the business +carried on is a drapery, grocery, hardware or other business +wholly unconnected with the sale of intoxicating liquor, and the +child is there for the purpose of purchasing goods other than +intoxicating liquor.</p> + +<p><i>British Possessions.</i>—Legislation much on the lines of the acts +of 1889-1908 has been passed in many British possessions, <i>e.g.</i> +Tasmania (1895, 1906), Queensland (1896, 1905), Jamaica +(1896), South Australia (1899, 1904), New South Wales (1892 +and 1900), New Zealand (1906), Mauritius (1906), Victoria +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span> +(1905,1906). In South Australia a State Children’s Department +has been created to care for and manage the property and persons +of destitute and neglected children, and the officials of the +council may act in cases of cruelty to children; the legislation +of Victoria and Queensland is based on that of South Australia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children’s Courts</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Education</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Labour Legislation</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. F. C.; T. A. I.)</div> + + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1b" id="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There has been some doubt as to whether it is more correct to +say a person “<i>overlays</i>” or “<i>overlies</i>” a child, and the question +came up in committee on the bill. According to Sir J.A.H. Murray +(see Letter in <i>The Times</i>, 12th of May 1908) “to lie,” an intransitive +verb, becomes transitive when combined with a preposition, <i>e.g.</i> +a nurse lies over a child or overlies a child; “to lay” is the causal +derivative of “to lie,” and is followed by two objects, <i>e.g.</i> to lay the +table with a cloth, or to lay a cloth on the table; similarly, to overlay +a surface with varnish, or to overlay a child with a blanket, or +with the nurse’s or mother’s body. The instrument can be left +unexpressed, and a person can be said to overlay a child, <i>i.e.</i> with +her own body, a pillow, &c. Thus, while “overlie” covers the case +where the woman herself lies over the child, “overlay” is the more +general word.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILDRENITE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span>, a rare mineral species; a hydrous basic +aluminium iron phosphate, orthorhombic in crystallization. +The ferrous oxide is in part replaced by manganous oxide and +lime, and in the closely allied and isomorphous species eosphorite +manganese predominates over iron. The general formula for +the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH)<span class="sp">2</span>PO<span class="sp">4</span> + H<span class="sp">2</span>O. Childrenite +is found only as small brilliant crystals of a yellowish-brown +colour, somewhat resembling chalybite in general appearance. +They are usually pyramidal in habit, often having the form of +double six-sided pyramids with the triangular faces deeply +striated parallel to their shorter edges. Hardness 4.5-5; +specific gravity 3.18-3.24. The mineral, named after the +zoologist and mineralogist J.G. Children (1777-1852), secretary +of the Royal Society, was detected in 1823 on specimens obtained +some years previously during the cutting of a canal near Tavistock +in Devonshire. It has also been found in a few copper +mines in Cornwall and Devonshire.</p> + +<p>Eosphorite occurs as crystals of prismatic habit with angles +very nearly the same as those of childrenite. Unlike childrenite, +it has a distinct cleavage in one direction, and often occurs in +compact masses as well as in crystals. The colour is sometimes +yellowish-white, but usually rose-pink, and on this account the +mineral was named from <span class="grk" title="êosphoros">ἠωσφόρος</span>, dawn-bearer. Hardness 5; +specific gravity 3.11-3.145. It was discovered in 1878 in a +pegmatite-vein at Branchville, Connecticut, where it is associated +with other rare manganese phosphates.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILDREN’S COURTS<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Juvenile Courts</span>, a special +system of tribunals for dealing with juvenile offenders, first +suggested in the United States. The germ of such institutions +was planted in Massachusetts in 1869, when a plan was introduced +at Boston of hearing charges against children separately, and +apart from the ordinary business of the lesser tribunals. No +great progress was made in the development of the idea in +Massachusetts, as the legal authorities were not fully convinced of +the utility or need for a separate court so long as the children +were kept strictly apart from adults, and this could be assured +by a separate session. But the system of “probation,” by +which children were handed over to the kindly care and guardianship +of an appointed officer, and thus escaped legal repression, +was created about the same time in Boston and produced +excellent results. The probation officer is present at the judge’s +side when he decides a case, and is given charge of the offender, +whom he takes by the hand, either at his parent’s residence or +at school, and continually supervises, having power if necessary +to bring him again before the judge. The example of Massachusetts +in due course influenced other countries, and especially +the British colony of South Australia, where a State Children’s +Department was created at Adelaide in 1895, and three years +later a juvenile court was opened there for the trial of persons +under eighteen and was conducted with great success, though +the system of probation officers was not introduced. A juvenile +court was also established at Toronto (Canada) on the South +Australian model.</p> + +<p>The movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very +rapidly. In the United States Illinois was the first state to call +a distinct children’s court into existence, and Judge Richard +Tuthill was the pioneer at Chicago, where the court was established +in 1899. Many states followed suit, including New York, +Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Kansas, Colorado, +Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1906. +In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the +Society for the Protection of Children, there is a separate +children’s court with rooms attached, where the children for +detention wait till they are brought in for trial. Brooklyn has +also a children’s court. In Pennsylvania, where the juvenile +court was at first opposed as unconstitutional, the difficulty +was met by first bringing the child before the magistrate in the +police court, a course which (though followed by his transferring +the case to the special court) perpetuated the very evils the children’s +court was intended to avoid; the work of probation was, +however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by female officers. +The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an especially +appointed judge, and policemen act as probation officers to some +extent. The court of Indianapolis, however, gained the reputation +of being the most complete and perfect in the United States. +It works with a large and highly efficient band of volunteer +probation officers under a chief. The juvenile court of Denver, +Colorado, attained remarkable results under Judge B. Lindsey, +whose magnetic personality, wonderful comprehension of boy +nature, and extraordinary influence over them achieved great +results. The court meets once a fortnight, when fresh cases are +tried and boys already on probation report themselves, often +to the number of two hundred at a time. The latter appear +before the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a +sealed letter, and according to its purport receives praise or +blame, or he may be committed to the Detention House. An +efficient court was also constituted at Baltimore, Maryland, with +a judge especially chosen to preside, probation being for fixed +periods, varying from three months to three years, and children +being brought back to the court for parole or discharge, or, if +necessary, committal to the house of one of the philanthropic +societies. In Washington, D.C., the system of having no +distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was +followed, and it was found that numbers of children came to the +court for help and guidance, looking upon the judge for the time +being as their friend and counsellor. Probation in this instance +offered peculiar difficulties on account of the colour question, +two-thirds of the children having negro blood and a white boy +being always preferred for a vacant situation. Throughout, +the action of juvenile courts in the United States has been to +bring each individual into “human touch” with kindly helpful +workers striving to lead the young idea aright and train it to +follow the straight path. It was the result always of the effort +of private persons and not due to government initiative, indeed +the advocates and champions of the system only established it +by overcoming strong opposition from the authorities.</p> + +<p>Progress in the same direction has been made in England. +The home office had recommended London police magistrates +to keep children’s cases separate from those of adults; the +same practice or something analogous obtained in many county +boroughs, such as Bath, Birmingham, Bristol, Bolton, Bradford, +Hull, Manchester, Walsall, Halifax and others, and the Children +Act 1908 definitely established children’s courts. This act +enacted that courts of summary jurisdiction when hearing charges, +&c., against children or young persons should, unless the child +or young person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different +building or room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the +court are held, or on different days or at different times. Furthermore, +provision must be made for preventing persons apparently +under the age of sixteen years whilst being conveyed to or from +court, or whilst waiting before or after their attendance in court, +from associating with adults, unless such adults are charged +jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons other than +members and officers of the court, the parties to the case, their +solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the +case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave +of the court. Bona-fide press representatives are also excepted. +The main object of the whole system is to keep the child, the +embryotic offender who has probably erred from ignorance or +the pressure of circumstances or misfortune, altogether free +from the taint or contagion that attaches to criminal proceedings. +The moral atmosphere of a legal tribunal is injurious to the +youthful mind, and children who appear before a bench, whether +as accused or as witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with +legal processes.</p> + +<p>The most beneficial action of the children’s court comes from +its association with the system of personal guardianship and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span> +close supervision exercised by the probation officers, official +and voluntary. Where the intervention of the newly constituted +tribunal can not only save the child from evil association +when first arrested, but can rescue him without condemnation +and committal to prison, its functions may be relied upon to +diminish crime by cutting it off at the source. Much depends +upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority. +Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, firm, +sympathetic, tactful and able to gain the confidence of those +brought before him, he may do great good, by dealing with each +individual and not merely with his offence, realizing that the +court does not exist to condemn but to strengthen and give a +fresh chance. Where the children’s court is only a branch of the +existing jurisdiction worked by the regular magistrate or +judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen, +the beneficial results are not so noticeable.</p> +<div class="author">(A. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILDREN’S GAMES<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span>. The study of traditional games has in +recent years become an important branch of folklore research in +England, and has contributed not a little towards elucidating +many unrecorded facts in early history. These games may +be broadly divided into two kinds—dramatic games, and games +of skill and chance. These differ materially in their object. +Games of skill and chance are played for the purpose of +winning property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic +games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided +between boys’ games and girls’ games. Boys’ games are mostly +of a contest character, girls’ of a more domestic type. The boys’ +dramatic games have preserved some interesting beliefs and +customs, but the tendency in these games, such as “prisoner’s +base,” has been to drop the words and tune and to preserve only +that part (action) which tends best for exercise and use in school +playgrounds. The girls’ singing-games have not developed on +these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of their early +characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune and +action. The words, in verse, express ideas contained in customs +not now in vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking +place between men and women and between people of different +villages. The tunes are simple, and the same tune is frequently +used for different games. The actions are illustrative of the ideas +to be expressed. The players represent various objects—animals, +villages and people. The singing game is therefore not a game +in the usual sense of the word. There is no element of +“gambling” or playing “to win” in it—no one is richer or +poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to play +together. It is really a “play,” and has survived because +it has handed down some instances of custom and belief which +were deeply rooted and which made a strong appeal to the +imagination of our ancestors. The singing games represent in +dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances common +to people in early stages of development. These dances celebrated +events which served to bind the people together and to give them +a common interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were +dramatic in character, singing and action forming a part of them, +and their performers were connected by ties of place or kindred. +They are probably survivals of what we might call folk drama. +In these times it was held imperative to perform religious +ceremonies periodically; at sowing and harvesting to ensure +good crops; in the care of cattle and on occasions of marriage, +birth and death. These were matters affecting the welfare of +the whole community. Events were celebrated with dance, +song and feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected +with some belief which rendered ceremony necessary.</p> + +<p>At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for +their basis, but in process of time they became purely secular +and were performed at certain seasons only, because it was the +custom to do so. They then became recognized as beautiful +or pleasing things in the life of the people, and so continued, +altering somewhat in ideas but retaining their old dramatic +forms. They were danced by old and young at festivals and +holidays, these being held about the same time of year as +that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been +held.</p> + +<p>Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods, +“line” and “circle.” These represent two of the early forms +of dramatic action. The “line” form (two lines of players +standing opposite each other having a space of ground between +them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents two different +and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest. This +method is used in all cases where contest is involved. The +“circle” form, on the other hand, where all players join hands, +represents those occasions when all the people of one place were +engaged in celebrating events in which all were interested. Thus +games celebrating sowing and harvest, and those associated with +love and marriage, are played in this form. Both these methods +allow of development. The circle varies from examples where +all perform the same actions and say the same words to that +where two or more players have principal parts, the others +only singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the +singing has disappeared. The form or method of play and the +actions constitute the oldest remaining parts of the game (the +words being subject to alterations and loss through ignorance of +their meaning), and it is to this form or method, the actions +and the accompaniment of song, that they owe their survival, +appealing as they do to the strong dramatic instinct of children +and of uncultured folk.</p> + +<p>It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known +singing games. In “line” form, a fighting game is “We are the +Rovers.” The words tell us of two opposing parties fighting +for their land; both sides alternately deride one another and end +by fighting until one side is victorious. Two other “line” +games, “Nuts in May” and “Here come three dukes a-riding,” +are also games of contest, but not for territory. These show an +early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by +capture, and are played in “line” form because of the element +of contest contained in the custom. Another form, the “arch,” +is also used to indicate contest.</p> + +<p>Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest +and marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and +sanction by assembled friends. “Oats and beans and barley” +and “Sally Water” are typical of this form. The large majority +of circle games deal with love or marriage and domestic life. +The customs surviving in these games deal with tribal life and +take us back to “foundation sacrifice,” “well worship,” “sacredness +of fire,” besides marriage and funeral customs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Details may be found in the periodical publications of the Folk-lore +Society, and particularly in the following works:—A.B. +Gomme’s <i>Traditional Games of Great Britain</i> (2 vols., Nutt, 1894-1898); +Gomme’s <i>Children’s Singing Games</i> (Nutt, 1904.); Eckenstein’s +<i>Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes</i> (Duckworth, 1906); +Maclagan, <i>Games of Argyllshire</i>, Folk-lore Society (1900); Newell’s +<i>Games of American Children</i> (Harper Bros., New York, 1884). In +Mrs Gomme’s <i>Traditional Games</i>, several versions of each game, +together with a short account of the suggested origin and of the +custom or belief indicated, are given for each game. In vol. ii. (pp. +458-531) a memoir of the history of games is given, and the customs +and beliefs which originated them, reviewing the whole subject from +the anthropological point of view, and showing the place which +games occupy among the evidences of early man. In Miss Eckenstein’s +comparative study of nursery rhymes suggested origins are +given for many of these, and an attempt made to localize certain of +the customs and events. In several of the publications of the Folk-lore +Society local collections of games are given, all of which may +be studied with advantage. Stubbes and other early writers give +many instances of boys’ games in their days, many of which still +exist. Tylor and other writers on anthropology, in dealing with +savage custom, confirm the views here expressed. For nursery +rhymes see Halliwell, <i>Nursery Rhymes</i> (1845), and Chambers’s +<i>Popular Rhymes</i> (first printed 1841, reprinted in 1870). The recently +collected <i>Morris Dances</i> by Mr Cecil Sharp should also be +consulted. One of the morris dances, bean-setting, evidently dealing +with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while others +indicating fighting or rivalry are danced in line form, each line dancing +in circle before crossing over to the opposite, side, and thus +conforming to the laws already shown to exist in the more ordinary +game.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. B. G.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1829-1894), American publisher, +was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 12th of May 1829. +He was educated in the public schools, and after a brief term of +service in the navy, he became in 1843 a clerk in a book-shop at +Philadelphia. There, in 1847, he established an independent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span> +book-shop, and two years later organized the publishing house of +Childs & Peterson. In 1864, with Anthony J. Drexel, he purchased +the <i>Public Ledger</i>, at that time a little known newspaper; +he completely changed its policy and methods, and made it +one of the most influential journals in the country. He died at +Philadelphia on the 3rd of February 1894. Childs was widely +known for his public spirit and philanthropy. In addition to +numerous private benefactions in educational and charitable +fields, he erected memorial windows to William Cowper and +George Herbert in Westminster Abbey (1877), and to Milton in +St Margaret’s, Westminster (1888), a monument to Leigh Hunt +at Kensal Green, a Shakespeare memorial fountain at Stratford-on-Avon +(1887), and monuments to Edgar Allan Poe and to +Richard A. Proctor. He gave Woodland Cemetery to the +Typographical Society of Philadelphia for a printers’ burial-ground, +and with Anthony J. Drexel founded in 1892 a home for +Union printers at Colorado Springs, Colorado.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Recollections</i> were published at Philadelphia in 1890.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILE<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chili</span> (derived, it is said, from the Quichua <i>chiri</i>, +cold, or <i>tchili</i>, snow), a republic of South America, occupying the +narrow western slope of the continent between Peru and its +southern extremity. (For map see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argentina</a></span>.) It extends +from the northern boundary of the province of Tacna, about +17° 25′ S., to Cape Horn at the extreme southern point of the +Fuegian archipelago in 55° 58′ 40″ S., with an extreme meridian +length of 2661 m., and with a coast line considerably exceeding +that figure owing to a westward curve of about 3½° and an +eastward trend south of 50° S. of nearly 8°. Its mainland width +ranges from about 46 to 228 m., and its area, including the +islands of the southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774 +sq. m., though the Gotha computation (1904) places it at 293,062 +sq. m. Chile is thus a ribbon-like strip of territory between the +Andes and the Pacific, comparatively regular north of the 42nd +parallel, but with an extremely ragged outline south of that line. +It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W. +by the Pacific. Its eastern boundary lines are described under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argentina</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bolivia</a></span>. The war of 1879-81 with Peru and +Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-fourth +her total area. By subsequent agreements the Bolivian department +of the Literal, or Atacama, and the Peruvian department +of Tarapacá, were formally ceded to Chile, and the northern +frontier was removed to the river Camarones, which enters the +Pacific at 19° 12′ S. Under the treaty of Ancon (20th October +1883) Chile was to retain possession of the provinces of Tacna +and Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of Moquegua +for a period of ten years, and then submit “to popular vote +whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru.” At the +expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the +agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible possession +of the territory. This arbitrary retention of Tacna and +Arica, which became the province of Tacna under Chilean +administration, removed the frontier still farther north, to the +river Sama, which separates that province from the remaining +part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Starting from +the mouth of that river, in 17° 57′ S., the disputed boundary +follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in +the Alto do Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the water +parting to the Bolivian boundary line in the Cordillera Silillica.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physiography.</i>—For purposes of general topographical description +Chile may be divided into three regions: the desert region of the +north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of +Coquimbo and Llanquihue, and the heavily-forested rainy region +south of lat. 41° S. The desert region is an elevated arid plateau +descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it +breaks down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft. From the +sea this plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat +topped hills closely following the coast line. The surface is made +up of extensive plains covered with sand and deposits of alkaline +salts, broken by ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs +from the Andes, and by irregular lateral ranges in the vicinity of +the main cordillera enclosing elevated saline plateaus. This region +is rainless, barren and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vegetation +except in some small river valleys where irrigation is possible, +and on the slopes of some of the snow-covered peaks where the +water from the melting snows nourishes a scanty and coarse vegetation +before it disappears in the thirsty sands. It is very rich in +mineral and saline deposits, however. The eastern parts of this +region lie within the higher ranges of the Andes and include a large +district awarded to Chile in 1899 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argentina</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Atacama</a></span>). +This arid, bleak area is apparently a continuation southward of the +great Bolivian <i>altaplanicie</i>, and is known as the Puna de Atacama. +Its average elevation is estimated at 11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line +of volcanoes crosses it from north to south, and extensive lava beds +cover a considerable part of its surface. Large shallow saline lakes +are also characteristic features of this region. From 28° S. the spurs +from the cordillera toward the coast are more sharply defined and +enclose deeper valleys, where the cultivation of the soil becomes +possible, at first through irrigation and then with the aid of light +periodical rains. The slopes of the Andes are precipitous, the +general surface is rough, and in the north the higher ground and +coast are still barren. Beginning with the province of Aconcagua +the coast elevations crystallize into a range of mountains, the +Cordillera Maritima, which follows the shore line south to the +province of Llanquihue, and is continued still farther south by the +mountain range of Chiloé and the islands of the western coast, which +are the peaks of a submerged mountain chain. Lying between this +coast range and the Andes is a broad valley, or plain, extending from +the Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly +over 620 m. with an average width of about 60 m. It is sometimes +called the “Vale of Chile,” and is the richest and most thickly-populated +part of the republic. It is a highly fertile region, is well +watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate rainfall, +and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great productiveness. +It slopes toward the south, and its lower levels are +filled with lakes and with depressions where lakes formerly existed. +It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy +tracts, as in Ñuble and Arauco; in the north very little natural +forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the enclosing +mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is heavier, the +plain is well covered with forest. South of 41° S. the country is +mountainous, heavily-forested and inhospitable. There are only +a few scattered settlements within its borders, and a few nomadic +tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast. The +deeply-indented coast line is filled with islands which preserve +the general outline of the continent southward to the Fuegian +archipelago, the outside groups forming a continuation of the +Cordillera Maritima. The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout +this region, especially in the latitude of Chiloé, gives rise to a large +number of rivers and lakes. Farther south this excessive precipitation +is in the form of snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at +a comparatively low level which in places discharge into the inlets +and bays of the sea. The extreme southern part of this region +extends eastward to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan, +and includes the greater part of the large island of Tierra del Fuego +with all the islands lying south and west of it. There are some +comparatively level stretches of country immediately north of the +Straits, partly forested and partly grassy plains, where sheep farming +has been established with some degree of success, but the greater +part of this extreme southern territory is mountainous, cold, wet +and inhospitable. The perpetual snow-line here descends to 3500 +to 4000 ft. above sea-level, and the forest growth does not rise above +an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft.</p> + +<p>It has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile +comprise about twenty-five millions of acres (slightly over 39,000 +sq. m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area. +<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span> +The desert regions of the north include comparatively +large areas of plains and gently sloping surfaces, traversed by +ranges of barren hills. The remainder of the republic, probably +more than three-fifths of its surface, is extremely mountainous. +The western slopes of the Andes, with its spurs and lateral ranges, +cover a broad zone on the eastern side of the republic, and the +Cordillera Maritima covers another broad zone on its western side +from about lat. 33° to the southern extremity of Chiloé, or below +lat. 43°. This maritime range is traversed by several river valleys, +some of which, like the Bio-Bio, are broad and have so gentle a slope +as to be navigable. The Andes, however, present an unbroken +barrier on the east, except at a few points in the south where the +general elevation is not over 5000 to 6000 ft., and where some of the +Chilean rivers, as the Palena and Las Heras, have their sources on its +eastern side. From the 52nd to about the 31st parallel this great +mountain system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes, +apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes +short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several +parallel ranges appear on the Argentine side and one on the Chilean +side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau. +The Chilean lateral range, which extends from the 29th to the 19th +parallels, traverses an elevated desert region and possesses several +noteworthy peaks, among which are Cerro Bolson, 16,017 ft., and +Cerro Dona Ines, 16,706 ft. It is broken to some extent in crossing +the province of Antofagasta, the southern division being known +as the Sierra de Huatacondo. At the southern frontier of Bolivia +the main chain, which has served as the boundary line between +Argentina and Chile, divides into two great ranges, the principal +one continuing almost due north along the eastern side of the great +Bolivian <i>alta-planicie</i>, and the other forming its western rim, where +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span> +it is known as the Cordillera Silillica, and then following the trend +of the coast north-westward into Peru becomes the Cordillera +Occidental. The western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with +short spurs enclosing deep valleys. The whole system is volcanic, +and a considerable number of volcanoes are still intermittently +active, noticeably in central and southern Chile. The culminating +point of the Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of +23,097 ft.</p> + +<p>In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation +of these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined. +The highest of these apparently detached groups are Mt. Macá (lat. +45° S.), 9711 ft., and Mt. Arenales (about 47° S. lat.), 11,286 ft. +Cathedral Peak on Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft. +and the highest point on Taytao peninsula to 3937 ft. The coast +range of central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating +point in the province of Santiago being 7316 ft. Between central +Chile and the northern desert region there is a highly mountainous +district where distinct ranges or elongated spurs cross the republic +from the Andes to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great +beauty and fertility. The most famous of these is the “Vale of +Quillota” between Valparaiso and Santiago. The Chilean Andes +between Tacna and Valdivia are crossed by 24 passes, the majority +of them at elevations exceeding 10,000 ft. The best-known of these +is the Uspallata pass between Santiago and the Argentine city of +Mendoza, 12,870 ft. above sea-level. The passes of central and +southern Chile are used only in the summer season, but those of +northern Chile are open throughout the whole year.</p> + +<p>The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively recent +elevation still subject Chile, in common with other parts of the +western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances. +In some instances since European occupation, violent earthquake +shocks have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of +the coast. After the great earthquake of 1835 Captain Robert +FitzRoy (1805-1865) of H.M.S. “Beagle” found putrid mussel-shells +still adhering to the rocks 10 ft. above high water on the island +of Santa Maria, 30 m. from Concepción, and Charles Darwin declares, +in describing that disaster, that “there can be no doubt that the land +round the bay of Concepción was upraised two or three feet.” These +upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land +sometimes settling back to its former position. This happened on the +island of Santa Maria after 1835. The existence of sea-shells at +elevations of 350 to 1300 ft. in other parts of the republic shows that +these forces, supplemented by a gradual uplifting of the coast, have +been in operation through long periods of time and that the greater +part of central and southern Chile has been raised from the sea in +this way. These earthquake shocks have two distinct characteristics, +a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible, called a +<i>temblor</i>, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a violent +horizontal or rotary vibration, or motion, also repeated at frequent +intervals, called a <i>terremoto</i>, which is caused by a fracture or +displacement of the earth’s strata at some particular point, and often +results in considerable damage. When the earthquake occurs on the coast, +or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves are sometimes formed, +which cause even greater damage than the earthquake itself. Arica +has been three times destroyed by tidal waves, and other small +towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered similar disasters. +Coquimbo was swept by a tidal wave in 1849, and Concepción and +Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835. The great earthquake +which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was +not followed by a tidal wave. These violent shocks are usually +limited to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may +be felt at long distances from the centre of disturbance. In this +respect Chile may be divided into at least four great earthquake +areas, two in the desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and +the fourth extending from Concepción to Chiloé. A study of Chilean +earthquake phenomena, however, would probably lead to a division +of southern Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas.</p> + +<p>The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of +islands extending from Chiloé S. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which +shows that they are in part the summits of a submerged +<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span> +mountain chain, a continuation southward of the Cordillera +Maritima. Three groups of these islands, called the Chiloé, +Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes, lie N. of the Taytao peninsula +(lat. 45° 50′ to 46° 55′ S.), and with the mainland to the E. form the +province of Chiloé. The largest of these is the island of Chiloé, which +is inhabited. Some of the smaller islands of these groups are also +inhabited, though the excessive rainfall of these latitudes and the +violent westerly storms render them highly unfavourable for human +occupation. Some of the smallest islands are barren rocks, but the +majority of them are covered with forests. These archipelagoes are +separated from the mainland in the north by the gulfs of Chacao +(or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 m. wide, which appear to be a +submerged part of the great central valley of Chile, and farther south +by the narrower Moraleda channel, which terminates southward +in a confusing network of passages between the mainland and the +islands of the Chonos group. One of the narrow parts of the Chilean +mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of this group, +where the accidental juxtaposition of Magdalena island, which indents +the continent over half a degree at this point, and the basin +of Lake Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp +wedge-shaped projection westward, narrows the distance between +the two to about 26 m. The Taytao peninsula, incorrectly called +the Tres Montes on some maps, is a westward projection of the +mainland, with which it is connected by the narrow isthmus of Ofqui, +over which the natives and early missionaries were accustomed to +carry their boats between the Moraleda Channel and Gulf of Peñas. +A short ship canal here would give an uninterrupted and protected +inside passage from Chacao Channel all the way to the Straits of +Magellan, a distance of over 760 m. A southern incurving projection +of the outer shore-line of this peninsula is known as Tres +Montes peninsula, the most southern point of which is a cape of the +same name. Below the Taytao peninsula is the broad open Gulf +of Peñas, which carries the coast-line eastward fully 100 m. and is +noticeably free from islands. The northern entrance to Messier +Channel is through this gulf. Messier, Pitt, Sarmiento and Smyth’s +Channels, which form a comparatively safe and remarkably picturesque +inside route for small steamers, about 338 m. in length, +separate another series of archipelagoes from the mainland. These +channels are in places narrow and tortuous. Among the islands +which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Azopardo +(lying within Baker Inlet), Prince Henry, Campaña, Little +Wellington, Great Wellington and Mornington (of the Wellington +archipelago), Madre de Dios, Duke of York, Chatham, Hanover, +Cambridge, Contreras, Rennell and the Queen Adelaide group of +small barren rocks and islands lying immediately north of the +Pacific entrance to the Straits of Magellan. The large number of +English names on this coast is due to the fact that the earliest +detailed survey of this region was made by English naval officers; +the charts prepared from their surveys are still in use and form the +basis of all subsequent maps. None of these islands is inhabited, +although some of them are of large size, the largest (Great Wellington) +being about 100 m. long. It has likewise been determined, since +the boundary dispute with Argentina called attention to these territories +and led to their careful exploration at the points in dispute, +that Skyring Water, in lat. 53° S., opens westward into the Gulf +of Xaultegua, which transforms Ponsonby Land and Cordoba (or +Croker) peninsula into an island, to which the name of Riesco has +been given. The existence of such a channel was considered probable +when these inland waters were first explored in 1829 by Captain +FitzRoy, but it was not discovered and surveyed until three-quarters +of a century had elapsed. Belonging to the Fuegian group south +of the Straits of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Ines, Clarence, +Dawson, Londonderry, Hoste, Navarin and Wollaston islands, with +innumerable smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores and +filling the channels between them. Admirable descriptions of this +inhospitable region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts of +the globe, may be found in the <i>Narrative of the Surveying Voyages +of His Majesty’s Ships “Adventure” and “Beagle” between the years +1826 and 1836</i> (3 vols., 1839).</p> + +<p>The western and larger part of Tierra del Fuego (<i>q.v.</i>) belongs to +Chile. About 63 m. S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat. 56° 25′ S., is the +Diego Ramirez group of small, rocky islands, the most southern +possession of the republic. Its westernmost possessions are Sala-y-Gomez +and Easter islands, the former in about 27° S., 105° W., and +the latter, the easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, in 27° 6′ S., +109° 17′ W. Much nearer the Chilean coast (396 m.), lying between +the 33rd and 34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan Fernandez +group, and rising apparently from the same submerged +plateau about 500 m. farther north of the latter are the rocky islets +of San Ambrosio and San Felix, all belonging to Chile. North of +Chiloé there are few islands in close proximity to the coast. The +more important of these are La Mocha, off the southern coast of +Arauco, in lat. 38° 20′ S., which is 8 m. long and rises to an elevation +of 1240 ft. above the sea; Santa Maria, 30 m. south-west of Concepcion, +which partially encloses the Bay of Arauco and is well +cultivated; and Quiriquina, lying off the port of Talcahuano in the +entrance to Concepción bay. There are a few barren islands on the +desert coast, the largest of which are between Coquimbo and Caldera. +Since the removal of their guano deposits they have become practically +worthless, except where they serve to shelter anchorages.</p> + +<p>The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient in +good harbours. Those of the desert region are only slight indentations +in a remarkably uniform coast-line, sheltered on one side by a point of land, or small island. The landings +<span class="sidenote">Harbours.</span> +are generally dangerous because of the surf, and the anchorages are +unsafe from storms on the unprotected side. Among the most +frequented of these are Valparaiso, Coquimbo, Caldera, Iquique and +Arica. There are some small harbours for coasting vessels of light +draught along the coast of central Chile, usually at the partially +obstructed mouths of the larger rivers, as San Antonio near the +mouth of the Maipó, Constitución at the mouth of the Maule, and +Llico on the outlet of Lake Vichuquen, but there is no harbour of +importance until Conceptión (or Talcahuano) Bay is reached. +There are three harbours on this bay, El Tomé, Penco and Talcahuano +(<i>q.v.</i>), the last being the largest and best-protected port on +the inhabited part of the Chilean coast. Immediately south of this +bay is the large Bay of Arauco, into which the Bio-Bio river discharges, +and on which, sheltered by the island of Santa Maria, are +the ports of Coronel and Lota. The next important harbour is that +of El Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia river and 15 m. below +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span> +the city of Valdivia. The Bay of San Carlos on the northern coast +of Chiloé, which opens upon the narrow Chacao channel, has the port +of Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for +vessels of light and medium draught. Inside the island of Chiloé +the large gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado are well protected +from the severe westerly storms of these latitudes, but they +are little used because the approach through the Chacao channel is +tortuous and only 2 to 3 m. wide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 m. +wide and 150 m. long, are beset with small rocky islands. At the +north end of the first is the Reloncavi, a large and nearly landlocked +bay, on which stands Puerto Montt, the southern terminus of the +Chilean central railway. The large Gulf of Peñas, south of Taytao +peninsula, is open to the westerly storms of the Pacific, but it affords +entrance to several natural harbours. Among these are the Gulfs +of Tres Montes and San Estevan, and Tarn Bay at the entrance to +Messier Channel. The next 300 m. of the Chilean coast contain +numerous bays and inlets affording safe harbours, but the mainland +and islands are uninhabited and the climate inhospitable. Behind +Rennell Island in lat. 52° S., however, is a succession of navigable +estuaries which penetrate inland nearly to the Argentine frontier. +The central part of this group of estuaries is called Worsley Sound, +and the last and farthest inland of its arms is Last Hope Inlet +(Ultima Esperanza), on which is situated the Chilean agricultural +colony of Puerto Consuelo. The Straits of Magellan, about 360 m. in +length, lie wholly within Chilean territory. Midway of them is situated +Punta Arenas, the most southern town and port of the republic.</p> + +<p>Except in the extreme south the hydrography of Chile is of the +simplest description, all the larger rivers having their sources in the +Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific. Their courses +<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span> +are necessarily short, and only a few have navigable +channels, the aggregate length of which is only 705 m. Nearly all +rivers in the desert region are lost in the sands long before reaching +the coast. Their waterless channels are interesting, however, as evidence +of a time when climatological conditions on this coast were +different. The principal rivers of this region are Sama (which forms +the provisional boundary line with Peru), Tacna, Camarones, Loa, +Copiapó, Huasco, Elqui, Limari and Choapa. The Loa is the +largest, having its sources on the slopes of the Cordillera south of +the Minho volcano, between 21° and 21° 30′ S. lat., and flowing +south on an elevated plateau to Chiuchiu, and thence west and +north in a great curve to Quillaga, whence its dry channel turns +westward again and reaches the Pacific in lat. 21° 28′ S., a few miles +south of the small port of Huanillos. Its total length is estimated at +250 m. The upper courses of the river are at a considerable elevation +above the sea and receive a large volume of water from the Cordilleras. +The water of its upper course and tributaries is sweet, +and is conducted across the desert in pipes to some of the coast towns, +but in its lower course, as in all the rivers of this region, it becomes +brackish. The Copiapó, which once discharged into the sea, is now +practically exhausted in irrigating a small fertile valley in which +stands the city of that name. The Copiapó and Huasco have comparatively +short courses, but they receive a considerable volume of +water from the higher sierras. The latter is also used to irrigate a +small, cultivated valley. The rivers of the province of Coquimbo—the +Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa—exist under less arid +conditions, and like those of the province of Aconcagua—the Ligua +and Aconcagua—are used to irrigate a much larger area of cultivated +territory. The central agricultural provinces are traversed by +several important rivers, all of them rising on the western slopes of +the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the lower coast range +to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate the great +central valley of Chile. These are the Maipó (Maypó or Maipú), +Rapel, Mataquito, Maule, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Tolten, Valdivia +or Calle-Calle, Bueno and Maullin. With the exception of the first +three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are open +only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their mouths. +The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220 m., 100 of +which are navigable. These rivers have been of great service in the +agricultural development of this part of Chile, affording means of +transportation where railways and highways were entirely lacking. +Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers, whose economic value +has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which flows through +Santiago and enters the Maipó from the north; the turbulent +Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro, which +waters an extensive part of the province of Talca and enters the +Maule from the north; the Ñuble, which rises in the higher Andes +north of the peaks of Chillan and flows entirely across the province +of Ñuble to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which +rises in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about +lat. 35° 30′ S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the +Cautin, which rises in the north-east corner of Cautin and after a +tortuous course westward nearly across that province forms the +principal confluent of the Imperial. The unsettled southern regions +of Chiloé (mainland) and Magallanes are traversed by a number of +important rivers which have been only partially explored. They +have their sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side +of the line of highest summits. The Puelo has its origin in a lake of +the same name in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through +the Cordilleras into an estuary (Reloncavi Inlet) of the Gulf of +Reloncavi at the northern end of the Gulf of Chacao. Its lower +course is impeded in such a manner as to form three small lakes, +called Superior, Inferior and Taguatagua. A large northern tributary +of the Puelo, the Manso, has its sources in Lake Mascardi and +other lakes and streams south-east of the Cerro Tronador, also in +Argentina, and flows south-west through the Cordilleras to unite +with the Puelo a few miles west of the 72nd meridian. The Reloncavi +Inlet also receives the outflow of Lake Todos los Santos through +a short tortuous stream called the Petrohue. The Comau Inlet and +river form the boundary line between the provinces of Llanquihue +and Chiloé, and traverse a densely wooded country in a north-westerly +direction from the Andes to the north-eastern shore of the +Gulf of Chacao. Continuing southward, the Yelcho is the next +important river to traverse this region. It drains a large area of +Argentine territory, where it is called the Rio Fetaleufu or Fetalauquen, +its principal source being a large lake of the same name. It flows +south-west through the Andes, and then north-west through Lake +Yelcho to the Gulf of Corcovado. The Argentine colony of the 16th +of October, settled principally by Welshmen from Chubut, is located +on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in about lat. 43° S. +The Palena is another river of the same character, having its source +in a large frontier lake called General Paz and flowing for some +distance through Argentine territory before crossing into Chile. +It receives one large tributary from the south, the Roo Pico, and +enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of the 44th +parallel. The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an extensive +Andean region between the 44th and 45th parallels and discharging +into the Puyuguapi channel, which separates Magdalena island +from the mainland. The Aisen also has its source in Argentine +territory near the 46th parallel, and drains a mountainous region as +far north as the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and +discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in +about lat. 45° 20′ S. The lower course of this river is essentially an +inlet, and is navigable for a short distance. The next large river is +the Las Heras, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos +Aires and Pueyrredon, or Cochrane, find their way to the Pacific. +Both of these large lakes are crossed by the boundary line. The +Las Heras discharges into Martinez Inlet, the northern part of a large +estuary called Baker or Calen Inlet which penetrates the mainland +about 75 m. and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-east corner of the +Gulf of Peñas. Azopardo (or Merino Jarpa) island lies wholly within +this great estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands, +called Baker Islands, which separate it from Messier Channel. The +course of the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aires is south and south-west, +the short range of mountains in which are found the Cerros +San Valentin and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet. Baker +Inlet also receives the waters of still another large Argentine-Chilean +lake, San Martin, whose far-reaching fjord-like arms extend +from lat. 49° 10′ to 48° 20′ S.; its north-west arm drains into the +Tero, or La Pascua, river. Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply +cut passage through the Andes, and the divide between its southern +extremity (Laguna Tar) and Lake Viedma, which discharges through +the Santa Cruz river into the Atlantic, is so slight as to warrant the +hypothesis that this was once a strait between the two oceans. +After a short north-westerly course the Toro discharges into Baker +Inlet in lat. 48° 15′ S., long. 73° 24′ W. South of the Toro there are +no large rivers on this coast, but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply +into the mountains and bring away the drainage of their snow-capped, +storm-swept elevations. A peculiar network of fjords and connecting +channels terminating inland in a peculiarly shaped body of water +with long, widely branching arms, called Worsley Sound, Obstruction +Sound and Last Hope Inlet, covers an extensive area between the +51st and 53rd parallels, and extends nearly to the Argentine frontier. +It has the characteristics of a tidewater river and drains an extensive +region. The sources of the Argentine river Coile are to be found +among the lakes and streams of this same region, within Chilean +territory. A noteworthy peculiarity of southern Chile, from the +Taytao peninsula (about 46° 50′ S. lat.) to Tierra del Fuego, is the +large number of glaciers formed on the western and southern slopes +of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which discharge direct +into these deeply cut estuaries. Some of the larger lakes of the +Andes have glaciers discharging into them. The formation of these +icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge direct +into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found elsewhere +in the same latitudes.</p> + +<p>The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are +found chiefly in the southern half of the republic. In the north the +only lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper +<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span> +saline plateaus between the 23rd and 28th parallels. +They are fed from the melting snows and periodical storms of the +higher Andes, and most of them are completely dry part of the year. +Their waters are saturated with saline compounds, which in some +cases have considerable commercial value. In central Chile above +the Bio-Bio river the lakes are small and have no special geographical +interest, with the exception perhaps of the Laguna del Maule, in +36° 7′ S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37° 20′, which lie in the Andes +near the Argentine frontier and are sources of the two rivers of the +same names. Below the Bio-Bio river there is a line of large +picturesque lakes extending from the province of Cautin, south through +that of Llanquihue, corresponding in character and position to the +dry lacustrine depressions extending northward in the same valley. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span> +They lie on the eastern side near the Cordilleras, and serve the +purpose of great reservoirs for the excessive precipitation of rain +and snow on their western slopes. With one exception they all drain +westward into the Pacific through short and partly navigable rivers, +and some of the lakes are also utilized for steamship navigation. +These lakes are Villarica on the southern frontier of Cautin, Rinihue +and Ranco in Valdivia, and Puyehue, Rupanco, Llanquihue and +Todos los Santos in Llanquihue. The largest of the number are Lakes +Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an estimated area of 200 +sq. m. and the latter of 300 sq. m. Lake Todos los Santos is situated +well within the Andean foothills north-east of Puerto Montt and at an +elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that of the other lakes, +Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level. The great Andean lakes of +General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos Aires (in lat. 46° 30′ S.), +Pueyrredon, or Cpchrane (47° 15′ S.) and San Martin (49° S.), lie +partly within Chilean territory. In the extreme south are Lagoa +Blanca, a large fresh-water lake in lat. 52° 30′ S., and two large +inland salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called Otway Water and +Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions +which differ from each other in their geological structure. Along +the coast lies a belt of granite and schist overlaid unconformably +by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are +formed chiefly of folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks +of later date. The great longitudinal valley of Chile runs approximately, +but only approximately, along the boundary between the +two zones. Towards the north the coastal zone disappears beneath +the sea and the Andean zone reaches to the shore. The ancient +rocks which form the most characteristic feature of the former do +indeed occur upon the coast of Peru, but in the north of Chile they +are found only in isolated masses standing close to the shore or, as at +Mejillones, projecting into the sea. South of Antofagasta the old +rocks form a nearly continuous band along the coast, extending as +far as Cape Horn and Staten Island, and occupying the greater part +of the islands of southern Chile. Lithologically they are crystalline +schists, together with granite, diorite, gabbro and other igneous rocks. +They are known to be pre-Jurassic, but whether they are Palaeozoic +or Archaean is uncertain. They are strongly folded and are overlaid +unconformably by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. In the north +both the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds of this zone are limited in +extent, but towards the south Mesozoic beds, which are at least in part +Cretaceous, form a band of considerable width. The Tertiary beds +include both marine and terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly +of Miocene and Pliocene age. The whole of the north part of Tierra +del Fuego is occupied by plateaus of horizontal Tertiary strata.</p> + +<p>The Chilean Andes correspond with the Western Cordillera of +Bolivia and Peru, and consist almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous +beds, together with the products of the Tertiary eruptions. +The Mesozoic beds are thrown into a series of parallel folds which run +in the direction of the chain and which are generally free from any +complications such as overthrusting or overfolding. The Cretaceous +beds form a synclinal upon the eastern side of the chain (and, in +general, beyond the Chilean boundary), while the Jurassic beds are +thrown into a number of folds which form the axis and the western +flank. Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other +igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesozoic foundation +rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later date. The Trias +is known only at La Ternera near Copiapó, where coal-seams with +Rhaetic plants have been found; but the rest of the Mesozoic series, +from the Lias to the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented +without a break of more than local importance. The deposits are +marine, consisting mainly of sandstone and limestone, together with +tuffs and conglomerates of porphyry and porphyrite. These porphyritic +rocks form a characteristic feature of the southern Andes, +and were at one time supposed to be metamorphic; but they are +certainly volcanic, and as they contain marine fossils they must have +been laid down beneath the sea. They are not confined to any one +horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the Jurassic and occasionally +also amongst the Cretaceous strata. They form, in fact, a special +facies which may frequently be traced laterally into the more normal +marine deposit of the same age. The fauna of the Mesozoic beds +is very rich, and includes forms which are found in northern Europe, +others which occur in central Europe, and others again which are +characteristic of the Mediterranean region. It lends no support to +Neumayr’s theory of climatic zones. A large part of the chain is +covered by the products of the great volcanoes which still form the +highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes. The rocks are +liparites, dacites, hornblende and pyroxene andesites. The recent +lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are olivine-bearing +hypersthene-andesite and basalt.<a name="FnAnchor_1c" id="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical +heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low +temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego +and the southern coast. The high altitudes of the Andean region +also introduce vertical zones of temperature, modified to some extent +by the rainless plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall +of the south. In general terms it may be said that the extremes of +temperature are not so great as in corresponding latitudes of the +northern hemisphere, because of the greater expanse of water in +comparison with the land areas, the summers being cooler and the +winters warmer. The cold antarctic, or Humboldt, current sweeps +northward along the coast and greatly modifies the heat of the arid, +tropical plateaus. The climate of northern and central Chile is +profoundly affected by the high mountain barrier on the eastern +frontier and by the broad treeless pampas of Argentina, which raise +the easterly moisture-laden winds from the Atlantic to so high an +elevation that they sweep across Chile without leaving a drop of +rain. At very rare intervals light rains fall in the desert regions +north of Coquimbo, but these are brought by the prevailing coast +winds. With this exception these regions are the most arid on the +face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical sun during the day +and chilled at night by the proximity of snow-covered heights and a +cold ocean current. Going south the temperature slowly falls and the +rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided into a short +rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season. At Copiapó, in +27° 22′ S., 1300 ft. above the sea, the mean annual temperature is +60° and the rainfall about 1 in., but at Coquimbo, in 29° 56′ S., the +temperature is 59.2° and the rainfall 1½ in. At Santiago, in 33° 27′ +S., 1755 ft. above the sea, the mean temperature is 54° and the +annual rainfall 16½ in., though the latter varies considerably. +The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21. At Talca, +in 35° 36′ S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual temperature +is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the rainfall has +increased to 19.7 in. The long dry season of this region makes irrigation +necessary, and vegetation has something of a subtropical +appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37°. The +climate is healthy and agreeable, though the death-rate among the +common people is abnormally high on account of personal habits and +unsanitary surroundings. In southern Chile the climate undergoes +a radical change—the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a +long rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall. The plains as well +as the western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the rivers +become torrents, and the sky is covered with heavy clouds a great +part of the year. At Valdivia, in 39° 49′ S. and near the sea-level, +the mean annual temperature is 52.9° and the annual rainfall 108 +to 115 in., with about 150 rainy days in the year. These meteorological +conditions are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north +end of the island of Chiloé, in 41° 46′ S., where the mean annual +temperature is 50.7° and the annual rainfall 134 in. The equable +character of the climate at this point is shown by the limited range +between its summer and winter temperatures, the mean for January +being 56.5° and the mean for July 45.9°. The almost continual +cloudiness is undoubtedly a principal cause, not only of the low +summer temperatures, but also of the comparatively high winter +temperatures. Frosts are infrequent, and snow does not lie long. +The climate is considered to be healthful notwithstanding the +excessive humidity. The 600 m. of coast from the Chonos Archipelago +south to the Fuegian islands have a climate closely approximating +that of the latter. It is wet and stormy all the year through, +though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and Valdivia. +The line of perpetual snow, which is 6000 ft. above sea-level between +lat. 41° and 43°, descends to 3500 (to 4000) ft. in Tierra del Fuego, +affording another indication of the low maximum temperatures ruling +during the summer. At the extreme south, where Chilean territory +extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan, +a new climatic influence is encountered in the warm equatorial +current flowing down the east coast of South America, which gives +to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that of the +western shore. The Andes, although much broken in these latitudes, +also exert a modifying influence on these eastern districts, sheltering +them from the cold westerly storms and giving them a drier climate. +This accounts for the surprising meteorological data obtained from +Punta Arenas, in 53° 10′ S., where the mean annual temperature is +43.2° and the annual rainfall only 22.5 in. Other observations reduce +this annual precipitation to less than 16 in. According to observations +made by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1901-1903), at Orange +Bay, Hoste Island, in lat. 55° 31′ S., long. 68° 05′ W., which is more +exposed to the westerly storms, the mean temperature for 11 months +was 41.98° and the total precipitation (rain and snow) 53.1 in. +The mean maximum temperature was 49.24°, and the mean minimum +35.83°. The observations showed 284 days with rain or snow, of +which 70 were with snow.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and less +interesting than those of Argentina and Brazil, but contains many +peculiar genera and species. A classification of this flora necessitates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span> +its division into at least three general zones—the desert provinces +of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south. +The first is an arid desert absolutely barren along part of the coast, +between Tacna and Copiapó, but with a coarse scanty vegetation +near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes where +moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the sand. +In the valleys of the Copiapó and Huasco rivers a meagre vegetation +is to be found near their channels, apart from what is produced by +irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry river channels +below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing southward +into the province of Coquimbo a gradual change in the arid conditions +may be observed. The higher summits of the Cordilleras afford a +larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent are +the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water +supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an +indication of what the coming season is to be. The arborescent +growth near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are +to be found the “algarrobo” (<i>Prosopis siliquastrum</i>) and “chañar” +(<i>Gourliea chilensis</i>), but the only shrub to be found on the coast is a +species of <i>Skytanthus</i>. Near the sierras where irrigation is possible, +fruit-growing is so successful, especially the grape and fig, that the +product is considered the best in Chile. In regard to the indigenous +flora of this region John Ball<a name="FnAnchor_2c" id="FnAnchor_2c" href="#Footnote_2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> says: “The species which grow here +are the more or less modified representatives of plants which at +some former period existed under very different conditions of life.” +Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a dwarfed species, +and then a larger columnar form (<i>Cereus quisco</i>). The streams are +fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields fill the irrigated +valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better covered with a +thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the streams, +however, continue barren as far south as the transverse ranges of +mountains across the province of Aconcagua.</p> + +<p>To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character +between the northern and southern zones. It is much more than +this, however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly +its own. A large majority of the 198 genera peculiar to the South +American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile. +This zone extends from about the 30th to the 36th parallel, perhaps +a little farther south to include some characteristic types. The +evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south, +and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a subtropical +aspect. One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is +the <i>peumo</i> (<i>Cryptocarya peumus</i>), whose dense evergreen foliage is +everywhere conspicuous. The <i>quillay</i> (<i>Quillaja saponaria</i>) is another +characteristic evergreen tree of this region, whose bark possesses +saponaceous properties. In earlier times the coquito palm (<i>Jubaea +spectabilis</i>) was to be found throughout this part of Chile, but it has +been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine sap, from which +a treacle was made. One of the most striking forest trees is the +<i>pehuen</i> or Chilean pine (<i>Araucaria imbricata</i>), which often grows +to a height of 100 ft. and is prized by the natives for its fruit. Three +indigenous species of the beech—the <i>roble</i> (<i>Fagus obliqua</i>), <i>coyhue</i> +(<i>F. Dombeyi</i>), and <i>rauli</i> (<i>F. procera</i>)—are widely diffused and highly +prized for their wood, especially the first, which is misleadingly called +<i>roble</i> (oak). Most of the woods used in construction and manufactures +are found between the Bio-Bio river and the Taytao +peninsula, among which are the <i>alerce</i> (<i>Fitzroya patagonica</i>), <i>ciprés</i> +or Chiloé cypress (<i>Libocedrus tetragona</i>), the Chilean cypress (<i>L. +Chilensis</i>), <i>lingue</i> (<i>Persea lingue</i>), laurel (<i>Laurus aromatica</i>), <i>avellano</i> +(<i>Guevina avellana</i>), <i>luma</i> (<i>Myrtus luma</i>), <i>espino</i> (<i>Acacia cavenia</i>) and +many others. Several exotic species have been introduced into this +part of Chile, some of which have thriven even better than in their +native habitats. Among these are the oak, elm, beech (<i>F. sylvatica</i>), +walnut, chestnut, poplar, willow and eucalyptus. Through the +central zone the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain +slopes, but in the southern zone there are no plains, with the exception +of small areas near the Straits of Magellan, and the forests are +universal. In the variety, size and density of their growth these +forests remind one of the tropics. They are made up, in great part, +of the evergreen beech (<i>Fagus betuloides</i>), the deciduous antarctic +beech (<i>F. antarctica</i>),<a name="FnAnchor_3c" id="FnAnchor_3c" href="#Footnote_3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and Winter’s bark (<i>Drimys Winteri</i>), intermingled +with a dense undergrowth composed of a great variety of +shrubs and plants, among which are <i>Maytenus magellanica, Arbutus +rigida, Myrtus memmolaria</i>, two or three species of <i>Berberis</i>, wild +currant (<i>Ribes antarctica</i>), a trailing blackberry, tree ferns, reed-like +grasses and innumerable parasites. On the eastern side of the +Cordillera, in the extreme south, the climate is drier and open, +and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping +forests extend from an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft. down to the level +of the sea. A peculiar vegetable product of this inclement region +is a small globular fungus growing on the bark of the beech, which +is a staple article of food among the Fuegians—probably the only +instance where a fungus is the bread of a people.</p> + +<p>It is generally conceded that the potato originated in southern +Chile, as it is found growing wild in Chiloé and neighbouring islands +and on the adjacent mainland. The strawberry is also indigenous +to these latitudes on both sides of the Andes, and Chile is credited +with a species from which the cultivated strawberry derives some of +its best qualities. Maize and quinoa (<i>Chenopodium quinoa</i>) were +known in Chile before the arrival of Europeans, but it is not +certain that they are indigenous. Species of the bean and pepper +plant are also indigenous, and the former is said to have been +cultivated by the natives. Among the many economic plants +which have been introduced into Chile and have become important +additions to her resources, the more prominent are wheat, barley, +hemp and alfalfa (<i>Medicago sativa</i>), together with the staple European +fruits, such as the apple, pear, peach, nectarine, grape, fig, olive +and orange. The date-palm has also been introduced into the +southern provinces of the desert region. Among the marine productions +on the southern coast, a species of kelp, <i>Macrocystis pyrifera</i>, +merits special mention because of its extraordinary length, its habit +of clinging to the rocks in strong currents and turbulent seas, and +its being a shelter for innumerable species of marine animals. Captain +FitzRoy found it growing from a depth of 270 ft.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—The fauna of Chile is comparatively poor, both in species +and individuals. A great part of the northern deserts is as barren +of animal life as of vegetation, and the dense humid forests of the +south shelter surprisingly few species. There are no large mammals +in all this extensive region except the Cetacea and a species of the +<i>Phocidae</i> of southern waters. Neither are there any dangerous +species of Carnivora, which are represented by the timid puma +(<i>Felis concolor</i>), three species of wildcats, three of the fox, two of +<i>Conepatus</i>, a weasel, sea-otter and six species of seal. The rodents +are the most numerously represented order, which includes the <i>coypu</i> +or nutria (<i>Myopotamus coypus</i>), the chinchilla (<i>Chinchilla laniger</i>), +the tuco-tuco (<i>Ctenomys brasiliensis</i>), a rabbit, and 12 species of +mice—in all some 12 genera and 25 species. The coypu, sometimes +called the South American beaver, inhabits the river-banks, and is +highly prized for its fur. It is also found along the river-courses +of Argentina. The ruminants are represented by a few species only—the +guanaco (<i>Auchenia huanaco</i>), <i>vicuna</i> (<i>A. vicugna</i>), <i>huemul</i> (<i>Cervus +chilensis</i>), which appears on the Chilean escutcheon, and the <i>pudu</i> +deer, a small and not very numerous species. There are two species +of the Edentata, <i>Dasypus</i> and <i>Pichiciego</i>, the latter very rare, and +one of the opossums. European animals, such as horses, cattle, +sheep, swine and goats, have been introduced into the country and +do well. Sheep-raising has also been inaugurated with some degree +of success in the vicinity of the Straits of Magellan. The avifauna, +with the exception of waterfowl, is also limited to comparatively +few species. Birds of prey are represented by the condor, vulture, +two species of the carrion-hawk (<i>Polyborus</i>), and owl. The Chilean +slopes of the Andes appear to be a favourite haunt of the condor, +where neighbouring stock-raisers suffer severe losses at times from +its attacks. The <i>Insessores</i> are represented by a number of species. +Parrots are found as far south as Tierra del Fuego, where Darwin +saw them feeding on seeds of the Winter’s bark. Humming-birds +have a similar range on this coast, one species (<i>Mellisuga Kingii</i>) +being quite numerous as far south as Tierra del Fuego. A characteristic +genus is that of <i>Pteroptochus</i>, of which there are three or four +species each characterized by some conspicuous peculiarity. These +are <i>P. megapodius</i>, called <i>El Turco</i> by the natives, which is noticeable +for its ungainly appearance and awkward gait; the <i>P. albicollis</i>, +which inhabits barren hillsides and is called <i>tapacollo</i> from the manner +of carrying its tail turned far forward over its back; the <i>P. rubecula</i>, +of Chiloé, a small timid denizen of the gloomy forest, called the +<i>cheucau</i> or <i>chuca</i>, whose two or three notes are believed by the +superstitious natives to be auguries of impending success or disaster; +and an allied species (<i>Hylactes Tarnii</i>, King) called the <i>guid-guid</i> or +barking bird, whose cry is a close imitation of the yelp of a small dog. +The southern coast and its inland waters are frequented by several +species of petrel, among which are the <i>Procellaria gigantea</i>, whose +strength and rapacity led the Spaniards to call it <i>quebranta huesos</i> +(breakbones), the <i>Puffinus cinereus</i>, which inhabits the inland +channels in large flocks, and an allied species (<i>Puffinuria Berardii</i>) +which inhabits the inland sounds and resembles the auk in some +particulars of habit and appearance. There are numerous species +in these sheltered channels, inlets and sounds of geese, ducks, swans, +cormorants, ibises, bitterns, red-beaks, curlew, snipe, plover and +moorhens. Conspicuous among these are the great white swan +(<i>Cygnus anatoides</i>), the black-necked swan (<i>Anser nigricollis</i>), the +antarctic goose (<i>Anas antarctica</i>) and the “race-horse” or “steamer +duck” (<i>Micropterus brachypterus</i>).</p> + +<p>The marine fauna is less known than the others, but it is rich in +species and highly interesting in its varied forms and characteristics. +The northern coast has no sheltered waters of any considerable +extent, and the shore slopes abruptly to a great depth, which gives +it a marine life of no special importance. In the shoal waters about +Juan Fernandez are found a species of codfish (possibly <i>Gadus +macrocephalus</i>), differing in some particulars from the Newfoundland +cod, and a large crayfish, both of which are caught for the Valparaiso +market. The sheltered waters of the broken southern coast, however, +are rich in fish and molluscs, especially in mussels, limpets and +barnacles, which are the principal food resource of the nomadic +Indian tribes of those regions. A large species of barnacle, <i>Balanus +psittacus</i>, is found in great abundance from Concepción to Puerto +Montt, and is not only eaten by the natives, by whom it is called +<i>pico</i>, but is also esteemed a great delicacy in the markets of Valparaiso +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span> +and Santiago. Oysters of excellent flavour are found in the sheltered +waters of Chiloé. The Cetacea, which frequent these southern +waters, are represented by four species—two dolphins and the sperm +and right whale—and the <i>Phocidae</i> by six species, one of which +(<i>Phoca lupina</i>) differs but little from the common seal. Another +species (<i>Macrorhinus leoninus</i>), popularly known as the sea-elephant, +is provided with short tusks and a short trunk and sometimes grows +to a length of 20 ft. Still another species, the sea-lion (<i>Otaria jubata</i>), +furnishes the natives of Tierra del Fuego with an acceptable article +of food, but like the <i>Phoca lupina</i> it is becoming scarce.</p> + +<p>Of Reptilia Chile is singularly free, there being recorded only eleven +species—five saurians, four ophidians, one frog and one toad—but +a more thorough survey of the uninhabited territories of the +south may increase this list. There are no alligators in the streams, +and the tropical north has very few lizards. There are no poisonous +snakes in the country, and, in a region so filled with lakes and rivers +as the rainy south, only two species of batrachians. The insect life +of these strangely associated regions is likewise greatly restricted by +adverse climatic conditions, a considerable part of the northern +desert being absolutely barren of animal and vegetable life, while the +climate of Tierra del Fuego and the southern coast is highly unfavourable +to terrestrial animal life, for which reason comparatively few +species are to be found. Writing of a journey inland from Iquique, +Charles Darwin says (<i>Journal of Researches, &c.</i>, p. 444): “Excepting +the <i>Vultur aura</i>, ... I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor +insect.” Of his entomological collection in Tierra del Fuego, which +was not large, the majority were of Alpine species. Moreover, he +did not find a single species common to that island and Patagonia. +These conditions subsist with but few modifications, if any, from the +Straits northward to the 42nd parallel, the extreme humidity, +abnormal rainfall and dark skies being unfavourable to the development +of insect life, while the Andes interpose an impassable barrier +to migration from the countries of the eastern coast. The only +venomous species to be found in central Chile is that of a spider +which frequents the wheat fields in harvest time.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Chile is largely concentrated +in the twelve agricultural provinces between and including +Coquimbo and Concepción, though the next six provinces to the +south, of more recent general settlement, have received some +foreign immigrants, and are rapidly growing. In the desert +provinces the population is limited to the mining communities, +and to the ports and supply stations maintained for their support +and for the transport, smelting and export of their produce. +The province of Atacama has, in addition to its mining population, +a considerable number of agriculturists located in a few +irrigated river valleys, which class is largely increased in the +adjoining province of Coquimbo. The more northern provinces, +however, maintain their populations without the support of such +small cultivated areas. In the southern territories unfavourable +conditions of a widely different character prevail, and the +population is restricted to a few small settlements and some +nomadic tribes of Indians. Here, however, there are localities +where settlements could be maintained by ordinary means and +the population could be greatly increased. Since the census +of 1895 the population of Punta Arenas has been largely increased +by the discovery of gold in the vicinity. The twelve provinces +first mentioned, which include the celebrated “Vale of Chile,” +comprise only 17% of the area of the republic, but the census +of 1895 showed that 72% of the total population was concentrated +within their borders. The four desert provinces north +of Coquimbo had only 8% of the total, and the seven provinces +and one territory south of Concepción had 20%. According +to the census of 1895 the total population was 2,712,145, to +which the census officials added 10% to cover omissions. This +shows an increase slightly over 7% for the preceding decennial +period, the population having been returned as 2,527,320 in 1885. +The census returns of 1875 and 1866 gave respectively 2,068,447 +and 2,084,943, showing an actual decrease in population. +During these years Chile held the anomalous position of a country +spending large sums annually to secure immigrants while at the +same time her own labouring classes were emigrating by +thousands to the neighbouring republics to improve their +condition. Writing in 1879, a correspondent of <i>The Times</i><a name="FnAnchor_4c" id="FnAnchor_4c" href="#Footnote_4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +stated that this emigration then averaged 8000 a year, and in +bad times had reached as many as 30,000 in one year. The +condition of the Chilean labourer has been much improved since +then, however, and Chile no longer suffers so serious a loss of +population. In 1895, the foreigners included in the Chilean +population numbered 72,812, of which 42,105 were European, +29,687 American, and 1020 Asiatic, &c. According to nationality +there were 8269 Spanish, 7809 French, 7587 Italian, 7049 +German, 6241 British, 1570 Swiss, 1490 Austro-Hungarian, +13,695 Peruvian, 7531 Argentine, 6654 Bolivian, 701 American +(U.S.), 797 Chinese. According to residence, 1,471,792 were +inhabitants of rural districts, and 1,240,353 of towns. The +registration of births, marriages and deaths is compulsory since +the 1st of January 1885, but the provisions of the law are +frequently eluded. Notwithstanding the healthiness of the +climate, the death-rate is high, especially in the large cities. +In Santiago and Valparaiso the death-rate sometimes rises to +42 and 60 per 1000, and infant mortality is very high, being +73% of the births in some of the provincial towns. This +unfavourable state of affairs is due to the poverty, ignorance +and insanitary habits of the lower classes. The government has +made repeated efforts to secure immigrants from Europe, but +the lands set apart for immigrant settlers are in the forested +provinces south of the Bio-Bio, where the labour and hardships +involved in establishing a home are great, and the protection +of the law against bandits and criminal assaults is weak. The +Germans have indeed settled in many parts of these southern +provinces since 1845, and by keeping together have succeeded +in building up several important towns and a large number of +prosperous agricultural communities. One German authority +(Hüber) estimates the number of Germans in two of these provinces +at 5000. The arrivals, however, have been on the whole +discouragingly small, the total for the years 1901-1905 being +only 14,000.</p> + +<p>Although Chileans claim a comparatively small admixture +with the native races, it is estimated that the whites and creoles +of white extraction do not exceed 30 to 40% of the population, +while the <i>mestizos</i> form fully 60%. This estimate is unquestionably +conservative, for there has been no large influx of European +blood to counterbalance the race mixtures of earlier times. +The estimated number of Indians living within the boundaries +of Chile is about 50,000, which presumably includes the nomadic +tribes of the Fuegian archipelago, whose number probably +does not reach 5000. The semi-independent Araucanians, +whose territory is slowly being occupied by the whites, are +concentrated in the eastern forests of Bio-Bio, Malleco and +Cautin, all that remains to them of the Araucania which they +so bravely and successfully defended for more than three +centuries. Their number does not much exceed 40,000, which +is being steadily reduced by drunkenness and epidemic diseases. +A small part of these Indians live in settled communities and +include some very successful stock-raisers, but the greater part +live apart from civilization. There are also some remnants of +tribes in the province of Chiloé, which inhabit the island of that +name, the Chonos and Guaytecas archipelagoes and the adjacent +mainland, who have the reputation of being good boatmen and +fishermen; and there are remnants of a people called Changos, +on the desert coast, and traces of Calchaqui blood in the +neighbouring Andean foothills.</p> + +<p>There is a wide difference in every respect between the upper +or ruling class and the common people. The former includes +the landed proprietors, professional men and a part of those +engaged in commercial and industrial pursuits. These educated +classes form only a small minority of the population. Many of +them, especially the landed proprietors, are descendants of the +original Spanish settlers and are celebrated for their politeness +and hospitality. The political control of the republic was secured +to them by the constitution of 1833. The common people were +kept in ignorance and practically in a state of hopeless servitude. +They were allowed to occupy small leaseholds on the large estates +on condition of performing a certain amount of work for the +landlord. Every avenue toward the betterment of their condition +was practically closed. The condition of the itinerant +labourers (<i>peons</i>) was still worse, the wages paid them being +hardly sufficient to keep them from starvation. The Chilean +<i>peon</i>, however, comes from a hardy stock, and has borne all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span> +these hardships with a fortitude and patience which go far to +counterbalance his faults. Recent reforms in education, &c., +together with the growth of manufacturing industries, are +slowly leading to improvements in the material condition of +the common people.</p> + +<p>The political organization of the country has not been favourable +to the development of artistic or scientific tastes, though +Chile has produced political leaders, statesmen and polemical +writers in abundance. Historical +literature has been enriched by +the works of Diego Barros Arana, +Benjamin Vicuña Mackenna, Miguel +Luis Amunátegui, Carlos Walker +Martinez, and others. One of the +earliest native histories of Chile +was that of Abbé J. Ignacio +Molina, an English translation of +which has long been a recognized +authority; it is full of errors, +however, and should be studied +only in connexion with modern +standard works. Among these must +be included Claude Gay’s monumental +work, <i>Historia General de +Chile</i>, and Sir C.R. Markham’s +admirable studies on special parts +of the subject. In science, nearly all the important work has +been done by foreigners, among whom are Charles Darwin, +Claude Gay, Eduard Pöppig, Rudolph A. Philippi and Hans +Steffen, who deserves special mention for his excellent geographical +work in the southern Andes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Divisions and Towns.</i>—Chile contains 23 provinces and one +territory, which are subdivided into 75 departments, 855 subdelegations +and 3068 districts. The territory north of the Bio-Bio was originally +divided into 13 provinces, besides which the Spaniards held +Chiloé, Juan Fernandez and Valdivia, the latter being merely a +military outpost. During the years which have elapsed since the +War of Independence the territory south of the Bio-Bio has been +effectively occupied and divided into six provinces, Chiloé and the +neighbouring islands and mainland to the east became a province, +and four provinces in the northern deserts were acquired from +Bolivia and Peru. In addition to this, Chile claimed Patagonia and +the adjacent islands, and has finally secured not only the forested +strip of territory west of the Andes, but also a large piece of the +Patagonian mainland, south of lat. 52° S., the larger part of Tierra +del Fuego, and all the western islands. This extensive region, +comprising an area of 71,127 sq. m., has been provisionally organized +as the territory of Magallanes. For a list of provinces, their areas, +reduced from official returns, their populations, and the names and +populations of their capitals, see the bottom of this page.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Provinces.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Area.</td> + <td class="tcc tb bb rb2 lb" rowspan="2">Population.<br />Census 1895.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Capitals.</td> + <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Population.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Census 1895.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Est. 1902.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Tacna </td> <td class="tcr rb">9,251</td> <td class="tcr rb2">24,160</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Tacna</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,418</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,504</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Tarapacá</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,131</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89,751</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Iquique</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,031</td> <td class="tcr rb">42,788</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Antofagasta</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,611</td> <td class="tcr rb2">44,035</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Antofagasta</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,530</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,084</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Atacama</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,729</td> <td class="tcr rb2">59,713</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Copiapo</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,301</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,991</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Coquimbo</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,461</td> <td class="tcr rb2">160,898</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">La Serena</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,712</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,536</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Aconcagua</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,487</td> <td class="tcr rb2">113,165</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">San Felipe</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,313</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,660</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Valparaiso</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,953</td> <td class="tcr rb2">220,756</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Valparaiso</td> <td class="tcr rb">122,447</td> <td class="tcr rb">142,282</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Santiago</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,665</td> <td class="tcr rb2">415,636</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Santiago</td> <td class="tcr rb">256,403</td> <td class="tcr rb">332,059</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">O’Higgins</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,342</td> <td class="tcr rb2">85,277</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Rancagua</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,665</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,133</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Colchagua</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,856</td> <td class="tcr rb2">157,566</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">San Fernando</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,447</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,164</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Curicó</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,978</td> <td class="tcr rb2">103,242</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Curicó</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,669</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,340</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Talca</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,840</td> <td class="tcr rb2">128,961</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Talca</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,232</td> <td class="tcr rb">42,766</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Lináres</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,942</td> <td class="tcr rb2">101,858</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Lináres</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,331</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,256</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Maule</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,475</td> <td class="tcr rb2">119,791</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Cauquenes</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,574</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,895</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Nuble</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,407</td> <td class="tcr rb2">152,935</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Chillan</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,738</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,382</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Concepción </td> <td class="tcr rb">3,252 </td> <td class="tcr rb2">188,190</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Concepción</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,837</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,351</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Arauco</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,458</td> <td class="tcr rb2">59,237 </td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Lebú</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,784</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,178</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Bio-Bio</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,246</td> <td class="tcr rb2">88,749</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Los Angeles</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,868</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,777</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Malleco</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,973</td> <td class="tcr rb2">98,032</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Angol</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,056</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,638</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Cautin</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,832</td> <td class="tcr rb2">78,221</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Temuco</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,078</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,699</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Valdivia</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,649</td> <td class="tcr rb2">60,687</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Valdivia</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,060</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,704</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Llanquihue</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,515</td> <td class="tcr rb2">78,315</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Puerto Montt</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,480</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,140</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Chiloé</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,593</td> <td class="tcr rb2">77,750</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Ancud</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,182</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,787</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Magallanes (Ter.)<br /> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">71,127</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">5,170</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Punta Arenas</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,227</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,327</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb"> Total, official</td> <td class="tcr rb">307,774</td> <td class="tcr rb2">2,712,145</td> + <td class="tcl rlb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Total according to</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2"> </td> + <td class="tcl rlb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb"> Gotha computation</td> <td class="tcr rb">293,062</td> <td class="tcr rb2"> </td> + <td class="tcl rlb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">With 10% added for</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2"> </td> + <td class="tcl rlb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb"> omissions</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2">2,983,359</td> + <td class="tcl rlb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Official estimate</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2"> </td> + <td class="tcl rlb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb"> for 1902</td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">3,173,783</td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>In addition to the provincial capitals there are few towns of importance. +Among these may be mentioned:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb2 lb" colspan="2">Population.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Population.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">1895.</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb2 lb">Est. 1902.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">1895.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Est. 1902.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Arica</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,853</td> <td class="tcr rb2">2,824</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Parral</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,586</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,219</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Pisagua</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,635</td> <td class="tcr rb2">4,720</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Constitución</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,453</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Taltal</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,834</td> <td class="tcr rb2">6,574</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">San Carlos</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,051</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,579</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Tocopilla</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,383</td> <td class="tcr rb2">4,752</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Coronel</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,575</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,959</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Vallenar</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,052</td> <td class="tcr rb2">5,199</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Lota</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,797</td> <td class="tcr rb">... </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Coquimbo</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,322</td> <td class="tcr rb2">8,165</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Talcahuano</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,431</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,499</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Ovalle</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,565</td> <td class="tcr rb2">5,772</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">El Tomé</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,977</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,189</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Los Andes (Santa Rosa)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,504</td> <td class="tcr rb2">6,854</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Arauco </td> <td class="tcr rb">3,008</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,334</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Quillota</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,621</td> <td class="tcr rb2">9,876</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Cañete</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,552</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Vina del Mar</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,651</td> <td class="tcr rb2">... </td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Mulchen</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,268</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,332</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Melipilla</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,286</td> <td class="tcr rb2">5,023</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Traiguen</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,732</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,099</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Rengo</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,463</td> <td class="tcr rb2">7,232</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Victoria</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,989</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,002</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Vichuquen</td> <td class="tcr rb">826</td> <td class="tcr rb2">3,714</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">La Unión</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,830</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,908</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Molina</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,609</td> <td class="tcr rb2">3,222</td> + <td class="tcl rlb">Osorno</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,888</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb"> </td> + <td class="tcl rlb bb">Castro (Chiloé)</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,035</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,166</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The population is not concentrated in large cities, but is well +distributed through the cultivated parts of the country. The large +number of small towns, important as ports, market towns, or +manufacturing centres, is a natural result. Many of the foregoing towns +are only villages in size, but their importance is not to be measured +in this way. Arica is one of the oldest ports on the coast, and has +long been a favoured port for Bolivian trade because the passes +through the Cordilleras at that point are not so difficult. Moreover, +the railway from Arica to La Paz will still further add to its +importance, though it may not greatly increase its population. Another +illustration is that of Vichuquen, province of Curicó, situated on a +tide-water lake on the coast, which is the centre of a large salt-making +industry. Still another instance is that of Castro, the oldest +settlement and former capital of Chiloé, which after a century of +decay is increasing again through the efforts to develop the +industries of that island.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Railway construction in Chile dates from 1850, +when work was begun on a short line between Copiapó and the port +of Caldera, in the Atacama desert region. Since then lines have +been built by private companies from +the coast at several points to inland +mining centres. One of these, running +from Antofagasta to the Caracoles +district, was afterwards extended to +Oruro, Bolivia, and has become a +commercial route of international +importance, with a total length of +574 m., 224 of which are in Chile. +It should be remembered that many +of these railway enterprises of the +desert region originated at a time when +the territory belonged to Bolivia and +Peru. The first railway to be +constructed in central Chile was the +government line from Valparaiso to +Santiago, 115 m. in length, which +was opened to traffic in 1863. About +the same time the government began +the construction of a longitudinal +trunk line running southward from +Santiago midway between the Andes +and the Coast range, and connecting +with all the provincial capitals and +prominent ports. This is the only +railway “system” it is possible for +Chile to have. The civil war of 1891 +called attention to the need of a similar +inland route through the northern +provinces. A branch of the Valparaiso +and Santiago line runs to Los Andes, +and its extension across the Andes +connects with the Argentine lines +from Buenos Aires to Mendoza and +the Chilean frontier—all sections +together forming a transcontinental +route about 850 m. in length. The +Transandine section of this route +crosses the Cordillera through the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span> +Uspallata pass. A further Transandine scheme provides for a line +through the Pino Hachado pass (38° 30′ to 39° S.), and the Argentine +Great Southern Company obtained a concession in 1909 to extend its +Neuquen line to the frontier of Chile. The railways of the republic +had a total mileage at the end of 1906 of 2950 m., of which 1495 m. +were owned by the state, and 1455 m. belonged to private companies. +The private lines are located in the northern provinces and are for +the most part built and maintained for the transportation of mining +products and supplies.</p> + +<p>In addition to her railway lines Chile has about 21,000 m. of public +roads of all descriptions, 135 m. of tramways, and 705 m. of navigable +river channels, besides a very considerable mileage of lake and coast +navigation. Telegraphic communication between all the important +towns of the republic, initiated in 1855 with a line between Santiago +and Valparaiso, is maintained by the state, which in 1903 owned +9306 m. of line in a total of 11,080 m. Cable communication with +Europe by way of Buenos Aires was opened in 1875, and is now +maintained by means of two underground cables across the Andes, +32 m. in length. A West Coast cable also connects with Europe and +North American states by way of Panama. There were 15,853 m. +of telephone wires in the republic in 1906, all the principal cities +having an admirable service. Modern postal facilities date from +1853. The Chilean post-office is administered by a director-general +at Santiago, and has a high degree of efficiency and liberality, compared +with those of other South American states. The postal rates +are low, and newspapers and other periodical publications circulate +free, as a means of popular instruction. The postal revenues for +1904 amounted to 2,775,730 pesos and the expenditures to 2,407,753 +pesos. Chile is a member of the International Postal Union, and has +arrangements with the principal commercial nations for the exchange +of postal money values.</p> + +<p>The sea has been the only means of communication with distant +parts of the country, and must continue to be the chief transportation +route. There are said to be 56 ports on the Chilean coast, +of which only 12 are prominent in foreign trade. Many of the so-called +ports are only landing-places on an open coast, others are on +shallow bays and obstructed river-mouths, and some are little-known +harbours among the channels and islands of the south. The prosperity +of Chile is intimately connected with her ocean-going trade, +and no elaborate system of national railway lines and domestic +manufactures can ever change this relationship. These conditions +should have developed a large merchant marine, but the Chileans +are not traders and are sailors only in a military sense. In 1905 their +ocean-going merchant marine consisted of only 148 vessels, of which +54 were steamers of 42,873 tons net, and 94 were sailing vessels of +39,346 tons. Nineteen of the 54 steamers belonged to a subsidized +national line whose West Coast service once extended to San Francisco, +California, and a large part of the others belongs to a Lota +coal-mining and copper-smelting company which employs them in +carrying coal to the northern ports and bringing back metallic ores +for smelting. The navigable rivers and inland lakes employ a number +of small steamers. The foreign commerce of the republic is carried +chiefly by foreign vessels, and the coasting trade is also open to them. +Three or four foreign companies maintain a regular steamship service +to Valparaiso and other Chilean ports. The shipping entries +at all Chilean ports during the year 1904, both national and +foreign, numbered 11,756, aggregating 17,723,138 tons, and the clearances +11,689, aggregating 17,370,763 tons. Very nearly one-half this +tonnage was British, a little over 18% German, and about 29% +Chilean.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—In the aggregate, the commerce of Chile is large and +important; in proportion to population it is exceeded among South +American states only by Argentina, Uruguay and the Guianas. +Unlike those states, it depends in great part on mining and its allied +occupations. The values of imports and exports (including bullion, +specie and re-exports) in pesos of 18d. during the five years 1901- +1905 were as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc">Imports.<br />pesos.</td> <td class="tcc">Exports.<br />pesos.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcc">139,300,766</td> <td class="tcc">171,844,976</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1902</td> <td class="tcc">132,428,204</td> <td class="tcc">185,879,965</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1903</td> <td class="tcc">149,081,524</td> <td class="tcc">210,442,144</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1904</td> <td class="tcc">164,874,928</td> <td class="tcc">232,493,598</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1905</td> <td class="tcc">188,596,418</td> <td class="tcc">265,209,192</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The principal imports comprise live animals, fish, coffee, maté +(<i>Ilex paraguayensis</i>), tea, sugar, wood and its manufactures, structural +iron and steel, hardware and machinery, railway and telegraph +supplies, lime and cement, glass and earthenware, cotton, woollen +and silk manufactures, coal, petroleum, paints, &c. Import duties +are imposed at the rates of 60, 35, 15, 5 and 25%, and certain +classes of merchandise are admitted free. The higher rates are +designed chiefly to protect national industries, while wines, liquors, +cigars and tobacco are admitted at the lowest rate. The 25% rate +covers all articles not mentioned in the schedules, which number 2260 +items. The duty free list includes raw cotton, certain descriptions +of live animals, agricultural machinery and implements, metal wire, +fire engines, structural iron and steel, and machinery in general. +The tariff is nominally <i>ad valorem</i>, but as the rates are imposed on +fixed official valuations it is essentially specific. The duties on +imports in 1905 amounted to 91,321,860 pesos, and in 1906 to +103,507,556 pesos. The principal exports are gold, silver, copper +(bars, regulus and ores), cobalt and its ores, lead and its ores, +vanadium ores, manganese, coal, nitrate of soda, borate of lime, +iodine, sulphur, wheat and guano. Nitrate of soda forms from 70 +to 75% of the exports, and the royalty received from it is the +principal source of national revenue, yielding about £4,000,000 per +annum. In 1904 mineral products made up fully seven-eighths of +the exports, while agricultural and pastoral products did not quite +reach one-eighth.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—According to the census returns about one-half the +population of Chile lives in rural districts, and is engaged nominally +in agricultural pursuits. What may be called central Chile is +singularly well adapted to agriculture. The northern part of this +region has a sub-tropical climate, light rainfall and a long, dry +summer, but with irrigation it produces a great variety of products. +Alfalfa, or lucerne (<i>Medicago sativa</i>), is grown extensively for +shipment to the mining towns of the desert provinces. There were no +less than 108,384 acres devoted to it in 1904, a considerable part of +which was in the irrigated river valleys of Coquimbo and Aconcagua. +Considerable attention is also given to fruit cultivation in these +subtropical provinces, where the orange, lemon, fig, melon, pineapple +and banana are produced with much success. Some districts, +especially in Coquimbo, have gained a high reputation for the excellence +of their preserved fruits. The vine is cultivated all the way +from Atacama and Coquimbo, where excellent raisins are produced, +south to Concepción, where some of the best wines of Chile are +manufactured. In 1904 there were 93,370 acres devoted to grape +production in this region, the product for that year being 30,184,704 +gallons of wine and 212,366 gallons of brandy. The universal +beverage of the people—<i>chicha</i>—is made from Indian corn. +Although wheat is produced in the northern part of this region, it +is grown with greater success in the south, where the rainfall is +heavier and the average temperature is lower. There were 1,044,025 +acres devoted to this cereal in 1903, which produced 17,910,614 +bushels, or an average of 17 bushels (of 60 lb) to the acre. In 1904 +the production was increased to 19,999,324 bushels, but in 1905 it +fell off to 15,771,477 bushels. At one time Chile supplied Argentina +and the entire West Coast as far north as California with wheat, but +Argentina and California have become wheat producers and exporters, +and Chile has been driven from all her old consuming +markets. Great Britain is now her best customer, and Brazil takes +a small quantity for milling mixtures. Chile has been badly handicapped +by her crude methods of cultivation, but these are passing +away and modern methods are taking their place. Formerly wheat +was grown chiefly in the region of long rainless summers, and the +ripened grain was thrown upon uncovered earth floors and threshed +by horses driven about over the straw, but this antiquated process +was not suited to the climate and enterprise of the more southern +provinces, and the modern threshing-machine has been introduced. +Barley is largely produced, chiefly for home consumption. Maize +(Indian corn) is grown in every part of Chile except the rainy south +where the grain cannot ripen, and is a principal article of food. The +green maize furnishes two popular national dishes, <i>choclos</i> and +<i>humitas</i>, which are eaten by both rich and poor. Potatoes also are +widely cultivated, but the humid regions of the south, particularly +from Valdivia to Chiloé, produce the greatest quantity. The total +annual production exceeds three million bushels. The kidney bean +(<i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i>) is another staple product in every part of the +country, and is perhaps the most popular article of food among all +classes of Chileans. Peas are largely cultivated south of the Maule. +Walnuts have become another important product and are exported, +the average annual produce being 48,000 to 50,000 bushels. The +olive was introduced from Spain in colonial times and is widely +distributed through the north central provinces, but its economic +importance is not great. Of the European fruits introduced into +the southern provinces, the apple has been the most successful. +It grows with little care and yields even better than in its original +home. The peach, apricot, plum, quince and cherry are also cultivated +with success. Wild strawberries are found on both sides of +the Andes; the cultivated varieties are unsurpassed, especially +those of the province of Concepción.</p> + +<p>The pastoral industries of Chile have been developed chiefly for +the home market. The climate is admirably suited to cattle-raising, +as the winters are mild and pasture is to be found throughout the +whole year, but the proximity of the Argentine pampas is fatal to +its profitable development. The government has been trying to +promote cattle-breeding by levying duties (as high as 16 pesos a +head) on cattle imported from Argentina, but with no great success. +The importation, which formerly numbered about 140,000 per annum, +still numbers not far from 100,000 head. There are some districts +in central Chile where cattle-raising is the principal occupation, but +the long dry summers limit the pasturage on the open plains and +prevent the development which perhaps would otherwise result. +As in Argentina, beef is generally dried in the sun to make <i>charqui</i> +(jerked beef), in which form it is exported to the desert provinces. +Horse and mule breeding are carried on to a limited extent, and +since the opening of the far South more attention has been given to +sheep. Goats and swine are raised in small numbers on the large +estates, but in Chiloé swine-raising is one of the chief occupations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span> +of the people. Some attention has been given to the production of +butter and cheese, but the industry has attained no great importance. +A new industry which has made noteworthy progress, however, is +that of bee-keeping, which is greatly favoured by the mild climate +and the long season and abundance of flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures.</i>—The manufacturing interests of Chile have become +influential enough to force a high tariff policy upon the country. +They have been restricted principally to articles of necessity—food +preparations, beverages, textiles and wearing apparel, leather and +leatherwork, woodwork, pottery, chemicals, ironware, &c. In earlier +days, when Chile had less competition in the production of wheat, +flour mills were to be found everywhere in the wheat-producing +provinces, and flour was one of the leading exports. Concepción, +Talca, and other provincial capitals developed important milling +industries, which were extended to all the chief towns of the newer +provinces south of the Bio-Bio. There are over 500 large flour mills +in Chile, the greater part of which are equipped with modern +roller-process machinery. The development of the coal deposits in the +provinces of Concepción and Arauco has made possible other industries +besides those of smelting mineral ores, and numerous small +manufacturing establishments have resulted, especially in Santiago, +Valparaiso, Copiapó and other places where no permanent water +power exists. Tanning leather is an important industry, especially +in the south, some of the Chilean trees, notably the <i>algarrobilla</i> +(<i>Balsamocarpon brevifolium</i>) and <i>lingue</i> (<i>Persea lingue</i>) +being rich in tannin. To provide a market for the leather produced, +factories have been established for the manufacture of boots and shoes, +harness and saddles, and under the protection of a high tariff are doing +well. Brewing and distilling have made noteworthy progress, the domestic +consumption of their products being very large. The breweries are +generally worked by Germans and are situated chiefly in the south, +though there are large establishments in Santiago and Valparaiso. +Small quantities of their products are exported. Furniture and +carriage factories, cooperages, and other manufactories of wood are +numerous and generally prosperous. There are likewise a large +number of factories for canning and preserving fruits and vegetables. +Foundries and machine shops have been established, especially for +the manufacture of railway material. The sugar beet has been +added to the productions of Chile, and with it the manufacture on +a small scale of beet sugar. There is one large refinery at Viña del +Mar, however, which imports raw cane sugar from Peru for refining. +The manufacture of textiles is carried on at Santiago and El Tomé, +and numerous small factories are devoted to clothing of various +descriptions. The great mining industries have led to a noteworthy +development in the production of chemicals, and a considerable +number of factories are engaged in the production of pharmaceutical +preparations, perfumeries, soaps, candles, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Mining</i>.—The most important of all the national industries, +however, is that of mining. In 1903 there were 11,746 registered +mines, on which mining dues were paid, the aggregate produce being +valued at 178,768,170 pesos. These mines gave employment to +46,592 labourers, of whom 24,445 were employed by the nitrate +companies, 13,710 in various metalliferous mines, 6437 in coal +mines, and 2000 in other mines. Gold is found in nearly all the +provinces from Antofagasta to Concepción, and in Llanquihue, +Chiloé and Magallanes territory, but the output is not large. There +are a great many placer washings, among which are some extensive +deposits near the Straits of Magellan. Silver is found principally +on the elevated slopes and plateaus of the Andes in the desert +provinces of the north. The second most important mining industry +in Chile, however, is that of copper, which is found in the provinces of +Antofagasta, Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Valparaiso, Santiago, +O’Higgins, Colchagua, Curicó and Talca, but the richest deposits +are in the three desert provinces. Chile was once the largest producer +of copper in the world, her production in 1860-1864 being +rated at 60 to 67% of the total. Low prices afterwards caused a +large shrinkage in the output, but she is still classed among the +principal producers. Iron mining has never been developed in Chile, +although extensive deposits are said to exist. Manganese ores are +mined in Atacama and Coquimbo, and their export is large. The +other metals reported in the official returns are lead, cobalt and +vanadium, of which only small quantities are produced. Bolivian +tin is exported from Chilean ports. Among the non-metallic minerals +are nitrate of soda, borate of lime, coal, salt and sulphur, together +with various products derived from these minerals, such as iodine, +sulphuric acid, &c. Guano is classed among the mineral products +and still figures as an export, though the richest Chilean deposits +were exhausted long before the war with Peru. Of non-metallic +products nitrate of soda is by far the most important. Extensive +deposits of the salt (called <i>caliche</i> in its crude, impure state) in +the provinces of Tacna, Tarapacá, Antofagasta and Atacama owe their +existence to the rainless character of the climate. Those of the +first-named province have been discovered since the war between Chile +and Peru, and have greatly extended the prospective life of the industry. +The nitrate fields, which lie between 50 and 100 m. from +the coast and at elevations exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level, have +been officially estimated at 89,177 hectares (344 sq. m.) and to contain +2316 millions of metric quintals (254,760,000 short tons). The +first export of nitrates was in 1830, and in 1884 it reached an +aggregate of 550,000 tons, and in 1905 of 1,603,140 tons. The latter +figure is apparently about the production agreed upon between the +Chilean government and the nitrate companies to prevent overproduction +and a resulting decline in price. Nearly all the <i>oficinas</i>, +or working plants, are owned and operated by British companies, +and the railways of this desolate region are generally owned by the +same companies and form a part of the working plant. Borate of +lime also furnishes another important export, though a less valuable +one than nitrate of soda. Extensive deposits of borax and common +salt have been found in the same region, which with several other +products of these saline deposits, such as iodine, add considerably +to its exports. The coal deposits of Chile are found chiefly in the +provinces of Concepción and Arauco, the principal mines being on +the coast of the Bay of Arauco at Coronel and Lota. Coal is found +also in Valdivia, on the island of Chiloé, and in the vicinity of Punta +Arenas on the Straits of Magellan. Sulphur is found in the volcanic +regions of the north, but the principal mines are in the provinces +of Talca.</p> + +<p>The relative magnitude and value of these mineral products may +be seen in the following abstract from the official returns of 1903:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Unit.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Quantity.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Value pesos<br />(of 18d.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Gold</td> <td class="tcc rb">grammes</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,424,625</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,745,115</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Silver</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,012,382</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,284,308</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Copper</td> <td class="tcc rb">kilogrs.</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,923,132</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,438,397</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Lead</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,984</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,097</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Cobalt ore</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">284,990</td> <td class="tcr rb">99,695</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Lead and Vanadium ores</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Manganese ore</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,110,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">682,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Coal</td> <td class="tcc rb">tons</td> <td class="tcr rb">827,112</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,250,720</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Nitrates</td> <td class="tcc rb">metric quintals</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,449,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">140,102,012</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Iodine</td> <td class="tcc rb">kilogrs.</td> <td class="tcr rb">157,444</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,687,327</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Borates</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,878,913</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,363,048</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Salt</td> <td class="tcc rb">metric quintals</td> <td class="tcr rb">162,635</td> <td class="tcr rb">324,270</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcc rb">kilogrs.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,440,642</td> <td class="tcr rb">337,515</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Sulphuric acid</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,600,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">176,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Guano</td> <td class="tcc rb">metric quintals</td> <td class="tcr rb">111,335</td> <td class="tcr rb">267,466</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Various</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">kilogrs.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">200</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">800</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—Chile is a centralized republic, whose +government is administered under the provisions of the constitution +of 1833 and the amendments of the 9th of August 1888, the 11th +of August 1890, the 20th of August 1890, the 22nd of December +1891, and the 7th of July 1892. According to this constitution +the sovereignty resides in the nation, but suffrage is restricted +to married citizens over twenty-one and unmarried citizens over +twenty-five years of age, not in domestic service, who can read +and write, and who are the owners of real estate, or who have +capital invested in business or industry, or who receive salaries +or incomes proportionate in value to such real estate as investment; +and as 75% of the population is classed as illiterate, and +a great majority of the labouring classes is landless, badly paid, +and miserably poor, it is apparent that political sovereignty +in Chile is the well-guarded possession of a small minority. The +dominant element in this minority is the rich landholding interest, +and the constitution and the laws of the first half-century were +framed for the special protection of that interest.</p> + +<p>The supreme powers of government are vested in three distinct +branches—legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative +power is exercised by a national congress, which consists of two +chambers—-a senate of 32 members, and a chamber of deputies +of 94 members. The membership of the lower house is in the +proportion of one deputy for each 30,000 of the departmental +population, and each fraction over 15,000; and the senate is +entitled to one-third the membership of the chamber. The +senators are elected by provinces and by a direct cumulative vote, +and hold office for six years, one-half of the senate being renewed +every three years. The deputies are elected by departments and +by a direct cumulative vote, and hold office for three years. +Both senators and deputies must have reached the age of thirty-six, +must have a specified income, and are required to serve +without salary. A permanent committee of 14 members represents +the two chambers during the congressional recess and +exercises certain supervisory and advisory powers in the +administration of public affairs. Congress convenes each year on +the 1st of June and sits until the 1st of September, but the +president may prorogue an ordinary session for a period of 50 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span> +days, and with the consent of the council of state may convene it +in extraordinary session. Congress has the privilege of giving +or withholding its confidence in the acts of the government.</p> + +<p>The executive is a president who is elected for a term of five +years and is ineligible for the next succeeding term. He is chosen +by electors, who are elected by departments in the manner +prescribed for deputies and in the proportion of three electors for +each deputy. These elections are held on the 25th of June in +the last year of a presidential term, the electors cast their votes on +the 25th of July, and the counting takes place in a joint session +of the two chambers of congress on the 30th of August, congress +in joint session having the power to complete the election when +no candidate has been duly chosen by the electors. The formal +installation of the president takes place on the 18th of September, +the anniversary of the declaration of national independence. +In addition to the prerogatives commonly invested in his office, +the president is authorized to supervise the judiciary, to nominate +candidates for the higher ecclesiastical offices, to intervene in +the enforcement of ecclesiastical decrees, papal bulls, &c., to +exercise supervisory police powers, and to appoint the intendants +of provinces and the governors of departments, who in turn +appoint the sub-delegates and inspectors of subordinate political +divisions. The president, who is paid £2250 per annum, must +be native-born, not less than thirty years of age, and eligible +for election to the lower house. He is assisted and advised by a +cabinet of six ministers whose departments are: interior, foreign +affairs, worship and colonization, justice and public instruction, +war and marine, finance, industry and public works. In case +of a vacancy in the presidential office, the minister of interior +becomes the “vice-president of the republic” and discharges +the duties of the executive office until a successor can be legally +elected. A council of state of 12 members, consisting of the +president, 6 members appointed by congress and 5 by the +president, has advisory functions, and its approval is required +in many executive acts and appointments.</p> + +<p>The provinces are administered by <i>intendentes</i>, and the departments +by <i>gobernadores</i>, both appointees of the national executive. +The sub-delegacies are governed by <i>sub-delegados</i> appointed by +the governors, and the districts by <i>inspectores</i> appointed by the +sub-delegates. Directly and indirectly; therefore, the administration +of all these political divisions is in the hands of the president, +who, in like manner, makes and controls the appointments of +all judicial functionaries, subject, however, to receiving recommendations +of candidates from the courts and to submitting +appointments to the approval of the council of state. This gives +the national executive absolute control of all administrative +matters in every part of the republic. The police force also +is a national organization under the immediate control of +the minister of interior, and the public prosecutor in every +department is a representative of the national government. +There is no legislative body in any of these political divisions, nor +any administrative official directly representing the people, with +this exception: under the law of the 22nd of December 1891, +municipalities, or communes, are created and invested with certain +specified powers of local government affecting local police services, +sanitation, local improvements, primary instruction, industrial +and business regulations, &c.; they are authorized to borrow +money for sanitary improvements, road-making, education, +&c., and to impose certain specified taxes for their support; +these municipalities elect their own <i>alcaldes</i>, or mayors, and +municipal councils, the latter having legislative powers within +the limits of the law mentioned.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Justice.</i>—The judicial power consists of a Supreme Court of Justice +of seven members located in the national capital, which exercises +supervisory and disciplinary authority over all the law courts of the +republic; six courts of appeal, in Tacna, Serena, Valparaiso, Santiago, +Talca and Concepción; tribunals of first instance in the department +capitals; and minor courts, or justices of the peace, in the sub-delegacies +and districts. The jury system does not exist in Chile, +and juries are unknown except in cases where the freedom of the +press has been abused. All trials, therefore, are heard by one or +more judges, and appeals may be taken from a lower to a higher +court. The government is represented in each department by a +public prosecutor. The police officials, who are under the direct +control of the minister of interior, also exercise some degree of judicial +authority. This force is essentially military in its organization, and +consisted in 1901 of 500 officers, 934 non-commissioned officers and +5400 police soldiers. Small forces of local policemen are supported +by various municipalities. The judges of the higher courts are appointed +by the national executive, and those of the minor tribunals +by the federal official governing the political division in which they +are located.</p> + +<p><i>Army</i>.—For military purposes the republic is divided into five +districts, the northern desert provinces forming the first, the central +provinces as far south as the Bio-Bio the second and third, and the +southern provinces and territory the fourth and fifth. Large sums +of money have been expended in arms, equipment, guns and +fortifications. The army is organized on the German model and has +been trained by European officers who have been employed both +for the school and regiment. Though the president and minister of +war are the nominal heads of the army, its immediate direction is +concentrated in a general staff comprising six service departments, +at the head of which is a chief of staff. After the triumph of the +revolutionists in the civil war of 1891, the army was reorganized +under the direction of Colonel Emil Körner, an accomplished German +officer, who subsequently served as chief of the general staff. In +1904 the permanent force consisted of 12 battalions of infantry, +6 regiments of cavalry, 4 regiments of mountain artillery, 1 regiment +of horse artillery, 2 regiments of coast artillery, and 5 companies of +engineers—aggregating 915 officers and 4757 men. To this nucleus +were added 6160 recruits, the contingent for that year of young men +twenty-one years of age compelled to serve with the colours. Under +the law of the 5th of September 1900, military service is obligatory +for all citizens between eighteen and forty-five years, all young men +of twenty-one years being required to serve a certain period with the +regular force. After this period they are transferred to the 1st +reserve for 9 years, and then to the 2nd reserve. The military rifle +adopted for all three branches of the service is the Mauser, 1895 +model, of 7 mm. calibre, and the batteries are provided with Krupp +guns of 7 and 7.5 cm. calibre. Military instruction is given in a well-organized +military school at Santiago, a war academy and a school +of military engineering.</p> + +<p><i>Navy</i>.—The Chilean navy is essentially British in organization +and methods, and all its best fighting ships were built in British +yards. In 1906 the effective fighting force consisted of 1 battle +ship, 2 belted cruisers, 4 protected cruisers, 3 torpedo gunboats, 6 +destroyers and 8 modern torpedo boats. In addition to these there +are several inferior armed vessels of various kinds which bring the +total up to 40, not including transports and other auxiliaries. The +administration of the navy, under the president and minister of war +and marine, is confided to a general naval staff, called the “Direccion +jeneral de la Armada,” with headquarters at Valparaiso. Its duties +also include the military protection of the ports, the hydrographic +survey of the coast, and the lighthouse service. The <i>personnel</i> comprises +about 465 officers, including those of the staff, and 4000 petty +officers and men. There is a military port at Talcahuano, in Concepción +Bay, strongly fortified, and provided with arsenal and repair +shops, a large dry dock and a patent slip. The naval school, which +occupies one of the noteworthy edifices of Valparaiso, is attended +by 90 cadets and is noted for the thoroughness of its instruction.</p> + +<p><i>Education</i>.—Under the old conservative régime very little was +done for the public school outside the larger towns. As a large proportion +of the labouring classes lived in the small towns and rural +communities, they received comparatively little attention. The +increasing influence of more liberal ideas greatly improved the +situation with reference to popular education, and the government +now makes vigorous efforts to bring its public school system within +the reach of all. The constitution provides that free instruction +must be provided for the people. School attendance is not compulsory, +however, and the gain upon illiteracy (75%) appears to be +very slow. The government also gives primary instruction to recruits +when serving with the colours, which, with the increasing employment +of the people in the towns, helps to stimulate a desire for +education among the lower classes. Education in Chile is very +largely under the control of the national government, the minister +of justice and public instruction being charged with the direction of +all public schools from the university down to the smallest and most +remote primary school. The system includes the University of +Chile and National Institute at Santiago, lyceums or high schools in +all the provincial capitals and larger towns, normal schools at central +points for the training of public school teachers, professional and +industrial schools, military schools and primary schools. Instruction +in all these is free, and under certain conditions text-books are +supplied. In the normal schools, where the pupils are trained to +enter the public service as primary teachers, not only is the tuition +free, but also books, board, lodging and everything needed in their +school work. The national university at Santiago comprises faculties +of theology, law and political science, medicine and pharmacy, +natural sciences and mathematics, and philosophy. The range of +studies is wide, and the attendance large. The National Institute +at Santiago is the principal high school of the secondary grade in +Chile. There were 30 of these high schools for males and 12 for +females in 1903, with an aggregate of 11,504 matriculated students. +The normal schools for males are located at Santiago, Chillán and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span> +Valdivia; and for females at La Serena, Santiago and Concepción. +The mining schools at Copiapó, La Serena and Santiago had an +aggregate attendance of 180 students in 1903, and the commercial +schools at Iquique and Santiago an attendance of 214. The more +important agricultural schools are located at Santiago, Chillán, +Concepción and Ancud, the Quinta Normal de Agricultura in the +national capital having a large attendance. The School of Mechanic +Arts and Trades (<i>Escuela de Artes y Oficios</i>) of Santiago has a high +reputation for the practical character of its instruction, in which +it is admirably seconded by a normal handicraft school (Slöyd system) +and a night school of industrial drawing in the same city, and professional +schools for girls in Santiago and Valparaiso, where the +pupils are taught millinery, dress-making, knitting, embroidery +and fancy needlework. The government also maintains schools for +the blind and for the deaf and dumb. The public primary schools +numbered 1961 in 1903, with 3608 teachers, 166,928 pupils enrolled, +and an average attendance of 108,582. The cost of maintaining +these schools was 4,146,574 pesos, or an average of £2:17:3 per +pupil in attendance. In addition to the public schools there are a +Roman Catholic university at Santiago, which includes law and civil +engineering among its regular courses of study; numerous private +schools and seminaries of the secondary grade, with a total of 11,184 +students of both sexes in 1903; and 506 private primary schools, with +an attendance of 29,684. The private schools usually conform to +the official requirements in regard to studies and examinations, +which facilitates subsequent admission to the university and the +obtainment of degrees; probably they do better work than the +public schools, especially in the German settlements of the southern +provinces. A Consejo de Instrucción Pública (council of public +instruction) of 14 members exercises a general supervision over the +higher and secondary schools. There are schools of music and fine +arts in Santiago. The national library at Santiago, with 116,300 +volumes in 1906, and the national observatory, are both efficiently +administered. At the beginning of the 20th century there were 41 +public libraries in the republic, including public school collections, +with an aggregate of 240,000 volumes.</p> + +<p><i>Charities.</i>—According to the returns of 1903 there were 88 hospitals +in the republic, which reported 79,051 admissions during the +year, and had 6215 patients under treatment at its close; 628,536 +patients received gratuitous medical assistance at the public dispensaries +during the year; there were 24 foundling hospitals with +5570 children; and there were 3092 persons in the various <i>hospicios</i> +or asylums, and 1478 in the imbecile asylums.</p> + +<p><i>Religion.</i>—The Roman Catholic religion is declared by the constitution +to be the religion of the state, and the inaugural oath of +the president pledges him to protect it. A considerable part of its +income is derived from a subsidy included in the annual budget, +which makes it a charge upon the national treasury like any other +public service. The secular supervision of this service is entrusted +to a member of the president’s cabinet, known as the minister of +worship and colonization. The executive and legislative powers +intervene in the appointments to the higher offices of the Church. +The greater part of the population remains loyal to the established +faith. The law of 1865 gives the privilege of religious worship to +other faiths, and the laws of 1883 made civil marriage and the civil +registry of births, deaths and marriages obligatory, and secularized +the cemeteries. Under the reform of 1865 full religious freedom +is practically accorded, and it is provided that the services of religious +organizations other than the Roman Catholic may be held in private +residences or in edifices owned by private individuals or corporations. +Of the 72,812 foreigners residing in Chile in 1895, about 16,000 were +described as Protestants. Notwithstanding the opposition of some +political elements to the Church, the Chileans themselves may all be +classed as Roman Catholics. The ecclesiastical organization includes +one archbishop, who resides at Santiago, three bishops residing at +La Serena, Concepción and Ancud, and two vicars residing in Antofagasta +and Tarapacá. These benefices are filled by appointments +from lists of three prepared by the council of state and sent to Rome +by the president, and in the case of an archbishop or bishop the +appointment must also receive the approval of the Senate. The +Chilean clergy are drawn very largely from the higher classes, and their +social standing is much better than in many South American states. +The Church also possesses much property of its own, and is therefore +able to maintain itself on a comparatively small subsidy from the +public treasury, which was 985,910 pesos (£73,943) in 1902. The +Church maintains seminaries in all cathedral towns, and these also +receive a subsidy from the government.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—For a long time Chile was considered one of the poorest +states of Spanish America, but the acquisition of the rich mineral-producing +provinces of the north, together with the development +of new silver and copper mines in Atacama and Coquimbo, largely +increased her revenues and enabled her to develop other important +resources. During the decade 1831-1840 the annual revenues +averaged about 2,100,000 pesos (of 48d.), which in the decade 1861-1870 +had increased to an average of only 8,200,000 pesos—and this +during a period of considerable agricultural activity on account of +wheat exports to California and Australia. After 1870 the revenues +increased more rapidly owing to the development of new mining +industries, the receipts in 1879 amounting to 15,300,000 pesos, and +in 1882 to 28,900,000 pesos. The revenues from the captured +Peruvian nitrate fields then became an important part of the national +income, which ten years later (1902) reached an aggregate of +138,507,178 pesos (of i8d.), of which 105,072,832 pesos were in gold. +In 1906 the receipts from all sources were estimated at 149,100,000 +pesos, of which 62,200,000 pesos gold were credited to the tax on +nitrate, 39,800,000 pesos gold to import duties, and 23,500,000 pesos +currency to railway receipts. During these years of fiscal prosperity +the country suffered much from financial crises caused by industrial +stagnation, an excessive and depreciated paper currency and +political disorder. To ensure an income that would meet its foreign +engagements, the government collected the nitrate and iodine taxes +and import duties in gold. As a considerable part of the expenditures +were in gold, the practice was adopted of keeping the gold and currency +accounts separate. In 1895 a conversion law was passed in which +the sterling value of the peso was reduced to 18d., at which rate the +outstanding paper should be redeemed. A conversion fund was also +created, and, although the government afterwards authorized two +more large issues, the beneficial effects of this law were so pronounced +that the customs regulations were modified in 1907 to permit the payment +of import duties in paper. The national revenue is derived chiefly +from the nitrate taxes, customs duties, alcohol tax, and from railway, +postal and telegraph receipts. There is no land tax, and licence or +business taxes are levied by the municipalities for local purposes. +The national expenditures are chiefly for the interest and amortization +charges on the public debt, official salaries, military expenses +in connexion with the army and navy, public works (including railway +construction, port improvements, water and sewage works), the +administration of the state railways, telegraph lines and post office, +church subsidies, public instruction and foreign representation.</p> + +<p>The ordinary and extraordinary receipts and expenditures for the +five years 1899-1903, in gold and currency, in pesos of 18d., were as +follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Receipts, pesos.</td> + <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Expenditures, pesos.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Gold.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Paper.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Gold.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Paper.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rlb"></td> <td class="tcr rb"></td> <td class="tcr rb"></td> <td class="tcr rb"></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rlb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">83,051,604</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,239.970</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,732,797</td> <td class="tcr rb">76,749,793</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rlb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,869,178</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,515,102</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,564,821</td> <td class="tcr rb">82,143,742</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rlb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">74,665,061</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,394,434</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,808,517</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,087,171</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rlb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">105,072,832</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,434,346</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,093,278<a name="FnAnchor_5c" id="FnAnchor_5c" href="#Footnote_5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">89,170,087<a href="#Footnote_5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rlb bb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">108,503,565</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">32,490,145</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,508,075</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">84,721,437</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>For 1906 the expenditures were fixed at 149,000,000 pesos, and the +revenues were estimated to produce 149,100,000 pesos, which included +62,200,000 pesos gold from nitrate taxes, 39,800,000 pesos +gold and 200,000 pesos paper from import duties, 23,500,000 pesos +paper from the state railways, 2,500,000 pesos paper from postal +and telegraph receipts, and 15,000,000 pesos gold from loans. How +the revenues are expended is shown in the estimates for 1907, in +which the total expenditures were estimated at 134,830,532 pesos +paper and 58,796,780 pesos gold, the principal appropriations being +16,192,780 pesos paper and 99,733 gold for the war department, +10,460.781 paper and 6,315,731 gold for the marine department, +40,934,273 paper and 16,984,671 gold for railways, and 6,324,817 +paper for public works. In addition to these the budget of 1906 +provided for gold expenditures in 1907 of 7,000,000 pesos on sanitary +works and 8,000,000 pesos on the Arica-La Paz railway. The custom +of dividing receipts and expenditures into ordinary and extraordinary, +of treating the receipts from loans as revenue, of adding six +months to the fiscal year for closing up accounts, and of dividing +receipts and expenditures into separate gold and currency accounts, +leads to much confusion and complication in the returns, and is the +cause of unavoidable discrepancies and contradictions.</p> + +<p>In May 1906 the external debt of the republic aggregated +£21,700,000, including the loans of 1905 and 1906, amounting to +£5,700.000, for sanitary works and railway construction. At the +same time the internal debt was 107,000,000 pesos (£8,025,000), +which increases the funded indebtedness to £29,725,000. Like +Brazil, Chile has been careful to preserve her foreign credit, and +though an average indebtedness of about £10 per capita may seem +large for a nation with so much absolute poverty among its people, +the government is finding no difficulty in negotiating new loans, the +mineral resources of the country and the conservative instincts of +the people being considered satisfactory guarantees. According to +official returns, the real-estate valuations in 1903-1904 aggregated +1,777,217,704 pesos, of which 1,020,609,215 pesos were in urban +and 754,608,489 pesos in rural property. Of the total returned, +1,775,217,704 is described as taxable, and 262,626,576 pesos as non-taxable. +The large and steadily increasing receipts from import +duties, amounting to 91,321,860 pesos in 1905, and 103,507,556 pesos +in 1906, appears to indicate an encouraging state of prosperity in +the country, although an average of 34½ pesos a year (nearly +£2 : 12s.), in addition to the increased prices paid for home manufactures, +seems to be a very heavy indirect tax upon so poor a +people.</p> + +<p><i>Currency.</i>—The monetary circulation in Chile consists almost +wholly of paper currency, nominally based on a gold standard of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span> +18d. per peso. The conversion law of 1895 made the currency +convertible at this rate, although the gold peso was rated at 48d. +previous to that date; but the financial crisis of 1898 caused the +suspension of specie payments, and a forced issue of additional paper +led to a further postponement of conversion and the prompt withdrawal +of specie from circulation. The paper circulation consists +of national and bank issues. The former owes its existence very +largely to the war with Peru, the civil war of 1891, and the financial +troubles of 1898. On the 1st of January 1890 the national issues +stood at 22,487,916 pesos, and the bank issues at 16,679,790 pesos, +making a total of 39,167,706 pesos currency in circulation. This +total was largely increased by President Balmaceda in 1891. On +the 31st of July 1898 the conversion of paper notes, under the law +of 1st June 1895, was suspended, and the government issued +27,989,929 pesos to the banks of issue, which was described as a loan +at 2%, and raised their outstanding circulation to 40,723,089 pesos, +and at the same time issued on its own account 17,693,890 pesos and +assumed responsibility for 1,193,641 pesos which had been illegally +put into circulation before 1896. This gave an aggregate registered +circulation of 86,045,166 pesos in 1898. In 1904 another issue of +30,000,000 pesos was authorized and the date of conversion was +still further postponed, and in 1907 a more general act provided that +the maximum paper circulation should not exceed 150,000,000 pesos +of the value of 18d. per peso, and that new issues should be made +only through the issue department and against deposits of gold, +which deposits would be returned to depositors on the presentation +of the currency issued. The redemption of this issue was guaranteed +by a conversion fund of 100,000,000 pesos, and by an authorization +to issue a loan of 50,000,000 pesos to redeem the balance, if +necessary. The conversion fund under the act of 1895 stood at +77,282,257 pesos (£5,796,170) on the 31st of May 1907. There are +23 joint-stock banks of issue, with an aggregate registered capital +of 40,689,665 pesos (£3,051,724). Their circulating notes are secured +by deposits in the national treasury of gold, government notes and +other approved securities. There is no state bank, though the Bank +of Chile, with its numerous agencies and its paid-up capital of +20,000,000 pesos, may be said to fill the place of such an institution. +Besides these, there are four non-issue banks, two foreign banks and +their agencies, and three mortgage banks, with agencies at the +important provincial centres, which loan money on real-estate +security and issue interest bearing hypothecary notes to bearer. +There are 8 savings banks in the republic, whose aggregate deposits +on the 31st of December 1906 were 14,799,728 pesos.</p> + +<p>The monetary unit, the gold peso, does not form a part of the actual +coinage. The gold coins authorized by this law are the <i>condor</i> of +20 pesos, the <i>medio condor</i>, or <i>doblon</i>, of 10 pesos, and the +<i>escudo</i> of 5 pesos. The silver coins are the <i>peso</i> of 100 +centavos and its fractional parts of 20, 10 and 5 centavos. The bronze +coins are of 2½, 2, 1, and ½ centavos.</p> + +<p>The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard +in Chile, but the old Spanish standards are still widely used, especially +in handling mining and farm produce. Nitrate of soda is estimated +in Chilean quintals (101.41 lb) in the field, and metric quintals +(220.46 lb) at the port of shipment. In silver and copper mining +the <i>marc</i> (8 oz.) is commonly used in describing the richness of the +ores. Farm produce is generally sold by the <i>arroba</i> or <i>fanega</i>; +the <i>vara</i> is used in lineal measurement, and the <i>cuadra</i> is +used by country people in land measurement.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div> + + +<p class="center1 sc">History.</p> + +<p>Chile was the recognized name of the country from the +beginning of its known history. The land was originally +inhabited by tribes of Indians, who, though not mere savages, +were far below the level of civilization distinguishing the races +of Mexico and Peru. When the country first became known +to the Spaniards in the 16th century the northern tribes were +found to be more civilized and much more submissive than +those of the south. The difference was no doubt due to the +invasion and conquest of northern Chile in the 15th century by +Yupanqui, Inca of Peru, grandfather of Atahualpa, +<span class="sidenote">Inca conquest.</span> +ruler of Peru at the time of its conquest by Pizarro. +The dominion of the Incas in Chile was probably +bounded by the Rapel river (lat. 34° 10′ S.), and, though their +control of the country was slight, the Peruvian influence led to +the introduction of a higher civilization, and, by weakening the +power of the tribes, paved the way for the invasion of the +Spaniards. Beyond the limits of the Inca conquest the Indians +of Chile were distinguished by fierce independence of character +and by their warlike qualities. Rude and ignorant as they were, +they possessed a rough military organization; each community +was led by its <i>ulmen</i> (chief), and in war the tribes fought together +under an elected leader (<i>toqui</i>). The name of the Araucanians, +the most powerful of the tribes, came to be applied to the whole +confederation of Indians living south of the Bio-bio river.</p> + +<p>The first Spanish invasion of Chile took place in 1535, when +Diego de Almagro, the companion and rival of Pizarro in the +conquest of Peru, marched into Chile in search of gold. +<span class="sidenote">Spanish invasions.</span> +Disappointed in his quest, and meeting with obstinate +resistance from the southern tribes, he returned to +Peru with his whole force in 1538. In 1540 Pizarro sent Pedro +de Valdivia to make a regular conquest and settlement of Chile. +Valdivia founded Santiago, the present capital of Chile, in +February 1541, and proceeded to build the towns of La Serena, +Conceptión, Villarica, Imperial, Valdivia and Angol, in order +to secure his hold on the country. But the Indians fought +desperately for their independence, and in 1553 a general rising +of the tribes ended in the defeat and death of Valdivia and in +the destruction of most of his settlements. This was the +beginning of nearly a century of continuous warfare. As there +was no gold in the country the number of settlers was small, +the loose tribal organization of the natives made it impossible +to inflict a vital defeat on them, and the mountainous and +thickly wooded country lent itself admirably to a warfare of +surprises and ambuscades. General after general and army +after army were despatched from Spain and Peru; Chile was +given a government independent of the viceroy of Lima; attack +after attack was made on the Indians, their lands were laid +waste, and the struggle was conducted with merciless ferocity: +all in vain. Settlements and forts were never free from assault +and were taken and retaken; if one Indian army was destroyed +another took its place, if one <i>toqui</i> was killed another was chosen; +when defeated, the Indians retired to their forests, marshes and +hills, recruited their forces, and fell on the pursuing Spaniards. +In 1612 an attempt was made by a Jesuit missionary to negotiate +a peace, but not till 1640 was the desperate struggle ended by +the treaty of Quillin, which left the Indians all the land south +of the Bio-bio river. Up to 1800 the peace was broken by three +wars, in 1655, in 1723 and in 1766, the last ended by a treaty +which actually gave the Araucanians the right to have a minister +at Santiago.</p> + +<p>It was this constant warfare with the Indians and the necessity +for hard continuous work, owing to the lack of precious metals +in Chile, that no doubt helped to produce in the settlers the +strength and hardihood of character that distinguishes the +Chileans among South American races. But not unnaturally +the material condition of the country was the reverse of +prosperous. The expenditure far exceeded the revenue. The +Indian warfare occupied nearly the whole attention of the +governors and much of the time of the settlers. By the Spanish +colonial system the development of manufactures was prohibited +and the trade of the colony was limited not only to +<span class="sidenote">Colonial system.</span> +Spain but to the one port of Cadiz. Till the 18th +century ships were not allowed to sail round Cape +Horn, so that the Chileans had to trade indirectly through Peru +and the Argentine. Agriculture was the one resource of the +colony, and wheat was grown for export to Peru, but the land +was concentrated in the hands of a few big landowners, and the +cultivation of the vine and olive was forbidden. At the end of +the 17th century Santiago was a town of poor one-storeyed houses +and had only 8000 inhabitants; the other towns, Valparaiso, +Concepción, La Serena, were only large villages. Books were +not allowed to be imported, and education was limited to such +as was given here and there by priests and monks. The Indians +within the limits of the Spanish colony were treated like slaves, +and horribly mutilated to prevent their escape; but at the +same time a gradual fusion of races was taking place, and the +Chilean peasant (<i>peon</i>) of to-day is as much of Indian as of +Spanish descent. The Araucanians, however, continued to +preserve their independence; they jealously resented the introduction +of Spanish influence, and the missionary efforts of the +Jesuits met with little success.</p> + +<p>During the 18th century the condition of the colony was +improved in many ways. The Bourbon kings of Spain were +more liberal in their colonial policy. Merchant-ships were +allowed to sail direct to Chile, trade with France was sometimes +permitted, and a large batch of hardy emigrants was sent out +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span> +from the Biscay provinces of Spain. Freed from the preoccupation +of the Indian wars, the governors gave more attention to +the general welfare of the country: a university was started +in Santiago in 1747, many towns were built about the same +time, agriculture and industries were promoted and a coasting +trade grew up. In 1778 Charles III. threw open all the ports of +Spain to the colonies and allowed freedom of trade with France. +But in general the administration of the colony was burdensome, +oppressive and inefficient. The people had no voice in the +government. Ruling with the help of the Royal Audience, the +governor was absolute master of the country, and regulated +the smallest details of life. Such time as the officials could spare +from the main object of enriching themselves by extortion and +corruption was given up to endless official and religious ceremonies +and to petty disputes of etiquette and precedence. All the high +posts and offices were filled by men sent from Spain, with the +result that bitter jealousy reigned between them and the native-born +colonists (<i>criollos</i>). The <i>criollos</i> as a rule filled the posts +in the municipalities (<i>cabildos</i>), disposed of by sale, so that +when the revolution broke out the <i>cabildos</i> naturally became +the centres of the movement. As in all Spanish colonies, so in +Chile, the Church played a large part in the public life. Chile +was divided into the two bishoprics of Santiago and Concepción, +and the Church managed to accumulate most of the wealth of +the country. At the same time the monks and Jesuits did +useful work in teaching industrial and agricultural arts, and in +giving the people a certain degree of education; but the influence +of the Church was used to bolster up the traditional narrow +colonial system, and the constant quarrels between the clergy +and the secular powers often threw the country into confusion.</p> + +<p>At the opening of the 19th century Chile was a colony whose +resources had hardly been touched, with a population of about +500,000 persons, of Spanish and mixed Spanish and Indian +blood: a people endowed with the vigour of character bred by +a mountainous country and a bracing climate and by a hard +struggle for existence, but ignorant through lack of education, +shut out by a narrow-minded commercial system from knowledge +of the outside world, and destitute of the character-training +that free institutions afford.</p> + +<p>The national independence of Chile dates from the second +decade of the 19th century. The revolt of England’s North +American colonies, and the events of the French +<span class="sidenote">Struggle for independence.</span> +Revolution naturally suggested the idea of a struggle +for independence to the Spanish colonists, and the +deposition of Ferdinand VII. by Napoleon, and the +ensuing disorganization of Spain, supplied the desired opportunity. +In 1809 risings took place in Venezuela, in Ecuador, in Upper +Peru and in the Argentine; the revolutionary fever spread +to Chile, and on the 18th of September 1810 the <i>cabildo</i> of +Santiago secured the resignation of the governor and vested his +powers in an elected <i>Junta</i> (board) of seven members. This +event was the beginning of the independence of Chile. But it +was some time before independence was fully attained. The +mass of the people were ignorant, intercourse between them was +slight, and there was a strong section attached to the old régime. +The party determined on independence was at first small, and +compelled to conceal its aims till the ground had been prepared +for open decisive action. Further, there were divisions between +the patriots of Santiago and those of Concepción, and bitter +jealousies between the leaders, the chief of whom were Juan +Martinez de Rozas, José Miguel Carrera and Bernardo O’Higgins. +Owing to the apathy of the people and the enmities existing +among the leaders, the Spanish forces, sent by the viceroy of +Peru to crush the revolutionary movement, succeeded after two +years’ indecisive fighting in completely defeating the patriots +at Rancagua in 1814. For three years the Spaniards maintained +their hold on Chile, ruling the country with tyrannical harshness, +but in the spring of 1817 a patriot force which had been organized +at Mendoza in the Argentine by José de San Martin, an Argentine +officer, and by O’Higgins, crossed the Andes and overwhelmed +the royalists at the battle of Chacabuco. O’Higgins was named +director-general of Chile, while San Martin, realizing that the +independence of each colony depended on the Spanish being +expelled from the whole of South America, set about preparing +an invasion of Peru. The viceroy of Lima made one more +effort to uphold the power of Spain in Chile, but the army he +despatched under Mariano Osorio, the victor of Rancagua, was +decisively defeated at the river Maipo on the 3rd of April 1818. +By this battle the independence of Chile, formally proclaimed by +O’Higgins in the previous February, was finally secured.</p> + +<p>The next few years witnessed the expulsion of the royalists +from the south of Chile, the equipment of a small fleet, placed +under the command of Manuel Blanco Encalada and +<span class="sidenote">The republic.</span> +Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald), and the invasion +of Peru by San Martin with the help of the fleet, +ending in the proclamation of Peruvian independence in 1821; +though the Spanish power was not finally broken until Bolivar’s +victory at Ayacucho in 1824. Relieved from all fear of Spanish +attacks from the north, the new republic of Chile entered upon +a period of internal confusion and dissension bordering upon +anarchy. As soon as the necessity for establishing a stable +government arose the lack of training in self-government among +the Chileans became painfully obvious. O’Higgins as director-general, +rightly perhaps, considered that firm orderly government +was more important than the concession of liberal institutions, +but his administration roused strong hostility, and in 1823 he was +compelled to resign. From that date up to 1830 there were no +less than ten governments, while three different constitutions +were proclaimed. The nation was divided into small mutually +hostile parties; there were ecclesiastical troubles owing to the +hostility of the Church to the new republic; there were Indian +risings in the south and royalist revolts in the island of Chiloé; +the expenditure exceeded the revenue, and the employment +of the old Spanish financial expedients naturally increased the +general discontent. Up to 1830 the Liberal party, which favoured +a free democratic régime, held the upper hand, but in that year +the Conservatives, backed by a military rising led by General +Joaquin Prieto, placed themselves in power after a sanguinary +battle at Lircay. Prieto was elected president in 1831, and a new +constitution was drafted and promulgated in 1833, which, with +some modifications, remains the constitution of Chile at the +present time. This constitution invested the executive with +almost dictatorial powers, and the Conservatives entered upon +a long term of office.</p> + +<p>The aim of the Conservative policy was to secure above all a +strong administration; power was concentrated in the hands +of a small circle; public liberties were restricted and all opposition +crushed by force. Inaugurated under General Prieto’s +administration (1831-1841) by his able minister Diego Portales, +this policy was continued by his successors General Manuel +Bulnes (1841-1851) and Manuel Montt (1851-1861), each of +whom like Prieto was elected to a double term of office. In +spite of the discontent of the Liberals, the Conservative ascendancy +secured a long period of firm stable government, which was +essential to put an end to the confusion in public life and to give +time for the people to awake to a fuller realization of the duties +and responsibilities of national independence. The internal +peace of the country was only disturbed three times, by Liberal +risings in 1835, in 1851 and in 1859, all of which were crushed, but +not without severe fighting. In 1836 Chile also became involved +in a war with a confederation of Peru and Bolivia, which ended in +the victory of Chile and the dissolution of the confederation.</p> + +<p>While refusing to allow the people any share in, or control +over, the government, the Conservative leaders devoted themselves +to improving the condition of the people and of the +country, and under their firm rule Chile advanced rapidly in +prosperity. The government established a department for +education, a training college for teachers, and numerous schools +and libraries; literary magazines were started and a school of +art and an academy of music founded. By the consolidation +of the foreign debt, by the regular payment of interest, by the +establishment of several banks, and by the negotiation of +commercial treaties, the financial position of the country was +improved. Internal development was promoted by the working +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span> +of the silver mines of Copiapo and the coal mines of Lota, by +the building of railways and erection of telegraphs, and by the +colonization of the rich Valdivia province with German settlers.</p> + +<p>The Straits of Magellan were occupied; under an American +engineer, William Wheelwright, a line of steamers was started on +the coast, and, by a wise measure allowing merchandise to be +landed free of duty for re-exportation, Valparaiso became a +busy port and trading centre; while the demand for food-stuffs +in California and Australia, following upon the rush for gold, +gave a strong impetus to agriculture. A code of law was drawn +up and promulgated, and the ecclesiastical system was organized +under an archbishop appointed by the pope. To Montt, as +minister under Bulnes and afterwards as president, must be +given the main credit for the far-seeing policy which laid the +foundations of the prosperity of Chile; and though the administration +was in many ways harsh and narrow, firm government, +rather than liberty that would have tended to anarchy, was +essential for the success of the young republic.</p> + +<p>After 1861, however, a Liberal reaction set in, aided by +divisions in the Conservative party arising mainly over church +questions. Montt’s successors, José Joaquin Perez (1861-1871), +Federico Errázuriz (1871-1876) and Anibal Pinto (1876-1881), +abandoned the repressive policy of their predecessors, invited +the co-operation of the Liberals, and allowed discontent to vent +itself freely in popular agitation. Some democratic changes +were made in the constitution, notably a law forbidding the +re-election of a president, and the gradual and peaceful transition +to a Liberal policy was a proof of the progress which the nation +had made in political training. Outside the movement for constitutional +reform, the most important internal question was the +successful Liberal attack on the privileged position and narrow +views of the Church, which led to the birth of a strong ultra-montane +party among the clergy. The government continued to +be animated by a progressive spirit: schools, railways, telegraphs +were rapidly extended; a steamship mail service to Europe +was subsidized, and the stability of the government enabled it +to raise new foreign loans in order to extinguish the old high +interest-bearing loans and to meet the expenses of public works. +In 1877 a financial crisis occurred, met by the emission of paper +money, but the depression was only temporary, and the country +soon rallied from the effects.</p> + +<p>During this period there was desultory fighting with the +Indians; there was a long boundary dispute with the Argentine, +settled in 1880; and in 1865 Chilean sympathy with Peru in a +quarrel with Spain led to a foolish war with Spain. The blockade +of their ports and the bombardment of Valparaiso by a Spanish +squadron impressed the Chileans with the necessity of possessing +an adequate fleet to defend their long coast-line; and it was +under President Errázuriz that the ships were obtained and the +officers trained that did such good service in the great war with +Peru. With a population of over two millions, a rapidly increasing +revenue, ruled by a government that was firm and progressive +and that enjoyed the confidence of all classes, Chile was well +equipped for the struggle with Peru that began in 1879.</p> + +<p>The war of 1879-82 between Chile and Peru is the subject +of a separate article (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chile-Peruvian War</a></span>). By the +beginning of 1881 the war had reached a stage when +<span class="sidenote">Close of the war with Peru.</span> +the final struggle was close at hand. On the 13th of +January of that year the Chilean forces under command +of General Baquedano attacked the entrenched +positions of the Peruvians at daybreak in the vicinity of Chorillos, +a village some few miles from Lima, and forming the outer line +of defence for the capital. After a stubborn fight the day ended +in victory for the attacking forces; but the losses on both sides +were great, and on the following day negotiations for peace were +attempted by the representatives of the foreign powers in Lima, +the object being to avoid, if possible, any further bloodshed. +This attempt to end the conflict proved, however, abortive, +and on the 15th of January at 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> hostilities recommenced in +the neighbourhood of Miraflores. After severe fighting for some +four hours the Chileans again proved victorious, and drove the +Peruvians from the second line of defence back upon the city of +Lima. Lima was now at the mercy of the Chileans, and on the +17th of January a division of 4000 men of all arms, under the +command of General Cornelio Saavedra, was sent forward to +occupy the Peruvian capital and restore order within the town +limits. A portion of the Chilean forces was shortly afterwards +withdrawn from Peru, and the army of occupation remaining +in the conquered country was in charge of Admiral Patricio +Lynch, an officer who had been specially promoted for distinguished +services during the war. President Anibal Pinto of +Chile now set about to find means to conclude a treaty of peace +with Peru, but his efforts in this direction were frustrated by +the armed resistance offered in the country districts to the +Chilean authorities by the remainder of the Peruvian forces +under command of General Cáceres. So matters continued— +the Chileans administering on the seaboard and in the principal +towns, the Peruvians maintaining a guerilla warfare in the +mountainous districts of the interior. In September 1881 the +term of office of president Pinto expired, and he was succeeded +in the post of chief executive of Chile by President Domingo +Santa Maria. Ex-President Pinto died three years later in +Valparaiso, leaving a memory respected and admired by all +political parties in his country. The name of Pinto will always +occupy a prominent place in the annals of Chilean history, +not only because the war with Peru took place during his term +of office, but also on account of the fact that it was largely due +to the intelligent direction of all details by the president during +the struggle that the Chilean arms proved so absolutely successful +by land and sea.</p> + +<p>Señor Domingo Santa Maria, who now acceded to the presidency +of Chile, was a Liberal in politics, and had previously +held various important posts under the government. +Under the rule of President Montt he had been an +<span class="sidenote">President Santa Maria.</span> +active member of the opposition and involved in +various revolutionary conspiracies; for his participation +in these plots he was at one time exiled from the country, +but returned and received official employment under President +Perez. The principal task confronting President Santa Maria +on assuming the presidency was to negotiate a treaty of peace +with Peru and provide for the evacuation of the Chilean army +of occupation. The presence of the Peruvian general Cáceres +and his forces in the interior of Peru prevented for some two +years the formation of any Peruvian national administration +in Lima with which the Chilean authorities could deal. In +August of 1883 the Peruvians were defeated by the forces +commanded by Admiral Lynch, and a government was then +organized under the leadership of General Iglesias. A provisional +treaty of peace was then drawn up and signed by General Iglesias +and the Chilean representative, and this was finally ratified by +the Chilean and Peruvian congresses respectively in April 1884. +By the terms of this treaty Peru ceded to Chile unconditionally +the province of Tarapacá, and the provinces of Tacna and Arica +were placed under Chilean authority for the term of ten years, +the inhabitants having then to decide by a general vote whether +they remained a part of Chile or elected to belong once more to +Peru. In the event of the decision being favourable to Peru a sum +of 10,000,000 dollars was to be paid by Peru to Chile. On the +ratification of this treaty the Chilean forces were immediately +withdrawn from Lima and other points of occupation in Peruvian +territory. The government of Bolivia also attempted to negotiate +a treaty of peace with Chile in 1884, and for this purpose sent +representatives to Santiago. No satisfactory terms, however, +could be arranged, and the negotiations ended in only an armistice +being agreed to, by which Chile remained in occupation of the +Bolivian seaboard pending a definite settlement at some future +period.</p> + +<p>The administration of President Santa Maria met with violent +opposition from the Conservatives, who included the Clerical +party in their ranks, and also from a certain section of the Liberals. +The dislike of the Conservatives to President Santa Maria was +occasioned by his introduction of the law of civil marriage, the +civil registration of births and deaths, and the freeing of the +cemeteries. Hitherto no marriage was legal unless celebrated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span> +according to the rites of the Roman Catholic religion, and all +registers of births and deaths were kept by the parish priests. +Civil employees were now appointed under the new laws to attend +to this work. Formerly the cemeteries were entirely under the +control of the Church, and, with the exception of a few places +specially created for the purpose, were reserved solely for the +burial of Roman Catholics. Under the new regime these +cemeteries were made common to the dead of all religions. +Under President Perez, in 1865, a clause in the law of constitution +had been introduced permitting the exercise of all creeds of +religion, and this was now put into practice, all restrictions +being removed. On several occasions, notably in 1882 and 1885, +President Santa Maria used his influence in the elections of +senators and deputies to congress for the purpose of creating +a substantial majority in his favour. He was induced to take +this course in consequence of the violent opposition raised in +the chambers by the liberal policy he pursued in connexion +with Church matters. This intervention caused great irritation +amongst the Conservatives and dissentient Liberals, and the +political situation on more than one occasion became so strained +as to bring the country to the verge of armed revolution. No +outbreak, however, took place, and in 1886 the five years of office +for which President Santa Maria had been elected came to an +end, and another Liberal, Señor José Manuel Balmaceda, then +succeeded to power.</p> + +<p>The election of Balmaceda was bitterly opposed by the +Conservatives and dissentient Liberals, but was finally successfully +carried by the official influence exercised by +President Santa Maria. On assuming office President +<span class="sidenote">Balmaceda elected president.</span> +Balmaceda endeavoured to bring about a reconciliation +of all sections of the Liberal party in congress and so +form a solid majority to support the administration, and to this +end he nominated as ministers representatives of the different +political groups. Six months later the cabinet was reorganized, +and two most bitter opponents to the recent election of President +Balmaceda were accorded portfolios. Believing that he had +now secured the support of the majority in congress on behalf +of any measures he decided to put forward, the new president +initiated a policy of heavy expenditure on public works, the +building of schools, and the strengthening of the naval and +military forces of the republic. Contracts were given out to the +value of £6,000,000 for the construction of railways in the +southern districts; some 10,000,000 dollars were expended in +the erection of schools and colleges; three cruisers and two +sea-going torpedo boats were added to the squadron; the +construction of the naval port at Talcahuano was actively pushed +forward; new armament was purchased for the infantry and +artillery branches of the army, and heavy guns were acquired +for the purpose of permanently and strongly fortifying the +neighbourhoods of Valparaiso, Talcahuano and Iquique. In +itself this policy was not unreasonable, and in many ways +extremely beneficial for the country. Unfortunately corruption +crept into the expenditure of the large sums necessary to carry +out this programme. Contracts were given by favour and not +by merit, and the progress made in the construction of the new +public works was far from satisfactory. The opposition in +congress to President Balmaceda began to increase rapidly +towards the close of 1887, and further gained ground in 1888. +In order to ensure a majority favourable to his views, the +president threw the whole weight of his official influence into +the elections for senators and deputies in 1888; but many of +the members returned to the chambers through this official +influence joined the opposition shortly after taking their seats. +In 1889 congress became distinctly hostile to the administration +of President Balmaceda, and the political situation became grave, +and at times threatened to involve the country in civil war. +According to usage and custom in Chile, a ministry does not +remain in office unless supported by a majority in the chambers. +Balmaceda now found himself in the impossible position of being +unable to appoint any ministry that could control a majority +in the senate and chamber of deputies and at the same time be +in accordance with his own views of the administration of public +affairs. At this juncture the president assumed that the constitution +gave him the power of nominating and maintaining +in office any ministers he might consider fitting persons for the +purpose, and that congress had no right of interference in the +matter. The chambers were now only waiting for a suitable +opportunity to assert their authority. In 1890 it was stated +that President Balmaceda had determined to nominate and +cause to be elected as his successor at the expiration of his term +of office in 1891 one of his own personal friends. This question +of the election of another president brought matters to a head, +and congress refused to vote supplies to carry on the government. +To avoid trouble Balmaceda entered into a compromise with +congress, and agreed to nominate a ministry to their liking on +condition that the supplies for 1890 were voted. This cabinet, +however, was of short duration, and resigned when the ministers +understood the full amount of friction between the president +and congress. Balmaceda then nominated a ministry not in +accord with the views of congress under Señor Claudio Vicuña, +whom it was no secret that Balmaceda intended to be his +successor in the presidential chair, and, to prevent any expression +of opinion upon his conduct in the matter, he refrained from +summoning an extraordinary session of the legislature for the +discussion of the estimates of revenue and expenditure for 1891. +When the 1st of January 1891 arrived, the president published +a decree in the <i>Diario Oficial</i> to the effect that the budget of +1890 would be considered the official budget for 1891. This act +was illegal and beyond the attributes of the executive +power. As a protest against the action of President +<span class="sidenote">Revolution of 1891.</span> +Balmaceda, the vice-president of the senate, Señor +Waldo Silva, and the president of the chamber of deputies, +Señor Ramon Barros Luco, issued a proclamation appointing +Captain Jorje Montt in command of the squadron, and stating +that the navy could not recognize the authority of Balmaceda +so long as he did not administer public affairs in accordance +with the constitutional law of Chile. The majority of the +members of the chambers sided with this movement, and on the +7th of January Señores Waldo Silva, Barros Luco and a number +of senators and deputies embarked on board the Chilean warship +“Blanco Encalada,” accompanied by the “Esmeralda” and +“O’Higgins” and other vessels, sailing out of Valparaiso harbour +and proceeding northwards to Tarapaca to organize armed +resistance against the president (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chilean Civil War</a></span>). It +was not alone this action of Balmaceda in connexion with +congress that brought about the revolution. He had alienated +the sympathy of the aristocratic classes of Chile by his personal +vanity and ambition. The oligarchy composed of the great +landowners have always been an important factor in the political +life of the republic; when President Balmaceda found that he +was not a <i>persona grata</i> to this circle he determined to endeavour +to govern without their support, and to bring into the administration +a set of men who had no traditions and with whom his +personality would be all-powerful. The Clerical influence was +also thrown against him in consequence of his radical ideas in +respect of Church matters.</p> + +<p>Immediately on the outbreak of the revolution President +Balmaceda published a decree declaring Montt and his companions +to be traitors, and without delay organized an army of +some 40,000 men for the suppression of the insurrectionary +movement. While both sides were preparing for extremities, +Balmaceda administered the government under dictatorial +powers with a congress of his own nomination. In June 1891 +he ordered the presidential election to be held, and Señor Claudio +Vicuña was duly declared chosen as president of the republic for +the term commencing in September 1891. The resources of +Balmaceda were running short on account of the heavy military +expenses, and he determined to dispose of the reserve of silver +bullion accumulated in the vaults of the Casa de Moneda in +accordance with the terms of the law for the conversion of the +note issue. The silver was conveyed abroad in a British man-of-war, +and disposed of partly for the purchase of a fast steamer +to be fitted as an auxiliary cruiser and partly in payment for +other kinds of war material.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span></p> + +<p>The organization of the revolutionary forces went on slowly. +Much difficulty was experienced in obtaining the necessary arms +and ammunition. A supply of rifles was bought in the United +States, and embarked on board the “Itata,” a Chilean vessel +in the service of the rebels. The United States authorities +refused to allow this steamer to leave San Diego, and a guard +was stationed on the ship. The “Itata,” however, slipped away +and made for the Chilean coast, carrying with her the representatives +of the United States. A fast cruiser was immediately +sent in pursuit, but only succeeded in overhauling the rebel ship +after she was at her destination. The “Itata” was then forced +to return to San Diego without landing her cargo for the insurgents. +The necessary arms and ammunition were arranged for +in Europe; they were shipped in a British vessel, and transferred +to a Chilean steamer at Fortune Bay, in Tierra del Fuego, close +to the Straits of Magellan and the Falkland Islands, and thence +carried to Iquique, where they were safely disembarked early in +July 1891. A force of 10,000 men was now raised by the <i>junta</i> +of the revolution, and preparations were rapidly pushed forward +for a move to the south with the object of attacking Valparaiso +and Santiago. Early in April a portion of the revolutionary +squadron, comprising the “Blanco Encalada” and other ships, +was sent to the southward for reconnoitring purposes and put +into the port of Caldera. During the night of the 23rd of April, +and whilst the “Blanco Encalada” was lying quietly at anchor, +a torpedo boat called the “Almirante Lynch,” belonging to the +Balmaceda faction, steamed into the bay of Caldera and discharged +a torpedo at the rebel ship. The “Blanco Encalada” +sank in a few minutes and 300 of her crew perished.</p> + +<p>In the middle of August 1891 the rebel forces were embarked +at Iquique (where a provisional government under Captain +Jorje Montt had been set up), numbering in all about 9000 men, +and sailed for the south. On the 20th of August the congressist +army was disembarked at Quinteros, about 20 m. north of +Valparaiso, and marched to Concon, where the Balmacedists +were entrenched. A severe fight ensued, in which the troops +of President Balmaceda were defeated with heavy loss. This +reverse roused the worst passions of the president, and he ordered +the arrest and imprisonment of all persons suspected of sympathy +with the revolutionary cause. The population generally were, +however, distinctly antagonistic to Balmaceda; and this feeling +had become accentuated since the 17th of August 1891, on +which date he had ordered the execution of a number of youths +belonging to the military college at San Lorenzo on a charge of +seditious practices. The shooting of these boys created a feeling +of horror throughout the country, and a sensation of uncertainty +as to what measures of severity might not be practised in the +future if Balmaceda won the day. After the victory at Concon +the insurgent army, under command of General Campos, marched +in a southerly direction towards Viña del Mar, and thence to +Placilla, where the final struggle in the conflict took place. +Balmaceda’s generals Barbosa and Alcérrica had here massed +their troops in a strong position. The battle, on the 28th of +August, resulted in victory for the rebels. Both the Balmacedist +generals were killed and Valparaiso was at once occupied. +<span class="sidenote">Defeat and suicide of Balmaceda.</span> +Three days later the victorious insurgents entered +Santiago and assumed the government of the republic. +After the batile of Placilla it was clear to President +Balmaceda that he could no longer hope to find a +sufficient strength amongst his adherents to maintain himself in +power, and in view of the rapid approach of the rebel army he +abandoned his official duties to seek an asylum in the Argentine +legation. The president remained concealed in this retreat until +the 18th of September. On the evening of that date, when the +term for which he had been elected president of the republic +terminated, he committed suicide by shooting himself. The +excuse for this act, put forward in letters written shortly before +his end, was that he did not believe the conquerors would give +him an impartial trial. The death of Balmaceda finished all +cause of contention in Chile, and was the closing act of the most +severe and bloodiest struggle that country had ever witnessed. +In the various engagements throughout the conflict more than +10,000 lives were lost, and the joint expenditure of the two +governments on military preparations and the purchase of war +material exceeded £10,000,000 sterling.</p> + +<p>An unfortunate occurrence soon after the close of the revolution +brought strained relations for a short period between the governments +of the United States and Chile. A number of men of the +U.S.S. “Baltimore” having been given liberty on shore, an +argument arose between some of them and a group of Chilean +sailors in a drinking den in Valparaiso. Words led to blows. +The Americans were badly handled, one of their number being +killed and others severely hurt. The United States government +characterized the affair as an outrage, demanding an indemnity +as satisfaction. The Chilean authorities demurred at this +attitude, and attempted to argue the matter. James G. Elaine, +then secretary of state, refused peremptorily to listen to any +explanations. In the end Chile paid an indemnity of $75,000 +as asked, but the affair left bad feeling in its train.</p> + +<p>The close of the revolution against Balmaceda left the government +of Chile in the hands of the <i>junta</i> under whose guidance +the military and naval operations had been organized. +Admiral Jorje Montt had been the head of this +<span class="sidenote">President Jorje Montt.</span> +revolutionary committee, and he acted as president +of the provisional government when the administration +of the country changed hands after the victory of the Congressional +party. An election was now immediately ordered for the +choice of a president of the republic and for representatives in +the senate and chamber of deputies. Admiral Montt, as head +of the executive power, stanchly refused to allow official influence +to be brought to bear in any way in the presidential campaign. +The great majority of the voters, however, required no pressure +to decide who was in their opinion the man most fitted to administer +the affairs of the republic. For the first time in the +history of Chile a perfectly free election was held, and Admiral +Montt was duly chosen by a nearly unanimous vote to be chief +magistrate for the constitutional term of five years. The senate +and chamber of deputies were formally constituted in due course, +and the government of the republic resumed normal conditions +of existence. The new president showed admirable tact in dealing +with the difficult problem he was called upon to face. Party +feeling still ran high between the partisans of the two sides of the +recent conflict. Admiral Montt took the view that it was politic +and just to let bygones be bygones, and he acted conscientiously +by this principle in all administrative measures in connexion +with the supporters of the late President Balmaceda. Early in +1892 an amnesty was granted to the officers of the Balmaceda +régime, and they were freely permitted to return to Chile without +any attempt being made to molest them. The first political act +of national importance of the new government was the grant +of control to the municipalities, which hitherto had possessed +little power to direct local affairs, and were not even permitted +to dispose of the municipal revenues to any important amount +without first obtaining the consent of the central government. +Almost absolute power was now given these corporations to +manage their own concerns, and the organization of the police +was placed in their hands; at a later period, however, it was +found necessary to modify this latter condition.</p> + +<p>President Montt next turned his attention towards the +question of how best to repair the damage occasioned to the +country by eight months of civil warfare. The plan of public +works authorized in 1887 was reconsidered, and the construction +of portions of the various undertakings recommenced. The +army and navy were reorganized. Additional instructors were +brought from Germany, and all arms of the military service +were placed on a thoroughly efficient footing in matters of drill +and discipline. Several new and powerful cruisers were added +to the navy, and the internal economy of this branch of the +national defence was thoroughly inspected and many defects +were remedied. President Montt then took in hand the question +of a reform of the currency, the abolition of inconvertible paper +money, and the re-establishment of a gold basis as the monetary +standard of the republic. This reform of the currency became +the keynote of the president’s policy during the remainder of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span> +his term of office. Great opposition was raised by the representatives +of the debtor class in congress to the suppression of the +inconvertible paper money, but in the end President Montt +carried the day, and on the 11th of February 1895 a measure +finally became law establishing a gold currency as the only legal +tender in Chile. In July 1896 the Conversion Act was put in +force, a dollar of 18d. being the monetary unit adopted. In 1895 +relations with the neighbouring republic of Argentina began to +become somewhat strained in regard to the interpretation of the +treaty concerning the boundary between the two countries. +The treaties of 1881, 1893 and 1895 left doubts in the minds of +both Chileans and Argentines as to the position of the frontier +line. On the 17th of April 1896 another protocol was drawn +up, by which the contending parties agreed to submit any differences +to the arbitration of Great Britain, at the instance of one +or both governments. President Montt had now fulfilled his +term of office, and on the 18th of September 1896 he handed +over the presidential power to his successor, Señor Federico +Errázuriz, who had been duly elected in the month of June +previously.</p> + +<p>The election for the position of president of the republic was +closely contested in 1896 between Señor Errázuriz and Señor +Reyes, and ended in the triumph of the former candidate +by the narrow majority of one vote. The father +<span class="sidenote">President Errázuriz.</span> +of the new president had been chief magistrate of +Chile from 1871 to 1876, and his administration had been one +of the best the country had ever enjoyed; his son had therefore +traditions to uphold in the post he was now called upon to fill. +At the beginning of 1897 the public attention was absorbed by +foreign political questions. The problems to be solved were the +frontier difficulty with Argentina, the question of the possession +of Tacna and Arica with Peru, and the necessity of fulfilling the +obligation contracted with Bolivia to give that country a seaport +on the Pacific coast. The treaty made in 1896 with the Argentine +government, referring to the arbitration of disputed points concerning +the boundary, became practically for the moment a dead +letter, and both Argentines and Chileans began to talk openly +of an appeal to arms to settle the matter once for all. The +governments of both countries began to purchase large supplies +of war material, and generally to make preparations for a possible +conflict. In these circumstances no final settlement with Peru +and Bolivia was possible, the authorities of those republics +holding back to see the issue of the Chile-Argentine dispute, and +Chile being in no position at the time to insist on any terms being +arranged. So matters drifted until the beginning of 1898. In +July of that year the crisis reached an acute stage. Both Chile +and Argentina put forward certain pretensions to territory in the +Atacama district to the north, and also to a section of Patagonia +in the south. Neither side would give way, nor was any disposition +exhibited to refer the matter to arbitration under the +protocol of 1896. The cry of an acute financial crisis emanating +from the fear of war with Argentina was now raised in Chile. +The president was advised that the only way of averting the +financial ruin of the banking institutions of the republic was to +suspend the conversion law and lend from the national treasury +inconvertible notes to the banks. Señor Errázuriz weakly gave +way, and a decree was promulgated placing the +<span class="sidenote">Crisis with Argentina.</span> +currency once more on an inconvertible paper money +basis until 1902. In August of 1898 the Chilean +government determined to insist upon the terms of the +protocol of 1896 being acted upon, and intimated to Argentina +that they demanded the fulfilment of the clause relating to +arbitration on disputed points. This was practically an ultimatum, +and a refusal on the part of the Argentine government +to comply with the terms of the 1896 agreement meant a declaration +of war by Chile. For a few days the issue hung in the +balance, and then the Argentine government accepted the +provisions made in 1896 for arbitration. The dispute concerning +the Atacama district was submitted to an arbitration tribunal, +consisting of the representative of the United States in Argentina, +assisted by one Argentine and one Chilean commissioner. This +tribunal, after due investigation, gave their decision in April +1899, and the verdict was accepted unreservedly by both governments. +The dispute regarding the Patagonian territory was +submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain, and a commission—consisting +of Lord Macnaghten, Sir John Ardagh and Sir T.H. +Holdich—was appointed in 1899 to hear the case.</p> + +<p>The Argentine difficulty was ended, but Chile still had to find +a settlement with Peru and Bolivia. The treaty made with the +former country in 1893 was not ratified, as it was thought to +concede too much to Peru, and the subsequent <i>ad referendum</i> +treaty was rejected on account of Peru claiming that only +Peruvians, and not all residents, should have the right to vote +in the plebiscite to be taken by the terms of the treaty of 1883 +for the possession of Tacna and Arica. By the terms of the +armistice of 1883 between Chile and Bolivia, a three years’ +notice had to be given by either government wishing to denounce +that agreement. By the protocol of 1895 Chile agreed to give +to Bolivia the port of Arica, or some other suitable position on +the seaboard. On these lines a settlement was proposed. Vitor, +a landing-place a little to the south of Arica, was offered by the +Chilean government to Bolivia, but refused as not complying +with the conditions stated in the protocol of 1895; the Bolivians +furthermore preferred to wait and see if Arica was finally ceded +by Peru to Chile, and if so to claim the fulfilment of the terms of +the protocol.</p> + +<p>After the accession to office of President Errázuriz there was +no stability of any ministry. Political parties in congress were +so evenly balanced and so subdivided into groups that a vote +against the ministry was easy to obtain, and the resignation of +the cabinet immediately followed in accordance with the so-called +parliamentary system in vogue in Chile. The president of the +republic has no power to dissolve the chambers, to endeavour to +remedy the evil by one or another political party obtaining a +substantial working majority, but must wait to see the results +of the triennial elections. As a consequence of these conditions +Conservative, Liberal and coalition ministries held office at short +intervals. These unsettled political circumstances checked any +continuity of policy, and tended to block the passage of all useful +legislation to help forward the economic development of the +country and inhabitants; on the other hand, the financial +situation was better by the end of 1899 than in the previous year, +since all proposals for a fresh paper issue had been vetoed; +and the elections for congress and municipal office at the opening +of 1900 returned a majority favourable to a stable currency +policy.</p> + +<p>In September 1900 a fresh outburst of hostile feeling against +Chile was created in Argentina by a note addressed by the Chilean +government to Bolivia, intimating that Chile was no longer +inclined to hand over the port of Arica or any other port on the +Pacific, but considered the time ripe for a final settlement of the +questions connected with the Chilean occupation of Bolivian +territory, which had now been outstanding for sixteen years. +The foreign policy of Chile, as indicated by this note, was considered +by Argentina to be grasping and unconciliatory, and there +were rumours of an anti-Chilean South American federation. +Chile disclaimed any aggressive intentions; but in December the +Bolivian congress declined to relinquish their claim to a port, +and refused to conclude a definite treaty of peace. The year +closed with a frontier incident between Chile and Argentina +in the disputed territory of Ultima Esperanza, where some +Argentine colonists were ejected by Chilean police; but both +governments signed protocols agreeing not to take aggressive +action in consequence.</p> + +<p>At the opening of 1901 the country was chiefly interested in +the forthcoming presidential election, for which the candidates +were Don Pedro Montt (Conservative and Clerical) +and Señor German Riesco (Liberal). The relations +<span class="sidenote">President Riesco.</span> +between President Errázuriz and congress became +rather strained, owing to the former’s inclination to retain in +office a ministry on which congress had passed a vote of censure; +but Errázuriz had been in ill-health for more than a year, and +on the 1st of May he resigned, and died in July. At the ensuing +election Riesco was elected president. The attitude of Chile +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span> +towards the Pan-American Congress at Mexico became a matter +of interest in the autumn, particularly in connexion with the +proposal for compulsory arbitration between all American +governments. The Chilean government made it quite clear that +they would withdraw from the congress if this proposal was +meant to be retroactive; and their unyielding attitude testified +to the apprehensions felt by Chile concerning United States +interference. In October the Chilean government announced +that the contemplated conversion scheme, for which gold had +been accumulated, would be postponed for two years (till October +1903), the gold being held as a reserve fund pending the result +of the arbitration over the Argentine frontier. This was generally +considered to be a reasonable and statesmanlike course. Unfortunately, +a recrudescence of the excitement over the boundary +dispute was occasioned by the irritation created in Argentina +by the fact that, pending a decision, Chile was constructing roads +in the disputed territory. During December 1901 relations were +exceedingly strained, and troops were called out on both sides. +But at the end of the month it was agreed to leave the question +to the British arbitrators, and the latter decided to send one of +their number, Sir T.H. Holdich, to examine the territory.</p> + +<p>The survey occupied some eight months, and it was not until +the autumn that Sir T.H. Holdich returned to England to make +his report. The difficulty of ascertaining the true line +watershed had been very great, but the result +<span class="sidenote">Argentine boundary award.</span> +was eminently successful. The award of King Edward +was signed on the 20th of November 1902, and both +parties to the litigation were satisfied. In order that future +disputes might be amicably settled, a treaty was signed by +which it was agreed that any question that might arise should be +submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain or in default of +that power to the Swiss Confederation. The removal of this +source of irritation and the restoration of friendly relations +between the two republics was a great relief to the finance of +Chile. Had it not been for the political instability of the country, +the effects of the diminution of expenditure on military and naval +preparations would have effected a rapid improvement in its +financial position. The constant change of ministry (there +being no stable majority in the congress) prevented during 1903 +any settled policy, or that confidence in the government which +is the basis of commercial prosperity. In 1904, however, both +trade and revenue showed signs of improvement, and the sale +of the warships “Esmeralda” and “Chambuco” for £1,000,000 +furnished a surplus, which was devoted to the improvement of +the port of Valparaiso. This was the beginning of a period of +steady industrial growth and development. The settlement of +the long outstanding dispute with Bolivia in a treaty of peace +signed on the 17th of October 1905 was very advantageous to +both countries. By this treaty Bolivia ceded all claims to a +seaport and strip of the coast, on condition that Chile constructed +at her own charges a railway to Lapaz from the port of Arica, +giving at the same time to Bolivia free transit across Chilean +territory to the sea. A cash indemnity of £300,000 was also paid, +and certain stipulations were made with regard to the construction +of other railways giving access from Chile to the Bolivian +interior.</p> + +<p>The prosperity of Chile was to suffer a rude shock. On the +17th of August 1906 a terrible earthquake visited Valparaiso +and the surrounding district. The town of Valparaiso +was almost entirely destroyed, while Santiago and +<span class="sidenote">Valparaiso earthquake.</span> +other towns were severely shaken and suffered much +damage. It was estimated that about 3000 persons +were killed, a still larger number injured, and at least 100,000 +rendered homeless. The loss of property was enormous. The +fire which broke out after the earthquake shock had subsided +added to the horror of the catastrophe. Measures were, however, +promptly taken for succouring the people, who had been driven +from their homes, and the task of restoration was vigorously +taken in hand. Before the end of the year the rebuilding of the +city was rapidly progressing.</p> + +<p>In 1906 Señor Pedro Montt was elected president and entered +upon his office on the 17th of September. The personality of +the president, however, had become of much less importance in +modern Chile than in earlier days. Up to 1870 the government +was in the hands of a small oligarchy of Santiago +<span class="sidenote">President Pedro Montt.</span> +families, but the president enjoyed large powers +of initiative. Nowadays the congress has virtually +absorbed the executive power, with the result that the +cabinet is often changed many times in one year. This prevents +indeed any continuity of policy, for the majority in congress is +perpetually fluctuating, and ministerial crises rapidly follow one +another. Chile, however, except in the Balmacedist civil war, +is happily distinguished by its freedom from revolution and +serious political unrest. Its history in this respect is in marked +contrast to that of the neighbouring South American states. +The completion of the Trans-Andean railway between Valparaiso +and Buenos Aires was bound to be of immense commercial and +industrial value; and eventually the making of a longitudinal +railway route uniting the nitrate province of the north with +Santiago, and Santiago with Puerto Montt in the distant south, +opened up further important prospects. Such a line of through +communication, binding together the different provinces forming +the long narrow strip of territory stretching along more than +2000 m. of the Pacific littoral, could only be looked forward to, +both politically and economically, as an inestimable benefit to +the country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>General History</i>.—The most valuable authority +is D. Barros Arana’s <i>Historia jeneral de Chile</i> (15 vols., Santiago, +1884), from the earliest days up to 1830. Smaller handbooks covering +the whole period are: A.U. Hancock, a <i>History of Chile</i> (Chicago, +1893), the only general history in English, and containing a bibliography; +Gaspar Toro, <i>Compendio de la historia de Chile</i> (Santiago, +1879), a good clear abstract of Chilean history; and F. Valdes +Vergara, <i>Historia de Chile</i> (Valparaiso, 1898), written primarily +for schools, but containing useful sketches of leading figures in Chilean +history.</p> + +<p><i>Works on Special Periods</i>.—Colonial Period: M.L. Amunátequi, +<i>Descubri miento y conquista de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1885), a valuable +detailed account of the Spanish conquest; by same author, <i>Los +Precursores de la independencia de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1870), a clear +useful description of the evils of the Spanish colonial system; +Horacio Lara, <i>Cronica de la Araucania</i> (Santiago, 1889), a history +of the Araucanian Indians right up to recent dates; Abbé Eyzaguirre, +<i>Histoire du Chili</i> (Lille, 1855), mainly dealing with the +position of the Church during the colonial period. Perez Garcia’s +<i>Historia del reino de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1900), an old history by a +Spanish officer written about 1780, and Molina’s <i>History of Chili</i> in +the English translation (London, 1809), will also be found useful. +Useful material for research exists in J.T. Medina’s <i>Coleccion de +documentos para la historia de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1888), a collection +of despatches and official documents; his <i>Cosas de la colonia</i> +(Santiago, 1889), an accumulation of undigested information about +life in the colonial period; and <i>Historiadores de Chile</i> (21 vols., +Santiago, 1861), a collection of ancient chronicles and official +documents up to the early part of the 17th century.</p> + +<p><i>Revolutionary Period</i>.—A. Roldan, <i>Las Primeras Asambleas +nacionales</i> (Santiago, 1890), an account of the struggles in the first +national assemblies; A. Valdes, <i>Revolucion Chilena y campañas de +la independencia</i> (Santiago, 1888), an account of the early fighting +and rivalry of the revolutionary leaders; W. Pilling, <i>Emancipation +of South America</i> (London, 1893), a translation of B. Mitre’s life of +San Martin, describing the fighting in the wars of independence; +Lord Cochrane, <i>Narrative of Services in Chile, Peru and Brazil</i> +(London, 1859), an autobiography describing the naval exploits that +helped to secure the expulsion of the Spaniards; B. Vicuña +Machenna, <i>Vida de O’Higgins</i> (Santiago, 1882), giving a useful +account of the revolutionary struggle and the main actors; and the +same author’s <i>Historia jeneral de la republica de Chile</i>, a collection +of essays on the early republican history by various writers.</p> + +<p><i>Later History</i>.—R. Sotomayor Valdes, <i>Historia de Chili, 1831-1871</i>, +a detailed account of the period (<span class="correction" title="amended from Sanitago">Santiago</span>, 1875); the same +author’s <i>Campaña del ejercito Chileno en 1837</i> (Santiago, 1896), +describing the fighting of the first Peruvian War; B. Vicuña +Machenna, <i>D. Diego Portales</i> (Valparaiso, 1863), a good account of +the life and time of Portales, the famous minister of the Conservative +party; P.B. Fiqueroa, <i>Historia de la revolution constituyente +1858-59</i> (Santiago, 1889), an account of the revolution at the end of +Montt’s presidency; F. Fonch, <i>Chile in der Gegenwart</i> (Berlin, 1870), +a description of Chile at the time; <i>Statement on Behalf of Chile</i> (in +the Chilean-Argentine Boundary Arbitration) (6 vols., London, +1901-1902); Sir Thomas Holdich, <i>Countries of the King’s Award</i> +(1904); Beltran y Rospido, <i>Los Pueblos hispano-americanos en el +siglo XX.</i> (Madrid, 1904); P.F. Martin, <i>Through Five Republics of +South America</i> (London, 1906); Wright, <i>The Republic of Chile</i> +(London, 1905); G.F. Scott Elliot, <i>Chilé</i> (London, 1907); Sir W.M. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span> +Conway, <i>Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego</i> (London, 1902); “Chile-Argentine +Arbitration” in the <i>Geog. Journal</i> (January 1903); +C.M. Pepper, <i>Panama to Patagonia</i> (London, 1907); C.E. Akers, +<i>History of South America, 1854-1904</i> (London, 1904); M. Hume, +<i>Lecture on the Republic of Chile</i> (London, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G. J. M.; C. E. A.; G. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1c" id="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See A. Pissis, “Sur la constitution géologique de la chaîne +des Andes entre le 16° et le 55° degré de latitude sud,” <i>Ann. +des mines</i>, ser. 7, vol. iii. (Mém.), 1873, pp. 402-426, pils. ix., x.; +R.A. Philippi, <i>Die tertiären und quartären Versteinerungen Chiles</i> +(Leipzig, 1887), (includes also descriptions of some Cretaceous +fossils), and <i>Los Fósiles secondarios de Chile</i> (Santiago, 1899); Karl +Burckhardt, “Profils géologiques transversaux de la Cordillère +argentino-chilienne. Stratigraphie et tectonique,” <i>Anales Mus. +La Plata</i>, 1900, and “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Jura- und Kreide-formation +der Cordillere,” <i>Palaeontographica</i>, vol. 1. (1903-1904) +pp. 1-144, pls. i.-xvi.; see also a series of papers on South American +geology by G. Steinmann and his collaborators in <i>Neues Jahrb, für +Min.</i> Beil.-band viii. et seq.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2c" id="Footnote_2c" href="#FnAnchor_2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Notes of a Naturalist in South America</i>, p. 134.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3c" id="Footnote_3c" href="#FnAnchor_3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Also classified as <i>Nothofagus</i> (Mirb.).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4c" id="Footnote_4c" href="#FnAnchor_4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> A. Gallenga, <i>South America</i> (London, 1880), p. 181.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5c" id="Footnote_5c" href="#FnAnchor_5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The expenditures of 1902 are also given as 25,882,702 pesos gold, +and 108,844,693 pesos currency.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILEAN CIVIL WAR<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1891). The Chilean civil war grew +out of political dissensions between the president of Chile, J.M. +Balmaceda, and his congress (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chile</a></span>: <i>History</i>), and began +in January 1891. On the 6th, at Valparaiso, the political leaders +of the Congressional party went on board the ironclad “Blanco +Encalada,” and Captain Jorje Montt of that vessel hoisted a +broad pennant as commodore of the Congressional fleet. Preparations +had long been made for the naval <i>pronunciamento</i>, and in +the end but few vessels of the Chilean navy adhered to the cause +of the “dictator” Balmaceda. But amongst these were two +new and fast torpedo gunboats, “Almirante Condell” and +“Almirante Lynch,” and in European dockyards (incomplete) +lay the most powerful vessel of the navy, the “Arturo Prat,” +and two fast cruisers. If these were secured by the Balmacedists +the naval supremacy of the congress would be seriously +challenged. For the present, and without prejudice to the future, +command of the sea was held by Montt’s squadron (January). +The rank and file of the army remained faithful to the executive, +and thus in the early part of the war the “Gobernistas,” speaking +broadly, possessed an army without a fleet, the congress a +fleet without an army. Balmaceda hoped to create a navy; the +congress took steps to recruit an army by taking its sympathizers +on board the fleet. The first shot was fired, on the 16th of +January, by the “Blanco” at the Valparaiso batteries, and +landing parties from the warships engaged small parties of +government troops at various places during January and +February. The dictator’s principal forces were stationed in +and about Iquique, Coquirabo, Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepción. +The troops at Iquique and Coquimbo were necessarily +isolated from the rest and from each other, and military operations +began, as in the campaign of 1879 in this quarter, with a +naval descent upon Pisagua followed by an advance inland to +Dolores. The Congressional forces failed at first to make good +their footing (16th-23rd of January), but, though defeated in +two or three actions, they brought off many recruits and a +quantity of munitions of war. On the 26th they retook Pisagua, +and on the 15th of February the Balmacedist commander, +Eulojio Robles, who offered battle in the expectation of receiving +reinforcements from Tacna, was completely defeated on the old +battlefield of San Francisco. Robles fell back along the railway, +called up troops from Iquique, and beat the invaders at Haura +on the 17th, but Iquique in the meanwhile fell to the Congressional +fleet on the 16th. The Pisagua line of operations was at +once abandoned, and the military forces of the congress were +moved by sea to Iquique, whence, under the command of Colonel +Estanislao Del Canto, they started inland. The battle of Pozo +Almonte, fought on the 7th of March, was desperately contested, +but Del Canto was superior in numbers, and Robles was himself +killed and his army dispersed. After this the other Balmacedist +troops in the north gave up the struggle. Some were driven +into Peru, others into Bolivia, and one column made a laborious +retreat from Calama to Santiago, in the course of which it twice +crossed the main chain of the Andes.</p> + +<p>The Congressional <i>Junta de Gobierno</i> now established in Iquique +prosecuted the war vigorously, and by the end of April the whole +country was in the hands of the “rebels” from the Peruvian +border to the outposts of the Balmacedists at Coquimbo and La +Serena. The <i>Junta</i> now began the formation of a properly +organized army for the next campaign, which, it was believed +universally on both sides, would be directed against Coquimbo. +But in a few months the arrival of the new ships from Europe +would reopen the struggle for command of the sea; the <i>torpederas</i> +“Condell” and “Lynch” had already weakened the Congressional +squadron severely by sinking the “Blanco Encalada” in +Caldera Bay (23rd of April), and the Congressional party could +no longer aim at a methodical conquest of successive provinces, +but was compelled to attempt to crush the dictator at a blow. +Where this blow was to fall was not decided up to the last +moment, but the instrument which was to deliver it was prepared +with all the care possible under the circumstances. Del Canto +was made commander-in-chief, and an ex-Prussian officer, Emil +Körner, chief of staff. The army was organized in three brigades +of all arms, at Iquique, Caldera and Vallenar. Körner superintended +the training of the men, gave instruction in tactics to +the officers, caused maps to be prepared, and in general took +every precaution that his experience could suggest to ensure +success. Del Canto was himself no mere figurehead, but a +thoroughly capable leader who had distinguished himself at +Tacna (1880) and Miraflores (1881), as well as in the present war. +The men were enthusiastic, and the officers unusually numerous. +The artillery was fair, the cavalry good, and the train and +auxiliary services well organized. About one-third of the infantry +were armed with the (Männlicher) magazine rifle, which now made +its first appearance in war, the remainder had the Gras and other +breech-loaders, which were also the armament of the dictator’s +infantry. Balmaceda could only wait upon events, but he prepared +his forces as best he was able, and his <i>torpederas</i> constantly +harried the Congressional navy. By the end of July Del Canto +and Körner had done their work as well as time permitted, and +early in August the troops prepared to embark, not for Coquimbo, +but for Valparaiso itself.</p> + +<p>The expedition by sea was admirably managed, and Quinteros, +N. of Valparaiso and not many miles out of range of its batteries, +was occupied on the 20th of August 1891. Balmaceda was +surprised, but acted promptly. The first battle was fought on +the Aconcagua at Concon on the 21st. The eager infantry of the +Congressional army forced the passage of the river and stormed +the heights held by the Gobernistas, capturing 36 guns. The +killed and wounded of the Balmacedists numbered 1600, and +nearly all the prisoners, about 1500 men, enrolled themselves +in the rebel army, which thus more than made good its loss of +1000 killed and wounded. The victors pressed on towards +Valparaiso, but were soon brought up by the strong fortified +position of the Balmacedist general Barbosa at Viña del Mar, +whither Balmaceda hurried up all available troops from Valparaiso +and Santiago, and even from Concepción. Del Canto and Körner +now resolved on a daring step. Supplies of all kinds were brought +up from Quinteros to the front, and on the 24th of August the +army abandoned its line of communications and marched inland. +The flank march was conducted with great skill, little opposition +was encountered, and the rebels finally appeared to the south-east +of Valparaiso. Here, on the 28th, took place the decisive +battle of La Placilla. Concon had been perhaps little more than +the destruction of an isolated corps; the second battle was a fair +trial of strength, for Barbosa was well prepared, and had under +his command the greater part of the existing forces of the dictator. +But the splendid fighting qualities of the Congressional troops +and the superior generalship of their leaders prevailed in the +end over every obstacle. The government army was practically +annihilated, 941 men were killed, including Barbosa and his +second in command, and 2402 wounded. The Congressional +army lost over 1800 men. Valparaiso was occupied the same +evening and Santiago soon afterwards. There was no further +fighting, for so great was the effect of the battles of Concon and +La Placella that even the Coquimbo troops surrendered without +firing a shot.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Lieut. Sears and Ensign Wells, U.S.N., <i>The +Chilian Revolution of 1891</i> (Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, +1893); <i>The Capture of Valparaiso, 1891</i> (Intelligence Department, +War Office, London, 1892); Hermann Kunz, <i>Taktische Beispiele aus +den Kriegen der neuesten Zeit; der Bürgerkrieg in Chile</i> (Berlin, +1901); <i>Revista militar de Chile</i> (February-March 1892); Hugo +Kunz, <i>Der Bürgerkrieg in Chile</i> (Vienna, 1892); <i>Militär Wochenblatt</i> +(5th supplement, 1892); Sir W. Laird Clowes, <i>Four Modern Naval +Campaigns</i> (London, 1902); <i>Proceedings of U.S. Naval Institute</i> +(1894) (for La Placilla); and the military and naval periodicals of +1892.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1879-1882). The proximate cause +of this war was the seizure, by the authorities of Bolivia, of the +effects of the Chilean Nitrate Company at Antofagasta, then +part of the Bolivian province of Atacama. The first act of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span> +hostility was the despatch of 500 soldiers to protect Chilean +interests at Antofagasta. This force, under Colonel Sotomayor, +landed and marched inland; the only resistance encountered +was at Calama on the river Loa, where a handful of newly raised +militia was routed (23rd March 1879). About the same time +Chilean warships occupied Cobija and Tocapilla, and Sotomayor, +after his victory at Calama, marched to the latter port. Bolivia +had declared war on the 1st of March, but Peru not till the 5th +of April: this delay gave the Chileans time to occupy every +port on the Bolivian coast. Thus the Chilean admiral was able +to proceed at once to the blockade of the southern ports of Peru, +and in particular Iquique, where there took place the first naval +action of the war. On the 21st of April the Chilean sloop +“Esmeralda” and the gunboat “Covadonga”—both small and +weak ships—engaged the Peruvian heavy ironclads “Huascar” +and “Independencia”; after a hot fight the “Huascar” under +Miguel Grau sank the “Esmeralda” under Arturo Piat, who +was killed, but Carlos Condell in the “Covadonga” manoeuvred +the “Independencia” aground and shelled her into a complete +wreck. The Chileans now gave up the blockade and concentrated +all their efforts on the destruction of the “Huascar,” +while the allies organized a field army in the neighbourhood +of Tacna and a large Chilean force assembled at Antofagasta.</p> + +<p>On the 8th of October 1879 the “Huascar” was brought to +action off Angamos by the “Blanco Encalada,” and the “Almirante +Cochrane.” Grau was outmatched as hopelessly and +made as brave a fight as Prat at Iquique. Early in the action +a shot destroyed the Peruvian’s conning tower, killing Grau +and his staff, and another entered her turret, killing the flag +captain and nearly all the crew of the turret guns. When the +“Huascar” finally surrendered she had but one gun left in +action, her fourth commander and three-quarters of her crew +were killed and wounded, and the steering-gear had been shot +away. The Peruvian navy had now ceased to exist. The +Chileans resumed the blockade, and more active operations were +soon undertaken. The whole force of the allies was about +20,000 men, scattered along the seaboard of Peru. The Chileans +on the other hand had a striking force of 16,000 men in the +neighbourhood of Antofagasta, and of this nearly half was +embarked for Pisagua on the 26th of October. The expeditionary +force landed, in the face of considerable opposition, on the +2nd of November, and captured Pisagua. From Pisagua the +Peruvians and Bolivians fell back along the railway to their +reinforcements, and when some 10,000 men had been collected +they moved forward to attack the Chilean position of San +Francisco near Dolores station (19th November). In the end +the Chileans were victorious, but their only material gain was +the possession of Iquique and the retreat of the allies, who fell +back inland towards Tarapacá. The tardy pursuit of the +Chileans ended in the battle of Tarapacá on the 27th. In this +the allies were at first surprised, but, rapidly recovering themselves, +took the offensive, and after a murderous fight, in which +more men were killed than were wounded, the Chileans suffered a +complete defeat. For some inexplicable reason the allies made +no use of their victory, continued to retreat and left the Chileans +in complete possession of the Tarapacá region. With this +the campaign of 1879 ended. Chile had taken possession of the +Bolivian seaboard and of the Peruvian province of Tarapacá, +and had destroyed the hostile navy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The objective of the Chileans in the second campaign was the +province of Tacna and the field force of the allies at Tacna and Arica. +The invasion was again carried out by sea, and 12,000 Chileans were +landed at Pacocha (Ylo), far to the N. of Arica. Careful preparations +were made for a desert march, and on the 12th of March 1880 +the advanced corps started inland for Moquegua, which was occupied +on the 20th. Near Moquegua the Peruvians, some 2000 strong, took +up an unusually strong position in the defile of Cuesta de los Angeles. +But the great numerical superiority of the assailants enabled them +to turn the flanks and press the front of the Peruvian position, and +after a severe struggle the defence collapsed (March 22nd), In +April the army began its advance southward from Moquegua to +Tacna, while the Chilean warships engaged in a series of minor +naval operations in and about the bay of Callao. Arica was also +watched, and the blockade was extended north of Lima. The +land campaign had ere this culminated in the battle of Tacna (May +26th), in which the Chileans attacked at first in several disconnected +bodies, and suffered severely until all their forces came on the field. +Then a combined advance carried all before it. The allies engaged +under General Narciso Campero, the new president of Bolivia, lost +nearly 3000 men, and the Chileans, commanded by Manuel Baquedano, +lost 2000 out of 8500 on the field. The defeated army was +completely dissolved, and it only remained for the Chileans to march +on Arica from the land side. The navy co-operated with its long-range +guns, on the 7th of June a general assault was made, and before +nightfall the whole of the defences were in the hands of the Chileans. +Their second campaign had given them entire possession of another +strip of Peru (from Pisagua to Ylo), and they had shown themselves +greatly superior, both in courage and leadership, to their opponents. +While the army prepared for the next campaign, the Chilean navy +was active; the blockade became more stringent and several fights +took place, in one of which the “Covadonga” was sunk; an expeditionary +force about 3000 strong, commanded by Patricio Lynch, +a captain in the Chilean navy, carried out successful raids at various +places on the coast and inland.</p> + +<p>The Chilean army was reorganized during the summer, and prepared +for its next operation, this time against Lima itself. General +Baquedano was in command. The leading troops disembarked at +Pisco on the 18th of November 1880, and the whole army was ready +to move against the defences of Lima six weeks later. These defences +consisted of two distinct positions, Chorrillos and Miraflores, the +latter being about 4000 yds. outside Lima. The first line of defence +was attacked by Baquedano on the 13th of January 1881. Reconnaissances +proved that the Peruvian lines could not be turned, and +the battle was a pure frontal attack. The defenders had 22,000 men +in the lines, the Chileans engaged about 24,000. The battle of +Chorrillos ended in the complete defeat of the Peruvians, less than a +quarter of whose army rallied behind the Miraflores defences. The +Chileans lost over 3000 men. Two days later took place the battle +of Miraflores (January 15th). Here the defences were very strong, +and the action began with a daring counter-attack by some Peruvians. +Neither party had intended to fight a battle, for negotiations were in +progress, but the action quickly became general. Its result was, as +before, the complete dissolution of the defending army. Lima, incapable +of defence, was occupied by the invaders on the 17th, and +on the 18th Callao surrendered. The resistance of the Peruvians was +so far broken that Chile left only a small army of occupation to deal +with the remnants of their army. The last engagement took place +at Caxacamara in September 1882, when the Peruvians won an +unimportant success.</p> + +<p>See T. B. M. Mason, <i>The War on the Pacific Coast, 1879-1881</i> +(U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1883); Captain +Châteauminois (transl.), <i>Mémoire du Ministre de la Guerre du Chili +sur la guerre Chilo-Péruvienne</i> (1882); Barros Arana, <i>Hist. de la +guerre du Pacifique</i> (1884); Sir W. Laird Clowes, <i>Four Modern Naval +Campaigns</i> (London, 1902); Anon., <i>Précis de la guerre du Pacifique</i> +(Paris, 1886); Clements R. Markham, <i>The War between Peru and Chile</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILIASM<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="Chiliasmos, Chilioi">χιλιασμός, χίλιοι</span>, a thousand), the +belief that Christ will return to reign in the body for a thousand +years, the doctrine of the Millennium (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILLÁN<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span>, a city and the capital of the province of Ñuble, +in the southern part of central Chile, 35° 56′ S., 71° 37′ W., +246 m. by rail S.S.W. of Santiago and about 56 m. direct (108 by +rail) N.E. of Concepción. Pop. (1895) 28,738; (1902, official +estimate) 36,382. Chillán is one of the most active commercial +cities of central Chile, and is surrounded by a rich agricultural +and grazing country. Chillán was founded by Ruiz de Gambôa +in 1594. Its present site was chosen in 1836. The original site, +known as Chillán Viejo, forms a suburb of the new city. The +hot sulphur springs of Chillán, which were discovered in +1795, are about 45 m. E.S.E. They issue from the flanks +of the “Volcan Viejo,” about 7000 ft. above sea-level. The +highest temperature of the water issuing from these springs is +a little over 135°. The principal volcanoes of the Chillán +group are the Nevado (9528 ft.) and the Viejo. After a repose +of about two centuries the Nevado de Chillán broke out in +eruption early in 1861 and caused great destruction. The +eruption ceased in 1863, but broke out again in 1864.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILLIANWALLA<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span>, a village of British India in the Punjab, +situated on the left bank of the river Jhelum, about 85 m. N.W. +of Lahore. It is memorable as the scene of a battle on the 13th +of January 1849, between a British force commanded by Lord +Gough and the Sikh army under Sher Singh. The loss of the +Sikhs was estimated at 4000, while that of the British in killed +and wounded amounted to 2800, of whom nearly 1000 were +Europeans and 89 were British and 43 native officers. An +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span> +obelisk erected at Chillianwalla by the British government +preserves the names of those who fell.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILLICOTHE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Livingston +county, Missouri, U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state, +on the Grand river, about 80 m. N.E. of Kansas City. Pop. +(1890) 5717; (1900) 6905 (538 negroes); (1910) 6265. It is +served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Wabash, and +the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. There are various +manufactures. Coal and limestone are found in the vicinity, +and much live stock is raised, wool and hides being shipped +from Chillicothe. Chillicothe was settled about 1830, and the +town was laid out in 1837 on land granted directly by the +Federal government; it was incorporated in 1855.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILLICOTHE<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Ross county, +Ohio, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Scioto river, on the Ohio & +Erie Canal, about 50 m. S. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 11,288; +(1900) 12,976, of whom 986 were negroes, and 910 were foreign-born; +(1910 census) 14,508. Chillicothe is served by the +Baltimore & Ohio South-Western (which has railway shops +here), and other railways. The city has two parks. There are +several ancient mounds in the vicinity. Chillicothe is built on a +plain about 30 ft. above the river, in the midst of a fertile agricultural +region, and has a large trade in grain and coal, and in +manufactures. The value of the city’s factory products increased +from $1,615,959 in 1900 to $3,146,890 in 1905, or 94.7%. +Chillicothe was founded in 1796, and was first incorporated in +1802. In 1800-1803 it was the capital of the North-West +Territory, and in 1803-1810 and 1812-1816 the capital of Ohio. +Three Indian villages bore the name Chillicothe, each being in +turn the chief town of the Chillicothe, one of the four tribal +divisions of the Shawnee, in their retreat before the whites; +the village near what is now Oldtown in Greene county was +destroyed by George Rogers Clark in 1780; that in Miami +county, where Piqua is now, was destroyed by Clark in 1782; +and the Indian village near the present Chillicothe was destroyed +in 1787 by Kentuckians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Henry Howe, <i>Historical Collections of Ohio</i> (Columbus, 1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1602-1644), English divine +and controversialist, was born at Oxford in October 1602. In +June 1618 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, +and was made a fellow of his college in June 1628. He had +some reputation as a skilful disputant, excelled in mathematics, +and gained some credit as a writer of verses. The marriage +of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria of France had stimulated +the propaganda of the Roman Catholic Church, and the Jesuits +made the universities their special point of attack. One of +them, “John Fisher,” who had his sphere at Oxford, succeeded +in making a convert of young Chillingworth, and prevailed +upon him to go to the Jesuit college at Douai. Influenced, +however, by his godfather, Laud, then bishop of London, he +resolved to make an impartial inquiry into the claims of the two +churches. After a short stay he left Douai in 1631 and returned +to Oxford. On grounds of Scripture and reason he at length +declared for Protestantism, and wrote in 1634, but did not +publish, a confutation of the motives which had led him over to +Rome. This paper was lost; the other, on the same subject, +was probably written on some other occasion at the request of +his friends. He would not, however, take orders. His theological +sensitiveness appears in his refusal of a preferment offered +to him in 1635 by Sir Thomas Coventry, lord keeper of the great +seal. He was in difficulty about subscribing the Thirty-nine +Articles. As he informed Gilbert Sheldon, then warden of All +Souls, in a letter, he was fully resolved on two points—that to +say that the Fourth Commandment is a law of God appertaining +to Christians is false and unlawful, and that the damnatory +clauses in the Athanasian Creed are most false, and in a high +degree presumptuous and schismatical. To subscribe, therefore, +he felt would be to “subscribe his own damnation.” At this +time his principal work was far towards completion. It was +undertaken in defence of Dr Christopher Potter, provost of +Queen’s College in Oxford, who had for some time been carrying +on a controversy with a Jesuit known as Edward Knott, but +whose real name was Matthias Wilson. Potter had replied in +1633 to Knott’s <i>Charity Mistaken</i> (1630), and Knott retaliated +with <i>Mercy and Truth</i>. This work Chillingworth engaged to +answer, and Knott, hearing of his intention and hoping to bias +the public mind, hastily brought out a pamphlet tending to show +that Chillingworth was a Socinian who aimed at perverting not +only Catholicism but Christianity.</p> + +<p>Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury, was not a little solicitous +about Chillingworth’s reply to Knott, and at his request, as “the +young man had given cause why a more watchful eye should be +held over him and his writings,” it was examined by the vice-chancellor +of Oxford and two professors of divinity, and published +with their approbation in 1637, with the title <i>The Religion +of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation</i>. The main argument +is a vindication of the sole authority of the Bible in spiritual +matters, and of the free right of the individual conscience to +interpret it. In the preface Chillingworth expresses his new +view about subscription to the articles. “For the Church of +England,” he there says, “I am persuaded that the constant +doctrine of it is so pure and orthodox, that whosoever believes +it, and lives according to it, undoubtedly he shall be saved, +and that there is no error in it which may necessitate or warrant +any man to disturb the peace or renounce the communion of it. +This, in my opinion, is all intended by subscription.” His +scruples having thus been overcome, he was, in the following +year (1638), promoted to the chancellorship of the church of +Sarum, with the prebend of Brixworth in Northamptonshire +annexed to it. In the great civil struggle he used his pen against +the Scots, and was in the king’s army at the siege of Gloucester, +inventing certain engines for assaulting the town. Shortly +afterwards he accompanied Lord Hopton, general of the king’s +troops in the west, in his march; and, being laid up with illness +at Arundel Castle, he was there taken prisoner by the parliamentary +forces under Sir William Waller. As he was unable to +go to London with the garrison, he was conveyed to Chichester, +and died there in January 1644. His last days were harassed +by the diatribes of the Puritan preacher, Francis Cheynell.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides his principal work, Chillingworth wrote a number of +smaller anti-Jesuit papers published in the posthumous <i>Additional +Discourses</i> (1687), and nine of his sermons have been preserved. In +politics he was a zealous Royalist, asserting that even the unjust and +tyrannous violence of princes may not be resisted, although it might +be avoided in terms of the instruction, “when they persecute you in +one city, flee into another.” His writings long enjoyed a high popularity. +The <i>Religion of Protestants</i> is characterized by much fairness +and acuteness of argument, and was commended by Locke as a +discipline of “perspicuity and the way of right reasoning.” The +charge of Socinianism was frequently brought against him, but, as +Tillotson thought, “for no other cause but his worthy and successful +attempts to make the Christian religion reasonable.” His creed, +and the whole gist of his argument, is expressed in a single sentence, +“I am fully assured that God does not, and therefore that men +ought not to, require any more of any man than this, to believe the +Scripture to be God’s word, and to endeavour to find the true sense +of it, and to live according to it.”</p> + +<p>A <i>Life</i> by Rev. T. Birch was prefixed to the 1742 edition of +Chillingworth’s <i>Works</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILOÉ<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (from <i>Chile</i> and <i>hué</i>, “part of Chile”), a province of +southern Chile, and also the name of a large island off the Chilean +coast forming part of the province. The province, area 8593 +sq. m., pop. (1895) 77,750, is composed of three groups of islands, +Chiloé, Guaitecas and Chonos, and extends from the narrow +strait of Chacao in 41° 40′ S. to the peninsula of Taytao, about +45° 45′ S. The population is composed mainly of Indians, +distantly related to the tribes of the mainland, and mestizos. +The capital of the province is Ancud or San Carlos, at the northern +end of the island of Chiloé, on the sheltered bay of San Carlos, +once frequented by whalers. It is the seat of a bishopric; +pop. (1905) 3182. Other towns are Castro, the former capital, +on the eastern shore of Chiloé, and the oldest town of the island +(founded 1566), once the seat of a Jesuit mission, and Melinca +on an island of the Guaitecas group.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The island of Chiloé, which lies immediately south of the province +of Llanquihue, is a continuation of the western Chilean formation, +the coast range appearing in the mountainous range of western Chiloé +and the islands extending south along the coast. Between this coast +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span> +range and the Andes, the gulfs of Chacao, or Ancud and Corcovado +(average width, 30 m.) separate the island from the mainland. Chiloé +has an extreme length north to south of about 118 m., and an average +width of 35 to 40 m., with an area of about 4700 sq. m. There are +several lakes on the island—Cucao, 12 m. long, being the largest,—and +one small river, the Pudeto, in the northern part of the island, +is celebrated as the scene of the last engagement in the war for independence, +the Spanish retaining possession of Chiloé until 1826.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILON<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span>, of Sparta, son of Damagetus, one of the Seven +Sages of Greece, flourished about the beginning of the 6th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> In 560 (or 556) he acted as ephor, an office which he is +even said to have founded. The tradition was that he died of +joy on hearing that his son had gained a prize at the Olympic +games. According to Chilon, the great virtue of man was +prudence, or well-grounded judgment as to future events.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A collection of the sayings attributed to him will be found in +F.W. Mullach, <i>Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum</i>, i.; see Herodotus +i. 69; Diogenes Laertius i. 68; Pausanias iii. 16, x. 24.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILPERIC<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span>, the name of two Frankish kings.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Chilperic I.</span> (d. 584) was one of the sons of Clotaire I. Immediately +after the death of his father in 561 he endeavoured +to take possession of the whole kingdom, seized the treasure +amassed in the royal town of Berny and entered Paris. His +brothers, however, compelled him to divide the kingdom with +them, and Soissons, together with Amiens, Arras, Cambrai, +Thérouanne, Tournai and Boulogne, fell to Chilperic’s share, +but on the death of Charibert in 567 his estates were augmented. +When his brother Sigebert married Brunhilda, Chilperic also +wished to make a brilliant marriage. He had already repudiated +his first wife, Audovera, and had taken as his concubine a +serving-woman called Fredegond. He accordingly dismissed +Fredegond, and married Brunhilda’s sister, Galswintha. But +he soon tired of his new partner, and one morning Galswintha +was found strangled in her bed. A few days afterwards Chilperic +married Fredegond. This murder was the cause of long and +bloody wars, interspersed with truces, between Chilperic and +Sigebert. In 575 Sigebert was assassinated by Fredegond at +the very moment when he had Chilperic at his mercy. Chilperic +retrieved his position, took from Austrasia Tours and Poitiers +and some places in Aquitaine, and fostered discord in the kingdom +of the east during the minority of Childebert II. One +day, however, while returning from the chase to the town of +Chelles, Chilperic was stabbed to death.</p> + +<p>Chilperic may be regarded as the type of Merovingian +sovereigns. He was exceedingly anxious to extend the royal +authority. He levied numerous imposts, and his fiscal measures +provoked a great sedition at Limoges in 579. He wished to +bring about the subjection of the church, and to this end sold +bishoprics to the highest bidder, annulled the wills made in +favour of the bishoprics and abbeys, and sought to impose upon +his subjects a rationalistic conception of the Trinity. He +pretended to some literary culture, and was the author of some +halting verse. He even added letters to the Latin alphabet, +and wished to have the MSS. rewritten with the new characters. +The wresting of Tours from Austrasia and the seizure of ecclesiastical +property provoked the bitter hatred of Gregory of Tours, +by whom Chilperic was stigmatized as the Nero and the Herod +of his time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sérésia, <i>L’Église et l’État sous les rois francs au VIe siècle</i> +(Ghent, 1888).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Chilperic II.</span> (d. 720) was the son of Childeric II. He +became king of Neustria in 715, on which occasion he changed +his name from Daniel to Chilperic. At first he was a tool in the +hands of Ragenfrid, the mayor of the palace. Charles Martel, +however, overthrew Ragenfrid, accepted Chilperic as king of +Neustria, and, on the death of Clotaire IV., set him over the whole +kingdom. The young king died soon afterwards.</p> +<div class="author">(C. PF.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILTERN HILLS<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">The Chilterns</span>, a range of chalk hills +in England, extending through part of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire +and Bedfordshire. Running from S.W. to N.E., they +form a well-marked escarpment north-westward, while the +south-eastern slope is long. The name of Chilterns is applied +to the hills between the Thames in the neighbourhood of Goring +and the headwaters of its tributary the Lea between Dunstable +and Hitchin, the crest line between these points being about +55 m. in length. But these hills are part of a larger chalk system, +continuing the line of the White Horse Hills from Berkshire, +and themselves continued eastward by the East Anglian ridge. +The greatest elevation of the Chilterns is found in the centre +from Watlington to Tring, where heights from 800 to 850 ft. +are frequent. Westward towards the Thames gap the elevation +falls away but little, but eastward the East Anglian ridge does +not often exceed 500 ft., though it continues the northward +escarpment across Hertfordshire. There are several passes +through the Chilterns, followed by main roads and railways +converging on London, which lies in the basin of which these +hills form part of the northern rim. The most remarkable +passes are those near Tring, Wendover and Prince’s Risborough, +the floors of which are occupied by the gravels of former rivers. +The Chilterns were formerly covered with a forest of beech, +and there is still a local supply of this wood for the manufacture +of chairs and other articles in the neighbourhood of Wycombe.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILTERN HUNDREDS<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span>. An old principle of English parliamentary +law declared that a member of the House of Commons, +once duly chosen, could not <i>resign</i> his seat. This rule was a +relic of the days when the local gentry had to be compelled to +serve in parliament. The only method, therefore, of avoiding +the rule came to be by accepting an office of profit from the +crown, a statute of 1707 enacting that every member accepting +an office of profit from the crown should thereby vacate his seat, +but should be capable of re-election, unless the office in question +had been created since 1705, or had been otherwise declared to +disqualify for a seat in parliament. Among the posts of profit +held by members of the House of Commons in the first half of the +18th century are to be found the names of several crown stewardships, +which apparently were not regarded as places of profit +under the crown within the meaning of the act of 1707, for no +seats were vacated by appointment to them. The first instance +of the acceptance of such a stewardship vacating a seat was in +1740, when the house decided that Sir W.W. Wynn, on inheriting +from his father, in virtue of a royal grant, the stewardship of the +lordship and manor of Bromfield and Yale, had <i>ipso facto</i> vacated +his seat. On the passing of the Place Act of 1742, the idea of +utilizing the appointment to certain crown stewardships (possibly +suggested by Sir W.W. Wynn’s case) as a pretext for enabling a +member to resign his seat was carried into practice. These +nominal stewardships were eight in number, but only two survived +to be used in this way in contemporary practice—those +of the Chilterns and Northstead; and when a member wished +to vacate his seat, he was accordingly spoken of as taking the +Chiltern Hundreds.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. <i>Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, County Bucks.</i>—The +Chiltern Hundreds formed a bailiwick of the ordinary type. +They are situated on the Chiltern Hills, and the depredations of the +bandits, who found shelter within their recesses, became at an early +period so alarming that a special officer, known as the steward of the +Chiltern Hundreds, was appointed for the protection of the inhabitants +of the neighbouring districts. It is doubtful at what date +the necessity for such an appointment disappeared, but the three hundreds +of Stoke, Burnham and Desborough are still distinguished by +the old name. The appointment of steward was first used for parliamentary +purposes in 1750, the appointment being made by the +chancellor of the exchequer (and at his discretion to grant or not), +and the warrant bestowing on the holder “all wages, fees, allowances +and other privileges and pre-eminences.” Up to the 19th century +there was a nominal salary of 20s. attached to the post. It was laid +down in 1846 by the chancellor of the exchequer that the Chilterns +could not be granted to more than one person in the same day, but +this rule has not been strictly adhered to, for on four occasions +subsequent to 1850 the Chilterns were granted twice on the same day. +The Chilterns might be granted to members whether they had taken +the oath or not, or during a recess, though in this case a new writ +could not be issued until the House met again. Each new warrant +expressly revoked the grant to the last holder, the new steward +retaining it in his turn until another should be appointed.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of East Hundred, or Hendred, +Berks.</i>—This stewardship was first used for parliamentary purposes +in 1763, and was in more or less constant use until 1840, after which +it disappeared. This manor comprised copyholds, the usual courts +were held, and the stewardship was an actual and active office, the +duties being executed by a deputy steward. The manor was sold by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span> +public auction in 1823 for £910, but in some manner the crown +retained the right of appointing a steward for seventeen years after +that date.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead, Yorkshire.</i>—This +manor was crown property before 1750, but was in lease until +1838. It has no copyhold lands, nor are there any records of manor +courts. There are no traces of any profits having ever been derived +from the office. It was used for parliamentary purposes in 1844 and +subsequently.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Steward of the Manor of Hempholme, Yorkshire.</i>—This manor +appears to have been of the same nature as that of Northstead. It +was in lease until 1835. It was first used for parliamentary purposes +in 1845 and was in constant use until 1865. It was sold in 1866.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Escheator of Munster.</i>—Escheators were officers commissioned +to secure the rights of the crown over property which had legally +escheated to it. In Ireland mention is made of escheators as early as +1256. In 1605 the escheatorship of Ireland was split up into four, +one for each province, but the duties soon became practically nominal. +The escheatorship of Munster was first used for parliamentary purposes +in the Irish parliament from 1793 to 1800, and in the united +parliament (24 times for Irish seats and once for a Scottish seat) from +1801 to 1820. After 1820 it was discontinued and finally abolished +in 1838.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Steward of the Manor of Old Shoreham, Sussex.</i>—This manor +belonged to the duchy of Cornwall, and it is difficult to understand +how it came to be regarded as a crown appointment. It was first +used for parliamentary purposes in 1756, and then, occasionally, +until 1799, in which year it was sold by the duchy to the duke of +Norfolk.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Steward of the Manor of Poynings, Sussex.</i>—This manor reverted +to the crown on the death of Lord Montague about 1804, but was +leased up to about 1835. It was only twice used for parliamentary +purposes, in 1841 and 1843.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Escheator of Ulster.</i>—This appointment was used in the united +parliament three times, for Irish seats only; the last time in 1819.</p> + +<p>See parliamentary paper—<i>Report from the Select Committee on +House of Commons (Vacating of Seats)</i> (1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHILWA<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (incorrectly <span class="sc">Shirwa</span>), a shallow lake in south-east +Africa, S.S.E. of Lake Nyasa, cut by 35°20′E., and lying between +15° and 15°35′S. The lake is undergoing a process of desiccation, +and in some dry seasons (as in 1879 and 1903) the “open water” +is reduced to a number of large pools. Formerly the lake seems +to have found an outlet northwards to the Lujenda branch of +the Rovuma, but with the sinking of its level it is now +separated from the Lujenda by a wooded ridge some 30 to 40 ft. +above the surrounding plains. There are four islands, the +largest rising 500 ft. above the water. The lake was discovered +by David Livingstone in 1859 and was by him called Shirwa, +from a mishearing of the native name.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIMAERA<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span>, in Greek mythology, a fire-breathing female +monster resembling a lion in the fore part, a goat in the middle, +and a dragon behind (<i>Iliad</i>, vi. 179), with three heads corresponding. +She devastated Caria and Lycia until she was finally slain by +Bellerophon (see H.A. Fischer, <i>Bellerophon</i>, 1851). The origin +of the myth was the volcanic nature of the soil of Lycia (Pliny, +<i>Nat. Hist.</i> ii. 110; Servius on <i>Aeneid</i>, vi. 288), where works +have been found containing representations of the Chimaera +in the simple form of a lion. In modern art the Chimaera is +usually represented as a lion, with a goat’s head in the middle +of the back, as in the bronze Chimaera of Arezzo (5th century). +The word is now used generally to denote a fantastic idea or +fiction of the imagination.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIMAY<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span>, a town in the extreme south-east of the province of +Hainaut, Belgium, dating from the 7th century. Pop. (1904) +3383. It is more commonly spoken of as being in the district +<i>entre Sambre et Meuse</i>. Owing to its proximity to the French +frontier it has undergone many sieges, the last of which was in +1640, when Turenne gave orders that it should be reduced to +such ruin that it could never stand another. The town is chiefly +famous for the castle and park that bear its name. Originally a +stronghold of the Cröy family, it has passed through the +D’Arenbergs to its present owners, the princes of Caraman-Chimay. +The castle, which before Turenne’s order to demolish it possessed +seven towers, has now only one in ruins, and a modern château +was built in the Tudor style in the 18th century. This domain +carried with it the right to one of the twelve peerages of Hainaut. +Madame Tallien, daughter of Dr Cabarrus, the Lady of Thermidor, +married as her second husband the prince de Chimay, and held +her little court here down to her death in 1835. There is a +memorial to her in the church, which also contains a fine monument +of Phillippe de Cröy, chamberlain and comrade in arms of +the emperor Charles V. John Froissart the chronicler died and +was buried here. There is a statue in his honour on the Grand +Place. Chimay is situated on a stream called the White Water, +which in its lower course becomes the Viroin and joins the Meuse.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIME<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>, (1) (Probably derived from a mistaken separation +into two words, <i>chimbe bell</i>, of <i>chymbal</i> or <i>chymbel</i>, the +old form of “cymbal,” Lat. <i>cymbalum</i>), a mechanical arrangement by +which a set of bells in a church or other tower, or in a clock, are +struck so as to produce a sequence of musical sounds or a tune. +For the mechanism of such an arrangement in a clock and in a +set of bells, see the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clock</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bell</a></span>. The word is also +applied to the tune thus played by the bells and also to the +harmonious “fall” of verse, and so, figuratively, to any harmonious +agreement of thought or action. (2) (From Mid. Eng. <i>chimb</i>, +a word meaning “edge,” common in varied forms to Teutonic +languages, cf. Ger. <i>Kimme</i>), the bevelled rim formed by the +projecting staves at the ends of a cask.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIMERE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Lat. <i>chimera, chimaera</i>; O. Fr. <i>chamarre</i>, Mod. Fr. +<i>simarre</i>; Ital. <i>zimarra</i>; cf. Span. <i>zamarra</i>, a sheepskin +coat; possibly derived ultimately from Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheimerios">χειμέριος</span>, “wintry,” +<i>i.e.</i> a winter overcoat), in modern English use the name of a +garment worn as part of the ceremonial dress of Anglican bishops. +It is a long sleeveless gown of silk or satin, open down the front, +gathered in at the back between the shoulders, and with slits +for the arms. It is worn over the rochet (<i>q.v.</i>), and its colour is +either black or scarlet (convocation robes). By a late abuse the +sleeves of the rochet were, from motives of convenience, sometimes +attached to the chimere. The origin of the chimere has +been the subject of much debate; but the view that it is a +modification of the cope (<i>q.v.</i>) is now discarded, and it is practically +proved to be derived from the medieval tabard (<i>tabardum, +taberda</i> or <i>collobium</i>), an upper garment worn in civil life by all +classes of people both in England and abroad. It has therefore +a common origin with certain academic robes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Robes</a></span>, +§ <i>Academic dress</i>).</p> + +<p>The word “chimere,” which first appears in England in the +14th century, was sometimes applied not only to the tabard +worn over the rochet, but to the sleeved cassock worn under it. +Thus Archbishop Scrope is described as wearing when on his way +to execution (1405) a blue chimere with sleeves. But the word +properly applies to the sleeveless tabard which tended to supersede, +from the 15th century onwards, the inconvenient <i>cappa +clausa</i> (a long closed cloak with a slit in front for the arms) as the +out-of-doors upper garment of bishops. These chimeres, the +colours of which (murrey, scarlet, green, &c.) may possibly have +denoted academical rank, were part of the civil costume of +prelates. Thus in the inventory of Walter Skirlawe, bishop of +Durham (1405-1406), eight chimeres of various colours are +mentioned, including two for riding (<i>pro equitatura</i>). The +chimere was, moreover, a cold weather garment. In summer its +place was taken by the tippet.</p> + +<p>In the Anglican form for the consecration of bishops the newly +consecrated prelate, hitherto vested in rochet, is directed to put +on “the rest of the episcopal habit,” <i>i.e.</i> the chimere. The robe +has thus become in the Church of England symbolical of the +episcopal office, and is in effect a liturgical vestment. The rubric +containing this direction was added to the Book of Common +Prayer in 1662; and there is proof that the development of the +chimere into at least a choir vestment was subsequent to the +Reformation. Foxe, indeed, mentions that Hooper at his +consecration wore “a long scarlet chymere down to the foot” +(<i>Acts and Mon.</i>, ed. 1563, p. 1051), a source of trouble to himself +and of scandal to other extreme reformers; but that this was +no more than the full civil dress of a bishop is proved by the +fact that Archbishop Parker at his consecration wore surplice +and tippet, and only put on the chimere, when the service was +over, to go away in. This civil quality of the garment still +survives alongside the other; the full dress of an Anglican prelate +at civil functions of importance (<i>e.g.</i> in parliament, or at court) +is still rochet and chimere.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The continental equivalent of the chimere is the <i>zimarra</i> or <i>simarre</i>, +which is defined by foreign ecclesiologists (Moroni, Barbier de +Montault) as a kind of <i>soutane</i> (cassock), from which it is distinguished +by having a small cape and short, open arms (<i>manches-fausses</i>) reaching +to the middle of the upper arm and decorated with buttons. In +France and Germany it is fitted more or less to the figure; in Italy +it is wider and falls down straight in front. Like the <i>soutane</i>, the +<i>zimarra</i> is not proper to any particular rank of clergy, but in the case +of bishops and prelates it is ornamented with red buttons and bindings. +It never has a train (<i>cauda</i>). It is not universally worn, <i>e.g.</i> in +Germany apparently only by prelates. G. Moroni identifies the <i>zimarra</i> +with the <i>epitogium</i> which Domenico Magri, in his <i>Hierolexicon</i> +(ed. 1677), calls the uppermost garment of the clergy, worn over the <i>soutane</i> +(<i>toga</i>) instead of the <i>mantellum</i> (<i>vestis suprema clericorum loco +pallii</i>), with a cross-reference to <i>Tabardum</i>, the “usual” upper +garment (<i>pallium usuale</i>); and this definition is repeated in the 8th +edition of the work (1732). From this it appears that so late as the +middle of the 18th century the <i>zimarra</i> was still in common use as an +out-of-doors overcoat. But, according to Moroni, by the latter half +of the 19th century the <i>zimarra</i>, though still worn by certain civilians +(<i>e.g.</i> notaries and students), had become in Italy chiefly the domestic +garment of the clergy, notably of superiors, parish priests, rectors, +certain regulars, priests of congregations, bishops, prelates and +cardinals. It was worn also by the Roman senators, and is still worn +by university professors. A black <i>zimarra</i> lined with white, and +sometimes ornamented with a white binding and gold tassels, is worn +by the pope.</p> + +<p>More analogous to the Anglican chimere in shape, though not in +significance, is the purple <i>mantelletum</i> worn over the rochet by bishops, +and by others authorized to wear the episcopal insignia, in presence +of the pope or his legates. This symbolizes the temporary suspension +of the episcopal jurisdiction (symbolized by the rochet) so long as the +pope or his representative is present. Thus at the Curia cardinals and +prelates wear the <i>mantelletum</i>, while the pope wears the <i>zimarra</i>, +and the first act of the cardinal camerlengo after the pope’s death is to +expose his rochet by laying aside the <i>mantelletum</i>, the other cardinals +following his example, as a symbol that during the vacancy of the +papacy the pope’s jurisdiction is vested in the Sacred College. On +the analogy of the <i>mantelletum</i> certain Anglican prelates, American +and colonial, have from time to time appeared in purple chimeres; +which, as the Rev. N.F. Robinson justly points out, is a most unhappy +innovation, since it has no historical justification, and its +symbolism is rather unfortunate.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—See the <i>Report</i> of the sub-committee of Convocation +on the ornaments of the church and its ministers, p. 31 +(London, 1908); the Rev. N.F. Robinson, “The black chimere of +Anglican Prelates: a plea for its retention and proper use,” in +<i>Transactions of the St Paul’s Ecclesiological Soc.</i> vol. iv. pp. 181-220 +(London, 1898); Herbert Druitt, <i>Costume on Brasses</i> (London, +1906); G. Moroni, <i>Dizionario dell’ erudizione storico-ecclesiastica</i> +(Venice, 1861), vol. 103, s.v. “Zimarra”: X. Barbier de Montault, +<i>Traité pratique de la construction, &c., des églises</i>, ii. 538 (Paris, +1878).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIMESYAN<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (<i>Tsimshian</i>), a tribe of North American Indians, +now some 3000 in number, living around the mouth of the +Skeena river, British Columbia, and on the islands near the +coast. They are a powerfully built people, who tattoo and wear +labrets and rings in noses and ears. They are skilful fishermen, +and live in large communal houses. They are divided into +clans and distinct social orders.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIMKENT<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span>, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of +Syr-darya, 70 m. by rail N.N.E. of Tashkent. Pop. (1897) +10,756, mostly Sarts. It occupies a strategical position at the +west end of the valley between the Alexander range and the +Ala-tau (or Talas-tau), at the meeting of commercial routes +from (1) Vyernyi and Siberia beyond, from the north-east, +(2) the Aral Sea and Orenburg (connected with it by rail since +1905) to the north-west, and (3) Ferghana and Bokhara to the +south. The citadel, which was stormed by the Russians in 1864, +stands on high ground above the town, but is now in ruins. +Chimkent is visited by consumptive patients who wish to try +the koumiss cure. It has cotton mills and soap-works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIMNEY<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (through the Fr. <i>cheminée</i>, from <i>caminata</i>, sc. +<i>camera</i>, a Lat. derivative of <i>caminus</i>, an oven or furnace), in +architecture, that portion of a building, rising above the roof, +in which are the flues conveying the smoke to the outer air. +Originally the term included the fireplace as well as the chimney +shaft. At Rochester Castle (1130) and Heddington, Essex, +there were no external chimney shafts, and the flue was carried +through the wall at some height above the fireplace. In the +early examples the chimney shaft was circular, with one flue only, +and was terminated with a conical cap, the smoke issuing from +openings in the side, which at Sherborne Abbey (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1300) +were treated decoratively. It was not till the 15th century that +the smoke issued at the top, and later in the century that more +than one flue was carried up in the same shaft. There are a few +examples of the clustered shaft in stone, but as a rule they are +contemporaneous with the general use of brick. The brick +chimney shafts, of which there are fine specimens at Hampton +Court, were richly decorated with chevrons and other geometrical +patterns. One of the best examples is that at Thornton Castle, +Gloucestershire.</p> + +<p>In the 15th and 16th centuries in France the chimney shaft +was recognized as an important architectural feature, and was +of considerable elevation in consequence of the great height of +the roofs. In the château of Meillant (1503) the chimney shafts +are decorated with angle buttresses, niches and canopies, in the +late Flamboyant style; and at Chambord and Blois they are +carved with pilasters and niches with panelling above, carved +with the salamander and other armorial devices. In the Roman +palaces they are sometimes masked by the balustrades, and +(when shown) take the form of sepulchral urns, as if to disguise +their real purpose. Though not of a very architectural character, +the chimneys at Venice present perhaps the greatest variety of +terminations, and as a rule the smoke comes out on the sides +and not through the top.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Factory Chimneys</i>.—Chimneys, besides removing the products of +combustion, also serve to provide the fire with the air requisite for +burning the fuel. The hot air in the shaft, being lighter than the cold +air outside it, tends to rise, and as it does so air flows in at the bottom +to take its place. An ascending current is thus established in the +chimney, its velocity, other things being equal, varying as the square +root of the height of the shaft above the grate. The velocity also +increases with increase of temperature in the gas column, but since +the weight of each cubic foot grows less as the gases expand, the +amount of smoke discharged by a chimney does not increase indefinitely +with the temperature; a maximum is reached when the +difference in temperature between the gases in the shaft and the outside +air is about 600° F., but the rate of increase is very slow after the +difference has passed about 300° F. In designing a chimney the +dimensions (height and sectional area) have to be so proportioned to +the amount of fuel to be burnt in the various furnaces connected +with it that at the temperature employed the products of combustion +are effectively removed, due allowance being made for the frictional +retardation of the current against the sides of the flues and shafts +and in passing through the fire. The velocity of the current in actual +chimneys varies widely, from 3 or 4 to 50 or 60 ft. a second. Increased +velocity, obtainable by increasing the height of the shaft, gives +increased delivering capacity, but a speed of 10 or 12 ft. a second +is regarded as good practice. Ordinary factory chimneys do not in +general exceed 180 or 200 ft. in height, but in some cases, especially +when, as in chemical works, they are employed to get rid of objectionable +vapours, they have been made double that height, or even more. +In section they are round, octagonal or square. The circular form +offers the least resistance to wind pressure, and for a given height +and sectional area requires less material to secure stability than the +octagonal and still less than the square; on the other hand, there is +more liability to cracking. Brick is the material commonly used, but +many chimneys are now made of iron or steel. Reinforced concrete +is also employed.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIMNEYPIECE<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span>, the term given to the projecting hood which +in medieval times was built over a fireplace to catch the smoke, +and at a later date to the decorative framework, often carried +up to the ceiling. “Chimneypiece” or “mantelpiece” is now +the general term for the jambs, mantelshelf and external accessories +of a fireplace. For many centuries the chimneypiece +was the most ornamental and most artistic feature of a room, +but as fireplaces have become smaller, and modern methods of +heating have been introduced, its artistic as well as its practical +significance has grown less.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Up to the 12th century rooms were warmed entirely by a hypocaust, +or with braziers, or by fires on the hearth, the smoke finding +its way up to a lantern in the roof. The earliest chimneypiece known +is that in the King’s House at Southampton, with Norman shafts in +the joints carrying a segmental arch, which is attributed to the first +half of the 12th century. At a later date, in consequence of the +greater width of the fireplace, flat or segmental arches were thrown +across and constructed with voussoirs, sometimes joggled, the thrust +of the arch being resisted by bars of iron at the back. In domestic +work of the 14th century the chimneypiece was greatly increased +in order to allow of the members of the family sitting on either side +of the fire on the hearth, and in these cases great beams of timber +were employed to carry the hood; in such cases the fireplace was so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span> +deeply recessed as to become externally an important architectural +feature, as at Haddon Hall. The largest chimneypiece existing is +in the great hall of the Palais des Comtes at Poitiers, which is nearly +30 ft. wide, having two intermediate supports to carry the hood; +the stone flues are carried up between the tracery of an immense +window above. In the early Renaissance style, the chimneypiece +of the Palais de Justice at Bruges is a magnificent example; the +upper portion, carved in oak, extends the whole width of the room, +with statues of nearly life size of Charles V. and others of the royal +family of Spain. The most prolific modern designer of chimneypieces +was J.B. Piranesi, who in 1765 published a large series, on which at a +later date the Empire style in France was based. In France the finest +work of the early Renaissance period is to be found in the chimneypieces, +which are of infinite variety of design.</p> + +<p>The English chimneypieces of the early 17th century, when the +purer Italian style was introduced by Inigo Jones, were extremely +simple in design, sometimes consisting only of the ordinary mantelpiece, +with classic architraves and shelf, the upper part of the +chimney breast being panelled like the rest of the room. In the +latter part of the century the classic architrave was abandoned in +favour of a much bolder and more effective moulding, as in the +chimneypieces at Hampton Court, and the shelf was omitted.</p> + +<p>In the 18th century the architects returned to the Inigo Jones +classic type, but influenced by the French work of Louis XIV. and +XV. Figure sculpture, generally represented by graceful figures on +each side, which assisted to carry the shelf, was introduced, and the +overmantel developed into an elaborate frame for the family portrait +over the chimneypiece. Towards the close of the 18th century the +designs of the brothers Adam superseded all others, and a century +later they came again into fashion. The Adam mantels are in wood +enriched with ornament, cast in moulds, sometimes copied from the +carved wood decoration of old times.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIMPANZEE<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (<i>Chimpanzi</i>), the vernacular name of the +highest species of the man-like apes, forming the typical representatives +of the genus <i>Anthropopithecus</i>. Chimpanzees, of +which there appear to be at least two species, range through the +tropical forest-zone of Africa from the west coast to Uganda. +The typical <i>A. troglodytes</i> has been long known to European +science, Dr Tyson, a celebrated surgeon and anatomist of his time, +having dissected a young individual, and described it, as a pigmy +or <i>Homo sylvestris</i>, in a book published in 1699. Of this baby +chimpanzee the skeleton may be seen in the Natural History +branch of the British Museum alongside the volume in which +it is described. It was not, however, till 1788 that the chimpanzee +received what is now recognized as a scientific name, having been +christened in that year <i>Simia troglodytes</i> by the naturalist +Johann Friedrich Gmelin. In his classification it was included +in the same genus as the orang-utan; and it has recently been +suggested that the name <i>Simia</i> pertains of right to the chimpanzee +rather than to the orang-utan. Between the typical West +African chimpanzee and the gorilla (<i>q.v.</i>) there is no difficulty +in drawing a distinction; the difficulty comes in when we have +to deal with the aberrant races, or species, of chimpanzee, some +of which are so gorilla-like that it is by no means easy to determine +to which group they really pertain. In height the adult +male chimpanzee of the typical form does not exceed 5 ft., and the +colour of the hair is a full black, while the skin, especially that of +the face, is light-coloured; the ears are remarkably large and +prominent, and the hands reach only a short distance below the +knees. The head is rounded and short, without prominent beetling +ridges above the eyes, or a strong crest along the middle line of +the back of the skull; and the tusks of the old males are of no very +great length and prominence. Moreover, there is no very marked +difference in the size of the two sexes. Gentleness and docility +are specially characteristic of the species, even when full-grown; +while in the native state its habits are thoroughly arboreal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In central Africa the chimpanzees assume more or less marked +gorilla-like traits. The first of these aberrant types is Schweinfurth’s +chimpanzee (<i>Anthropopithecus troglodytes schweinfurthi</i>), which inhabits +the Niam-Niam country, and, although evidently belonging +to the same species as the typical race, exhibits certain gorilla-like +features. These traits are still more developed in the bald chimpanzee +(<i>A. tschego</i>) of Loango, the Gabun, and other regions of +French Congo, which takes its English name from the sparse covering +of hair on the head. The most gorilla-like of all the races is, however, +the kulu-kamba chimpanzee (<i>A. kulu-kamba</i>) of du Chaillu, which +inhabits central Africa. The celebrated ape “Mafuka,” which lived +in the Dresden zoological gardens during 1875, and came from Loango, +was apparently a member of this species, although it was at one time +regarded as a hybrid between a chimpanzee and a gorilla. These +gorilla-like traits were still more pronounced in “Johanna,” a female +chimpanzee living in Barnum & Bailey’s show in 1899, which has been +described and figured by Dr A. Keith. The heavy ridges over the +brow, originally supposed to be distinctive of the gorilla, are particularly +well marked in “Johanna,” and they would doubtless be still +more noticeable in the male of the same race, which seems to be +undoubtedly du Chaillu’s kulu-kamba. Still the large size and +prominence of the ears proclaim that both “Mafuka” and +“Johanna” were chimpanzees and not gorillas. A gorilla-like +feature in “Johanna” is, however, the presence of large folds at +the sides (<i>ala</i>) of the nostrils, which are absent in the typical chimpanzee, +but in the gorilla extend down to the upper lip. Chimpanzees +exhibit great docility in confinement, where, however, they seldom +survive for any great length of time. They likewise display a much +higher degree of intelligence than any of the other man-like apes. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Primates</a></span>.)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINA<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span>, a country of eastern Asia, the principal division of +the Chinese empire. In addition to China proper the Chinese +Empire includes Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and Sin-kiang +(East Turkestan, Kulja, Dzungaria, &c., <i>i.e.</i> all the Chinese +dependencies lying between Mongolia on the north and Tibet on +the south). Its most southern point is in 18° 50′ N.; its most +northern in 53° 25′ N.; its most western in 74° E., and its most +eastern in 135° E. It lies, however, mainly between 20° and +50° N. and 80° and 130° E. It is considerably larger than the +whole of Europe. Though its area has not been exactly ascertained +the various estimates closely approximate, varying +between 4,277,000 and 4,300,000 sq. m. It is bounded N.W., +N. and N.E. by Asiatic Russia, along a frontier extending some +6000 m.; E. by Korea and those parts of the Pacific known as +the Yellow Sea and China Sea; S. and S.W. by the China Sea, +French Indo-China, Upper Burma and the Himalayan states. +It is narrowest in the extreme west. Chinese Turkestan along +the meridian of Kashgar (76° E.) has a breadth of but 250 m. +It rapidly broadens and for the greater part of its area is over +1800 m. across in a direct N. and S. line. Its greatest length is +from the N.E. corner of Manchuria to the S.W. confines of Tibet, +a distance of 3100 m. in a direct line. Its seaboard, about 5000 +m. following the indentations of the coast, is almost, wholly in +China proper, but the peninsula of Liao-tung and also the western +shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung are in Manchuria.</p> + +<p>China<a name="FnAnchor_1d" id="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> proper or the Eighteen Provinces (<i>Shih-pa-shêng</i>) +occupies the south-eastern part of the empire. It is bounded N. +by Mongolia, W. by Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. by Burma, S. +by Tongking and the gulf of that name, S.E. by the South China +Sea, E. by the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, Gulf of Chih-li +and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 1,500,000 sq. m.</p> + +<p>This vast country is separated from the rest of continental +Asia by lofty tablelands and rugged mountain ranges, which +determine the general course—west to east—of its principal +rivers. On the north and west the Mongolian and Tibetan +tablelands present towards China steep escarpments across +which are very few passes. On the S.W. and S., on the borders +of Yun-nan, high mountains and deep valleys separate China +from Burma and Tongking. On the narrow N.E. frontier the +transition from the Manchurian plateau to the alluvial plain of +northern China is not abrupt, but, before the advent of railways, +Manchuria afforded few and difficult means of access to other +regions. Thus China was almost cut off from the rest of the +world save by sea routes.</p> + +<p class="center1 sc">I. The Country</p> + +<p>Western China consists of highlands often sparsely, and eastern +China of lowlands densely peopled. Western China contains the +only provinces where the population is under 100 per sq. m. +From the Tibetan and Mongolian tablelands project mountain +ranges which, ramifying over the western region, enclose elevated +level tracts and lower basins and valleys. East of this mountainous +region, which extends into central China and covers probably +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span> +fully half of the kingdom, are, in the north a great alluvial plain +and in the south a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill +ranges of moderate elevation (see §§ <i>Mountains</i> and <i>Geology</i>). +In north-eastern China there is only one mountain system, the +group of hills—-highest peak 5060 ft.—-forming the Shan-tung +peninsula. This peninsula was formerly an island, but has been +attached to the mainland by the growth of the alluvial plain. +Besides the broad division of the country into western and +eastern China it may also be considered as divided into three +regions by the basins of its chief rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow +river) in the north, the Yangtsze-kiang in the centre, and the +Si-kiang (West river) in the south. In the northern provinces of +Kan-suh and Shen-si the basins of the Hwang-ho and Yangtsze-kiang +are separated by a mountain chain with various names— +the eastern termination of the Kuen-lun range of central Asia. +These mountains, in China, attain, in the Tsing-ling Shan, a +maximum elevation of 13,000 ft. East of Shen-si, in Ho-nan the +Fu-niu-shan continue the range, but with decreasing elevation, +and beyond this the deltaic plain is entered.</p> + +<p>The watershed between the Yangtsze-kiang and that of the +Si-kiang is less clearly marked. It traverses the immense tableland +which occupies a great part of the south-west provinces of +Yun-nan and Kwei-chow and is continued eastward by the lower +tableland of Kwang-si and the Nanshan hills (whose elevation +seldom exceeds 6000 ft.). The basin of the Yangtsze-kiang forms +the whole of central China. Its western border, in Sze-ch‘uen +and Yun-nan, is wholly mountainous, with heights exceeding +19,000 ft. Central Sze-ch‘uen, which is shut in by these mountains +on the west, by the Yun-nan and Kwei-chow plateau on the +south, by the Kiu-lung range on the north, and by highlands +eastward (save for the narrow valley through which the Yangtsze-kiang +forces its way), is a vast red sandstone tableland of about +1600 ft. elevation. It is exceedingly fertile and supports a dense +population. Eastward of Sze-ch‘uen the Yangtsze valley is +studded with lakes. Finally it enters the deltaic plain. The +basin of the Si-kiang fills the two southern provinces of Kwang-si +and Kwang-tung and contains no very striking orographic +features. It may be added that in the extreme S.W. portion of +China is part of a fourth drainage area. Here the Mekong, +Salween, Song-koi (Red river), &c. flow south to Indo-China.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Coast</i>.—The coast-line, following all the minor indentations, +is reckoned at over 4500 m.; if only the larger inlets and promontories +be regarded, the coast-line is about 2150 m. in length. +Its shape is that of a semicircle, with its most easterly point midway +(30° N.) between its northern and southern extremities. At either +end of this semicircular sweep lies a peninsula, and beyond the +peninsula a gulf. In the north are the peninsula of Shan-tung and +the gulf of Chih-li; in the south the Lien-chow peninsula and the +gulf of Tongking. Due south of Lien-chow peninsula, separated +rom it by a narrow strait, is Hai-nan, the only considerable island +of China. From the northern point of the gulf of Chih-li to 30° N., +where is Hang-chow bay, the shores are flat and alluvial save where +the Shan-tung peninsula juts out. Along this stretch there are few +good natural harbours, except at the mouths of rivers and in the +Shan-tung promontory; the sea is shallow and has many shoals. +The waters bordering the coast of Chih-li are partly frozen in winter; +at 10 m. from the shore the water is only 20 ft. deep. The proximity +of Peking gives its few ports importance; that of Taku is at the +mouth of the Peiho. In Shan-tung, deeply indented on its southern +coast, are the ports of Chi-fu, Wei-hai-wei and Tsing-tao (the last in +Kiao-chow bay). South of Shan-tung and north of the mouth of the +Yangtsze huge sandbanks border the coast, with narrow channels +between them and the shore. The estuary of the Yangtsze is 60 m. +across; it contains islands and sandbanks, but there is easy access +to Wusung (Shanghai) and other river ports. The bay of Hangchow, +as broad at its entrance as the Yangtsze estuary, forms the +mouth of the Tsien-tang-kiang. The Chusan and other groups of +islands lie across the entrance of the bay.</p> + +<p>South of Hang-chow bay the character of the coast alters. In +place of the alluvial plain, with flat, sandy and often marshy shores, +the coast is generally hilly, often rocky and abrupt; it abounds +in small indentations and possesses numerous excellent harbours; +in this region are Fu-chow, Amoy, Swatow, Hongkong, Macao, +Canton and other well-known ports. The whole of this coast is +bordered by small islands. Formosa lies opposite the S.E. coast, +the channel between it and Fu-kien province being about 100 m. wide. +Formosa protects the neighbouring regions of China from the typhoons +experienced farther north and farther south.</p> + +<p><i>Surface</i>.—-As already indicated, one of the most noticeable features +in the surface of China is the immense deltaic plain in the north-eastern +portion of the country, which, curving round the mountainous +districts of Shan-tung, extends for about 700 m. in a southerly +direction from the neighbourhood of Peking and varies +<span class="sidenote">Deltaic Plain.</span> +from 150 to 500 m. in breadth. This plain is the delta of +the Yellow river and, to some extent, that of the Yangtsze-kiang +also. Beginning in the prefecture of Yung-p‘ing Fu, in the +province of Chih-li, its outer limit passes in a westerly direction as +far as Ch‘ang-p‘ing Chow, north-west of Peking. Thence running +a south-south-westerly course it passes westward of Chêng-ting Fu +and Kwang-p‘ing Fu till it reaches the upper waters of the Wei river +in Ho-nan. From this point it turns westward and crosses the +Hwang-ho or Yellow river in the prefecture of Hwai-k‘ing. Leaving +this river it takes a course a little to the east of south, and passing +west of Ju-ning Fu, in the province of Ho-nan, it turns in a more +easterly direction as far as Luchow Fu. From this prefecture an +arm of the plain, in which lies the Chao Lake, stretches southward +from the Hwai river to the Yangtsze-kiang, and trending eastward +occupies the region between that river and Hangchow Bay. To the +north of this arm rises a hilly district, in the centre of which stands +Nanking. The greater part of this vast plain descends very gently +towards the sea, and is generally below the level of the Yellow +river, hence the disastrous inundations which so often accompany +the rise of that river. Owing to the great quantity of soil which is +brought down by the waters of the Yellow river, and to the absence +of oceanic currents, this delta is rapidly increasing and the adjoining +seas are as rapidly becoming shallower. As an instance, it is said +that the town of P‘utai was one Chinese mile<a name="FnAnchor_2d" id="FnAnchor_2d" href="#Footnote_2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> west of the seashore +in the year 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and in 1730 it was 140 m. inland, thus giving a +yearly encroachment upon the sea of about 100 ft. Again, Sien-shwuy-kow +on the Peiho was on the seashore in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500, and it is +now about 18 m. inland.</p> + +<p>Some of the ranges connected with the mountain system of +central Asia which enter the western provinces of China have been +mentioned above, others may be indicated here. In the +eastern portion of Tibet the Kuen-lun range throws off +<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span> +a number of branches, which spread first of all in a south-easterly +direction and eventually take a north and south course, +partly in the provinces of Sze-ch‘uen and Yun-nan, where they divide +the beds of the rivers which flow into Siam and French Indo-China, +as well as the principal northern tributaries of the Yangtsze-kiang. +In the north-west, traversing the western portion of the province of +Kan-suh, are parallel ranges running N.W. and S.E. and forming a +prolongation of the northern Tibetan mountains. They are known +as the Lung-shan, Richthofen and Nan-shan, and join on the south-east +the Kuen-lun range. The Richthofen range (locally called +Tien-shan, or Celestial Mountains) attains elevations of over 20,000 ft. +Several of its peaks are snowclad, and there are many glaciers. +Forming the northern frontier of the province of Sze-ch‘uen run the +Min-shan and the Kiu-lung (or Po-mêng) ranges, which, entering China +in 102° E., extend in a general easterly course as far as 112° E. in the +province of Hu-peh. These ranges have an average elevation of +8000 and 11,000 ft. respectively. In the south a number of parallel +ranges spread from the Yun-nan plateau in an easterly direction as +far as the province of Kwang-tung. Then turning north-eastward +they run in lines often parallel with the coast, and cover large areas +of the provinces of Fu-kien, Kiang-si, Cheh-kiang, Hu-nan and +southern Ngan-hui, until they reach the Yangtsze-kiang; the valley +of that river from the Tung-ting Lake to Chin-kiang Fu forming +their northern boundary. In Fu-kien these hills attain the character +of a true mountain range with heights of from 6500 to nearly 10,000 +ft. Besides the chief ranges there are the Tai-hang Mountains in +Shan-si, and many others, among which may be mentioned the ranges—part +of the escarpment of the Mongolian plateau—which form the +northern frontier of Chih-li. Here the highest peak is Ta-kuang-ting-tzu +(6500 ft.), about 300 m. N.N.E. of Peking and immediately +north of Wei Ch‘ang (the imperial hunting grounds).</p> + +<p><i>Rivers and Canals.</i>—The rivers of China are very numerous and +there are many canals. In the north the rivers are only navigable by +small craft; elsewhere they form some of the most frequented +highways in the country. The two largest rivers, +<span class="sidenote">The Yellow River.</span> +the Yangtsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho (Yellow river), are +separately noticed. The Hwang-ho (length about 2400 m.) has +only one important tributary in China, the Wei-ho, which rises in +Kan-suh and flows through the centre of Shen-si. Below the +confluence the Hwang-ho enters the plains. According to the Chinese +records this portion of the river has changed its course nine times +during 2500 years, and has emptied itself into the sea at different +mouths, the most northerly of which is represented as having been +in about 39° N., or in the neighbourhood of the present mouth of the +Peiho, and the most southerly being that which existed before the +change in 1851-1853, in 34° N. Owing to its small value as a navigable +highway and to its propensity to inundate the regions in its +neighbourhood, there are no considerable towns on its lower course.</p> + +<p>The Yangtsze-kiang is the chief waterway of China. The river, +flowing through the centre of the country, after a course of 2900 m., +empties itself into the Yellow Sea in about 31° N. Unlike the +Yellow river, the Yangtsze-kiang is dotted along its navigable +portions with many rich and populous cities, among which are +Nanking, An-ch‘ing (Ngank‘ing), Kiu-kiang, Hankow and I-ch‘ang. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span> +From its mouth to I-ch‘ang, about 1000 m., the river is navigable by +large steamers. Above this last-named city the navigation becomes +<span class="sidenote">The Yangtsze-kiang.</span> +impossible for any but light native craft or foreign vessels +specially constructed for the navigation, by reason of +the rapids which occur at frequent intervals in the deep +mountain gorges through which the river runs between +Kwei-chow and I-ch‘ang. Above Kwei-chow it receives from the +north many tributaries, notably the Min, which water the low table-land +of central Sze-ch‘uen. The main river itself has in this province +a considerable navigable stretch, while below I-ch‘ang it receives the +waters of numerous navigable affluents. The Yangtsze system is thus +all important in the economic and commercial development of China.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most remarkable of the affluents of the Yangtsze is +the Han-kiang or Han river. It rises in the Po-mêng mountains to +the north of the city of Ning-kiang Chow in Shen-si. Taking a +generally easterly course from its source as far as Fan-cheng, it +from that point takes a more southerly direction and empties itself +into the Yangtsze-kiang at Han-kow, “the mouth of the Han.” +Here it is only 200 ft. wide, while higher up it widens to 2600 ft. +It is navigable by steamers for 300 m. The summer high-water line +is for a great part of its course, from I-ch‘eng Hien to Han-kow, +above the level of its banks. Near Sien-t‘ao-chên the elevation of +the plain above low water is no more than 1 ft., and in summer the +river rises about 26 ft. above its lowest level. To protect themselves +against inundations the natives have here, as elsewhere, thrown up +high embankments on both sides of the river, but at a distance from +the natural banks of about 50 to 100 ft. This intervening space is +flooded every year, and by the action of the water new layers of +sand and soil are deposited every summer, thus strengthening the +embankments from season to season.</p> + +<p>The Hwai-ho is a large river of east central China flowing between +the Hwang-ho and the Yangtsze-kiang. The Hwai-ho and its +numerous affluents (it is said to have 72 tributaries) rise in Ho-nan. +The main river flows through the centre of Ngan-hui, in which +province it receives from the N.W. the Sha-ho, Fei-ho and other +important affluents. Formerly it received through the Sha-ho part +of the waters of the Hwang-ho. The Hwai-ho flows into the Hungtso +lake, through which it feeds the Grand Canal, not far from the old +course of the Hwang-ho, and probably at one time joined that river +not far from its mouth. It has a length of about 800 m. and is navigable +from the point where it leaves the hill country of Ho-nan to +Lake Hungtso. It is subject to violent floods, which inundate the +surrounding country for a distance of 10 to 20 m. Many of its +tributaries are also navigable for considerable distances.</p> + +<p>Next in importance to the Yangtsze-kiang as a water highway is +the Yun-ho, or, as it is generally known in Europe, the Grand Canal. +This magnificent artificial river reaches from Hang-chow +Fu in the province of Cheh-kiang to Tientsin in Chih-li, +<span class="sidenote">Grand Canal.</span> +where it unites with the Peiho, and thus may be said to +extend to Tung-chow in the neighbourhood of Peking. According +to the itineraries published by Père Gandar, the total length of the +canal is 3630 <i>li</i>, or about 1200 m. A rough measurement, taking +account only of the main bends of the canal, makes its length 850 m. +After leaving Hang-chow the canal passes round the eastern border +of the Tai-hu or Great Lake, surrounding in its course the beautiful +city of Su-chow, and then trends in a generally north-westerly +direction through the fertile districts of Kiang-su as far as Chin-kiang +on the Yangtsze-kiang. In this, the southern section, the +slope is gentle and water is plentiful (from 7 ft. at low water to 11 ft., +and occasionally 13 ft. at high water). Between Su-chow and Chin-kiang +the canal is often over 100 ft. wide, and its sides are in many +places faced with stone. It is spanned by fine stone bridges, and near +its banks are many memorial arches and lofty pagodas. In the +central portion of the canal, that is between Chin-kiang and Tsing-kiang-pu, +at which latter place it crosses the dry channel which marks +the course of the Yellow river before 1852, the current is strong and +difficult to ascend in the upward (northern) journey. This part of +the canal skirts several lakes and is fed by the Hwai-ho as it issues +from the Hungtso lake. The country lying west of the canal is +higher than its bed; while the country east is lower than the canal. +The two regions are known respectively as Shang-ho (above the +river) and Ssia-ho (below the river). Waste weirs opening on the +Ssia-ho (one of the great rice-producing areas of China) discharge +the surplus water in flood seasons. The northern and considerably +the longest section of the canal extends from the old bed of the +Yellow river to Tientsin. It largely utilizes existing rivers and +follows their original windings. Between Tsing-kiang-pu and the +present course of the Yellow river the canal trends N.N.W., skirting +the highlands of Shan-tung. In this region it passes through a series +of lagoons, which in summer form one lake—Chow-yang. North of +that lake on the east bank of the canal, is the city of Tsi-ning-chow. +About 25 m. N. of that city the highest level of the canal is reached +at the town of Nan Wang. Here the river Wen enters the canal from +the east, and about 30 m. farther N. the Yellow river is reached. +On the west side of the canal, at the point where the Yellow river +now cuts across it, there is laid down in Chinese maps of the 18th +century a dry channel which is described as being that once followed +by the Yellow river, <i>i.e.</i> before it took the channel it abandoned in +1851-1853. The passage of the Yellow river to the part of the canal +lying north of that stream is difficult, and can only be effected at +certain levels of the river. Frequently the waters of the river are +either too low or the current is too strong to permit a passage. +Leaving this point the canal passes through a well-wooded and hilly +country west of Tung-p‘ing Chow and east of Tung-ch‘ang Fu. +At Lin-ching Chow it is joined at right angles by the Wei river +in the midst of the city. Up to this point, <i>i.e.</i> from Tsing-kiang-pu +to Lin-ching Chow, a distance of over 300 m., navigation is difficult +and the water-supply often insufficient. The differences of level, +20 to 30 ft., are provided for by barrages over which the boats—having +discharged their cargo—are hauled by windlasses. Below +the junction with the Wei the canal borrows the channel of the river +and again becomes easily navigable. Crossing the frontier into +Chih-li, between Te Chow and Tsang Chow, which it passes to the +west, it joins the Peiho at Tientsin, after having received the waters +of the Keto river in the neighbourhood of Tsing Hien.<a name="FnAnchor_3d" id="FnAnchor_3d" href="#Footnote_3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>The most ancient part of the canal is the section between the +Yangtsze and the Hwai-ho. This part is thought, on the strength +of a passage in one of the books of Confucius, to have been built +c. 486 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was repaired and enlarged in the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +The southern part, between the Yangtsze and Hang-chow, was built +early in the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The northern part is stated to have +been constructed in the three years 1280-1283. The northern portion +of the canal is now of little use as a means of communication between +north and south.<a name="FnAnchor_4d" id="FnAnchor_4d" href="#Footnote_4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It is badly built, neglected and charged with the +mud-laden waters of the Yellow river. The “tribute fleet” bearing +rice to Peking still uses this route; but the rice is now largely +forwarded by sea. The central and southern portions of the canal +are very largely used.</p> + +<p>The Peiho (length about 350 m.) is of importance as being the +high waterway to Peking. Taking its rise in the Si-shan, or Western +Mountains, beyond Peking, it passes the city of T‘sung-chow, the +port of Peking, and Tientsin, where it meets the waters of the Hun-ho +and empties itself into the gulf of Chih-li at the village of Taku. +The Peiho is navigable for small steamers as far as Tientsin during +the greater part of the year, but from the end of November to the +beginning of March it is frozen up.</p> + +<p>In the southern provinces the Si-kiang, or Western river, is the +most considerable. It has a length of over 1000 m. This river takes +its rise in the prefecture of Kwang-nan Fu in Yun-nan, +whence it reaches the frontier of Kwang-si at a distance +<span class="sidenote">The Si-kiang.</span> +of about 90 li from its source. Then trending in a north-easterly +direction it forms the boundary between the two provinces +for about 150 li. From this point it takes a generally south-easterly +course, passing the cities of Tsien Chow, Fung-e Chow, Shang-lin +Hien, Lung-ngan Hien, Yung-kang Chow and Nan-ning Fu to Yung-shan +Hien. Here it makes a bend to the north-east, and continues +this general direction as far as Sin-chow Fu, a distance of 800 li, +where it meets and joins the waters of the Kien-kiang from the north. +Its course is then easterly, and after passing Wu-chow Fu it crosses +the frontier into Kwang-tung. In this part of its course it flows +through a gorge 3 m. long and in places but 270 yds. in width. +Both above and below this gorge it is 1 m. wide. Some 30 m. above +Canton it divides into two main and several small branches. The +northern branch, called Chu-kiang, or Pearl river, flows past Fat-shan +and Canton and reaches the sea through the estuary called the +Bocca Tigris or Bogue, at the mouth of which is the island of Hong-Kong. +The southern branch, which retains the name of Si-kiang, +reaches the sea west of Macao. Near the head of its delta the Si-kiang +receives the Pei-kiang, a considerable river which flows through +Kwang-tung in a general N. to S. direction. Like the Yangtsze-kiang +the Si-kiang is known by various names in different parts of +its course. From its source to Nan-ning Fu in Kwang-si it is called +the Si-yang-kiang, or river of the Western Ocean; from Nan-ning +Fu to Sin-chow Fu it is known as the Yu-kiang, or the Bending river; +and over the remainder of its course it is recognized by the name of +the Si-kiang, or Western river. The Si-kiang is navigable as far as +Shao-king, 130 m., for vessels not drawing more than 15 ft. of water, +and vessels of a light draught may easily reach Wu-chow Fu, in +Kwang-si, which is situated 75 m. farther up. In winter the navigation +is difficult above Wu-chow Fu. Above that place there is a +rapid at low water, but navigation is possible to beyond Nan-ning Fu.</p> + +<div class="figcenter1" style="padding-bottom: 0;"> +<table class="nobctr" summary="Map"> +<tr><td><img style="border:0; width:375px; height:550px" src="images/img168a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td><img style="border:0; width:370px; height:550px" src="images/img168b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img168c.jpg">Click to see detailed left-side.</a><br /> +<a href="images/img168d.jpg">Click to see detailed right-side.</a></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Lakes.</i>—There are numerous lakes in the central provinces of +China. The largest of these is the Tung-t‘ing in Hu-nan, which, +according to the Chinese geographers, is upwards of 800 li, or 266 m., +in circumference. In native gazetteers its various portions are known +under distinct names; thus it is said to include the Ts‘ing-ts‘ao, or +Green Grass Lake; the Ung, or Venerable Lake; the Chih-sha, or +Red Sand Lake; the Hwang-yih, or Imperial Post-house Lake; +the Ngan-nan, or Peaceful Southern Lake; and the Ta-tung, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span> +Great Deep Lake. In ancient times it went by the name of the +Kiu-kiang Hu, or Lake of the Nine Rivers, from the fact that nine +rivers flowed into it. Its chief affluents are the Siang-kiang, which +rises in the highlands in the north of Kwang-si and flows in a general +N.N.E. direction, and the Yuen-kiang, which flows N. and then E. +from the eastern border of Kwei-chow. The lake is connected with +the Yangtsze-kiang by two canals, the Taping and the Yochow Fu. +In summer it is fed by the overflow from the Yangtsze-kiang; in +winter it pours its waters into that river through the Yochow Fu +canal. During the winter and spring the water of the lake is so low +that the shallow portions become islands, separated by rivers such +as the Siang and Yuen, and numberless streams; but in summer, +owing to the rise in the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang, the whole basin +of the lake is filled. It is then about 75 m. long and 60 m. broad. +About 180 m. E. of the Tung-t‘ing lake is the Poyang lake, which +occupies the low-lying part of the province of Kiang-si, and is +connected with the Yangtsze by the Hu-kow canal. The Poyang lake +is also subject to a wide difference between high and low water, but +not quite to the same extent as the Tung-t‘ing lake, and its +landmarks are more distinctly defined. It is about 90 m. long by 20 +broad. The T‘ai lake, in the neighbourhood of Su-chow Fu, is also +celebrated for its size and the beauty of its surroundings. It is +about 150 m. in circumference, and is dotted over with islands, +on which are built temples for the devotees of religion, and +summer-houses for the votaries of pleasure from the rich and voluptuous +cities of Hang-chow and Su-chow. The boundary line between the +provinces of Cheh-kiang and Kiang-su crosses its blue waters, and +its shores are divided among thirteen prefectures. Besides these +lakes there are, among others, two in Yun-nan, the Kun-yang-hai +(Tien-chi) near Yun-nan Fu, which is 40 m. long and is connected +with the Yangtsze-kiang by the Pu-to river, and the Erh-hai (Urh-hai) +to the east of the city of Tali.</p> + +<p><i>The Great Wall.</i>—Along the northern provinces of Chih-li, Shan-si, +Shen-si and Kan-suh, over 22° of longitude (98° to 120° E.), stretches +the Great Wall of China, built to defend the country against foreign +aggression. It was begun in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was repaired in +the 15th century, and in the 16th century was extended by 300 m. +Following the windings the wall is 1500 m. long. Starting near the +seashore<a name="FnAnchor_5d" id="FnAnchor_5d" href="#Footnote_5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> at Shan-hai-kwan on the gulf of Liao-tung, where the +Chinese and Manchurian frontiers meet, it goes eastward past Peking +(which is about 35 m. to the south) and then trends S. and E. across +Shan-si to the Hwang-ho. From the neighbourhood of Peking to +the Hwang-ho there is an inner and an outer wall. The outer +(northern) wall passes through Kalgan, thus guarding the pass +into Mongolia. A branch wall separates the greater part of the +western frontier of Chih-li from Shan-si. West of the Hwang-ho +the Great Wall forms the northern frontier of Shen-si, and west of +Shen-si it keeps near the northern frontier of Kan-suh, following +for some distance in that province the north bank of the Hwang-ho. +It ends at Kiayu-kwan (98° 14′E.) just west of Su-chow. This part +of the wall was built to protect the one main artery leading from +central Asia to China through Kan-suh and Shen-si by the valley +of the Wei-ho, tributary of the Hwang-ho. There is a branch wall +in Kan-suh running west and south to protect the Tibetan frontier. +The height of the wall is generally from 20 to 30 ft., and at intervals +of some 200 yds. are towers about 40 ft. high. Its base is from +15 to 25 ft. thick and its summit 12 ft. wide. The wall is carried +over valleys and mountains, and in places is over 4000 ft. above +sea-level. Military posts are still maintained at the chief gates or +passes—at Shan-hai-kwan, the Kalgan pass, the Yenmun pass (at +the N. of Shan-si) and the Kaiyu pass in the extreme west, through +which runs the caravan route to Barkal in Turkestan. Colonel +A.W.S. Wingate, who in the opening years of the 20th century +visited the Great Wall at over twenty places widely apart and +gathered many descriptions of it in other places, states that its +position is wrongly shown “on the maps of the day” (1907) in a +number of places; while in others it had ceased to exist, “the only +places where it forms a substantial boundary being in the valley +bottoms, on the passes and where it crosses main routes. These +remarks apply with particular force to the branch running south-west +from the Nan-k‘ow pass and forming the boundary of Chih-li +and Shan-si provinces.” In Colonel Wingate’s opinion the wall +was originally built by degrees and in sections, not of hewn stone, +but of round boulders and earth, the different sections being repaired +as they fell into ruin. “Only in the valley bottoms and on the +passes was it composed of masonry or brickwork. The Mings +rebuilt of solid masonry all those sections through which led a likely +road for invading Tatars to follow, or where it could be seen at a +distance from the sky-line.” The building of the wall “was a +sufficiently simple affair,” not to be compared with the task of +building the pyramids of Egypt.<a name="FnAnchor_6d" id="FnAnchor_6d" href="#Footnote_6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate over so vast an area as China necessarily +varies greatly. The southern parts of Yun-nan, Kwang-si and +Kwang-tung (including the city of Canton) lie within the tropics. +The northern zone (in which lies Peking) by contrast has a climate +which resembles that of northern Europe, with winters of Arctic +severity. The central zone (in which Shanghai is situated) has a +generally temperate climate. But over both northern and central +China the influence of the great plateau of Mongolia tends to establish +uniform conditions unusual in so large an area. The prevailing winds +during summer—the rainy season—are south-easterly, caused by +heat and the ascending current of air over the sandy deserts of +central Asia, thus drawing in a current from the Pacific Ocean. +In the winter the converse takes place, and the prevailing winds, +descending from the Mongolian plateau, are north and north-west, +and are cold and dry. From October to May the climate of central +China is bracing and enjoyable. The rainfall is moderate and regular.</p> + +<p>In northern China the inequalities both of temperature and rainfall +are greater than in the central provinces. In the province of Chih-li, +for example, the heat of summer is as intense as is the cold of winter. +In summer the rains often render the plain swampy, while the dry +persistent westerly winds of spring create dust storms (experienced +in Peking from March to June). The rainfall is, however, uncertain, +and thus the harvests are precarious. The provinces of Shan-tung +and Shan-si are peculiarly liable to prolonged periods of drought, +with consequent severe famines such as that of 1877-1878, when +many millions died. In these regions the air is generally extremely +dry, and the daily variations of temperature consequent on excessive +radiation are much greater than farther south.</p> + +<p>Accurate statistics both of heat and rainfall are available from a +few stations only. The rainfall on the southern coasts is said to be +about 100 in. yearly; at Peking the rainfall is about 24 in. a year. +In the coast regions the temperatures of Peking, Shanghai and +Canton may be taken as typical of those of the northern, central +and southern zones. In Peking (39° N.) the mean annual temperature +is about 53° F., the mean for January 23°, for July 79°. In Shanghai +(31° 11′ N.)<a name="FnAnchor_7d" id="FnAnchor_7d" href="#Footnote_7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the mean annual temperature is 59°, the mean for +January 36.2°, for July 80.4°. In Canton (23° 15′ N.) the mean +annual temperature is 70°, the mean for January 54°, for July 82°. +The range of temperature, even within the tropics, is noteworthy. +At Peking and Tientsin the thermometer in winter falls sometimes +to 5° below zero and rises in summer to 105° (at Taku 107° has +been recorded); in Shanghai in winter the thermometer falls to 18° +and in summer rises to 102°. In Canton frost is said to have been +recorded, but according to the <i>China Sea Directory</i> the extreme +range is from 38° to 100°.<a name="FnAnchor_8d" id="FnAnchor_8d" href="#Footnote_8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The climate of Shanghai, which resembles, +but is not so good as, that of the Yangtsze-kiang valley generally, is +fairly healthy, but there is an almost constant excess of moisture. +The summer months, July to September, are very hot, while snow +usually falls in December and January.</p> + +<p>At Canton and along the south coast the hot season corresponds +with the S.W. monsoon; the cool season—mid October to end of +April—with the N.E. monsoon. Farther north, at Shanghai, the +S.W. monsoon is sufficiently felt to make the prevailing wind in +summer southerly.</p> + +<p><i>Provinces.</i>—China proper is divided into the following provinces: +Cheh-kiang, Chih-li, Fu-kien, Ngan-hui (An-hui), Ho-nan, Hu-nan, +Hu-peh, Kan-suh, Kiang-si, Kiang-su, Kwang-si, Kwang-tung, +Kwei-chow, Shan-si, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Sze-ch‘uen and Yun-nan. +See the separate notices of each province and the article on +Shêng-king, the southern province of Manchuria.</p> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Geology.</i></p> + +<p>The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part +of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and +Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial +origin. From the close of the Palaeozoic period down to the present +day the greater part of the empire has been dry land, and it is only +in the southern portion of Tibet and in the western Tian Shan that +any evidence of a Mesozoic sea has yet been found. The geological +sequence may be summarized as follows:—</p> + +<p><i>Archean.</i>—Gneiss, crystalline schists, phyllites, crystalline +limestones. Exposed in Liao-tung, Shan-tung, Shan-si, northern Chih-li +and in the axis of the mountain ranges, <i>e.g.</i> the Kuen-lun and the +ranges of southern China.</p> + +<p><i>Sinian.</i>—Sandstones, quartzites, limestones. Sometimes rests +unconformably upon the folded rocks of the Archaen system; but +sometimes, according to Lóczy, there is no unconformity. Covers +a large area in the northern part of China proper; absent in the +eastern Kuen-lun; occurs again in the ranges of S.E. China. In +Liao-tung Cambrian fossils have been found near the summit of the +series; they belong to the oldest fauna known upon the earth, +the fauna of the <i>Olenellus</i> zone. It is, however, not improbable +that in many places beds of considerably later date have been +included in the Sinian system.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span></p> + +<p><i>Ordovician.</i>—Ordovician fossils have been found in the Lung-shan, +Kiang-su (about 50 m. east of Nan-king), in the south-west of +Cheh-kiang and in the south-east of Yun-nan. Ordovician beds +probably occur also in the Kuen-lun.</p> + +<p><i>Silurian.</i>—Limestones and slates with Silurian corals and other +fossils have been found in Sze-ch‘uen.</p> + +<p><i>Devonian.</i>—Found in Kan-suh and in the Tsing-ling-shan, but +becomes much more important in southern China. Occurs also on +the south of the Tian-shan, in the Altyn-tagh, the Nan-shan and the +western Kuen-lun.</p> + +<p><i>Carboniferous.</i>—Covers a large area in northern China, in the +plateau of Shen-si and Shan-si, extending westwards in tongues +between the folds of the Kuen-lun. In this region it consists of a +lower series of limestones and an upper series of sandstones with +seams of coal, which may perhaps be in part of Permian age. This is +probably the most extensive coalfield in the world.</p> + +<p>In south China the whole series consists chiefly of limestones, and +the coal seams are comparatively unimportant. Carboniferous beds +are also found in the Tian-shan, the Nan-shan, Kan-suh, on the +southern borders of the Gobi, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Mesozoic.</i>—Marine Triassic beds containing fossils similar to those +of the German Muschelkalk have been found by Lóczy near Chung-tien, +on the eastern border of the Tibetan plateau. Elsewhere, +however, the Mesozoic is represented chiefly by a red sandstone, +which covers the greater part of Sze-ch‘uen and fills also a number +of troughs amongst the older beds of southern China. No marine fossils +are found in this sandstone, but remains of plants are numerous, +and these belong to the Rhaetic, Lias and Lower Oolite. No +Cretaceous beds are known in China excepting in S. Tibet (on the +shores of the Tengri-nor) and in the western portion of the Tian-shan.</p> + +<p><i>Cainozoic and Recent.</i>—No marine deposits of this age are known. +Although the loess of the great plain and the sand of the desert are +still in process of formation, the accumulation of these deposits +probably began in the Tertiary period.</p> + +<p><i>Volcanic Rocks.</i>—Amongst the Archean rocks granitic and other +intrusions are abundant, but of more modern volcanic activity the +remains are comparatively scanty. In south China there is no evidence +of Tertiary or Post-Tertiary volcanoes, but groups of volcanic +cones occur in the great plain of north China. In the Liao-tung +and Shan-tung peninsulas there are basaltic plateaus, and similar +outpourings occur upon the borders of Mongolia. All these outbursts +appear to be of Tertiary or later data.</p> + +<p><i>Loess.</i>—One of the most characteristic deposits of China is the +loess, which not merely imparts to north China the physical character +of the scenery, but also determines the agricultural products, the +transport, and general economic life of the people of that part of +the country. It is peculiar to north China and it is not found +south of the Yangtsze. The loess is a solid but friable earth of +brownish-yellow colour, and when triturated with water is not unlike +loam, but differs from the latter by its highly porous and tubular +structure. The loess soil is extremely favourable to agriculture. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Loess</a></span> and <i>infra, § Agriculture.</i>)</p> + +<p>The loess is called by the Chinese <i>Hwang-t‘u</i>, or yellow earth, +and it has been suggested that the imperial title <i>Hwang-ti</i>, Yellow +Emperor or Ruler of the Yellow, had its origin in the fact that the +emperor is lord of the loess or yellow earth.</p> + +<p>Structurally, China proper may be divided into two regions, +separated from each other by the folded range of the +Tsing-ling-shan, which is a continuation of the folded belt of the +Kuen-lun. North of this chain the Palaeozoic beds are +<span class="sidenote">Structure.</span> +in general nearly horizontal, and the limestones and sandstones of +the Sinian and Carboniferous systems form an extensive plateau +which rises abruptly from the western margin of the great plain of +northern China. The plateau is deeply carved by the rivers which +flow through it; and the strata are often faulted, but they are +never sharply folded. South of the Tsing-ling-shan, on the other +hand, the Palaeozoic beds are thrown into a series of folds running +from W. 30° S. to E. 30° N., which form the hilly region of southern +China. Towards Tongking these folds probably bend southwards +and join the folds of Further India. Amongst these folded beds lie +trough-like depressions filled with the Mesozoic red sandstone which +lies unconformably upon the Palaeozoic rocks.</p> + +<p>The present configuration of China is due, in a very considerable +degree, to faulting. The abrupt eastern edge of the Shan-si plateau, +where it overlooks the great plain, is a line of fault, or rather a +series of step faults, with the downthrow on the east; and von +Richthofen has shown reason to believe that this line of faulting is +continued far to the south and to the north. He believed also that +the present coast-line of China has to a large extent been determined +by similar faults with their downthrow on the east.</p> + +<p>Concerning the structure of the central Asian plateau our knowledge +is still incomplete. The great mountain chains, the Kuen-lun, +the Nan-shan and the Tian-shan, are belts of folding; but the +Mongolian Altai is a horst—a strip of ancient rock lying between +two faults and with a depressed area upon each side. In the whole +of this northern region faulting, as distinct from folding, seems to +have played an important part. Along the southern margin of the +Tian-shan there is a remarkable trough-like depression which appears +to lie between two approximately parallel faults.</p> +<div class="author">(P. La.)</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Fauna</i>.</p> + +<p>China lies within two zoological provinces or regions, its southern +portion forming a part of the Oriental or Indian region and having a +fauna close akin to that of the western Himalaya, Burma and Siam, +whereas the districts to the north of Fu-chow and south of the +Yangtsze-kiang lie within the eastern Holarctic (Palaearctic) region, +or rather the southern fringe of the latter, which has been separated +as the Mediterranean transitional region. Of these two divisions of +the Chinese fauna, the northern one is the more interesting, since it +forms the chief home of a number of peculiar generic types, and also +includes types represented elsewhere at the present day (exclusive in +one case of Japan) only in North America. The occurrence in China +of these types common to the eastern and western hemispheres is +important in regard to the former existence of a land-bridge between +Eastern Asia and North America by way of Bering Strait.</p> + +<p>Of the types peculiar to China and North America the alligator +of the Yangtsze-kiang is generically identical with its Mississippi +relative. The spoon-beaked sturgeon of the Yangtsze and Hwang-ho +is, however, now separated, as <i>Psephurus</i>, from the closely allied +American <i>Polyodon</i>. Among insectivorous mammals the Chinese +and Japanese shrew-moles, respectively forming the genera <i>Uropsilus</i> +and <i>Urotrichus</i>, are represented in America by <i>Neurotrichus</i>. The +giant salamander of the rivers of China and Japan and the Chinese +mandarin duck are by some included in the same genera as their +American representatives, while by others they are referred to genera +apart. Whichever view we take does not alter their close relationship. +One wapiti occurs on the Tibetan frontier, and others in Manchuria +and Amurland.</p> + +<p>As regards mammals and birds, the largest number of generic and +specific types peculiar to China are met with in Sze-ch‘uen. Foremost +among these is the great panda (<i>Aeluropus melanoleucus</i>), representing +a genus by itself, probably related to bears and to the true panda +(<i>Aelurus</i>), the latter of which has a local race in Sze-ch‘uen. Next +come the snub-nosed monkeys (<i>Rhinopithecus</i>), of which the typical +species is a native of Sze-ch‘uen, while a second is found on the upper +Mekong, and a third in the mountains of central China. In the Insectivora +the swimming-shrew (<i>Nectogale</i>) forms another generic type +peculiar to Sze-ch‘uen, which is also the sole habitat of the mole-like +<i>Scaptochirus</i>, of <i>Uropsilus</i>, near akin to the Japanese <i>Urotrichus</i>, of +<i>Scaptonyx</i>, which connects the latter with the moles (<i>Talpa</i>), and of +<i>Neotetracus</i>, a relative of the Malay rat-shrews (<i>Gymnura</i>). Here also +may be mentioned the raccoon-dog, forming the subgenus <i>Nyctereutes</i>, +common to China and Japan. The Himalayan black and the Malay +bear have each a local race in Sze-ch‘uen, where the long-haired +Fontanier’s cat (<i>Felis tristis</i>) and the Tibet cat (<i>F. scripta</i>) connect +Indo-Malay species with the American ocelots, while the bay cat (<i>F. +temmincki</i>), a Malay type, is represented by local forms in Sze-ch‘uen +and Fu-chow. The Amurland leopard and Manchurian tiger likewise +constitute local races of their respective species.</p> + +<p>Among ruminants, the Sze-ch‘uen takin represents a genus (<i>Budorcas</i>) +found elsewhere in the Mishmi Hills and Bhutan, while serows +(<i>Nemorhaedus</i>) and gorals (<i>Urotragus</i>), allied to Himalayan and +Burmo-Malay types, abound. The Himalayan fauna is also represented +by a race of the Kashmir hangul deer. Of other deer, the +original habitat of Père David’s milu (<i>Elaphurus</i>), formerly kept in +the Peking park, is unknown. The sika group, which is peculiar to +China, Japan and Formosa, is represented by <i>Cervus hortulorum</i> in +Manchuria and the smaller <i>C. manchuricus</i> and <i>sika</i> in that province +and the Yangtsze valley; while musk-deer (<i>Moschus</i>) abound in +Kan-suh and Sze-ch‘uen. The small water-deer (<i>Hydropotes</i> or +<i>Hydrelaphus</i>) of the Yangtsze valley represents a genus peculiar to +the country, as do the three species of tufted deer (<i>Elaphodus</i>), +whose united range extends from Sze-ch‘uen to Ning-po and I-ch‘ang. +Muntjacs (<i>Cervulus</i>) are likewise very characteristic of the country, +to which the white-tailed, plum-coloured species, like the Tenasserim +<i>C. crinifrons</i>, are peculiar. The occurrence of races of the wapiti in +Manchuria and Amurland has been already mentioned.</p> + +<p>To refer in detail to the numerous forms of rodents inhabiting China +is impossible here, and it must suffice to mention that the flying-squirrels +(<i>Pteromys</i>) are represented by a large and handsome species +in Sze-ch‘uen, where is also found the largest kind of bamboo-rat +(<i>Rhizomys</i>), the other species of which are natives of the western +Himalaya and the Malay countries. Dwarf hamsters of the genus +<i>Cricetulus</i> are natives of the northern provinces. In the extreme +south, in Hai-nan, is found a gibbon ape (<i>Hylobates</i>), while langur +(<i>Semnopithecus</i>) and macaque monkeys (<i>Macacus</i>) likewise occur in +the south, one of the latter also inhabiting Sze-ch‘uen.</p> + +<p>To give an adequate account of Chinese ornithology would require +space many times the length of this article. The gorgeous mandarin +duck (<i>Aix galerita</i>) has already been mentioned among generic types +common to America. In marked distinction to this is the number of +species of pheasants inhabiting north-western China, whence the +group ranges into the eastern Himalaya. Among Chinese species are +two of the three species of blood-pheasants (<i>Ithagenes</i>), two tragopans +(<i>Ceriornis</i> or <i>Tragopan</i>), a monal (<i>Lophophorus</i>), three out of the five +species of <i>Crossoptilum</i>, the other two being Tibetan, two kinds of +<i>Pucrasia</i>, the gorgeous golden and Amherst’s pheasants alone representing +the genus <i>Chrysolophus</i>, together with several species of the +typical genus <i>Phasianus</i>, among which it will suffice to mention the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span> +long-tailed <i>P. reevesi</i>. The Himalayan bamboo-partridges (<i>Bambusicola</i>) +have also a Chinese representative. The only other large +bird that can be mentioned is the Manchurian crane, misnamed +<i>Grus japonensis</i>. Pigeons include the peculiar subgenus <i>Dendroteron</i>; +while among smaller birds, warblers, tits and finches, all of an +Eastern Holarctic type, constitute the common element in the avifauna. +Little would be gained by naming the genera, peculiar or +otherwise.</p> + +<p>China has a few peculiar types of freshwater tortoises, among +which <i>Ocadia sinensis</i> represents a genus unknown elsewhere, while +there is also a species of the otherwise Indian genus <i>Damonia</i>. The +Chinese alligator, <i>Alligator sinensis</i>, has been already mentioned. +Among lizards, the genera <i>Plestiodon</i>, <i>Mabuia</i>, <i>Tachydromus</i> and +<i>Gecko</i>, of which the two latter are very characteristic of the Oriental +region, range through China to Japan; and among snakes, the Malay +python (<i>Python reticulatus</i>) is likewise Chinese. The giant salamander +(<i>Cryptobranchus</i>, or <i>Megalobatrachus, maximus</i>) represents, +as mentioned above, a type found elsewhere only in North America, +while <i>Hynobius</i> and <i>Onychodactylus</i> are peculiar generic types of +salamanders. Among fishes, it must suffice to refer to the spoon-beaked +sturgeon (<i>Psephurus</i>) of the Yangtsze-kiang, and the numerous +members of the carp family to be found in the rivers of China. From +these native carp the Chinese have produced two highly coloured +breeds, the goldfish and the telescope-eyed carp.</p> + +<p>Among the invertebrates special mention may be made of the great +ailanthus silk-moth (<i>Attacus cynthia</i>) of northern China and Japan, +and also of its Manchurian relative <i>A. pernyi</i>; while it may be added +that the domesticated “silkworm” (<i>Bombyx mori</i>) is generally +believed to be of Chinese origin, although this is not certain. Very +characteristic of China is the abundance of handsomely coloured +swallow-tailed butterflies of the family <i>Papilionidae</i>. The Chinese +kermes (<i>Coccus sinensis</i>) is also worth mention, on account of it +yielding wax. As regards land and freshwater snails, China exhibits +a marked similarity to Siam and India; the two groups in which the +Chinese province displays decided peculiarities of its own being <i>Helix</i> +(in the wider sense) and <i>Clausilia</i>. There are, for instance, nearly +half a score of subgenera of <i>Helix</i> whose headquarters are Chinese, +while among these, forms with sinistral shells are relatively common. +The genus <i>Clausilia</i> is remarkable on account of attaining a second +centre of development in China, where its finest species, referable to +several subgenera, occur. Carnivorous molluscs include a peculiar +slug (<i>Rathouisia</i>) and the shelled genera <i>Ennea</i> and <i>Streptaxis</i>. In +the western provinces species of <i>Buliminus</i> are abundant, and in the +operculate group <i>Heudeia</i> forms a peculiar type akin to <i>Helicina</i>, but +with internal foldings to the shell.</p> + +<p>Lastly, it has to be mentioned that the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang +are inhabited by a small jelly-fish, or medusa (<i>Limnocodium +kawaii</i>), near akin to <i>L. sowerbii</i>, which was discovered in the hot-house +tanks in the Botanical Gardens in the Regent’s Park, London, +but whose real home is probably the Amazon.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Flora</i>.</p> + +<p>The vegetation of China is extremely rich, no fewer than 9000 +species of flowering plants having been already enumerated, of which +nearly a half are endemic or not known to occur elsewhere. Whole +provinces are as yet only partially explored; and the total flora is +estimated to comprise ultimately 12,000 species. China is the continuation +eastward of the great Himalayan mass, numerous chains of +mountains running irregularly to the sea-board. Thousands of deep +narrow valleys form isolated areas, where peculiar species have been +evolved. Though the greater part of the country has long ago been +cleared of its primeval forest and submitted to agriculture, there still +remain some extensive forests and countless small woods in which +the original flora is well preserved. Towards the north the vegetation +is palaearctic, and differs little in its composition from that of +Germany, Russia and Siberia. The flora of the western and central +provinces is closely allied to that of the Himalayas and of Japan; +while towards the south this element mingles with species derived +from Indo-China, Burma and the plain of Hindostan. Above a certain +elevation, decreasing with the latitude, but approximately 6000 ft. in +the Yangtsze basin, there exist in districts remote from the traffic of +the great rivers, extensive forests of conifers, like those of Central +Europe in character, but with different species of silver fir, larch, +spruce and Cembran pine. Below this altitude the woods are composed +of deciduous and evergreen broad-leafed trees and shrubs, +mingled together in a profusion of species. Pure broad-leafed forests +of one or two species are rare, though small woods of oak, of alder +and of birch are occasionally seen. There is nothing comparable to +the extensive beech forests of Europe, the two species of Chinese +beech being sporadic and rare trees. The heaths, <i>Calluna</i> and <i>Erica</i>, +which cover great tracts of barren sandy land in Europe, are absent +from China, where the Ericaceous vegetation is made up of numerous +species of <i>Rhododendron</i>, which often cover vast areas on the mountain +slopes. Pine forests occur at low levels, but are always small in +extent.</p> + +<p>The appearance of the vegetation is very different from that of +the United States, which is comparable to China in situation and in +extent. Though there are 60 species of oak in China, many with magnificent +foliage and remarkable cupules, the red oaks, so characteristic +of North America, with their bristle-pointed leaves, turning beautiful +colours in autumn, are quite unknown. The great coniferous forest +west of the Rocky Mountains has no analogue in China, the gigantic +and preponderant Douglas fir being absent, while the giant <i>Sequoias</i> +are represented only on a small scale by <i>Cryptomeria</i>, which attains +half their height.</p> + +<p>Certain remnants of the Miocene flora which have disappeared +from Europe are still conspicuous and similar in North America and +China. In both regions there are several species of <i>Magnolia</i>; one +species each of <i>Liriodendron, Liquidambar</i> and <i>Sassafras</i>; and curious +genera like <i>Nyssa, Hamamelis, Decumaria</i> and <i>Gymnocladus</i>. The +swamps of the south-eastern states, in which still survive the once +widely spread <i>Taxodium</i> or deciduous cypress, are imitated on a +small scale by the marshy banks of rivers near Canton, which are +clad with <i>Glyptostrobus</i>, the “water-pine” of the Chinese. <i>Pseudolarix, +Cunninghamia</i> and <i>Keteleeria</i> are coniferous genera peculiar to +China, which have become extinct elsewhere. The most remarkable +tree in China, the only surviving link between ferns and conifers, +<i>Ginkgo biloba</i>, has only been seen in temple gardens, but may occur +wild in some of the unexplored provinces. Its leaves have been +found in the tertiary beds of the Isle of Mull.</p> + +<p>Most of the European genera occur in China, though there are +curious exceptions like the plane tree, and the whole family of the +<i>Cistaceae</i>, which characterize the peculiar <i>maquis</i> of the +Mediterranean region. The rhododendrons, of which only four species are European, +have their headquarters in China, numbering 130 species, varying in +size from miniature shrubs 6 in. high to tall trees. <i>Lysimachia, +Primula, Clematis, Rubus</i> and <i>Gentiana</i> have each a hundred species, +extraordinary variable in habit, in size and in colour of the flowers. +The ferns are equally polymorphic, numbering 400 species, and +including strange genera like <i>Archangiopteris</i> and <i>Cheiropteris</i>, +unknown elsewhere. About 40 species of bamboos have been distinguished; +the one with a square stem from Fu-kien is the most curious.</p> + +<p>With a great wealth of beautiful flowering shrubs and herbaceous +plants, the Chinese at an early period became skilled horticulturists. +The emperor Wu Ti established in 111 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a botanic garden at +Ch‘ang-an, into which rare plants were introduced from the west +and south. Many garden varieties originated in China. The +chrysanthemum, perhaps the most variable of cultivated flowers, is +derived from two wild species (small and inconspicuous plants), and +is mentioned in the ancient Chinese classics. We owe to the skill of +the Chinese many kinds of roses, lilies, camellias and peonies; and +have introduced from China some of the most ornamental plants in +our gardens, as <i>Wistaria, Diervilla, Kerria, Incarvillea, Deutzia, +Primula sinensis, Hemerocallis</i>, &c. The peach and several oranges +are natives of China. The varnish tree (<i>Rhus vernicifera</i>), from +which lacquer is obtained; the tallow tree (<i>Sapium sebiferum</i>); the +white mulberry, on which silkworms are fed; and the tea plant were +all first utilized by the Chinese. The Chinese have also numerous +medicinal plants, of which ginseng and rhubarb are best known. +Nearly all our vegetables and cereals have their counterpart in China, +where there are numerous varieties not yet introduced into Europe, +though some, like the Soy bean, are now attracting great attention.</p> +<div class="author">(A. He.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—L. Richard (S.J.), <i>Géographie de l’empire de Chine</i> +(Shanghai, 1905)—the first systematic account of China as a whole in +modern times. The work, enlarged, revised and translated into +English by M. Kennelly (S.J.), was reissued in 1908 as Richard’s +<i>Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies</i>. +This is the standard authority for the country and gives for each +section bibliographical notes. It has been used in the revision of the +present article. Valuable information on northern, central and +western China is furnished by Col. C.C. Manifold and Col. A.W.S. +Wingate in the <i>Geog. Journ.</i> vol. xxiii. (1904) and vol. xxix. (1907). +Consult also Marshall Broomhall (ed.), <i>The Chinese Empire: a +General and Missionary Survey</i> (London, 1907); B. Willis, E. Blackwelder +and others, <i>Research in China</i>, vol. i. part i. “Descriptive +Topography and Geology,” part ii. “Petrography and Zoology,” +and Atlas (Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1906-1907); Forbes +and Hemsley, “Enumeration of Chinese Plants,” in <i>Journ. +Linnean Soc. (Bot.)</i>, vols. xxiii. and xxxvi.; Bretschneider, <i>History +of European Botanical Discoveries in China</i>; E. Tiessen, <i>China das +Reich der achtzehn Provinzen</i>, Teil i. “Die allgemeine Geographie +des Landes” (Berlin, 1902); and <i>The China Sea Directory</i> (published +by the British Admiralty), a valuable guide to the coasts: vol. ii. +(5th ed., 1906) deals with Hong-Kong and places south thereof, vol. iii. +(4th ed., 1906, supp. 1907) with the rest of the Chinese coast; vol. i. +(5th ed., 1906) treats of the islands and straits in the S.W. approach +to the China Sea. Much of China has not been surveyed, but +considerable progress has been made since 1900. <i>The Atlas of the +Chinese Empire</i> (London, 1908), a good general atlas, which, however, +has no hill shading, gives maps of each province on the scale of +1:3,000,000. The preface contains a list of the best regional maps.</p> + +<p><i>The Journal af the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</i> contains +papers on all subjects relating to China.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center1 sc">II. The People</p> + +<p>China is noted for the density of its population, but no accurate +statistics are forthcoming. The province of Shan-tung is reputed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span> +to have a population of 680 per sq. m. The provinces of central +China, in the basin of the Yangtsze-kiang—namely Sze-ch‘uen, +Hu-peh, Ngan-hui, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang—contain +<span class="sidenote">Population.</span> +probably a third of thes total population, the density +of the people in these provinces being represented +as from 490 to 310 per sq. m. Ho-nan, which belongs partly to +the basin of the Hwang-ho and partly to that of the Yangtsze-kiang, +as well as the S.E. coast provinces of Fu-kien and Kwang-tung, +are also densely peopled, Ho-nan being credited with 520 +persons per sq. m., Fu-kien with 490 and Kwang-tung with +about 320.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Chinese government prints from time to time in the <i>Peking +Gazette</i> returns of the population made by the various provincial +authorities. The method of numeration is to count the households, +and from that to make a return of the total inhabitants of each +province. There would be no great difficulty in obtaining fairly +accurate returns if sufficient care were taken. It does not appear, +however, that much care is taken. Mr E.H. Parker published in the +<i>Statistical Society’s Journal</i> for March 1899 tables translated +from Chinese records, giving the population from year to year between +1651 and 1860. These tables show a gradual rise, though with many +fluctuations, up till 1851, when the total population is stated to be +432 millions. From that point it decreases till 1860, when it is put +down at only 261 millions. The Chinese Imperial Customs put the +total population of the empire in 1906 at 438,214,000 and that of +China proper at 407,253,000. It has been held by several inquirers +that these figures are gross over-estimates. Mr Rockhill, American +minister at Peking (1905-1909), after careful inquiry<a name="FnAnchor_9d" id="FnAnchor_9d" href="#Footnote_9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> concluded +that the inhabitants of China proper did not exceed, in 1904, +270,000,000. Other competent authorities are inclined to accept +the round figure of 400,000,000 as nearer the accurate number. +Eleven cities were credited in 1908 with between 500,000 and +1,000,000 inhabitants each, and smaller cities are very numerous, +but the population is predominantly rural. In addition to the +Chinese the population includes a number of aboriginal races such +as the Lolos (<i>q.v.</i>), the Miaotsze (<i>q.v.</i>), the Ikias of Kwei-chow and +Kwang-si, the Hakka, found in the south-east provinces, and the +Hoklos of Kwang-tung province.<a name="FnAnchor_10d" id="FnAnchor_10d" href="#Footnote_10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a> The Manchus resident in China +are estimated to number 4,000,000. According to the Imperial +Customs authorities, the number of foreigners resident in China in +1908 was 69,852. Of these 44,143 were Japanese, 9520 Russian, +9043 British, 3637 German, 3545 American, 3353 Portuguese, 2029 +French, 554 Italian and 282 Belgian.</p> + +<p>The Chinese are a colonizing race, and in Manchuria, Mongolia and +Turkestan they have brought several districts under cultivation. In +the regions where they settle they become the dominant +race—thus southern Manchuria now differs little from a +<span class="sidenote">Emigration.</span> +province of China proper. In Indo-China, the Malay +Peninsula and throughout the Far East Chinese are numerous as +farmers, labourers and traders; in some places, such as Singapore, +Chinese are among the principal merchants. This colonizing spirit +is probably due more to the enterprise of the people than to the +density of the population. There were Chinese settlements at places +on the east coast of Africa before the 10th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Following +the discovery of gold in California there was from 1850 onwards a +large emigration of Chinese to that state and to other parts of America. +But in 1879 Chinese exclusion acts were passed by the United States, +an example followed by Australia, where Chinese immigration was +also held to be a public danger. Canada also adopted the policy +of excluding Chinese, but not before there had been a considerable +immigration into British Columbia. Two factors, a racial and an +economic, are at work to bring about these measures of exclusion. +As indentured labourers Chinese have been employed in the West +Indies, South America and other places (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coolie</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In addition to several million Chinese settlers in Manchuria, and +smaller numbers in Mongolia, Turkestan and Tibet, it was estimated +in 1908 that there were over 9,000,000 Chinese resident beyond the +empire. Of these 2,250,000 were in Formosa, which for long formed +a part of the empire, and over 6,000,000 in neighbouring regions of +Asia and in Pacific Islands. In the West Indies (chiefly Cuba) the +number of Chinese was estimated at 100,000, in South America +(Brazil, Peru and Chile) at 72,000, in the United States at 150,000, +in Canada at 12,000, and in Australia and New Zealand at 35,000. +There are comparatively few Chinese in Japan (if Formosa be excepted) +and Korea. The number is given in 1908 as 17,000 in Japan +and 11,000 in Korea.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Social Life.</i></p> + +<p>The awakening of the East which has followed the Russo-Japanese +War of 1904-5 has affected China also. It is too soon +to say how far the influx of European ideas will be able to modify +the immemorial customs and traditions of perhaps the most +conservative people in the world; but the process has begun, +and this fact makes it difficult to give a picture of Chinese habits +and customs which shall be more than historical or provisional. +Moreover, the difficulty of presenting a picture which shall be +true of China as a whole is enhanced by the different characteristics +observable in various regions of so vast a country. The +Chinese themselves, until the material superiority of Western +civilization forced them to a certain degree to conform to its +standards, looked down from the height of their superior culture +with contempt on the “Western barbarians.” Nor was their +attitude wholly without justification. Their civilization was +already old at a time when Britain and Germany were peopled +by half-naked barbarians, and the philosophical and ethical +principles on which it was based remain, to all appearances, as +firmly rooted as ever. That these principles have, on the whole, +helped to create a national type of a very high order few +Europeans who know the Chinese well would deny. The Chinese +are naturally reserved, earnest and good-natured; for the +occasional outbursts of ferocious violence, notably against +foreign settlements, are no index to the national character. +There is a national proverb that “the men of the Four Seas are +all brothers,” and even strangers can travel through the country +without meeting with rudeness, much less outrage. If the +Chinese character is inferior to the European, this inferiority lies +in the fact that the Chinaman’s whole philosophy of life disinclines +him to change or to energetic action. He is industrious; +but his industry is normally along the lines marked out by +authority and tradition. He is brave; but his courage does +not naturally seek an outlet in war. The jealously exclusive +empire, into which in the 19th century the nations of the West +forced an entrance, was organized for peace; the arts of war had +been all but forgotten, and soldiers were of all classes the most +despised.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The whole social and political organization of the Chinese is based, +in a far more real sense than in the West, on the family. The supreme +duty is that of the child to its parent; on this the whole Chinese +moral system is built up. Filial piety, according to the teaching of +Confucius, is the very foundation of society; the nation itself is +but one great family, and the authority of the government itself is +but an extension of the paternal authority, to which all its children +are bound to yield implicit obedience. The western idea of the liberty +and dignity of the individual, as distinct from the community to +which he belongs, is wholly alien to the Chinese mind. The political +unit in China is not the individual but the family, and the father of +the family is supposed to be responsible for the qualities and views of +all his kin. He is rewarded for their virtues, punished for their +faults; the deserts of a son ennoble the father and all his ancestors, +and conversely his crimes disgrace them.</p> + +<p>An outcome of this principle is the extraordinary importance in +China of funeral rites, especially in the case of the father. The eldest +son, now head of the family, or, failing him, his first-born or adopted +son, fixes one of the three souls of the dead in the tablet commemorating +his virtues, burns incense to his shade, and supplies him with +paper money and paper representations of everything (clothes, +servants, horses) that he may require in his journey to the other +world. Mourning lasts for three years, during which the mourners +wear white garments and abstain from meat, wine and public +gatherings. Custom, too, dictates that wherever the Chinaman may +die he must be brought back for burial to the place of his birth; one +of the objects of the friendly societies is to provide funds to charter +ships to transport home the bodies of those who have died abroad. +Annually, in May, the white-clad people stream to the graves and +mortuary temples with flowers, fruit and other offerings for the +dead. Christian missionaries have found in this ancestor worship +the most serious obstacle to the spread of a religion which teaches +that the convert must, if need be, despise his father and his mother +and follow Christ.</p> + +<p>The same elaborate ceremonialism that characterizes the Chinese +funeral customs is found also in their marriage rites and the rules of +their social intercourse generally. Confucius is reported to have said +that “all virtues have their source in etiquette,” and the due +observance of the “ceremonial” (<i>li</i>) in the fulfilling of social duties +is that which, in Chinese opinion, distinguishes civilized from barbarous +peoples. The Board of Rites, one of the departments of +the central government, exists for the purpose of giving decisions in +matters of etiquette and ceremony. As to marriage, the rule that the +individual counts for nothing obtains here in its fullest significance. +The breeding of sons to carry on the ancestral cult is a matter of +prime importance, and the marriage of a young man is arranged at +the earliest possible age. The bride and bridegroom have little voice +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span> +in the matter, the match being arranged by the parents of the +parties; the lifting of the bride’s veil, so that the bridegroom may +see her face, is the very last act of the long and complicated +ceremony.</p> + +<p>In the traditional Chinese social system four classes are distinguished: +the literary, the agricultural, the artisan and the +trading class. Hereditary nobility, in the European sense, scarcely +exists, and the possession of an hereditary title gives in itself no +special privileges. Official position is more highly esteemed than +birth and the bureaucracy takes the place of the aristocracy in the +west. There are, nevertheless, besides personal decorations for +merit, such as the yellow jacket, five hereditary rewards for merit; +these last only for a fixed number of lives. A few Chinese families, +however, enjoy hereditary titles in the full sense, the chief among +them being the Holy Duke of Yen (the descendant of Confucius). +The Imperial Clansmen consist of those who trace their descent +direct from the founder of the Manchu dynasty, and are distinguished +by the privilege of wearing a yellow girdle; collateral relatives +of the imperial house wear a red girdle. Twelve degrees of nobility +(in a descending scale as one generation succeeds another) are +conferred on the descendants of every emperor; in the thirteenth +generation the descendants of emperors are merged in the general +population, save that they retain the yellow girdle. The heads of +eight houses, the “Iron-capped” (or helmeted) princes, maintain +their titles in perpetuity by rule of primogeniture in virtue of having +helped the Manchu in the conquest of China. Imperial princes +apart, the highest class is that forming the civil service. (See also +§ <i>Government and Administration</i>.) The peasant class forms the bulk of +the population. The majority of Chinese are small landowners; their +standard of living is very low in comparison with European standards. +This is in part due to the system of land tenure. A parent cannot, +even if he wished to do so, leave all his land to one son. There must +be substantially an equal division, the will of the father notwithstanding. +As early marriages and large families are the rule, this +process of continual division and subdivision has brought things down +to the irreducible minimum in many places. Small patches of one-tenth +or even one-twentieth of an acre are to be found as the +estate of an individual landowner, and the vast majority of holdings +run between one and three acres. With three acres a family is +deemed very comfortable, and the possession of ten acres means +luxury.</p> + +<p>The only class which at all resembles the territorial magnates of +other countries is the class of retired officials. The wealth of an +official is not infrequently invested in land, and consequently there +are in most provinces several families with a country seat and the +usual insignia of local rank and influence. On the decease of the +heads or founders of such families it is considered dignified for the +sons to live together, sharing the rents and profits in common. This +is sometimes continued for several generations, until the country seat +becomes an agglomeration of households and the family a sort of +clan. A family of this kind, with literary traditions, and with the +means to educate the young men, is constantly sending its scions +into the public service. These in turn bring their earnings to +swell the common funds, while the rank and dignity which they +may earn add to the importance and standing of the group as a +whole. The members of this class are usually termed the <i>literati</i> or +gentry.</p> + +<p>The complex character of the Chinese is shown in various ways. +Side by side with the reverence of ancestors the law recognizes the +right of the parent to sell his offspring into slavery and among the +poor this is not an uncommon practice, though in comparison with +the total population the number of slaves is few. The kidnapping of +children for sale as slaves is carried on, but there is no slave raiding. +There are more female than male slaves; the descendants of male +slaves acquire freedom in the fifth generation. While every Chinese +man is anxious to have male children, girls are often considered +superfluous.</p> + +<p>The position of women is one of distinct inferiority; a woman is +always subject to the men of her family—before marriage to her +father, during marriage to her husband, in widowhood to her son; +these states being known as “the three obediences.” Sons who do +not, however, honour their mothers outrage public opinion. Polygamy +is tolerated, secondary wives being sometimes provided by the +first wife when she is growing old. Secondary wives are subordinate +to first wives. A wife may be divorced for any one of seven reasons. +The sale of wives is practised, but is not recognized by law. Women +of the upper classes are treated with much respect. The home of a +Chinese man is often in reality ruled by his mother, or by his wife as +she approaches old age, a state held in veneration. Chinese women +frequently prove of excellent business capacity, and those of high +rank—as the recent history of China has conspicuously proved—exercise +considerable influence on public affairs.</p> + +<p>Deforming the feet of girls by binding and stopping their growth has +been common for centuries. The tottering walk of the Chinese lady +resulting from this deformation of the feet is the admiration of her +husband and friends. Foot-binding is practised by rich and poor in all +parts of the country, but is not universal. In southern and western +China Hakka women and certain others never have their feet bound. +It has been noted that officials (who all serve on the itinerary system) +take for secondary wives natural-footed women, who are frequently +slaves.<a name="FnAnchor_11d" id="FnAnchor_11d" href="#Footnote_11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Every child is one at birth, and two on what Europeans +call its first birthday, the period of gestation counting as one year.</p> + +<p>In their social intercourse the Chinese are polite and ceremonious; +they do not shake hands or kiss, but prostrations (kotowing), +salutations with joined hands and congratulations are common. They +have no weekly day of rest, but keep many festivals, the most +important being that of New Year’s Day. Debts are supposed to be +paid before New Year’s Day begins and for the occasion new clothes +are bought. Other notable holidays are the Festival of the First +Full Moon, the Feast of Lanterns and the Festival of the Dragon +Boat. A feature of the festivals is the employment of thousands +of lanterns made of paper, covered with landscapes and other scenes +in gorgeous colours. Of outdoor sports kite-flying is the most +popular and is engaged in by adults; shuttle-cock is also a favourite +game, while cards and dominoes are indoor amusements. The +theatre and marionette shows are largely patronized. The habit of +opium smoking is referred to elsewhere; tobacco smoking is general +among both sexes.</p> + +<p>Except in their head-dress and their shoes little distinction is made +between the costumes of men and women.<a name="FnAnchor_12d" id="FnAnchor_12d" href="#Footnote_12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Both sexes wear a long +loose jacket or robe which fits closely round the neck and has wide +sleeves, and wide short trousers. Over the robe shorter jackets—often +sleeveless—are worn, according to the weather. For winter +wear the jackets are wadded, and a Chinaman will speak of “a +three, four or six coat cold day.” A man’s robe is generally longer +than that of a woman. Petticoats are worn by ladies on ceremonial +occasions and the long robe is removed when in the house. “It is +considered very unwomanly not to wear trousers, and very indelicate +for a man not to have skirts to his coat.” No Chinese woman ever +bares any part of her body in public—even the hands are concealed +in the large sleeves—and the evening dress of European ladies is +considered indelicate; but Hakka women move about freely without +shoes or stockings. A Chinese man will, however, in warm weather +often strip naked to the waist. Coolies frequently go bare-legged; +they use sandals made of rope and possess rain-coats made of palm +leaves. The garments of the poorer classes are made of cotton, +generally dyed blue. Wealthy people have their clothes made of silk. +Skirts and jackets are elaborately embroidered. Costly furs and +fur-lined clothes are much prized, and many wealthy Chinese have fine +collections of furs. Certain colours may only be used with official +permission as denoting a definite rank or distinction, <i>e.g.</i> the yellow +jacket. The colours used harmonize—the contrasts in colour seen in +the clothes of Europeans is avoided. Dark purple over blue are usual +colour combinations. The mourning colour is white. Common shoes +are made of cotton or silk and have thick felt soles; all officials wear +boots of satin into which is thrust the pipe or the fan—the latter +carried equally by men and women. The fan is otherwise stuck at +the back of the neck, or attached to the girdle, which may also hold +the purse, watch, snuff-box and a pair of chop-sticks.</p> + +<p>Formerly Chinese men let their hair grow sufficiently long to gather +it in a knot at the top; on the conquest of the country by the Manchu +they were compelled to adopt the queue or pigtail, which is often +artificially lengthened by the employment of silk thread, usually +black in colour. The front part of the head is shaved. As no +Chinese dress their own hair, barbers are numerous and do a thriving +trade. Women do not shave the head nor adopt the queue. Men +wear in general a close-fitting cap, and the peasants large straw hats. +Circular caps, larger at the crown than round the head and with an +outward slope are worn in winter by mandarins, conical straw hats in +summer. Women have elaborate head ornaments, decking their hair +with artificial flowers, butterflies made of jade, gold pins and pearls. +The faces of Chinese ladies are habitually rouged, their eyebrows +painted. Pearl or bead necklaces are worn both by men and women. +Officials and men of leisure let one or two finger nails grow long and +protect them with a metal case.</p> + +<p>The staple food of the majority of the Chinese in the south and +central provinces is rice; in the northern provinces millet as well +as rice is much eaten. In separate bowls are placed morsels of pork, +fish, chicken, vegetables and other relishes. Rice-flour, bean-meal, +macaroni, and shell fish are all largely used. Flour balls cooked in +sugar are esteemed. Beef is never eaten, but Mahommedans eat +mutton, and there is hardly any limit to the things the Chinese use +as food. In Canton dogs which have been specially fed are an article +of diet. Eggs are preserved for years in a solution of salt, lime and +wood-ash, or in spirits made from rice. Condiments are highly +prized, as are also preserved fruits. Special Chinese dishes are +soups made from sea-slugs and a glutinous substance found in +certain birds’ nests, ducks’ tongues, sharks’ fins, the brains of +chickens and of fish, the sinews of deer and of whales, fish with +pickled fir-tree cones, and roots of the lotus lily. A kind of beer +brewed from rice is a usual drink; <i>samshu</i> is a spirit distilled +from the same grain and at dinners is served hot in small bowls. Excellent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span> +native wines are made. The Chinese are, however, abstemious with +regard to alcoholic liquors. Water is drunk hot by the very poor, as +a substitute for tea. Tea is drunk before and after meals in cups +without handle or saucer; the cups are always provided with a cover. +Two substantial meals are taken during the day—luncheon and +dinner; the last named at varying hours from four till seven o’clock. +At dinner a rich man will offer his guest twenty-four or more dishes +(always a multiple of 4), four to six dishes being served at a time. +Food is eaten from bowls and with chop-sticks (<i>q.v.</i>) and little +porcelain spoons. Men dine by themselves when any guests are +present; dinner parties are sometimes given by ladies to ladies. +Chinese cookery is excellent; in the culinary art the Chinese are +reputed to be second only to the French.</p> + +<p>Ethnologically the Chinese are classed among the Mongolian races +(in which division the Manchus are also included), although they +present many marked contrasts to the Mongols. The Tatars, +Tibetans, Burmese, Shans, Manchu and other races—including the +Arab and Japanese—have mingled with the indigenous population to +form the Chinese type, while aboriginal tribes still resist the pressure +of absorption by the dominant race (see ante, <i>Population</i>). The +Chinese are in fact ethnically a very mixed people, and the pure +Mongol type is uncommon among them. Moreover, natives of +different provinces still present striking contrasts one to another, +and their common culture is probably the strongest national link. +By some authorities it is held that the parent stock of the Chinese +came from the north-west, beyond the alluvial plain; others hold +that it was indigenous in eastern China. Notwithstanding the +marked differences between the inhabitants of different provinces +and even between those living in the same province, certain features +are common to the race. “The stature is below the average and +seldom exceeds 5 ft. 4 in., except in the North. The head is normally +brachycephalic or round horizontally, and the forehead low and +narrow. The face is round, the mouth large, and the chin small and +receding. The cheek-bones are prominent, the eyes almond-shaped, +oblique upwards and outwards, and the hair coarse, lank and invariably +black. The beard appears late in life, and remains generally +scanty. The eyebrows are straight and the iris of the eye is +black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat. The hands and +feet are disproportionately small, and the body early inclines to +obesity. The complexion varies from an almost pale-yellow to a +dark-brown, without any red or ruddy tinge. Yellow, however, +predominates.”<a name="FnAnchor_13d" id="FnAnchor_13d" href="#Footnote_13d"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p> + +<p>A few words may be added concerning the Manchus, who are the +ruling race in China. Their ethnic affinities are not precisely known, +but they may be classed among the Ural-Altaic tribes, although the +term Ural-Altaic (<i>q.v.</i>) denotes a linguistic rather than a racial group. +By some authorities they are called Tung-tatze, <i>i.e.</i> Eastern +Tatars—-the Tatars of to-day being of true Mongol descent. Manchu is +the name adopted in the 13th century by one of several tribes which +led a nomadic life in Manchuria and were known collectively in the +11th century as Nüchihs. Some authorities regard the Khitans +(whence the European form Cathay), who in the 9th and 10th centuries +dwelt in the upper Liao region, as the ancestors of this race. +It was not until the 16th century that the people became known +generally as Manchus and obtained possession of the whole of the +country now bearing their name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manchuria</a></span>). They had then a +considerable mixture of Chinese and Korean blood, but had developed +a distinct nationality and kept their ancient Ural-Altaic language. +In China the Manchus retained their separate nationality and +semi-military organization. It was not until the early years of the 20th +century that steps were officially taken to obliterate the distinction +between the two races. The Manchus are a more robust race than the +inhabitants of central and southern China, but resemble those of +northern China save that their eyes are horizontally set. They are a +lively and enterprising people, but have not in general the intellectual +or business ability of the Chinese. They are courteous in their +relations with strangers. The common people are frugal and +industrious. The Manchu family is generally large. The women’s +feet are unbound; they twist their hair round a silver bangle placed +cross-wise on the top of the head. The Manchus have no literature +of their own, but as the language of the court Manchu has been +extensively studied in China.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Sir John F. Davies, <i>China</i> (2 vols., London, 1857); +É. Réclus, <i>The Universal Geography</i>, vol. vii. +(Eng. trans. ed. by E.G. Ravenstein and A.H. Keane); +É. and O. Réclus, <i>L’Empire du milieu</i> (Paris, 1902); +Sir R.K. Douglas, <i>Society in China</i> (London, 1895); +J. Doolittle, <i>Social Life of the Chinese</i> (2 vols., New York, 1867); +H.A. Giles, <i>China and the Chinese</i> (1902); +E. Bard, <i>Les Chinois chez eux</i> (Paris, 1900); +A.G. Jones, <i>Desultory Notes on Chinese Etiquette</i> (Shanghai, 1906); +Mrs Archibald Little, <i>Intimate China</i> (London, 1899) +and <i>The Land of the Blue Gown</i> (London, 1902); +E.H. Parker, <i>John Chinaman and a Few Others</i> (London, 1901); +J. Dyer-Ball, <i>Things Chinese</i> (Shanghai, 1903); +Cheng Kitung, <i>The Chinese Painted by Themselves</i> +(Eng. trans. by J. Millington, London, 1885); +L. Richard, <i>Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire</i> +(Shanghai, 1908).</p> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> +</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Religion.</i></p> + +<p>The earliest traces of religious thought and practice in China +point to a simple monotheism. There was a Divine Ruler of +the universe, abiding on high, beyond the ken of man. +This Power was not regarded as the Creator of the +<span class="sidenote">The ancient faith.</span> +human race, but as a Supreme Being to whom wickedness +was abhorrent and virtuous conduct a source of +joy, and who dealt out rewards and punishments with unerring +justice, claiming neither love nor reverence from mankind. If +a man did his duty towards his neighbour, he might pass his +whole time on earth oblivious of the fact that such a Power was +in existence; unless perchance he wished to obtain some good +or attain some end, in which case he might seek to propitiate +Him by sacrifice and prayer. There was no Devil to tempt man +astray, and to rejoice in his fall; neither was there any belief +that righteous behaviour in this world would lead at death to +absorption in the Deity. To God, understood in this sense, the +people gave the name <i>Tien</i>, which in the colloquial language +was used of the sky; and when, in the first stages of the written +character, it became necessary to express the idea of <i>Tien</i>, they +did not attempt any vague picture of the heavens, but set down +the rude outline of a man. Perhaps about this period the title +<i>Shang Ti</i>, or Supreme Ruler, came into vogue as synonymous +with <i>Tien</i>. But although the two terms were synonyms, and +both may be equally rendered by “God,” there is nevertheless +an important distinction to be observed, much as though <i>Tien</i> +and <i>Shang Ti</i> were two Persons in one substance. <i>Tien</i> is far +more an abstract Being, while <i>Shang Ti</i> partakes rather of the +nature of a personal God, whose anthropomorphic nature is +much more strongly accentuated. <i>Shang Ti</i> is described as +walking and talking, as enjoying the flavour of sacrifices, as +pleased with music and dancing in his honour, and even as taking +sides in warfare; whereas <i>Tien</i> holds aloof, wrapped in an +impenetrable majesty, an <i>ignotum pro mirifico</i>. So much for +religion in primeval days, gathered scrap by scrap from many +sources; for nothing like a history of religion is to be found in +Chinese literature.</p> + +<p>Gradually to this monotheistic conception was added a worship +of the sun, moon and constellations, of the five planets, and of +such noticeable individual stars as (<i>e.g.</i>) Canopus, which is now +looked upon as the home of the God of Longevity. Earth, +too—Mother Earth—came in for her share of worship, indicated +especially by the God of the Soil, and further distributed among +rivers and hills. Wind, rain, heat, cold, thunder and lightning, +as each became objects of desire or aversion, were invested with +the attributes of deities. The various parts of the house—door, +kitchen-stove, courtyard, &c.—were also conceived of as sheltering +some spirit whose influence might be benign or the reverse. +The spirits of the land and of grain came to mean one’s country, +the commonwealth, the state; and the sacrifices of these spirits +by the emperor formed a public announcement of his accession, +or of his continued right to the throne. Side by side with such +sacrificial rites was the worship of ancestors, stretching so far +back that its origin is not discernible in such historical documents +as we possess. In early times only the emperor, or the feudal +nobles, or certain high officials, could sacrifice to the spirits +of nature; the common people sacrificed to their own ancestors +and to the spirits of their own homes. For three days before +performing such sacrifices, a strict vigil with purification was +maintained; and by the expiration of that time, from sheer +concentration of thought, the mourner was able to see the spirits +of the departed, and at the sacrifice next day seemed to hear their +movements and even the murmur of their sighs. Ancestral +worship in China has always been, and still is, worship in the +strict sense of the term. It is not a memorial service in simple +honour of the dead; but sacrifices are offered, and the whole +ceremonial is performed that the spirits of former ancestors may +be induced to extend their protection to the living and secure to +them as many as possible of the good things of this world.</p> + +<p>For Confucianism, which cannot, strictly speaking, be classed +as a religion, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Confucius</a></span>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Around the scanty utterances of Lao Tzŭ or Lao-tsze (<i>q.v.</i>; +see also § <i>Chinese Literature, §§ Philosophy</i>) +an attempt was made by later writers to weave a scheme of thought which +should serve to satisfy the cravings of mortals for some definite +<span class="sidenote">Taoism.</span> +solution of the puzzle of life. Lao Tzŭ himself had enunciated +a criterion which he called <i>Tao</i>, or the Way, from which is +derived the word Taoism; and in his usual paradoxical style he had +asserted that the secret of this Way, which was at the beginning +apparently nothing more than a line of right conduct, could not possibly +be imparted, even by those who understood it. His disciples, however, of +later days proceeded to interpret the term in the sense of the Absolute, +the First Cause, and finally as One, in whose obliterating unity all +seemingly opposed conditions of time and space were indistinguishably +blended. This One, the source of human life, was placed beyond +the limits of the visible universe; and for human life to return +thither at death and to enjoy immortality, it was only necessary to +refine away all corporeal grossness by following the doctrines of Lao +Tzŭ. By and by, this One came to be regarded as a fixed point of +dazzling luminosity in remote ether, around which circled for ever +and ever, in the supremest glory of motion, the souls of those who +had left the slough of humanity behind them. These transcendental +notions were entirely corrupted at a very early date by the introduction +of belief in an elixir of life, and later still by the practice of +alchemistic experiments. Opposed by Buddhism, which next laid a +claim for a share in the profits of popular patronage, Taoism rapidly +underwent a radical transformation. It became a religion, borrowing +certain ceremonial, vestments, liturgies, the idea of a hell, arrangement +of temples, &c., from its rival; which rival was not slow in returning +the compliment. As Chu Hsi said, “Buddhism stole the best +features of Taoism; Taoism stole the worst features of Buddhism. +It is as though one took a jewel from the other, and the loser +recouped the loss with a stone.” At the present day there is not +much to choose between the two religions, which flourish peaceably +together. As to their temples, priests and ceremonial, it takes an +expert to distinguish one from the other.</p> + +<p>There is no trustworthy information as to the exact date at which +Buddhism first reached China. It is related that the emperor Ming +Ti (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 58-76) had a dream in which a golden man appeared +to him, and this mysterious visitant was interpreted +<span class="sidenote">Buddhism.</span> +by the emperor’s brother to be none other than Shākyamuni Buddha, +the far-famed divinity of the West. This shows that Buddhism must +then have been known to the Chinese, at any rate by hearsay. The +earliest alleged appearance of Buddhism in China dates from 217 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +when certain Shamans who came to proselytize were seized and +thrown into prison. They escaped through the miraculous intervention +of a golden man, who came to them in the middle of the night +and opened their prison doors. Hsü Kuan, a writer of the Sung +dynasty, quotes in his <i>Tung Chai Chi</i> passages to support the view +that Buddhism was known in China some centuries before the reign +of Ming Ti; among others, the following from the <i>Sui Shu Ching +Chi Chih</i>: “These Buddhist writings had long been circulated far +and wide, but disappeared with the advent of the Ch‘in dynasty,” +under which (see § <i>Chinese Literature, §§ History</i>) occurred the +Burning of the Books. It is, however, convenient to begin with the +alleged dream of Ming Ti, as it was only subsequent to that date that +Buddhism became a recognized religion of the people. It is certain +that in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 65 a mission of eighteen members was despatched to +Khotan to make inquiries on the subject, and that in 67 the mission +returned, bringing Buddhist writings and images, and accompanied +by an Indian priest, Kashiapmadanga, who was followed shortly +afterwards by another priest, Gobharana. A temple was built for +these two at Lo-yang, then the capital of China, and they settled +down to the work of translating portions of the Buddhist scriptures +into Chinese; but all that now remains of their work is the Sūtra of +Forty-two Sections, translated by Kashiapmadanga. During the +next two hundred and fifty years an unbroken line of foreign priests +came to China to continue the task of translation, and to assist in +spreading the faith. Such work was indeed entirely in their hands, +for until the 4th century the Chinese people were prohibited from +taking orders as priests; but by that date Buddhism had taken a +firm hold upon the masses, and many Chinese priests were attracted +towards India, despite the long and dangerous journey, partly to +visit the birthplace of the creed and to see with their own eyes the +scenes which had so fired their imaginations, and partly in the hope +of adding to the store of books and images already available in China +(see § <i>Chinese Literature, §§ Geography and Travel</i>). Still, the +train of Indian missionaries, moving in the opposite direction, did not +cease. In 401, Kumarajiva, the nineteenth of the Western Patriarchs +and translator of the Diamond Sūtra, finally took up his residence +at the court of the soi-disant emperor, Yao Hsing. In 405 he became +State Preceptor and dictated his commentaries on the sacred books +of Buddhism to some eight hundred priests, besides composing a +<i>shāstra</i> on Reality and Semblance. Dying in 417, his body was +cremated, as is still usual with priests, but his tongue, which had done +such eminent service during life, remained unharmed in the midst of +the flames. In the year 520 Bōdhidharma, or Ta-mo, as he is +affectionately known to the Chinese, being also called the White +Buddha, reached Canton, bringing with him the sacred bowl of the +Buddhist Patriarchate, of which he was the last representative in the +west and the first to hold office in the east. Summoned to Nanking, +he offended the emperor by asserting that real merit lay, not in works, +but solely in purity and wisdom combined. He therefore retired to +Lo-yang, crossing the swollen waters of the Yangtsze on a reed, a +feat which has ever since had a great fascination for Chinese painters +and poets. There he spent the rest of his life, teaching that religion +was not to be learnt from books, but that man should seek and find +the Buddha in his own heart. Thus Buddhism gradually made its +way. It had to meet first of all the bitter hostility of the Taoists; +and secondly, the fitful patronage and opposition of the court. +Several emperors and empresses were infatuated supporters of the +faith; one even went so far as to take vows and lead the life of an +ascetic, further insisting that to render full obedience to the Buddhist +commandment, “Thou shalt not kill,” the sacrificial animals were to +be made of dough. Other emperors, instigated by Confucian advisers, +went to the opposite extreme of persecution, closed all religious +houses, confiscated their property, and forced the priests and nuns to +return to the world. From about the 11th century onwards Buddhism +has enjoyed comparative immunity from attack or restriction, and it +now covers the Chinese empire from end to end. The form under +which it appears in China is to some extent of local growth; that is to +say, the Chinese have added and subtracted not a little to and from +the parent stock. The cleavage which took place under Kanishka, +ruler of the Indo-Scythian empire, about the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, +divided Buddhism into the Mahāyāna, or Greater Vehicle, and the +Hināyāna, as it is somewhat contemptuously styled, or Lesser +Vehicle. The latter was the nearer of the two to the Buddhism of +Shākyamuni, and exhibits rather the mystic and esoteric sides of the +faith. The former, which spread northwards and on to Nepaul, +Tibet, China, Mongolia and Japan, leaving southern India, Burma +and Siam to its rival, began early to lean towards the deification of +Buddha as a personal Saviour. New Buddhas and Bōdhisatvas were +added, and new worlds were provided for them to live in; in China, +especially, there was an enormous extension of the mythological +element. In fact, the Mahāyāna system of Buddhism, inspired, as +has been observed, by a progressive spirit, but without contradicting +the inner significance of the teachings of Buddha, broadened its scope +and assimilated other religio-philosophical beliefs, whenever this +could be done to the advantage of those who came within its influence. +Such is the form of this religion which prevails in China, of +which, however, the Chinese layman understands nothing. He goes +to a temple, worships the gods with prostrations, lighted candles, +incense, &c., to secure his particular ends at the moment; he may +even listen to a service chanted in a foreign tongue and just as +incomprehensible to the priests as to himself. He pays his fees and +departs, absolutely ignorant of the history or dogmas of the religion +to which he looks for salvation in a future state. All such knowledge, +and there is now not much of it, is confined to a few of the more +cultured priests.</p> + +<p>The 7th century seems to have been notable in the religious +history of China. Early in that century, Mazdaism, or the religion +of Zoroaster, based upon the worship of fire, was introduced +<span class="sidenote">Mardaism.</span> +into China, and in 621 the first temple under that +denomination was built at Ch‘ang-an in Shensi, then the capital. +But the harvest of converts was insignificant; the religion failed +to hold its ground, and in the 9th century disappeared altogether.</p> + +<p>Mahommedans first settled in China in the Year of the Mission, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 628, under Wahb-Abi-Kabha, a maternal uncle of Mahomet, +who was sent with presents to the emperor. Wahb-Abi-Kabha +travelled by sea to Canton, and thence overland +<span class="sidenote">Mahommedanism.</span> +to Ch‘ang-an, the capital, where he was well received. +The first mosque was built at Canton, where after several +restorations, it still exists. Another mosque was erected in 742; +but many of the Mahommedans went to China merely as traders, +and afterwards returned to their own country. The true stock of +the present Chinese Mahommedans was a small army of 4000 Arab +soldiers sent by the caliph Abu Giafar<a name="FnAnchor_14d" id="FnAnchor_14d" href="#Footnote_14d"><span class="sp">14</span></a> in 755 to aid in putting down +a rebellion. These soldiers had permission to settle in China, where +they married native wives; and four centuries later, with the +conquests of Jenghiz Khan, large numbers of Arabs penetrated +into the empire and swelled the Mahommedan community. Its +members are now indistinguishable from the general population; +they are under no civic disabilities, and are free to open mosques +wherever they please, so long as, in common with Buddhists and +Taoists, they exhibit the tablet of the emperor’s sovereignty in +some conspicuous position.</p> + +<p>In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 631 the Nestorians sent a mission to China and introduced +Christianity under the name of the Luminous Doctrine. +In 636 they were allowed to settle at Ch‘ang-an; and in +638 an Imperial Decree was issued, stating that Olopun, +<span class="sidenote">Nestorianism.</span> +a Nestorian priest who is casually mentioned as a Persian, +had presented a form of religion which his Majesty had carefully +examined and had found to be in every way satisfactory, and that +it would henceforth be permissible to preach this new doctrine within +the boundaries of the empire. Further, the establishment of a +monastery was authorized, to be served by twenty-one priests. +For more than a century after this, Nestorian Christianity seems to +have flourished in China. In 781 the famous Nestorian Tablet, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span> +giving a rough outline of the object and scope of the faith, was set +up at Ch‘ang-an (the modern Si-gan Fu), disappearing soon afterwards +in the political troubles which laid the city in ruins, to be +brought to light again in 1625 by Father Semedo, S.J. The genuineness +of this tablet was for many years in dispute, Voltaire, Renan, +and others of lesser fame regarding it as a pious Jesuit fraud; but +all doubts on the subject have now been dispelled by the exhaustive +monograph of Père Havret, S.J., entitled <i>La Stèle de Si-ngan</i>. The +date of the tablet seems to mark the zenith of Nestorian Christianity +in China; after this date it began to decay. Marco Polo refers +to it as existing in the 13th century; but then it fades out of +sight, leaving scant traces in Chinese literature of ever having +existed.</p> + +<p>The Manichaeans, worshippers of the Chaldaean Mani or Manēs, +who died about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 274, appear to have found their way to China +in the year 694. In 719 an envoy from Tokharestan +reached Ch‘ang-an, bringing a letter to the emperor, in +<span class="sidenote">Manichaeism.</span> +which a request was made that an astronomer who +accompanied the mission might be permitted to establish places of +worship for persons of the Manichaean faith. Subsequently, a +number of such chapels were opened at various centres; but little +is known of the history of this religion, which is often confounded +by Chinese writers with Mazdeism, the fate of which it seems to have +shared, also disappearing about the middle of the 9th century.</p> + +<p>By “the sect of those who take out the sinew,” the Chinese refer +to the Jews and their peculiar method of preparing meat in order +to make it <i>kosher</i>. Wild stories have been told of their +arrival in China seven centuries before the Christian era, +<span class="sidenote">Judaism.</span> +after one of the numerous upheavals mentioned in the Old Testament; +and again, of their having carried the Pentateuch to China +shortly after the Babylonish captivity, and having founded a +colony in Ho-nan in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 72. The Jews really reached China for the +first time in the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1163, and were permitted to open a +synagogue at the modern K‘ai-fêng Fu in 1164. There they seem to +have lived peaceably, enjoying the protection of the authorities +and making some slight efforts to spread their tenets. There their +descendants were found, a dwindling community, by the Jesuit +Fathers of the 17th century; and there again they were visited in +1850 by a Protestant mission, which succeeded in obtaining from +them Hebrew rolls of parts of the Pentateuch in the square character, +with vowel points. After this, it was generally believed that the +few remaining stragglers, who seemed to be entirely ignorant of +everything connected with their faith, had become merged in the +ordinary population. A recent traveller, however, asserts that in +1909 he found at K‘ai-fêng Fu a Jewish community, the members +of which keep as much as possible to themselves, worshipping in +secret, and preserving their ancient ritual and formulary.</p> + +<p>See H. Hackmann, <i>Buddhism as a Religion</i> (1910); +H.A. Giles, <i>Religions of Ancient China</i> (1905); +G. Smith, <i>The Jews at K‘ae-fung-foo</i> (1851); +Dabry de Thiersant, <i>Le Mahométisme en Chine</i> (1878); +P. Havret. S.J., <i>La Stèle chrétienne de Si-ngan-fou</i> (1895).</p> +<div class="author">(H. A. Gi.)</div> + +<p>[Christian missions, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, are +established in every province in China. Freedom to embrace the +Christian faith has been guaranteed by the Chinese government +since 1860, and as a rule the missionaries have free +<span class="sidenote">Christian missions.</span> +scope in teaching and preaching, though local disturbances +are not infrequent. The number of members of the Roman Catholic +Church in China was reckoned by the Jesuit fathers at Shanghai to +be, in 1907, “about one million”; in the same year the Protestant +societies reckoned in all 250,000 church members. By the Chinese, +Roman Catholicism is called the “Religion of the Lord of Heaven”; +Protestantism the “Religion of Jesus.” For the progress and effects of +Christianity in China see § <i>History</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Missions</a></span>, § <i>China</i>. <span class="sc">Ed.</span>]</p> +</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Education and the Press.</i></p> + +<p>The educational system of China till nearly the close of the +19th century was confined in its scope to the study of Chinese +classics. Elementary instruction was not provided by the state. +The well-to-do engaged private tutors for their sons; the poorer +boys were taught in small schools on a voluntary basis. No +curriculum was compulsory, but the books used and the programme +pursued followed a traditional rule. The boys (there +were no schools for girls) began by memorizing the classics for +four or five years. Then followed letter-writing and easy +composition. This completed the education of the vast majority +of the boys not intended for the public service. The chief +merit of the system was that it developed the memory +and the imitative faculty. For secondary education somewhat +better provision was made, practically the only method +of attaining eminence in the state being through the schools +(see § <i>Civil Service</i>). At prefectural cities and provincial +capitals colleges were maintained at the public expense, and +at these institutions a more or less thorough knowledge of +the classics might be obtained. At the public examinations +held periodically the exercises proposed were original poems +and literary essays. Three degrees were conferred, <i>Siu-ts‘ai</i> +(budding talent), <i>Chû-jên</i> (promoted scholar) and <i>Chin-shih</i> +(entered scholar). The last degree was given to those who +passed the final examination at Peking, and the successful candidates +were also called metropolitan graduates.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first education on western lines was given by the Roman +Catholic missionaries. In 1852 they founded a college for the +education of native priests; they also founded and maintained many +primary and some higher schools—mainly if not exclusively for the +benefit of their converts. The Protestant missions followed the +example of the Roman Catholics, but a new departure, which has had +a wide success, was initiated by the American Protestant missionary +societies in founding schools—primary and higher—and colleges in +which western education was given equally to all comers, Christian +or non-Christian. Universities and medical schools have also been +established by the missionary societies. They also initiated a movement +for the education of girls and opened special schools for their +instruction.</p> + +<p>Missionary effort apart, the first step towards western education +was the establishment of two colleges in 1861, one at Peking, the +other at Canton in connexion with the imperial maritime customs. +These institutions were known as T‘ung Wen Kwan, and were provided +with a staff of foreign professors and teachers. These colleges +were mainly schools of languages to enable young Chinese to qualify +as interpreters in English, French, &c. Similar schools were +established at Canton, Fuchow and one or two other places, with but +indifferent results. A more promising plan was conceived in 1880, +or thereabouts, by the then viceroy of Nanking, who sent a batch of +thirty or forty students to America to receive a regular training on +the understanding that on their return they would receive official +appointments. The promise was not kept. A report was spread that +these students were becoming too much Americanized. They were +hastily recalled, and when they returned they were left in obscurity. +The next step was taken by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the +Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95. The viceroy wrote a book, <i>China’s +Only Hope</i>, which he circulated throughout the empire, and in which +he strongly advocated a reform of the traditional educational +system. His scheme was to make Chinese learning the foundation +on which a western education should be imparted.<a name="FnAnchor_15d" id="FnAnchor_15d" href="#Footnote_15d"><span class="sp">15</span></a> The book was +one of the factors in the 1898 reform movement, and Chang Chih-tung’s +proposals were condemned when that movement was suppressed. +But after the Boxer rising the Peking government adopted +his views, and in 1902 regulations were issued for the reform of the +old system of public instruction. A university on western lines was +established in that year at Peking, the T‘ung Wen Kwan at +the capital being incorporated in it. The new educational movement +gained enormously in strength as the result of the Russo-Japanese +War, and in 1906 a new system, theoretically almost +perfect, was established. The new system comprises the study +of the Chinese language, literature and composition, modern +sciences, history and geography, foreign languages,<a name="FnAnchor_16d" id="FnAnchor_16d" href="#Footnote_16d"><span class="sp">16</span></a> gymnastics, +drill and, in the higher grades, political economy, and civil and +international law.</p> + +<p>By 1910 primary and secondary government schools and schools +for special subjects (such as agriculture and engineering) had been +established in considerable numbers. In every province an Imperial +University was also established. The Imperial University at Peking +now teaches not only languages and Chinese subjects but also law, +chemistry, mathematics, &c. A medical school was founded at +Peking in 1906 through the energy of British Protestant missionaries, +and is called the Union Medical College. When in 1908, the United +States, finding that the indemnity for the Boxer outrages awarded her +was excessive, agreed to forgo the payment of £2,500,000, China +undertook to spend an equal amount in sending students to America.</p> + +<p>The general verdict of foreign observers on the working of the new +system up to 1910 was that in many instances the teaching was +ineffective, but there were notable exceptions. The best teachers, +next to Europeans, were foreign or mission-trained Chinese. The +Japanese employed as teachers were often ignorant of Chinese and +were not as a rule very successful. (See further § <i>History</i>.) A +remarkable indication of the thirst for western learning and culture +was the translation into Chinese and their diffusion throughout +the country of numerous foreign standard and other works, including +modern fiction.</p> + +<p>The <i>Peking Gazette</i>, which is sometimes called the oldest paper in +the world, is not a newspaper in the ordinary sense, but merely a +court gazette for publishing imperial decrees and such public +documents as the government may wish to give out. It never contains +original articles nor any discussion of public affairs. The first +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span> +genuine native newspaper was published at Shanghai about 1870. It +was termed the <i>Shen Pao</i> or <i>Shanghai News</i>, and was a +<span class="sidenote">Native press.</span> +Chinese speculation under foreign protection, the first editor being +an Englishman. It was some years before it made much +headway, but success came, and it was followed by various +imitators, some published at Shanghai, some at other treaty ports +and at Hong-Kong. In 1910 there were over 200 daily, weekly or +monthly journals in China. The effect of this mass of literature on +the public mind of China is of first-rate importance.</p> + +<p>The attitude of the central government towards the native +press is somewhat undefined. Official registration of a newspaper is +required before postal facilities are given. There are no press laws, +but as every official is a law unto himself in these matters, there is +nothing to prevent him from summarily suppressing an obnoxious +newspaper and putting the editor in prison. The emperor, among other +reform edicts which provoked the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1898, declared +that newspapers were a boon to the public and appointed one of them +a government organ. The empress-dowager revoked this decree, and +declared that the public discussion of affairs of state in the +newspapers was an impertinence, and ought to be suppressed. +Nevertheless the newspapers continued to flourish, and their outspoken +criticism had a salutary effect on the public and on the government. +The official classes seem to have become alarmed at the independent +attitude of the newspapers, but instead of a campaign of suppression +the method was adopted, about 1908, of bringing the vernacular +press under official control. This was accomplished chiefly by the +purchase of the newspapers by the mandarins, with the result that at +the beginning of 1910 there was said to be hardly an independent +native daily newspaper left in China. The use of government funds +to subsidize or to purchase newspapers and thus to stifle or mislead +public opinion provoked strong protests from members of the Nanking +provincial council at its first sitting in the autumn of 1909. The +appropriation by the Shanghai Taot‘ai of moneys belonging to the +Huangpu conservancy fund for subsidizing papers led to his +impeachment by a censor and to the return of the moneys.<a name="FnAnchor_17d" id="FnAnchor_17d" href="#Footnote_17d"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> + +<p class="center1 sc">III. Economics</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Agriculture and Industry.</i></p> + +<p>China is pre-eminently an agricultural country. The great +majority of its inhabitants are cultivators of the soil. The +holdings are in general very small, and the methods of farming +primitive. Water is abundant and irrigation common over +large areas. Stock-raising, except in Sze-ch‘uen and Kwang-tung, +is only practised to a small extent; there are few large herds of +cattle or flocks of sheep, nor are there any large meadows, natural +or cultivated. In Sze-ch‘uen yaks, sheep and goats are reared +in the mountains, and buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies on +the plateau. Cattle are extensively reared in the mountainous +districts of Kwang-tung. The camel, horse and donkey are +reared in Chih-li. Forestry is likewise neglected. While the +existing forests, found mainly in high regions in the provinces +of Hu-nan, Fu-kien and Kwei-chow, are disappearing and timber +has to be imported, few trees are planted. This does not apply +to fruit trees, which are grown in great variety, while horticulture +is also a favourite pursuit.</p> + +<p>The Chinese farmer, if his methods be primitive, is diligent +and persevering. In the richer and most thickly populated +districts terraces are raised on the mountain sides, and even +the tops of lofty hills are cultivated. The nature of the soil and +means of irrigation as well as climate are determining factors in +the nature of the crops grown; rice and cotton, for example, +are grown in the most northern as well as the most southern +districts of China. This is, however, exceptional and each climatic +region has its characteristic cultures.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The loess soil (see § <i>Geology</i>) is the chief element in determining +the agricultural products of north China. Loess soil bears excellent +crops, and not merely on the lower grounds, but at +altitudes of 6000 and 8000 ft. Wherever loess is found the +<span class="sidenote">Soils.</span> +peasant can live and thrive. Only one thing is essential, and that +is the annual rainfall. As, owing to the porous nature of loess, no +artificial irrigation is possible, if the rain fails the crops must +necessarily fail. Thus seasons of great famine alternate with seasons of +great plenty. It appears, also, that the soil needs little or no manuring +and very little tillage. From its extremely friable nature it is +easily broken up, and thus a less amount of labour is required than +in other parts. The extreme porosity of the soil probably also +accounts for the length of time it will go on bearing crops without +becoming exhausted. The rainfall, penetrating deeply into the soil +in the absence of stratification, comes into contact with the moisture +retained below, which holds in solution whatever inorganic salts +the soil may contain, and thus the vegetation has an indefinite store +to draw upon.<a name="FnAnchor_18d" id="FnAnchor_18d" href="#Footnote_18d"><span class="sp">18</span></a></p> + +<p>There is no one dominant deposit in south China, where red +sandstone and limestone formations are frequent. Cultivation here is +not possible on the high elevations as in the north, but in the plains +and river valleys the soil is exceedingly fertile, while the lower +slopes of the mountains are also cultivated. In the north, moreover, +but one crop, in general, can be raised in the year. In the centre +two and sometimes three crops are raised yearly, and in the south, +especially in the lower basin of the Si-kiang, three crops are normally +gathered. In the north, too, the farmer has frequently to contend +with drought or with rain or floods; in the central and southern +regions the weather is more settled.</p> + +<p>In the north of China wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and maize +are the staple crops. Beans and peas are also cultivated. Rice +thrives in north-east Kan-suh, in some districts of Shan-si, +in the extreme south of Shan-tung and in parts of +<span class="sidenote">Distribution of crops.</span> +the Wei-ho plain in Shen-si. Cotton is grown in Shen-si +and Shan-tung. In Kan-suh and Shen-si two crops are +raised in favoured localities, cereals in spring and cotton or rice in +summer. Tobacco and the poppy are also grown in several of the +northern provinces. Rhubarb and fruit trees are largely cultivated +in the western part of north China.</p> + +<p>In the central provinces tea, cotton, rice and ramie fibre are the +chief crops. Tea is most largely cultivated in Ngan-hui, Kiang-si, +Hu-peh, Hu-nan, Sze-ch‘uen and Yun-nan. Cotton is chiefly grown +in Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Hu-peh. The seed is sown in May and +the crops gathered in September. The cotton is known as white +and yellow, the white variety being the better and the most cultivated. +The poppy is largely cultivated and, in connexion with the silk +industry, the mulberry tree. The mulberry is found principally in +the provinces of Sze-ch‘uen, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang. The central +provinces are also noted for their gum-lac, varnish and tallow trees.</p> + +<p>The crops of the south-eastern provinces are much the same as +those of the central provinces, but are predominantly rice, the +sugar-cane, ground-nuts and cinnamon. Tea is the chief crop in Fu-kien. +The sugar-cane is principally cultivated in Kwang-tung, Fu-kien +and Sze-ch‘uen. In the south-western provinces the poppy, tea, +tobacco and rice are the chief crops. Wheat, maize and barley are +also largely raised.</p> + +<p>While rice does not, unlike tea and cotton, form the principal +crop of any one province it is more universally cultivated than any +other plant and forms an important item in the products of all the +central and southern provinces. Regarding China as a whole it +forms the staple product and food of the country. Two chief +varieties are grown, that suited only to low-lying regions requiring +ample water and the red rice cultivated in the uplands. Next to +rice the most extensively cultivated plants are tea and cotton, the +sugar-cane, poppy and bamboo. Besides the infinite variety of +uses to which the wood of the bamboo is applied, its tender shoots +and its fruit are articles of diet.</p> + +<p>Fruit is extensively cultivated throughout China. In the northern +provinces the chief fruits grown are pears, plums, apples, apricots, +peaches, medlars, walnuts and chestnuts, and in Kan-suh +and Shan-tung the jujube (<i>q.v.</i>). Strawberries are an +<span class="sidenote">Fruits.</span> +important crop in Kan-suh. In Shan-si, S.W. Chih-li and Shan-tung +the vine is cultivated; the grapes of Shan-si are reputed to produce +the best wine of China. Oranges are also grown in favoured localities +in the north. The chief fruits of the central and southern provinces +are the orange, lichi, mango, persimmon, banana, vine and pineapple, +but the fruits of the northern regions are also grown. The +coco-nut and other palms flourish on the southern coast.</p> + +<p>As shown above, the poppy has been grown in almost every +district of China. In 1906 it was chiefly cultivated in the +following provinces: Yun-nan, Kwei-chow, Sze-ch‘uen, Kan-suh, +Shen-si, Shan-si, Shan-tung, Ho-nan, Kiang-su (northern +<span class="sidenote">The poppy.</span> +part) and Cheh-kiang. The poppy is first mentioned in +Chinese literature in a book written in the first half of the 8th +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and its medicinal qualities are referred to in the +<i>Herbalist’s Treasury</i> of 973. It was not then nor for centuries +later grown in China for the preparation of opium.<a name="FnAnchor_19d" id="FnAnchor_19d" href="#Footnote_19d"><span class="sp">19</span></a> There is no +evidence to show that the Chinese ever took opium in the shape of +pills (otherwise than medicinally). The cultivation of the poppy for +the manufacture of opium began in China in the 17th century, but it +was not until after 1796, when the importation of foreign opium was +declared illegal, that the plant was cultivated on an extensive scale. +After 1906 large areas which had been devoted to the poppy were +given over to other crops, in consequence of the imperial edict aimed +at the suppression of opium-smoking (see § <i>History</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Mining.</i>—The mineral resources of China are great, but the +government has shown a marked repugnance to allow foreigners +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span> +to work mines, and the mineral wealth has been very inadequately +exploited. Mining operations are controlled by the Board of +Commerce. In 1907 this board drew up regulations respecting +the constitution of mining and other companies. They contained +many features against which foreign powers protested.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Coal, iron, copper and tin are the principal minerals found in +China; there are also extensive deposits of coal and other minerals +in Manchuria. In China proper the largest coal measures +are found in Shan-si, Hu-nan, Kwei-chow and Sze-ch‘uen. +<span class="sidenote">Coal.</span> +There are also important coalfields in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shen-si, +Ho-nan, Yun-nan, Hu-peh and Kwang-tung—and almost all of the +seven other provinces have also coal measures of more or less value. +The lack of transport facilities as well as the aversion from the +employment of foreign capital has greatly hindered the development +of mining. Numerous small mines have been worked for a long +period by the natives in the province of Hu-nan. There are two +principal local fields in this province, one lying in the basin of the +Lei river and yielding anthracite, and the other in the basin of the +Siang river yielding bituminous coal. Both rivers drain into the +Yangtsze, and there is thus an easy outlet by water to Hankow. +The quality of the coal, however, is inferior, as the stratification has +been much disturbed, and the coal-seams have been in consequence +crushed and broken. The largest coalfield in China lies in the province +of Shan-si. Coal and iron have here been worked by the natives +from time immemorial, but owing to the difficulty of transport they +have attained only a limited local circulation. The whole of southern +Shan-si, extending over 30,000 sq. m., is one vast coalfield, and +contains, according to the estimate of Baron von Richthofen, enough +coal to last the world at the present rate of consumption for several +thousand years. The coal-seams, which are from 20 to 36 ft. in +thickness, rest conformably on a substructure of limestone. The +stratification is throughout undisturbed and practically horizontal. +As the limestone bed is raised some 2000 ft. above the neighbouring +plain the coal-seams crop out in all directions. Mining is thus carried +on by adits driven into the face of the formation, rendering the +mining of the coal extremely easy. The coalfield is divided into two +by a mountain range of ancient granitic formation running north-east +and south-west, termed the Ho-shan. It is of anterior date to +the limestone and coal formations, and has not affected the uniformity +of the stratification, but it has this peculiarity, that the coal +on the east side is anthracite, and that on the west side is bituminous. +A concession to work coal and iron in certain specified districts in +this area was granted to a British company, the Peking Syndicate, +together with the right to connect the mines by railway with water +navigation. The syndicate built a railway in Shan-si from P‘ingyang +to Tsi-chow-fu, the centre of a vast coalfield, and connected with +the main Peking-Hankow line; lines to serve coal mines have also +been built in Hu-nan and other provinces. The earliest in date was +that to the K‘aip‘ing collieries in the east of the province of Chih-li, +the railway connecting the mines with the seaport of Taku. The +coal at K‘aip‘ing is a soft bituminous coal with a large proportion +of dust. The output is about 1,500,000 tons per annum. A +mine has also been opened in the province of Hu-peh, about 60 m. +below Hankow, and near the Yangtsze, in connexion with iron-works.</p> + +<p>Iron ore of various qualities is found almost as widely diffused +as coal. The districts where it is most worked at present lie within +the coalfield of Shan-si, viz. at Tsi-chow-fu and P‘ing-ting-chow. +The ore is a mixture of clay iron ore and +<span class="sidenote">Iron.</span> +spathic ore, together with limonite and hematite. It is found +abundantly in irregular deposits in the Coal Measures, and is easily +smelted by the natives in crucibles laid in open furnaces. This +region supplies nearly the whole of north China with the iron required +for agricultural and domestic use. The out-turn must be very +considerable, but no data are available for forming an accurate +estimate. The province of Sze-ch‘uen also yields an abundance of +iron ores of various kinds. They are worked by the natives in +numerous places, but always on a small scale and for local consumption +only. The ores occur in the Coal Measures, predominant +among them being a clay iron ore. Hu-nan, Fu-kien, Cheh-kiang and +Shan-tung all furnish iron ores. Iron (found in conjunction with +coal) is worked in Manchuria.</p> + +<p>Copper is found chiefly in the provinces of Kwei-chow and Yun-nan, +where a rich belt of copper-bearing ores runs east and west across +both provinces, and including south Sze-ch‘uen. The +chief centres of production are at the cities of Tung-ch‘uen-fu, +<span class="sidenote">Copper, tin, &c.</span> +Chow-t‘ung and Ning-yuen. The mines are +worked as a government monopoly, private mining being nominally +prohibited. The output is considerable, but no statistics are published +by government. Rich veins of copper ore are also worked +near Kiu-kiang. Tin is mined in Yun-nan, the headquarters of the +industry being the city of Meng-tsze, which since 1909 has been +connected with Hanoi by railway. This is an important industry, +the value of tin exported in 1908 being £600,000. Tin is also mined +in Hai-nan and lead in Yun-nan. Antimony ore is exported from +Hu-nan; petroleum is found in the upper Yangtsze region. Quicksilver +is obtained in Kwei-chow. Salt is obtained from brine wells +in Shan-si and Sze-ch‘uen, and by evaporation from sea water. +Excellent kaolin abounds in the north-eastern part of Kiang-si, and +is largely used in the manufacture of porcelain.</p> + +<p>The Chinese government has opened small gold mines at Hai-nan, +in which island silver is also found. A little gold-washing is done +in the sandy beds of certain rivers, for instance, the Han +river and the upper Yangtsze, above Su-chow (Suifu), +<span class="sidenote">Precious metals.</span> +which here goes by the name of the “Goldsand” river. +The amount so extracted is extremely small and hardly pays the +labour of washing, but the existence of gold grains points to a matrix +higher up. The whole of south-western China has the reputation of +being highly metalliferous. Gold is obtained in some quantities on +the upper waters of the Amur river, on the frontier between China +and Siberia. The washings are carried on by Chinese. Gold has +also been found in quartz veins at P‘ing-tu, in Shan-tung, but hardly +in paying quantities. There are silver mines in Yun-nan.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures.</i>—The principal native manufactures before the +competition of western nations made itself felt were—apart from +the preparation of tea and other produce for the market—those +of porcelain and silk. The silks and gauzes of Su-chow +<span class="sidenote">Silk and porcelain.</span> +and Nanking in the province of Kiang-su, and those +of Hang-chow in Cheh-kiang, are highly esteemed throughout China. +Silk-weaving is still carried on solely in native looms and chiefly in +the cities named. The greater part of the silk spun is used in China, +but a considerable export trade has grown up and 27% of the world’s +supply of raw silk is from China. The reeling of silk cocoons by +steam-machinery is supplanting native methods. There are filatures +for winding silk at Shanghai, Canton, Chifu and other cities.</p> + +<p>The most famous porcelain came from the province of Kiang-si, +the seat of the industry being the city of King-te-chen. Imperial +works were established here about the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000, and the finest +porcelain is sent to Peking for the use of the emperor. At one time +1,000,000 work-people were said to be employed, and the kilns +numbered 600. The Taiping rebels destroyed the kilns in 1850. +Some of them have been rebuilt. “Activity begins to reign anew, +but the porcelain turned out is far from equalling in colour and finish +that of former times. At the present day King-te-chen has but 160 +furnaces and employs 160,000 workmen.”<a name="FnAnchor_20d" id="FnAnchor_20d" href="#Footnote_20d"><span class="sp">20</span></a> The common rice bowls +sold throughout China are manufactured here. The value of the +export sales is said to be about £500,000 yearly.</p> + +<p>The spinning and weaving of cotton on hand-looms is carried on +almost universally. Besides that locally manufactured, the whole of +the large import of Indian yarn is worked up into cloth by +the women of the household. Four-fifths of the clothing +<span class="sidenote">Cotton, &c.</span> +of the lower classes is supplied by this domestic industry. +Of minor industries Indian ink is manufactured in Ngan-hui and Sze-ch‘uen, +fans, furniture, lacquer ware and matting in Kwang-tung, +dyes in Cheh-kiang and Chih-li, and varnished tiles in Hu-nan. +Paper, bricks and earthenware are made in almost all the provinces.</p> + +<p>Of industries on a large scale—other than those indicated—the +most important are cotton-spinning and weaving mills established +by foreign companies at Shanghai. Permission to carry on this +industry was refused to foreigners until the right was secured by +the Japanese treaty following the war of 1894-95. Some native-owned +mills had been working before that date, and were reported +to have made large profits. Nine mills, with an aggregate of 400,000 +spindles, were working in 1906, five of them under foreign management. +There are also four or five mills at one or other of the ports +working 80,000 spindles more. These mills are all engaged in the +manufacture of yarn for the Chinese market, very little weaving +being done. Chinese-grown cotton is used, the staple of which is +short; only the coarser counts can be spun.</p> + +<p>At certain large centres flour and rice mills have been erected and +are superseding native methods of treating wheat and rice; at +Canton there are sugar refineries. At Hanyang near Hankow are +large iron-works owned by Chinese. They are supplied with ore from +the mines at Ta-ye, 60 m. distant, and turn out (1909) about 300 steel +rails a day.</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Commerce</i>.</p> + +<p>The foreign trade of China is conducted through the “treaty +ports,” <i>i.e.</i> sea and river ports and a few inland cities which by the +treaty of Nanking (1842) that of Tientsin (1860) and subsequent +treaties have been thrown open to foreigners for purposes of trade. +(The Nanking treaty recognized five ports only as open to foreigners—Canton,<a name="FnAnchor_21d" id="FnAnchor_21d" href="#Footnote_21d"><span class="sp">21</span></a> +Amoy, Fu-chow, Ning-po and Shanghai.) These places are +as follows, treaty ports in Manchuria being included: Amoy, +Antung, Canton, Chang-sha, Dairen, Chin-kiang, Chinwantao, +Ch‘ungk‘ing, Chifu, Fu-chow, Funing (Santuao), Hang-chow, +Hankow, I-ch‘ang, Kang-moon, Kiao-chow, Kiu-kiang, K‘iung-chow, +Kow-loon, Lappa, Lung-chow, Mengtsze, Mukden, Nanking, Nanning, +Ning-po, Niu-chwang, Pakhoi, Sanshui, Shanghai, Shasi, Su-chow, +Swatow, Szemao, Tatungkow, Tientsin, Teng-yueh, Wen-chow, +Wu-chow, Wuhu, Yo-chow.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span> +The progress of the foreign trade of China is set out in the following +table. The values are given both in currency and sterling, but it +is to be remarked that during the period when silver was falling, +that is, from 1875 to 1893, the silver valuation represents much more +accurately variations in the volume of trade than does the gold +valuation. Gold prices fell continuously during this period, while +silver prices were nearly constant. Since 1893 silver prices have +tended to rise, and the gold valuation is then more accurate. The +conversion from silver to gold is made at the rate of exchange of +the day, and therefore varies from year to year.</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Table of Imports and Exports, exclusive of Bullion.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Imports.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Exports.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Value in<br />Taels.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Equivalent in<br />Sterling.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Value in<br />Taels.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Equivalent in<br />Sterling.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr rlb">1875</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,344,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£19,903,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">77,308,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£23,193,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rlb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">84,803,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,618,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,899,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,206,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rlb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">113,082,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,213,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,695,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,980,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rlb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">154,685,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,136,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">154,964,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,181,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rlb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">189,991,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,498,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">170,743,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,612,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rlb">*1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">344,060,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,315,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">239,486,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,326,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rlb bb">*1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">447,100,791</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">67,065,118</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">227,888,197</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">34,183,229</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>* This marked increase is partly owing to a more complete presentation +of statistics; in 1903 an additional number of vessels were +placed under the control of the imperial maritime customs.</p> + +<p class="pt2">In 1907 the net imports were valued at £67,664,222 and the exports +at £42,961,863. In 1908 China suffered from the general depression +in trade. In that year the imports were valued at £52,600,730, the +exports at £36,888,050. The distribution of the trade among the +various countries of the world is shown in the table which is given +below. Hong-Kong is a port for trans-shipment. The imports +into China from it come originally from Great Britain, India, +Germany, France, America, Australia, the Straits Settlements, &c., +and the exports from China to it go ultimately to the same countries.</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Imports into China.</i> (000’s omitted.)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Imports from</td> <td class="tccm allb">1875.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1880.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">1885.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1895.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1908.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6340</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6382</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6396</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6,357</td> <td class="tcr rb">£5,518</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,971</td> <td class="tcr rb">£9,647</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Hong-Kong</td> <td class="tcr rb">8282</td> <td class="tcr rb">8829</td> <td class="tcr rb">9404</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,615</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,331</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,240</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,033</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">India</td> <td class="tcr rb">4451</td> <td class="tcr rb">6039</td> <td class="tcr rb">4306</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,661</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,753</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,220</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,066</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Other British possessions</td> <td class="tcr rb">396</td> <td class="tcr rb">346</td> <td class="tcr rb">542</td> <td class="tcr rb">571</td> <td class="tcr rb">732</td> <td class="tcr rb">963</td> <td class="tcr rb">. . </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">304</td> <td class="tcr rb">351</td> <td class="tcr rb">884</td> <td class="tcr rb">949</td> <td class="tcr rb">827</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,538</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,499</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Continent of Europe (except Russia)</td> <td class="tcr rb">230</td> <td class="tcr rb">671</td> <td class="tcr rb">671</td> <td class="tcr rb">638</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,227</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,295</td> <td class="tcr rb">†3,332</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Russian Empire</td> <td class="tcr rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">231</td> <td class="tcr rb">309</td> <td class="tcr rb">302</td> <td class="tcr rb">422</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Japan</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">746</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1021</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1404</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,909</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,794</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,197</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center1"><i>Exports from China.</i> (000’s omitted.)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Exports to</td> <td class="tccm allb">1875.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1880.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">1885.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1895.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1908.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr rb">£8749</td> <td class="tcr rb">£8125</td> <td class="tcr rb">£5864</td> <td class="tcr rb">£3383</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1718</td> <td class="tcr rb">£2,710</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,673</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Hong-Kong</td> <td class="tcr rb">3824</td> <td class="tcr rb">4844</td> <td class="tcr rb">4232</td> <td class="tcr rb">8507</td> <td class="tcr rb">5651</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,218</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,281</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">India</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">323</td> <td class="tcr rb">157</td> <td class="tcr rb">273</td> <td class="tcr rb">449</td> <td class="tcr rb">408</td> <td class="tcr rb">545</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Other British possessions</td> <td class="tcr rb">948</td> <td class="tcr rb">874</td> <td class="tcr rb">818</td> <td class="tcr rb">886</td> <td class="tcr rb">586</td> <td class="tcr rb">647</td> <td class="tcr rb">. .</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">2302</td> <td class="tcr rb">2906</td> <td class="tcr rb">2213</td> <td class="tcr rb">2109</td> <td class="tcr rb">2499</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,055</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,176</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Continent of Europe (except Russia)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2524</td> <td class="tcr rb">3760</td> <td class="tcr rb">1948</td> <td class="tcr rb">3004</td> <td class="tcr rb">3440</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,697</td> <td class="tcr rb">†7,128</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Russian Empire</td> <td class="tcr rb">1339</td> <td class="tcr rb">1260</td> <td class="tcr rb">1293</td> <td class="tcr rb">2288</td> <td class="tcr rb">2535</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,419</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,123</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Japan</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">586</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">642</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">398</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1248</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2408</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,320</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,949</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>† Germany, France, Belgium and Italy only.</p> + +<p class="pt2">The chief imports are cotton goods, opium, rice and sugar, metals, +oil, coal and coke, woollen goods and raw cotton, and fish. Cotton +goods are by far the most important of the imports. They come +chiefly from the United Kingdom, which also exports to China +woollen manufactures, metals and machinery. China is next to +India the greatest consumer of Manchester goods. The export of +plain cotton cloths to China and Hong-Kong has for some years +averaged 500,000,000 yds. per annum. The only competitor which +Great Britain has in this particular branch of trade is the United +States of America, which has been supplying China with increasing +quantities of cotton goods. The value in sterling of the total imports +into China from the United Kingdom long remained nearly constant, +but inasmuch as the gold prices were falling the volume of the export +was in reality steadily growing. The imports into England, however, +of Chinese produce have fallen off, mainly because China tea has +been driven out of the English market by the growth of the India +and Ceylon tea trade, and also because the bulk of the China silk is +now shipped directly to Lyons and other continental ports instead +of to London, as formerly was the rule. The growth of the import of +Indian yarn into China has been very rapid. In 1884 the import was +35,000,000 ℔ and in 1904 it reached 217,171,066 ℔. The imports +into China from all countries for 1908 were as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Opium</td> <td class="tcr">£4,563,000</td> + <td class="tcl"> Coal and coke</td> <td class="tcr">1,124,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Cotton goods</td> <td class="tcr">14,786,000</td> + <td class="tcl"> Oil, kerosene</td> <td class="tcr">2,666,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Raw cotton</td> <td class="tcr">232,000</td> + <td class="tcl"> Rice</td> <td class="tcr">3,543,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Woollen goods</td> <td class="tcr">717,000</td> + <td class="tcl"> Sugar</td> <td class="tcr">3,514,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Metals</td> <td class="tcr">2,956,000</td> + <td class="tcl"> Fish, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">1,028,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The principal exports from China are silk and tea. These two +articles, indeed, up to 1880 constituted more than 80% of the whole +export. Owing, however, mainly to the fall in silver, and partly also +to cheap ocean freights, it has become profitable to place on the +European market a vast number of miscellaneous articles of Chinese +produce which formerly found no place in the returns of trade. The +silver prices in China did not change materially with the fall in silver, +and Chinese produce was thus able to compete favourably with the +produce of other countries. The following table shows the relative +condition of the export trade in 1880 and 1908:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Exports of</td> <td class="tccm allb">1880.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1908.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb"></td> <td class="tcr rb"></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Silk</td> <td class="tcr rb">£9,750,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£11,055,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Tea</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,774,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,384,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Miscellaneous</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,058,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,448,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">£25,582,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">£36,888,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In the miscellaneous class the chief items of exports in 1908 were +beans and beancake, £3,142,000; raw cotton, £1,379,000; hides, +£1,028,000; straw braid, £1,002,000; furs and skin rugs, £760,000; +paper, £458,000; and clothing, £177,000. Sugar, tobacco, mats +and matting are also exported. The export of all cereals except +pulse is forbidden. Of the tea exported in 1908 the greater part +went to Russia and Siberia, the United States and Great Britain. +There is a regular export of gold amounting on an average to about +a million sterling per annum. A part of it would seem to be the +hoardings of the nation brought out by the high price of gold in +terms of silver, but a part is virgin +gold derived from gold workings +in Manchuria on the upper waters +of the Amur river.</p> + +<p>Customs duty is levied on exports +as well as imports, both +being assessed at rates based on a +nominal 5% ad val.</p> + +<p><i>Shipping and Navigation.</i>—Besides the over-sea trade China +has a large coasting and river trade which is largely carried on +by British and other foreign vessels. During the year 1908, +207,605 vessels, of 83,991,289 tons (86,600 being steamers of +77,955,525 tons), entered and cleared Chinese ports.<a name="FnAnchor_22d" id="FnAnchor_22d" href="#Footnote_22d"><span class="sp">22</span></a> Of these +28,445 vessels of 34,405,761 tons were British; 33,539 of 11,998,588 +tons, Chinese vessels of foreign type; 103,124 of 4,947,272 tons, +Chinese junks; 5496 vessels of 6,585,671 tons, German; 30,708 +of 18,055,138 tons, Japanese; 653 of 998,775 tons, American; 3901 +of 5,071,689 tons, French; 1033 of 980,635 tons, Norwegian.</p> + +<p>Of vessels engaged in the foreign trade only the entrances during +the year numbered 38,556 of 12,187,140 tons, and the clearances +36,602 of 12,057,126 tons. The nationality of the vessels (direct +foreign trade) was mainly as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Nationality<br />1908.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Entrances.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Clearances.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">No.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tons.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">No.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tons.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">British</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,569</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,678,094</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,614</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,754,087</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">German</td> <td class="tcr rb">891</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,195,775</td> <td class="tcr rb">928</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,124,872</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Norwegian</td> <td class="tcr rb">255</td> <td class="tcr rb">254,211</td> <td class="tcr rb">259</td> <td class="tcr rb">255,295</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">French</td> <td class="tcr rb">468</td> <td class="tcr rb">629,680</td> <td class="tcr rb">468</td> <td class="tcr rb">616,883</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">American</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td> <td class="tcr rb">440,602</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb">439,947</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb">Japanese</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,187</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,587,818</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,046</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,461,132</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl rlb bb">Chinese</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">29,775</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,001,872</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">27,888</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,915,258</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The tonnage of the Dutch, Austrian and Russian vessels cleared +and entered was in each case between 102,000 and 127,000.</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Communications.</i></p> + +<p>External communication is carried on by ancient caravan routes +crossing Central Asia, by the trans-Siberian railway, which is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span> +increasingly used for passenger traffic, but chiefly by steamship, the +steamers being almost entirely owned by foreign companies. There is +regular and rapid communication with Europe (via the Suez canal +route) and with Japan and the Pacific coast of America. Other lines +serve the African and the Australasian trade. The only important +Chinese-owned steamers are those of the Chinese Merchants’ Steam +Navigation Company, which has its headquarters at Shanghai.</p> + +<p>Internal communications are by river, canal, road and railway, the +railways since the beginning of the 20th century having become a very +important factor. In 1898 the Chinese government agreed that all +internal waterways should be open to foreign and native steamers, +and in 1907 there were on the registers of the river ports for inland +water traffic 609 steamers under the Chinese flag and 255 under +foreign flags.</p> + +<p><i>Railways.</i>—A short line of railway between Shanghai and Wusung +was opened in 1875. The fate of this pioneer railway may be +mentioned as an introduction to what follows. The railway was +really built without any regular permission from the Chinese +government, but it was hoped that, once finished and working, the +irregularity would be overlooked in view of the manifest +<span class="sidenote">The Pioneer Line destroyed.</span> +benefit to the people. This might have been accomplished +but for an unfortunate accident which happened on the +line a few months after it was opened. A Chinaman was +run over and killed, and this event, of course, intensified +the official opposition, and indeed threatened to bring about a +riot. The working of the line was stopped by order of the British +minister, and thereupon negotiations were entered into with a view +to selling the line to the Chinese government. A bargain was struck +sufficiently favourable to the foreign promoters of the line, and it +was further agreed that, pending payment of the instalments which +were spread over a year, the line should continue to be worked by +the company. The expectation was that when the officials once got +the line into their own hands, and found it a paying concern, they +would continue to run it in their own interest. Not so, however, +did things fall out. The very day that the twelve months were +up the line was closed; the engines were dismantled, the rails and +sleepers were torn up, and the whole concern was shipped off to the +distant island of Formosa, where carriages, axles and all the rest +of the gear were dumped on the shore and left for the most part to +disappear in the mud. The spacious area of the Shanghai station +was cleared of its buildings, and thereon was erected a temple to +the queen of heaven by way of purifying the sacred soil of China +from such abomination. This put a stop for nearly twenty years +to all efforts on the part of foreigners to introduce railways into +China. The next step in railway construction was taken by the +Chinese themselves, and on the initiative of Li Hung-chang. +<span class="sidenote">China’s first efforts.</span> +In 1886 a company was formed under official +patronage, and it built a short line, to connect the coal-mines +of K‘aip‘ing in Chih-li with the mouth of the +Peiho river at Taku. The government next authorized the formation +of a Native Merchants’ Company, under official control, to build a +line from Taku to Tientsin, which was opened to traffic in 1888. +It was not, however, till nine years later, viz. in 1897, that the line +was completed as far as Peking. A British engineer, Mr Kinder, +was responsible for the construction of the railway. Meantime, +however, the extension had been continued north-east along the +coast as far as Shanhai-Kwan, and a farther extension subsequently +connected with the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The money for +these extensions was mostly found by the government, and the +whole line is now known as the Imperial Northern railway. The +length of the line is 600 m. Meanwhile the high officials of the empire +had gradually been brought round to the idea that railway development +was in itself a good thing. Chang Chih-tung, then viceroy of +the Canton provinces, memorialized strongly in this sense, with the +condition, however, that the railways should be built with Chinese +capital and of Chinese materials. In particular, he urged the +making of a line to connect Peking with Hankow for +<span class="sidenote">The era of concessions.</span> +strategic purposes. The government took him at his +word, and he was transferred from Canton to Hankow, +with authority to proceed forthwith with his railway. +True to his purpose, he at once set to work to construct iron-works +at Hankow. Smelting furnaces, rolling mills, and all the machinery +necessary for turning out steel rails, locomotives, &c., were erected. +Several years were wasted over this preliminary work, and over +£1,000,000 sterling was spent, only to find that the works after all +were a practical failure. Steel rails could be made, but at a cost +two or three times what they could be procured for in Europe. +After the Japanese War the hope of building railways with Chinese +capital was abandoned. A prominent official named Sheng Hsuan-hwai +was appointed director-general of railways, and empowered to +enter into negotiations with foreign financiers for the purpose of +raising loans. It was still hoped that at least the main control +would remain in Chinese hands, but the diplomatic pressure of +France and Russia caused even that to be given up, and Great +Britain insisting on equal privileges for her subjects, the future of +railways in China remained in the hands of the various concessionaires. +But after the defeat of Russia by Japan (1904-1905) the +theory of the undivided Chinese control of railways was resuscitated. +The new spirit was exemplified in the contracts for the financing +and construction of three railways—the Canton-Kowloon line in +1907, and the Tientsin-Yangtsze and the Shanghai-Hangchow-Ning-po +lines in 1908. In the first of these instances the railway +was mortgaged as security for the loan raised for its construction, +and its finance and working were to be modelled on the arrangements +obtaining in the case of the Imperial Northern railway, under which +the administration, while vested in the Chinese government, was +supervised by a British accountant and chief engineer. In the other +two instances, however, no such security was offered; the Chinese +government undertook the unfettered administration of the foreign +capital invested in the lines, and the Europeans connected with +these works became simply Chinese employés. Moreover, in 1908 +the Peking-Hankow line was redeemed from Belgian concessionaires, +a 5% loan of £5,000,000 being raised for the purpose in London +and Paris. In that year there was much popular outcry against +foreign concessionaires being allowed to carry out the terms of their +contract, and the British and Chinese corporation in consequence +parted with their concession for the Su-chow, Ning-po and Hang-chow +railway, making instead a loan of £1,500,000 to the ministry of +communications for the provinces through which the line would run. +A double difficulty was encountered in the construction and management +of the railways; the reconciliation of the privileges accorded +to foreign syndicates and governments with the “Recovery of +Rights” campaign, and the reconciliation of the claims of the +central government at Peking with the demands of the +<span class="sidenote">Administration.</span> +provincial authorities. As to the foreigners, Great +Britain, France, Germany, the United States, Russia and +Japan, all had claims and concessions, many of them conflicting; +while as between Peking and the provinces there was a quarrel +mainly concerned with the spoils and “squeezes” to be obtained +by railway construction; in some instances the provinces proved +more powerful than the central government, as in the case of the +Su-chow-Ning-po line, and notably in the matter of the Tientsin-Pukau +(Nanking) railway. In that case the provincial authorities +overrode the central government, with the result that “for wholesale +jobbery, waste and mismanagement the enterprise acquired +unenviable notoriety in a land where these things are generally +condoned.” The good record of one or two lines notwithstanding, the +management of the railways under Chinese control had proved, up +to 1910, inefficient and corrupt.<a name="FnAnchor_23d" id="FnAnchor_23d" href="#Footnote_23d"><span class="sp">23</span></a> Nevertheless, so great was the +economic development following the opening of the line, that in +Chinese hands the Peking-Hankow railway yielded a profit.</p> + +<p>The main scheme of the railway systems of China is simple. It +consists of lines, more or less parallel, running roughly north and +south, linked by cross lines with coast ports, or abutting +on navigable rivers. One great east and west line will +<span class="sidenote">The Railway systems.</span> +run through central China, from Hankow to Sze-ch‘uen. +Connexion with Europe is afforded by the Manchuria-trans-Siberia +main line, which has a general east and west direction. +From Harbin on this railway a branch runs south to Mukden, which +since 1908 has become an important railway centre. Thence one +line goes due south to Port Arthur; another south-east to An-tung +(on the Yalu) and Korea; a third south and west to Tientsin and +Peking. A branch from the Mukden-Tientsin line goes round the +head of the Gulf of Liao-tung and connects Niu-chwang with the +Mukden-Port Arthur line. By this route it is 470 m. from Peking +to Niu-chwang.</p> + +<p>From Peking the trunk line (completed in 1905) runs south +through the heart of China to Hankow on the Yangtsze-kiang. +This section (754 m. long) is popularly known as “the Lu-Han +line,” from the first part of the names of the terminal stations. +The continuation south of this line from Hankow to Canton was in +1910 under construction. Thus a great north and south connexion +nearly 2000 m. long is established from Canton to Harbin. From +Mukden southward the line is owned and worked by China.</p> + +<p>A railway (German concession) starts from Kiao-chow and runs +westward through Shan-tung to Chinan Fu, whence an extension +farther west to join the main Lu-Han line at Cheng-ting Fu in +Chih-li was undertaken. Westward from Cheng-ting Fu a line +financed by the Russo-Chinese Bank runs to T‘ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si.</p> + +<p>Another main north and south railway parallel to, but east of, +the Lu-Han line and following more or less the route of the Grand +Canal, is designed to connect Tientsin, Su-chow (in Kiang-su), +Chin-kiang, Nanking, Shanghai, Hang-chow and Ning-po. The +southern section (Nanking, Shanghai, &c.) was open in 1909. This +Tientsin-Ning-po railway connects at Chinan-Fu with the Shan-tung +lines.</p> + +<p>A third north and south line starts from Kiu-Kiang on the Yangtsze +below Hankow and traversing the centre of Kiang-si province will +join the Canton-Hankow line at Shao-Chow in Kwang-tung province. +The construction of the first section, Kiu-Kiang to Nanchang +(76 m.), began in 1910.</p> + +<p>In southern China besides the main Canton to Hankow railway +(under construction) a line (120 m. long) runs from Canton to +Kowloon (opposite Hong-Kong), and there are local lines running +inland from Swatow and Fuchow. The French completed in 1909 +a trunk line (500 m. long) from Haiphong in Tong King to Yun-nan Fu, +the capital of Yun-nan, some 200 m. being in Chinese territory. The +French hold concessions for railways in Kwang-si and Kwang-tung. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span> +The British government has the right to extend the Burma railway +system through Yun-nan and north to the Yangtsze.</p> + +<p>There are local lines in Hu-nan and Ho-nan which connect with +the trunk line from Canton to Peking. The Peking-Kalgan line +(122 m. long) is a distinct undertaking. The Chinese propose to +continue it another 530 m. north-westward to Urga in Mongolia, +and an eventual junction with the trans-Siberian railway in the +neighbourhood of Lake Baikal is contemplated. This line would +greatly shorten the distance between Moscow and Peking.</p> + +<p>In 1910 there were open for traffic in China (not reckoning the +Russian and Japanese systems in Manchuria, <i>q.v.</i>) over 3000 m. of +railway, and 1500 m. of trunk lines were under construction.</p> + + +<p>China is traversed in all directions by roads. Very few are paved +of metalled and nearly all are badly kept; speaking generally, the +government spends nothing in keeping either the roads +<span class="sidenote">Roads, rivers, and canals.</span> +or canals in repair. The roads in several instances are +subsidiary to the canals and navigable rivers as a means +of communication. The ancient trade routes were twelve +in number, viz.<a name="FnAnchor_24d" id="FnAnchor_24d" href="#Footnote_24d"><span class="sp">24</span></a>:—</p> + +<p style="clear: both;"> 1. The West river route (W. from Canton).</p> +<p> 2. The Cheling Pass route (N.W. from Canton).</p> +<p> 3. The Meiling Pass route (N. from Canton).</p> +<p> 4. The Min river route (N.W. from Fu-chow).</p> +<p> 5. The Lower Yangtsze route (as far W. as Hu-peh and Hu-nan).</p> +<p> 6. The Upper Yangtsze route (from I‘chang to Sze-ch‘uen).</p> +<p> 7. The Kwei-chow route.</p> +<p> 8. The Han river route (Hankow to Shen-si).</p> +<p> 9. The Grand Canal (already described).</p> +<p>10. The Shan-si route.</p> +<p>11. The Kiakhta route.</p> +<p>12. The Manchurian route.</p> + +<p>Of the routes named, that by the West river commands the trade +of Kwang-si and penetrates to Yun-nan (where it now has to meet +the competition of the French railway from Tong King) and Kwei-chow. +The Cheling Pass route from Canton is so named as it crosses +that pass (1500 ft. high) to reach the water-ways of Hu-nan at Chen-chow +on an affluent of the Siang, and thus connects with the Yangtsze. +The trade of this route—whence in former times the teas of Hu-nan +(Oonam) and Hu-peh (Oopaek) reached Canton—has been largely +diverted via Shanghai and up the Yangtsze. The Canton-Hankow +railway also supersedes it for through traffic. The route by the +Meiling Pass (1000 ft. High) links Canton and Kiu-kiang. This route +is used by the King-te Chen porcelain works to send, to Canton the +commoner ware, there to be painted with florid and multicoloured +designs. The Min river route serves mainly the province of Fu-kien. +The Lower Yangtsze is a river route, now mainly served by steamers +(though the salt is still carried by junks), and the Upper Yangtsze +is a river route also, but much more difficult of navigation. The +Kwei-chow route is up the river Yuen from Changte and the Tung-t‘ing +lake. The Han river route becomes beyong Sing-nagn Fu a land +route over the Tsingling mountains to the capital of Shen-si, and +thence on to Kan-suh, Mongolia and Siberia. The Shan-si route from +Peking, wholly by road, calls for no detailed account; the Manchurian +route is now adequately served by railways. There remains +the important Kiakhta route. From Peking it goes to Kalgan (this +section is now served by a railway), whence the main route traverses +Mongolia, while branches serve Shan-si, Shen-si, Kan-suh, Turkestan, +&c. By this route go the caravans bearing tea to Siberia and +Russia. Other routes are from Yun-nan to Burma and from Sze-ch‘uen +province to Tibet.</p> + +<p>The government maintains a number of courier roads, which, +like the main trade roads, keep approximately to a straight line. +These courier roads are sometimes cut in the steep sides of mountains +or run through them in tunnels. They are, in the plains, 20 to 25 ft. +wide and are occasionally paved. The chief courier roads starting +from Peking go to Sze-chu‘en, Yun-nan, Kweilin (in Kwang-si), +Canton and Fu-chow. Canals are numerous, especially in the deltas +of the Yangtsze and Si-kiang.</p> + +<p>In the centre and south of China the roads are rarely more than +5 ft. broad and wheeled traffic is seldom possible. Bridges are +generally of stone, sometimes of wood; large rivers are crossed by +bridges of boats. In the north carts drawn by ponies, mules or oxen +are employed; in the centre and south passengers travel in sedan-chairs +or in wheelbarrows, or ride on ponies. Occasionally the local +authorities employ the corvée system to dig out the bed of a canal, +but as a rule roads are left to take care of themselves.</p> + +<p><i>Posts and Telegraphs.</i>—Every important city is now connected +by telegraph with the capital, and the service is reasonably efficient. +In 1907 there were 25,913 m. of telegraph lines. Connexion is also +established with the British lines in Burma and the Russian lines in +Siberia. The Great Northern Telegraph Company (Danish) and the +Eastern Extension Telegraph Company (British) connect Shanghai by +cable with Hong-Kong, Japan, Singapore and Europe. An imperial +<i>postal service</i> was established in 1896 under the general control of +the maritime customs.<a name="FnAnchor_25d" id="FnAnchor_25d" href="#Footnote_25d"><span class="sp">25</span></a> By an edict of November 1906 the control +of the postal services was transferred to the Board of Communication. +The Post Office serves all the open ports, and every important city +in the interior. There were in 1910 some 4000 native post-offices, +employing 15,000 persons, of whom about 200 only were foreigners. +The treaty powers however, still maintain their separate post offices +at Shanghai, and several other treaty ports for the despatch and +receipt of mails from Europe. During the years 1901-1908 mail +matters increased from ten millions to two hundred and fifty-two +millions of items; and the 250 tons of parcels handled to 27,155 tons. +In postal matters China has adopted a most progressive attitude. +The imperial post conforms in all respects to the universal Postal +Union regulations.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. J.; X.)</div> + +<p class="center1">IV. Government and Administration</p> + +<p>Changes in the traditional form of government in China—an +autocracy based on parental rule—were initiated in 1905 when a +commission was appointed to study the forms of government in +other countries.<a name="FnAnchor_26d" id="FnAnchor_26d" href="#Footnote_26d"><span class="sp">26</span></a> On the 1st of September 1906 an imperial +edict was issued in which the establishment of parliamentary +institutions in China was foreshadowed. In 1907 an advisory +council—as a sort of stepping-stone to representative government—was +established by another edict. On the 27th of August +1908 an edict announced the convocation of a parliament in +the ninth year from that date. An edict of the 3rd of December +1908 reaffirmed that of the 27th of August. An edict of the 31st +of October 1909 fixed the classes from which an Imperial +Assembly (or Senate) was to be selected, and an edict of the +9th of May 1910 gave the names of the senators, all of whom +had been nominated by the throne. The assembly as thus constituted +consisted of 200 members drawn from eight classes: (1) +princes and nobles of the imperial house—16 members; (2) +Manchu and Chinese nobles—12 members; (3) princes and nobles +of dependencies—14 members; (4) imperial clansmen other +than those mentioned—6 members; (5) Peking officials—32 +members; (6) eminent scholars—10 members; (7) exceptional +property owners—10 members; (8) representatives of provincial +assemblies—100 members. The national assembly, which was +opened by the regent on the 3rd of October 1910, thus contained +the elements of a two-chambered parliament. The edict summoning +the assembly contained the following exhortations:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The members should understand that this assemblage of the senate +is an unprecedented undertaking in China and will be the forerunner +of the creation of a parliament. They are earnestly desired +to devote to it their patriotism and sincerity, to observe proper +order, and to fulfil their duties in representing public opinion. Thus +it is hoped that our sincere wish to effect constitutional reforms in +their proper order and to aim at success may be duly satisfied.</p> +</div> + +<p>Concurrently with these steps towards a fundamental alteration +in the method of government, changes were made in +many departments of the state, and an elective element was introduced +into the provincial administrations. The old conception +of government with such modifications as had been made up to +1910 are set forth below.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The laws of the state prescribe the government of the country to +be based on the government of the family.<a name="FnAnchor_27d" id="FnAnchor_27d" href="#Footnote_27d"><span class="sp">27</span></a> The emperor is the sole +and supreme head of the state, his will being absolute +alike in the highest affairs and in the humblest details of +<span class="sidenote">The Chinese conception of government.</span> +private life. The highest form of legislation was an +imperial decree, whether promulgated in general terms or +to meet a special case. In either form it was the law of +the land, and no privilege or prescriptive right could be +pleaded against it. All officers of state, all judges and magistrates, +hold their offices entirely at the imperial pleasure. They can be +dismissed, degraded, punished, without reason assigned and without +form of trial—even without knowing by whom or of what they are +accused. The monarch has an advisory council, but he is not bound +by its advice, nor need he pretend that he is acting by and with its +advice and concurrence. This condition of affairs dates back to a +primitive state of society, which probably existed among the Chinese +who first developed a civilized form of government. That this +system should have been maintained in China through many centuries +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span> +is a fact into the causes of which it is worth while to inquire. We +find it pictured in the records which make up the <i>Book of History</i>, +and we find it enforced in the writings of the great apostle of patriarchal +institutions, Confucius, and in all the other works which +go to make up the Confucian Canon. The reverence with which +these scriptures are viewed was the principal means of perpetuating +the primitive form of Chinese imperialism. The contents of their +pages formed the study of every schoolboy, and supplied the themes +at the competitive examinations through which every one had to +pass who sought an official career. Thus the mind of the nation +was constantly and almost exclusively turned towards them, and +their dogmas became part and parcel of the national training. The +whole theory of government is the embodiment of parental love and +filial piety. As the people are the children of the emperor, so is he +the <i>T‘ien-tsze</i> or the Son of Heaven.</p> + +<p>In practice the arbitrary power of the emperor is tempered in +several ways. Firstly, although the constitution conferred this +absolute and unchecked power on the emperor, it was not +for his gratification but that he might exercise it for the +<span class="sidenote">The emperor.</span> +good of his people. He rules by divine authority, and +as the vicegerent of heaven upon earth. If he rules corruptly or +unjustly, heaven will send disasters and calamity on the people as +a reproof; if the rule becomes tyrannical, heaven may withdraw its +favour entirely, and then rebellion may be justified. The Manchu +dynasty came to the throne as foreign conquerors, nevertheless they +base their right to rule, not on the power of the sword, but on divine +approval. On this moral ground they claim the obedience of their +subjects, and submit themselves to the corresponding obligations. +The emperor, unless he has gained the throne by conquest, is selected +by his predecessor or by the imperial family in conclave. He is +usually a son (but seldom the eldest son) of his predecessor, and need +not be the child of the empress-consort,<a name="FnAnchor_28d" id="FnAnchor_28d" href="#Footnote_28d"><span class="sp">28</span></a> though (other things being +equal) a son of the empress is preferred. Failing a son another prince +of the imperial house is chosen, the choice being properly among the +princes of a generation below that of the preceding emperor, so that +the new emperor may be adopted as the son of his predecessor, and +perform for him the due ceremonies at the ancestral tablets. Apart +from this ancestor-worship the emperor worships only at the Altar +of Heaven, leaving Buddhism, Taoism, and any other form of worship +to his subjects. The emperor’s sacrifices and prayers to heaven are +conducted with great parade and ceremony. The chief of these state +observances is the sacrifice at the winter solstice, which is performed +before sunrise on the morning of the 21st of December at the Temple +of Heaven. The form of the altar is peculiar.</p> + +<p>“It consists of a triple circular terrace, 210 ft. wide at the base, +150 in the middle, and 90 at the top.... The emperor, with his +immediate suite, kneels in front of the tablet of Shang-ti (The +Supreme Being, or Heaven), and faces the north. The platform is +laid with marble stones, forming nine concentric circles; the inner +circle consists of nine stones, cut so as to fit with close edges round +the central stone, which is a perfect circle. Here the emperor kneels, +and is surrounded first by the circles of the terraces and their +enclosing walls, and then by the circle of the horizon. He then seems +to himself and to his court to be in the centre of the universe, and +turning to the north, assuming the attitude of a subject, he acknowledges +in prayer and by his position that he is inferior to heaven, +and to heaven alone. Round him on the pavement are the nine +circles of as many heavens, consisting of nine stones, then eighteen, +then twenty-seven, and so on in successive multiples of nine till the +square of nine, the favourite number of Chinese philosophy, is +reached in the outermost circle of eighty-one stones.”</p> + +<p>On this occasion, also, a bullock of two years old, and without +blemish, is offered as a whole burnt-offering in a green porcelain +furnace which stands close beside the altar. The emperor’s life is +largely occupied with ceremonial observances, and custom ordains +that except on state occasions he should not leave the walls of the +palace.</p> + +<p>For his knowledge of public affairs the emperor is thus largely +dependent upon such information as courtiers and high officers of +state permit to reach him.<a name="FnAnchor_29d" id="FnAnchor_29d" href="#Footnote_29d"><span class="sp">29</span></a> The palace eunuchs have often exercised +great power, though their influence has been less under the Manchus +than was the case during previous dynasties. Though in theory the +throne commands the services and money of all its subjects yet the +crown as such has no revenues peculiarly its own. It is dependent +on contributions levied through the high officials on the several +provinces, subject always to the will of the people, and without their +concurrence and co-operation nothing can be done.<a name="FnAnchor_30d" id="FnAnchor_30d" href="#Footnote_30d"><span class="sp">30</span></a> The power of +the purse and the power of the sword are thus exercised mediately, +and the autocratic power is in practice transferred to the general body +of high functionaries, or to that clique which for the time being has +the ear of the emperor, and is united enough and powerful enough +to impose its will on the others.</p> + +<p>The functionaries who thus really wield the supreme power are +almost without exception civil officials. Naturally the court has +shown an inclination to choose Manchu rather than Chinese, +but of late years this preference has become less marked, +<span class="sidenote">China governed by its civil service.</span> +and in the imperial appointments to provincial administrations +the proportion of Manchus chosen was at the beginning +of the 20th century not more than one-fifth of the +whole number. The real reason for this change is the +marked superiority of the Chinese, in whose hands the administration +is stated to be safer for the Manchu dynasty. Practically all the +high Chinese officials have risen through the junior ranks of the civil +service, and obtained their high position as the reward—so it must +be presumed—of long and distinguished public service.</p> + +<p>Through the weakness of some of the emperors the functions of +the central government gradually came to be to check the action +of the provincial governments rather than assume a +direct initiative in the conduct of affairs. “The central +<span class="sidenote">Functions of the central government.</span> +government may be said to criticize rather than to +control the action of the provincial administrations, +wielding, however, at all times the power of immediate +removal from his post of any official whose conduct may +be found irregular or considered dangerous to the stability of the +state.”<a name="FnAnchor_31d" id="FnAnchor_31d" href="#Footnote_31d"><span class="sp">31</span></a> This was written in 1877, and since then the pressure of +foreign nations has compelled the central government to assume +greater responsibilities, and the empire is now ruled from Peking in +a much more effective manner than was the case when Lord Napier in +1834 could find no representative of the central government with +whom to transact business.</p> + +<p>If the central authorities take the initiative, and issue orders to +the provincial authorities, it, however, does not follow that they will +be carried out. The orders, if unwelcome, are not directly disobeyed, +but rather ignored, or specious pleas are put forward, showing the +difficulty or impossibility of carrying them out at that particular +juncture. The central government always wields the power of +removing or degrading a recalcitrant governor, and no case has +been known where such an order was not promptly obeyed. But +the central government, being composed of officials, stand by +their order, and are extremely reluctant to issue such a command, +especially at the bidding of a foreign power. Generally the opinion +of the governors and viceroys has great weight with the central +government.</p> + +<p>Under the Ming dynasty the <i>Nuiko</i> or Grand Secretariat formed +the supreme council of the empire. It is now of more honorific +than actual importance. Active membership is limited +to six persons, namely, four grand secretaries and two +<span class="sidenote">Departments of the central administration.</span> +assistant grand secretaries, half of whom, according to a +general rule formerly applicable to nearly all the high +offices in Peking, must be Manchu and half Chinese. It +constitutes the imperial chancery or court of archives, +and admission to its ranks confers the highest distinction +attainable by Chinese officials, though with functions that are almost +purely nominal. Members of the grand secretariat are distinguished +by the honorary title of <i>Chung-t‘ang.</i> The most distinguished +viceroys are usually advanced to the dignity of grand secretary while +continuing to occupy their posts in the provinces. The best known +of recent grand secretaries was Li Hung-chang.</p> + +<p>Under the Manchu dynasty the Grand Council (<i>Chün Chi Ch‘u</i>) +became the actual privy council of the sovereign, in whose presence +its members daily transacted the business of the state. This council +is composed of a small knot of men holding various high offices in +the government boards at Peking. The literal meaning of Chün +Chi Ch‘u is “place of plans for the army,” and the institution derives +its name from the practice established by the early emperors of the +Manchu dynasty of treating public affairs on the footing of a military +council. The usual time of transacting business is from 4 to 6 a.m. +In addition to the grand council and the grand secretariat there were +boards to supervise particular departments. By a decree of the 6th +of November 1906 the central administration was remodelled, subsequent +decrees making other changes. The administration in 1910 +was carried on by the following agencies:—</p> + +<p>A. <i>Councils.</i>—(1)The grand council. Its title was modified in +1906 and it is now known as the Grand Council of State Affairs or +Privy Council. It has no special function, but deals with all matters +of general administration and is presided over by the emperor (or +regent). (2) The Grand Secretariat. This body gained no increase +of power in 1906. (3) The advisory council or senate (<i>Tu Chêng +Yuen</i>) created in 1907 and containing representatives of each +province. It includes all members of the grand council and the +grand secretariat and the heads of all the executive departments.<a name="FnAnchor_32d" id="FnAnchor_32d" href="#Footnote_32d"><span class="sp">32</span></a> +The members of these three bodies form advisory cabinets to the +emperor.</p> + +<p>B. <i>Boards.</i>—Besides boards concerned with the affairs of the court +there were, before the pressure of foreign nations and the movement +for reform caused changes to be made, six boards charged with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span> +conduct of public affairs. They were: (1) <i>Li Pu</i>, the Board of Civil +Appointments, controlling all appointments in the civil service from +the rank of district magistrate upwards. (2) <i>Hu Pu</i>, the Board of +Revenue, dealing with all revenues which reached the central +government. (3) <i>Li Pu</i>, the Board of Ceremonies. (4) <i>Ping Pu</i>, the +Board of War. It controlled the provincial forces. The Manchu +forces were an independent organization attached to the palace. +(5) <i>Hsing Pu</i>, the Board of Punishments. It dealt with the criminal +law only, especially the punishment of officials guilty of +malpractices. (6) <i>Kung Pu</i>, the Board of Works. Its work was +limited to the control of the construction and repair of official +residences.</p> + +<p>As rearranged and enlarged there are now the following boards, +given in order of precedence:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>Wai-wu Pu</i>.—This was established in 1901 in succession to the +<i>Tsung-li Yamên</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_33d" id="FnAnchor_33d" href="#Footnote_33d"><span class="sp">33</span></a> which was created in 1861 after the Anglo-Chinese +War in 1860 as a board for foreign affairs. Previous to that war, which +established the right of foreign powers to have their representatives +in Peking, all business with Western nations was transacted by +provincial authorities, chiefly the viceroy at Canton. The only +department at Peking which dealt specially with foreign affairs was +the <i>Li Fan Yuen</i>, or board of control for the dependencies, which +regulated the affairs of Mongolia, Tibet and the tributary states +generally. With the advent of formally accredited ambassadors +from the European powers something more than this was required, +and a special board was appointed to discuss all questions with the +foreign envoys. The number was originally four, with Prince Kung, +a brother of the emperor Hien Fêng, at their head. It was subsequently +raised to ten, another prince of the blood, Prince Ching, +becoming president. The members were spoken of collectively as +the prince and ministers. For a long time the board had no real +power, and was looked on rather as a buffer between the foreign +envoys and the real government. The importance of foreign affairs, +however, especially since the Japanese War, identified the <i>Yamên</i> +more with the grand council, several of the most prominent men being +members of both. At the same time that the <i>Tsung-li Yamên</i> was +created, two important offices were established in the provinces for +dealing with foreign commercial questions, viz. the superintendencies +of trade for the northern and southern ports. The negotiations connected +with the Boxer outbreak proved so conclusively that the +machinery to the <i>Tsung-li Yamên</i> was of too antiquated a nature to +serve the new requirements, that it was determined to abolish the +<i>Yamên</i> and to substitute for it a board (<i>Pu</i>) to be styled the <i>Wai-wu +Pu</i>, or “board of foreign affairs.”</p> + +<p>2. Board of Civil Appointments.</p> + +<p>3. Board of Home Affairs.</p> + +<p>4. Board of Finance and Paymaster General’s Department.</p> + +<p>5. Board of Ceremonies.</p> + +<p>6. Army Board or Ministry of War (instituted 1906).<a name="FnAnchor_34d" id="FnAnchor_34d" href="#Footnote_34d"><span class="sp">34</span></a></p> + +<p>7. Board of Judicature.</p> + +<p>8. Board of Agriculture, Works and Commerce (instituted 1903).</p> + +<p>9. Board of dependencies.</p> + +<p>10. Board of Education (instituted 1903).</p> + +<p>11. Board of Communications (instituted 1906).</p> + +<p>Each board has one president and two vice-presidents, with the +exception of the Wai-wu Pu, which has a comptroller-general and +two presidents, and the Boards of War and Education, each of which +has a comptroller-general in addition to the president. According +to the decree of 1906 no distinction, in filling up the various boards, +is to be made between Manchu and Chinese.</p> + +<p>Besides the boards named there are other departments of state, +some of them not limited to any one branch of the public service. +The more important are those that <span class="correction" title="amended from folllow">follow</span>:—</p> + +<p>The Censorate (<i>Tu Ch‘a Yuen</i>).—An institution peculiar to China. +The constitution provides a paid body of men whose duty it is to inform +the emperor of all facts affecting the welfare of the people and +the conduct of government, and in particular to keep an eye on the +malfeasance of his officers. These men are termed <i>Yü shih</i> (imperial +recorder), generally translated censors. Their office has existed since +the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The body consists of two presidents, a Chinese +and a Manchu, 24 supervising censors attached to the ministries at +Peking, and 56 censors, divided into fifteen divisions, each division +taking a particular province or area, so as to embrace the whole +eighteen provinces, besides one metropolitan division. The censors +are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even of the emperor +himself; to censure the manner in which all other officials perform or +neglect their duties and to denounce them to the throne. They +receive appeals made to the emperor, either by the people against the +officials or by subordinate officials against their superiors. They +exercise, in accord with the Board of Justice, an oversight over all +criminal cases and give their opinion whenever the death penalty is +to be pronounced. They superintend the working of the different +boards and are sometimes sent to various places as imperial inspectors, +hence they are called <i>êrh mu kuan</i> (the eyes and ears of the +emperor). The censors exercise their office at times with great +boldness;<a name="FnAnchor_35d" id="FnAnchor_35d" href="#Footnote_35d"><span class="sp">35</span></a> their advice if unpalatable may be disregarded and the +censor in question degraded. The system of the censorate lends itself +to espionage and to bribery, and it is said to be more powerful for +mischief than for good. With the growth in influence of the native +press the institution appears to lose its <i>raison d’être</i>.</p> + +<p>The grand court of revision (<i>Ta-li sze</i>) or Court of Cassation exercises, +in conjunction with the Board of Justice and the Censorate, a +general supervision over the administration of the criminal law. +These bodies are styled collectively <i>San-fah sze</i> (the Three High +Justices).</p> + +<p>The Hanlin College (<i>Hanlin Yuen</i>, literally Forest of Pencils) is +composed of all the literate who have passed the palace examination +and obtained the title of <i>Hanlin</i> or imperial academist. It has two +chancellors—a Manchu and a Chinese. Its functions are of a purely +literary character and it is of importance chiefly because the heads of +the college, who are presumably the most eminent scholars of the +empire, have the right of advising the throne on all public affairs, +and are eligible as members of the grand council or of the Wai-wu +Pu. The Chinese set fire to it during the fighting in Peking in June +1900 in the hope of burning out the adjoining British legation. +The whole of the library, containing some of the most valuable +manuscripts in the world, was destroyed.</p> + +<p>Each of the eighteen provinces of China proper, the three provinces +of Manchuria and the province of Sin-kiang are ruled by a viceroy +placed over one, two and in one instance three provinces, +or by a governor over a single province either under a +<span class="sidenote">Provincial government.</span> +viceroy or depending directly on the central government, +the viceroy or the governor being held responsible to the +emperor for the entire administration, political, judicial, military and +fiscal. The most important viceroyalties are those of Chih-li, Liang-kiang +and Liang-kwang. The viceroyalty of Liang-kiang comprises +the provinces of Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Kiang-si. The viceroy +resides at Nanking and hence is sometimes called the viceroy of +Nanking. Similarly the viceroy of Liang-kwang (comprising the +provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si) through having his residence +at Canton is sometimes styled the viceroy of Canton. The three +provinces adjoining the metropolitan province of Chih-li—Shan-tung, +Shan-si and <span class="correction" title="amended from Hon-an">Ho-nan</span>—have no viceroys over them; seven provinces—including +Chih-li—have no governors, the viceroy officiating as +governor. In provinces where there are both a viceroy and a +governor they act conjointly, but special departments are administered +by the one rather than the other. The viceroy controls +the military and the salt tax; the governor the civil service +generally.</p> + +<p>The viceroy or governor is assisted by various other high officials, +all of whom down to the district magistrate are nominated from +Peking. The chief officials are the treasurer, the judicial commissioner +or provincial judge, and the commissioner of education +(this last post being created in 1903). The treasurer controls the +finances of the whole province, receiving the taxes and paying the +salaries of the officials. The judge, the salt commissioner, and the +grain collector are the only other officials whose authority extends +over the whole province. Each province is subdivided into prefectures +ruled by prefects, and each prefecture into districts ruled +by a district magistrate, <i>Chih-hsien</i>, the official through whom the +people in general receive the orders of the government. Two or +more prefectures are united into a <i>tao</i> or circuit, the official at the +head of which is called a <i>Taot‘ai</i>. Each town and village has also +its unofficial governing body of “gentry.”<a name="FnAnchor_36d" id="FnAnchor_36d" href="#Footnote_36d"><span class="sp">36</span></a> The officials appointed +from Peking hold office for three years, but they may be re-appointed +once, and in the case of powerful viceroys they may hold office for +a prolonged period. Another rule is that no official is ever appointed +to a post in the province of his birth; a rule which, however, did +not apply to Manchuria. The Peking authorities take care also in +making the high appointments to send men of different political +parties to posts in the same province.</p> + +<p>The edict of the 6th of November 1906 initiating changes in the +central administration was accompanied by another edict outlining +changes in the provincial government, and an edict of the 22nd of +July 1908 ordered the election of provincial assemblies. The edict +made it clear that the functions of the assemblies were to be purely +consultative. The elections took place according to the regulations, +the number of members allotted to each province varying from 30 +(Kirin province, Manchuria, and two others) to 140 in Chih-li. The +franchise was restricted, but the returns for the first elections showed +nearly 1000 voters for each representative. The first meetings of +the assemblies were held in October 1909.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span></p> + +<p><i>The Civil Service.</i>—The bureaucratic element is a vital feature +in the government of China, the holding of office being almost +the only road to distinction. Officials are by the Chinese called +collectively <i>Kwan</i> (rulers or magistrates) but are known to +foreigners as mandarins (<i>q.v.</i>). The mandarins are divided into +nine degrees, distinguished by the buttons worn on the top of +their caps. These are as follows:—first and highest, a plain +red button; second, a flowered red button; third, a transparent +blue button; fourth, an opaque blue button; fifth, an uncoloured +glass button; sixth, an opaque white shell button; +seventh, a plain gilt button; eighth, a gilt button with flowers in +relief; ninth, a gilt button with engraved flowers. The buttons +indicate simply rank, not office. The peacock feathers worn in +their hats are an order granted as reward of merit, and indicate +neither rank nor office. The Yellow Jacket similarly is a decoration, +the most important in China.</p> + +<p>The ranks of the civil service are recruited by means of examinations. +Up to the beginning of 1906 the subjects in which candidates +were examined were purely Chinese and literary with a +smattering of history. In 1906 this system was modified and +an official career was opened to candidates who had obtained +honours in an examination in western subjects (see § <i>Education</i>). +The old system is so closely identified with the life of China that +some space must be devoted to a description of it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>As a general rule students preparing for the public examination +read with private tutors. There were neither high schools nor universities +where a regular training could be got. In most of the provincial +capitals, and at some other places, there were indeed institutions +termed colleges, supported to some extent from public funds, +where advanced students could prosecute their studies; but before +the movement initiated by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the +China-Japan War of 1894, they hardly counted as factors in the +national education. The private tutors, on the other hand, were +plentiful and cheap. After a series of preliminary trials the student +obtained his first qualification by examination held before the +literary chancellor in the prefecture to which he belonged. This was +termed the <i>Siuts‘ai</i>, or licentiate’s degree, and was merely a qualification +to enter for the higher examinations. The number of +licentiate degrees to be given was, however, strictly limited; those +who failed to get in were set back to try again, which they might do +as often as they pleased. There was no limit of age. Those selected +next proceeded to the great examination held at the capital of each +province, once in three years, before examiners sent from Peking +for the purpose. Here again the number who passed was strictly +limited. Out of 10,000 or 12,000 competitors only some 300 or 350 +could obtain degrees. The others, as before, must go back and try +again. This degree, termed <i>Chü jên</i>, or provincial graduate, was the +first substantial reward of the student’s ambition, and of itself +qualified for the public service, though it did not immediately nor +necessarily lead to active employment. The third and final examination +took place at Peking, and was open to provincial graduates from +all parts of the empire. Out of 6000 competitors entering for this +final test, which was held triennially, some 325 to 350 succeeded in +obtaining the degree of <i>Chin shih</i>, or metropolitan graduate. These +were the finally selected men who became the officials of the empire.</p> + +<p>Several other doors were, however, open by which admission to the +ranks of bureaucracy could be obtained. In the first place, to encourage +scholars to persevere, a certain number of those who failed to +reach the <i>chü jên</i>, or second degree, were allowed, as a reward of +repeated efforts, to get into a special class from which selection for +office might be made. Further, the government reserved to itself the +right to nominate the sons and grandsons of distinguished deceased +public servants without examination. And, lastly, by a system of +“recommendation,” young men from favoured institutions or men +who had served as clerks in the boards, might be put on the roster +for substantive appointment. The necessities of the Chinese government +also from time to time compelled it to throw open a still wider +door of entry into the civil service, namely, admission by purchase. +During the T‘aip‘ing rebellion, when the government was at its wits’ +end for money, formal sanction was given to what had previously +been only intermittently resorted to, and since then immense sums +of money have been received by the sale of patents of rank, to secure +either admission to office or more rapid promotion of those already +employed. As a result of this policy, the country has been saddled +with thousands of titular officials far in excess of the number of +appointments to be given away. Deserving men were kept waiting +for years, while inferior and less capable officials were pushed ahead, +because they had money wherewith to bribe their way. Nevertheless +the purchase system admitted into the service a number of men +free from that bigoted adherence to Confucian doctrine which +characterizes the literary classes, and more in touch with modern +progress.</p> + +<p>All candidates who succeed in entering the official ranks are eligible +for active employment, but as the number of candidates is far in +excess of the number of appointments a period of weary waiting +ensues. A few of the best scholars get admitted at once into the +Hanlin college or into one or other of the boards at Peking. The rest +are drafted off in batches to the various provinces to await their turn +for appointment as vacancies occur. During this period of waiting +they are termed “expectants” and draw no regular pay. Occasional +service, however, falls in their way, as when they are commissioned +for special duty in outlying districts, which they perform as <i>Wei +yuens</i>, or deputies of the regular officials. The period of expectancy +may be abridged by recommendation or purchase, and it is generally +supposed that this last lever must invariably be resorted to to secure +any lucrative local appointment. A poor but promising official is +often, it is said, financed by a syndicate of relations and friends, +who look to recoup themselves out of the customary perquisites +which attach to the post. Appointments to the junior provincial +posts are usually left to the provincial government, but the central +government can always interfere directly. Appointments to the +lucrative posts of customs, <i>taot‘ai</i>, at the treaty ports are usually +made direct from Peking, and the officer selected is neither necessarily +nor usually from the provincial staff. It would perhaps be safe to +say that this appointment has hitherto always been the result of a +pecuniary arrangement of greater or less magnitude.</p> + +<p>During the first five years (1906-1910) of the new method, by +which candidates for the civil service were required, in addition to +Chinese classics, to have a knowledge of western science, +great efforts were made in several provinces to train up +<span class="sidenote">Bribery and torture.</span> +a better class of public official. The old system of administration +had many theoretical excellencies, and there +had been notable instances of upright administration, but the +regulation which forbade a mandarin to hold any office for more than +three years made it the selfish interest of every office-holder to get +as much out of the people within his jurisdiction as he possibly +could in that time. This corruption in high places had a thoroughly +demoralizing effect. While among the better commercial classes +Chinese probity in business relations with foreigners is proverbial, +the people generally set little or no value upon truth, and this has +led to the use of torture in their courts of justice; for it is argued +that where the value of an oath is not understood, some other +means must be resorted to to extract evidence.</p> + +<p><i>Justice.</i>—The <i>Chih-Hsien</i> or district magistrate decides ordinary +police cases; he is also coroner and sheriff, he hears suits for divorce +and breach of promise, and is a court of first instance in all civil cases; +“the penalty for taking a case first to a higher court is fifty blows +with the bamboo on the naked thigh.”<a name="FnAnchor_37d" id="FnAnchor_37d" href="#Footnote_37d"><span class="sp">37</span></a> Appeal from the <i>Hsien</i> +court lies to the <i>Fu</i>, or prefectural court, and thence cases may be +taken to the provincial judge, who signs death warrants, while there +are final courts of appeal at Peking. Civil cases are usually settled +by trade gilds in towns and by village elders, or by arbitration in +rural districts. Reference has been made to the use of torture. +Flogging is the only form of torture which has been allowed under +the Manchus. The obdurate witness is laid on his face, and the +executioner delivers his blows on the upper part of the thighs with +the concave side of a split bamboo, the sharp edges of which mutilate +the sufferer terribly. The punishment is continued until the +man either supplies the evidence required or becomes insensible. +Punishment by bamboo was formally abolished by imperial edict +in 1905, and other judicial reforms were instituted. They remained +largely inoperative, and even in Shanghai, under the eyes of foreign +residents, gross cases of the infliction of torture occurred in 1909.<a name="FnAnchor_38d" id="FnAnchor_38d" href="#Footnote_38d"><span class="sp">38</span></a></p> + +<p>For capital offences the usual modes of inflicting the extreme +penalty of the law are—in bad cases, such as parricides, “cutting to +pieces,” and for less aggravated crimes either strangulation or +decapitation. The culprit who is condemned to be “cut to pieces” +is fastened to a cross, and while thus suspended cuts are made by the +executioner on the fleshy parts of the body; and he is then beheaded. +Strangulation is reserved for lesser degrees of guilt, it being considered +a privilege to pass out of life with a whole body. When it has +been granted to a criminal of rank thus to meet his end, a silken cord +is sent to him at his own home. No explanatory message is considered +necessary, and he is left to consummate his own doom. +Popular sentiment regards decapitation as a peculiarly disgraceful +mode of death. Constant practice makes the executioners wonderfully +expert in the performance of their office. No block or resting-place +for the head is used. The neck is simply outstretched to its +full length by the aid of an assistant, and one blow invariably leaves +the body headless.</p> + +<p>The laws are in accord with the principle which regards the +family as a unit. Thus there is no bankruptcy law—if a debtor’s own +estate will not suffice to pay his debts the deficiency must +be made good by his relatives; if a debtor absconds his +<span class="sidenote">Consular jurisdiction.</span> +immediate family are imprisoned. By analogy if one +member of a party commits an offence and the guilty +person cannot be detected, the whole party must suffer. Foreigners +residing in China resented the application of this principle of law +to themselves. As a result extra-territorial rights were sought by +European powers. They were secured by Russia as early as 1689, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span> +but it was not until 1843 that any other nation acquired them. In +that year Great Britain obtained the right to try British subjects by +its own consuls, a right secured in more explicit terms by the United +States and France in 1844. Now eighteen powers, including Japan, +have consular courts for the trial of their own subjects according to +the laws of their native lands. Mixed courts have also been established, +that is, a defendant is tried in the court of his own nationality, +the court giving its decision under the supervision of a representative +of the plaintiff’s nationality. In practice the Chinese have seldom +sent representatives to sit on the bench of consular courts, but, as the +Europeans lack confidence in the administration of Chinese justice, no +suit brought by a foreigner against a Chinese is decided without the +presence of an assessor of the plaintiff’s nationality.</p> + +<p><i>Defence.</i>—The Chinese constitution in the period before the +reform edicts of 1905-1906 provided for two independent sets of +military organizations—namely, the Manchu army and +the several provincial armies. On the establishment +<span class="sidenote">Army.</span> +of the dynasty in 1644 the victorious troops, composed mainly of +Manchus, but including also Mongols and Chinese, were permanently +quartered in Peking, and constituted a hereditary national army. +The force was divided into eight banners, and under one or other of +these all Manchus and all the descendants of the members of other +nationalities were enrolled. They form the bulk of the population +of the “Tatar city” of Peking. Each adult male was by birth +entitled to be enrolled as a soldier, and by virtue of his enrolment +had a right to draw rations—<i>i.e.</i> his allowance of the tribute rice, +whether on active service or not. Detachments from one or other +of the banners were stationed as garrisons in the chief provincial +centres, as at Canton, Fuchow and Hang-chow, &c., and their +descendants still occupy the same position. As a fighting force +the Manchu garrisons both in the capital and in the provinces +had long become quite effete. In the capital, however, the <i>élite</i> of +the Manchu soldiery were formed into a special corps termed the +Peking Field Force. Its nominal strength was 20,000, the men were +armed and drilled after the European fashion, and fairly well paid. +There were other corps of picked Manchus better paid and better +armed than the ordinary soldier, and it was computed that in 1901 +the Manchu army in or near Peking could muster 40,000, all more +or less efficient.</p> + +<p>The second organization was termed the army of the Green +Standard, being the Chinese provincial forces. The nominal strength +was from 20,000 to 30,000 for each province, or about 500,000 in all; +the actual strength was about one-third of this. They were enrolled +to keep the peace within their own province, and resembled a militia +or local constabulary rather than a national army. They were +generally poorly paid and equally badly drilled and armed.</p> + +<p>The only real fighting force which China possessed at the beginning +of the 20th century was made up of certain special corps which were +not provided for in the constitution, and consequently used to be +termed <i>yung</i>, “braves,” or irregulars, but had acquired various +distinctive names. They were enlisted by provincial governors, and +all had some smattering of foreign drill. They were also fairly well +paid and armed. After the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95 some +of these corps were quartered near Peking and Tientsin, and came +generally to be spoken of as the Army of the North.</p> + +<p>An imperial decree issued in 1901 after the Boxer rising ordered +the reorganization of the military forces of the empire, and on provincial +lines something was accomplished—especially in Chih-li +under Yuan Shih-k‘ai, who practically created “the Army of the +North.” It was not, however, until after the Russo-Japanese War +that determined efforts were made to organize a national army on +western lines; an army which should be responsible to the central +government and not dependent upon the provincial administrations. +A decree of 1905 provided (on paper) for training schools for officers +in each of the provinces, middle grade military schools in selected +provinces, and a training college and military high school in Peking. +The Army Board was reorganized and steps taken to form a general +staff. Considerable progress had been made by 1910 in the evolution +of a body of efficient officers. In practice the administration remained +largely provincial—for instance the armament of the troops +was provided by the provincial governors and was far from uniform. +The scheme<a name="FnAnchor_39d" id="FnAnchor_39d" href="#Footnote_39d"><span class="sp">39</span></a> contemplated the creation of a force about 400,000 +strong in 36 divisions and in two armies, the northern and the +southern. Recruitment is on the voluntary principle, except in +the case of the Manchus, who apparently enter the new army instead +of the “eight banners.” The terms of service are three years with +the colours, three in the reserve and four in the territorial army. +The Japanese system of training is followed. Reservists are called +out for 30 days every year and the territorialists for 30 days every +other year.</p> + +<p>Up to 1909 six divisions and one mixed brigade of the northern +army had been organized in Shan-tung, Chih-li and Ho-nan; elsewhere +three divisions and six mixed brigades; total strength about +60,000 with 350 guns. (These figures do not include all the provincial +foreign trained troops.) The efficiency of the troops varied; +the northern army was superior to the others in training and armament. +About a third of the 60,000 men of the new army were in +1909 stationed in Manchuria (See also § <i>History</i>.)</p> + +<p>An imperial edict of the 15th of September 1907 reorganized the +army of the Green Standard. It was placed under the control of +the minister of war and formed in battalions and squadrons. The +duty of the troops in peace time remained much as previously. In +war they pass under the control of regular officers, though their use +outside their own provinces does not seem to be contemplated.</p> + +<p>The Chinese navy in 1909 consisted of the 4300 ton cruiser “Hai +Chi” (two 8-in., ten 4.7-in. guns) of 24 knot original speed, three +3000 ton cruisers, “Hai Yung,” “Hai Schew” and +“Hai Shen” (three 6-in., eight 4-in. guns) of 19.5 knot +<span class="sidenote">Navy.</span> +original speed, some modern gunboats built in Japan, a few +miscellaneous vessels and some old torpedo boats. With the destruction +of the northern fleet by the Japanese at the capture of Wei-hai-wei +in 1895, the Chinese navy may be said to have ceased to exist. +Previously it consisted of two divisions, the northern and southern, +of which the former was by far the more formidable. The southern +was under the control of the viceroy of Nanking, and took no part +in the Chino-Japanese War. While the northern fleet was grappling +in a death-struggle, the southern was lying snugly in the Yangtsze +waters, the viceroy of Nanking apparently thinking that as the +Japanese had not attacked him there was no reason why he should +risk his ships.</p> + +<p><i>The New Scheme.</i>—An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a +naval and military advisory board. Nimrod Sound, centrally +situated on the coast of Cheh-kiang, was chosen as naval base, and +four naval schools were ordered to be established; a navigation +school at Chifu, an engineering school at Whampoa, a school for +naval artificers at Fuchow, and a gunnery and musketry school at +Nimrod Sound. A superior naval college was founded at Peking. +The coast defences were placed under the control of the naval +department, and the reorganization of the dockyards undertaken. +During 1910 orders for cruisers were placed abroad.</p> + +<p><i>Arsenals and Dockyards.</i>—After the loss of Port Arthur, China +possessed no dockyard which could dock vessels over 3000 tons. +Many years ago the Chinese government established at Fuchow a +shipbuilding yard, placing it in the hands of French engineers. +Training schools both for languages and practical navigation were +at the same time organized, and a training ship was procured and +put under the command of a British naval officer. Some twenty-five +or thirty small vessels were built in the course of as many years, +but gradually the whole organization was allowed to fall into decay. +Except for petty repairs this establishment was in 1909 valueless +to the Chinese government. There were also small dockyards at +Kiang-nan (near Shanghai), Whampoa and Taku. There are well-equipped +arsenals at Shanghai and at Tientsin, but as they are both +placed up shallow rivers they are useless for naval repairs. Both +are capable of turning out heavy guns, and also rifles and ammunition +in large quantities. There are also military arsenals at Nanking, +Wuchang, Canton and Chêngtu.</p> + +<p><i>Forts.</i>—A great number of forts and batteries have been erected +along the coast and at the entrance to the principal rivers. Chief +among these, now that the Taku forts formerly commanding the +entrance to Tientsin have been demolished, are the Kiangyin forts +commanding the entrance to the Yangtsze, the Min forts at the +entrance of the Fuchow river, and the Bogue forts at the entrance +to the Canton river. These are supplied with heavy armament from +the Krupp and Armstrong factories.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Finance.</i></p> + +<p>In fiscal matters, as for many other purposes, the Chinese +empire is an agglomeration of a number of quasi-independent +units. Each province has a complete administrative staff, +collects its own revenue, pays its own civil service, and other +charges placed upon it, and out of the surplus contributes +towards the expenses of the imperial government a sum which +varies with the imperiousness of the needs of the latter and with +its own comparative wealth or poverty. The imperial government +does not collect directly any part of the revenues, unless +the imperial maritime customs be excepted, though these, too, +pass through the books of the provincial authorities.<a name="FnAnchor_40d" id="FnAnchor_40d" href="#Footnote_40d"><span class="sp">40</span></a></p> + +<p>It has hitherto been extremely difficult to obtain anything +like trustworthy figures for the whole revenue of China, for the +reason that no complete statistics are published by the central +government at Peking.<a name="FnAnchor_41d" id="FnAnchor_41d" href="#Footnote_41d"><span class="sp">41</span></a> The only available data are, first, the +returns published by the imperial maritime customs for the duties +levied on foreign trade; and, secondly, the memorials sent to +Peking by the provincial authorities on revenue matters, certain +of which are published from time to time in the <i>Peking Gazette</i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span> +These are usually fragmentary, being merely reports which the +governor has received from his subordinates, detailing, as the case +may be, the yield of the land tax or the likin for his particular +district, with a dissertation on the causes which have made it +more or less than for the previous period. Or the return may be +one detailing the expenditure of such and such a department, +or reporting the transmission of a sum in reply to a requisition +of the board of revenue, with a statement of the source from +which it has been met. It is only by collating these returns +over a long period that anything like a complete statement can +be made up. And even then these returns do not represent anything +like the total of taxation paid by the people, but, as far +as they go, they may be taken to represent the volume of taxation +on which the Peking government can draw revenue.</p> + +<p>The following table, taken from a memorandum by Sir Robert +Hart, dated the 25th of March 1901, shows the latest official +estimate (up to 1910) of the revenue and expenditure of China:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<p class="center1"><i>Revenue.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc">Taels.<a name="FnAnchor_42d" id="FnAnchor_42d" href="#Footnote_42d"><span class="sp">42</span></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Land tax</td> <td class="tcr">26,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Provincial duties</td> <td class="tcr">1,600,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Provincial receipts (various)</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Grain commutation</td> <td class="tcr">3,100,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Salt gabelle</td> <td class="tcr">13,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Li-kin</td> <td class="tcr">16,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Native customs</td> <td class="tcr">2,700,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Maritime customs:—</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> General cargo</td> <td class="tcr">17,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Foreign opium</td> <td class="tcr">5,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Native opium</td> <td class="tcr">1,800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">88,200,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center1"><i>Expenditure.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc">Taels.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Provincial</td> <td class="tcr">20,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Military and naval</td> <td class="tcr">35,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Metropolitan</td> <td class="tcr">10,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bannermen (Manchu “soldiers”)</td> <td class="tcr">1,380,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Palace</td> <td class="tcr">1,100,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Customs</td> <td class="tcr">3,600,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Legations</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">River works</td> <td class="tcr">940,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Railways</td> <td class="tcr">800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Loans</td> <td class="tcr">24,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Contingent reserve</td> <td class="tcr">3,300,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">101,120,000</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>A calculation of revenue from all sources published by the +Shanghai <i>Shen Pao</i> in 1908, apparently derived from official +sources, gave a total revenue of 105,000,000 taels, or about +15 million sterling. This sum is obviously less than the actual +figures. In 1907 Mr H.B. Morse, commissioner of customs and +statistical secretary in the inspectorate general of customs, +drew up the following table based on the amounts presumed to +be paid by the tax payer:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Imperial<br />Administration.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Provincial<br />Administration.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Local<br />Administration.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rlb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Taels.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Taels.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Taels.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb">I.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Land Tax</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,887,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">67,060,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,315,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb">II.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tribute</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,420,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,582,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,300,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb">III.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Native Customs</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,790,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,290,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">249,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb">IV.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Salt Gabelle</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,050,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb">V.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Miscellaneous</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,856,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,998,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">985,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb">VI.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Foreign Customs</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,169,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,942,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,230,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb">VII.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Li-kin</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,890,060</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,502,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,639,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rlb bb" colspan="2">Total</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99,062,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">142,374,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">42,718,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Mr Morse adds that the grand total shown, taels 284,150,000<a name="FnAnchor_43d" id="FnAnchor_43d" href="#Footnote_43d"><span class="sp">43</span></a> +“is an obviously insufficient sum on which to maintain the +fabric of government in an empire like China, but it has been +reached by calculations based on a few known facts and ... is +offered as throwing some light on a subject veiled in obscurity.”<a name="FnAnchor_44d" id="FnAnchor_44d" href="#Footnote_44d"><span class="sp">44</span></a></p> + +<p>The service of the foreign debt, together with the pressure of +other needs—such as the cost of education and the army—made +more manifest than previously the chaos of the Chinese fiscal +system. A scheme to reform the national finances was promulgated +under an edict of the 11th of January 1909, but it did +not appear to be of a practical character.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Sources of Revenue</i>. I. <i>Land Tax</i>.—In China, as in most oriental +countries, the land has from time immemorial been the mainstay +of the revenue. In the early years of the present dynasty there was +levied along with the land tax a poll tax on all adult males, but in +1712 the two were amalgamated, and the whole burden was thrown +upon land, families not possessing land being thereafter exempted +from taxation. At the same time it was decreed that the amount +of the land tax as then fixed should be permanent and settled for all +time coming. It would appear from the records that this promise +has been kept as far as the central government has been concerned. +In all its many financial difficulties it does not seem ever to have +tried to increase the revenue by raising the land tax. The amount +of tax leviable on each plot is entered on the title deed, and, once +entered, it cannot be changed.<a name="FnAnchor_45d" id="FnAnchor_45d" href="#Footnote_45d"><span class="sp">45</span></a> The tax on almost all lands is thus +stated to be so much in silver and so much in rice, wheat or whatever +the principal crop may be. Except in two provinces, however, +the grain tax is now commuted and paid in silver. The exceptions +are Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang, which still send forward their taxes in +grain. The value of the grain forwarded (generally called tribute +rice) is estimated at taels 6,500,000. The total collection in silver, +as reported by the responsible officials, amounts in round numbers +to taels 25,000,000. The total yield of the land tax, therefore, +is taels 31,500,000, or say £4,725,000. It will readily be granted +that for such a large country as China this is a very insignificant +one. In India the land tax yields about £20,000,000, and China +has undoubtedly a larger cultivated area, a larger population, +and soil that is on the whole more fertile; but it is certain that this +sum by no means represents the amounts actually paid by the +cultivators. It is the sum which the various magistrates and +collectors have to account for and remit in hard cash. But as +nothing is allowed them for the costs of collection, they add on a +percentage beforehand to cover the cost. This they usually do by +declaring the taxes leviable not in silver, but in copper “cash”, +which indeed is the only currency that circulates in country places, +and by fixing the rate of exchange to suit themselves. Thus while +the market rate is, say, 1500 cash to the tael, they declare by general +proclamation that for tax-paying purposes cash will be received at +the rate of 3500 or 4000 to the tael. Thus while the nominal land +tax in silver remains the same it is in effect doubled or trebled, and, +what is worse, no return is made or account required of the extra +sums thus levied. Each magistrate or collector is in effect a farmer. +The sum standing opposite the name of his district is the sum +which he is bound to return under penalty of dismissal, but all +sums which he can scrape together over and above are the perquisites +of office less his necessary expenses. Custom, no doubt, sets +bounds to his rapacity. If he went too far he would provoke a riot; +but one may safely say there never is any reduction, what change +can be effected being in the upward direction. According to the +best information obtainable a moderate estimate of the sums actually +paid by the cultivators would give two shillings per acre. This on +an estimate of the area under cultivation should give for the eighteen +provinces £19,000,000 as being actually levied, or more than four +times what is returned.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Salt Duty.</i>—The trade in salt is a government monopoly. +Only licensed merchants are allowed to deal in it, and the import +of foreign salt is forbidden by the treaties. For the purpose of salt +administration China is divided into seven or eight main circuits, +each of which has its own sources of production. Each circuit has +carefully defined boundaries, and salt produced in one circuit is not +allowed to be consigned into or sold in another. There are great +differences in price between the several circuits, but the consumer +is not allowed to buy in the cheapest market. He can only buy +from the licensed merchants in his own circuit, who in turn are +debarred from procuring supplies except at the depot to which +they belong. Conveyance from one circuit to another is deemed +smuggling, and subjects the article to confiscation.</p> + +<p>Duty is levied under two heads, the first being a duty proper, +payable on the issue of salt from the depot, and the second being +likin levied on transit or at the place of destination. The two +together amount on an average to about taels 1.50 per picul of +133½ ℔ or 3s. 9d. per cwt. The total collection returned by the +various salt collectorates amounts to taels 13,500,000 (£2,025,000) +per annum. The total consumption of salt for all China is estimated +at 25 million piculs, or nearly 1½ million tons, which is at the rate +of 9 ℔ per annum per head of the population. If the above amount +of taels 1.50 were uniformly levied and returned, the revenue would +be 37½ million taels instead of 13½. In this calculation, however, +no allowance is made for the cost of collection.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Likin on General Merchandise</i>.—By the term likin is meant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span> +a tax on inland trade levied while in transit from one district to +another. It was originally a war tax imposed as a temporary +measure to meet the military expenditure required by the T‘aip‘ing +and Mahommedan rebellions of 1850-1870. It is now one of the +permanent sources of income, but at the same time it is in form as +objectionable as a tax can be, and is equally obnoxious to the native +and to the foreign merchant. Tolls or barriers are erected at frequent +intervals along all the principal routes of trade, whether by land or +water, and a small levy is made at each on every conceivable +article of commerce. The individual levy is small, but over a long +transit it may amount to 15 or 20%. The objectionable feature is +the frequent stoppages with overhauling of cargo and consequent +delays. By treaty, foreign goods may commute all transit dues for +a single payment of one-half the import tariff duty, but this stipulation +is but indifferently observed. It must also be remembered, per +contra, that dishonest foreign merchants will take out passes to cover +<i>native-owned</i> goods. The difficulty in securing due observance of +treaty rights lies in the fact that the likin revenue is claimed by the +provincial authorities, and the transit dues when commuted belong +to the central government, so that the former are interested in +opposing the commutation by every means in their power. As +a further means of neutralizing the commutation they have devised +a new form of impost, viz. a terminal tax which is levied on the +goods after the termination of the transit. The amount and frequency +of likin taxation are fixed by provincial legislation—that is, +by a proclamation of the governor. The levy is authorized in general +terms by an imperial decree, but all details are left to the local +authorities. The yield of this tax is estimated at taels 13,000,000 +(£l,950,000), a sum which probably represents one-third of what is +actually paid by the merchants, the balance being costs of collection.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Imperial Maritime Customs</i>.—The maritime customs is the +one department of finance in China which is managed with probity +and honesty, and this it owes to the fact that it is worked under +foreign control. It collects all the duties leviable under the treaties +on the foreign trade of China, and also all duties on the coasting +trade so far as carried on by vessels of foreign build, whether Chinese +or foreign owned. It does not control the trade in native craft, the +so-called junk trade, the duties on which are still levied by the native +custom-house officials. By arrangement between the British and +Chinese governments the foreign customs levy at the port of entry +a likin on Indian opium of taels 80 per chest, in addition to the tariff +duty of taels 30. This levy frees the opium from any further duty on +transit into the interior. The revenue of the maritime customs rose +from taels 8,200,000 in 1865 to taels 35,111,000 in 1905.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Native Customs</i>,—The administration of the native customs +continues to be similar to what prevailed in the maritime customs +before the introduction of foreign supervision. Each collector is +constituted a farmer, bound to account for a fixed minimum sum, +but practically at liberty to retain all he may collect over and +above. If he returns more he may claim certain honorary rewards +as for extra diligence, but he generally manages to make out his +accounts so as to show a small surplus, and no more. Only imperfect +and fragmentary returns of the native collectorates have been +published, but the total revenue accruing to the Chinese government +from this source did not appear up to 1900 much to exceed two +million taels (£300,000). In November 1901 native customs offices +within 15 m. of a treaty port were placed under the control of the +maritime customs, their revenues having been hypothecated for +the service of the Boxer indemnity. The result was that the amount +of the native customs collected by the commissioners of customs +increased from taels 2,206,000 in 1902 to taels 3,699,000 in 1906.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Duty on Native Opium</i>.—The collection of the duty on opium +is in the hands of the provincial officials, but they are required to +rendera separate account of duty and likin collected on the drug, +and to hold the sum at the disposal of the board of revenue at +Peking. The annual import into China of Indian opium used +to amount to about 50,000 chests, the exact amount of opium +imported in 1904 being 54,750 piculs, on which the Chinese government +received from duty and likin combined about 5½ million taels +(£825,000). The total amount of native-grown opium was estimated +in 1901 at about 400,000 chests (53,000,000 lb), and if this were +taxed at taels 60 per chest, which in proportion to its price was +a similar rate to that levied on Indian opium, it should give a revenue +of 24 million taels. Compared with this the sums actually levied, +or at least returned by the local officials as levied, were insignificant. +The returns gave a total levy for all the eighteen provinces of only +taels 2,200,000 (£330,000). The anti-opium smoking campaign +initiated by the Chinese government in 1905 affected the revenue +both by the decreased importation of the drug and the decrease in +the area under poppy cultivation in China. In 1908 the opium likin +revenue had fallen to taels 3,800,000.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Miscellaneous</i>.—Besides the main and regular sources of income, +the provincial officials levy sums which must in the aggregate +amount to a very large figure, but which hardly find a place in the +returns. The principal are land transfer fees, pawnbrokers’ and +other licences, duties on reed flats, commutation of corvée and +personal services, &c. The fee on land transfers is 3%, and it could +be shown, from a calculation based on the extent and value of the +arable land and the probable number of sales, that this item alone +ought to yield an annual return of between one and two millions +sterling. Practically the whole of this is absorbed in office expenses. +Under this heading should also be included certain items which +though not deemed part of the regular revenue, have been so often +resorted to that they cannot be left out of account. These are the +sums derived from sale of office or of brevet rank, and the +subscriptions and benevolences which under one plea or another the +government succeeds in levying from the wealthy. Excluding these, +the government is always ready to receive subscriptions, rewarding +the donor with a grant of official rank entitling him to wear the +appropriate “button.” The right is much sought after, and indeed there +are very few Chinamen of any standing that are not thus decorated, +for not only does the button confer social standing, but it gives the +wearer certain very substantial advantages in case he should come +into contact with the law courts. The minimum price for the lowest +grade is taels 120 (£18), and more of course for higher grades. The +proceeds of these sales go directly to the Peking government, and +do not as a rule figure in the provincial returns. The total of the +miscellaneous items accruing for the benefit of the government is +estimated at taels 5,500,000.</p> + +<p><i>Expenditure.</i>—In regard to expenditure a distinction has to be +drawn between that portion of the revenue which is controlled by +the central government, and that controlled by the several provincial +authorities. As the provinces collect the revenue, and as the +authorities there are held responsible for the peace, order and good +government of their respective territories, it follows that the necessary +expenses of the provinces form a sort of first charge on the revenue. +(As the tables given show, the provinces spend the greater part of the +revenue collected.) The board of revenue at Peking, which is charged +with a general supervision of finance matters all over the empire, +makes up at the end of the year a general estimate of the funds +that will be required for imperial purposes during the ensuing year, +and apportions the amount among the several provinces and the +several collectorates in each province. The estimate is submitted +to the emperor, and, when sanctioned, instructions are sent to all the +viceroys and governors in that sense, who, in turn, pass them on to +their subordinate officers. In ordinary times these demands do not +materially vary from year to year, and long practice has created +a sort of equilibrium between imperial and provincial demands. +The remittances to the capital are, as a rule, forwarded with reasonable +regularity, mostly in the form of hard cash. There is, however, a +constant pull going on between Peking and the provinces—the +former always asking for more, the latter resisting and pleading +impecuniosity, yet generally able to find the amounts required. +The expenses which the central government has to meet are:—(1) +Imperial household; (2) pay of the Manchu garrison in and about +Peking; (3) costs of the civil administration in the capital; (4) +cost of the army so far as the expenses are not borne by the provinces; +(5) naval expenses;<a name="FnAnchor_46d" id="FnAnchor_46d" href="#Footnote_46d"><span class="sp">46</span></a> (6) foreign loans—interest and +sinking fund. To meet all these charges the Peking government +for several years up to 1900 drew on the provinces for about taels +20,000,000 (£3,000,000), including the value of the tribute rice, +which goes to the support of the Manchu bannermen.<a name="FnAnchor_47d" id="FnAnchor_47d" href="#Footnote_47d"><span class="sp">47</span></a> No estimates +are furnished of the sums allowed under such heading. The imperial +household appears to receive in silver about taels 1,500,000 (£225,000) +but it draws besides large supplies in kind from the provinces, <i>e.g.</i> +silks and satins from the imperial factories at Su-chow and Hangchow, +porcelain from the Kiang-si potteries, &c., the cost of which is +defrayed by the provinces. The imperial government has also at its +disposal the revenue of the foreign customs. Prior to the Chino-Japanese +war of 1894-95 this revenue, which, after allowing for the +costs of collection, amounted to about 20,000,000 taels (£3,000,000), +was nominally shared with the provinces in the proportion of four-tenths +and six-tenths. The whole of the customs revenue is now +pledged to foreign bondholders and absorbed by the service of the +several loans. Besides supplying its own wants the imperial government +has to provide for outlying portions of the empire which are +unable to maintain themselves—(1) Manchuria, (2) Kan-suh and the +central Asian dominion, (3) the south-western provinces of Yun-nan, +Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. Manchuria, or, as it is termed, the +north-east frontier defence, costs about taels 2,000,000 over and +above its own resources. The central Asian territories constitute a +drain on the imperial government of about taels 4,000,000 a year. +This is met by subsidies from Sze-ch‘uen, Shan-si, Ho-nan and other +wealthy provinces. Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si require aids +aggregating taels 2,000,000 to keep things going.</p> + +<p><i>External Debt.</i>—Prior to the war with Japan in 1894 the foreign +debt of China was almost nil. A few trifling loans had been +contracted at 7 and 8%, but they had been punctually paid off, and +only a fraction of one remained. The expenses of the war, however, +and the large indemnity of taels 230,000,000 (£34,500,000) which +Japan exacted, forced China for the first time into the European +market as a serious borrower. The sum of £6,635,000 was raised in +1894-1895 in four small loans at 6 or 7% interest. In 1895 a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span> +Franco-Russian loan of fr. 440,000,000 (£15,820,000) was raised in +Paris. Two Anglo-German loans, each of £16,000,000 (one in 1896, +the other in 1898) were raised through the Hong Kong and Shanghai +Bank. The Franco-Russian loan bears 4% interest, the first +Anglo-German 5%, the second 4½%. The foreign loans contracted +up to 1900 amounted altogether to £54,455,000. The charges for +interest and sinking fund, which amounted to over £3,000,000, were +secured on the revenue of the maritime customs, and on the likin +taxes of certain specified provinces. The net income from these +two sources amounted to over taels 24,000,000, equivalent at +existing rate of exchange to £3,400,000, which was amply sufficient.</p> + +<p>Between 1899 and 1907 (both years inclusive) £12,200,000 was +raised on loan for railway purposes. The charges on the first loan—for +£2,300,000—were secured on the revenue of the Imperial +Northern railway, the interest being 5%. The same interest was +secured on the other loans, save one for £1,000,000 in which the +Hong Kong government was concerned, which bears 4% interest.</p> + +<p>The foreign debt also includes the indemnities exacted in 1901 +by the powers for the Boxer outrages. These indemnities, secured +on imperial revenue, are divided into five series amounting altogether +to £67,500,000, the amount payable on these indemnities +(at 4% interest) in 1907 being £2,824,425. The burden of meeting +this amount was apportioned between the eighteen provinces—the +sums allocated ranging from taels 2,500,000 for Kiang-su to taels +300,000 for Kwei-chow. In 1909 the grand total of China’s indebtedness +exceeded £140,000,000 and the interest called for the payment +of £7,427,450 in gold.</p> + +<p><i>Banks and Banking.</i>—Native banks for purposes of inland exchange +are to be found in most large cities. They are private banks +using their own capital, and seldom receiving deposits from the +public. The best known are the Shan-si banks, which have branches +all over the empire. They work on a small capital, seldom over +£50,000 each, and do a small but profitable business by selling their +drafts on distant places. None of them issues notes, although they +are not debarred from doing so by law. They lend money on personal +security, but do not advance against shipments of goods. In some +places there are small local banks, usually called cash shops, which +issue paper notes for small sums and lend money out on personal +security. The notes never reach more than a very limited local +circulation, and pass current merely on the credit of the institution. +There is no law regulating the formation of banks or the issue of +notes. <i>Pawnshops</i> occupy a prominent position in the internal +economy of China. They lend on deposit of personality at very high +rates, 18 and 24%, and they receive deposits of money from the +public, usually allowing 6 to 10%. They are the real banks of +deposit of the country, and the better class enjoy good credit. +<i>Foreign Banks</i> do a large business at Shanghai and other treaty +ports, and a <i>Government Bank</i> has been established at Peking.</p> + +<p><i>Currency.</i>—In the commercial treaty between Great Britain and +China of 1902 China agreed to provide a uniform national coinage. +An imperial decree of October 1908 commanded the introduction of +a uniform tael currency; but another decree of May 1910 established +a standard currency dollar weighing 72 candareens (a candareen is the +100th part of the tael ounce) and subsidiary coins of fixed values in +decimal ratio. This decree properly enforced would introduce a much +needed stability into the monetary system of China.</p> + +<p>The actual currency (1910) consists of (l) <i>Silver</i>, which may be +either uncoined ingots passing current by weight, or imported coins, +Mexican dollars and British dollars; and (2) <i>Copper</i> “cash,” which +has no fixed relation to silver. The standard is silver, the unit being +the Chinese ounce or tael, containing 565 grains. The tael is not a +coin, but a weight. Its value in sterling consequently fluctuates +with the value of silver; in 1870 it was worth about 6s. 8d., in 1907 +it was worth 3s. 3d.<a name="FnAnchor_48d" id="FnAnchor_48d" href="#Footnote_48d"><span class="sp">48</span></a> The name given in China to uncoined silver +in current use is “sycee.” It is cast for convenience sake into +ingots weighing one to 50 taels. Its average fineness is 916.66 +per 1000. When foreign silver is imported, say into Shanghai, it +can be converted into currency by a very simple process. The bars +of silver are sent to a quasi-public office termed the “Kung K‘u,” +or public valuers, and by them melted down and cast into ingots of +the customary size. The fineness is estimated, and the premium or +betterness, together with the exact weight, is marked in ink on +each ingot. The whole process only occupies a few hours, and the +silver is then ready to be put into use. The Kung K‘u is simply a +local office appointed by the bankers of the place, and the weight +and fineness are only good for that locality. The government takes +no responsibility in the matter, but leaves merchants and bankers +to adjust the currency as they please. For purposes of taxation +and payment of duties there is a standard or treasury tael, which is +about 10% heavier than the tael of commerce in use at Shanghai. +Every large commercial centre has its own customary tael, the +weight and therefore the value of which differ from that of every +other. Silver dollars coined in Mexico, and British dollars coined +in Bombay, also circulate freely at the open ports of trade and for +some distance inland, passing at a little above their intrinsic value. +Carolus dollars, introduced long ago and no longer coined, are +retained in current use in several parts of the interior, chiefly the +tea-growing districts. Being preferred by the people, and as the +supply cannot be added to, they have reached a considerable +premium above their intrinsic value. Provincial mints in Canton, +Wuchang, and other places have issued silver coins of the same +weight and touch as the Mexican dollar, but very few have gone into +use. As they possess no privilege in debt-paying power over imported +Mexican dollars there is no inducement for the people to take +them up unless they can be had at a cheaper rate than the latter, +and these are laid down at so small a cost above the intrinsic value +that no profit is left to the mint. The coinage has in consequence +been almost discontinued. Subsidiary coins, however, came largely +into use, being issued by the local mints. One coin “the hundredth +part of a dollar” proved very popular (the issue to the end of 1906 +being computed at 12,500,000,000), but at rates corresponding closely +to the intrinsic value of the metal in it. The only coin officially +issued by the government—up to 1910—was the so-called copper +<i>cash</i>. It is a small coin which by regulation should weigh 1/16 of a +tael, and should contain 50 parts of copper, 40 of zinc, and 10 of +lead or tin, and it should bear a fixed ratio to silver of 1000 cash to +one tael of silver. In practice none of these conditions was observed. +Being issued from a number of mints, mostly provincial, the standard +was never uniform, and in many cases debased. Excessive issues +lowered the value of the coins, and for many years the average +exchange was 1600 or more per tael. The rise in copper led to the +melting down of all the older and superior coins, and as for the same +reason coining was suspended, the result was an appreciation of the +“cash,” so that a tael in 1909 exchanged for about 1220 cash or +about 35 to a penny English. Inasmuch as the “cash” bore no +fixed relation to silver, and was, moreover, of no uniform composition, +it formed a sort of mongrel standard of its own, varying with the +volume in circulation.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G .J.; X.)</div> + +<p class="center1 sc">V. History</p> + +<p class="center1">(A)—<i>European Knowledge of China up to 1615.</i></p> + +<p><i>China as known to the Ancients.</i>—The spacious seat of ancient +civilization which we call China has been distinguished by +different appellations, according as it was reached by the southern +sea-route or by the northern land-route traversing the longitude +of Asia. In the former aspect the name has nearly always been +some form of the name <i>Sin, Chin, Sinoe, China</i>. In the latter +point of view the region in question was known to the ancients +as the land of the <i>Seres</i>, to the middle ages as the empire of +<i>Cathay</i>. The name of <i>Chin</i> has been supposed (doubtfully) to +be derived from the dynasty of <i>Ts‘in</i>, which a little more than +two centuries before the Christian era enjoyed a vigorous existence, +uniting all the Chinese provinces under its authority, and +extending its conquests far beyond those limits to the south and +the west. The mention of the <i>Chinas</i> in ancient Sanskrit +literature, both in the laws of Manu and in the Mahābhārata, +has often been supposed to prove the application of the name +long before the predominance of the Ts‘in dynasty. But the +coupling of that name with the <i>Daradas</i>, still surviving as the +people of Dardistan, on the Indus, suggests it as more probable +that those <i>Chinas</i> were a kindred race of mountaineers, whose +name as <i>Shinas</i> in fact likewise remains applied to a branch +of the Dard races. Whether the <i>Sinim</i> of the prophet Isaiah +should be interpreted of the Chinese is probably not susceptible +of any decision; by the context it appears certainly to indicate +a people of the extreme east or south. The name probably +came to Europe through the Arabs, who made the <i>China</i> of the +farther east into <i>Sîn</i>, and perhaps sometimes into <i>Thîn</i>. Hence +the <i>Thîn</i> of the author of the <i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i>, +who appears to be the first extant writer to employ the name +in this form (<i>i.e.</i> assuming Max Müller’s view that he belongs +to the 1st century); hence also the <i>Sinae</i> and <i>Thinae</i> of Ptolemy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It has often indeed been denied that the Sinae of Ptolemy really +represented the Chinese. But if we compare the statement of +Marcianus of Heraclea (a mere condenser of Ptolemy), when he tells +us that the “nations of the Sinae lie at the extremity of the habitable +world, and adjoin the eastern Terra Incognita,” with that of Cosmas, +who says, in speaking of <i>Tzinista</i>, a name of which no one can +question the application to China, that “beyond this there is neither +habitation nor navigation”—we cannot doubt the same region to +be meant by both. The fundamental error of Ptolemy’s conception +of the Indian Sea as a closed basin rendered it <i>impossible</i> but that he +should misplace the Chinese coast. But considering that the name of +<i>Sin</i> has come down among the Arabs from time immemorial as +applied to the Chinese, considering that in the work of Ptolemy this +name certainly represented the farthest known East, and considering +how inaccurate are Ptolemy’s configurations and longitudes much +nearer home, it seems almost as reasonable to deny the identity of +his India with ours as to deny that his Sinae were Chinese.</p> + +<p>If we now turn to the <i>Seres</i> we find this name mentioned by classic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span> +authors much more frequently and at an earlier date, for the passages +of Eratosthenes (in Strabo), formerly supposed to speak of a parallel +passing through <i>Thinae</i>—<span class="grk" title="Thinôn">διά Θινῶν</span>—are now known to read correctly +<span class="grk" title="di'Athênôn">δι᾽Αθηνῶν</span>. The name <i>Seres</i> indeed is familiar to the Latin poets of the +Augustan age, but always in a vague way, and usually with a general +reference to Central Asia and the farther East. We find, however, +that the first endeavours to assign more accurately the position of +this people, which are those of Mela and Pliny, gravitate distinctly +towards China in its northern aspect as the true ideal involved. Thus +Mela describes the remotest east of Asia as occupied by the three +races (proceeding from south to north), Indians, Seres and Scyths; +just as in a general way we might still say that eastern Asia is +occupied by the Indies, China and Tartary.</p> + +<p>Ptolemy first uses the names of <i>Sera</i> and <i>Serice</i>, the former for the +chief city, the latter for the country of the Seres, and as usual defines +their position with a precision far beyond what his knowledge +justified—the necessary result of his system. Yet even his definition +of Serice is most consistent with the view that this name indicated +the Chinese empire in its northern aspect, for he carries it eastward +to the 180th degree of longitude, which is also, according to his +calculation, in a lower latitude the eastern boundary of the Sinae.</p> + +<p>Ammianus Marcellinus devotes some paragraphs to a description +of the Seres and their country, one passage of which is startling at +first sight in its seeming allusion to the Great Wall, and in this sense +it has been rashly interpreted by Lassen and by Reinaud. But +Ammianus is merely converting Ptolemy’s dry tables into fine +writing, and speaks only of an encircling rampart of mountains +within which the spacious and happy valley of the Seres lies. It is +true that Ptolemy makes his Serice extend westward to Imaus, <i>i.e.</i> +to Pamir. But the Chinese empire <i>did</i> so extend at that epoch, and +we find Lieut. John Wood in 1838 speaking of “<i>China</i>” as lying +immediately beyond Pamir, just as the Arabs of the 8th century +spoke of the country beyond the Jaxartes as “<i>Sin</i>,” and as Ptolemy +spoke of “<i>Serice</i>” as immediately beyond Imaus.</p> + +<p>If we fuse into one the ancient notices of the Seres and their +country, omitting anomalous statements and manifest fables, the +result will be somewhat as follows: “The region of the Seres is a +vast and populous country, touching on the east the ocean and the +limits of the habitable world, and extending west to Imaus and the +confines of Bactria. The people are civilized, mild, just and frugal, +eschewing collisions with their neighbours, and even shy of close +intercourse, but not averse to dispose of their own products, of +which raw silk is the staple, but which included also silk-stuffs, fine +furs, and iron of remarkable quality.” That is manifestly a definition +of the Chinese.</p> + +<p>That Greek and Roman knowledge of the true position of so +remote a nation should at best have been somewhat hazy is nothing +wonderful. And it is worthy of note that the view entertained by +the ancient Chinese of the Roman empire and its inhabitants, under +the name of <i>Ta-thsin</i>, had some striking points of analogy to those +views of the Chinese which are indicated in the classical descriptions +of the Seres. There can be no mistaking the fact that in this case +also the great object was within the horizon of vision, yet the details +ascribed to it are often far from being true characteristics, being +only the accidents of its outer borders.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>The Medieval Cathay.</i>—”Cathay” is the name by which the +Chinese empire was known to medieval Europe, and it is in its +original form (<i>Kitai</i>) that China is still known in Russia and to +most of the nations of Central Asia. West of Russia this name +has long ceased to be a geographical expression, but it is associated +with a remarkable phase in the history of geography and +commerce. The name first became known to Europe in the 13th +century, when the vast conquests of Jenghiz Khan and his +house drew a new and vivid attention to Asia. For some three +centuries previously the northern provinces of China had been +detached from indigenous rule, and subject to northern conquerors. +The first of these foreign dynasties was of a race +called <i>Khitán</i> issuing from the basin of the Sungari river, and +supposed (but doubtfully) to have been of the blood of the +modern Tunguses. The rule of this race endured for two centuries +and originated the application of the name <i>Khitât</i> or <i>Khitâï</i> to +northern China. The dynasty itself, known in Chinese history +as <i>Liao</i>, or “Iron,” disappeared from China 1123, but the name +remained attached to the territory which they had ruled.</p> + +<p>The Khitán were displaced by the Nüchih (<i>Nyûché</i> or <i>Chûrché</i>) +race, akin to the modern Manchus. These reigned, under the +title of <i>Kin</i>, or “Golden,” till Jenghiz and his Mongols invaded +them in turn. In 1234 the conquest of the Kin empire was +completed, and the dynasty extinguished under Ogdai (Ogotai), +the son and successor of Jenghiz Khan. Forty years later, in +the reign of Kublai, grandson and ablest successor of Jenghiz, +the Mongol rule was extended over southern China (1276), +which till then had remained under a native dynasty, the Sung, +holding its royal residence in a vast and splendid city, now +known as Hang-chow, but then as Ling-nan, or more commonly +as <i>King-sze</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the court. The southern empire was usually +called by the conquerors <i>Mantzi</i> (or as some of the old travellers +write, <i>Mangi</i>), a name which western Asiatics seem to have +identified with <i>Mâchîn</i> (from the Sanskrit <i>Mahâchîn</i>), one of +the names by which China was known to the traders from +Persian and Arabian ports.</p> + +<p>The conquests of Jenghiz and his successors had spread not +only over China and the adjoining East, but westward also over +all northern Asia, Persia, Armenia, part of Asia Minor and +Russia, threatening to deluge Christendom. Though the Mongol +wave retired, as it seemed almost by an immediate act of Providence, +when Europe lay at its feet, it had levelled or covered +all political barriers from the frontier of Poland to the Yellow +Sea, and when western Europe recovered from its alarm, Asia +lay open, as never before or since, to the inspection of Christendom. +Princes, envoys, priests—half-missionary, half-envoy—visited +the court of the great khan in Mongolia; and besides +these, the accidents of war, commerce or opportunity carried +a variety of persons from various classes of human life into the +depths of Asia. “’Tis worthy of the grateful remembrance +of all Christian people,” says an able missionary friar of the next +age (Ricold of Monte Croce), “that just at the time when God +sent forth into the Eastern parts of the world the Tatars to slay +and to be slain, He also sent into the West his faithful and blessed +servants, Dominic and Francis, to enlighten, instruct and +build up in the faith.” Whatever on the whole may be thought +of the world’s debt to Dominic, it is to the two mendicant +orders, but especially to the Franciscans, that we owe a vast +amount of information about medieval Asia, and, among other +things, the first mention of <i>Cathay</i>. Among the many strangers +who reached Mongolia were (1245-1247) John de Plano Carpini +and (1253) William of Rubruk (Rubruquis) in French Flanders, +both Franciscan friars of high intelligence, who happily have +left behind them reports of their observations.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Carpini, after mentioning the wars of Jenghiz against the <i>Kitai</i>, +goes on to speak of that people as follows: “Now these <i>Kitai</i> are +heathen men, and have a written character of their own... They +seem, indeed, to be kindly and polished folks enough. They have +no beard, and in character of countenance have a considerable +resemblance to the Mongols” [are <i>Mongoloid</i>, as our ethnologists +would say], “but are not so broad in the face. They have a peculiar +language. Their betters as craftsmen in every art practised by man +are not to be found in the whole world. Their country is very rich +in corn, in wine, in gold and silver, in silk, and in every kind of +produce tending to the support of mankind.” The notice of Rubruk, +shrewder and more graphic, runs thus: “Farther on is Great +Cathay, which I take to be the country which was anciently called +the Land of the Seres. For the best silk stuffs are still got from +them... The sea lies between it and India. Those Cathayans are +little fellows, speaking much through the nose, and, as is general with +all those eastern people, their eyes are very narrow. They are first-rate +artists in every kind, and their physicians have a thorough knowledge +of the virtues of herbs, and an admirable skill in diagnosis by +the pulse... The common money of Cathay consists of pieces +of cotton-paper, about a palm in length and breadth, upon which +certain lines are printed, resembling the seal of Mangu Khan. They +do their writing with a pencil, such as painters paint with, and a single +character of theirs comprehends several letters, so as to form a whole +word.”</p> + +<p>Here we have not only what is probably the first European notice +of paper-money, but a <i>partial</i> recognition of the peculiarity of +Chinese writing, and a perception that puts to shame the perverse +boggling of later critics over the identity of these Cathayans with +the Seres of classic fame.</p> +</div> + +<p>But though these travellers saw Cathayans in the bazaars +in the great khan’s camps, the first actual visitors of Cathay +itself were the Polo family, and it is to the book of Marco +Polo’s recollections mainly that Cathay owed the growing +familiarity of its name in Europe during the 14th and 15th +centuries. It is, however, a great mistake to suppose, as has +often been assumed, that the residence of the Polos in that +country remained an isolated fact. They were but the pioneers +of a very considerable intercourse, which endured till the decay +of the Mongol dynasty in Cathay, <i>i.e.</i> for about half a century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span></p> + +<p>We have no evidence that either in the 13th or 14th century +Cathayans, <i>i.e.</i> Chinese, ever reached Europe, but it is possible +that some did, at least in the former century. For, during the +campaigns of Hulagu in Persia (1256-1265), and the reigns of +his successors, Chinese engineers were employed on the banks +of the Tigris, and Chinese astrologers and physicians could be +consulted at Tabriz. Many diplomatic communications passed +between the Hulaguid Ilkhans and the princes of Christendom. +The former, as the great khan’s liegemen, still received from +him their seals of state; and two of their letters which survive +in the archives of France exhibit the vermilion impressions of +those seals in Chinese characters—perhaps affording the earliest +specimen of that character which reached western Europe.</p> + +<p>Just as the Polos were reaching their native city (1295), after +an absence of a quarter of a century, the forerunner of a new +series of travellers was entering southern China by way of the +Indian seas. This was John of Monte Corvino, another Franciscan +who, already some fifty years of age, was plunging single-handed +into that great ocean of paganism to preach the gospel according +to his lights. After years of uphill and solitary toil converts +began to multiply; coadjutors joined him. The Papal See +became cognizant of the harvest that was being reaped in the +far East. It made Friar John archbishop in Cambaluc (or +Peking), with patriarchal authority, and sent him batches of +suffragan bishops and preachers of his own order. The Roman +Church spread; churches and Minorite houses were established +at Cambaluc, at Zayton or Tsuan-chow in Fu-kien, at Yang-chow +and elsewhere; and the missions flourished under the +smile of the great khan, as the Jesuit missions did for a time +under the Manchu emperors three centuries and a half later. +Archbishop John was followed to the grave, about 1328, by +mourning multitudes of pagans and Christians alike. Several +of the bishops and friars who served under him have left letters +or other memoranda of their experience, <i>e.g.</i> Andrew, bishop +of Zayton, John of Cora, afterwards archbishop of Sultania in +Persia, and Odoric of Pordenone, whose fame as a pious traveller +won from the <i>vox populi</i> at his funeral a beatification which +the church was fain to seal. The only ecclesiastical narrative +regarding Cathay, of which we are aware, subsequent to the time +of Archbishop John, is that which has been gathered from the +recollections of Giovanni de’ Marignolli, a Florentine Franciscan, +who was sent by Pope Benedict XII. with a mission to the great +khan, in return for one from that potentate which arrived at +Avignon from Cathay in 1338, and who spent four years (1342-1346) +at the court of Cambaluc as legate of the Holy See. These +recollections are found dispersed incoherently over a chronicle +of Bohemia which the traveller wrote by order of the emperor +Charles IV., whose chaplain he was after his return.</p> + +<p>But intercourse during the period in question was not confined +to ecclesiastical channels. Commerce also grew up, and flourished +for a time even along the vast line that stretches from Genoa +and Florence to the marts of Cheh-kiang and Fu-kien. The +record is very fragmentary and imperfect, but many circumstances +and incidental notices show how frequently the remote +East was reached by European traders in the first half of the +14th century—a state of things which it is very difficult to +realize when we see how all those regions, when reopened to +knowledge two centuries later, seemed to be discoveries as new +as the empires which, about the same time, Cortes and Pizarro +were conquering in the West.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>This commercial intercourse probably began about 1310-1320. +John of Monte Corvino, writing in 1305, says it was twelve years +since he had heard any news from Europe; the only Western +stranger who had arrived in all that time being a certain Lombard +chirurgeon (probably one of the <i>Patarini</i> who got hard measure at +home in those days), who had spread the most incredible blasphemies, +about the Roman Curia and the order of St Francis. Yet even on +his first entrance to Cathay Friar John had been accompanied by one +Master Peter of Lucolongo, whom he describes as a faithful Christian +man and a great merchant, and who seems to have remained many +years at Peking. The letter of Andrew, bishop of Zayton (1326), +quotes the opinion of Genoese merchants at that port regarding a +question of exchanges. Odoric, who was in Cathay about 1323-1327, +refers for confirmation of the wonders which he related of the great +city of Cansay (<i>i.e.</i> King-sze, or Hang-chow) to the many persons +whom he had met at Venice since his return, who had themselves +been witnesses of those marvels. And Marignolli, some twenty years +later, found attached to one of the convents at Zayton, in Fu-kien, a +<i>fondaco</i> or factory for the accommodation of the Christian merchants.</p> + +<p>But by far the most distinct and notable evidence of the importance +and frequency of European trade with Cathay, of which silk +and silk goods formed the staple, is to be found in the commercial +hand-book (c. 1340) of Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a clerk and +factor of the great Florentine house of the Bardi, which was brought +to the ground about that time by its dealings with Edward III. of +England. This book, called by its author <i>Libro di divisamenti di +Paesi</i>, is a sort of trade-guide, devoting successive chapters to the +various ports and markets of his time, detailing the nature of imports +and exports at each, the duties and exactions, the local customs of +business, weights, measures and money. The first two chapters of +this work contain instructions for the merchant proceeding to Cathay; +and it is evident, from the terms used, that the road thither was +not unfrequently travelled by European merchants, from whom +Pegolotti had derived his information. The route which he describes +lay by Azov, Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar (on the Jaxartes), Almálik +(Gulja in Ili), Kan-chow (in Kan-suh), and so to Hang-chow and +Peking. Particulars are given as to the silver ingots which formed +the currency of Tatary, and the paper-money of Cathay. That the +ventures on this trade were not insignificant is plain from the example +taken by the author to illustrate the question of expenses on the +journey, which is that of a merchant investing in goods there to the +amount of some £12,000 (<i>i.e.</i> in actual gold value, not as calculated +by any fanciful and fallacious equation of values).</p> + +<p>Of the same remarkable phase of history that we are here considering +we have also a number of notices by Mahommedan writers. +The establishment of the Mongol dynasty in Persia, by which the +great khan was acknowledged as lord paramount, led (as we have +already noticed in part) to a good deal of intercourse. And some of +the Persian historians, writing at Tabriz, under the patronage of the +Mongol princes, have told us much about Cathay, especially Rashiduddin, +the great minister and historian of the dynasty (died 1318). +We have also in the book of the Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, who +visited China about 1347-1348, very many curious and in great part +true notices, though it is not possible to give credence to the whole of +this episode in his extensive travels.</p> + +<p>About the time of the traveller first named the throne of the +degenerate descendants of Jenghiz began to totter to its fall, and we +have no knowledge of any Frank visitor to Cathay in that age later +than Marignolli; missions and merchants alike disappear from the +field. We hear, indeed, once and again of ecclesiastics despatched +from Avignon, but they go forth into the darkness, and are heard +of no more. Islam, with all its jealousy and exclusiveness, had +recovered its grasp over Central Asia; the Nestorian Christianity +which once had prevailed so widely was vanishing, and the new rulers +of China reverted to the old national policy, and held the foreigner +at arm’s length. Night descended upon the farther East, covering +Cathay with those cities of which the old travellers had told such +marvels, Cambaluc and Cansay, Zayton and Chinkalan. And when +the veil rose before the Portuguese and Spanish explorers of the 16th +century, those names are heard no more. In their stead we have +China, Peking, Hangchow, Chinchew, Canton. Not only were the old +names forgotten, but the fact that those places had ever been known +before was forgotten also. Gradually new missionaries went forth +from Rome—Jesuits and Dominicans now; new converts were +made, and new vicariates constituted; but the old Franciscan +churches, and the Nestorianism with which they had battled, had +alike been swallowed up in the ocean of pagan indifference. In time +a wreck or two floated to the surface—a MS. Latin Bible or a piece +of Catholic sculpture; and when the intelligent missionaries called +Marco Polo to mind, and studied his story, one and another became +convinced that Cathay and China were one.</p> + +<p>But for a long time all but a sagacious few continued to regard +Cathay as a region distinct from any of the new-found Indies; whilst +map-makers, well on into the 17th century, continued to represent it +as a great country lying entirely to the north of China, and stretching +to the Arctic Sea.</p> + +<p>It was Cathay, with its outlying island of Zipangu (Japan), that +Columbus sought to reach by sailing westward, penetrated as he was +by his intense conviction of the smallness of the earth, and of the vast +extension of Asia eastward; and to the day of his death he was full +of the imagination of the proximity of the domain of the great khan +to the islands and coasts which he had discovered. And such imaginations +are curiously embodied in some of the maps of the early 16th +century, which intermingle on the same coast-line the new discoveries +from Labrador to Brazil with the provinces and rivers of Marco Polo’s +Cathay.</p> + +<p>Cathay had been the aim of the first voyage of the Cabots in 1496, +and it continued to be the object of many adventurous voyages by +English and Hollanders to the N.W. and N.E. till far on in the 16th +century. At least one memorable land-journey also was made by +Englishmen, of which the exploration of a trade-route to Cathay +was a chief object—that in which Anthony Jenkinson and the two +Johnsons reached Bokhara by way of Russia in 1558-1559. The +country of which they collected notices at that city was still known +to them only as <i>Cathay</i>, and its great capital only as <i>Cambaluc</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span> +Cathay as a supposed separate entity may be considered to come +to an end with the journey of Benedict Goës, the lay-Jesuit. This +admirable person was, in 1603, despatched through Central Asia by +his superiors in India with the specific object of determining whether +the Cathay of old European writers and of modern Mahommedans +was or was not a distinct region from that China of which parallel +marvels had now for some time been recounted. Benedict, as one +of his brethren pronounced his epitaph, “seeking Cathay found +Heaven.” He died at Suchow, the frontier city of China, but not +before he had ascertained that China and Cathay were the same. +After the publication of the narrative of his journey (in the <i>Expeditio +Christiana apud Sinas</i> of Trigault, 1615) inexcusable ignorance +alone could continue to distinguish between them, but such ignorance +lingered many years longer.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Y.)</div> + +<p class="center1">(B)—<i>Chinese Origins.</i></p> + +<p>Chinese literature contains no record of any kind which +might justify us in assuming that the nucleus of the nation +may have immigrated from some other part of the world; and +the several ingenious theories pointing to Babylonia, Egypt, +India, Khotan, and other seats of ancient civilization as the +starting-points of ethnical wanderings must be dismissed as +untenable. Whether the Chinese were seated in their later +homes from times immemorial, as their own historians assume, +or whether they arrived there from abroad, as some foreign +scholars have pretended, cannot be proved to the satisfaction +of historical critics. Indeed, anthropological arguments seem +to contradict the idea of any connexion with Babylonians, +Egyptians, Assyrians, or Indians. The earliest hieroglyphics +of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty (second +millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), betray the Mongol character of the nation +that invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye +wherever it appears in an ideograph. In a pair of eyes as shown +in the most ancient pictorial or sculptural representations in +the west, the four corners may be connected by a horizontal +straight line; whereas lines drawn through the eyes of one of the +oldest Chinese hieroglyphics cross each other at a sharp angle, +as shown in the accompanying diagrams:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm"><img style="border:0; width:180px; height:38px" src="images/img191b.jpg" alt="" /></td> + <td class="tccm"><img style="border:0; width:180px; height:138px" src="images/img191a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm f80">Chinese.</td> <td class="tccm f80">Egyptian.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">This does not seem to speak for racial consanguinity any more +than the well-known curled heads and bearded faces of Assyrian +sculptures as compared to the straight-haired and almost beardless +Chinese. Similarities in the creation of cultural elements may, it +is true, be shown to exist on either side, even at periods when +mutual intercourse was probably out of the question; but this +may be due to uniformity in the construction of the human brain, +which leads man in different parts of the world to arrive at +similar ideas under similar conditions, or to prehistoric connexions +which it is as impossible for us to trace now as is the origin of +mankind itself. Our standpoint as regards the origin of the +Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic. All we can do is +to reproduce the tradition as it is found in Chinese literature. +This tradition, as applying to the very earliest periods, may +be nothing more than historical superstition, yet it has its +historical importance. Supposing it were possible to prove +that none of the persons mentioned in the Bible from Adam +down to the Apostles ever lived, even the most sceptical critic +would still have to admit that the history of a great portion of +the human race has been materially affected by the belief in the +examples of their alleged lives. Something similar may be said +of the alleged earliest history of the Chinese with its model +emperors and detestable tyrants, the accounts of which, whether +based on reality or not, have exercised much influence on the +development of the nation.</p> + +<p>The Chinese have developed their theories of prehistoric life. +Speculation as to the origin and gradual evolution of their +civilization has resulted in the expression of views by authors +who may have reconstructed their systems from remnants of +ancestral life revealed by excavations, or from observation of +neighbouring nations living in a state of barbarism. This may +account for a good deal of the repetition found in the Chinese +mythological and legendary narratives, the personal and chronological +part of which may have been invented merely as a framework +for illustrating social and cultural progress. The scene of +action of all the prehistoric figures from P‘an-ku, the first human +being, down to the beginning of real history has been laid in a +part of the world which has never been anything but Chinese +territory. P‘an-ku’s epoch, millions of years ago, was followed +by ten distinct periods of sovereigns, including the “Heavenly +emperors,” the “Terrestrial emperors,” and the “Human +emperors,” the <i>Yu-ch‘au</i> or “Nest-builders,” and <i>Sui-jön</i>, +the “Fire Producer,” the Prometheus of the Chinese, who +borrowed fire from the stars for the benefit of man. Several +of the characteristic phases of cultural progress and social +organization have been ascribed to this mythological period. +Authors of less fertile imagination refer them to later times, +when the heroes of their accounts appear in shapes somewhat +resembling human beings rather than as gods and demigods.</p> + +<p>The Chinese themselves look upon Fu-hi as their first historical +emperor; and they place his lifetime in the years 2852-2738 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Some accounts represent him as a supernatural being; and we +see him depicted as a human figure with a fish tail something +like a mermaid. He is credited with having established social +order among his people, who, before him, had lived like animals +in the wilds. The social chaos out of which Chinese society +arose is described as being characterized by the absence of +family life; for “children knew only their mothers and not +their fathers.” Fu-hi introduced matrimony; and in so doing +he placed man as the husband at the head of the family and +abolished the original matriarchate. This quite corresponds +with his views on the dualism in natural philosophy, of which +he is supposed to have laid the germs by the invention of the +so-called <i>pa-kua</i>, eight symbols, each consisting of three parallel +lines, broken or continuous. The continuous lines represented +the male element in nature; the broken ones, the female. It +is characteristic that the same ruler who assigned to man his +position as the head of the family is also credited with the +invention of that natural philosophy of the “male and female +principles,” according to which all good things and qualities +were held to be male, while their less sympathetic opposites were +female, such as heaven and earth, sun and moon, day and night, +south and north. If these traditions really represent the oldest +prehistoric creations of the popular mind, it would almost seem +that the most ancient Chinese shared that naïve sentiment +which caused our own forefathers to invent gender. The difference +is that, with us, the conception survives merely in the +language, where the article or suffixes mark gender, whereas +with the Chinese, whose language does not express gender, it +survives in their system of metaphysics. For all their attempts +at fathoming the secrets of nature are based on the idea that +male or female powers are inherent in all matter.</p> + +<p>To the same Emperor Fu-hi are ascribed many of the +elementary inventions which raise man from the life of a brute +to that of a social being. He taught his people to hunt, to fish, +and to keep flocks; he constructed musical instruments, and +replaced a kind of knot-writing previously in use by a system +of hieroglyphics. All this cannot of course be considered as +history; but it shows that the authors of later centuries who +credited Fu-hi with certain inventions were not quite illogical +in starting from the matriarchal chaos, after which he is said +to have organized society with occupations corresponding to +those of a period of hunting, fishing and herding. This period +was bound to be followed by a further step towards the final +development of the nation’s social condition; and we find it +quite logically succeeded by a period of agricultural life, personified +in the Emperor, Shön-nung, supposed to have lived in the +twenty-eighth century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His name may be freely translated +as “Divine Labourer”; and to him the Chinese ascribe the +invention of agricultural implements, and the discovery of the +medicinal properties of numerous plants.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span> +The third historical emperor was Huang-ti, the “Yellow +emperor,” according to the literal translation. Ssï-ma Ts‘ién, +the Herodotus of the Chinese, begins his history with him; but +Fu-hi and Shön-nung are referred to in texts much older than +this historian, though many details relating to their alleged +reigns have been added in later times. Huang-ti extended the +boundaries of the empire, described as being originally confined +to a limited territory near the banks of the Yellow river and the +present city of Si-an-fu. Here were the sites of cities used as +capitals of the empire under various names during long periods +since remote antiquity. To Huang-ti, whose reign is said to have +commenced in 2704 according to one source and in 2491 according +to another, are ascribed most of the cultural innovations which +historians were not able otherwise to locate within historical +times. Under Huang-ti we find the first mention of a nation +called the Hun-yü, who occupied the north of his empire and with +whom he is represented to have engaged in warfare. The Chinese +identify this name with that of the Hiung-nu, their old hereditary +enemy and the ancestors of Attila’s Huns. Even though the +details of these legendary accounts may deserve little confidence, +there must have been an old tradition that a nation called the +Hun-yü, occupying the northern confines of China, were the +ancestors of the Hiung-nu tribes, well known in historical times, +a scion of whose great khans settled in territory belonging to the +king of Sogdiana during the first century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, levied tribute from +his neighbours, the Alans, and with his small but warlike horde +initiated that era of migrations which led to the overrunning of +Europe with Central-Asiatic Tatars.</p> + +<p>Fu-hi, Shön-nung and Huang-ti represent a group of rulers +comprised by the Chinese under the name of <i>San-huang</i>, <i>i.e.</i> +“The Three Emperors.” Although we have no reason to deny +their existence, the details recorded concerning them contain +enough in the way of improbabilities to justify us in considering +them as mythical creations. The chronology, too, is apparently +quite fictitious; for the time allotted to their reigns is much +too long as a term of government for a single human life, and, +on the other hand, much too short, if we measure it by the +cultural progress said to have been brought about in it. Fu-hi’s +period of hunting life must have lasted many generations before +it led to the agricultural period represented by the name Shön-nung; +and this period in turn could not possibly have led within +a little more than one hundred years to the enormous progress +ascribed to Huang-ti. Under the latter ruler a regular board +of historians is said to have been organized with Ts‘ang-kié +as president, who is known also as Shi-huang, <i>i.e.</i> “the Emperor +of Historians,” the reputed inventor of hieroglyphic writing +placed by some authors into the Fu-hi period and worshipped as +Tz‘ï-shön, <i>i.e.</i> “God of writing,” to the present day. Huang-ti +is supposed to have been the first builder of temples, houses and +cities; to have regulated the calendar, to which he added the +intercalary month; and to have devised means of traffic by +cars drawn by oxen and by boats to ply on the lakes and rivers +of his empire. His wife, known as “the lady of Si-ling,” is +credited with the invention of the several manipulations in the +rearing of silkworms and the manufacture of silk. The invention +of certain flutes, combined to form a kind of reed organ, led to a +deeper study of music; and in order to construct these +instruments with the necessary accuracy a system of weights and +measures had to be devised. Huang-ti’s successors, Shau-hau, +Chuan-hü, and Ti-k‘u, were less prominent, though each of them +had their particular merits.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Model Emperors.</i>—Most of the stories regarding the “Three +Emperors” are told in comparatively late records. The <i>Shu-king</i>, +sometimes described as the “Canon of History,” our oldest source of +pre-Confucian history, supposed to have been edited by Confucius +himself, knows nothing of Fu-hi, Shön-nung and Huang-ti; but it +begins by extolling the virtues of the emperor <i>Yau</i> and his +successor <i>Shun</i>. Yau and Shun are probably the most popular names +in Chinese history as taught in China. Whatever good qualities may +be imagined of the rulers of a great nation have been heaped upon +their heads; and the example of their lives has at all times been held +up by Confucianists as the height of perfection in a sovereign’s +character. Yau, whose reign has been placed by the fictitious standard +chronology of the Chinese in the years 2357-2258, and about +200 years later by the less extravagant “Annals of the Bamboo +Books,” is represented as the patron of certain astronomers who had +to watch the heavenly bodies; and much has been written about the +reputed astronomical knowledge of the Chinese in this remote period. +Names like Deguignes, Gaubil, Biot and Schlegel are among those of +the investigators. On the other side are the sceptics, who maintain +that later editors interpolated statements which could have been +made only with the astronomical knowledge possessed by their own +contemporaries. According to an old legend, Shun banished “the +four wicked ones” to distant territories. One of these bore the name +<i>T‘au-t‘ié</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “Glutton”; called also San-miau. <i>T‘au-t‘ié</i> +is also the name of an ornament, very common on the surface of the most +ancient bronze vessels, showing the distorted face of some ravenous +animal. The San-miau as a tribe are said to have been the forefathers +of the Tangutans, the Tibetans and the Miau-tz‘ï in the south-west of +China. This legend may be interpreted as indicating that the +non-Chinese races in the south-west have come to their present seats by +migration from Central China in remote antiquity. During Yau’s +reign a catastrophe reminding one of the biblical deluge threatened +the Chinese world. The emperor held his minister of works, Kun, +responsible for this misfortune, probably an inundation of the Yellow +river such as has been witnessed by the present generation. Its +horrors are described with poetical exaggeration in the <i>Shu-king</i>. +When the efforts to stop the floods had proved futile for nine years, +Yau wished to abdicate, and he selected a virtuous young man of the +name of Shun as his successor. Among the legends told about this +second model emperor is the story that he had a board before his +palace on which every subject was permitted to note whatever faults +he had to find with his government, and that by means of a drum +suspended at his palace gate attention might be drawn to any +complaint that was to be made to him. Since Kun had not succeeded in +stopping the floods, he was dismissed and his son Yü was appointed +in his stead. Probably the waters began to subside of their own +accord, but Yü has been praised up as the national hero who, by his +engineering works, saved his people from utter destruction. His +labours in this direction are described in a special section of the +Confucian account known as <i>Yü-kung</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “Tribute of Yü.” Yü’s +merit has in the sequel been exaggerated so as to credit him with +more than human powers. He is supposed to have cut canals through +the hills, in order to furnish outlets to the floods, and to have +performed feats of engineering compared to which, according to Von +Richthofen, the construction of the St Gotthard tunnel without blasting +materials would be child’s play, and all this within a few years.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>The Hia Dynasty.</i>—As a reward for his services Yü was +selected to succeed Shun as emperor. He divided the empire +into nine provinces, the description of which in the <i>Yü-kung</i> +chapter of the “Canon of History” bears a suspicious resemblance +to later accounts. Yü’s reign has been assigned to the years +2205-2198, and the Hia Dynasty, of which he became the head, +has been made to extend to the overthrow in 1766 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> of Kié, +its eighteenth and last emperor, a cruel tyrant of the most +vicious and contemptible character. Among the Hia emperors +we find <i>Chung-k‘ang</i> (2159-2147), whose reign has attracted +the attention of European scholars by the mention of an eclipse +of the sun, which his court astronomers had failed to predict. +European astronomers and sinologues have brought much +acumen to bear on the problem involved in the <i>Shu-king</i> account +in trying to decide which of the several eclipses known to have +occurred about that time was identical with the one observed +in China under Chung-k‘ang.</p> + +<p><i>The Shang, or Yin, Dynasty.</i>—This period, which preceded the +classical Chóu dynasty, is made to extend from 1766 to 1122 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> We must now be prepared to see an energetic or virtuous +ruler at the head of a dynasty and either a cruel tyrant or a +contemptible weakling at the end of it. It seems natural that +this should be so; but Chinese historians, like the writers of +Roman history, have a tendency to exaggerate both good and +bad qualities. Ch‘öng-tang, its first sovereign, is represented +as a model of goodness and of humane feeling towards his +subjects. Even the animal world benefited by his kindness, +inasmuch as he abolished all useless torture in the chase. His +great minister I Yin, who had greatly assisted him in securing +the throne, served two of his successors. P‘an-köng (1401) +and Wu-ting (1324) are described as good rulers among a somewhat +indifferent set of monarchs. The Shang dynasty, like +the Hia, came to an end through the reckless vice and cruelty +of a tyrant (Chóu-sin with his consort Ta-ki). China had even +in those days to maintain her position as a civilized nation by +keeping at bay the barbarous nations by which she was surrounded. +Chief among these were the ancestors of the Hiung-nu +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span> +tribes, or Huns, on the northern and western boundaries. To +fight them, to make pacts and compromises with them, and to +befriend them with gifts so as to keep them out of the Imperial +territories, had been the rôle of a palatinate on the western +frontier, the duchy of Chóu, while the court of China with its +vicious emperor gave itself up to effeminate luxury. Chóu-sin’s +evil practices had aroused the indignation of the palatine, +subsequently known as Wön-wang, who in vain remonstrated +with the emperor’s criminal treatment of his subjects. The +strength and integrity of Wön-wang’s character had made him +the corner-stone of that important epoch; and his name is one +of the best known both in history and in literature. The courage +with which he spoke his mind in rebuking his unworthy liege +lord caused the emperor to imprison him, his great popularity +alone saving his life. During his incarceration, extending over +three years, he compiled the <i>I-king</i>, or “Canon of Changes,” +supposed to be the oldest book of Chinese literature, and certainly +the one most extensively studied by the nation. Wön-wang’s +son, known as Wu-wang, was destined to avenge his father and +the many victims of Chóu-sin’s cruelty. Under his leadership +the people rose against the emperor and, with the assistance of +his allies, “men of the west,” possibly ancestors of the Huns, +overthrew the Shang dynasty after a decisive battle, whereupon +Chóu-sin committed suicide by setting fire to his palace.</p> + +<p><i>Chóu Dynasty.</i>—Wu-wang, the first emperor of the new +dynasty, named after his duchy of Chóu on the western frontier, +was greatly assisted in consolidating the empire by his brother, +Chóu-kung, <i>i.e.</i> “Duke of Chóu.” As the loyal prime-minister +of Wu-wang and his successor the duke of Chóu laid the foundation +of the government institutions of the dynasty, which became +the prototype of most of the characteristic features in Chinese +public and social life down to recent times. The brothers and +adherents of the new sovereign were rewarded with fiefs which +in the sequel grew into as many states. China thus developed +into a confederation, resembling that of the German empire, +inasmuch as a number of independent states, each having its +own sovereign, were united under one liege lord, the emperor, +styled “The Son of Heaven,” who as high priest of the nation +reigned in the name of Heaven. The emperor represented the +nation in sacrificing and praying to God. His relations with his +vassals and government officials, and those of the heads of the +vassal states with their subjects as well as of the people among +themselves were regulated by the most rigid ceremonial. The +dress to be worn, the speeches to be made, and the postures +to be assumed on all possible occasions, whether at court or in +private life, were subject to regulations. The duke of Chóu, +or whoever may have been the creator of this system, showed +deep wisdom in his speculations, if he based that immutability +of government which in the sequel became a Chinese characteristic, +on the physical and moral immutability of individuals by +depriving them of all spontaneous action in public and private +life. Originally and nominally the emperor’s power as the ruler +over his vassals, who again ruled in his name, was unquestionable; +and the first few generations of the dynasty saw no decline +of the original strength of central power. A certain loyalty +based on the traditional ancestral worship counteracted the +desire to revolt. The rightful heir to the throne was responsible +to his ancestors as his subjects were to theirs. “We have to +do as our ancestors did,” the people argued; “and since they +obeyed the ancestors of our present sovereign, we have to be +loyal to him.” Interference with this time-honoured belief would +have amounted to a rupture, as it were, in the nation’s religious +relations, and as long as the people looked upon the emperor as +the Son of Heaven, his moral power would outweigh strong armies +sent against him in rebellion. The time came soon enough when +central power depended merely on this spontaneous loyalty.</p> + +<p>Not all the successors of Wu-wang profited by the lessons +given them by past history. Incapacity, excessive severity and +undue weakness had created discontent and loosened the +relations between the emperor and his vassals. Increase in the +extent of the empire greatly added to this decline of central +power. For the emperor’s own dominion was centrally situated +and surrounded by the several confederate states; its geographical +position prevented it from participating in the general +aggrandisement of China, and increase in territory, population +and prestige had become the privilege of boundary states. +Tatar tribes in the north and west and the aboriginal Man +barbarians in the south were forced by warfare to yield land, +or enticed to exchange it for goods, or induced to mingle with +their Chinese neighbours, thus producing a mixed population +combining the superior intelligence of the Chinese race with the +energetic and warlike spirit of barbarians. These may be the +main reasons which gradually undermined the Imperial authority +and brought some of the confederate states to the front, so as to +overshadow the authority of the Son of Heaven himself, whose +military and financial resources were inferior to those of several +of his vassals. A few out of the thirty-five sovereigns of the +Chóu dynasty were distinguished by extraordinary qualities. +Mu-wang of the 10th century performed journeys far beyond +the western frontier of his empire, and was successful in warfare +against the Dog Barbarians, described as the ancestors of the +Hiung-nu, or Huns. The reign of Süan-wang (827-782 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +was filled with warfare against the Tangutans and the Huns, +called Hién-yün in a contemporaneous poem of the “Book of +Odes”; but the most noteworthy reign in this century is that +of the lascivious Yu-wang, the oppressiveness of whose +government had caused a bard represented in the “Book of Odes” +to complain about the emperor’s evil ways. The writer of this +poem refers to certain signs showing that Heaven itself is +indignant at Yu-wang’s crimes. One of these signs was an eclipse +of the sun which had recently occurred, the date and month being +clearly stated. This date corresponds exactly with August 29, +776 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and astronomers have calculated that on that precise +date an eclipse of the sun was visible in North China. This, +of course, cannot be a mere accident; and since the date falls +into the sixth year of Yu-wang’s reign, the coincidence is bound +to increase our confidence in that part of Chinese history. +Our knowledge of it, however, is due to mere chance; for the +record of the eclipse would probably not have been preserved +until our days had it not been interpreted as a kind of <i>tekel +upharsin</i> owing to the peculiarity of the political situation. +It does not follow, therefore, as some foreign critics assume, +that the historical period begins as late as Yu-wang’s reign. +China has no architectural witnesses to testify to her antiquity +as Egypt has in her pyramids and temple ruins; but the sacrificial +bronze vessels of the Shang and Chóu dynasties, with their +characteristic ornaments and hieroglyphic inscriptions, seem +to support the historical tradition inasmuch as natural development +may be traced by the analysis of their artistic and paleographic +phases. Counterfeiters, say a thousand years later, +could not have resisted the temptation to introduce patterns and +hieroglyphic shapes of later periods; and whatever bronzes have +been assigned to the Shang dynasty, <i>i.e.</i> some time in the second +millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, exhibit the Shang characteristics. The words +occurring in their inscriptions, carefully collected, may be shown +to be confined to ideas peculiar to primitive states of cultural +life, not one of them pointing to an invention we may suspect +to be of later origin. But, apart from this, it seems a matter +of individual judgment how far back beyond that indisputable +year 776 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a student will date the beginning of real history.</p> + +<p>In the 7th century central authority had declined to such +an extent that the emperor was merely the nominal head of the +confederation, the hegemony in the empire falling in turn to +one of the five principal states, for which reason the Chinese +speak of a period of the “Five Leaders.” The state of Ts‘i, +corresponding to North Shan-tung, had begun to overshadow +the other states by unprecedented success in economic enterprise, +due to the prudent advice of its prime minister, the philosopher +Kuan-tzï. Other states attained leadership by success in warfare. +Among these leaders we see duke Mu of T‘sin (659 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a +state on the western boundary which was so much influenced +by amalgamation with its Hunnic neighbours that the purely +Chinese states regarded it as a barbarian country. The emperor +was in those days a mere shadow; several of his vassals had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span> +grown strong enough to claim and be granted the title “king,” +and they all tried to annihilate their neighbours by ruse in +diplomacy and by force of arms, without referring to their +common ruler for arbitration, as they were in duty bound. In +this <i>bellum omnium contra omnes</i> the state of Ts‘in, in spite of +repeated reverses, remained in possession of the field.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The period of this general struggle is spoken of by Chinese historians +as that of “The Contending States.” Like that of the “Five +Leaders” it is full of romance; and the examples of heroism, +cowardice, diplomatic skill and philosophical equanimity which fill +the pages of its history have become the subject of elegant literature +in prose and poetry. The political development of the Chóu dynasty +is the exact counterpart of that of its spiritual life as shown in the +contemporaneous literature. The orthodox conservative spirit which +reflects the ethical views of the emperor and his royal partisans is +represented by the name Confucius (551-479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The great sage +had collected old traditions and formulated the moral principles +which had been dormant in the Chinese nation for centuries. His +doctrines tended to support the maintenance of central power; so +did those of other members of his school, especially Mencius. Filial +love showed itself as obedience to the parents in the family and as +loyalty to the emperor and his government in public life. It was the +highest virtue, according to the Confucian school. The history of the +nation as taught in the <i>Shu-king</i> was in its early part merely an +illustration of Confucianist ideas about good and bad government. +The perpetual advice to rulers was: “Be like Yau, Shun and Yü, +and you will be right.” Confucianism was dominant during the +earlier centuries of the Chóu dynasty, whose lucky star began to +wane when doctrines opposed to it got the upper hand. The philosophical +schools built up on the doctrines of Lau-tzï had in the course +of generations become antagonistic, and found favour with those who +did not endorse that loyalty to the emperor demanded by Mencius; +so had other thinkers, some of whom had preached morals which +were bound to break up all social relations, like the philosopher of +egotism, Yang Chu, according to Mencius disloyalty personified and +the very reverse of his ideal, the duke of Chóu. The egotism +recommended by Yang Chu to the individual had begun to be practised +on a large scale by the contending states, their governments and +sovereigns, some of whom had long discarded Confucian rites under +the influence of Tatar neighbours. It appears that the anti-Confucian +spirit which paved the way towards the final extinction +of Wu-wang’s dynasty received its chief nourishment from the Tatar +element in the population of the northern and western boundary +states. Among these Ts‘in was the most prominent. Having placed +itself in the possession of the territories of nearly all of the remaining +states, Ts‘in made war against the last shadow emperor, Nan-wang +who had attempted to form an alliance against the powerful usurper, +with the result that the western part of the Chóu dominion was lost +to the aggressor.</p> + +<p>Nan-wang died soon after (256 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and a relative whom he had +appointed regent was captured in 249 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the king of Ts‘in +put an end to this last remnant of the once glorious Chóu dynasty +by annexing its territory. The king had already secured the possession +of the Nine Tripods, huge bronze vases said to have been cast +by the emperor Yü as representing the nine divisions of his empire +and since preseryed in the treasuries of all the various emperors as a +symbol of Imperial power. With the loss of these tripods Nan-wang +had forfeited the right to call himself “Son of Heaven.” Another +prerogative was the offering of sacrifice to Shang-ti, the Supreme +Ruler, or God, with whom only the emperor was supposed to +communicate. The king of Ts‘in had performed the ceremony as early +as 253 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. H.*)</div> + +<p class="center1">(C)—<i>From the Ts‘in Dynasty to 1875.</i></p> + +<p>After the fall of the Chóu dynasty a kind of interregnum +followed during which China was practically without an emperor. +This was the time when the state of Ts‘in asserted +itself as the leader and finally as the master of all the +<span class="sidenote">Ts‘in dynasty 249-210 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span> +contending states. Its king, Chau-siang, who died in +251 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, though virtually emperor, abstained from +adopting the imperial title. He was succeeded by his son, +Hiao-wên Wang, who died after a three days’ reign. Chwan-siang +Wang, his son and successor, was a man of no mark. He died +in 246 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> giving place to Shi Hwang-ti, “the first universal +emperor.” This sovereign was then only thirteen, but he +speedily made his influence felt everywhere. He chose Hien-yang, +the modern Si-gan Fu, as his capital, and built there a +<span class="sidenote">Shi Hwang-ti.</span> +magnificent palace, which was the wonder and admiration +of his contemporaries. He abolished the feudal +system, and divided the country into provinces over +whom he set officers directly responsible to himself. He constructed +roads through the empire, he formed canals, and erected +numerous and handsome public buildings.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Having settled the internal affairs of his kingdom, he turned his +attention to the enemies beyond his frontier. Chief among these +were the Hiung-nu Tatars, whose attacks had for years disquieted +the Chinese and neighbouring principalities. Against these foes he +marched with an army of 300,000 men, exterminating those in the +neighbourhood of China, and driving the rest into Mongolia. On his +return from this campaign he was called upon to face a formidable +rebellion in Ho-nan, which had been set on foot by the adherents +of the feudal princes whom he had dispossessed. Having crushed the +rebellion, he marched southwards and subdued the tribes on the +south of the Nan-shan ranges, <i>i.e.</i> the inhabitants of the modern +provinces of Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. The limits of +his empire were thus as nearly as possible those of modern China +proper. One monument remains to bear witness to his energy. +Finding that the northern states of Ts‘in, Chao and Yen were +building lines of fortification along their northern frontier for +protection against the Hiung-nu, he conceived the idea of building one +gigantic wall, which was to stretch across the whole northern limit +of the huge empire from the sea to the farthest western corner of the +modern province of Kan-suh. This work was begun under his +immediate supervision in 214 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His reforming zeal made him +unpopular with the upper classes. Schoolmen and pedants held up +to the admiration of the people the heroes of the feudal times and +the advantages of the system they administered. Seeing in this +propaganda danger to the state Shi Hwang-ti determined to break +once and for all with the past. To this end he ordered the destruction +of all books having reference to the past history of the empire, +and many scholars were put to death for failing in obedience to it. +(See <i>infra § Chinese Literature, §§ History.</i>) The measure was +unpopular and on his death (210 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) rebellion broke out. His +son and successor Erh-shi, a weak and debauched youth, was +murdered after having offered a feeble resistance to his enemies. +His son Tsze-yung surrendered to Liu Pang, the prince of Han, one +of the two generals who were the leaders of the rebellion. He afterwards +fell into the hands of Hiang Yu, the other chieftain, who put +him and his family and associates to death. Hiang Yu aspiring to +imperial honours, war broke out between him and Liu Pang. +After five years’ conflict Hiang Yu was killed in a decisive battle +before Wu-kiang. Liu Pang was then proclaimed emperor (206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +under the title of Kao-ti, and the new line was styled the Han dynasty.</p> +</div> + +<p>Kao-ti established his capital at Lo-yang in Ho-nan, and +afterwards removed it to Chang-an in Shen-si. Having founded +his right to rebel on the oppressive nature of the laws +promulgated by Shi Hwang-ti, he abolished the +<span class="sidenote">Han dynasty 206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span> +ordinances of Ts‘in, except that referring to the +destruction of the books—for, like his great predecessor, +he dreaded the influence exercised by the <i>literati</i>—and +he exchanged the worship of the gods of the soil of Ts‘in for that +of those of Han, his native state. His successor Hwei-ti (194-179 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), however, gave every encouragement to literature, and +appointed a commission to restore as far as possible the texts +which had been destroyed by Shi Hwang-ti. In this the commission +was very successful. It was discovered that in many +cases the law had been evaded, while in numerous instances +scholars were found to write down from memory the text of +books of which all copies had been destroyed, though in some +cases the purity of the text is doubtful and in other cases there +were undoubted forgeries. A period of repose was now enjoyed +by the empire. There was peace within its borders, and its +frontiers remained unchallenged, except by the Hiung-nu, who +suffered many severe defeats. Thwarted in their attacks on +China, these marauders attacked the kingdom of the Yueh-chi, +which had grown up in the western extremity of Kan-suh, and +after much fighting drove their victims along the T‘ien-shan-nan-lu +to the territory between Turkestan and the Caspian Sea. +This position of affairs suggested to the emperor the idea of +forming an offensive and defensive alliance with the Yueh-chi +against the Hiung-nu. With this object the general Chang +K‘ien was sent as an ambassador to western Tatary. After +having been twice imprisoned by the Hiung-nu he returned to +China. Chang K‘ien had actually reached the court of the +Yueh-chi, or Indo-Scythians as they were called owing to their +having become masters of India later on, and paid a visit to the +kingdom of Bactria, recently conquered by the Yueh-chi. His +report on the several kingdoms of western Asia opened up a new +world to the Chinese, and numerous elements of culture, plants +and animals were then imported for the first time from the west +into China. While in Bactria Chan K‘ien’s attention was first +drawn to the existence of India, and attempts to send expeditions, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span> +though at first fruitless, finally led to its discovery. Under +Wu-ti (140-86 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the power of the Hiung-nu was broken and +eastern Turkestan changed into a Chinese colony, through which +caravans could safely pass to bring back merchandise and art +treasures from Persia and the Roman market. By the Hans the +feudal system was restored in a modified form; 103 feudal +principalities were created, but they were more or less under +the jurisdiction of civil governors appointed to administer the +thirteen <i>chows</i> (provinces) into which the country was divided. +About the beginning of the Christian era Wang Mang rose in +revolt against the infant successor of P‘ing-ti (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1), and in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 9 proclaimed himself emperor. He, however, only gained +the suffrages of a portion of the nation, and before long his +oppressive acts estranged his supporters. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 23 Liu Siu, +one of the princes of Han, completely defeated him. His head +was cut off, and his body was torn in pieces by his own soldiery.</p> + +<p>Liu Siu, was proclaimed emperor under the title of Kwang-wu-ti, +reigned from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 58 to 76. Having fixed on Lo-yang +in Ho-nan as his capital, the line of which he was the +first emperor became known as the Eastern Han +<span class="sidenote">Eastern Han dynasty, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 23.</span> +dynasty. It is also known as the Later Han dynasty. +During the reign of his successor Ming-ti, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 65, +Buddhism was introduced from India into China (see ante +§ <i>Religion</i>). About the same time the celebrated general Pan +Ch‘ao was sent on an embassy to the king of Shen-shen, a small +state of Turkestan, near the modern Pidjan. Before long he +added the states of Shen-shen, Khotan, Kucha and Kashgar as +apanages to the Chinese crown, and for a considerable period the +country enjoyed prosperity. The Han dynasty (including in +the term the Eastern Han dynasty) has been considered the first +national dynasty and is one of the most famous in China; nor +has any ruling family been more popular. The Chinese, especially +the northern Chinese, still call themselves “the sons of +Han.” The wealth and trade as well as the culture of the +country was greatly developed, and the competitive examinations +for literary degrees instituted. The homogeneity of the +nation was so firmly established that subsequent dissensions +and conquests could not alter fundamentally the character of +the nation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Towards the end of the 2nd century the power of the Eastern Hans +declined. In 173 a virulent pestilence, which continued for eleven +years, broke out. A magical cure for this plague was said to have +been discovered by a Taoist priest named Chang Chio, who in a +single month won a sufficiently large following to enable him to gain +possession of the northern provinces of the empire. He was, however, +defeated by Ts‘aou Ts‘aou, another aspirant to imperial +honours, whose son, Ts‘aou P‘ei, on the death of Hien-ti (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 220), +proclaimed himself emperor, adopting the title of Wei as the appellation +<span class="sidenote">Wei dynasty.</span> +of his dynasty. There were then, however, two other +claimants to the throne, Liu Pei and Sun Ch‘üan, and the +three adventurers agreed to divide the empire between +them. Ts‘aou P‘ei, under the title of Wên-ti, ruled over the kingdom +of Wei (220), which occupied the whole of the central and northern +portion of China. Liu Pei established the Shuh Han dynasty in the +modern province of Sze-ch‘uen (221), and called himself Chao-lieh-ti; +and to Sun Ch‘üan fell the southern provinces of the empire, +from the Yangtsze-kiang southwards, including the modern Tongking, +which he formed into the kingdom of Wu with Nan-king for +his capital, adopting for himself the imperial style of Ta-tê (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +222).</p> + +<p>China during the period of the “Three Kingdoms” was a house +divided against itself. Liu Pei, as a descendant of the house of +Han, looked upon himself as the rightful sovereign of +the whole empire, and he despatched an army under +<span class="sidenote">“Three kingdom” period.</span> +Chu-ko Liang to support his claims. This army was met +by an Oppossing force under the Wei commander Sze-ma I, +of whom Chinese historians say that “he led armies like a god,” +and who, by adopting a Fabian policy, completely discomfited his +adversary. But the close of this campaign brought no peace to the +country. Wars became chronic, and the reins of power slipped out +of the hands of emperors into those of their generals. Foremost +among these were the members of the Sze-ma family of Wei. Sze-ma +I left a son, Sze-ma Chao, scarcely less distinguished than himself, +and when Sze-ma Chao died his honours descended to Sze-ma Yen, +who deposed the ruling sovereign of Wei, and proclaimed himself +emperor of China (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 265). His dynasty he styled the Western +Tsin dynasty, and he adopted for himself the title of Wu-ti. The most +noticeable event in this reign was the advent of the ambassadors of +the emperor Diocletian in 284. For some years the neighbouring states +appear to have transferred their allegiance from the house of Wei to +that of Tsin. Wu-ti’s successors proving, however, weak and incapable, +the country soon fell again into disorder. The Hiung-nu renewed +incursions into the empire at the beginning of the 4th +<span class="sidenote">Western Tsin dynasty.</span> +century, and in the confusion which followed, an adventurer +named Liu Yuen established himself (in 311) as emperor, +first at P‘ing-yang in Shan-si and afterwards in Lo-yang +and Chang-an. The history of this period is very chaotic. +Numerous states sprang into existence, some founded by the Hiung-nu +and others by the Sien-pi tribe, a Tungusic clan, inhabiting a +territory to the north of China, which afterwards established the +Liao dynasty in China. In 419 the Eastern Tsin dynasty came to +an end, and with it disappeared for nearly two hundred years all +semblance of united authority. The country became divided into +two parts, the north and the south. In the north four families +reigned successively, two of which were of Sien-pi origin, viz. the Wei +and the How Chow, the other two, the Pih Ts‘i and the How Liang, +being Chinese. In the south five different houses supplied rulers, +who were all of Chinese descent.</p> + +<p>This period of disorder was brought to a close by the establishment +of the Suy dynasty (590). Among the officials of the ephemeral +dynasty of Chow was one Yang Kien, who on his daughter +becoming empress (578) was created duke of Suy. Two +<span class="sidenote">Suy dynasty.</span> +years later Yang Kien proclaimed himself emperor. The +country, weary of contention, was glad to acknowledge his undivided +authority; and during the sixteen years of his reign the +internal affairs of China were comparatively peaceably administered. +The emperor instituted an improved code of laws, and added 5000 +volumes to the 10,000 which composed the imperial library. Abroad, +his policy was equally successful. He defeated the Tatars and +chastised the Koreans, who had for a long period recognized Chinese +suzerainty, but were torn by civil wars and were disposed to reject +her authority. After his death in 604 his second son forced the heir +to the throne to strangle himself, and then seized the throne. This +usurper, Yang-ti, sent expeditions against the Tatars, and himself +headed an expedition against the Uighurs, while one of his generals +annexed the Lu-chu Islands to the imperial crown. During his +reign the volumes in the imperial library were increased to 54,000, +and he spent vast sums in erecting a magnificent palace at Lo-yang, +and in constructing unprofitable canals. These and other extravagances +laid so heavy a burden on the country that discontent began +again to prevail, and on the emperor’s return from a successful +expedition against the Koreans, he found the empire divided into +rebellious factions. In the troubles which followed General Li +Yuen became prominent. On the death of the emperor by assassination +this man set Kung-ti, the rightful heir, on the throne (617) +until such time as he should have matured his schemes.</p> +</div> + +<p>Kung-ti was poisoned in the following year and Li Yuen +proclaimed himself as Kao-tsu, the first emperor of the T‘ang +dynasty. At this time the Turks were at the height of +their power in Asia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turks</a></span>: <i>History</i>), and Kao-tsu +<span class="sidenote">Tang dynasty.</span> +was glad to purchase their alliance with money. +But divisions weakened the power of the Turks, and T‘ai-tsung +(reigned 627-650), Kao-tsu’s son and successor, regained much of +the position in Central Asia which had formerly been held by +China. In 640 Hami, Turfan and the rest of the Turkish territory +were again included within the Chinese empire, and four military +governorships were appointed in Central Asia, viz. at Kucha, +Khotan, Kharastan and Kashgar. At the same time the frontier +was extended as far as eastern Persia and the Caspian Sea. So +great was now the fame of China, that ambassadors from Nepal, +Magadha, Persia and Constantinople (643) came to pay their +court to the emperor. Under T‘ai-tsung there was national unity +and peace, and in consequence agriculture and commerce as well +as literature flourished. The emperor gave direct encouragements +to the Nestorians, and gave a favourable reception to an +embassy from Mahommed (see ante § <i>Religion</i>). On the accession +of Kao-tsung (650) his wife, Wu How, gained supreme influence, +and on the death of her husband in 683 she set aside his lawful +successor, Chung-tsung, and took possession of the throne. This +was the first occasion the country was ruled by a dowager +empress. She governed with discretion, and her armies defeated +the Khitán in the north-east and also the Tibetans, who had +latterly gained possession of Kucha, Khotan and Kashgar. On +her death, in 705, Chung-tsung partially left the obscurity in +which he had lived during his mother’s reign. But his wife, +desiring to play a similar rôle to that enjoyed by her mother-in-law, +poisoned him and set his son, Jui-tsung (710), on the throne. +This monarch, who was weak and vicious, was succeeded by Yuen-tsung +(713), who introduced reform into the administration and +encouraged literature and learning. The king of Khokand +applied for aid against the Tibetans and Arabs, and Yuen-tsung +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span> +sent an army to his succour, but his general was completely +defeated. During the disorder which arose in consequence of +the invasion of the northern provinces by the Khitán, General +An Lu-shan, an officer of Turkish descent, placed himself at the +head of a revolt, and having secured Tung-kwan on the Yellow +river, advanced on Chang-an. Thereupon the emperor fled, and +placed his son, Su-tsung (756-762), on the throne. This +sovereign, with the help of the forces of Khotan, Khokand and +Bokhara, of the Uighurs and of some 4000 Arabs sent by the +caliph Mansur, completely defeated An Lu-shan. During the +following reigns the Tibetans made constant incursions into the +western provinces of the empire, and T‘ai-tsung (763-780) +purchased the assistance of the Turks against those intruders by +giving a Chinese princess as wife to the khan.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>At this epoch the eunuchs of the palace gained an unwonted degree +of power, and several of the subsequent emperors fell victims to their +plots. The T‘ang dynasty, which for over a hundred years had +governed firmly and for the good of the nation, began to decline. +The history of the 8th and 9th centuries is for the most part a +monotonous record of feeble governments, oppressions and rebellions. +Almost the only event worth chronicling is the iconoclastic policy of +the emperor Wu-tsung (841-847). Viewing the increase of monasteries +and ecclesiastical establishments as an evil, he abolished all temples, +closed the monasteries and nunneries, and sent the inmates back to +their families. Foreign priests were subjected to the same repressive +legislation, and Christians, Buddhists and Magi were bidden to return +whence they came. Buddhism again revived during the reign of the +emperor I-tsung (860-874), who, having discovered a bone of +Buddha, brought it to the capital in great state. By internal dissensions +the empire became so weakened that the prince of Liang +found no difficulty in gaining possession of the throne (907). He +took the title of T‘ai-tsu, being the first emperor of the Later Liang +dynasty. Thus ended the T‘ang dynasty, which is regarded as being +the golden age of Chinese literature.</p> + +<p>Five dynasties, viz. the Later Liang, the Later T‘ang, the Later +Tsin, the Later Han and the Later Chow, followed each other between +the years 907 and 960. Though the monarchs of these lines nominally +held sway over the empire, their real power was confined to very +narrow limits. The disorders which were rife during the time when +the T‘ang dynasty was tottering to its fall fostered the development +of independent states, and so arose Liang in Ho-nan and Shan-tung, +Ki in Shen-si, Hwai-nan in Kiang-nan, Chow in Sze-ch‘uen and parts +of Shen-si and Hu-kwang, Wu-yuĕ in Cheh-kiang, Tsu and King-nan +in Hu-kwang, Ling-nan in Kwang-tung and the Uighurs in Tangut.</p> +</div> + +<p>A partial end was made to this recognized disorganization +when, in 960, General Chao Kw‘ang-yin was proclaimed by +the army emperor in succession to the youthful +Kung-ti, who was compelled to abdicate. The circumstances +<span class="sidenote">Sung dynasty.</span> +of the time justified the change. It required +a strong hand to weld the empire together again, and to resist +the attacks of the Khitán Tatars, whose rule at this period +extended over the whole of Manchuria and Liao-tung. Against +these aggressive neighbours T‘ai-tsu (<i>né</i> Chao Kw‘ang-yin) +directed his efforts with varying success, and he died in 976, +while the war was still being waged. His son T‘ai-tsung (976-997) +entered on the campaign with energy, but in the end was compelled +to conclude a peace with the Khitán. His successor, +Chên-tsung (997-1022), paid them tribute to abstain from +further incursions. Probably this tribute was not sent regularly; +at all events, under Jên-tsung (1023-1064), the Khitán again +threatened to invade the empire, and were only bought off +by the promise of an annual tribute of taels 200,000 of silver, +besides a great quantity of silken piece goods. Neither was this +arrangement long binding, and so formidable were the advances +made by the Tatars in the foilowing reigns, that Hwei-tsung +(1101-1126) invited the Nüchih Tatars to expel the Khitán from +Liao-tung. This they did, but having once possessed themselves +of the country they declined to yield it to the Chinese, and the +result was that a still more aggressive neighbour was established +on the north-eastern frontier of China. The Nüchih or Kin, +as they now styled themselves, overran the provinces of Chih-li, +Shen-si, Shan-si and Ho-nan, and during the reign of Kao-tsung +(1127-1163) they advanced their conquests to the line of the +Yangtsze-kiang. From this time the Sung ruled only over +southern China; while the Kin or “Golden” dynasty reign«d +in the north. The Kin made Chung-tu, which occupied in part +the site of the modern Peking, their usual residence. The Sung +fixed their capital at Nanking and afterwards at Hangchow. +Between them and the Kin there was almost constant war.</p> + +<p>During this period the Mongols began to acquire power in +eastern Asia, and about the beginning of the 12th century the +forces of Jenghiz Khan (<i>q.v.</i>) invaded the north-western +frontier of China and the principality of Hia, which +<span class="sidenote">Mongol invasion: 12th century.</span> +at that time consisted of the modern provinces of +Shen-si and Kan-suh. To purchase the good-will +of the Mongols the king of Hia agreed to pay them a tribute, +and gave a princess in marriage to their ruler. In consequence +of a dispute with the Kin emperor Wei-shao Wang, Jenghiz +Khan determined to invade Liao-tung. He was aided by the +followers of the Khitán leader Yeh-lü Ts‘u-ts‘ai, and in alliance +with this general he captured Liao-yang, the capital city.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>After an unsuccessful invasion of China in 1212, Jenghiz Khan +renewed the attack in 1213. He divided his armies into four divisions, +and made a general advance southwards. His soldiers swept +over Ho-nan, Chih-li and Shan-tung, destroying upwards of ninety +cities. It was their boast that a horseman might ride without +stumbling over the sites where those cities had stood. Panic-stricken, +the emperor moved his court from Chung-tu to K‘ai-fêng +Fu, much against the advice of his ministers, who foresaw the +disastrous effect this retreat would have on the fortunes of Kin. +The state of Sung, which up to this time had paid tribute, now +declined to recognize Kin as its feudal chief, and a short time afterwards +declared war against its quondam ally. Meanwhile, in 1215, +Yeh-lü Ts‘u-ts‘ai advanced into China by the Shan-hai Kwan, and +made himself master of Peking, one of the few cities in Chih-li which +remained to Kin. After this victory his nobles wished him to proclaim +himself emperor, but he refused, being mindful of an oath +which he had sworn to Jenghiz Khan. In 1216 Tung-kwan, a +mountain pass on the frontiers of Ho-nan and Shen-si, and the scene +of numerous dynastic battles (as it is the only gateway between +north-eastern and north-western China), was taken by the invaders. +As the war dragged on the resistance offered by the Kin grew weaker +and weaker. In 1220 Chi-nan Fu, the capital of Shan-tung, was +taken, and five years later Jenghiz Khan marched an army westward +into Hia and conquered the forces of the king. Two years later +(1227) Jenghiz Khan died.</p> + +<p>With the view to the complete conquest of China by the Mongols, +Jenghiz declined to nominate either of the eldest two sons who had +been born to his Chinese wives as his heir, but chose his third son +Ogdai, whose mother was a Tatar. On hearing of the death of +Jenghiz Khan the Kin sent an embassy to his successor desiring +peace, but Ogdai told them there would be no peace for them until +their dynasty should be overthrown. Hitherto the Mongols had been +without any code of laws. But the consolidation of the nation by +the conquests of Jenghiz Khan made it necessary to establish a +recognized code of laws, and one of the first acts of Ogdai was to +form such a code. With the help also of Yeh-lü Ts‘u-ts‘ai, he established +custom-houses in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shan-si and Liao-tung; +and for this purpose divided these provinces into ten departments. +Meanwhile the war with the Kin was carried on with energy. In +1230 Si-gan Fu was taken, and sixty important posts were captured. +Two years later, Tu-lé, brother of Ogdai, took Fêng-siang Fu and +Han-chung Fu, in the flight from which last-named place 100,000 +persons are said to have perished. Following the course of the river +Han in his victorious career, this general destroyed 140 towns and +fortresses, and defeated the army of Kin at Mount San-fêng.</p> + +<p>In 1232 the Mongols made an alliance with the state of Sung, by +which, on condition of Sung helping to destroy Kin, Ho-nan was to +be the property of Sung for ever. The effect of this +coalition soon became apparent. Barely had the Kin +<span class="sidenote">The Kin dynasty overthrown.</span> +emperor retreated from K‘ai-fêng Fu to Ju-ning Fu in Ho-nan +when the former place fell into the hands of the allies. +Next fell Loyang, and the victorious generals then marched +on to besiege Ju-ning Fu. The presence of the emperor gave energy +to the defenders, and they held out until every animal in the city +had been killed for food, until every old and useless person had +suffered death to lessen the number of hungry mouths, until so many +able-bodied men had fallen that the women manned the ramparts, +and then the allies stormed the walls. The emperor burned himself +to death in his palace, that his body might not fall into the hands of +his enemies. For a few days the shadow of the imperial crown rested +on the head of his heir Chang-lin, but in a tumult which broke out +amongst his followers he lost his life, and with him ended the +“Golden” dynasty.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the treaty between Ogdai and Sung, no sooner +were the spoils of Kin to be divided than war broke out again +between them, in prosecuting which the Mongol armies swept over +the provinces of Sze-ch‘uen, Hu-kwang, Kiang-nan and Ho-nan, +and were checked only when they reached the walls of Lu-chow Fu +in Ngan-hui. Ogdai died in 1241, and was nominally succeeded by +his grandson Cheliemên. But one of his widows, Tolickona, took +possession of the throne, and after exercising rule for four years, +established her son Kwei-yew as great khan. In 1248 his life was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span> +cut short, and the nobles, disregarding the claims of Cheliemên, +proclaimed as emperor Mangu, the eldest son of Tu-lé. Under this +monarch the war against Sung was carried on with energy, and +Kublai, outstripping the bounds of Sung territory, made his way +into the province of Yun-nan, at that time divided into a number of +independent states, and having attached them to his brother’s +crown he passed on into Tibet, Tongking and Cochin-China, and +thence striking northwards entered the province of Kwang-si.</p> +</div> + +<p>On the death of Mangu in 1259 Kublai (<i>q.v.</i>) ascended the +throne. Never in the history of China was the nation more +illustrious, nor its power more widely felt, than under +his sovereignty. During the first twenty years of +<span class="sidenote">Kublai Khan emperior.</span> +his reign Sung kept up a resistance against his +authority. Their last emperor Ping-ti, seeing his +cause lost, drowned himself in the sea. The Sung dynasty, +which had ruled southern China 320 years, despite its misfortunes +is accounted one of the great dynasties of China. During its +sway arts and literature were cultivated and many eminent +writers flourished. His enemies subdued, Kublai Khan in 1280 +assumed complete jurisdiction as emperor of China. He took +the title of Shit-su and founded what is known as the Yuen +dynasty. He built a new capital close to Chung-tu, which +became known as Kaanbaligh (city of the khan), in medieval +European chronicles, Cambaluc, and later as Peking. At this +time his authority was acknowledged “from the Frozen Sea, +almost to the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of +Hindustan, Arabia and the westernmost parts of Asia, all the +Mongol princes as far as the Dnieper declared themselves his +vassals, and brought regularly their tribute.” It was during +this reign that Marco Polo visited China, and he describes in +glowing colours the virtues and glories of the “great khan.” +His rule was characterized by discretion and munificence. +He undertook public works, he patronized literature, and relieved +the distress of the poor, but the Chinese never forgot that he +was an alien and regarded him as a barbarian. He died unregretted +in 1294. His son had died during his lifetime, and +after some contention his grandson Timur ascended the throne +under the title of Yuen-chêng. This monarch died in 1307 after +an uneventful reign, and, as he left no son, Wu-tsung, a Mongol +prince, became emperor. To him succeeded Jên-tsung in 1312, +who made himself conspicuous by the honour he showed to the +memory of Confucius, and by distributing offices more equally +between Mongols and Chinese than had hitherto been done. +This act of justice gave great satisfaction to the Chinese, and his +death ended a peaceful and prosperous reign in 1320. At this +time there appears to have been a considerable commercial +intercourse between Europe and China. But after Jên-tsung’s +death the dynasty fell on evil days. The Mongols in adopting +Chinese civilization had lost much of their martial spirit. They +were still regarded as alien by the Chinese and numerous secret +societies were formed to achieve their overthrow. Jên-tsung’s +successors were weak and incapable rulers, and in the person of +Shun-ti (1333-1368) were summed up the vices and faults of +his predecessors. Revolts broke out, and finally this descendant +of Jenghiz Khan was compelled to fly before Chu Yüen-chang, +the son of a Chinese labouring man. Deserted by his followers, +he sought refuge in Ying-chang Fu, and there the last of the +Yüen dynasty died. These Mongol emperors, whatever their +faults, had shown tolerance to Christian missionaries and Papal +legates (see <i>ante</i> § <i>The Medieval Cathay</i>).</p> + +<p>Chu Yüen-chang met with little opposition, more especially +as his first care on becoming possessed of a district was to +suppress lawlessness and to establish a settled government. +In 1355 he captured Nanking, and proclaimed +<span class="sidenote">Ming dynasty.</span> +himself duke of Wu, but carefully avoided adopting +any of the insignia of royalty. Even when master of the empire, +thirteen years later, he still professed to dislike the idea of +assuming the imperial title. His scruples were overcome, and +he declared himself emperor in 1368. He carried his arms +into Tatary, where he subdued the last semblance of Mongol +power in that direction, and then bent his steps towards Liao-tung. +Here the Mongols defended themselves with the bravery +of despair, but unavailingly, and the conquest of this province +left Hung-wu, as the founder of the new or Ming (“Bright”) +dynasty styled himself, without a foe in the empire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>All intercourse with Europe seems now to have ceased until the +Portuguese arrived in the 16th century, but Hung-wu cultivated +friendly relations with the neighbouring states. As a quondam +Buddhist priest he lent his countenance to that religion to the +exclusion of Taoism, whose priests had for centuries earned the +contempt of all but the most ignorant by their pretended magical +arts and their search after the philosopher’s stone. Hung-wu died +in 1398 and was succeeded by his grandson Kien-Wên. Aware that +the appointment of this youth—his father was dead—would give +offence to the young emperor’s uncles, Hung-wu had dismissed them +to their respective governments. However, the prince of Yen, his +eldest surviving son, rose in revolt as soon as the news reached him +of his nephew’s accession, and after gaining several victories over the +armies of Kien-wên he presented himself before the gates of Nanking, +the capital. Treachery opened the gates to him, and the emperor +having fled in the disguise of a monk, the victorious prince became +emperor and took the title of Yung-lo (1403). At home Yung-lo +devoted himself to the encouragement of literature and the fine arts, +and, possibly from a knowledge that Kien-wên was among the +Buddhist priests, he renewed the law prohibiting Buddhism. Abroad +he swept Cochin-China and Tongking within the folds of his empire +and carried his arms into Tatary, where he made new conquests of +waste regions, and erected a monument of his victories. He died in +1425, and was succeeded by his son Hung-hi.</p> + +<p>Hung-hi’s reign was short and uneventful. He strove to promote +only such mandarins as had proved themselves to be able and honest, +and to further the welfare of the people. During the reign of his +successor, Süen-tê (1426-1436), the empire suffered the first loss of +territory since the commencement of the dynasty. Cochin-China +rebelled and gained her independence. The next emperor, Chêng-t‘ung +(1436), was taken prisoner by a Tatar chieftain, a descendant +of the Yüen family named Yi-sien, who had invaded the northern +Erovinces. Having been completely defeated by a Chinese force +from Liao-tung, Yi-sien liberated his captive, who reoccupied the +throne, which during his imprisonment (1450-1457) had been held by +his brother King-ti. The two following reigns, those of Chêng-hwa +(1465-1488) and of Hung-chi (1488-1506), were quiet and peaceful.</p> + +<p>The most notable event in the reign of the next monarch, Chêng-te +(1506-1522), was the arrival of the Portuguese at Canton (1517). +From this time dates modern European intercourse with China. +Chêng-te suppressed a formidable insurrection headed by the prince +of Ning, but disorder caused by this civil war encouraged the foreign +enemies of China. From the north came a Tatar army under Yen-ta +in 1542, during the reign of Kia-tsing, which laid waste the province +of Shen-si, and even threatened the capital, and a little later a +Japanese fleet ravaged the littoral provinces. Ill-blood had arisen +between the two peoples before this, and a Japanese colony had been +driven out of Ningpo by force and not without bloodshed a few years +previously. Kia-tsing (d. 1567) was not equal to such emergencies, +and his son Lung-king (1567-1573)sought to placate the Tatar Yen-ta +by making him a prince of the empire and giving him commercial +privileges, which were supplemented by the succeeding emperor +Wan-li (1573-1620) by the grant of land in Shen-si. During the reign +of this sovereign, in the year 1592, the Japanese successfully invaded +Korea, and Taikosarna, the regent of Japan, was on the point of +proclaiming himself king of the peninsula, when a large Chinese force, +answering to the invitation of the king, appeared and completely +routed the Japanese army, at the same time that the Chinese fleet +cut off their retreat by sea. In this extremity the Japanese sued for +peace, and sent an embassy to Peking to arrange terms. +<span class="sidenote">Struggle with Japan for Korea.</span> +But the peace was of short duration. In 1597 the Japanese +again invaded Korea, defeated the Chinese army, destroyed +the Chinese fleet and ravaged the coast. Suddenly, however, +when in the full tide of conquest, they evacuated Korea, which +again fell under the direction of China. Four years later the missionary +Matteo Ricci (<i>q.v.</i>) arrived at the Chinese court; and though at +first the emperor was inclined to send him out of the country, his +abilities gradually won for him the esteem of the sovereign and his +ministers, and he remained the scientific adviser of the court until his +death in 1610.</p> +</div> + +<p>About this time the Manchu Tatars, goaded into war by the +injustice they were constantly receiving at the hands of the +Chinese, led an army into China (in 1616) and completely defeated +the force which was sent against them. Three years later they +gained possession of the province of Liao-tung. These disasters +overwhelmed the emperor, and he died of a broken heart in 1620.</p> + +<p>In the same year T‘ien-ming, the Manchu sovereign, having +declared himself independent, moved the court to San-ku, to the +east of Mukden, which, five years later, he made his +capital. In 1627 Ts‘ung-chêng, the last emperor of +<span class="sidenote">Manchu invasion: 17th century.</span> +the Ming dynasty, ascended the Chinese throne. In +his reign English merchants first made their appearance +at Canton. The empire was now torn by internal dissensions. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span> +Rebel bands, enriched by plunder, and grown bold by success, +began to assume the proportion of armies. Two rebels, Li +Tsze-ch‘êng and Shang K‘o-hi, decided to divide the empire +between them. Li besieged K‘ai-fêng Fu, the capital of Ho-nan, +and so long and closely did he beleaguer it that in the consequent +famine human flesh was regularly sold in the markets. At +length an imperial force came to raise the siege, but fearful of +meeting Li’s army, they cut through the dykes of the Yellow +River, “China’s Sorrow,” and flooded the whole country, +including the city. The rebels escaped to the mountains, but +upwards of 200,000 inhabitants perished in the flood, and the +city became a heap of ruins (1642). From K‘ai-fêng Fu Li +marched against the other strongholds of Ho-nan and Shen-si, +and was so completely successful that he determined to attack +Peking. A treacherous eunuch opened the gates to him, on +being informed of which the emperor committed suicide. When +the news of this disaster reached the general-commanding on the +frontier of Manchu Tatary, he, in an unguarded moment, concluded +a peace with the Manchus, and invited them to dispossess +Li Tsze-ch‘êng. The Manchus entered China, and after defeating +a rebel army sent against them, they marched towards Peking. +On hearing of the approach of the invaders, Li Tsze-ch‘êng, +after having set fire to the imperial palace, evacuated the city, +but was overtaken, and his force was completely routed.</p> + +<p>The Chinese now wished the Manchus to retire, but, having +taken possession of Peking, they proclaimed the ninth son of +T‘ien-ming emperor of China under the title of Shun-chi, +and adopted the name of Ta-ts‘ing, or “Great Pure,” +<span class="sidenote">Ta-ts‘ing dynasty.</span> +for the dynasty (1644). Meanwhile the mandarins +at Nanking had chosen an imperial prince to ascend the throne. +At this most inopportune moment “a claimant” to the throne, +in the person of a pretended son of the last emperor, appeared +at court. While this contention prevailed inside Nanking the +Tatar army appeared at the walls. There was no need for them +to use force. The gates were thrown open, and they took +possession of the city without bloodshed. Following the +conciliatory policy they had everywhere pursued, they confirmed +the mandarins in their offices and granted a general amnesty +to all who would lay down their arms. As the Tatars entered the +city the emperor left it, and after wandering about for some +days in great misery, he drowned himself in the Yangtsze-kiang. +Thus ended the Ming dynasty, and the empire passed again under +a foreign yoke. By the Mings, who partly revived the feudal +system by making large territorial grants to members of the +reigning house, China was divided into fifteen provinces; the existing +division into eighteen provinces was made by the Manchus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>All accounts agree in stating that the Manchu conquerors are +descendants of a branch of the family which gave the Kin dynasty to +the north of China; and in lieu of any authentic account of their +early history, native writers have thrown a cloud of fable over their +origin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manchuria</a></span>). In the 16th century they were strong +enough to cope with their Chinese neighbours. Doubtless the Mings +tried to check their ambition by cruel reprisals, but against this must +be put numerous Manchu raids into Liao-tung.</p> + +<p>The accession to the throne of the emperor Shun-chi did not restore +peace to the country. In Kiang-si, Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and +Kwang-si the adherents of the Ming dynasty defended themselves +vigorously but unsuccessfully against the invaders, while the pirate +Chêng Chi-lung, the father of the celebrated Coxinga, kept up a +predatory warfare against them on the coast. Eventually he was +induced to visit Peking, where he was thrown into prison and died. +Coxinga, warned by his father’s example, determined to leave the +mainland and to seek an empire elsewhere. His choice fell on +Formosa, and having driven out the Dutch, who had established +themselves in the island in 1624, he held possession until the reign of +K‘ang-hi, when (1682) he resigned in favour of the imperial government. +Meanwhile a prince of the house of Ming was proclaimed +emperor in Kwang-si, under the title of Yung-li. The Tatars having +reduced Fu-kien and Kiang-si, and having taken Canton after a +siege of eight months, completely routed his followers, and Yung-li +was compelled to fly to Pegu. Some years later, with the help of +adherents in Yun-nan and Kwei-chow, he tried to regain the throne, +but his army was scattered, and he was taken prisoner and strangled. +Gradually opposition to the new régime became weaker and weaker, +and the shaved head with the pig-tail—the symbol of Tatar +sovereignty—became more and more adopted. In 1651 died Ama +Wang, the uncle of Shun-chi, who had acted as regent during his +nephew’s minority, and the emperor then assumed the government +of the state. He appears to have taken a great interest in science, +and to have patronized Adam Schaal, a German Jesuit, who was at +that time resident at Peking. It was during his reign (1656) that +the first Russian embassy arrived at the capital, but as the envoy +declined to <i>kowtow</i> before the emperor he was sent back without +having been admitted to an audience.</p> + +<p>After an unquiet reign of seventeen years Shun-chi died (1661). +and was succeeded by his son K‘ang-hi. He came into collision with +the Russians, who had reached the Amur regions about 1640 and had +built a fort on the upper Amur; but by the Treaty of Nerchinsk, concluded +in 1689 (the first treaty made between China and a European +power), the dispute was settled, the Amur being taken as the frontier. +K‘ang-hi was indefatigable in administering the affairs of the empire, +and he devoted much of his time to literary and scientific studies +under the guidance of the Jesuits. The dictionary of the Chinese +language, published under his superintendence, proves him to have +been as great a scholar as his conquests over the Eleuths show him +to have been famous as a general. During one of his hunting expeditions +to Mongolia he caught a fatal cold, and he died in 1721. +Under his rule Tibet was added to the empire, which extended from +the Siberian frontier to Cochin-China, and from the China Sea to +Turkestan. During his reign there was a great earthquake at Peking, +in which 400,000 people are said to have perished.</p> + +<p>K‘ien-lung, who began to reign in 1735, was ambitious and warlike. +He marched an army into Hi, which he converted into a Chinese +province, and he afterwards added eastern Turkestan to the empire. +Twice he invaded Burma, and once he penetrated into Cochin-China, +but in neither country were his arms successful. He is accused of +great cruelty towards his subjects, which they repaid by rebelling +against him. During his reign the Mahommedan standard was first +raised in Kan-suh. (Since the Mongol conquest in the 13th century +there had been a considerable immigration of Moslems into western +China; and numbers of Chinese had become converts). But the +Mussulmans were unable to stand against the imperial troops; +their armies were dispersed; ten thousand of them were exiled; and +an order was issued that every Mahommedan in Kan-suh above the +age of fifteen should be put to death (1784).</p> + +<p>K‘ien-lung wrote incessantly, both poetry and prose, collected +libraries and republished works of value. His campaigns furnished +him with themes for his verses, and in the Summer Palace was found +a handsome manuscript copy of a laudatory poem he composed on +the occasion of his war against the Gurkhas. This was one of the +most successful of his military undertakings. His generals marched +70,000 men into Nepal to within 60 miles of the British frontiers, +and having subjugated the Gurkhas they received the submission of +the Nepalese, and acquired an additional hold over Tibet (1792). +In other directions his arms were not so successful. There is no poem +commemorating the campaign against the rebellious Formosans, +nor lament over the loss of 100,000 men in that island, and the last +few years of his reign were disturbed by outbreaks among the Miao-tsze, +hill tribes living in the mountains in the provinces of Kwei-chow +and Kwang-si. In 1795, after a reign of sixty years, K‘ien-lung +abdicated in favour of his fifteenth son, who adopted the title of +Kia-k‘ing as the style of his reign. K‘ien-lung died at the age of +eighty-eight in 1798.</p> +</div> + +<p>During the reign of K‘ien-lung commerce between Europe +and Canton—the only Chinese port then open to foreign trade—had +attained important dimensions. It was mainly +in the hands of the Portuguese, the British and the +<span class="sidenote">Trade with Europe.</span> +Dutch. The British trade was then a monopoly of the +East India Company. The trade, largely in opium, tea and silk, +was subject to many exactions and restrictions,<a name="FnAnchor_49d" id="FnAnchor_49d" href="#Footnote_49d"><span class="sp">49</span></a> and many acts +of gross injustice were committed on the persons of Englishmen. +To obtain some redress the British government at length sent +an embassy to Peking (1793) and Lord Macartney was chosen +to represent George III. on the occasion. The mission was treated +as showing that Great Britain was a state tributary to China, +and Lord Macartney was received with every courtesy. But the +concessions he sought were not accorded, and in this sense his +mission was a failure.</p> + +<p>Kia-k‘ing’s reign was disturbed and disastrous. In the +northern and western provinces, rebellion after rebellion broke +out, due in a great measure to the carelessness, incompetency +and obstinacy of the emperor, and the coasts were infested with +pirates, whose number and organization enabled them for a long +time to hold the imperial fleet in check. Meanwhile the condition +of the foreign merchants at Canton had not improved, and to set +matters on a better footing the British government despatched +a second ambassador in the person of Lord Amherst to Peking +in 1816. As he declined to <i>kowtow</i> before the emperor, he was +not admitted to the imperial presence and the mission proved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span> +abortive. Destitute of all royal qualities, a slave to his passions, +and the servant of caprice, Kia-k‘ing died in 1820. The event +fraught with the greatest consequences to China which occurred +in his reign (though at the time it attracted little attention) was +the arrival of the first Protestant missionary, Dr R. Morrison +(<i>q.v.</i>), who reached Canton in 1807.</p> + +<p>Tao-kwang (1820-1850), the new emperor, though possessed +in his early years of considerable energy, had no sooner ascended +the throne than he gave himself up to the pursuit of pleasure. +The reforms which his first manifestoes foreshadowed never +seriously occupied his attention. Insurrection occurred in +Formosa, Kwang-si, Ho-nan and other parts of the empire, and +the Triad Society, which had originated during the reign of +K‘ang-hi, again became formidable.</p> + +<p>More important to the future of the country than the internal +disturbances was the new attitude taken at this time towards +China by the nations of Europe. Hitherto the European +missionaries and traders in China had been dependent upon +the goodwill of the Chinese. The Portuguese had been allowed +to settle at Macao (<i>q.v.</i>) for some centuries; Roman Catholic +missionaries since the time of Ricci had been alternately patronized +and persecuted; Protestant missionaries had scarcely +gained a foothold; the Europeans allowed to trade at Canton +continued to suffer under vexatious regulations—the Chinese +in general regarded Europeans as barbarians, “foreign devils.” +Of the armed strength of Europe they were ignorant. They were +now to be undeceived, Great Britain being the first power to +take action. The hardships inflicted on the British merchants +at Canton became so unbearable that when, in 1834, the monopoly +of the East India Company ceased, the British government +sent Lord Napier as minister to superintend the foreign trade +at that port. Lord Napier was inadequately supported, and the +anxieties of his position brought on an attack of fever, from +which he died at Macao after a few months’ residence in China. +The chief cause of complaint adduced by the mandarins was +the introduction of opium by the merchants, and for years +they attempted by every means in their power to put a stop +to its importation. At length Captain (afterwards Admiral +Sir Charles) Elliot, the superintendent of trade, in 1839 agreed +that all the opium in the hands of Englishmen should be given +up to the native authorities, and he exacted a pledge from the +merchants that they would no longer deal in the drug. On the +3rd of April 20,283 chests of opium were handed over to the +mandarins and were by them destroyed. The surrender of the +<span class="sidenote">War with Great Britain, 1840.</span> +opium led to further demands by Lin Tze-su, the +Chinese imperial commissioner, demands which were +considered by the British government to amount to +a <i>casus belli</i>, and in 1840 war was declared. In the +same year the fleet captured Chusan, and in the following year +the Bogue Forts fell, in consequence of which operations the +Chinese agreed to cede Hong-Kong to the victors and to pay +them an indemnity of 6,000,000 dollars. As soon as this news +reached Peking, Ki Shen, who had succeeded Commissioner Lin, +was dismissed from his post and degraded, and Yi Shen, another +Tatar, was appointed in his room. Before the new commissioner +reached his post Canton had fallen into the hands of Sir Hugh +Gough, and shortly afterwards Amoy, Ning-po, Tinghai in +Chusan, Chapu, Shanghai and Chin-kiang Fu shared the same +fate. Nanking would also have been captured had not the +imperial government, dreading the loss of the “Southern +Capital,” proposed terms of peace. Sir Henry Pottinger, who +had succeeded Captain Elliot, concluded, in 1842, a treaty with +the imperial commissioners, by which the four additional ports +of Amoy, Fu-chow, Ningpo and Shanghai were declared open to +foreign trade, and an indemnity of 21,000,000 dollars was to be +paid to the British.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the accession of Hien-fêng in 1850, a demand was raised for +the reforms which had been hoped for under Tao-kwang, but Hien-fêng +possessed in an exaggerated form the selfish and +tyrannical nature of his father, together with a voluptuary’s +<span class="sidenote">Hien-fêng emperor.</span> +craving for every kind of sensual pleasure. For some +time Kwang-si had been in a very disturbed state, and when the +people found that there was no hope of relief from the oppression +they endured, they proclaimed a youth, who was said to be the +representative of the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, as emperor, +under the title of T‘ien-tê or “Heavenly Virtue.” From Kwang-si +the revolt spread into Hu-peh and Hu-nan, and then languished from +want of a leader and a definite political cry. When, however, there +appeared to be a possibility that, by force of arms and the persuasive +influence of money, the imperialists would re-establish their +supremacy, a leader presented himself in Kwang-si, whose energy of +character, combined with great political and religious enthusiasm, +speedily gained for him the suffrages of the discontented. This was +Hung Siu-ts‘üan. He proclaimed himself as sent by heaven to drive +out the Tatars, and to restore in his own person the succession to +China. At the same time, having been converted to Christianity and +professing to abhor the vices and sins of the age, he called on all the +virtuous of the land to extirpate rulers who were standing examples +of all that was base and vile in human nature. Crowds soon flocked +to his standard. T‘ien-tê was deserted; and putting himself at the +head of his followers (who abandoned the practice of shaving the +head), Hung Siu-ts‘üan marched northwards and captured Wu-ch‘ang +on the Yangtsze-kiang, the capital of Hu-peh. Then, moving +down the river, he proceeded to the attack of Nanking. Without +much difficulty Hung Siu-ts‘üan in 1853 established himself within +its walls, and proclaimed the inauguration of the T‘ai-p‘ing dynasty, +of which he nominated himself the first emperor under the title of +T‘ien Wang or “Heavenly king.” During the next few years his +armies penetrated victoriously as far north as Tientsin and as far east +as Chin-kiang and Su-chow, while bands of sympathizers with his +<span class="sidenote">T‘ai-p‘ing rebellion.</span> +cause appeared in the neighbourhood of Amoy. As if still +further to aid him in his schemes, Great Britain declared +war against the Tatar dynasty in 1857, in consequence of +an outrage known as the “Arrow” affair (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parkes</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sir Harry +Smith</a></span>). In December 1857 Canton was taken by the British, and a +further blow was struck against the prestige of the Manchu dynasty +by the determination of Lord Elgin, who had been sent as special +ambassador, to go to Peking and communicate directly with the +emperor. In May 1858 the Taku Forts were taken, and Lord Elgin +went up the Peiho to Tientsin <i>en route</i> for the capital. At Tientsin, +however, imperial commissioners persuaded him to conclude a treaty +with them on the spot, which treaty it was agreed should be ratified +at Peking in the following year. When, however, Sir Frederick +Bruce, who had been appointed minister to the court of Peking, +attempted to pass Taku to carry out this arrangement, the vessels +escorting him were treacherously fired on from the forts and he was +compelled to return. Thereupon Lord Elgin was again sent out with +full powers, accompanied by a large force under the command of Sir +Hope Grant. The French (to seek reparation for the murder of a +missionary in Kwang-si) took part in the campaign, and on the 1st of +August 1860 the allies landed without meeting with any opposition +at Pei-tang, a village 12 m. north of Taku. A few days later the forts +at that place were taken, and thence the allies marched to Peking. +Finding further resistance to be hopeless, the Chinese opened +negotiations, and as a guarantee of their good faith surrendered the +An-ting gate of the capital to the allies. On the 24th of October +1860 the treaty of 1858 was ratified by Prince Kung and Lord Elgin, +and a convention was signed under the terms of which the Chinese +agreed to pay a war indemnity of 8,000,000 taels. The right of +Europeans to travel in the interior was granted and freedom guaranteed +to the preaching of Christianity. The customs tariff then agreed +upon legalized the import of opium, though the treaty of 1858, like +that of 1842, was silent on the subject.</p> + +<p>Great Britain and France were not the only powers of Europe with +whom Hien-fêng was called to deal. On the northern border of the +empire Russia began to exercise pressure. Russia had begun to +colonize the lower Amur region, and was pressing towards the +Pacific. This was a remote region, only part of the Chinese empire +since the Manchu conquest, and by treaties of 1858 and 1860 China +ceded to Russia all its territory north of the Amur and between the +Ussuri and the Pacific (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Amur</a></span>, province). The Russians in their +newly acquired land founded the port of Vladivostok (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Hien-fêng died in the summer of the year 1861, leaving the +throne to his son T‘ung-chi (1861-1875), a child of five years old, +whose mother, Tsz‘e Hsi (1834-1908), had been raised +from the place of favourite concubine to that of Imperial +<span class="sidenote">T‘ung-chi emperor; dowager empress regent.</span> +Consort. The legitimate empress, Tsz‘e An, was childless, +and the two dowagers became joint regents. The conclusion +of peace with the allies was the signal for a +renewal of the campaign against the T‘ai-p‘ings, and, +benefiting by the friendly feelings of the British authorities engendered +by the return of amicable relations, the Chinese government +succeeded in enlisting Major Charles George Gordon (<i>q.v.</i>) of the +Royal Engineers in their service. In a suprisingly short space of +time this officer formed the troops, which had formerly been under +the command of an American named Ward, into a formidable army, +and without delay took the field against the rebels. From that day +the fortunes of the T‘ai-p‘ings declined. They lost city after city, +and, finally in July 1864, the imperialists, after an interval of twelve +years, once more gained possession of Nanking. T‘ien Wang committed +suicide on the capture of his capital, and with him fell his +cause. Those of his followers who escaped the sword dispersed +throughout the country, and the T‘ai-p‘ings ceased to be.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span></p> + +<p>With the measure of peace which was then restored to the country +trade rapidly revived, except in Yun-nan, where the Mahommedan +rebels, known as Panthays, under Suleiman, still kept the imperial +forces at bay. Against these foes the government was careless to +take active measures, until in 1872 Prince Hassan, the adopted son +of Suleiman, was sent to England to gain the recognition of the +queen for his father’s government. This step aroused the susceptibilities +of the imperial government, and a large force was +despatched to the scene of the rebellion. Before the year was out +the Mahommedan capital Ta-li Fu fell into the hands of the imperialists, +and the followers of Suleiman were mercilessly exterminated. +In February 1873 the two dowager empresses resigned their +powers as regents. This long-expected time was seized upon by the +foreign ministers to urge their right of audience with the emperor, +and on the 29th of June 1873 tne privilege of gazing on the “sacred +countenance” was accorded them.</p> + +<p>The emperor T‘ung-chi died without issue, and the succession to +the throne, for the first time in the annals of the Ts‘ing dynasty, +passed out of the direct line. As already stated, the first +emperor of the Ts‘ing dynasty, Shih-tsu Hwangti, on +<span class="sidenote">Accession of Kwang-su, 1875.</span> +gaining possession of the throne on the fall of the Ming, +or “Great Bright” dynasty, adopted the title of Shun-chi +for his reign, which began in the year 1644. The legendary +progenitor of these Manchu rulers was Aisin Gioro, whose name is +said to point to the fact of his having been related to the race of +Nü-chih, or Kin, <i>i.e.</i> Golden Tatars, who reigned in northern China +during the 12th and 13th centuries. K‘ang-hi (1661-1722) was the +third son of Shun-chi; Yung-chêng (1722-1735) was the fourth son +of K‘ang-hi; K‘ien-lung (1736-1795) was the fourth son of Yung-chêng; +Kia-k‘ing (1796-1820) was the fifteenth son of K‘ien-lung; +Tao-Kwang (1821-1850) was the second son of Kia-k‘ing; Hien-fêng +(1851-1861) was the fourth of the nine sons who were born to +the emperor Tao-kwang; and T‘ung-chi (1862-1875) was the only +son of Hien-fêng. The choice now fell upon Tsai-t‘ien (as he was +called at birth), the infant son (born August 2, 1872) of Yi-huan, +Prince Chun, the seventh son of the emperor Tao-kwang and brother +of the emperor Hien-fêng; his mother was a sister of the empress +Tsz‘e Hsi, who, with the aid of Li Hung-chang, obtained his adoption +and proclamation as emperor, under the title of Kwang-su, “Succession +of Glory.”</p> + +<p>In order to prevent the confusion which would arise among the +princes of the imperial house were they each to adopt an arbitrary +name, the emperor K‘ang-hi decreed that each of his +twenty-four sons should have a <i>personal</i> name consisting +<span class="sidenote">Imperial family nomenclature and rank.</span> +of two characters, the first of which should be <i>Yung</i>, and +the second should be compounded with the determinative +<i>shih</i>, “to manifest,” an arrangement which would, as has +been remarked, find an exact parallel in a system by which +the sons in an English family might be called Louis <i>Edward</i>, Louis +<i>Edwin</i>, Louis <i>Edwy</i>, Louis <i>Edgar</i> and so on. This device obtained also +in the next generation, all the princes of which had <i>Hung</i> for their +first name, and the emperor K‘ien-lung (1736-1795) extended it into +a system, and directed that the succeeding generations should take +the four characters <i>Yung</i>, <i>Mien</i>, <i>Yih</i> and <i>Tsai</i> respectively, as the +first part of their names. Eight other characters, namely, <i>P‘u</i>, <i>Yu</i>, +<i>Hêng</i>, <i>K‘i</i>, <i>Tao</i>, <i>K‘ai</i>, <i>Tsêng</i>, <i>Ki</i>, were subsequently added, thus providing +generic names for twelve generations. With the generation represented +by Kwang-su the first four characters were exhausted, and +any sons of the emperor Kwang-su would therefore have been called +<i>P‘u</i>. By the ceremonial law of the “Great Pure” dynasty, twelve +degrees of rank are distributed among the princes of the imperial +house, and are as follows: (1) Ho-shih Tsin Wang, prince of the +first order; (2) To-lo Keun Wang, prince of the second order; +(3) To-lo Beileh, prince of the third order; (4) Ku-shan Beitsze, +prince of the fourth order; 5 to 8, Kung, or duke (with distinctive +designations); 9 to 12, Tsiang-keun, general (with distinctive designations). +The sons of emperors usually receive patents of the first +or second order on their reaching manhood, and on their sons is +bestowed the title of <i>Beileh</i>. A <i>Beileh’s</i> sons become <i>Beitsze</i>; a +Beitsze’s sons become <i>Kung</i>, and so on.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. K. D.; X.)</div> + +<p class="center1">(D)—<i>From 1875 to 1901.</i></p> + +<p>The accession to the throne of Kwang-su in January 1875 +attracted little notice outside China, as the supreme power +continued to be vested in the two dowager-empresses—the +empress Tsz‘e An, principal wife of the emperor +<span class="sidenote">The two dowager-empresses.</span> +Hien-fêng, and the empress Tsz‘e Hsi, secondary wife +of the same emperor, and mother of the emperor +T‘ung-chi. Yet there were circumstances connected with the +emperor Kwang-su‘s accession which might well have arrested +attention. The emperor T‘ung-chi, who had himself succumbed +to an ominously brief and mysterious illness, left a young widow +in an advanced state of pregnancy, and had she given birth to a +male child her son would have been the rightful heir to the throne. +But even before she sickened and died—of grief, it was officially +stated, at the loss of her imperial spouse—the dowager-empresses +had solved the question of the succession by placing Kwang-su +on the throne, a measure which was not only in itself arbitrary, +but also in direct conflict with one of the most sacred of Chinese +traditions. The solemn rites of ancestor-worship, incumbent on +every Chinaman, and, above all, upon the emperor, can only be +properly performed by a member of a younger generation than +those whom it is his duty to honour. The emperor Kwang-su, +being a first cousin to the emperor T‘ung-chi, was not therefore +qualified to offer up the customary sacrifices before the ancestral +tablets of his predecessor. The accession of an infant in the +place of T‘ung-Tchi achieved, however, for the time being what +was doubtless the paramount object of the policy of the two +empresses, namely, their undisturbed tenure of the regency, in +which the junior empress Tsz‘e Hsi, a woman of unquestionable +ability and boundless ambition, had gradually become the +predominant partner.</p> + +<p>The first question that occupied the attention of the government +under the new reign was one of the gravest importance, +and nearly led to a war with Great Britain. The Indian +government was desirous of seeing the old trade relations +between Burma and the south-west provinces, which had been +interrupted by the Yun-nan rebellion, re-established, and for that +purpose proposed to send a mission across the frontier into China. +The Peking government assented and issued passports +<span class="sidenote">Murder of Mr Margary.</span> +for the party, which was under the command of Colonel +Browne. Mr A.R. Margary, a young and promising +member of the China consular service, who was told +off to accompany the expedition as interpreter, was treacherously +murdered by Chinese at the small town of Manwyne and almost +simultaneously an attack was made on the expedition by armed +forces wearing Chinese uniform (January 1875). Colonel Browne +with difficulty made his way back to Bhamo and the expedition +was abandoned.</p> + +<p>Tedious negotiations followed, and, more than eighteen months +after the outrage, an arrangement was come to on the basis of +guarantees for the future, rather than vengeance for +the past. The arrangement was embodied in the +<span class="sidenote">Chifu convention 1876.</span> +Chifu convention, dated 13th September 1876. The +terms of the settlement comprised (1) a mission of +apology from China to the British court; (2) the promulgation +throughout the length and breadth of the empire of an imperial +proclamation, setting out the right of foreigners to travel under +passport, and the obligation of the authorities to protect them; +and (3) the payment of indemnity. Additional articles were +subsequently signed in London relative to the collection of likin +on Indian opium and other matters.</p> + +<p>Simultaneously with the outbreak of the Mahommedan +rebellion in Yun-nan, a similar disturbance had arisen +in the north-west provinces of Shen-si and Kan-suh. +This was followed by a revolt of the whole of the +<span class="sidenote">Revolt in Central Asia.</span> +Central Asian tribes, which for two thousand years had +more or less acknowledged the imperial sway. In Kashgaria a +nomad chief named Yakub Beg, otherwise known as the Atalik +Ghāzi, had made himself amir, and seemed likely to establish +a strong rule. The fertile province of Kulja or Ili, lying to the +north of the T‘ianshan range, was taken possession of by Russia +in 1871 in order to put a stop to the prevailing anarchy, but +with a promise that when China should have succeeded in +re-establishing order in her Central Asian dominions it should be +given back. The interest which was taken in the rebellion in +Central Asia by the European powers, notably by the sultan of +Turkey and the British government, aroused the Chinese to +renewed efforts to recover their lost territories, and, as in the +case of the similar crisis in Yun-nan, they undertook the task +with sturdy deliberation. They borrowed money—£1,600,000—for +the expenses of the expedition, this being the first appearance +of China as a borrower in the foreign markets, and appointed the +viceroy, Tso Tsung-t‘ang, commander-in-chief. By degrees the +emperor’s authority was established from the confines of Kan-suh +to Kashgar and Yarkand, and Chinese garrisons were stationed +in touch with the Russian outpost in the region of the Pamirs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span> +(December 1877). Russia was now called upon to restore +Kulja, China being in a position to maintain order. China +despatched Chung-how, a Manchu of the highest rank, who had +been notoriously concerned in the Tientsin massacre of 1870, +to St Petersburg to negotiate a settlement. After some months +of discussion a document was signed (September 1879), termed +<span class="sidenote">Imperial consolidation.</span> +the treaty of Livadia, whereby China recovered, not +indeed the whole, but a considerable portion of the +territory, on her paying to Russia five million +roubles as the cost of occupation. The treaty was, +however, received with a storm of indignation in China. +Memorials poured in from all sides denouncing the treaty and +its author. Foremost among these was one by Chang Chih-tung, +who afterwards became the most distinguished of the +viceroys, and governor-general of Hu-peh and Hu-nan provinces. +Prince Chun, the emperor’s father, came into prominence at this +juncture as an advocate for war, and under these combined +influences the unfortunate Chung-how was tried and condemned +to death (3rd of March 1880). For some months warlike preparations +went on, and the outbreak of hostilities was imminent. +In the end, however, calmer counsels prevailed. It was decided +to send the Marquis Tseng, who in the meantime had become +minister in London, to Russia to negotiate. A new treaty +which still left Russia in possession of part of the Ili valley +was ratified on the 19th of August 1881. The Chinese government +could now contemplate the almost complete recovery of +the whole extensive dominions which had at any time owned +the imperial sway. The regions directly administered by the +officers of the emperor extended from the borders of Siberia +on the north to Annam and Burma on the south, and from +the Pacific Ocean on the east to Kashgar and Yarkand on the +west. There was also a fringe of tributary nations which still +kept up the ancient forms of allegiance, and which more or +less acknowledged the dominioi of the central kingdom. The +principal tributary nations then were Korea, Lu-chu, Annam, +Burma and Nepal.</p> + +<p>Korea was the first of the dependencies to come into notice. In +1866 some Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered, and +about the same time an American vessel was burnt in one of the +rivers and her crew murdered. China refused satisfaction; both +to France and America, and suffered reprisals to be made on +Korea without protest. America and Japan both desired to +conclude commercial treaties for the opening up of Korea, and +proposed to negotiate with China. China refused and +<span class="sidenote">Korea and Japan.</span> +referred them to the Korean government direct, saying +she was not wont to interfere in the affairs of her vassal +states. As a result Japan concluded a treaty in 1876, in which +the independence of Korea was expressly recognized. This was +allowed to pass without protest, but as other nations proceeded +to conclude treaties on the same terms China began to perceive +her mistake, and endeavoured to tack on to each a declaration +by the king that he was in fact a tributary—a declaration, +however, which was quietly ignored. Japan, however, was the +only power with which controversy immediately arose. In 1882 +a faction fight, which had long been smouldering, broke out, +headed by the king’s father, the Tai Won Kun, in the course of +which the Japanese legation was attacked and the whole Japanese +colony had to flee for their lives. China sent troops, and by +adroitly kidnapping the Tai Won Kun, order was for a time +restored. The Japanese legation was replaced, but under the +protection of a strong body of Japanese troops. Further revolutions +and riots followed, in which the troops of the two countries +took sides, and there was imminent danger of war. To obviate +this risk, it was agreed in 1885 between Count Ito and Li Hung-Chang +that both sides should withdraw their troops, the king +being advised to engage officers of a third state to put his army +on such a footing as would maintain order, and each undertook +to give the other notice should it be found necessary to send +troops again. In this way a <i>modus vivendi</i> was established +which lasted till 1894.</p> + +<p>We can only glance briefly at the domestic affairs of China during +the period 1875-1882. The years 1877-1878 were marked by +a famine in Shan-si and Shan-tung, which for duration and +intensity has probably never been equalled. It was computed +that 12 or 13 millions perished. It was vainly hoped +<span class="sidenote">Domestic affairs, 1875-1882.</span> +that this loss of life, due mainly to defective commumcations, +would induce the Chinese government +to listen to proposals for railway construction. +The Russian scare had, however, taught the Chinese the value +of telegraphs, and in 1881 the first line was laid from Tientsin +to Shanghai. Further construction was continued without +intermission from this date. A beginning also was made in +naval affairs. The arsenal at Fuchow was turning out small +composite gunboats, a training ship was bought and put under +the command of a British officer. Several armoured cruisers +were ordered from England, and some progress was made +with the fortifications of Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei. Forts +were also built and guns mounted at Fuchow, Shanghai, Canton +and other vulnerable points. Money for these purposes was +abundantly supplied by the customs duties on foreign trade, +and China had learnt that at need she could borrow from the +foreign banks on the security of this revenue.</p> + +<p>In 1881 the senior regent, the empress Tsz‘e An, was carried +off by a sudden attack of heart disease, and the empress Tsz‘e Hsi +remained in undivided possession of the supreme power during +the remainder of the emperor Kwang-su’s minority. Li Hung-Chang, +firmly established at Tientsin, within easy reach of the +capital, as viceroy of the home province of Chih-li and superintendent +of northern trade, enjoyed a larger share of his imperial +mistress’s favour than was often granted by the ruling Manchus +to officials of Chinese birth, and in all the graver questions of +foreign policy his advice was generally decisive.</p> + +<p>While the dispute with Japan was still going on regarding +Korea, China found herself involved in a more serious quarrel in +respect of another tributary state which lay on the +southern frontier. By a treaty made between France +<span class="sidenote">Tongking and Hanoi.</span> +and Annam in 1874, the Red river or Songkoi, which +rising in-south-western China, flows through Tongking, +was opened to trade, together with the cities of Haiphong and +Hanoi situated on the delta. The object of the French was to +find a trade route to Yun-nan and Sze-ch‘uen from a base of their +own, and it was hoped the Red river would furnish such a +route. Tongking at this time, however, was infested with bands +of pirates and cut-throats, many of whom were Chinese rebels +or ex-rebels who had been driven across the frontier by the +suppression of the Yun-nan and Taiping rebellions, conspicuous +among them being an organization called the Black Flags. +And when in 1882 France sent troops to Tongking to restore +order (the Annamese government having failed to fulfil its +promises in that respect) China began to protest, claiming that +Annam was a vassal state and under her protection.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>France took no notice of the protest, declaring that the claim had +merely an archaeological interest, and that, in any case, China in +military affairs was a <i>quantité négligeable</i>. France found, +however, that she had undertaken a very serious task in +<span class="sidenote">Troubles with France.</span> +trying to put down the forces of disorder (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tongking</a></span>). +The Black Flags were, it was believed, being aided by +money and arms from China, and as time went on, the French were +more and more being confronted with regular Chinese soldiers. +Several forts, well within the Tongking frontier, were known to be +garrisoned by Chinese troops. Operations continued with more or +less success during the winter and spring of 1883-1884. Both sides, +however, were desirous of an arrangement, and in May 1884 a convention +was signed between Li Hung-Chang and a Captain Fournier, +who had been commissioned <i>ad hoc</i>, whereby China agreed to withdraw +her garrisons and to open her frontiers to trade, France agreeing, +on her part, to respect the fiction of Chinese suzerainty, and guarantee +the frontier from attack by brigands. No date had been fixed in the +convention for the evacuation of the Chinese garrisons, and Fournier +endeavoured to supplement this by a memorandum to Li Hung-Chang, +at the same time announcing the fact to his government. In +pursuance of this arrangement the French troops proceeded to occupy +Langson on the date fixed (21st June 1884). The Chinese commandant +refused to evacuate, alleging, in a despatch which no one +in the French camp was competent to translate, that he had received +no orders, and begged for a short delay to enable him to communicate +with his superiors. The French commandant ordered an attack, +which was repulsed with severe loss. Mutual recriminations ensued. +From Paris there came a demand for a huge indemnity as reparation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span> +for the insult. The Peking government offered to carry out the +convention, and to pay a small indemnity for the lives lost through +the misunderstanding. This was refused, and hostilities recommenced, +or, as the French preferred to call them, reprisals, for the +fiction was still kept up that the two countries were not at war. +Under cover of this fiction the French fleet peaceably entered the +harbour of Fuchow, having passed the forts at the entrance to the +river without hindrance. Once inside, they attacked and destroyed +the much inferior Chinese fleet which was then quietly at anchor, +destroying at the same time a large part of the arsenal which adjoins +the anchorage (23rd August 1884). Retracing its steps, the French +fleet attacked and destroyed with impunity the forts which were +built to guard the entrance to the Min river, and could offer no +resistance to a force coming from the rear. After this exploit the +French fleet left the mainland and continued its reprisals on the coast +of Formosa. Kelung, a treaty port, was bombarded and taken, +October 4th. A similar attempt, however, on the neighbouring port +of Tamsui was unsuccessful, the landing party having been driven +back to their ships with severe loss. The attempt was not renewed, +and the fleet thereafter confined itself to a semi-blockade of the +island, which was prolonged into 1885 but led to no practical results. +Negotiations for peace, however, which had been for some time in +progress through the mediation of Sir Robert Hart, were at this +juncture happily concluded (April 1885). The terms were practically +those of the Fournier convention of the year before, the demand for +an indemnity having been quietly dropped.</p> +</div> + +<p>China, on the whole, came out of the struggle with greatly +increased prestige. She had tried conclusions with a +first-class European power and had held her own. Incorrect +conclusions as to the military strength of China were +<span class="sidenote">Increased prestige of China.</span> +consequently drawn, not merely by the Chinese +themselves—which was excusable—but by European and +even British authorities, who ought to have been better informed. +War vessels were ordered by China both from England and +Germany, and Admiral Lang, who had withdrawn his services +while the war was going on, was re-engaged together with a +number of British officers and instructors. The completion of +the works at Port Arthur was taken in hand, and a beginning +was made in the construction of forts at Wei-hai-wei as a second +naval base. A new department was created for the control of +naval affairs, at the head of which was placed Prince Chun, +father of the emperor, who since the downfall of Prince Kung +in 1884 had been taking a more and more prominent part in +public affairs.</p> + +<p>From 1885 to 1894 the political history of China does not call +for extended notice. Two incidents, however, must be recorded, +(1) the conclusion in 1886 of a convention with Great Britain, in +which the Chinese government undertook to recognize British +sovereignty in Burma, and (2) the temporary occupation of Port +Hamilton by the British fleet (May 1885-February 1887). +<span class="sidenote">1885-1894.</span> +In 1890 Admiral Lang resigned his command +of the Chinese fleet. During a temporary absence of +Lang’s colleague, Admiral Ting, the Chinese second in command, +claimed the right to take charge—a claim which Admiral Lang +naturally resented. The question was referred to Li Hung-Chang, +who decided against Lang, whereupon the latter threw +up his commission. From this point the fleet on which so much +depended began to deteriorate. Superior officers again began +to steal the men’s pays, the ships were starved, shells filled with +charcoal instead of powder were supplied, accounts were cooked, +and all the corruption and malfeasance that were rampant in +the army crept back into the navy.</p> + +<p>The year 1894 witnessed the outbreak of the war with Japan. +In the spring, complications again arose with Japan over Korea, +and hostilities began in July. The story of the war is +told elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chino-Japanese War</a></span>), and it is +<span class="sidenote">War with Japan, 1894.</span> +unnecessary here to recount the details of the decisive +victory of Japan. A new power had arisen in the +Far East, and when peace was signed by Li Hung-Chang at +Shimonoseki on the 17th of April 1895 it meant the beginning +of a new epoch. The terms included the cession of Liao-tung +peninsula, then in actual occupation by the Japanese troops, +the cession of Formosa, an indemnity of H. taels 200,000,000 +(about £30,000,000) and various commercial privileges.</p> + +<p>The signature of this treaty brought the European powers on +the scene. It had been for some time the avowed ambition of +Russia to obtain an ice-free port as an outlet to her Siberian +possessions—an ambition which was considered by British statesmen +as not unreasonable. It did not, therefore, at all suit her +purposes to see the rising power of Japan commanding +<span class="sidenote">European intervention.</span> +the whole of the coast-line of Korea. Accordingly in +the interval between the signature and the ratification +of the treaty, invitations were addressed by Russia +to the great powers to intervene with a view to its modification +on the ground of the disturbance of the balance of power, +and the menace to China which the occupation of Port Arthur by +the Japanese would involve. France and Germany accepted the +invitation, Great Britain declined. In the end the three powers +brought such pressure to bear on Japan that she gave up the +whole of her continental acquisitions, retaining only the island of +Formosa. The indemnity was on the other hand increased by +H. taels 30,000,000. For the time the integrity of China seemed +to be preserved, and Russia, France and Germany could pose as +her friends. Evidence was, however, soon forthcoming that +Russia and France had not been disinterested in rescuing +Chinese territory from the Japanese grasp. Russia now obtained +the right to carry the Siberian railway across Chinese territory +from Stryetensk to Vladivostok, thus avoiding a long détour, +besides giving a grasp on northern Manchuria. France obtained, +by a convention dated the 20th of June 1895, a rectification of +frontier in the Mekong valley and certain railway and mining +rights in Kiang-si and Yun-nan. Both powers obtained concessions +of land at Hankow for the purposes of a settlement. +Russia was also said to have negotiated a secret treaty, +frequently described as the “Cassini Convention,” but more +probably signed by Li Hung-Chang at Moscow, giving her the +right in certain contingencies to Port Arthur, which was to be +refortified with Russian assistance. And by way of further +securing her hold, Russia guaranteed a 4% loan of £15,000,000 +issued in Paris to enable China to pay off the first instalment of +the Japanese indemnity.</p> + +<p>The convention between France and China of the 20th of June +1895 brought China into sharp conflict with Great +Britain. China, having by the Burma convention of +1886 agreed to recognize British sovereignty over +<span class="sidenote">Mekong valley dispute, 1895.</span> +Burma, her quondam feudatory, also agreed to a delimitation +of boundaries at the proper time. Effect was given to +this last stipulation by a subsequent convention concluded in +London (1st of March 1894), which traced the boundary line from +the Shan states on the west as far as the Mekong river on the east. +In the Mekong valley there were two semi-independent native +territories over which suzerainty had been claimed in times gone +by both by the kings of Ava and by the Chinese emperors. +These territories were named Meng Lun and Kiang Hung—the +latter lying partly on one side and partly on the other of the +Mekong river, south of the point where it issues from Chinese +territory. The boundary line was so drawn as to leave both +these territories to China, but it was stipulated that China should +not alienate any portion of these territories to any other power +without the previous consent of Great Britain. Yielding to +French pressure, and regardless of the undertaking she had +entered into with Great Britain, China, in the convention with +France in June 1895, so drew the boundary line as to cede to +France that portion of the territory of Kiang Hung which lay +on the left bank of the Mekong. Compensation was demanded +by Great Britain from China for this breach of faith, and at the +same time negotiations were entered into with France. These +resulted in a joint declaration by the governments of France and +Great Britain, dated the 15th of January 1896, by which it was +agreed as regards boundary that the Mekong from the point of +its confluence with the Nam Huk northwards as far as the +Chinese frontier should be the dividing line between the +possessions or spheres of influence of the two powers. It was also +agreed that any commercial privileges obtained by either power +in Yun-nan or Sze-ch‘uen should be open to the subjects of the +other. The negotiations with China resulted in a further agreement, +dated the 4th of February 1897, whereby considerable +modifications in favour of Great Britain were made in the +Burma boundary drawn by the 1894 convention.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span></p> + +<p>While Russia and France were profiting by what they were +pleased to call the generosity of China, Germany alone had so far +received no reward for her share in compelling the +retrocession of Liao-tung; but, in November 1897, she +<span class="sidenote">Kiaochow, Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei.</span> +proceeded to help herself by seizing the Bay of +Kiaochow in the province of Shan-tung. The act was +done ostensibly in order to compel satisfaction for the +murder of two German missionaries. A cession was ultimately +made by way of a lease for a term of ninety-nine years—Germany +to have full territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the +lease, with liberty to erect fortifications, build docks, and exercise +all the rights of sovereignty. In December the Russian fleet was +sent to winter in Port Arthur, and though this was at first described +as a temporary measure, its object was speedily disclosed +by a request made, in January 1898, by the Russian ambassador +in London that two British cruisers, then also anchored at Port +Arthur, should be withdrawn “in order to avoid friction in the +Russian sphere of influence.” They left shortly afterwards, and +their departure in the circumstances was regarded as a blow to +Great Britain’s prestige in the Far East. In March the Russian +government peremptorily demanded a lease of Port Arthur and +the adjoining anchorage of Talienwan—a demand which China +could not resist without foreign support. After an acrimonious +correspondence with the Russian government Great Britain +acquiesced in the <i>fait accompli</i>. The Russian occupation of Port +Arthur was immediately followed by a concession to build a line +of railway from that point northwards to connect with the +Siberian trunk line in north Manchuria. As a counterpoise to the +growth of Russian influence in the north, Great Britain obtained +a lease of Wei-hai-wei, and formally took possession of it on its +evacuation by the Japanese troops in May 1898.</p> + +<p>After much hesitation the Chinese government had at last +resolved to permit the construction of railways with foreign +capital. An influential official named Sheng Hsuan-hwai was +appointed director-general of railways, and empowered to enter +into negotiations with foreign capitalists for that purpose. +A keen competition thereupon ensued between syndicates of +different nationalities, and their claims being espoused by their +various governments, an equally keen international rivalry was +set up. Great Britain, though intimating her preference for the +“open door” policy, meaning equal opportunity for +<span class="sidenote">“Open door,” and “spheres of influence.”</span> +all, yet found herself compelled to fall in with the +general movement towards what became known as the +“spheres of influence” policy, and claimed the Yangtsze +valley as her particular sphere. This she did by the +somewhat negative method of obtaining from the +Chinese government a declaration that no part of the Yangtsze +valley should be alienated to any foreign power. A more formal +recognition of the claim, as far as railway enterprise was concerned, +was embodied in an agreement (28th of April 1899) +between Great Britain and Russia, and communicated to the +Chinese government, whereby the Russian government agreed +not to seek for any concessions within the Yangtsze valley, +including all the provinces bordering on the great river, together +with Cheh-kiang and Ho-nan, the British government entering +into a similar undertaking in regard to the Chinese dominions +north of the Great Wall.<a name="FnAnchor_50d" id="FnAnchor_50d" href="#Footnote_50d"><span class="sp">50</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1899 Talienwan and Kiaochow were respectively thrown open +by Russia and Germany to foreign trade, and, encouraged by these +measures, the United States government initiated in September of +the same year a correspondence with the great European powers and +Japan, with a view to securing their definite adhesion to the “open +door” policy. The British government gave an unqualified approval +to the American proposal, and the replies of the other powers, +though more guarded, were accepted at Washington as satisfactory. +A further and more definite step towards securing the maintenance +of the “open door” in China was the agreement concluded in October +1900 between the British and German governments. The signatories, +by the first two articles, agreed to endeavour to keep the ports on the +rivers and littoral free and open to international trade and economic +activity, and to uphold this rule for all Chinese territory as far as (<i>wo</i> +in the German counterpart) they could exercise influence; not to use +the existing complications to obtain territorial advantages in Chinese +dominions, and to seek to maintain undiminished the territorial +condition of the Chinese empire. By a third article they reserved +their right to come to a preliminary understanding for the protection +of their interests in China, should any other power use those complications +to obtain such territorial advantages under any form whatever. +On the submission of the agreement to the powers interested, +Austria, France, Italy and Japan accepted its principles without +express reservation—Japan first obtaining assurances that she signed +on the same footing as an original signatory. The United States +accepted the first two articles, but expressed no opinion on the third. +Russia construed the first as limited to ports actually open in regions +where the two signatories exercise “their” influence, and favourably +entertained it in that sense, ignoring the reference to other forms of +economic activity. She fully accepted the second, and observed that +in the contingency contemplated by the third, she would modify her +attitude according to circumstances.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, negotiations carried on by the British minister at +Peking during 1898 resulted in the grant of very important privileges +to foreign commerce. The payment of the second instalment of the +Japanese indemnity was becoming due, and it was much discussed +how and on what terms China would be able to raise the amount. +The Russian government, as has been stated, had made China a loan +of the sum required for the first portion of the indemnity, viz. +£15,000,000, taking a charge on the customs revenue as security. +The British government was urged to make a like loan of £16,000,000 +both as a matter of friendship to China and as a counterpoise to the +Russian influence. An arrangement was come to accordingly, on +very favourable terms financially to the Chinese, but at the last +moment they drew back, being overawed, as they said, by the +threatening attitude of Russia. Taking advantage of the position +which this refusal gave him, the British minister obtained from the +Tsung-Li-Yamen, besides the declaration as to the non-alienation of +the Yangtsze valley above mentioned, an undertaking to throw the +whole of the inland waterways open to steam traffic. The Chinese +government at the same time undertook that the post of inspector-general +of customs (then held by Sir Robert Hart) should always be +held by an Englishman so long as the trade of Great Britain was +greater than that of any other nation. Minor concessions were also +made, but the opening of the waterways was by far the greatest +advance that had been made since 1860.</p> + +<p>Of still greater importance were the railway and mining concessions +granted during the same year (1898). The Chinese government had +been generally disposed to railway construction since the conclusion +of the Japanese War, but hoped to be able to retain the control in +their own hands. The masterful methods of Russia and Germany +had obliged them to surrender this control so far as concerned +Manchuria and Shan-tung. In the Yangtsze valley, Sheng, the +director-general of railways, had been negotiating with several +competing syndicates. One of these was a Franco-Belgian syndicate, +which was endeavouring to obtain the trunk line from Hankow to +Peking. A British company was tendering for the same work, and +as the line lay mainly within the British sphere it was considered +not unreasonable to expect it should be given to the latter. At a +critical moment, however, the French and Russian ministers intervened, +and practically forced the Yamen to grant a contract in favour +of the Franco-Belgian company. The Yamen had a few days before +explicitly promised the British minister that the contract should not +be ratified without his having an opportunity of seeing it. As a +penalty for this breach of faith, and as a set-off to the Franco-Belgian +line, the British minister required the immediate grant of all the +railway concessions for which British syndicates were then negotiating, +and on terms not inferior to those granted to the Belgian line. +In this way all the lines in the lower Yangtsze, as also the Shan-si +Mining Companies’ lines, were secured. A contract for a trunk line +from Canton to Hankow was negotiated in the latter part of 1898 by +an American company.</p> +</div> + +<p>There can be little doubt that the powers, engrossed in the +diplomatic conflicts of which Peking was the centre, had +entirely underrated the reactionary forces gradually mustering +for a struggle against the aggressive spirit of Western civilization. +The lamentable consequences of administrative corruption and +incompetence, and the superiority of foreign methods which +had been amply illustrated by the Japanese War, had at first +produced a considerable impression, not only upon the more +enlightened commercial classes, but even upon many of the +younger members of the official classes in China. The dowager-empress, +who, in spite of the emperor Kwang-su having nominally +attained his majority, had retained practical control of the +supreme power until the conflict with Japan, had been held, +not unjustly, to blame for the disasters of the war, and even +before its conclusion the young emperor was adjured by some +of the most responsible among his own subjects to shake himself +free from the baneful restraint of “petticoat government,” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span> +and himself take the helm. In the following years a reform +movement, undoubtedly genuine, though opinions differ as to +the value of the popular support which it claimed, +<span class="sidenote">The reform movement, 1898.</span> +spread throughout the central and southern provinces +of the empire. One of the most significant +symptoms was the relatively large demand which +suddenly arose for the translations of foreign works and similar +publications in the Chinese language which philanthropic societies, +such as that “for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge +amongst the Chinese,” had been trying for some time +past to popularize, though hitherto with scant success. Chinese +newspapers published in the treaty ports spread the ferment of +new ideas far into the interior. Fifteen hundred young +men of good family applied to enter the foreign university +at Peking, and in some of the provincial towns the Chinese +themselves subscribed towards the opening of foreign schools. +Reform societies, which not infrequently enjoyed official countenance, +sprang up in many of the large towns, and found +numerous adherents amongst the younger <i>literati</i>. Early in 1898 +the emperor, who had gradually emancipated himself from the +dowager-empress’s control, summoned several of the reform +leaders to Peking, and requested their advice with regard to +the progressive measures which should be introduced into the +government of the empire. Chief amongst these reformers was +Kang Yu-wei, a Cantonese, whose scholarly attainments, combined +with novel teachings, earned for him from his followers +the title of the “Modern Sage.” Of his more or less active +sympathizers who had subsequently to suffer with him in the +cause of reform, the most prominent were Chang Yin-huan, a +member of the grand council and of the Tsung-Li-Yamen, who +had represented his sovereign at Queen Victoria’s jubilee in +1897; Chin Pao-chen, governor of Hu-nan; Liang Chichao, the +editor of the reformers’ organ, <i>Chinese Progress</i>; Su Chiching, +a reader of the Hanlin College, the educational stronghold of +Chinese conservatism; and his son Su In-chi, also a Hanlin +man, and provincial chancellor of public instruction in Hu-nan.</p> + +<p>It soon became evident, that there was no more enthusiastic +advocate of the new ideas than the emperor himself. Within a +few months the vermilion pencil gave the imperial sanction to +a succession of edicts which, had they been carried into effect, +would have amounted to a revolution as far-reaching as that +which had transformed Japan thirty years previously. The +fossilized system of examinations for the public service was to +be altogether superseded by a new schedule based on foreign +learning, for the better promotion of which a number of temples +were to be converted into schools for Western education; a state +department was to be created for the translation and dissemination +of the standard works of Western literature and science; +even the scions of the ruling Manchu race were to be compelled +to study foreign languages and travel abroad; and last, but not +least, all useless offices both in Peking and in the provinces were +to be abolished. A further edict was even reported to be in +contemplation, doing away with the <i>queue</i> or pigtail, which, +originally imposed upon the Chinese by their Manchu conquerors +as a badge of subjection, had gradually become the most +characteristic and most cherished feature of the national +dress. But the bureaucracy of China, which had battened for +centuries on corruption and ignorance, had no taste for self-sacrifice. +Other vested interests felt themselves equally +threatened, and behind them stood the whole latent force of +popular superstition and unreasoning conservatism.</p> + +<p>The dowager-empress saw her opportunity. The Summer +Palace, to which she had retired, had been for some time the +centre of resistance to the new movement, and in the middle of +September 1898 a report became current that, in order to put +an end to the obstruction which hampered his reform policy, +the emperor intended to seize the person of the dowager-empress +and have her deported into the interior. Some colour was given +to this report by an official announcement that the emperor would +hold a review of the foreign-drilled troops at Tientsin, and had +summoned Yuan Shihkai, their general, to Peking in order to +confer with him on the necessary arrangements. But the reformers +had neglected to secure the goodwill of the army, which +was still entirely in the hands of the reactionaries. During the +night of the 20th of September the palace of the emperor +<span class="sidenote">The Empress’s coup d‘état.</span> +was occupied by the soldiers, and on the following +day Kwang-su, who was henceforth virtually a prisoner +in the hands of the empress, was made to issue an +edict restoring her regency. Kang Yu-wei, warned at the last +moment by an urgent message from the emperor, succeeded in +escaping, but many of the most prominent reformers were +arrested, and six of them were promptly executed. The <i>Peking +Gazette</i> announced a few days later that the emperor himself was +dangerously ill, and his life might well have been despaired of had +not the British minister represented in very emphatic terms the +serious consequences which might ensue if anything happened to +him. Drastic measures were, however, adopted to stamp out +the reform movement in the provinces as well as in the capital. +The reform edicts were cancelled, the reformers’ associations +were dissolved, their newspapers suppressed, and those who did +not care to save themselves by a hasty recantation of their errors +were imprisoned, proscribed or exiled. In October the reaction +had already been accompanied by such a recrudescence of anti-foreign +feeling that the foreign ministers at Peking had to bring +up guards from the fleet for the protection of the legations, and to +demand the removal from the capital of the disorderly Kan-suh +soldiery which subsequently played so sinister a part in the +troubles of June 1900. But the unpleasant impression produced +by these incidents was in a great measure removed by the +demonstrative reception which the empress Tsz‘e Hsi gave on +the 15th of October to the wives of the foreign representatives—an +act of courtesy unprecedented in the annals of the Chinese +court.</p> + +<p>The reactionary tide continued to rise throughout the year +1899, but it did not appear materially to affect the foreign +relations of China. Towards the end of the year +the brutal murder of Mr Brooks, an English missionary, +<span class="sidenote">The Boxer movement, 1900.</span> +in Shan-tung, had compelled attention to a +popular movement which had been spreading rapidly +throughout that province and the adjoining one of Chih-li +with the connivance of certain high officials, if not under their +direct patronage. The origin of the “Boxer” movement is obscure. +Its name is derived from a literal translation of the Chinese +designation, “the fist of righteous harmony.” Like the kindred +“Big Sword” Society, it appears to have been in the first +instance merely a secret association of malcontents chiefly +drawn from the lower classes. Whether the empress Tsz‘e Hsi +and her Manchu advisers had deliberately set themselves +from the beginning to avert the danger by deflecting what +might have been a revolutionary movement into anti-foreign +channels, or whether with Oriental heedlessness they had +allowed it to grow until they were powerless to control it, they +had unquestionably resolved to take it under their protection +before the foreign representatives at Peking had realized its +gravity. The outrages upon native Christians and the threats +against foreigners generally went on increasing. The Boxers +openly displayed on their banners the device: “Exterminate +the foreigners and save the dynasty,” yet the representatives +of the powers were unable to obtain any effective measures +against the so-called “rebels,” or even a definite condemnation +of their methods.<a name="FnAnchor_51d" id="FnAnchor_51d" href="#Footnote_51d"><span class="sp">51</span></a></p> + +<p>Four months (January-April 1900) were spent in futile interviews +with the Tsung-Li-Yamen. In May a number of Christian +villages were destroyed and native converts massacred near the +capital. On the 2nd of June two English missionaries, Mr +Robinson and Mr Norman, were murdered at Yung Ching, 40 m. +from Peking. The whole country was overrun with bands of +Boxers, who tore up the railway and set fire to the stations at +different points on the Peking-Tientsin line. Fortunately a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span> +mixed body of marines and bluejackets of various nationalities, +numbering 18 officers and 389 men, had reached Peking on the +1st of June for the protection of the legations. The whole city +was in a state of turmoil. Murder and pillage were of daily +occurrence. The reactionary Prince Tuan (grandson of the +emperor Tao-kwang) and the Manchus generally, together with +the Kan-suh soldiery under the notorious Tung-fu-hsiang, +openly sided with the Boxers. The European residents and a +large number of native converts took refuge in the British +legation, where preparations were hastily made in view of a +threatened attack. On the 11th the chancellor of the Japanese +legation, Mr Sugiyama, was murdered by Chinese soldiers. On +the night of the 13th most of the foreign buildings, churches and +mission houses in the eastern part of the Tatar city were pillaged +and burnt, and hundreds of native Christians massacred. On +the 20th of June the German minister, Baron von Ketteler, was +murdered whilst on his way to the Tsung-Li-Yamen. At 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> +on the afternoon of the 20th the Chinese troops opened fire +upon the legations. The general direction of the defence was +undertaken by Sir Claude Macdonald, the British minister.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Peking had been completely cut off since the 14th +from all communication with the outside world, and in view of +the gravity of the situation, naval and military forces +were being hurried up by all the powers to the Gulf +<span class="sidenote">International expedition.</span> +of Chih-li. On the 10th of June Admiral Sir E. Seymour +had already left Tientsin with a mixed force of 2000 +British, Russian, French, Germans, Austrians, Italians, Americans +and Japanese, to repair the railway and restore communications +with Peking. But his expedition met with unexpectedly +severe resistance, and it had great difficulty in making good +its retreat after suffering heavy losses. When it reached Tientsin +again on the 26th of June, the British contingent of 915 men had +alone lost 124 killed and wounded out of a total casualty list of +62 killed and 218 wounded. The Chinese had in the meantime +made a determined attack upon the foreign settlements at +Tientsin, and communication between the city and the sea +being also threatened, the Taku forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho +were captured by the allied admirals on the 17th. The situation +at Tientsin nevertheless continued precarious, and it was not +till the arrival of considerable reinforcements that the troops +of the allied powers were able to assume the offensive, taking +the native city by storm on July 14th, at a cost, however, of +over 700 killed and wounded. Even in this emergency international +jealousy had grievously delayed the necessary concentration +of forces. No power was so favourably situated to +take immediate action as Japan, and the British government, +who had strongly urged her to act speedily and energetically, +undertook at her request to sound the other powers with regard +to her intervention. No definite objection was raised, but the +replies of Germany and Russia barely disguised their ill-humour. +Great Britain herself went so far as to offer Japan the assistance +of the British treasury, in case financial difficulties stood in the +way, but on the same day on which this proposal was telegraphed +to Tokyo (6th of July), the Japanese government had decided +to embark forthwith the two divisions which it had already +mobilized. By the beginning of August one of the Indian +brigades had also reached Tientsin together with smaller reinforcements +sent by the other powers, and thanks chiefly to the +energetic counsels of the British commander, General Sir Alfred +Gaselee, a relief column, numbering 20,000 men, at last set out for +Peking on the 4th of August, a British naval brigade having started +up river the previous afternoon. After a series of small engagements +and very trying marches it arrived within striking distance +of Peking on the evening of the 13th. The Russians tried to steal +a march upon the allies during the night, but were checked at the +walls and suffered heavy losses. The Japanese attacked another +point of the walls the next morning, but met with fierce opposition, +whilst the Americans were delayed by getting entangled in +the Russian line of advance. The British contingent was more +fortunate, and skilfully guided to an unguarded water-gate, +General Gaselee and a party of Sikhs were the first to force +their way through to the British legation. About 2 p.m. +on the afternoon of the 14th of August, the long siege was +raised.</p> + +<p>For nearly six weeks after the first interruption of communications, +no news reached the outside world from Peking except a +few belated messages, smuggled through the Chinese +lines by native runners, urging the imperative necessity +<span class="sidenote">Siege of the Peking legations.</span> +of prompt relief. During the greater part of that +period the foreign quarter was subjected to heavy rifle +and artillery fire, and the continuous fighting at close quarters +with the hordes of Chinese regulars, as well as Boxers, decimated +the scanty ranks of the defenders. The supply of both ammunition +and food was slender. But the heroism displayed by civilians +and professional combatants alike was inexhaustible. In their +anxiety to burn out the British legation, the Chinese did not +hesitate to set fire to the adjoining buildings of the Hanlin, the +ancient seat of Chinese classical learning, and the storehouse of +priceless literary treasures and state archives. The <i>Fu</i>, or +palace, of Prince Su, separated only by a canal from the British +legation, formed the centre of the international position, and +was held with indomitable valour by a small Japanese force +under Colonel Sheba, assisted by a few Italian marines and +volunteers of other nationalities and a number of Christian +Chinese. The French legation on the extreme right, and the +section of the city wall held chiefly by Germans and Americans, +were also points of vital importance which had to bear the +brunt of the Chinese attack.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Little is known as to what passed in the councils of the Chinese +court during the siege.<a name="FnAnchor_52d" id="FnAnchor_52d" href="#Footnote_52d"><span class="sp">52</span></a> But there is reason to believe that throughout +that period grave divergences of opinion existed amongst the highest +officials. The attack upon the legations appears to have received +the sanction of the dowager-empress, acting upon the advice of Prince +Tuan and the extreme Manchu party, at a grand council held during +the night of the 18th/19th June, upon receipt of the news of the +capture of the Taku forts by the international forces. The emperor +himself, as well as Prince Ching and a few other influential mandarins, +strongly protested against the empress’s decision, but it was acclaimed +by the vast majority of those present. Three members of the Tsung-Li-Yamen +were publicly executed for attempting to modify the terms +of an imperial edict ordering the massacre of all foreigners throughout +the provinces, and most of the Manchu nobles and high officials, and +the eunuchs of the palace, who played an important part in Chinese +politics throughout the dowager-empress’s tenure of power, were +heart and soul with the Boxers. But it was noted by the defenders +of the legations that Prince Ching’s troops seldom took part, or only +in a half-hearted way, in the fighting, which was chiefly conducted by +Tung-fu-hsiang’s soldiery and the Boxer levies. The modern artillery +which the Chinese possessed was only spasmodically brought into +play. Nor did any of the attacking parties ever show the fearlessness +and determination which the Chinese had somewhat unexpectedly +displayed on several occasions during the fighting at and around +Tientsin. Nevertheless, the position of the defenders at the end of +the first four weeks of the siege had grown well-nigh desperate. +Mining and incendiarism proved far greater dangers than shot and +shell. Suddenly, just when things were looking blackest, on the 17th +of July the Chinese ceased firing, and a sort of informal armistice +secured a period of respite for the beleaguered Europeans. The +capture of the native city of Tientsin by the allied forces had shaken +the self-confidence of the Chinese authorities, who had hitherto not +only countenanced, but themselves directed the hostilities.<a name="FnAnchor_53d" id="FnAnchor_53d" href="#Footnote_53d"><span class="sp">53</span></a> Desultory +fighting, nevertheless, continued, and grave fears were entertained +that the approach of the relief column would prove the signal +for a desperate attempt to rush the legations. The attempt was +made, but failed. The relief, however, came not a day too soon. +Of the small band of defenders which, including civilian volunteers, +had never mustered 500, 65 had been killed and 131 wounded. +Ammunition and provisions were almost at an end. Even more +desperate was the situation at the Pei-tang, the Roman Catholic +northern cathedral and mission house, where, with the help of a small +body of French and Italian marines, Mgr Favier had organized an +independent centre of resistance for his community of over 3000 +souls. Their rations were absolutely exhausted when, on the 15th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span> +of August, a relief party was despatched to their assistance from the +legations.</p> +</div> + +<p>The ruin wrought in Peking during the two months’ fighting +was appalling. Apart from the wholesale destruction of foreign +property in the Tatar city, and of Chinese as well as +European buildings in the vicinity of the legations, the +<span class="sidenote">Looting of Peking.</span> +wealthiest part of the Chinese city had been laid in +ashes. The flames from a foreign drug store fired by the Boxers +had spread to the adjoining buildings, and finally consumed the +whole of the business quarter with all its invaluable stores of +silks, curiosities, furs, &c. The retribution which overtook +Peking after its capture by the international forces was scarcely +less terrible. Looting was for some days almost universal. Order +was, however, gradually restored, first in the Japanese and then +in the British and American quarters, though several months +elapsed before there was any real revival of native confidence.</p> + +<p>So unexpected had been the rapid and victorious advance of +the allies, that the dowager-empress with the emperor and the +rest of the court did not actually leave Peking until +the day after the legations had been relieved. But +<span class="sidenote">Flight of the Chinese court.</span> +the northern and western portions of the Tatar city +had not yet been occupied, and the fugitives made +good their escape on the 15th. When the allies some days later +marched through the Forbidden City, they only found a few +eunuchs and subordinate officials in charge of the imperial +apartments. At the end of September, Field Marshal Count von +Waldersee, with a German expeditionary force of over 20,000 +men, arrived to assume the supreme command conferred upon +him with the more or less willing assent of the other powers.</p> + +<p>The political task which confronted the powers after the occupation +of Peking was far more arduous than the military one. +The action of the Russians in Manchuria, even in a +treaty port like Niu-chwang, the seizure of the railway +<span class="sidenote">Restoration of order.</span> +line not only to the north of the Great Wall, but also +from Shan-hai-kwan to Peking, by the Russian military +authorities, and the appropriation of an extensive line of river +frontage at Tientsin as a Russian “settlement,” were difficult to +reconcile with the pacific assurances of disinterestedness which +Russia, like the rest of the powers, had officially given. Great +anxiety prevailed as to the effect of the flight of the Chinese court +in other parts of the empire. The anti-foreign movement had not +spread much beyond the northern provinces, in which it had had +the open support of the throne and of the highest provincial +officials. But among British and Americans alone, over 200 +defenceless foreigners, men, women and children, chiefly missionaries, +had fallen victims to the treachery of high-placed mandarins +like Yü Hsien, and hundreds of others had had to fly for their +lives, many of them owing their escape to the courageous protection +of petty officials and of the local gentry and peasantry. +In the Yangtsze valley order had been maintained by the energy +of the viceroys of Nanking and Wu-chang, who had acted +throughout the critical period in loyal co-operation with the +British consuls and naval commanders, and had courageously +disregarded the imperial edicts issued during the ascendancy +of the Boxers. After some hesitation, an Indian brigade, +followed by French, German and Japanese contingents, had +been landed at Shanghai for the protection of the settlements, +and though the viceroy, Liu Kun-yi, had welcomed British support, +and even invited the joint occupation of the Yangtsze forts +by British and Chinese troops, the appearance of other European +forces in the Yangtsze valley was viewed with great suspicion. In +the south there were serious symptoms of unrest, especially after +Li Hung-Chang had left Canton for the north, in obedience, as he +alleged at the time, to an imperial edict which, there is reason to +believe, he invented for the occasion. The Chinese court, after +one or two intermediate halts, had retired to Si-gan-fu, one of +the ancient capitals of the empire, situated in the inaccessible +province of Shen-si, over 600 m. S.W. of Peking. The influence +of the ultra-reactionaries, headed by Prince Tuan and General +Tung-fu-hsiang, still dominated its councils, although credentials +were sent to Prince Ching and to Li Hung-Chang, who, after +waiting upon events at Shanghai, had proceeded to Peking, +authorizing them to treat with the powers for the re-establishment +of friendly relations.</p> + +<p>The harmony of the powers, which had been maintained with +some difficulty up to the relief of the legations, was subjected +to a severe strain as soon as the basis of negotiations +with the Chinese government came to be discussed. +<span class="sidenote">Measures of reparation.</span> +While for various reasons Russia, Japan and the +United States were inclined to treat China with great +indulgence, Germany insisted upon the signal punishment of +the guilty officials as a <i>conditio sine qua non</i>, and in this she had +the support not only of the other members of the Triple Alliance, +but also of Great Britain, and to some extent even of France, +who, as protector of the Roman Catholic Church in Eastern +countries, could not allow the authors of the atrocities committed +upon its followers to escape effectual punishment. It was not +until after months of laborious negotiations that the demands +to be formally made upon the Chinese government were embodied +in a joint note signed by all the foreign ministers on +the 20th and 21st of December 1900. The demands were substantially +as follows:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Honourable reparation for the murder of von Ketteler and of Mr +Sugiyama, to be made in a specified form, and expiatory monuments +to be erected in cemeteries where foreign tombs had been desecrated. +“The most severe punishment befitting their crimes” was to be +inflicted on the personages designated by the decree of the 21st of +September, and also upon others to be designated later by the +foreign ministers, and the official examinations were to be suspended +in the cities where foreigners had been murdered or ill-treated. An +equitable indemnity, guaranteed by financial measures acceptable +to the powers, was to be paid to states, societies and individuals, +including Chinese who had suffered because of their employment by +foreigners, but not including Chinese Christians who had suffered +only on account of their faith. The importation or manufacture of +arms or <i>matériel</i> was to be forbidden; permanent legation guards +were to be maintained at Peking, and the diplomatic quarter was +to be fortified, while communication with the sea was to be secured +by a foreign military occupation of the strategic points and by the +demolition of the Chinese forts, including the Taku forts, between the +capital and the coast. Proclamations were to be posted throughout +China for two years, threatening death to the members of anti-foreign +societies, and recording the punishment of the ringleaders in the late +outrages: and the viceroys, governors and provincial officials were +to be declared by imperial edict responsible, on pain of immediate +dismissal and perpetual disability to hold office, for anti-foreign +outbreaks or violations of treaty within their jurisdictions. China +was to facilitate commercial relations by negotiating a revision of the +commercial treaties. The Tsung-Li-Yamen was to be reformed and +the ceremonial for the reception of foreign ministers modified as the +powers should demand. Compliance with these terms was declared +to be a condition precedent to the arrangement of a time limit +to the occupation of Peking and of the provinces by foreign troops.</p> +</div> + +<p>Under instructions from the court, the Chinese plenipotentiaries +affixed their signatures on the 14th of January 1901 to a +protocol, by which China pledged herself to accept these terms in +principle, and the conference of ministers then proceeded to +discuss the definite form in which compliance with them was to be +exacted. This further stage of the negotiations proved even more +laborious and protracted than the preliminary proceedings. No +attempt was made to raise the question of the dowager-empress’s +responsibility for the anti-foreign movement, as Russia had from +the first set her face against the introduction of what she euphemistically +termed “the dynastic question.” But even with +regard to the punishment of officials whose guilt was beyond +dispute, grave divergences arose between the powers. The death +penalty was ultimately waived in the case even of such conspicuous +offenders as Prince Tuan and Tung-fu-hsiang, but the +notorious Yü Hsien and two others were decapitated by the +Chinese, and three other metropolitan officials were ordered to +commit suicide, whilst upon others sentences of banishment, +imprisonment and degradation were passed, in accordance with +a list drawn up by the foreign representatives. The question of +the punishment of provincial officials responsible for the massacre +of scores of defenceless men, women and children was unfortunately +reserved for separate treatment, and when it came +up for discussion it became impossible to preserve even the +semblance of unanimity, the Russian minister at once taking +issue with his colleagues, although he had originally pledged +himself as formally as the others to the principle. Count +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span> +Lamsdorff frankly told the British ambassador at St Petersburg +that Russia took no interest in missionaries, and as the foreigners +massacred in the provinces belonged mostly to that class, she +declined to join in the action of the other powers.</p> + +<p>The real explanation of Russia’s cynical secession from the +concert of powers on this important issue must be sought in her +anxiety to conciliate the Chinese in view of the separate +negotiations in which she was at the same time engaged +<span class="sidenote">Russia and Manchuria.</span> +with China in respect of Manchuria. When the Boxer +movement was at its height at the end of June 1900, the +Chinese authorities in Manchuria had wantonly “declared war” +against Russia, and for a moment a great wave of panic seems to +have swept over the Russian administration, civil and military, in +the adjoining provinces. The reprisals exercised by the Russians +were proportionately fierce. The massacre at Blagovyeshchensk, +where 5000 Chinese—men, women and children—were flung into +the Amur by the Cossacks, was only one incident in the reign of +terror by which the Russians sought to restore their power and +their prestige. The resistance of the Chinese troops was soon +overcome, and Russian forces overran the whole province, +occupying even the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The Russian +government officially repudiated all responsibility for the +proclamations issued by General Gribsky and others, foreshadowing, +if not actually proclaiming, the annexation of Chinese +territory to the Russian empire. But Russia was clearly bent on +seizing the opportunity for securing a permanent hold upon +Manchuria. In December 1900 a preliminary agreement was +made between M. Korostovetz, the Russian administrator-general, +and Tseng, the Tatar general at Mukden, by which the +civil and military administration of the whole province was +virtually placed under Russian control. In February 1901 +negotiations were opened between the Russian government and +the Chinese minister at St Petersburg for the conclusion of a +formal convention of a still more comprehensive character. +In return for the restoration to China of a certain measure +of civil authority in Manchuria, Russia was to be confirmed +in the possession of exclusive military, civil and commercial +rights, constituting in all but name a protectorate, and she +was also to acquire preferential rights over all the outlying +provinces of the Chinese empire bordering on the Russian +dominions in Asia. The clauses relating to Chinese Turkestan, +Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Mongolia were subsequently +stated to have been dropped, but the convention nevertheless +provoked considerable opposition both in foreign countries and +amongst the Chinese themselves. Most of the powers, including +Germany, who, however, denied that the Anglo-German agreement +of the 16th of October 1900 applied to Manchuria,<a name="FnAnchor_54d" id="FnAnchor_54d" href="#Footnote_54d"><span class="sp">54</span></a> advised +the Chinese government not to pursue separate negotiations with +one power whilst collective negotiations were in progress at +Peking, and both Japan and Great Britain pressed for definite +information at St Petersburg with regard to the precise tenor +of the proposed convention. At the same time the two viceroys +of the lower Yangtsze memorialized the throne in the strongest +terms against the convention, and these protests were endorsed +not only by the great majority of Chinese officials of high rank +throughout the provinces, but by popular meetings and influential +guilds and associations. Ultimately the two viceroys, +Chang Chih-tung and Liu Kun-yi,<a name="FnAnchor_55d" id="FnAnchor_55d" href="#Footnote_55d"><span class="sp">55</span></a> took the extreme step of +warning the throne that they would be unable to recognize the +convention, even if it were ratified, and notwithstanding the +pressure exercised in favour of Russia by Li Hung-Chang, the +court finally instructed the Chinese minister at St Petersburg +to decline his signature. The attitude of Japan, where public +feeling ran high, was equally significant, and on the 3rd of April +the Russian government issued a circular note to the powers, +stating that, as the generous intentions of Russia had been +misconstrued, she withdrew the proposed convention.</p> + +<p>The work of the conference at Peking, which had been temporarily +disturbed by these complications, was then resumed. +Friction between European troops of different nationalities +and an Anglo-Russian dispute over the construction +<span class="sidenote">The peace protocol, 1901.</span> +of certain roads and railway sidings at Tientsin +showed that an international occupation was fraught +with manifold dangers. The question of indemnities, however, +gave rise to renewed friction. Each power drew up its own +claim, and whilst Great Britain, the United States and Japan +displayed great moderation, other powers, especially Germany +and Italy, put in claims which were strangely out of proportion +to the services rendered by their military and naval forces. +It was at last settled that China should pay altogether an indemnity +of 450 million taels, to be secured (1) on the unhypothecated +balance of the customs revenue administered by the imperial +maritime customs, the import duties being raised forthwith +to an effective 5% basis; (2) on the revenues of the “native” +customs in the treaty ports; (3) on the total revenues of the +salt gabelle. Finally the peace protocol was drawn up in a +form which satisfied all the powers as well as the Chinese court. +The formal signature was, however, delayed at the last moment +by a fresh difficulty concerning Prince Chun’s penitential mission +to Berlin. This prince, an amiable and enlightened youth,<a name="FnAnchor_56d" id="FnAnchor_56d" href="#Footnote_56d"><span class="sp">56</span></a> son +of the Prince Chun who was the emperor Hien-fêng’s brother, +and thus himself half-brother to the emperor Kwang-su, had +reached Basel towards the end of August on his way to Germany, +when he was suddenly informed that he and his suite would +be expected to perform <i>kowtow</i> before the German emperor. +The prince resented this unexpected demand, and referred home +for instructions. The Chinese court appear to have remained +obdurate, and the German government perceived the mistake +that had been made in exacting from the Chinese prince a form of +homage which Western diplomacy had for more than a century +refused to yield to the Son of Heaven, on the ground that it was +barbarous and degrading. The point was waived, and Prince +Chun was received in solemn audience by the emperor William at +Potsdam on the 4th of September. Three days later, on the 7th +of September, the peace protocol was signed at Peking.</p> + +<p>The articles recorded the steps to be taken to satisfy the +demands of the powers as to commerce. Article 11 provided +for the amendment of existing treaties of commerce and +navigation, and for river conservancy measures at Tientsin and +Shanghai. The British government appointed a special commission, +with Sir J. Mackay, member of the council of India, as +chief commissioner, to proceed to Shanghai to carry on the +negotiations, and a commercial treaty was signed at Shanghai on +the 6th of September 1902, by which existing obstacles to foreign +trade, such as <i>likin</i>, &c., were removed, regulations were made +for facilitating steamer navigation on inland waters, and several +new ports were opened to foreign commerce.</p> + +<p>In accordance with the terms of the protocol, all the foreign +troops, except the legation guards, were withdrawn from Peking +on the 17th of September, and from the rest of Chih-li, except +the garrisons at the different points specified along the line of +communications, by the 22nd of September. On the 7th of +October it was announced that the Chinese court had left Si-gan-fu +on its way back to the northern capital. A month later (7th +of November) the death of Li Hung-Chang at Peking removed, +if not the greatest of Chinese statesmen, at any rate the one +who had enjoyed the largest share of the empress-dowager’s +confidence.</p> +<div class="author">(V. C.)</div> + + +<p class="center1">(E)—<i>From 1901 to 1910.</i></p> + +<p>The events connected with the Boxer rising and its suppression +demonstrated even more forcibly than had the war +with Japan in 1894-1895 the necessity for the adoption of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span> +Western methods in many departments of life and administration +if China was to maintain the position of a great power. +<span class="sidenote">“Awakening of China.”</span> +The necessity for a thorough reform of the administration +was widely recognized in 1901, and among the +progressive classes of the community much disappointment +was manifested because the powers had +failed to insist, in the conditions of peace, on a reorganization of +the machinery of government. The Yangtsze viceroys, the viceroy +at Canton, Yuan Shih-kai and other high mandarins repeatedly +memorialized the throne to grant effective reforms. While at +Si-gan-fu the court did in fact issue several reform decrees, but +at the same time all authority remained in the hands of reactionaries. +There had been an awakening in China, but another +lesson—afforded a few years later by the Russo-Japanese War—was +needed before the reform party was able to gain real power.</p> + +<p>For three or four years following the signing of the peace +protocol of 1901 it seemed indeed that there would be little +change in the system of government, though in some directions +a return to the old state of affairs was neither possible nor +desired. On the 7th of January 1902 the court returned to +Peking—a step which marked the restoration, more or less, of +normal conditions. The failure of the Boxer movement, in +which, as has been shown, she was deeply implicated, had impressed +upon the dowager empress the need for living on better +terms with foreign powers, but the reform edicts issued from +Si-gan-fu remained largely inoperative, though some steps were +taken to promote education on Western lines, to readjust the +land tax, and especially to reorganize the military forces (though +on provincial rather than on a national basis). The building of +railways was also pushed on, but the dowager empress was +probably at heart as reactionary as she had proved in 1898. +The emperor himself from his return to Peking until the day of +his death appeared to have little influence on public affairs. +The most disquieting feature of the situation in the years immediately +following the return of the court to Peking was the +continued efforts of Russia to obtain full control of Manchuria +and a predominant influence in north China. The Chinese +government was powerless to stem the advance of Russia, and +the dowager empress herself was credited with indifference to +the fate of Manchuria. It was the menace to other powers, +notably Japan, involved in Russia’s action which precipitated +an issue in which the destinies of China were involved. Before +considering the results of that struggle (the Russo-Japanese +War) the chief events of the years 1902-1905 may be outlined.</p> + +<p>The dowager empress from the day of her return from Si-gan-fu +set herself to conciliate the foreign residents in Peking. Many +foreign onlookers were gathered on the wall of the +Tatar city to witness the return of the court, and to +<span class="sidenote">Relations with Europeans.</span> +these the dowager empress made a deep bow twice, +an apparently trivial incident which made a lasting +impression. On the 1st of February following the dowager +empress received the ladies of the various embassies, when she +bewailed the attack on the legations, entertained her guests to +tea and presented each with articles of jewelry, and from that +time onward, as occasion offered, Tsz‘e Hsi exchanged compliments +and civilities with the foreign ladies in Peking. Moreover, +Sir Robert Hart—after having been nearly forty years in China—was +now presented at court, as well as Bishop Favier and others. +Henceforth attacks on foreigners received no direct encouragement +at court. Tung Fu-hsiang,<a name="FnAnchor_57d" id="FnAnchor_57d" href="#Footnote_57d"><span class="sp">57</span></a> who had been banished +to the remote province of Kan-suh, had at his command there +his old Boxer troops, and his attitude caused anxiety at the end +of 1902. He was said to have received support from Prince +Tuan—who had been obliged to retire to Mongolia—but events +proved that the power or the intention of these reactionaries to +create trouble had been miscalculated. There were indeed +serious Boxer disturbances in Sze-ch‘uen in 1902, but +they were put down by a new viceroy sent from Peking. +Notwithstanding the murder of fifteen missionaries during +1902-1905, there was in general a marked improvement in the +relations between the missionaries, the official classes and the +bulk of the people, and an eagerness was shown in several +provinces to take advantage of their educational work. This +was specially marked in Hu-nan, a province which had been +for long hostile to missionary endeavours. Illustrative of the +attitude of numbers of high officials was the attendance +of the viceroy of Sze-ch‘uen, with the whole of his staff, at the +opening in 1905 at Cheng-tu of new buildings of the Canadian +Methodist Mission. This friendly attitude towards the missions +was due in part to the influence of Chinese educated abroad and +also, to a large extent, to the desire to take advantage of Western +culture. The spread of this new spirit was coincident with an +agitation for independence of foreign control and the determination +of the Chinese to use modern methods to attain +their ends. Thus in 1905 there was an extensive boycott of +American goods throughout China, as a retaliatory measure +for the exclusion of Chinese from the United States. Regarding +China as a whole the attitude of the people towards +Europeans was held to indicate that the general view was, not +that the Boxer teaching was false, but that the spirits behind +Western religion were more powerful than those behind Boxer-dom. +The spiritual prestige of Christianity and respect for the +power of the foreigner were direct outcomes of the failure of +the Boxers.<a name="FnAnchor_58d" id="FnAnchor_58d" href="#Footnote_58d"><span class="sp">58</span></a> The British expedition to Tibet in 1904, the +occupation of Lhassa in August of that year, the flight of the +Dalai Lama to Mongolia, gave grave concern to the Chinese +government—which showed much persistence in enforcing its +suzerain rights in Tibet—but did not, apparently, cause any ill-feeling +towards Great Britain among the Chinese people—who +viewed with seeming equanimity the flight of the head of the +Buddhist religion from the headquarters of that faith. The +country generally was peaceful, a rebellion in Kwang-si—where +a terrible famine occurred in 1903—being suppressed in 1904 +by the forces of the viceroy at Canton.</p> + +<p>The expiatory measures required of China in connexion with +the Boxer rising were carried through. China during 1902 +recovered possession of the Peking-Tientsin railway and +of the city of Tientsin, which was evacuated by the +<span class="sidenote">Commercial and railway progress.</span> +foreign troops in August of that year. The foreign +troops were also all withdrawn from Shanghai by +January 1903. The conclusion of a new commercial treaty +between Great Britain and China in September 1902 has +already been recorded. The payment of the indemnity instalments +occasioned some dispute owing to the fall in silver in +1902, but the rise in the value of the tael in subsequent years +led China to agree to the payment of the indemnity on a gold +basis. The increase in revenue was a notable feature of the +maritime customs in 1903-1905. This result was in part +due to the new arrangements under the commercial treaty +of 1902, and in part to the opening up of the country by +railways. In especial the great trunk line from Peking to +Hankow was pushed on. The line, including a bridge nearly +2 m. long over the Yellow river was completed and opened for +traffic in 1905. The first section of the Shanghai-Nanking +railway was opened in the same year. At this time the Chinese +showed a strong desire to obtain the control of the various +lines. During 1905, for instance, the Canton-Hankow railway +concession was repurchased by the Chinese government from an +American company, while the Pekin Syndicate, a British concern, +also sold their railway in Ho-nan to the Chinese government.</p> + +<p>Russia’s action regarding Manchuria overshadowed, however, +all other concerns during this period. The withdrawal of the +proposed Russo-Chinese agreement of 1901 has been chronicled. +The Russian government had, however, no intention of abandoning +its hold on Manchuria. It aimed not only at effective military +control but the reservation to Russian subjects of mining, +railway and commercial rights. Both the sovereignty of China +and the commercial interests of other nations were menaced. +This led to action by various powers. The preamble of the Anglo-Japanese +treaty of the 30th of January 1902 declared the main +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span> +motives of the contracting parties to be the maintenance of the +independence and territorial integrity of China and Korea, and +<span class="sidenote">Manchuria.</span> +the securing of equal opportunities in those countries +for the commerce and industry of all nations, <i>i.e.</i> the +policy of the “open door.” Protests were lodged +by Great Britain, Japan and the United States against the +grant of exclusive rights to Russian subjects in Manchuria. +Russia asserted her intention to respect the commercial rights +of other nations, and on the 8th of April 1902 an agreement +was signed at Peking which appeared to show the good faith of +the Russian government, as it provided for the withdrawal of the +Russian troops in Manchuria within eighteen months from that +date. In accordance with this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang +railway was transferred to China in October 1902 +and the district between Shan-hai-kwan and the Liao river +evacuated by Russia. But it soon appeared that Russia’s +hold on the country had not relaxed. Advantage was taken +of the terms of concession granted in August 1896 to the Russo-Chinese +Bank<a name="FnAnchor_59d" id="FnAnchor_59d" href="#Footnote_59d"><span class="sp">59</span></a> to erect towns for Russian colonists and to plant +garrisons along the line of railway, and to exclude Chinese +jurisdiction altogether from the railway zone. The so-called +evacuation became in fact the concentration of the Russian +forces along the line of railway. Moreover, the maritime customs +at Niu-chwang were retained by the Russo-Chinese Bank despite +protests from the Chinese imperial authorities, and a Russian +civil administration was established at that port. The evacuation +of southern Manchuria should have taken place in April +1903, but in that month, instead of fulfilling the conditions of +the 1902 agreement, the Russian chargé d’affaires in Peking made +a series of further demands upon China, including the virtual +reservation of the commerce of Manchuria for Russian subjects. +Though Russia officially denied to the British and American +governments that she had made these demands, it was demonstrated +that they had been made. The United States and Japan +thereupon insisted that China should conclude with them commercial +treaties throwing open Mukden and two ports on the +Yalu river to foreign trade. The American treaty was signed +on the 8th of October 1903—the day fixed for the complete +evacuation of Manchuria by Russia—and the Japanese treaty on +the day following. Both treaties provided that the ports should +be opened after ratifications had been exchanged. From fear +of Russia China, however, delayed the ratification of the treaties. +Meantime, in August 1903, a regular through railway service +between Moscow and Port Arthur was established. In the same +month a Russian Viceroyalty of the Far East was created +which in effect claimed Manchuria as a Russian province. In +September Russia withdrew some of the demands she had made +in April, but her concessions proved illusory. When the 8th of +October passed and it was seen that the Russians had not withdrawn +their troops<a name="FnAnchor_60d" id="FnAnchor_60d" href="#Footnote_60d"><span class="sp">60</span></a> there issued for a time threats of war +from Peking. Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, who had +at his command some 65,000 troops trained by Japanese officers, +pressed on the government the necessity of action. At this point +Japan intervened. Her interests were vitally affected by Russia’s +action not only in Manchuria, but in Korea, and seeing that +China was powerless the Japanese government negotiated +directly with St Petersburg. In these negotiations Russia +showed that she would not yield her position in either country +except to force. Japan chose the issue of war and proved +successful.</p> + +<p>The Russo-Japanese War did not very greatly alter China’s +position in Manchuria. In the southern part of that country +Japan succeeded to the special privileges Russia had wrung +from China (including the lease of Port Arthur); in the north +Russia remained in possession of the railway zone. For Japan’s +position as at once the legatee of special privileges +<span class="sidenote">Lessons of the Russo-Japanese War.</span> +and the champion of China’s territorial integrity +and “the open door” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Japan</a></span>, § <i>History</i>. However, +the attitude of Japan was more conciliatory +than that of Russia had been; Mukden and other +places were thrown open to foreign trade and Chinese civil administration +was re-established. The important results of the war, +so far as China was concerned, were not to be looked for in +Manchuria, but in the new spirit generated in the Chinese. +They had been deeply humiliated by the fact that in the +struggle between Russia and Japan China had been treated +as a negligible quantity, and that the war had been fought on +Chinese territory. The lesson which the loot of Peking and +the fall of the Boxers in 1900 had half taught was now +thoroughly mastered; the awakening of China was complete. +The war had shown that when an Eastern race adopted +Western methods it was capable of defeating a European +nation.</p> + +<p>It was fortunate that among the influential advisers of the +throne at this time (1905-1908) were Prince Chun (the prince +who had visited Germany in 1901), Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy +of Chih-li, and Chang Chih-tung, the viceroy of Hu-kwang (<i>i.e.</i> +the provinces of Hu-peh and Hu-nan), all men of enlightened +and strong character. In 1907 both the viceroys named were +summoned to Peking and made members of the grand council, +of which Prince Ching, a man of moderate views, was president. +Yuan Shih-kai was an open advocate of a reform of the civil +service, of the abolition of Manchu privileges, of education and +other matters. He had specially advocated the reconstitution +of the military forces of the empire, and in Chih-li in 1905 he +demonstrated before a number of foreign military attachés the +high efficiency attained by the forces of the metropolitan province. +The success achieved by Yuan Shih-kai in this direction +incited Chang Chih-tung to follow his example, while a decree +from the throne called upon the princes and nobles of China to +give their sons a military education. The formerly despised +military profession was thus made honourable, and with salutary +effects. The imperial princes sought high commands, officers +were awarded ranks and dignities comparable with those of +civil servants, and the pay of the troops was increased. The new +<span class="sidenote">Army reform.</span> +foreign drilled northern army was called upon to +furnish a large proportion of a force sent under Prince +Su into Mongolia—a country which had been on the +point of falling into the hands of Russia, but over which, as one +result of the Russo-Japanese War, China recovered control. +In 1906 a step was taken towards the formation of a national +army by withdrawing portions of the troops from provincial +control and placing them under officers responsible to the +central government, which also took over the charge of the +provincial arsenals. In the years which followed further evidence +was given of the earnestness and success with which the military +forces were being reorganized. Less attention was given to +naval affairs, but in the autumn of 1909 a naval commission under +Tsai Hsün, a brother of the emperor Kwang-su, was sent to +Europe to report on the steps necessary for the re-establishment +of a fleet. Previously (in 1907) societies had been started in +several provinces to collect funds for naval purposes.</p> + +<p>The most striking evidence of the change which had occurred +was, however, the appointment (in 1905) of an Imperial Commission, +headed by Prince Tsai Tse, to study the administrative +systems of foreign countries with a view to the possible establishment +of a representative government in China. The revolutionary +nature of this proposal excited indignation among the +adherents to the old order, and a bomb was thrown among the +commissioners as they were preparing to leave Peking.<a name="FnAnchor_61d" id="FnAnchor_61d" href="#Footnote_61d"><span class="sp">61</span></a> After +visiting Japan, America and Europe the commission returned to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span> +Peking in July 1906.<a name="FnAnchor_62d" id="FnAnchor_62d" href="#Footnote_62d"><span class="sp">62</span></a> A committee over which Prince Ching +presided was appointed to study the commission’s report, and +<span class="sidenote">A parliamentary constitution promised.</span> +on the 1st of September following an edict was issued +in which the establishment of a parliamentary form +of government was announced, at a date not fixed. +To fit the country for this new form of government +(the edict went on to declare) the administration +must be reformed, the laws revised, education promoted and +the finances regulated. This edict, moreover, was but one of +many edicts issued in 1906 and following years which showed +how great a break with the past was contemplated. In +November 1906 two edicts were issued with the object of +reorganizing the central administrative offices. Their effect +was to simplify the conduct of business, many useless posts +being abolished, while an audit board was created to +examine the national accounts. In November 1907 another +edict was promulgated stating that for the present the formation +of Houses of Lords and of Commons to determine all public +questions was not practicable, but that it was proposed, as a +preliminary measure, to create an Imperial Assembly. At the +same time a scheme of provincial councils was ordered to be +prepared. A more definite step followed in 1908 when a decree +(dated the 27th of August) announced the convocation of a +parliament in the ninth year from that date.</p> + +<p>One of the changes made in the public offices brought China +into conflict with Great Britain. On the 9th of May 1906 a +decree appointed Chinese commissioners to control the +Imperial Maritime Customs.<a name="FnAnchor_63d" id="FnAnchor_63d" href="#Footnote_63d"><span class="sp">63</span></a> This was the only +<span class="sidenote">The control of the Maritime Customs.</span> +department of the government under European +(British) control, and the only department also against +which no charge of inefficiency or corruption could be +brought. The change decreed by China was in accord with the +new national sentiment, but by all the foreign powers interested +it was felt that it would be a retrograde step if the customs +were taken out of the control of Sir Robert Hart (<i>q.v.</i>), who had +been since 1863 inspector-general of the customs. The British +secretary of state for foreign affairs (Sir Edward Grey) at once +protested against the decree of the 6th of May, pointing out +that the continuation of the established system had been +stipulated for in the loan agreements of 1896 and 1898. As a +result of this and other representations the Board of Control of +the Customs was late in 1906 made a department of the Board +of Finance. The Chinese controllers-general continued in +office, and despite the assurances given to Great Britain by +China (in a note of the 6th of June 1906) that the appointment +of the controllers-general was not intended to interfere with +the established system of administration, the absolute authority +of Sir Robert Hart was weakened.<a name="FnAnchor_64d" id="FnAnchor_64d" href="#Footnote_64d"><span class="sp">64</span></a> Sir Robert Hart returned +to England in 1908 “on leave of absence,” Sir Robert Bredon, +the deputy inspector-general, being placed in charge of the +service under the authority of the Board of Control, of which +on the 5th of April 1910 it was announced that he had been +appointed a member. This step was viewed with disfavour +by the British government, for, unless Sir Robert Bredon’s post +was to be merely a sinecure, it imposed two masters on the +maritime customs. On the 20th of April Sir Robert Bredon +severed his connexion with the Board of Control. At the +same time Mr F.A. Aglen (the Commissioner of Customs at +Hankow) became acting Inspector General (Sir Robert Hart +being still nominally head of the service). The attempt on +the part of the Chinese to control the customs was evidence +of the strength of the “young China” or Recovery of Rights +party—the party which aspired to break all the chains, such +as extra-territoriality, which stamped the country as not the +equal of the other great nations.<a name="FnAnchor_65d" id="FnAnchor_65d" href="#Footnote_65d"><span class="sp">65</span></a></p> + +<p>In the steps taken to suppress opium smoking evidence was +forthcoming of the earnestness with which the governing body +in China sought to better the condition of the people. +Opium smoking followed, in China, the introduction of +<span class="sidenote">The anti-opium agitation.</span> +tobacco smoking, and is stated to have been introduced +from Java and Formosa in the early part of the 17th +century. The first edict against the habit was issued in 1729. +At that time the only foreign opium introduced was by the +Portuguese from Goa, who exported about 200 chests<a name="FnAnchor_66d" id="FnAnchor_66d" href="#Footnote_66d"><span class="sp">66</span></a> a year. +In 1773 English merchants in India entered into the trade, which +in 1781 was taken over by the East India Company—the import +in 1790 being over 4000 chests. In 1796 the importation of +foreign opium was declared contraband, and between 1839 and +1860 the central government attempted, without success, to +suppress the trade. It was legalized in 1858 after the second +“opium war” with Great Britain. At that time the poppy +was extensively grown in China, and the bulk of the opium +smoked was, and continued to be, of home manufacture. But +after 1860 the importation of opium from India greatly increased. +Opium was also imported from Persia (chiefly to +Formosa, which in 1895 passed into the possession of Japan). +The total foreign import in 1863 was some 70,000 piculs,<a name="FnAnchor_67d" id="FnAnchor_67d" href="#Footnote_67d"><span class="sp">67</span></a> in +1879 it was 102,000 piculs, but in 1905 had fallen to 56,000 +piculs. The number of opium smokers in China in the early +years of the 20th century was estimated at from 25 to 30 millions. +The evil effects of opium smoking were fully recognized, and +Chang Chih-tung, one of the most powerful of the opponents of +the habit, was high in the councils of the dowager-empress. On +the 20th of September 1906 an edict was issued directing that +the growth, sale and consumption of opium should cease in +China within ten years, and ordering the officials to take +measures to execute the imperial will. The measures promulgated, +in November following, made the following provisions:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(1) The cultivation of the poppy to be restricted annually by +one-tenth of its existing area; (2) all persons using opium to be +registered; (3) all shops selling opium to be gradually closed, and +all places where opium is smoked to discontinue the practice within +six months; (4) anti-opium societies to be officially encouraged, +and medicines distributed to cure the opium-smoking habit; (5) +all officials were requested to set an example to the people, and all +officials under sixty were required to abandon opium smoking within +six months or to withdraw from the service of the state.</p> +</div> + +<p>It was estimated that the suppression of opium smoking +would entail a yearly loss of revenue of over £1,600,000, a loss +about equally divided between the central and provincial governments. +The first step taken to enforce the edict was the closing +of the opium dens in Peking on the last day of 1906.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>During 1907 the opium dens in Shanghai, Canton, Fu-chow and +many other large cities were closed, and restrictions on the issue of +licences were introduced in the foreign settlements; even the eunuchs +of the palace were prohibited from smoking opium under severe +penalties. The central government continued during 1908 and 1909 +to display considerable energy in the suppression of the use of opium, +but the provincial authorities were not all equally energetic. It was +noted in 1908 that while in some provinces—even in Yun-nan, where +its importance tc trade and commerce and its use as currency seemed +to render it very difficult to do anything effective—the governor and +officials were whole-hearted in carrying out the imperial regulations, +in other provinces—notably in Kwei-chow and in the provinces of +the lower Yangtsze valley—great supineness was exhibited in dealing +with the subject. Lord William Cecil, however, stated that travelling +in 1909 between Peking and Hankow, through country which in 1907 +he had seen covered with the poppy, he could not then see a single +poppy flower, and that going up the Yangtsze he found only one +small patch of poppy cultivation.<a name="FnAnchor_68d" id="FnAnchor_68d" href="#Footnote_68d"><span class="sp">68</span></a> The Peking correspondent of +<i>The Times</i>, in a journey to Turkestan in the early part of 1910, found +that in Shen-si province the people’s desire to suppress the opium +trade was in advance of the views of the government. Every day +trains of opium carts were passed travelling under official protection. +But in the adjoining province of Shan-si there had been complete +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span> +suppression of poppy cultivation and in Kan-suh the officials were +conducting a very vigorous campaign against the growth of the poppy.<a name="FnAnchor_69d" id="FnAnchor_69d" href="#Footnote_69d"><span class="sp">69</span></a></p> + +<p>In their endeavours to suppress opium smoking the Chinese government +appealed to the Indian government for help, and in 1907 received +a promise that India would decrease the production of opium +annually by one-tenth for four years and subsequently if China did +likewise. The Indian government also assented to Indian opium +being taxed equally with Chinese opium, but China did not raise the +duty on foreign opium. In 1908 the Indian government undertook +to reduce the amount of opium exported by 5100 chests yearly. In +the same year the opium dens in Hong-Kong were closed. In +February 1909, on the initiative of the United States, an international +conference was held at Shanghai to consider the opium trade and +habit. At this conference the Chinese representative claimed that +the consumption of opium had already been reduced by one-half—a +claim not borne out by the ascertained facts. The conference was +unable to suggest any heroic measures, but a number of proposals +were agreed to (including the closing of opium dens in the foreign +settlements), tending to the restriction of the opium trade. The +conference also dealt with another and growing habit in China—the +use of morphia.<a name="FnAnchor_70d" id="FnAnchor_70d" href="#Footnote_70d"><span class="sp">70</span></a> Japan agreed to prohibit the export of morphia to +China, a prohibition to which the other powers had previously agreed.</p> +</div> + +<p>The attempts to reform the educational system of China on a +comprehensive scale date from the year of the return of the +court to Peking after the Boxer troubles. In 1902 +regulations were sanctioned by the emperor which +<span class="sidenote">Education.</span> +aimed at remodelling the methods of public instruction. +These regulations provided among other things for the establishment +at Peking of a university giving instruction in Western +learning, a technical college, and a special department for +training officials and teachers. A much more revolutionary +step was taken in September 1905 when a decree appeared +announcing as from the beginning of 1906 the abolition of the +existing method of examinations. The new system was to +include the study of modern sciences, history, geography and +foreign languages, and in the higher grades political economy +and civil and international law. Thousands of temples were +converted to educational purposes. In Canton, in 1907, the old +examination hall was demolished to make way for a college with +every appliance on Western lines. Equal zeal was noticeable +in such conservative cities as Si-gan-fu, and in remote provinces +like Kan-suh. By May 1906 fifteen so-called universities had been +founded. Moreover, many young Chinese went abroad to acquire +education—in Japan alone in 1906 there were 13,000 students. +In the same year primary schools for girls were established.<a name="FnAnchor_71d" id="FnAnchor_71d" href="#Footnote_71d"><span class="sp">71</span></a> +Perhaps the most striking evidence of the new spirit regarding +education was the tenour of a communication to the throne +from the head of the Confucian family. On the 31st of +December 1906 an imperial edict had appeared raising Confucius +to the same rank as Heaven and Earth—an action taken +to indicate the desire of the government to emphasize the +value of ethical training. In thanking the throne for the +honour conferred on his ancestor the head of the family urged +that at the new college founded at the birth-place of Confucius +the teaching should include foreign languages, physical culture, +political science and military drill.<a name="FnAnchor_72d" id="FnAnchor_72d" href="#Footnote_72d"><span class="sp">72</span></a></p> + +<p>While China, with the consent of the emperor and the empress-dowager, +and under the guidance of Prince Ching, Yuan Shih-kai +and Chang Chih-tung, was endeavouring to bring about internal +reforms, her attitude to foreign powers was one of reserve +and distrust. This was especially marked in the negotiations +with Japan and with Russia concerning Manchuria, and was +seen also in the negotiations with Great Britain concerning +Tibet. It was not until April 1908, after four years’ negotiations, +that a convention with Great Britain respecting Tibet was +signed, Chinese suzerain rights being respected. In September +the Dalai Lama arrived in Peking from Mongolia and was received +by the emperor, who also gave audience to a Nepalese mission.<a name="FnAnchor_73d" id="FnAnchor_73d" href="#Footnote_73d"><span class="sp">73</span></a></p> + +<p>The emperor Kwang-su had witnessed, without being able +to guide, the new reform movement. In August 1908 an edict +was issued in his name announcing the convocation of +a parliament in nine years’ time. In November he +<span class="sidenote">Death of the emperor and of the dowager empress.</span> +died. His death occasioned no surprise, as disquieting +reports about his health had been current since July, +but the announcement that the dowager empress died +on the 15th of November (the day after that on +which the emperor was officially stated to have died) was +totally unexpected. She had celebrated her birthday on the +3rd of November and appeared then to be in good health. +The empress dowager had taken part in the choice of a successor +to the throne, Kwang-su’s valedictory edict had been +drawn up under her supervision, and it is believed that the +emperor died some days previous to the date officially given for +his death. Kwang-su died childless and was succeeded by his +infant nephew Pu-Yi (born on the 8th of February 1906), a +son of Prince Chun, who was appointed regent. Prince Chun—himself +then only twenty-six years old—had exercised considerable +influence at court since his mission to Germany in +1901, and was one of the most enlightened of the Manchu princes. +The death of the dowager empress removed a powerful obstacle +to a reformed regime, and with her passed away the last +prominent representative of the old era in China.</p> + +<p>The accession to the throne of Pu-Yi, who was given as +reigning title Hsuan Tung (“promulgating universally”), was +unaccompanied by disturbances, save for an outbreak +at Ngan-king, easily suppressed. Prince Chun had +<span class="sidenote">Accession of Hsuan Tung.</span> +the support of Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung,<a name="FnAnchor_74d" id="FnAnchor_74d" href="#Footnote_74d"><span class="sp">74</span></a> +the two most prominent Chinese members of the +government at Peking—and thus a division between the Manchus +and Chinese was avoided. On the 2nd of December 1908 the +young emperor was enthroned with the usual rites. On the +day following another edict, which, it was stated, had had the +approval of the late dowager empress, was issued, reaffirming +that of the 27th of August regarding the grant of a parliamentary +constitution in nine years’ time, and urging the people +to prepare themselves for the change. Other edicts sought to +strengthen the position of the regent as <i>de facto</i> emperor. +Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung received the title of Grand +Guardians of the Heir, and the year 1908 closed with the chief +Chinese members of the government working, apparently, in +complete harmony with the regent.</p> + +<p>On the 1st of January 1909, however, the political situation +was rudely disturbed by the dismissal from office of Yuan Shih-kai. +This step led to representations by the British +and American ministers to Prince Ching, the head of +<span class="sidenote">Dismissal of Yuan Shih-kai.</span> +the foreign office, by whom assurances were given that +no change of policy was contemplated by China, while +the regent in a letter to President Taft reiterated the determination +of his government to carry through its reform policy. +The dismissal of Yuan Shih-kai was believed by the Chinese +to be due to his “betrayal” of the emperor Kwang-su in the +1898 reform movement. He had nevertheless refused to go +to extremes on the reactionary side, and in 1900, as governor +of Shan-tung, he preserved a neutrality which greatly facilitated +the relief of the Peking legations. During the last years +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span> +of the life of the dowager empress it was his influence which +largely reconciled her to the new reform movement. Yet Kwang-su +had not forgotten the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1898, and it is alleged +that he left a testament calling upon his brother the prince +regent to avenge the wrongs he had suffered.<a name="FnAnchor_75d" id="FnAnchor_75d" href="#Footnote_75d"><span class="sp">75</span></a> During the +<span class="sidenote">Agreement with Japan.</span> +greater part of the year there was serious estrangement +between China and Japan, but on the 4th of September +a convention was signed which settled most of the +points in dispute respecting Manchuria and Korea. In +Korea the boundary was adjusted so that Chientao, a mountainous +district in eastern Manchuria regarded as the ancestral +home of the reigning families of China and Korea, was definitely +assigned to China; while in Manchuria, both as to +railways and mines, a policy of co-operation was substituted for +one of opposition.<a name="FnAnchor_76d" id="FnAnchor_76d" href="#Footnote_76d"><span class="sp">76</span></a> Although Japan had made substantial +concessions, those made by China in return provoked loud +complaints from the southern provinces—the self-government +society calling for the dismissal of Prince Ching. In northern +Manchuria the Russian authorities had assumed territorial +jurisdiction at Harbin, but on the 4th of May an agreement was +signed recognizing Chinese jurisdiction.<a name="FnAnchor_77d" id="FnAnchor_77d" href="#Footnote_77d"><span class="sp">77</span></a></p> + +<p>The spirit typified by the cry of “China for the Chinese” was +seen actively at work in the determined efforts made to exclude +foreign capital from railway affairs. The completion +in October 1909 of the Peking-Kalgan railway was +<span class="sidenote">The control of railways.</span> +the cause of much patriotic rejoicing. The railway, +a purely Chinese undertaking, is 122 m. long and +took four years to build. It traversed difficult country, piercing +the Nan K‘ow Pass by four tunnels, one under the Great Wall +being 3580 ft. long. There was much controversy between foreign +financiers, generally backed by their respective governments, as +to the construction of other lines. In March 1909 the Deutschasiatische +Bank secured a loan of £3,000,000 for the construction +of the Canton-Hankow railway. This concession was contrary +to an undertaking given in 1905 to British firms and was withdrawn, +but only in return for the admittance of German capital +in the Sze-ch‘uen railway. After prolonged negotiations an +agreement was signed in Paris on the 24th of May 1910 for +a loan of £6,000,000 for the construction of the railway from +Hankow to Sze-ch‘uen, in which British, French, German and +American interests were equally represented. In January +1910 the French line from Hanoi to Yunnan-fu was opened;<a name="FnAnchor_78d" id="FnAnchor_78d" href="#Footnote_78d"><span class="sp">78</span></a> +the railway from Shanghai to Nanking was opened for through +traffic in 1909.</p> + +<p>The progress of the anti-opium movement and the dispute +over the control of the Imperial Maritime Customs have already +been chronicled. A notable step was taken in 1909 +by the institution of elected assemblies in each of the +<span class="sidenote">Provincial Assemblies constituted. A senate formed.</span> +provinces. The franchise on which the members +were elected was very limited, and the assemblies +were given consultative powers only. They were +opened on the 14th of October (the 1st day of the +9th moon). The businesslike manner in which these assemblies +conducted their work was a matter of general comment among +foreign observers in China.<a name="FnAnchor_79d" id="FnAnchor_79d" href="#Footnote_79d"><span class="sp">79</span></a> In February 1910 decrees +appeared approving schemes drawn up by the Commission for +Constitutional Reforms, providing for local government in +prefectures and departments and for the reform of the judiciary. +This was followed on the 9th of May by another decree summoning +the senate to meet for the first time on the 1st day of +the 9th moon (the 3rd of October 1910). All the members of the +senate were nominated, and the majority were Manchus. Neither +to the provincial assemblies nor to the senate was any power +of the purse given, and the drawing up of a budget was postponed +until 1915.<a name="FnAnchor_80d" id="FnAnchor_80d" href="#Footnote_80d"><span class="sp">80</span></a></p> + +<p>The efforts of the central government to increase the efficiency +of the army and to re-create a navy were continued in 1910. +China was credited with the intention of spending £40,000,000 +on the rehabilitation of its naval and military forces. It was +estimated in March 1910 that there were about 200,000 +foreign-trained men, but their independent spirit and disaffection +constituted a danger to internal peace. The danger was accentuated +by the mutual jealousy of the central and provincial +governments. The anti-dynastic agitation, moreover, again +seemed to be growing in strength. In April 1910 there was +serious rioting at Changsha, Hu-nan, a town whence a few years +previously had issued a quantity of anti-foreign literature of a +vile kind. The immediate causes of the riots seem to have been +many: rumours of the intention of the foreign powers to dismember +China, the establishment of foreign firms at Changsha +<span class="sidenote">Anti-dynastic movements. Riots in Hu-nan.</span> +competing with native firms and exporting rice and +salt at a time when the province was suffering from +famine, and the approach of Halley’s comet. Probably +famine precipitated the outbreak, which was easily +crushed, as was also a rising in May at Yung chow, a +town in the south of Hu-nan. Much mission and mercantile +property was wrecked at Changsha, but the only loss of life +was the accidental drowning of three Roman Catholic priests.</p> + +<p>An edict of the 17th of August 1910 effected considerable and +unexpected changes in the personnel of the central government. +Tang Shao-yi, a former lieutenant of Yuan Shih-kai, was +appointed president of the Board of Communications, and to him +fell the difficult task of reconciling Chinese and foreign +interests in the development of the railway system. Sheng Kung-pao +regarded as the chief Chinese authority on currency questions, +and an advocate of the adoption of a gold standard, was attached +to the Board of Finance to help in the reforms decreed +<span class="sidenote">The regent’s policy.</span> +by an edict of May of the same year (see ante, <i>Currency</i>). +The issue of the edict was attributed to the influence +with the regent of Prince Tsai-tao, who had recently +returned from a tour in Europe, where he had specially studied +questions of national defence. The changes made among the +high officials tended greatly to strengthen the central +administration. The government had viewed with some disquiet the +Russo-Japanese agreement of the 4th of July concerning Manchuria +(which was generally interpreted as in fact lessening the authority +of China in that country); it had become involved in another +dispute with Great Britain, which regarded some of the measures +taken to suppress opium smoking as a violation of the terms +of the Chifu convention, and its action in Tibet had caused +alarm in India. Thus the appointment to high office of men +of enlightenment, pledged to a reform policy, was calculated +to restore confidence in the policy of the Peking authorities. +This confidence would have been greater had not the changes +indicated a struggle for supreme power between the regent and +the dowager empress Lung Yu, widow of Kwang-su.</p> + +<p>The strength of the various movements at work throughout +China was at this time extremely difficult to gauge; the +intensity of the desire for the acquisition of Western knowledge +was equalled by the desire to secure the independence of the +country from foreign control. The second of these desires gave +the force it possessed to the anti-dynastic movement. At the +same time some of the firmest supporters of reform were found +among the Manchus, nor did there seem to be any reason to +doubt the intention of the regent—if he retained power—to +guide the nation through the troubled period of transition into +an era of constitutional government and the full development +of the resources of the empire.</p> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliographical Note.</span>—Knowledge of the ancient history of +China is necessarily derived from the native writers on the subject. +Fortunately, the Chinese have always regarded the preservation +of the national records as a matter of supreme importance. Confucius +set an example in this respect, and has preserved for us in the <i>Spring +and Autumn Annals</i> and the <i>Shu-king</i>, or <i>Book of History</i>, +records of his country’s progress during the past and then present +centuries. The celebrated emperor Shih Hwang-ti, in establishing +the empire, attempted to strengthen his cause by destroying all +works on the national history. But so strongly was the historical +sense inculcated in the people that immediately on the death of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span> +tyrant the nation’s records were again brought to light, and have +been carefully preserved and edited since that time. Prof. Legge’s +translation of the <i>Spring and Autumn Annals</i> and the <i>Shu-king, or +Book of History</i>, in the “Sacred Books of the East” series, have +opened for students the stores of historical knowledge which were +at the command of Confucius, and European writers on Chinese +history have found in the dynastic annals a never-failing source of +valuable information. It was from these works and epitomes of +these that de Maillac gathered the facts for his celebrated <i>Histoire +générale de la Chine</i>, and it is from similar sources that all other +writers on Chinese history have drawn their inspiration.</p> + +<p>The following works on ancient and modern Chinese history +may be specially mentioned: J.A. de Moyria de Maillac, <i>Histoire +générale de la Chine</i> (1777), &c.; J B. du Halde, <i>General History of +China</i> (4 vols., 1736); M. de Guignes, <i>Voyages à Péking ...</i> (3 vols., +1808); D. Boulger, <i>A History of China</i> (3 vols., 1881); Valentine +Chirol, <i>The Far Eastern Question</i> (1896); E.R. Huc, <i>The Chinese +Empire</i> (2 vols., 1855); T.T. Meadows, <i>The Chinese and their +Rebellions</i> (1856); G. Pauthier, <i>Histoire des relations politiques de +la Chine avec les puissances occidentales depuis les temps les plus +anciens jusqu’à nos jours ...</i> (1859); Sir George Staunton, <i>Notes +of Proceedings and Occurrences during the British Embassy to Peking +in 1816</i> (1824); <i>Chinese Expansion historically reviewed</i>, a paper +read before the Central Asian Society by Baron Suyematsu on +January 11, 1905; F. Hirth, <i>Ancient History of China</i> (New York, +1908); Prof. Herbert A. Giles’s <i>Chinese Biographical Dictionary</i> +(1897) is a storehouse of biographical detail and anecdote.</p> + +<p>For Chinese relations with foreign powers see H. Cordier, <i>Histoire +des relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales, 1860-1902</i> +(3 vols., Paris, 1901-1902); <i>Hertslet’s China Treaties. Treaties, &c., +between Great Britain and China, and between China and Foreign +Powers, and Orders in Council, &c., affecting British Interests in China</i> +(3rd ed., revised by G.G.P. Hertslet and E. Parkes, London, 1908); +J.O. Bland and E. Backhouse, <i>China under the Empress Dowager</i> +(London, 1910). More general works are Sir R.K. Douglas, <i>China</i>, +history since the time of Marco Polo (London, 1899); E.H. Parker, +<i>China; Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce</i> (London, 1901); +<i>China, Past and Present</i> (London, 1903); A.J. Sargent, <i>Anglo-Chinese +Commerce and Diplomacy</i>—mainly in the 19th century +(Oxford, 1907). For current affairs see the authorities cited in the +footnotes.</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind f80 sc pt2">Plate I.</p> + +<div class="center f80"> +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> + +<tr><td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:400px; height:230px" src="images/img213a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:400px; height:185px" src="images/img213b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—KU K‘AI-CHIH. TOILET SCENE.<br /> +British Museum. 4th Cent. <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).</td> + +<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—KIU YING. COURT LADIES.<br /> +(British Museum. 15th Cent.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:400px; height:269px" src="images/img213c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:400px; height:337px" src="images/img213d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—CHAO MÊNG-FU, AFTER WANG WEI (8th +CENT.). SCENE ON THE WANG CH‘UAN.<br /> +(Dated 1309. British Museum.)</td> + +<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span>4.—HSÜ HSI. BIRD ON APPLE-BOUGH.<br /> +(10th Cent.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> + +<tr><td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:526px" src="images/img213e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:632px" src="images/img213f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figure"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:579px" src="images/img213g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—ATTRIBUTED TO WU TAOTZÜ. SAKYAMUNI. (8th Cent.)</td> +<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—CHIEN SHUN-CHU. THE EMPEROR HUAN-YEH. (15th Cent.)</td> +<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—EAGLE. By LIN LIANG. (15th Cent. British Museum.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="pt2" colspan="3">Figs. 2, 4, and 5 are reproduced by permission of the Kokka Company, Tokyo.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="noind f80 sc pt2">Plate II</p> + +<div class="center f80"> +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> + +<tr><td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:385px" src="images/img213h.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:467px" src="images/img213i.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:412px" src="images/img213j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—TEMPLE VASE (c. 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td> +<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—WINE VASE (c. 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td> +<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11—WINE VASE (c. 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:466px" src="images/img213k.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:352px" src="images/img213l.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:623px" src="images/img213m.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—INLAID VESSEL<br /> +(C. 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td> +<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—WINE VESSEL (c. 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td> +<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—INLAID VASE (c. 200 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).<br /> +In possession of C.J. Holmes.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:518px" src="images/img213n.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:420px" src="images/img213o.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figure vb"><img style="border:0; width:260px; height:398px" src="images/img213p.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—VASE (c. 1450 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).</td> +<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—WINE VESSEL (c. 1450 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).</td> +<td><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.—TEMPLE VASE (c. 1700 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="pt2" colspan="3">Figs. 9-13 and 15-17 are from originals in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.</td></tr> +</table> </div> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="center1 sc">VI. Chinese Art</p> + +<p>1. <i>Painting.</i>—Painting is the pre-eminent art of China, which +can boast of a succession of great painters for at least twelve +centuries. Though the Chinese have an instinctive gift for harmonious +colour, their painting is above all an art of <i>line</i>. It is +intimately connected with writing, itself a fine art demanding +the same skill and supple power in the wielding of the brush. The +most typical expression of the Chinese genius in painting is the +ink sketch, such as the masters of the Sung dynasty most preferred +and the Japanese from the 15th century adopted for an +abiding model. Utmost vigour of stroke was here combined +with utmost delicacy of modulation. Rich colour and the use +of gold are an integral part of the Buddhist pictures, though +in the masterpieces of the religious painters a grand rhythm +of linear design gives the fundamental character. Exquisite +subdued colour is also found in the “flower and bird pieces” and +still-life subjects of the Sung artists, and becomes more emphatic +and variegated in the decorative artists of the Ming period.</p> + +<p>Not to represent facts, but to suggest a poetic idea (often +perfumed, so to speak, with reminiscence of some actual poem), +has ever been the Chinese artist’s aim. “A picture is a voiceless +poem” is an old saying in China, where very frequently the artist +was a literary man by profession. Oriental critics lay more +stress on loftiness of sentiment and tone than on technical +qualities. This idealist temper helps to explain the deliberate +avoidance of all emphasis on appearances of material solidity +by means of chiaroscuro, &c., and the exclusive use of the light +medium of water-colour. The Chinese express actual dislike +for the representation of relief. Whoever compares the painting +of Europe with that of Asia (and Chinese painting is the central +type for the one continent, as Italian may claim to be for the +other) must first understand this contrast of aim. The limitations +of the Chinese are great, but these limitations save them +from mistaking advances in science for advances in art, and from +petty imitation of fact. Their religious painting has great +affinity with the early religious art of Italy (<i>e.g.</i> that of Siena). +But the ideas of the Renaissance, its scientific curiosity, its +materialism, its glorification of human personality, are wholly +missing in China. For Europe, Man is ever the hero and the +foreground—hence the dominant study of the nude, and the +tendency to thronged compositions, with dramatic motives of +effort and conflict. The Chinese artists, weak in the plastic, +weak in the architectural sense, paint mostly in a lyric mood, +with a contemplative ideal. Hence the value given to space in +their designs, the semi-religious passion for nature, and the +supremacy of landscape. Beauty is found not only in pleasant +prospects, but in wild solitudes, rain, snow and storm. The life +of things is contemplated and portrayed for its own sake, not +for its uses in the life of men. From this point of view the body +of Chinese painting is much more modern in conception than that +of Western art. Landscape was a mature and free art in China +more than a thousand years ago, and her school of landscape is +the loftiest yet known to the world. Nor was man ever dissociated +from nature. As early as the 4th century Ku K‘ai-chih +says that in painting a certain noble character he must give him +a fit background of great peaks and deep ravines. Chinese +painting, in sum, finely complements rather than poorly supplements +that of Europe; where the latter is strong, it is weak; +but in certain chosen provinces it long ago found consummate expression +for thoughts and feelings scarcely yet expressed with us.</p> + +<p>The origin of Chinese painting is lost in legend, though there +is no reason to doubt its great antiquity. References in +literature prove that by the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was a +developed art. To this period is ascribed the invention +<span class="sidenote">History: Early periods (to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 618).</span> +of the hair-brush, in the use of which as an instrument +both for writing and drawing the Chinese have attained +marvellous skill; the usual material for the picture being +woven silk, or, less often and since the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, +paper. In early times wood panels were employed; and large +compositions were painted on walls prepared with white lime. +These mural decorations have all disappeared. History and +portraiture seem to have been the prevailing subjects; a secular +art corresponding to the social ideals of Confucianism. Yet +long before the introduction of Buddhism (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 67) with its +images and pictures, we find that the two great symbolic figures +of the Chinese imagination, the Tiger and the Dragon—typifying +the forces of Nature and the power of the Spirit—had been +evolved in art; and to imaginative minds the mystic ideas of +Lao Tzü and the legends of his hermit followers proved a fruitful +field for artistic motives of a kind which Buddhism was still +more to enrich and multiply. Early classifications rank Buddhist +and Taoist subjects together as one class.</p> + +<p>With the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> we come to individual names of +artists and to the beginnings of landscape. Ku K‘ai-chih +(4th century) ranks as one of the greatest names of Chinese +art. A painting by him now in the British Museum (Plate I. +fig. 1) shows a maturity which has nothing tentative about it. +The dignified and elegant types are rendered with a mastery of +sensitive brush-line which is not surpassed in later art. Ku +K‘ai-chih painted all kinds of subjects, but excelled in portraiture. +During the next century the criticism of painting was +formulated in six canons by Hsieh Ho. Rhythm, organic or +structural beauty, is the supreme quality insisted on.</p> + +<p>During the T‘ang dynasty the empire expanded to its utmost +limits, stretching as far as the Persian Gulf. India was +invaded; Buddhism, taught by numbers of Indian +missionaries, became firmly established, and controlled +<span class="sidenote">T‘ang dynasty (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 618-907).</span> +the ideals and imaginations of the time. The vigorous +style of a great era was impressed upon the T‘ang +art, which culminated in Wu Taotzü, universally acknowledged +as the greatest of all Chinese painters. It is doubtful if any of his +work remains. The picture reproduced (Plate I. fig. 2) was long +attributed to him, but is now thought to be of later date, like +the two landscapes well known under his name in Japan. Wu +Taotzü seems to have given supreme expression to the central +subject of Buddhist art, the Nirvana of Buddha, who lies serenely +asleep, with all creation, from saints and kings to birds and +beasts, passionately bewailing him. The composition is known +from Japanese copies; and it is in fact from the early religious +schools of Japan that we can best conjecture the grandeur of +the T‘ang style. Wu Taotzü excelled in all subjects: other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span> +masters are best known for some particular one. Han Kan +was famous for his horses, the models for succeeding generations +of painters, both Chinese and Japanese. A specimen of his +brush is in the British Museum; and in the same collection is +a long roll which gives a glimpse of the landscape of this age. +It is a copy by a great master of the Yuen dynasty, Chao Mêng-fu, +from a famous painting by Wang Wei, representing scenes +on the Wang Ch‘uan, the latter’s home (Plate I. fig. 3 shows a +fragment). With the T‘ang age landscape matured, and two +schools arose, one headed by Wang Wei, the other by Li Ssü-hsün. +The style of Wang Wei, who was equally famous as a +poet, had a romantic idealist character—disdainful of mere fact—which +in later developments created the “literary man’s picture” +of the Southern school, as opposed to the vigorous naturalism +of the North.</p> + +<p>Next come five brief dynasties, memorable less for any corporate +style or tradition, than for some fine painters +like Hsü Hsi, famous for his flowers, and Huang +<span class="sidenote">Five dynasties (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 907-960).</span> +Ch‘uan, a great master in a delicate style. Two +pictures by him, fowls and peonies, of extraordinary +beauty, are in the British Museum.</p> + +<p>The empire, which had been broken up, was reunited, though +shorn of its outer dependencies, under the house of Sung. +This was an age of culture in which the freedom of +<span class="sidenote">Sung dynasty (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 960-1280).</span> +the individual was proclaimed anew; glorious in art +as in poetry and philosophy; the period which +for Asia stands in history as the Periclean age for Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p style="clear: both;">The religious paintings of Li Lung-mien, the grandest of Sung +masters, if less forcible than those of T‘ang, were unsurpassed in +harmonious rhythm of design and colour. But the most characteristic +painting of this period is in landscape and nature-subjects. +With a passion unmatched in Europe till Wordsworth’s day, the +Sung artists portrayed their delight in mountains, mists, plunging +torrents, the flight of the wild geese from the reed-beds, the moonlit +reveries of sages in forest solitudes, the fisherman in his boat on lake +or stream. To them also, steeped in the Zen philosophy of contemplation, +a flowering branch was no mere subject for a decorative +study, but a symbol of the infinite life of nature. A mere hint to the +spectator’s imagination is often all that they rely on; proof of the +singular fulness and reality of the culture of the time. The art of +suggestion has never been carried farther. Such traditional subjects +as “Curfew from a Distant Temple” and “The Moon over Raging +Waves” indicate the poetic atmosphere of this art. Ma Yuan, Hsia +Kuei and the emperor Hwei-tsung are among the greatest landscape +artists of this period. They belong to the South Sung school, which +loved to paint the gorges and towering rock-pinnacles of the Yangtsze. +The sterner, less romantic scenery of the Hwang-Ho inspired the +Northern school, of which Kuo Hsi and Li Ch‘eng were famous +among many others. Muh Ki was one of the greatest masters of the +ink sketch; Chao Tan Lin was famed for his tigers; Li Ti for his +flowers as for his landscapes; Mao I for still-life: to name a few +among a host.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Mongol dynasty continues in art the Sung tradition. +Chao Mêng-fu, the greatest master of his time, belongs to both +periods, and ranks with the highest names in Chinese +painting. A landscape by him, copied from Wang +<span class="sidenote">Yuen dynasty (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1280-1368).</span> +Wei, has been already mentioned as in the British +Museum, which also has two specimens of Yen Hui, a +painter less known in his own country than in Japan. +He painted especially figures of Taoist legend. The portrait by +Ch‘ien Shun-chü (Plate I. fig. 5) is a fine example of purity of line +and lovely colour, reminding us of Greek art.</p> + +<p>The simplicity of motive and directness of execution which +had been the strength of the Sung art gradually gave way during +the Ming era to complicated conceptions and elaborate +effects. The high glow of life faded; the lyrical temper +<span class="sidenote">Ming dynasty (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1368-1644).</span> +and impassioned work of the Sung time were replaced +by love of ornament and elegance. In this respect +Kiu Ying is typical of the period, with his richly coloured +scenes from court life (Plate I. fig. 6). None the less, there were +a number of painters who still upheld the grander style of earlier +ages. The greatest of these was Lin Liang (Plate I. fig. 7), +whose brush work, if somewhat coarser, is as powerful as that +of the Sung masters. But though individual painters of the +first rank preserved the Ming age from absolute decline, it cannot +be said that any new development of importance took place in a +vitalizing direction.</p> + +<p>The present dynasty prolongs the history of Ming art. The +literary school of the South became more prominent, sending +out offshoots in Japan. There has been no movement +<span class="sidenote">Tsing dynasty (from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1644).</span> +of national life to be reflected in art, though a great +body of admirable painting has been produced, down +to the present day. The four landscape masters +known as the “four Wangs,” Yün Shou-p‘ing and Wu Li are +pre-eminent names.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Sources and Authorities.</span>—While the designs on porcelain, +screens, &c., have long been admired in the West, the paintings of +which these are merely reproductions have been utterly ignored. +Ignorance has gained authority with time, till the very existence of +a great school of Chinese painting has been denied. Materials for +study are scanty. Fires, wars and the recent armed ravages of +Western civilization have left but little. The profound indifference +of the Chinese to European admiration has prevented their collections +from being known. The Japanese, always enthusiastic students +and collectors of the continental art, claim (whether justly or not, +is hard to ascertain) that the finest specimens are now in their +country. Many of these are reproduced in the invaluable Tokyo +publications, the <i>Kokka</i>, Mr Tajima’s <i>Select Relics</i>, &c., with Japanese +criticisms in English. Of actual paintings the British Museum +possesses a fair number, and the Louvre a few, of real importance. +Copies and forgeries abound.</p> + +<p>See H.A. Giles, <i>Introduction to the History of Chinese Pictorial Art</i> +(1905); F. Hirth, <i>Scraps from a Collector’s Note-Book</i> (1905), (supplements +Giles’s work and especially valuable for the art of the Ch‘ing +dynasty); S.W. Bushell, <i>Chinese Art</i>, vol. ii. (1906); K. Okakura, +<i>Ideals of the East</i> (1903); M. Paléologue, <i>L‘Art chinois</i> (1887); +W. Anderson, <i>Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings</i> (1886); +Sei-ichi Taki, “Chinese Landscape Painting,” <i>The Kokka</i>, Nos. 191, +&c. (1906); <i>Chinesische Malereien aus der Sammlung Hirth</i> (Catalogue +of an exhibition held at Dresden) (1897); W. von Seidlitz, +article in <i>Kunstchronik</i> (1896-1897), No. 16.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>Engraving</i>.—According to native historians, the art of +printing from wooden blocks was invented in China in the +6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, when it was employed for the publication of +texts. The earliest evidence we have for the existence of woodcuts +made to reproduce pictures or drawings is a passage in a +work by Chang Yen-yüan, from which it appears that these +were not made before the beginning of the T‘ang dynasty, under +which that author lived. The method employed was to cut the +design with a knife on the plank of the wood, in the manner +followed by European artists till the end of the 18th century, +when engraving with a burin on boxwood ousted the older +process. The Japanese borrowed the art from China; and in +Japan a whole school of artists arose who worked specially for +the woodcutters and adapted their designs to the limitations +of the material employed. In China the art has remained merely +reproductive, and its history is therefore of less interest. <i>Printing +in colours</i> was known to the Chinese in the 17th century, +and probably earlier. In the British Museum is a set of prints +brought from the East by Kaempfer in 1693, in which eight +colours and elaborate <i>gauffrage</i> are used. Some fine albums of +colour prints have been issued in China, but nothing equal in +beauty to the prints produced in Japan by the co-operation of +woodcutter and designer. <i>Engraving on copper</i> was introduced +to China by the Jesuits, and some well-known sets of prints +illustrating campaigns in Mongolia were made in the 18th +century. But the method has never proved congenial to the +artists of the Far East.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir R.K. Douglas, <i>Guide to the Chinese and Japanese Illustrated +Books</i> (British Museum, 1887); W. Anderson, <i>Japanese Wood Engraving</i> +(1895).</p> +</div> + +<p>3. <i>Architecture</i>.—In architecture the Chinese genius has +found but limited and uncongenial expression. A nation of +painters has built picturesquely, but this picturesqueness has +fought against the attainment of the finest architectural qualities. +There has been little development; the arch, for instance, +though known to the Chinese from very early times, has been +scarcely used as a principle of design, and the cupola has been +undiscovered or ignored; and though foreign architectural +ideas were introduced under the influence of the Buddhist and +Mahommedan religions, these were more or less assimilated +and subdued to the dominant Chinese design. Ruins scarcely +exist and no building earlier than the 11th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> is known; +but we know from records that the forms of architecture still +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span> +prevalent imitate in essentials those of the 4th and 5th centuries +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> and doubtless represent an immemorial tradition.</p> + +<p>The grand characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pre-eminent +importance of the roof. The <i>t‘ing</i> is the commonest +model of building. The roof is the main feature; in fact the <i>t‘ing</i> +consists of this roof, massive and immense, with recurved edges, +and the numerous short columns on which the roof rests. The +columns are of wood, the straight stems of the <i>nanmu</i> being +specially used for this purpose. The walls are not supports, +but merely fill in, with stone or brickwork, the spaces between +the columns. The scheme of construction is thus curiously +like that of the modern American steel-framed building, though +the external form may be derived from the tent of primitive +nomads. The roof, being the preponderant feature, is that on +which the art of the architect has been concentrated. A double +or a triple roof may be devised; the ridges and eaves may be +decorated with dragons and other fantastic animals, and the +eaves underlaid with carved and lacquered woodwork; the roof +itself is often covered with glazed tiles of brilliant hue. In spite +of efforts, sometimes desperate, to give variety and individual +character by ornament and detail, the general impression is one +of poverty of design. “Chinese buildings are usually one-storeyed +and are developed horizontally as they are increased in size or +number. The principle which determines the plan of projection +is that of symmetry” (Bushell). All important buildings must +face the south, and this uniform orientation increases the +general architectural monotony produced by a preponderance +of horizontal lines.</p> + +<p>A special characteristic of Chinese architecture is the <i>pai-lou</i>, +an archway erected only by special authority, usually to commemorate +famous persons. The <i>pai-lou</i> is commonly made of +wood with a tiled roof, but sometimes is built entirely of stone, as +is the gateway at the avenue of the Ming tombs. A magnificent +example of the <i>pai-lou</i> is that on the avenue leading to Wo Fo +Ssü, the temple of the Sleeping Buddha, near Peking. This is +built of marble and glazed terra-cotta. The <i>pai-lou</i>, like the +Japanese <i>torii</i>, derives its origin from the <i>toran</i> of Indian <i>stupas</i>. +Lofty towers called <i>t‘ai</i>, usually square and of stone, seem to +have been a common type of important building in early times. +They are described in old books as erected by the ancient kings +and used for various purposes. The towers of the Great Wall +are of the same character, and are made of stone, with arched +doors and windows. Stone, though plentiful in most provinces +of the empire, has been singularly little used by the Chinese, +who prefer wood or brick. M. Paléologue attributes this preference +of light and destructible materials to the national +indifference of the Chinese to posterity and the future, their +enthusiasm being wholly devoted to their ancestors and the past.</p> + +<p>Temples are designed on the general <i>t‘ing</i> model. The Temple +of Heaven is the most imposing of the Confucian temples, +conspicuous with its covering of deep-blue tiles and its triple +roof. Near this is the great Altar of Heaven, consisting of three +circular terraces with marble balustrades. Buddhist temples +are built on the general plan of secular residences, and consist +of a series of rectangular courts with the principal building in +the centre, the lesser at the sides. Lama temples differ little +from these except in the interior decorations and symbolism. +Mahommedan mosques are far simpler and severer in internal +arrangement, but outwardly these also are in the Chinese style.</p> + +<p>The <i>pagoda</i> (Chinese <i>taa</i>), the type of Chinese architecture +most familiar to the West, probably owes its peculiar form to +Buddhist influence. In the pagoda alone may be found some +trace of a religious imagination such as in Europe made Gothic +architecture so full and splendid an expression of the aspiring +spirit. The most famous pagoda was the Porcelain Tower of +Nanking, destroyed by the T‘aip‘ing rebels in 1854. This was +covered with slabs of faience coated with coloured glazes. The +ordinary pagoda is built of brick on a stone foundation; it is +octagonal with thirteen storeys.</p> + +<p>No Chinese buildings show more beauty than some of the +graceful stone bridges for which the neighbourhood of Peking +has been famous for centuries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Paléologue, <i>L’Art chinois</i> (1887): S.W. Bushell, <i>Chinese +Art</i>, vol. i. (1904); J. Fergusson, <i>History of Architecture</i>; Professor +Chûta Itô, articles in <i>The Kokka</i>, Nos. 197, 198.</p> +<div class="author">(L.B.)</div> +</div> + +<p>4. <i>Sculpture</i>.—Except in the casting and decoration of +bronze vessels the Chinese have not obtained distinction as +sculptors. They have practised sculpture in stone from an +early period, but the incised reliefs of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a +number of which are figured in Professor E. Chavannes’s standard +work,<a name="FnAnchor_81d" id="FnAnchor_81d" href="#Footnote_81d"><span class="sp">81</span></a> while they display a certain spirit, lack the true plastic +sense, and though the power of the Chinese draughtsmen increased +rapidly under the T‘ang and Sung dynasties, their work +in stone showed no parallel progress. The feeling for solidity, +which in Japan was a natural growth, was always somewhat +exotic in China. With the impulse given to the arts by Buddhism +a school of sculpture arose. The pilgrim Fa Hsien records +sculpture of distinctive Chinese type in the 5th century. But +Indian models dominated the art. Colossal Buddhas of stone +were typical of the T‘ang era. Little, however, remains of these +earlier times, and such true sculpture in stone, wood or ivory +as we know dates from the 14th and succeeding centuries. The +well-known sculptures on the arch at Chu Yung Kuan (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1345) +are Hindu in style, though not without elements of breadth and +strength, which seem to promise a greater development than +actually took place. The colossal figures guarding the approach +to the Ming tombs (15th century) show that the national taste +rapidly became conventional and petrified so far as monumental +sculpture was concerned, though occasional examples of devotional +or portrait sculpture on a smaller scale in wood and ivory are +found, which in power, grace, sincerity and restraint can rank +with the work of more gifted nations. Such pieces, however, +are extremely rare, and at South Kensington the ivory “Kwanyin +and Child” (274. 1898) is a solitary example. As a rule the +Chinese sculptor valued his art in proportion to the technical +difficulties it conquered. He thus either preferred intractable +materials like jade or rock-crystal, or, if he wrought in wood, horn +or ivory, sought to make his work curious or intricate rather +than beautiful. There is, nevertheless, beauty of a kind in +Chinese bowls of jade, and there is dignity in some of the pieces +of rock-crystal, but the bulk of the carving done in wood, horn +and ivory does not deserve a moment’s serious thought from +the aesthetic point of view. The few fine specimens may be +referred to the earlier part of the Ming dynasty when Chinese +art in general was sincere and simple. After the middle of the +15th century there set in the taste for profuse ornament which +injured all subsequent Chinese work, and wholly ruined Chinese +sculpture.</p> + +<p><i>Bronzes.</i>—In Chinese bronzes we have a more consistent and +exceptional form of plastic art, which can be traced continuously +for some three thousand years. These bronzes take the form +of ritual or honorific vessels, and the archaic shapes used in the +service of the prehistoric religion of the country are repeated +and copied with slight changes in decoration or detail to the +present day.</p> + +<p>The oldest extant specimens, chiefly derived from the sack +of the Summer Palace at Peking, may be referred to the Shang +and Chow dynasties (1766-255 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). These ancient pieces have +a certain savage monumental grandeur of design, are usually +covered with a rich and thick patina of red, green and brown, +and are decorated with simple patterns—scrolls, zigzag lines +and a form of what is known as the Greek key-pattern symbolizing +respectively waves, mountains and storm clouds. The +animal forms used are those of the <i>tao-tieh</i> (glutton), a fabulous +monster (possibly a conventionalized tiger) representing the +powers of the earth, the serpent and the bull. These two last +in later pieces combine to form the dragon, representing the +power of the air. In the Chow dynasty libation vessels were +also made in the form of a deer, a ram or a rhinoceros. These +characteristics are shown in figures 9-17, Plate II. Fig. 9 is a +temple vessel of a shape still in use, but which must date from +before 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> With this massive piece may be contrasted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span> +the flower-like wine vase shown in fig. 10, a favourite shape which +is the prototype of some of the most graceful forms of Chinese +porcelain and Japanese bronze. Its date is about 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +The large wine vase shown in fig. 11 is some 400 years later. +On the body appears the head of the tao-tieh, on the handles +are superbly modelled serpents. The technique, which in the +previous pieces was somewhat rude, has now become perfect, +yet the menacing majestic feeling remains. We see it no less +clearly in fig. 12, a marvellous vessel richly inlaid with gold and +silver and covered with an emerald-green patina. It may date +from about 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and indicates that even in this remote +epoch the Chinese were not only daring and powerful artists +but also master-craftsmen in metal.</p> + +<p>It is indeed at this period that the art reaches its climax. The +monumental grandeur of the Shang specimens is often allied +to clumsiness; the later work, if more elaborate, is always less +powerful. Nevertheless, it is to a later period that ninety-nine +out of a hundred Chinese bronzes must be referred, and the +great majority belong either to the Han and succeeding +dynasties (220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400), or to the Renaissance of the arts +which culminated under the Ming dynasty a thousand years later.</p> + +<p>The characteristics of the first of these periods is the free use +of small solid figures of animals as decoration—the phoenix, the +elephant, the frog, the ox, the tortoise, and occasionally men; +shapes grow less austere and less significant, as a comparison +between figures 11 and 13 will indicate; then towards the end +of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> the influence of Buddhism is felt in the +general tendency towards suavity of form (fig. 14). This vase +is most delicately though sparingly inlaid with silver and a few +touches of gold. Some small pieces, very richly and delicately +inlaid and covered with a magnificent emerald-green patina, +belonging to this period, form a connecting link between the +inlaid work of the Chow dynasty and that of the Sung and Ming +dynasties. The mirrors with Graeco-Bactrian designs, a conclusive +proof of the external influences brought to bear upon +Chinese art, are also attributed to the Han epoch.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The troubled period between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 and <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 960, in spite of the +interval of activity under the T‘ang dynasty, produced, it would +seem, but few bronzes, and those few were of no distinct or +noteworthy style. Under the Sung dynasty the arts revived, and to this +time some of the most splendid specimens of inlaid work belong—pieces +of workmanship and taste no less perfect than that of the +Japanese, in which the gold and silver of the earlier work are +occasionally reinforced with malachite and lapis-lazuli. The coming of +Kublai Khan and the Yuen dynasty (1280-1367) once more brought +the East into contact with the West, and to this time we may assign +certain fine pieces of Persian form such as pilgrim bottles. The +vessels bearing Arabic inscriptions belong to the Ming dynasty +(1368-1644), with which the modern history of Chinese art begins.</p> + +<p>The work done while the Ming dynasty was still young provides the +student of Chinese art with many problems, and in one or two cases +even the South Kensington authorities assign to pre-Christian times +pieces that are clearly of Ming workmanship. The tendency of the +period was eclectic and archaistic. The products of earlier days were +reproduced with perfect technical command of materials, and with +admirable taste; it is indeed by an excess of these qualities that +archaistic Ming work may be distinguished from the true archaic. +In fig. 15 we see how the Ming bronze worker took an earlier Buddhistic +form of vase and gave it a new grace that amounted almost to +artifice. A parallel might be found among the products of the so-called +<i>art nouveau</i> of to-day, in which old designs are revived with +just that added suavity or profusion of curvature that robs them of +character. Fig. 16 again might be mistaken almost for a piece of +the Chow dynasty, were not the grandeur of its form modified by just +so much harmony in the curvature of the body and neck, and by just +so much finish in the details as to rob the design of the old majestic +vigour and to mark it as the splendid effort of an age of culture, and +not the natural product of a period of strength.</p> + +<p>It is, however, in the inlaid pieces that the difference tells most +clearly. Here we find the monstrous forms of the Shang and Chow +dynasties revived by men who appreciated their spirit but could not +help making the revival an excuse for the display of their own +superior skill. The monstrous vases and incense-burners of the past +thus appear once more, but are now decorated with a delicate embroidery +of inlay, are polished and finished to perfection, but lose +therewith just the rudeness of edge and outline which made the older +work so gravely significant. At times even some grandly planned +vessel will appear with such a festoon of pretty tracery wreathed +about it that the incongruity is little short of ridiculous, and we +recognize we have passed the turning-point to decline.</p> + +<p>Decline indeed came rapidly, and to the latter part of the Ming +epoch we must assign those countless bronzes where dragons and +flowers and the stock symbols of happiness, good luck and longevity +sprawl together in interminable convolutions. When once we reach +this stage of contortion, of elaborate pierced and relief work, we come +to the place in history of Chinese bronzes where serious study may +cease, except in so far as the study of the symbols themselves throws +light upon the history of Chinese procelain (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>). One +class of bronze alone needs a word of notice, namely, the profusely +decorated pieces which have a Tibetan origin, and are obviously no +older than the end of the Ming period. Of these fig. 17 will serve as +a specimen, and a comparison with fig. 9 will show how the softer +rounded forms and jewelled festoons of Hindu-Greek taste enervated +the grand primitive force of the earlier age, and that neither the added +delicacy of texture and substance nor the vastly increased dexterity of +workmanship can compensate for the vanished majesty.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. J. H.)</div> + +<p class="center1 sc">VII. The Chinese Language</p> + +<p><i>Colloquial.</i>—In treating of Chinese, it will be found convenient +to distinguish, broadly, the spoken from the written language +and to deal with each separately. This is a distinction which +would be out of place if we had to do with any European, or +indeed most Oriental languages. Writing, in its origin, is merely +a symbolic representation of speech. But in Chinese, as we shall +see, for reasons connected with the peculiar nature ot the script, +the two soon began to move along independent and largely +divergent lines. This division, moreover, will enable us to +employ different methods of inquiry more suited to each. With +regard to the colloquial, it is hardly possible to do more than +consider it in the form or forms in which it exists at the present +day throughout the empire of China. Although Chinese, like +other living languages, must have undergone gradual changes +in the past, so little can be stated with certainty about these +changes that an accurate survey of its evolution is quite out of +the question. Obviously a different method is required when +we come to the written characters. The familiar line, “Litera +scripta manet, volat irrevocabile verbum,” is truer perhaps of +Chinese than of any other tongue. We have hardly any clue as +to how Chinese was spoken or pronounced in any given district +2000 years ago, although there are written remains dating from +long before that time; and in order to gain an insight into the +structure of the characters now existing, it is necessary to trace +their origin and development.</p> + +<p>Beginning with the colloquial, then, and taking a linguistic +survey of China, we find not one spoken language but a number +of dialects, all clearly of a common stock, yet differing +from one another as widely as the various Romance +<span class="sidenote">The dialects.</span> +languages in southern Europe—say, French, Italian +and Spanish. Most of these dialects are found fringing the +coast-line of China, and penetrating but a comparatively short +way into the interior. Starting from the province of Kwang-tung +in the south, where the Cantonese and farther inland the Hakka +dialects are spoken, and proceeding northwards, we pass in +succession the following dialects: Swatow, Amoy—these two may +almost be regarded as one—Foochow, Wenchow and Ningpo. +Farther north we come into the range of the great dialect +popularly known as Mandarin (<i>Kuan hua</i> or “official language”), +which sweeps round behind the narrow strip of coast occupied +by the various dialects above-mentioned, and dominates a +hinterland constituting nearly four-fifths of China proper. +Mandarin, of which the dialect of Peking, the capital since 1421, +is now the standard form, comprises a considerable number of +sub-dialects, some of them so closely allied that the speakers of +one are wholly intelligible to the speakers of another, while +others (<i>e.g.</i> the vernaculars of Yangchow, Hankow or Mid-China +and Ssŭ-ch‘uan) may almost be considered as separate dialects. +Among all these, Cantonese is supposed to approximate most +nearly to the primitive language of antiquity, whereas Pekingese +perhaps has receded farthest from it. But although philologically +and historically speaking Cantonese and certain other dialects +may be of greater interest, for all practical purposes Mandarin, +in the widest sense of the term, is by far the most important. +Not only can it claim to be the native speech of the majority of +Chinamen, but it is the recognized vehicle of oral communication +between all Chinese officials, even in cases where they come from +the same part of the country and speak the same <i>patois</i>. For +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span> +these reasons, all examples of phraseology in this article will be +given in Pekingese.</p> + +<p>So far, stress has been laid chiefly on the dissimilarity of the +dialects. On the other hand, it must be remembered that they +proceed from the same parent stem, are spoken by members of +the same race, and are united by the bond of writing which is the +common possession of all, and cannot be regarded as derived +from one more than from another. They also share alike in the +two most salient features of Chinese as a whole: (1) they are all +monosyllabic, that is, each individual word consists of only +one syllable; and (2) they are strikingly poor in vocables, or +separate sounds for the conveyance of speech. The number of +these vocables varies from between 800 and 900 in Cantonese to +no more than 420 in the vernacular of Peking. This scanty +number, however, is eked out by interposing an aspirate between +certain initial consonants and the vowel, so that for instance <i>p‘u</i> +is distinguished from <i>pu</i>. The latter is pronounced with little +or no emission of breath, the “p” approximating the farther +north one goes (<i>e.g.</i> at Niuchwang) more closely to a “b.” +The aspirated <i>p‘u</i> is pronounced more like our interjection +“Pooh!” To the Chinese ear, the difference between the two +is very marked. It will be found, as a rule, that an Englishman +imparts a slight aspirate to his p’s, t’s, k’s and ch’s, and therefore +has greater difficulty with the unaspirated words in Chinese. +The aspirates are better learned by the ear than by the eye, +but in one way or another it is essential that they be mastered +by any one who wishes to make himself intelligible to the native.</p> + +<p>The influence of the Mongolian population, assisted by the +progress of time, has slowly but surely diminished the number +of vocables in Pekingese. Thus the initials <i>ts</i> and <i>k</i>, when +followed by the vowel <i>i</i> (with its continental value) have gradually +become softer and more assimilated to each other, and are now all +pronounced <i>ch</i>. Again, all consonantal endings in <i>t</i> and <i>k</i>, +such as survive in Cantonese and other dialects, have entirely +disappeared from Pekingese, and <i>n</i> and <i>ng</i> are the only final +consonants remaining. Vowel sounds, on the other hand, have +been proportionately developed, such compounds as <i>ao, ia, iao, +iu, ie, ua</i> occurring with especial frequency. (It must be understood, +of course, that the above are only equivalents, not in all +cases very exact, for the sounds of a non-alphabetic language.)</p> + +<p>An immediate consequence of this paucity of vocables is that +one and the same sound has to do duty for different words. +Reckoning the number of words that an educated man would +want to use in conversation at something over four thousand, +it is obvious that there will be an average of ten meanings to +each sound employed. Some sounds may have fewer meanings +attached to them, but others will have many more. Thus the +following represent only a fraction of the total number of words +pronounced <i>shih</i> (something like the “shi” in shirt): +<img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217a.jpg" alt="" /> “history,” <img style="width:25px; height:27px" src="images/img217b.jpg" alt="" /> “to employ,” <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217c.jpg" alt="" /> “a corpse,” <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217d.jpg" alt="" /> “a market,” <img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217e.jpg" alt="" /> +“an army,” <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217f.jpg" alt="" /> “a lion,” <img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217g.jpg" alt="" /> “to rely on,” <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217h.jpg" alt="" /> “to wait on,” +<img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217i.jpg" alt="" /> “poetry,” <img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217j.jpg" alt="" /> “time,” <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217k.jpg" alt="" /> “to know,” <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217l.jpg" alt="" /> “to bestow,” <img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217m.jpg" alt="" /> “to be,” +<img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217n.jpg" alt="" /> “solid,” <img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217o.jpg" alt="" /> “to lose,” <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217p.jpg" alt="" /> “to proclaim,” <img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217q.jpg" alt="" /> “to look at,” +<img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217r.jpg" alt="" /> “ten,” <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217s.jpg" alt="" /> “to pick up,” <img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217t.jpg" alt="" /> “stone,” <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217u.jpg" alt="" /> “generation,” +<img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217v.jpg" alt="" /> “to eat,” <img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217w.jpg" alt="" /> “a house,” <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217x.jpg" alt="" /> “a clan,” <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217y.jpg" alt="" /> “beginning,” +<img style="width:25px; height:22px" src="images/img217z.jpg" alt="" /> “to let go,” <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217aa.jpg" alt="" /> “to test,” <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217ab.jpg" alt="" /> “affair,” <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217ac.jpg" alt="" /> “power,” <img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217ad.jpg" alt="" /> “officer,” +<img style="width:25px; height:23px" src="images/img217ae.jpg" alt="" /> “to swear,” <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217af.jpg" alt="" /> “to pass away,” <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img217ag.jpg" alt="" /> “to happen.” It would +be manifestly impossible to speak without ambiguity, or indeed +to make oneself intelligible at all, unless there were some means +of supplementing this deficiency of sounds. As a matter of fact, +several devices are employed through the combination of which +confusion is avoided. One of these devices is the coupling of +words in pairs in order to express a single idea. There is a word +<img style="width:25px; height:27px" src="images/img217ah.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ko</i> which means “elder brother.” But in speaking, the sound +<i>ko</i> alone would not always be easily understood in this sense. +One must either reduplicate it and say <i>ko-ko</i>, or prefix +<img style="width:25px; height:24px" src="images/img217ai.jpg" alt="" /> (<i>ta</i>, “great”) and say <i>ta-ko</i>. Simple reduplication is mostly +confined to family appellations and such adverbial phrases as <img style="width:60px; height:25px" src="images/img217aj.jpg" alt="" /> +<i>man-man</i>, “slowly.” But there is a much larger class of pairs, +in which each of the two components has the same meaning. +Examples are: <img style="width:56px; height:25px" src="images/img217ak.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k‘ung-p‘a</i>, “to be afraid,” +<img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img217al.jpg" alt="" /> <i>kao-su</i>, “to tell,” <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img217am.jpg" alt="" /> <i>shu-mu</i>, “tree,” +<img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img217an.jpg" alt="" /> <i>p‘i-fu</i>, “skin,” <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img217ao.jpg" alt="" /> <i>man-ying</i>, “full,” +<img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img217ap.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ku-tu</i>, “solitary.” Sometimes the two parts are not +exactly synonymous, but together make up the sense required. +Thus in <img style="width:63px; height:25px" src="images/img217aq.jpg" alt="" /> <i>i-shang</i>, “clothes,” <i>i</i> denotes +more particularly clothes worn on the upper part of the body, +and <i>shang</i> those on the lower part. <img style="width:60px; height:25px" src="images/img217ar.jpg" alt="" /> <i>fêng-huang</i> is the name +of a fabulous bird, <i>fêng</i> being the male, and <i>kuang</i> the female. +In another very large class of expressions, the first word serves +to limit and determine the special meaning of the second: <img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img217as.jpg" alt="" /> +“milk-skin,” “cream”; <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img217at.jpg" alt="" /> “fire-leg,” “ham”; <img style="width:64px; height:25px" src="images/img217au.jpg" alt="" /> +“lamp-cage,” “lantern”; <img style="width:60px; height:25px" src="images/img217av.jpg" alt="" /> “sea-waist,” “strait.” There +are, besides, a number of phrases which are harder to classify. +Thus, <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img217aw.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hu</i> means “tiger.” But in any case where ambiguity +might arise, <i>lao-hu</i>, “old tiger,” is used instead of the monosyllable. +<img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img217ax.jpg" alt="" /> (another <i>hu</i>) is “fox,” and <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img217ay.jpg" alt="" /> <i>li</i>, an animal belonging +to the smaller cat tribe. Together, <i>hu-li</i>, they form the usual +term for fox. <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img217az.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chih tao</i> is literally “to know the way,” +but has come to be used simply for the verb “to know.” These +pairs or two-word phrases are of such frequent occurrence, +that the Chinese spoken language might almost be described as +bi-syllabic. Something similar is seen in the extensive use of +suffixes or enclitics, attached to many of the commonest nouns. <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img217ba.jpg" alt="" /> <i>nü</i> +is the word for “girl,” but in speech <img style="width:55px; height:25px" src="images/img217bb.jpg" alt="" /> <i>nü-tzŭ</i> or <img style="width:68px; height:25px" src="images/img217bc.jpg" alt="" /> +<i>nü-‘rh</i> is the form used. <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img217bd.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img217be.jpg" alt="" /> both mean child, and must +originally have been diminutives. A fairly close parallel is +afforded by the German suffix <i>chen</i>, as in <i>Mädchen</i>. +The suffix <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img217bf.jpg" alt="" />, it may be remarked, belongs especially to the Peking +vernacular. Then, the use of so-called numeratives will often +give some sort of clue as to the class of objects in which a +substantive may be found. When in pidgin English we speak of +“one piecee man” or “three piecee dollar,” the word <i>piecee</i> is +simply a Chinese numerative in English dress. Even in ordinary +English, people do not say “four cattle” but “four <i>head</i> of +cattle.” But in Chinese the use of numeratives is quite a distinctive +feature of the language. The commonest of them, <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img217bg.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ko</i>, +can be used indifferently in connexion with almost any class of +things, animal, vegetable or mineral. But there are other +numeratives—at least 20 or 30 in everyday use—which are strictly +reserved for limited classes of things with specific attributes. +<img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img217bh.jpg" alt="" /> <i>mei</i>, for instance, is the numerative of circular objects +such as coins and rings; <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img217bi.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k‘o</i> of small globular objects—pearls, +grains of rice, &c.; <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img217bj.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k‘ou</i> classifies things which have +a mouth—bags, boxes and so forth; <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img217bk.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chien</i> is used of all kinds +of affairs; <img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img217bl.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chang</i> of chairs and sheets of paper; <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img217bm.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chih</i> +(literally half a pair) is the numerative for various animals, +parts of the body, articles of clothing and ships; <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img217bn.jpg" alt="" /> <i>pa</i> for things +which are grasped by a handle, such as fans and knives.</p> + +<p>This by no means exhausts the list of devices by which the +difficulties of a monosyllabic language are successfully overcome. +Mention need only be made, however, of the system of “tones,” +which, as the most curious and important of all, has been kept +for the last.</p> + +<p>The tones may be defined as regular modulations of the voice +by means of which different inflections can be imparted to the +same sound. They may be compared with the half-involuntary +modulations which express emotional +<span class="sidenote">The tones.</span> +feeling in our words. To the foreign ear, a Chinese sentence +spoken slowly with the tones clearly brought out has a certain +sing-song effect. If we speak of the tones as a “device” +adopted in order to increase the number of vocables, this must +be understood rather as a convenient way of explaining their +practical function than as a scientific account of their origin. +It is absurd to suppose the tones were deliberately invented in +order to fit each written character with a separate sound. A +tone may be said to be as much an integral part of the word to +which it belongs as the sound itself; like the sound, too, it is not +fixed once and for all, but is in a constant, though very gradual, +state of evolution. This fact is proved by the great differences of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span> +intonation in the dialects. Theoretically, four tones have been +distinguished—the even, the rising, the sinking and the entering—each +of which falls again into an upper and a lower series. But +only the Cantonese dialect possesses all these eight varieties of +tone (to which a ninth has been added), while Pekingese, with +which we are especially concerned here, has no more than four: +the even upper, the even lower, the rising and the sinking. The +history of the tones has yet to be written, but it appears that +down to the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the only tones distinguished +were the <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img218a.jpg" alt="" /> “even,” <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img218b.jpg" alt="" /> “rising” and <img style="width:30px; height:25px" src="images/img218c.jpg" alt="" /> “entering.” Between +that date and the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> the <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218d.jpg" alt="" /> sinking tone was +developed. In the 11th century the even tone was divided into +upper and lower, and a little later the entering tone finally +disappeared from Pekingese. The following monosyllabic dialogue +gives a very fair idea of the quality of the four Pekingese +tones—<i>1st tone</i>: Dead (spoken in a raised monotone, with slightly +plaintive inflection); <i>2nd tone</i>: Dead? (simple query); +<i>3rd tone</i>: Dead? (an incredulous query long drawn out); +<i>4th tone</i>: Dead! (a sharp and decisive answer). The native learns the +tones unconsciously and by ear alone. For centuries their existence +was unsuspected, the first systematic classification of them +being associated with the name of Shên Yo, a scholar who +lived <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 441-513. The Emperor Wu Ti was inclined to be +sceptical, and one day said to him: “Come, tell me, what are +these famous four tones?” “They are <img style="width:128px; height:25px" src="images/img218e.jpg" alt="" /> whatever +your Majesty pleases to make them,” replied Shên Yo, skilfully +selecting for his answer four words which illustrated, and in the +usual order, the four tones in question. Although no native is +ever taught the tones separately, they are none the less present +in the words he utters, and must be acquired consciously or +unconsciously by any European who wishes to be understood. +It is a mistake, however, to imagine that every single word in +a sentence must necessarily be given its full tonic force. Quite +a number of words, such as the enclitics mentioned above, are +not intonated at all. In others the degree of emphasis depends +partly on the tone itself, partly on its position in the sentence. +In Pekingese the 3rd tone (which is really the second in the +ordinary series, the 1st being subdivided into upper and lower) +is particularly important, and next to it in this respect comes +the 2nd (that is, the lower even, or 2nd division of the 1st). +It may be said, roughly, that any speaker whose second and third +tones are correct will at any rate be understood, even if the 1st +and 4th are slurred over.</p> + +<p>It is chiefly, however, on its marvellous script and the rich +treasures of its literature that the Chinese language depends for +its unique fascination and charm. If we take a page +of printed Chinese or carefully written manuscript +<span class="sidenote">The characters.</span> +and compare it with a page, say, of Arabic or Sanskrit, +the Chinese is seen at once to possess a marked characteristic +of its own. It consists of a number of wholly independent units, +each of which would fit into a small square, and is called a +character. These characters are arranged in columns, beginning +on the right-hand side of the page and running from top to +bottom. They are <i>words</i>, inasmuch as they stand for articulate +sounds expressing root-ideas, but they are unlike our words in +that they are not composed of alphabetical elements or letters. +Clearly, if each character were a distinct and arbitrarily +constructed symbol, only those gifted with exceptional powers of +memory could ever hope to read or write with fluency. This, +however, is far from being the case. If we go to work synthetically +and first see how the language is built up, it will soon appear +that most Chinese characters are susceptible of some kind of +analysis. We may accept as substantially true the account +of native writers who tell us that means of communication other +than oral began with the use of knotted cords, similar to the +<i>quippus</i> of ancient Mexico and Peru, and that these were +displaced later on by the practice of notching or scoring rude marks +on wood, bamboo and stone. It is beyond question that the +first four numerals, as written with simple horizontal strokes, +date from this early period. Notching, however, carries us but +a little way on the road to a system of writing, which in China, +as elsewhere, must have sprung originally from pictures. +In Chinese writing, especially, the indications of such an origin +are unmistakable, a few characters, indeed, even in +<span class="sidenote">Pictorial characters.</span> +their present form, being perfectly recognizable as pictures +of objects pure and simple. Thus, for “sun” the +ancient Chinese drew a circle with a dot in it: <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218f.jpg" alt="" />, now modified +into <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img218g.jpg" alt="" />; for “moon” <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img218h.jpg" alt="" />, now <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img218i.jpg" alt="" />; for “God” they drew the +anthropomorphic figure <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img218j.jpg" alt="" />, which in its modern form appears +as <img style="width:33px; height:25px" src="images/img218k.jpg" alt="" />; for “mountains” <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img218l.jpg" alt="" />, now <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img218m.jpg" alt="" />; for “child” <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img218n.jpg" alt="" />, now <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img218o.jpg" alt="" />; +for “fish” <img style="width:17px; height:25px" src="images/img218p.jpg" alt="" />, now <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img218q.jpg" alt="" />; for “mouth” a round hole, now <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218r.jpg" alt="" />; +for “hand” <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img218s.jpg" alt="" />, now <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img218t.jpg" alt="" />; for “well” <img style="width:21px; height:25px" src="images/img218u.jpg" alt="" />, now written without the +dot. Hence we see that while the origin of all writing is pictographic, +in Chinese alone of living languages certain pictures +have survived, and still denote what they had denoted in the +beginning. In the script of other countries they were gradually +transformed into hieroglyphic symbols, after which they either +disappeared altogether or became further conventionalized into +the letters of an alphabet. These picture-characters, then, +accumulated little by little, until they comprised all the common +objects which could be easily and rapidly delineated—sun, moon, +stars, various animals, certain parts of the body, tree, grass +and so forth, to the number of two or three hundred. The next +step was to a few compound pictograms which would naturally +suggest themselves to primitive man: <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img218v.jpg" alt="" /> the sun just above the +horizon = “dawn”; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218w.jpg" alt="" /> trees side by side = “a forest”; <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img218x.jpg" alt="" /> a +mouth with something solid coming out of it = “the tongue”; +<img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img218y.jpg" alt="" /> a mouth with vapor or breath coming out of it = “words.”</p> + +<p>But a purely pictographic script has its limitations. The more +complex natural objects hardly come within its scope; still less +the whole body of abstract ideas. While writing was +still in its infancy, it must have occurred to the Chinese +<span class="sidenote">Suggestive compounds.</span> +to join together two or more pictorial characters in +order that their association might suggest to the mind +some third thing or idea. “Sun” and “moon” combined in +this way make the character <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218z.jpg" alt="" />, which means “bright”; woman +and child make <img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img218aa.jpg" alt="" /> “good”; “fields” and “strength” (that +is, labour in the fields) produce the character <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img218ab.jpg" alt="" /> “male”; +two “men” on “earth” <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img218ac.jpg" alt="" /> signifies “to sit”—before chairs +were known; the “sun” seen through “trees” <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img218ad.jpg" alt="" /> designates +the east; <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218ae.jpg" alt="" /> has been explained as (1) a “pig” under a “roof,” +the Chinese idea, common to the Irish peasant, of home, and +also (2) as “several persons” under “a roof,” in the same +sense; a “woman” under a “roof” makes the character <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218af.jpg" alt="" /> +“peace”; “words” and “tongue” <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img218ag.jpg" alt="" /> naturally suggest +“speech”; two hands (<img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img218ah.jpg" alt="" />, in the old form <img style="width:21px; height:25px" src="images/img218ai.jpg" alt="" />) indicate friendship; +“woman” and “birth” <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img218aj.jpg" alt="" /> = “born of a woman,” means +“clan-name,” showing that the ancient Chinese traced through +the mother and not through the father. Interesting and ingenious +as many of these combinations are, it is clear that their +number, too, must in any practical system of writing be severely +limited. Hence it is not surprising that this class of characters, +correctly called ideograms, as representing ideas and not objects, +should be a comparatively small one. Up to this point there +seemed to be but little chance of the written language reaching +a free field for expansion. It had run so far on lines sharply +distinct from those of ordinary speech. There was nothing in +the character <i>per se</i> which gave the slightest clue to the sound of +the word it represented. Each character, therefore, had to be +learned and recognized by a separate effort of memory. +<span class="sidenote">Phonetic characters.</span> +The first step in a new, and, as it ultimately proved, +the right direction, was the borrowing of a character +already in use to represent another word +identical in sound, though different in meaning. Owing to the +scarcity of vocables noted above, there might be as many as +ten different words in common use, each pronounced <i>fang</i>. +Out of those ten only one, we will suppose, had a character +assigned to it—namely <img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img218ak.jpg" alt="" /> “square” (originally said to be a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span> +picture of two boats joined together). But among the other nine +was <i>fang</i>, meaning “street” or “locality,” in such common use +that it became necessary to have some means of writing it. +Instead of inventing an altogether new character, as they might +have done, the Chinese took <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219a.jpg" alt="" /> “square” and used it also in +the sense of “locality.” This was a simple expedient, no doubt, +but one that, applied on a large scale, could not but lead to +confusion. The corresponding difficulty which presented itself +in speech was overcome, as we saw, by many devices, one of +which consisted in prefixing to the word in question another +which served to determine its special meaning. A native does +not say <i>fang</i> simply when he wishes to speak of a place, but +<i>li-fang</i> “earth-place.” Exactly the same device was now +adopted in writing the character. To <i>fang</i> “square” was added +another part meaning “earth,” in order to show that the <i>fang</i> +in question had to do with location on the earth’s surface. The +whole character thus appeared as <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219b.jpg" alt="" />. Once this phonetic principle +had been introduced, all was smooth sailing, and writing +progressed by leaps and bounds. Nothing was easier now +than to provide signs for the other words pronounced <i>fang</i>. +“A room” was <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img219c.jpg" alt="" /> door-<i>fang</i>; “to spin” was <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img219d.jpg" alt="" /> silk-<i>fang</i>; +“fragrant” was <img style="width:30px; height:25px" src="images/img219e.jpg" alt="" /> herbs-<i>fang</i>; “to inquire” was +<img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img219f.jpg" alt="" /> words-<i>fang</i>; “an embankment,” and hence “to guard against,” was +<img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img219g.jpg" alt="" /> mound-<i>fang</i>; “to hinder” was <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219h.jpg" alt="" /> woman-<i>fang</i>. This last +example may seem a little strange until we remember that man +must have played the principal part in the development of +writing, and that from the masculine point of view there is +something essentially obstructive and unmanageable in woman’s +nature. It may be remarked, by the way, that the element +“woman” is often the determinative in characters that stand +for unamiable qualities, <i>e.g.</i> <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219i.jpg" alt="" /> “jealous,” <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219j.jpg" alt="" /> “treacherous,” +<img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img219k.jpg" alt="" /> “false” and <img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img219l.jpg" alt="" /> “uncanny.” This class of characters, which +constitutes at least nine-tenths of the language, has received the +convenient name of <i>phonograms</i>. It must be added that the +formation of the phonogram or phonetic compound did not +always proceed along such simple lines as in the examples given +above, where both parts are pictorial characters, one the +“phonetic,” representing the sound, and the other, commonly +known as the “radical,” giving a clue to the sense. In the first +place, most of the phonetics now existing are not simple pictograms, +but themselves more or less complex characters made up +in a variety of ways. On analysing, for instance, the word <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219m.jpg" alt="" /> +<i>hsün</i>, “to withdraw,” we find it is composed of the phonetic +<img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219n.jpg" alt="" /> combined with the radical <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219o.jpg" alt="" />, an abbreviated form of <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219p.jpg" alt="" /> “to +walk.” But <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img219q.jpg" alt="" /> <i>sun</i> means “grandson,” and is itself a suggestive +compound made up of the two characters <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219r.jpg" alt="" /> “a son” and <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219s.jpg" alt="" /> +“connect.” The former character is a simple pictogram, but +the latter is again resolvable into the two elements <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219t.jpg" alt="" /> “a down +stroke to the left” and <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219u.jpg" alt="" /> “a strand of silk,” which is here +understood to be the radical and appears in its ancient form as +<img style="width:20px; height:25px" src="images/img219v.jpg" alt="" />, a picture of cocoons spun by the silkworm. Again, the +sound is in most cases given by no means exactly by the so-called +phonetic, a fact chiefly due to the pronunciation having undergone +changes which the written character was incapable of recording. +Thus, we have just seen that the phonetic of <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219w.jpg" alt="" /> is not <i>hsün</i> +but <i>sun</i>. There are extreme cases in which a phonetic provides +hardly any clue at all as to the sound of its derivatives. The +character <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219x.jpg" alt="" />, for example, which by itself is pronounced <i>ch‘ien</i>, +appears in combination as the modern phonetic of <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219y.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k‘an</i>, <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219z.jpg" alt="" /> +<i>juan</i>, <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219aa.jpg" alt="" /> <i>yin</i> and <img style="width:30px; height:25px" src="images/img219ab.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ch‘ui</i>; though in the last +instance it was not originally the phonetic but the radical of a character +which was analysed as <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219ac.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ch‘ien</i>, “to emit breath” from <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img219ad.jpg" alt="" /> “the +mouth,” the whole character being a suggestive compound +rather than an illustration of radical and phonetic combined. +In general, however, it may be said that the “final” or rhyme +is pretty accurately indicated, while in not a few cases the phonetic +does give the exact sound for all its derivatives. Thus, the +characters in which the element <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219af.jpg" alt="" /> enters are pronounced <i>chien, ch‘ien, +hsien</i> and <i>lien</i>; but <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219ag.jpg" alt="" /> and its derivatives are all <i>i</i>. A +considerable number of phonetics are nearly or entirely obsolete +as separate characters, although their family of derivatives may +be a very large one. <img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img219ah.jpg" alt="" />, for instance, is never seen by itself, yet +<img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img219aj.jpg" alt="" />, and <img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img219ak.jpg" alt="" /> are among the most important characters in the +language. Objections have been raised in some quarters to +this account of the phonetic development of Chinese. It is +argued that the primitives and sub-primitives, whereby is meant +any character which is capable of entering into combination +with another, have really had some influence on the meaning, +and do not merely possess a phonetic value. But insufficient +evidence has hitherto been advanced in support of this view.</p> + +<p>The whole body of Chinese characters, then, may conveniently +be divided up, for philological purposes, into pictograms, +ideograms and phonograms. The first are pictures of objects, the +second are composite symbols standing for abstract ideas, the +third are compound characters of which the more important +element simply represents a spoken sound. Of course, in a strict +sense, even the first two classes do not directly represent either +objects or ideas, but rather stand for sounds by which these +objects and ideas have previously been expressed. It may, in +fact, be said that Chinese characters are “nothing but a number +of more or less ingenious devices for suggesting spoken words to +a reader.” This definition exposes the inaccuracy of the popular +notion that Chinese is a language of ideographs, a mistake which +even the compilers of the <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> have not +avoided. Considering that all the earliest characters are pictorial, +and that the vast majority of the remainder are constructed on +phonetic principles, it is absurd to speak of Chinese characters as +“symbolizing the idea of a thing, without expressing the name of it.”</p> + +<p>The Chinese themselves have always been diligent students of +their written language, and at a very early date (probably many +centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) evolved a sixfold classification of characters, +<span class="sidenote">The “Six Scripts.”</span> +the so-called <img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img219al.jpg" alt="" /> <i>liu shu</i>, very inaccurately +translated by the Six Scripts, which may be briefly noticed:—</p> + +<p>1. <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img219am.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chih shih</i>, indicative or self-explanatory characters. +This is a very small class, including only the simplest numerals +and a few others such as <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img219an.jpg" alt="" /> “above” and <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219ao.jpg" alt="" /> “below.”</p> + +<p>2. <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img219ap.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hsiang hsing</i>, pictographic characters.</p> + +<p>3. <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img219aq.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hsing shêng</i> or <img style="width:56px; height:25px" src="images/img219ar.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hsieh shêng</i>, phonetic compounds.</p> + +<p>4. <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img219as.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hui i</i>, suggestive compounds based on a natural +association of ideas. To this class alone can the term “ideographs” +be properly applied.</p> + +<p>5. <img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img219at.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chuan chu</i>. The meaning of the name has been much +disputed, some saying that it means “turned round”; <i>e.g.</i> +<img style="width:52px; height:25px" src="images/img219au.jpg" alt="" /> <i>mu</i> “eye” is now written <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img219av.jpg" alt="" />. Others understand it as comprising +a few groups of characters nearly related in sense, each +character consisting of an element common to the group, together +with a specific and detachable part; <i>e.g.</i> <img style="width:55px; height:25px" src="images/img219aw.jpg" alt="" />, and <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img219ax.jpg" alt="" />, all of +which have the meaning “old.” This class may be ignored +altogether, seeing that it is concerned not with the origin of +characters but only with peculiarities in their use.</p> + +<p>6. <img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img219ay.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chia chieh</i>, borrowed characters, as explained above, +that is, characters adopted for different words simply because +of the identity of sound.</p> + +<p>The order of this native classification is not to be taken as in +any sense chronological. Roughly, it may be said that the +development of writing followed the course previously traced—that +is, beginning with indicative signs, and going on with +pictograms and ideograms, until finally the discovery of the +phonetic principle did away with all necessity for other devices +in enlarging the written language. But we have no direct +evidence that this was so. There can be little doubt that phonetic +compounds made their appearance at a very early date, probably +prior to the invention of a large number of suggestive compounds, +and perhaps even before the whole existing stock of pictograms +had been fashioned. It is significant that numerous words of +daily occurrence, which must have had a place in the earliest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span> +stages of human thought, are expressed by phonetic characters. +We can be fairly certain, at any rate, that the period of +“borrowed characters” did not last very long, though it is +thought that traces of it are to be seen in the habit of writing +several characters, especially those for certain plants and +animals, indifferently with or without their radicals. Thus +<img style="width:62px; height:25px" src="images/img220a.jpg" alt="" /> “a tadpole” is frequently written <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img220b.jpg" alt="" />, without the +part meaning “insect” or “reptile.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the very earliest inscriptions that have come down to us, the +so-called <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img220c.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ku-wên</i> or “ancient figures,” all the +above-mentioned forms occur. None are wholly pictorial, with one or two +unimportant exceptions. These early inscriptions are +<span class="sidenote">Styles of writing.</span> +found on bronzes dating from the half-legendary period +extending from the beginning of the Shang dynasty in the 18th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, or possibly earlier, down to a point in the reign of King +Hsüan of the Chou dynasty, generally fixed at 827 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They have +been carefully reproduced and for the most part deciphered by painstaking +Chinese archaeologists, and form the subject of many voluminous +works. The following may be taken as a specimen, in which it will be +noticed that only the last character is unmistakably pictorial: + +<span class="figleft1" style="float: left;"><img style="width:150px; height:116px" src="images/img220d.jpg" alt="" /></span> + +This is read: <img style="width:131px; height:25px" src="images/img220e.jpg" alt="" />—”Shên made [this] +precious <i>ting</i>.” These ancient bronzes, which +mainly take the shape of bells, cauldrons and +sacrificial utensils, were until within the last +decade our sole source of information concerning +the origin and early history of Chinese writing. +But recently a large number of inscribed bone +fragments have been excavated in the north of +China, providing new and unexpected matter for investigation. +The inscriptions on these bones have already furnished a list of nearly +2500 separate characters, of which not more than about 600 have +been so far identified. They appear to be responses given by +professional soothsayers to private individuals who came to them +seeking the aid of divination in the affairs of their daily life. It is +difficult to fix their date with much exactitude. The script, though +less archaic than that of the earlier bronzes, is nevertheless of an +exceedingly free and irregular type. Judging by the style of the +inscriptions alone, one would be inclined to assign them to the early +years of the Chou dynasty, say 1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But Mr L.C. Hopkins +thinks that they represent a mode of writing already obsolete at the +time of their production, and retained of set purpose by the diviners +from obscurantist motives, much as the ancient hieroglyphics were +employed by the Egyptian priesthood. He would therefore date +them about 500 years later, or only half a century before the birth of +Confucius. If that is so, they are merely late specimens of the +“ancient figures” appearing long after the latter had made way for a +new and more conventionalized form of writing. This new writing +is called in Chinese <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img220f.jpg" alt="" /> <i>chuan</i>, which is commonly rendered by +the word Seal, for the somewhat unscientific reason that many ages +afterwards it was generally adopted for use on seals. Under the Chou +dynasty, however, as well as the two succeeding it, the meaning of +the word was not “seal,” but “sinuous curves,” as made in writing. +It has accordingly been suggested that this epoch marks the first +introduction into China of the brush in place of the bamboo or +wooden pencil with frayed end which was used with some kind of +colouring matter or varnish. There are many arguments both for +and against this view; but it is unquestionable, at any rate, that the +introduction of a supple implement like the brush at the very time +when the forms of characters were fast becoming crystallized and +fixed, would be sufficient to account for a great revolution in the +style of writing. Authentic specimens of the <img style="width:60px; height:25px" src="images/img220g.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ta chuan</i>, +older or Greater Seal writing, are exceedingly rare. But it is generally +believed that the inscriptions on the famous stone drums, now at +Peking, date from the reign of King Hsüan, and they may therefore +with practical certainty be cited as examples of the Greater Seal +in its original form. These “drums” are really ten roughly chiselled +mountain boulders, which were discovered in the early part of the +7th century, lying half buried in the ground near Fêng-hsiang Fu in +the province of Shensi. On them are engraved ten odes, a complete +ode being cut on each drum, celebrating an Imperial hunting and +fishing expedition in that part of the country. A facsimile of one of +these, taken from an old rubbing and reproduced in Dr Bushell’s +<i>Handbook of Chinese Art</i>, shows that great strides had been made in +this writing towards symmetry, compactness and conventionalism. +The vogue of the Greater Seal appears to have lasted until the reign +of the First Emperor, 221-210 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see <i>History</i>), when a further +modification took place. For many centuries China had been split +up into a number of practically independent states, and this circumstance +seems to have led to considerable variations in the styles of +writing. Having succeeded in unifying the empire, the First +Emperor proceeded, on the advice of his minister Li Ssŭ, to standardize +its script by ordaining that only the style in use in his own state of +Ch‘in should henceforward be employed throughout China. It is +clear, then, that this new style of writing was nothing more than the +Greater Seal characters in the form they had assumed after several +centuries of evolution, with numerous abbreviations and modifications. +It was afterwards known as the <img style="width:65px; height:25px" src="images/img220h.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hsiao chuan</i>, or Lesser +Seal, and is familiar to us from the <i>Shuo Wen</i> dictionary (see <i>Literature</i>). +Though a decided improvement on what had gone before, the +Lesser Seal was destined to have but a short career of undisputed +supremacy. Reform was in the air; and something less cumbrous +was soon felt to be necessary by the clerks who had to supply the +immense quantity of written reports demanded by the First Emperor. +Thus it came about that a yet simpler and certainly more artistic +form of writing was already in use, though not universally so, not +long after the decree abolishing the Greater Seal. This <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img220i.jpg" alt="" /> <i>li shu</i>, +or “official script,” as it is called, shows a great advance on the Seal +character; so much so that one cannot help suspecting the traditional +account of its invention. It is perhaps more likely to have been +directly evolved from the Greater Seal. If the Lesser Seal was the +script of the semi-barbarous state of Ch‘in, we should certainly expect +to find a more highly developed system of writing in some of the other +states. Unlike the Seal, the <i>li shu</i> is perfectly legible to one acquainted +only with the modern character, from which indeed it differs but in +minor details. How long the Lesser Seal continued to exist side by +side with the <i>li shu</i> is a question which cannot be answered with +certainty. It was evidently quite obsolete, however, at the time of +the compilation of the <i>Shuo Wên</i>, about a hundred years after the +Christian era. As for the Greater Seal and still earlier forms of +writing, they were not merely obsolete but had fallen into utter +oblivion before the Han Dynasty was fifty years old. When a +number of classical texts were discovered bricked up in old houses +about 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the style of writing was considered so singular by the +literati of the period that they refused to believe it was the ordinary +ancient character at all, and nicknamed it <i>k‘o-t‘ou shu</i>, “tadpole +character,” from some fancied resemblance in shape. The theory +that these tadpole characters were not Chinese but a species of cuneiform +script, in which the wedges might possibly suggest tadpoles, +must be dismissed as too wildly improbable for serious consideration; +but we may advert for a moment to a famous inscription in +which the real tadpole characters of antiquity are said to appear. +This is on a stone tablet alleged to have been erected on Mount Hêng +in the modern Hupeh by the legendary Emperor Yü, as a record of +his labours in draining away the great flood which submerged part of +China in the 23rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After more than one fruitless search, +the actual monument is said to have been discovered on a peak of +the mountain in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1212, and a transcription was made, which may +be seen reproduced as a curiosity in Legge’s <i>Classics</i>, vol. iii. For +several reasons, however, the whole affair must be regarded as a +gross imposture.</p> + +<p>Out of the “official script” two other forms were soon developed, +namely the <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img220j.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ts‘ao shu</i>, or “grass character,” which so curtails +the usual strokes as to be comparable to a species of shorthand, +requiring special study, and the <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img220k.jpg" alt="" /> <i>hsing shu</i> or running hand, +used in ordinary correspondence. Some form of grass character is +mentioned as in use as early as 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> or thereabouts, though how +nearly it approximated to the modern grass hand it is hard to say; +the running hand seems to have come several centuries later. The +final standardization of Chinese writing was due to the great calligraphist +Wang Hsi-chih of the 4th century, who gave currency to the +graceful style of character known as <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img220l.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k‘ai shu</i>, sometimes +referred to as the “clerkly hand.” When block-printing was invented +some centuries later, the characters were cut on this model, which still +survives at the present day. It is no doubt owing to the early introduction +of printing that the script of China has remained practically +unchanged ever since. The manuscript rolls of the T‘ang and preceding +dynasties, recently discovered by Dr Stein in Turkestan, +furnish direct evidence of this fact, showing as they do a style of writing +not only clear and legible but remarkably modern in appearance.</p> + +<p>The whole history of Chinese writing, then, is characterized by a +slow progressive development which precludes the idea of sharply-marked +divisions between one period and another. The Chinese +themselves, however, have canonized quite a series of alleged inventors, +starting from Fu Hsi, a mythical emperor of the third +millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who is said to have developed a complete system +of written characters from the markings on the back of a dragon-horse; +hence, by the way, the origin of the dragon as an Imperial +emblem. As a rule, the credit of the invention of the art of writing is +given to Ts‘ang Chieh, a being with fabulous attributes, who conceived +the idea of a written language from the markings of birds’ +claws upon the sand. The diffusion of the Greater Seal script is +traced to a work in fifteen chapters published by Shih Chou, historiographer +in the reign of King Hsüan. The Lesser Seal, again, is often +ascribed to Li Ssŭ himself, whereas the utmost he can have done in +the matter was to urge its introduction into common use. Likewise, +Ch‘êng Mo, of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, is supposed to have invented +the <i>li shu</i> while in prison, and one account attributes the Lesser Seal +to him as well; but the fact is that the whole history of writing, as +it stands in Chinese authors, is in hopeless confusion.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Grammar.</i>—When about to embark on the study of a foreign +language, the student’s first thought is to provide himself with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span> +two indispensable aids—a dictionary and a grammar. The +Chinese have found no difficulty in producing the former (see +<i>Literature</i>). Now what as to the grammar? He might reasonably +expect a people so industrious in the cultivation of their +language to have evolved some system of grammar which to +a certain degree would help to smooth his path. And yet the +contrary is the case. No set of rules governing the mutual +relations of words has ever been formulated by the Chinese, +apparently because the need of such rules has never been felt. +The most that native writers have done is to draw a distinction +between <img style="width:54px; height:25px" src="images/img221a.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:46px; height:25px" src="images/img221b.jpg" alt="" /> “full” and “empty words,” respectively, +the former being subdivided into <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img221c.jpg" alt="" /> “living words” +or verbs, and <img style="width:59px; height:25px" src="images/img221d.jpg" alt="" /> “dead words” or noun-substantives. By +“empty words” particles are meant, though sometimes the +expression is loosely applied to abstract terms, including verbs. +The above meagre classification is their nearest approach to a +conception of grammar in our sense. This in itself does not +prove that a Chinese grammar is impossible, nor that, if constructed, +it might not be helpful to the student. As a matter +of fact, several attempts have been made by foreigners to deduce +a grammatical system which should prove as rigid and binding +as those of Western languages, though it cannot be said that +any as yet has stood the test of time or criticism. Other writers +have gone to the other extreme, and maintained that Chinese +has no grammar at all. In this dictum, exaggerated as it sounds, +there is a very substantial amount of truth. Every Chinese +character is an indivisible unit, representing a sound and standing +for a root-idea. Being free from inflection or agglutination of +any kind, it is incapable of indicating in itself either gender, +number or case, voice, mood, tense or person. Of European +languages, English stands nearest to Chinese in this respect, +whence it follows that the construction of a hybrid jargon like +pidgin English presents fewer difficulties than would be the +case, for instance, with pidgin German. For pidgin English +simply consists in taking English words and treating them like +Chinese characters, that is, divesting them of all troublesome +inflections and reducing them to a set of root-ideas arranged in +logical sequence. “You wantchee my no wantchee” is nothing +more nor less than literally rendered Chinese: <img style="width:169px; height:25px" src="images/img221e.jpg" alt="" /> +“Do you want me or not?” But we may go further, +and say that no Chinese character can be definitely regarded +as being any particular part of speech or possessing any particular +function absolutely, apart from the general tenor of its context. +Thus, taken singly, the character <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img221f.jpg" alt="" /> conveys only the general +idea “above” as opposed to “below.” According to its place +in the sentence and the requirements of common sense, it may +be a noun meaning “upper person” (that is, a ruler); an +adjective meaning “upper,” “topmost” or “best”; an +adverb meaning “above”; a preposition meaning “upon”; +and finally a verb meaning “to mount upon,” or “to go to.” +<img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img221g.jpg" alt="" /> is a character that may usually be translated “to enter” +as in <img style="width:61px; height:25px" src="images/img221h.jpg" alt="" /> “to enter a door”; yet in the locution <img style="width:66px; height:25px" src="images/img221i.jpg" alt="" /> +“enter wood,” the verb becomes causative, and the meaning +is “to put into a coffin.” It would puzzle grammarians to determine +the precise grammatical function of any of the words in +the following sentence, with the exception of <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img221j.jpg" alt="" /> (an interrogative, +by the way, which here happens to mean “why” but in +other contexts is equivalent to “how,” “which” or “what”): +<img style="width:133px; height:25px" src="images/img221k.jpg" alt="" /> “Affair why must ancient,” or in more idiomatic +English, “Why necessarily stick to the ways of the ancients in such +matters?” Or take a proverbial saying like <img style="width:206px; height:25px" src="images/img221l.jpg" alt="" />, +which may be correctly rendered “The less a man has seen, +the more he has to wonder at.” It is one thing, however, to +translate it correctly, and another to explain how this translation +can be inferred from the individual words, of which the bald +equivalents might be given as: “Few what see, many what +Strange.” To say that “strange” is the literal equivalent of <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img221m.jpg" alt="" /> +does not mean that <img style="width:27px; height:25px" src="images/img221m.jpg" alt="" /> can be definitely classed as an adjective. +On the other hand, it would be dangerous even to assert that +the word here plays the part of an active verb, because it would +be equally permissible to translate the above “Many things +are strange to one who has seen but little.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Chinese grammar, then, so far as it deals with the classification of +separate words, may well be given up as a bad job. But there still +remains the art of syntax, the due arrangement of words to form +sentences according to certain established rules. Here, at any rate, +we are on somewhat firmer ground; and for many years the dictum +that “the whole of Chinese grammar depends upon position” was +regarded as a golden key to the written language of China. It is +perfectly true that there are certain positions and collocations of +words which tend to recur, but when one sits down to formulate a +set of hard-and-fast rules governing these positions, it is soon found +to be a thankless task, for the number of qualifications and exceptions +which will have to be added is so great as to render the rule itself +valueless. <img style="width:56px; height:25px" src="images/img221o.jpg" alt="" /> means “on a horse,” <img style="width:64px; height:25px" src="images/img221p.jpg" alt="" /> “to get on a horse.” +But it will not do to say that a preposition becomes a verb when +placed before the substantive, as many other prepositions come +before and not after the words they govern. If we meet such a +phrase as <img style="width:63px; height:25px" src="images/img221q.jpg" alt="" />, literally “warn rebels,” we must not mentally label +<img style="width:28px; height:25px" src="images/img221r.jpg" alt="" /> as a verb and <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img221s.jpg" alt="" /> as a substantive, and say to ourselves that in +Chinese the verb is followed immediately by its object. Otherwise, +we might be tempted to translate, “to warn the rebels,” whereas a +little reflection would show us that the conjunction of “warning” +and “rebels” naturally leads to the meaning “to warn (the populace +or whoever it may be) <i>against</i> the rebels.” After all our adventurous +incursions into the domain of syntax, we are soon brought back to +the starting-point and are obliged to confess that each particular +passage is best interpreted on its own merits, by the logic of the +context and the application of common sense. There is no reason +why Chinese sentences should not be dissected, by those who take +pleasure in such operations, into subject, copula and predicate, but +it should be early impressed upon the beginner that the profit +likely to accrue to him therefrom is infinitesimal. As for fixed rules +of grammatical construction, so far from being a help, he will find +them a positive hindrance. It should rather be his aim to free his +mind from such trammels, and to accustom himself to look upon +each character as a root-idea, not a definite part of speech.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>The Book Language.</i>—Turning now to some of the more +salient characteristics of the book language, with the object of +explaining how it came to be so widely separated from common +speech, we might reasonably suppose that in primitive times the +two stood in much closer relation to each other than now. But +it is certainly a striking fact that the earliest literary remains of +any magnitude that have come down to us should exhibit a style +very far removed from any possible colloquial idiom. The +speeches of the Book of History (see <i>Literature</i>) are more manifestly +fictitious, by many degrees, than the elaborate orations in +Thucydides and Livy. If we cannot believe that Socrates +actually spoke the words attributed to him in the dialogues of +Plato, much less can we expect to find the <i>ipsissima verba</i> of +Confucius in any of his recorded sayings. In the beginning, all +characters doubtless represented spoken words, but it must very +soon have dawned on the practical Chinese mind that there was +no need to reproduce in writing the bisyllabic compounds of +common speech. <i>Chien</i> “to see,” in its written form <img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img221t.jpg" alt="" />, could +not possibly be confused with any other <i>chien</i>, and it was therefore +unnecessary to go to the trouble of writing <img style="width:60px; height:25px" src="images/img221u.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k‘an-chien</i> +“look-see,” as in colloquial. There was a wonderful outburst +of literary activity in the Confucian era, when it would seem that +the older and more cumbrous form of Seal character was still in +vogue. If the mere manual labour of writing was so great, we +cannot wonder that all superfluous particles or other words that +could be dispensed with were ruthlessly cut away. So it came +about that all the old classical works were composed in the +tersest of language, as remote as can be imagined from the +speech of the people. The passion for brevity and conciseness +was pushed to an extreme, and resulted more often than not in +such obscurity that detailed commentaries on the classics were +found to be necessary, and have always constituted an important +branch of Chinese literature. After the introduction of the +improved style of script, and when the mechanical means of +writing had been simplified, it may be supposed that literary +diction also became freer and more expansive. This did happen +to some extent, but the classics were held in such veneration as +to exercise the profoundest influence over all succeeding schools +of writers, and the divorce between literature and pooular speech +became permanent and irreconcilable. The book language +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span> +absorbed all the interest and energy of scholars, and it was +inevitable that this elevation of the written should be accompanied +by a corresponding degradation of the spoken word. +This must largely account for the somewhat remarkable fact +that the art of oratory and public speaking has never been deemed +worthy of cultivation in China, while the comparatively low +position occupied by the drama may also be referred to the same +cause. At the same time, the term “book language,” in its +widest sense, covers a multitude of styles, some of which differ +from each other nearly as much as from ordinary speech. The +department of fiction (see <i>Literature</i>), which the lettered Chinaman +affects to despise and will not readily admit within the +charmed circle of “literature,” really constitutes a bridge +spanning the gulf between the severer classical style and the +colloquial; while an elegant terseness characterises the higher-class +novel, there are others in which the style is loose and +shambling. Still, it remains true that no book of any first-rate +literary pretensions would be easily intelligible to any class of +Chinamen, educated or otherwise, if read aloud exactly as printed. +The public reader of stories is obliged to translate, so to speak, +into the colloquial of his audience as he goes along. There is no +inherent reason why the conversation of everyday life should not +be rendered into characters, as is done in foreign handbooks for +teaching elementary Chinese; one can only say that the Chinese +do not think it worth while. There are a few words, indeed, +which, though common enough in the mouths of genteel and +vulgar alike, have positively no characters to represent them. +On the other hand, there is a vast store of purely book words +which would never be used or understood in conversation.</p> + +<p>The book language is not only nice in its choice of words, it +also has to obey special rules of construction. Of these, perhaps +the most apparent is the carefully marked antithesis between +characters in different clauses of a sentence, which results in a +kind of parallelism or rhythmic balance. This parallelism is +a noticeable feature in ordinary poetical composition, and +may be well illustrated by the following four-line stanza:</p> + +<p>“<img style="width:177px; height:25px" src="images/img222a.jpg" alt="" /> The bright sun completes its course behind +the mountains; <img style="width:181px; height:25px" src="images/img222b.jpg" alt="" /> The yellow river flows away +into the sea. <img style="width:160px; height:25px" src="images/img222c.jpg" alt="" /> Would you command a prospect +of a thousand <i>li</i>? <img style="width:166px; height:25px" src="images/img222d.jpg" alt="" /> Climb yet one storey +higher.” In the first line of this piece, every single character +is balanced by a corresponding one in the second: <img style="width:23px; height:25px" src="images/img222e.jpg" alt="" /> white by +<img style="width:25px; height:25px" src="images/img222f.jpg" alt="" /> yellow, <img style="width:19px; height:25px" src="images/img222g.jpg" alt="" /> sun by <img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img222h.jpg" alt="" /> river, and so on. In the 3rd and 4th +lines, where more laxity is generally allowed, every word again +has its counterpart, with the sole exception of <img style="width:29px; height:25px" src="images/img222i.jpg" alt="" /> “wish” and +<img style="width:24px; height:25px" src="images/img222j.jpg" alt="" /> “further.”</p> + +<p>The question is often asked: What sort of instrument is +Chinese for the expression of thought? As a medium for the +conveyance of historical facts, subtle emotions or abstruse +philosophical conceptions, can it compare with the languages +of the Western world? The answers given to this question have +varied considerably. But it is noteworthy that those who most +depreciate the qualities of Chinese are, generally speaking, +theorists rather than persons possessing a profound first-hand +knowledge of the language itself. Such writers argue that want +of inflection in the characters must tend to make Chinese hard +and inelastic, and therefore incapable of bringing out the finer +shades of thought and emotion. Answering one a priori argument +with another, one might fairly retort that, if anything, +flexibility is the precise quality to be predicated of a language +in which any character may, according to the requirements of the +context, be interpreted either as noun, verb or adjective. But +all such reasoning is somewhat futile. It will scarcely be contended +that German, being highly inflected, is therefore superior +in range and power to English, from which inflections have +largely disappeared. Some of the early Jesuit missionaries, +men of great natural ability who steeped themselves in Oriental +learning, have left very different opinions on record. Chinese +appeared to them as admirable for the superabundant richness +of its vocabulary as for the conciseness of its literary style. +And among modern scholars there is a decided tendency to accept +this view as embodying a great deal more truth than the other.</p> + +<p>Another question, much debated years ago, which time itself +is now satisfactorily answering, was whether the Chinese language +would be able to assimilate the vast stock of new terminology +which closer contact with the West would necessarily carry with +it. Two possible courses, it seemed, were open: either fresh +characters would be formed on the radical-phonetic principle, or +the new idea might be expressed by the conjunction of two or +more characters already existing. The former expedient had +been tried on a limited scale in Japan, where in the course of +time new characters were formed on the same principle as of old, +which were yet purely Japanese and find no place in a Chinese +dictionary. But although the field for such additions was +boundless, the Chinese have all along been chary of extending +the language in this way, probably because these modern +terms had no Chinese sound which might have suggested some +particular phonetic. They have preferred to adopt the other +method, of which <img style="width:98px; height:25px" src="images/img222k.jpg" alt="" /> (rise-descend-machine) for “lift,” +and <img style="width:131px; height:25px" src="images/img222l.jpg" alt="" /> (discuss-govern-country-assembly) for +“parliament” are examples. Even a metaphysical abstraction +like The Absolute has been tentatively expressed by <img style="width:58px; height:25px" src="images/img222m.jpg" alt="" /> +(exclude-opposite); but in this case an equivalent was already +existing in the Chinese language.</p> + +<p>A very drastic measure, strongly advocated in some quarters, +is the entire abolition of all characters, to be replaced by their +equivalent sounds in letters of the alphabet. Under this scheme +<img style="width:26px; height:25px" src="images/img222n.jpg" alt="" /> would figure as <i>jên</i> or <i>ren</i>, <img style="width:22px; height:25px" src="images/img222o.jpg" alt="" /> as <i>ma</i>, +and so on. But the proposal has fallen extremely flat. The vocables, +as we have seen, are so few in number that only the colloquial, if even that, +could possibly be transcribed in this manner. Any attempt to transliterate +classical Chinese would result in a mere jumble of sounds, +utterly unintelligible, even with the addition of tone-marks. +There is another aspect of the case. The characters are a potent +bond of union between the different parts of the Empire with +their various dialects. If they should ever fall into disuse, +China will have taken a first and most fatal step towards internal +disruption. Even the Japanese, whose language is not only free +from dialects, but polysyllabic and therefore more suitable for +romanization, have utterly refused to abandon the Chinese script, +which in spite of certain disadvantages has hitherto triumphantly +adapted itself to the needs of civilized intercourse.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P. Premare, <i>Notitiae Linguae Sinicae</i> (1831); Ma Kien-chung, +<i>Ma shih wên t‘ung</i> (1899); L.C. Hopkins, <i>The Six Scripts</i> (1881) +and <i>The Development of Chinese Writing</i> (1910); H.A. Giles, +<i>A Chinese-English Dictionary</i> (2nd ed., 1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. A. GI.; L. GI.)</div> + +<p class="center1 sc">VIII. Chinese Literature</p> + +<p>The literature of China is remarkable (1) for its antiquity, +coupled with an unbroken continuity down to the present day; +(2) for the variety of subjects presented, and for the exhaustive +treatment which, not only each subject, but also each subdivision, +each separate item, has received, as well as for the +colossal scale on which so many literary monuments have been +conceived and carried out; (3) for the accuracy of its historical +statements, so far as it has been possible to test them; and +further (4) for its ennobling standards and lofty ideals, as well +as for its wholesome purity and an almost total absence of +coarseness and obscenity.</p> + +<p>No history of Chinese literature in the Chinese language has +yet been produced; native scholars, however, have adopted, +for bibliographical purposes, a rough division into four great +classes. Under the first of these, we find the Confucian Canon, +together with lexicographical, philological, and other works +dealing with the elucidation of words. Under the second, +histories of various kinds, officially compiled, privately written, +constitutional, &c.; also biography, geography and bibliography. +Under the third, philosophy, religion, <i>e.g.</i> Buddhism; the arts +and sciences, <i>e.g.</i> war, law, agriculture, medicine, astronomy, +painting, music and archery; also a host of general works, +monographs, and treatises on a number of topics, as well as +encyclopaedias. The fourth class is confined to poetry of all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span> +descriptions, poetical critiques, and works dealing with the all-important +rhymes.</p> + +<p><i>Poetry.</i>—Proceeding chronologically, without reference to +Chinese classification, we have to begin, as would naturally be +expected, with the last of the above four classes. Man’s first +literary utterances in China, as elsewhere, took the form of +verse; and the earliest Chinese records in our possession are the +national lyrics, the songs and ballads, chiefly of the feudal age, +which reaches back to over a thousand years before Christ. +Some pieces are indeed attributed to the 18th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; +the latest bring us down to the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Such is the +collection entitled <i>Shih Ching</i> (or <i>She King</i>), popularly known as +the Odes, which was brought together and edited by Confucius, +551-479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and is now included among the Sacred Books, +forming as it does an important portion of the Confucian Canon. +These Odes, once over three thousand in number, were reduced +by Confucius to three hundred and eleven; hence they are +frequently spoken of as “the Three Hundred.” They treat of +war and love, of eating and drinking and dancing, of the virtues +and vices of rulers, and of the misery and happiness of the people. +They are in rhyme. Rhyme is essential to Chinese poetry; +there is no such thing as blank verse. Further, the rhymes of +the Odes have always been, and are still, the only recognized +rhymes which can be used by a Chinese poet, anything else +being regarded as mere jingle. Poetical licence, however, is +tolerated; and great masters have availed themselves freely +of its aid. One curious result of this is that whereas in many +instances two given words may have rhymed, as no doubt they +did, in the speech of three thousand years ago, they no longer +rhyme to the ear in the colloquial of to-day, although still +accepted as true and proper rhymes in the composition of verse.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is noticeable at once that the Odes are mostly written in lines +of four words, examples of lines consisting of any length from a +single word to eight, though such do exist, being comparatively rare. +These lines of four words, generally recognized as the oldest measure +in Chinese poetry, are frequently grouped as quatrains, in which the +first, second and fourth lines rhyme; but very often only the second +and fourth lines rhyme, and sometimes there are groups of a larger +number of lines in which occasional lines are found without any rhyme +at all. A few stray pieces, as old as many of those found among the +Odes, have been handed down and preserved, in which the metre +consists of two lines of three words followed by one line of seven +words. These three lines all rhyme, but the rhyme changes with +each succeeding triplet. It would be difficult to persuade the English +reader that this is a very effective measure, and one in which many a +gloomy or pathetic tale has been told. In order to realise how a few +Chinese monosyllables in juxtaposition can stir the human heart to +its lowest depths, it is necessary to devote some years to the study of +the language.</p> + +<p>At the close of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a dithyrambic measure, +irregular and wild, was introduced and enjoyed considerable vogue. +It has indeed been freely adopted by numerous poets from that early +date down to the present day; but since the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it +has been displaced from pre-eminence by the seven-word and five-word +measures which are now, after much refinement, the accepted +standards for Chinese poetry. The origin of the seven-word metre +is lost in remote antiquity; the five-word metre was elaborated under +the master-hand of Mei Shêng, who died 140 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Passing over seven +centuries of growth, we reach the T‘ang dynasty, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 618-905, the +most brilliant epoch in the history of Chinese poetry. These three +hundred years produced an extraordinarily large number of great +poets, and an output of verse of almost incredible extent. In 1707 +an anthology of the T‘ang poets was published by Imperial order; +it ran to nine hundred books or sections, and contained over forty-eight +thousand nine hundred separate poems. A copy of this work +is in the Chinese department of the University Library at Cambridge.</p> + +<p>It was under the T‘ang dynasty that a certain finality was reached +in regard to the strict application of the tones to Chinese verse. +For the purposes of poetry, all words in the language were ranged +under one or the other of two tones, the <i>even</i> and the <i>oblique</i>, the +former now including the two even tones, of which prior to the 11th +century there was only one, and the latter including the rising, +sinking and entering tones of ordinary speech. The incidence of +these tones, which may be roughly described as sharps and flats, +finally became fixed, just as the incidence of certain feet in Latin +metres came to be governed by fixed rules. Thus, reading downward +from right to left, as in Chinese, a five-word stanza may run:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Sharp</td> <td class="tcl">Flat</td> <td class="tcl">Flat</td> <td class="tcl">Sharp</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> °</td> <td class="tcl"> °</td> <td class="tcl"> °</td> <td class="tcl"> °</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>A seven-word stanza may run:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Flat</td> <td class="tcl">Sharp</td> <td class="tcl">Sharp</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> °</td> <td class="tcl"> °</td> <td class="tcl"> °</td> <td class="tcl"> °</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">flat</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td> <td class="tcl">sharp</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The above are only two metres out of many, but enough perhaps +to give to any one who will read them with a pause or quasi-caesura, +as marked by ° in each specimen, a fair idea of the rhythmic lilt of +Chinese poetry. To the trained ear, the effect is most pleasing; +and when this scansion, so to speak, is united with rhyme and choice +diction, the result is a vehicle for verse, artificial no doubt, and +elaborate, but admirably adapted to the genius of the Chinese +language. Moreover, in the hands of the great poets this artificiality +disappears altogether. Each word seems to slip naturally into its +place; and so far from having been introduced by violence for the +ends of prosody, it appears to be the very best word that could have +been chosen, even had there been no trammels of any kind, so effectually +is the art of the poet concealed by art. From the long string +of names which have shed lustre upon this glorious age of Chinese +poetry, it may suffice for the present purpose to mention the following, +all of the very first rank.</p> + +<p>Mêng Hao-jan, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 689-740, failed to succeed at the public +competitive examinations, and retired to the mountains where he +led the life of a recluse. Later on, he obtained an official post; +but he was of a timid disposition, and once when the emperor, +attracted by his fame, came to visit him, he hid himself under the +bed. His hiding-place was revealed by Wang Wei, a brother poet +who was present. The latter, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 699-759, in addition to being a +first-rank poet, was also a landscape-painter of great distinction. +He was further a firm believer in Buddhism; and after losing his +wife and mother, he turned his mountain home into a Buddhist +monastery. Of all poets, not one has made his name more widely +known than Li Po, or Li T‘ai-po, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 705-762, popularly known +as the Banished Angel, so heavenly were the poems he dashed off, +always under the influence of wine. He is said to have met his +death, after a tipsy frolic, by leaning out of a boat to embrace the +reflection of the moon. Tu Fu, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 712-770, is generally ranked +with Li Po, the two being jointly spoken of as the chief poets of their +age. The former had indeed such a high opinion of his own poetry +that he prescribed it for malarial fever. He led a chequered and +wandering life, and died from the effects of eating roast beef and +drinking white wine to excess, immediately after a long fast. Po +Chü-i, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 772-846, was a very prolific poet. He held several high +official posts, but found time for a considerable output of some of +the finest poetry in the language. His poems were collected by +Imperial command, and engraved upon tablets of stone. In one +of them he anticipates by eight centuries the famous ode by +Malherbe, <i>À Du Perrier, sur la mort de sa fille</i>.</p> + +<p>The T‘ang dynasty with all its glories had not long passed away +before another imperial house arose, under which poetry flourished +again in full vigour. The poets of the Sung dynasty, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 960-1260, +were many and varied in style; but their work, much of it of the +very highest order, was becoming perhaps a trifle more formal and +precise. Life seemed to be taken more seriously than under the gay +and pleasure-loving T‘angs. The long list of Sung poets includes +such names as Ssŭ-ma Kuang, Ou-yang Hsiu and Wang An-shih, +to be mentioned by and by, the first two as historians and the last +as political reformer. A still more familiar name in popular estimation +is that of Su Tung-p‘o, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 103-1101, partly known for his +romantic career, now in court favour, now banished to the wilds, +but still more renowned as a brilliant poet and writer of fascinating +essays.</p> + +<p>The Mongols, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1260-1368, who succeeded the Sungs, and the +Mings who followed the Sungs and bring us down to the year 1644, +helped indeed, especially the Mings, to swell the volume of Chinese +verse, but without reaching the high level of the two great poetical +periods above-mentioned. Then came the present dynasty of Manchu +Tatars, of whom the same tale must be told, in spite of two +highly-cultured emperors, K‘ang Hsi and Ch‘ien Lung, both of them poets +and one of them author of a collection containing no fewer than +33,950 pieces, most of which, it must be said, are but four-line +stanzas, of no literary value whatever. It may be stated in this +connexion that whereas China has never produced an epic in verse, +it is not true that all Chinese poems are quite short, running only to +ten or a dozen lines at the most. Many pieces run to several hundred +lines, though the Chinese poet does not usually affect length, one of +his highest efforts being the four-line stanza, known as the “stop-short,” +in which “the words stop while the sense goes on,” expanding +in the mind of the reader by the suggestive art of the poet. +The “stop-short” is the converse of the epigram, which ends in a +satisfying turn of thought to which the rest of the composition is +intended to lead up; it aims at producing an impression which, so +far from being final, is merely the prelude to a long series of visions +and of feelings. The last of the four lines is called the “surprise +line”; but the revelation it gives is never a complete one: the words +stop, but the sense goes on. Just as in the pictorial art of China, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span> +so in her poetic art is suggestiveness the great end and aim of the +artist. Beginners are taught that the three canons of verse +composition are lucidity, simplicity and correctness of diction. Yet +some critics have boldly declared for obscurity of expression, alleging +that the piquancy of a thought is enhanced by its skilful concealment. +For the foreign student, it is not necessary to accentuate +the obscurity and difficulty even of poems in which the motive is +simple enough. The constant introduction of classical allusions, +often in the vaguest terms, and the almost unlimited licence as to +the order of words, offer quite sufficient obstacles to easy and rapid +comprehension. Poetry has been defined by one Chinese writer as +“clothing with words the emotions which surge through the heart.” +The chief moods of the Chinese poet are a pure delight in the varying +phenomena of nature, and a boundless sympathy with the woes and +sufferings of humanity. Erotic poetry is not absent, but it is not a +feature proportionate in extent to the great body of Chinese verse; +it is always restrained, and never lapses from a high level of purity +and decorum. In his love for hill and stream which he peoples +with genii, and for tree and flower which he endows with sentient +souls, the Chinese poet is perhaps seen at his very best; his views of +life are somewhat too deeply tinged with melancholy, and often +loaded with an overwhelming sadness “at the doubtful doom of +human kind.” In his lighter moods he draws inspiration, and in his +darker moods consolation from the wine-cup. Hard-drinking, not +to say drunkenness, seems to have been universal among Chinese +poets, and a considerable amount of talent has been expended upon +the glorification of wine. From Taoist, and especially from Buddhist +sources, many poets have obtained glimpses to make them less +forlorn; but it cannot be said that there is any definitely religious +poetry in the Chinese language.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—One of the labours undertaken by Confucius was +connected with a series of ancient documents—that is, ancient +in his day—now passing under a collective title as <i>Shu Ching</i> +(or <i>Shoo King</i>), and popularly known as the Canon, or Book, +of History. Mere fragments as some of these documents are, it +is from their pages of unknown date that we can supplement +the pictures drawn for us in the Odes, of the early civilization of +China. The work opens with an account of the legendary emperor +Yao, who reigned 2357-2255 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was able by virtue +of an elevated personality to give peace and happiness to his +“black-haired” subjects. With the aid of capable astronomers, +he determined the summer and winter solstices, and calculated +approximately the length of the year, availing himself, as +required, of the aid of an intercalary month. Finally, after a +glorious reign, he ceded the throne to a man of the people, +whose only claim to distinction was his unwavering practice of +filial piety. Chapter ii. deals with the reign, 2255-2205 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +of this said man, known in history as the emperor Shun. In +accordance with the monotheism of the day, he worshipped God +in heaven with prayer and burnt offerings; he travelled on +tours of inspection all over his then comparatively narrow +empire; he established punishments, to be tempered with +mercy; he appointed officials to superintend forestry, care of +animals, religious observances, and music; and he organized a +system of periodical examinations for public servants. Chapter +iii. is devoted to details about the Great Yü, who reigned +2205-2197 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, having been called to the throne for his +engineering success in draining the empire of a mighty inundation +which early western writers sought to identify with Noah’s +Flood. Another interesting chapter gives various geographical +details, and enumerates the articles, gold, silver, copper, iron, +steel, silken fabrics, feathers, ivory, hides, &c., &c., brought in +under the reign of the Great Yü, as tribute from neighbouring +countries. Other chapters include royal proclamations, speeches +to troops, announcements of campaigns victoriously concluded, +and similar subjects. One peculiarly interesting document is +the Announcement against Drunkenness, which seems to have +been for so many centuries a national vice, and then to have +practically disappeared as such. For the past two or three +hundred years, drunkenness has always been the exception +rather than the rule. The Announcement, delivered in the +12th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, points out that King Wên, the founder of the +Chou dynasty, had wished for wine to be used only in connexion +with sacrifices, and that divine favours had always been liberally +showered upon the people when such a restriction had been +observed. On the other hand, indulgence in strong drink had +invariably attracted divine vengeance, and the fall and disruption +of states had often been traceable to that cause. Even +on sacrificial occasions, drunkenness is to be condemned. +“When, however, you high officials and others have done your +duty in ministering to the aged and to your sovereign, you may +then eat to satiety and drink to elevation.” The Announcement +winds up with an ancient maxim, “Do not seek to see yourself +reflected in water, but in others,”—whose base actions should +warn you not to commit the same; adding that those who +after a due interval should be unable to give up intemperate +habits would be put to death. It is worth noting, in concluding +this brief notice of China’s earliest records, that from first to +last there is no mention whatever of any distant country from +which the “black-haired people” may have originally come; +no vestige of any allusion to any other form of civilization, such +as that of Babylonia, with its cuneiform script and baked-clay +tablets, from which an attempt has been made to derive the +native-born civilization of China. A few odd coincidences +sum up the chief argument in favour of this now discredited +theory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The next step lands us on the confines, though scarcely in the +domain, of history properly so called. Among his other literary +labours, Confucius undertook to produce the annals of +Lu, his native state; and beginning with the year 722 +<span class="sidenote">Annals of the Lu state.</span> +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, he carried the record down to his death in 479, after +which it was continued for a few years, presumably by +Tso-ch‘iu Ming, the shadowy author of the famous Commentary, to +which the text is so deeply indebted for vitality and illumination. +The work of Confucius is known as the <i>Ch‘un Ch‘iu</i>, the Springs and +Autumns, q.d. Annals. It consists of a varying number of brief +entries under each year of the reign of each successive ruler of Lu. +The feudal system, initiated more than four centuries previously, +and consisting of a number of vassal states owning allegiance to a +central suzerain state, had already broken hopelessly down, so far +as allegiance was concerned. For some time, the object of each +vassal ruler had been the aggrandizement of his own state, with a +view either to independence or to the hegemony, and the result was +a state of almost constant warfare. Accordingly, the entries in the +<i>Ch‘un Ch‘iu</i> refer largely to covenants entered into between +contracting rulers, official visits from one to another of these rulers, +their births and deaths, marriages, invasions of territory, battles, +religious ceremonies, &c., interspersed with notices of striking natural +phenomena such as eclipses, comets and earthquakes, and of +important national calamities, such as floods, drought and famine. +For instance, Duke Wên became ruler of Lu in 625 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and under +his 14th year, 612 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, we find twelve entries, of which the following +are specimens:—</p> + +<div class="minind"> +<p>2. In spring, in the first month, the men of the Chu State invaded +our southern border.</p> + +<p>3. In summer, on the I-hai day of the fifth month, P‘an, Marquis +of the Ch‘i State, died.</p> + +<p>5. In autumn, in the seventh month, there was a comet, which +entered Pei-ton (αβγδ in Ursa Major).</p> + +<p>9. In the ninth month, a son of the Duke of Ch‘i murdered his ruler.</p> +</div> + +<p>Entry 5 affords the earliest trustworthy instance of a comet in China. +A still earlier comet is recorded in what is known as The Bamboo +Annals, but the genuineness of that work is disputed.</p> + +<p>It will be readily admitted that the <i>Ch‘un Ch‘iu</i>, written +throughout in the same style as the quotations given, would scarcely +enable one to reconstruct in any detail the age it professes to record. +Happily we are in possession of the <i>Tso Chuan</i>, a so-called +commentary, presumably by some one named Tso, in which the bald +entries in the work of Confucius are separately enlarged upon to +such an extent and with such dramatic brilliancy that our commentary +reads more like a prose epic than “a treatise consisting of a +systematic series of comments or annotations on the text of a literary +work.” Under its guidance we can follow the intrigues, the alliances, +the treacheries, the ruptures of the jealous states which constituted +feudal China; in its picture pages we can see, as it were with our +own eyes, assassinations, battles, heroic deeds, flights, pursuits and +the sufferings of the vanquished from the retribution exacted by +the victors. Numerous wise and witty sayings are scattered throughout +the work, many of which are in current use at the present day.</p> + +<p>History as understood in Europe and the west began in China with +the appearance of a remarkable man. Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien, who flourished +145-87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was the son of an hereditary grand astrologer, +also an eager student of history and the actual planner of +<span class="sidenote">The Historical Record.</span> +the great work so successfully carried out after his death. +By the time he was ten years of age, Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien was +already well advanced with his studies; and at twenty he set forth +on a round of travel which carried him to all parts of the empire. +Entering the public service, he was employed upon a mission of +inspection to the newly-conquered regions of Ssŭch‘uan and Yünnan; +in 110 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> his father died, and he stepped into the post of grand +astrologer. After devoting some time and energy to the reformation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span> +of the calendar, he took up the work which had been begun by his +father and which was ultimately given to the world as the <i>Shih Chi</i>, +or Historical Record. This was arranged under five great headings, +namely, (l) Annals of Imperial Reigns, (2) Chronological Tables, (3) +Monographs, (4) Annals of Vassal Princes, and (5) Biographies.</p> + +<p>The Historical Record begins with the so-called Yellow Emperor, +who is said to have come to the throne 2698 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and to have reigned +a hundred years. Four other emperors are given, as belonging to +this period, among whom we find Yao and Shun, already mentioned. +It was China’s Golden Age, when rulers and ruled were virtuous alike, +and all was peace and prosperity. It is discreetly handled in a few +pages by Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien, who passes on to the somewhat firmer but +still doubtful ground of the early dynasties. Not, however, until the +Chou dynasty, 1122-255 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, had held sway for some three hundred +years can we be said to have reached a point at which history begins +to separate itself definitely from legend. In fact, it is only from the +8th century before Christ that any trustworthy record can be safely +dated. With the 3rd century before Christ, we are introduced to one +of the feudal princes whose military genius enabled him to destroy +beyond hope of revival the feudal system which had endured for +eight hundred years, and to make himself master of the whole of the +China of those days. In 221 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he proclaimed himself the “First +<span class="sidenote">Burning of the Books.</span> +Emperor,” a title by which he has ever since been known. +Everything, including literature, was to begin with his +reign; and acting on the advice of his prime minister, he +issued an order for the burning of all books, with the exception +only of works relating to medicine, divination and agriculture. +Those who wished to study law were referred for oral teaching to +such as had already qualified in that profession. To carry out the +scheme effectively, the First Emperor made a point of examining +every day about 120 ℔ weight of books, in order to get rid of such +as he considered to be useless; and he further appointed a number of +inspectors to see that his orders were carried out. The result was +that about four hundred and sixty scholars were put to death for +having disobeyed the imperial command, while many others were +banished for life. This incident is known as the Burning of the +Books; and there is little doubt that, but for the devotion of the +literati, Chinese literature would have had to make a fresh start in +212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> As it was, books were bricked up in walls and otherwise +widely concealed in the hope that the storm would blow over; and +this was actually the case when the Ch‘in (Ts‘in) dynasty collapsed +and the House of Han took its place in 206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Confucian books +were subsequently recovered from their hiding-places, together with +many other works, the loss of which it is difficult now to contemplate. +Unfortunately, however, a stimulus was provided, not for the recovery, +but for the manufacture of writings, the previous existence of which +could be gathered either from tradition or from notices in the various +works which had survived. Forgery became the order of the day; +and the modern student is confronted with a considerable volume of +literature which has to be classified as genuine, doubtful, or spurious, +according to the merits of each case. To the first class belongs the +bulk, but not all, of the Confucian Canon; to the third must be +relegated such books as the <i>Tao Tê Ching</i>, to be mentioned later on.</p> + +<p>Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien, dying in 87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, deals of course only with the +opening reigns of the Han dynasty, with which he brings to a close +the first great division of his history. The second division consists of +chronological tables; the third, of eight monographs on the following +topics: (1) Rites and Ceremonies, (2) Music, (3) Natural Philosophy, +(4) The Calendar, (5) Astronomy, (6) Religion, (7) Water-ways, and +(8) Commerce. On these eight a few remarks may not be out of +place, (1) The Chinese seem to have been in possession, from very +early ages, of a systematic code of ceremonial observances, so that it +is no surprise to find the subject included, and taking an important +place, in Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien’s work. The <i>Li Chi</i>, or Book of Rites, which +now forms part of the Confucian Canon, is however a comparatively +modern compilation, dating only from the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (2) The +extraordinary similarities between the Chinese and Pythagorean +systems of music force the conclusion that one of these must necessarily +have been derived from the other. The Jesuit Fathers jumped +to the conclusion that the Greeks borrowed their art from the Chinese; +but it is now common knowledge that the Chinese scale did not exist +in China until two centuries after its appearance in Greece. The fact +is that the ancient Chinese works on music perished at the Burning +of the Books; and we are told that by the middle of the 2nd century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the hereditary Court music-master was altogether ignorant of +his art. What we may call modern Chinese music reached China +through Bactria, a Greek kingdom, founded by Diodotus in 256 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +with which intercourse had been established by the Chinese at an +early date. (3) The term Natural Philosophy can only be applied +by courtesy to this essay, which deals with twelve bamboo tubes of +varying lengths, by means of which, coupled with the twenty-eight +zodiacal constellations and with certain calendaric accords, divine +communication is established with the influences of the five elements +and the points of the compass corresponding with the eight winds. +(4) In this connexion, it is worth noting that in 104 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Chinese +first adopted a cycle of nineteen years, a period which exactly brings +together the solar and the lunar years; and further that this very +cycle is said to have been introduced by Meton, 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and was adopted at Athens about 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, probably reaching China, +via Bactria, some two centuries afterwards. (5) This chapter deals +specially with the sun, moon and five planets, which are supposed to +aid in the divine government of mankind. (6) Refers to the solemn +sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, as performed by the emperor upon +the summit of Mt. T‘ai in Shan-tung. (7) Refers to the management +of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow river, so often spoken of as “China’s +Sorrow,” and also of the numerous canals with which the empire is +intersected. (8) This chapter, which treats of the circulation of +money, and its function in the Chinese theory of political economy, +is based upon the establishment in 110 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> of certain officials whose +business it was to regularize commerce. It was their duty to buy up +the chief necessaries of life when abundant and when prices were in +consequence low, and to offer these for sale when there was a shortage +and when prices would otherwise have risen unduly. Thus it was +hoped that a stability in commercial transactions would be attained, +to the great advantage of the people. The fourth division of the +<i>Shih Chi</i> is devoted to the annals of the reigns of vassal princes, to +be read in connexion with the imperial annals of the first division. +The final division, which is in many ways the most interesting of all, +gives biographical notices of eminent or notorious men and women, +from the earliest ages downwards, and enables us to draw conclusions +at which otherwise it would have been impossible to arrive. Confucius +and Mencius, for instance, stand out as real personages who +actually played a part in China’s history; while all we can gather +from the short life of Lao Tzŭ, a part of which reads like an interpolation +by another hand, is that he was a more or less legendary +individual, whose very existence at the date usually assigned to +him, 7th and 6th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, is altogether doubtful. Scattered +among these biographies are a few notices of frontier nations; <i>e.g.</i> +of the terrible nomads known as the Hsiung-nu, whose identity with +the Huns has now been placed beyond a doubt.</p> + +<p>Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien’s great work, on which he laboured for so many +vears and which ran to five hundred and twenty-six thousand five +hundred words, has been described somewhat at length for the +following reason. It has been accepted as the model for all subsequent +dynastic histories, of which twenty-four have now been published, +the whole being produced in 1747 in a uniform edition, bound +up (in the Cambridge Library) in two hundred and nineteen large +volumes. Each dynasty has found its historian in the dynasty +which supplanted it; and each dynastic history is notable for the +extreme fairness with which the conquerors have dealt with the +vanquished, accepting without demur such records of their predecessors +as were available from official sources. The T‘ang dynasty, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 618-906, offers in one sense a curious exception to the general +rule. It possesses two histories, both included in the above series. +The first of these, now known as the Old T‘ang History, was ultimately +set aside as inaccurate and inadequate, and a New T‘ang History was +compiled by Ou-yang Hsiu, a distinguished scholar, poet and statesman +of the 11th century. Nevertheless, in all cases, the scheme of +the dynastic history has, with certain modifications, been that which +was initiated in the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien.</p> + +<p>The output of history, however, does not begin and end with the +voluminous records above referred to, one of which, it should be +mentioned, was in great part the work of a woman. +History has always been a favourite study with the Chinese, +<span class="sidenote">The Mirror of History.</span> +and innumerable histories of a non-official character, long +and short, complete and partial, political and constitutional, +have been showered from age to age upon the Chinese reading +world. Space would fail for the mere mention of a tithe of such +works; but there is one which stands out among the rest and is +especially enshrined in the hearts of the Chinese people. This is the +<i>T‘ung Chien</i>, or Mirror of History, so called because “to view +antiquity as though in a mirror is an aid in the administration of +government.” It was the work of a statesman of the 11th century, +whose name, by a coincidence, was Ssŭ-ma Kuang. He had been +forced to retire from office, and spent nearly all the last sixteen years +of his life in historical research. The Mirror of History embraces a +period from the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> down to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 960. It is written in a +picturesque style; but the arrangement was found to be unsuited to +the systematic study of history. Accordingly, it was subjected to +revision, and was to a great extent reconstructed by Chu Hsi, the +famous commentator, who flourished <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1130-1200, and whose +work is now regarded as the standard history of China.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Biography.</i>—In regard to biography, the student is by no +means limited to the dynastic histories. Many huge biographical +collections have been compiled and published by private individuals, +and many lives of the same personages have often +been written from different points of view. There is nothing +very much by which a Chinese biography can be distinguished +from biographies produced in other parts of the world. The +Chinese writer always begins with the place of birth, but he is +not so particular about the year, sometimes leaving that to be +gathered from the date of death taken in connexion with the age +which the person may have attained. Some allusion is usually +made to ancestry, and the steps of an official career, upward by +promotion or downward by disgrace, are also carefully noted.</p> + +<p><i>Geography and Travel.</i>—There is a considerable volume of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span> +Chinese literature which comes under this head; but if we +exclude certain brief notices of foreign countries, there remains +nothing in the way of general geography which had been produced +prior to the arrival of the Jesuit Fathers at the close of the 16th +century. Up to that period geography meant the topography +of the Chinese empire; and of topographical records there is +a very large and valuable collection. Every prefecture and +department, some eighteen hundred in all, has each its own +particular topography, compiled from records and from tradition +with a fullness that leaves nothing to be desired. The buildings, +bridges, monuments of archaeological interest, &c., in each +district, are all carefully inserted, side by side with biographical +and other local details, always of interest to residents and often +to the outside public. An extensive general geography of the +empire was last published in 1745; and this was followed by a +chronological geography in 1794.</p> + +<p>The Chinese have always been fond of travel, and hosts of +travellers have published notices, more or less extensive, of the +different parts of the empire, and even of adjacent +nations, which they visited either as private individuals +<span class="sidenote">Fa Hsien.</span> +or, in the former case, as officials proceeding to distant posts. +With Buddhism came the desire to see the country which was +the home of the Buddha; and several important pilgrimages +were undertaken with a view to bring back images and sacred +writings to China. On such a journey the Buddhist priest, Fa +Hsien, started in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 399; and after practically walking the +whole way from central China, across the desert of Gobi, on to +Khoten, and across the Hindu Kush into India, he visited many +of the chief cities of India, until at length reaching Calcutta he +took ship, and after a most adventurous voyage, in the course +of which he remained two years in Ceylon, he finally arrived +safely, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 414, with all his books, pictures, and images, at +a spot on the coast of Shantung, near the modern German port +of Kiao-chow.</p> + +<p>Another of these adventurous priests was Hsüan Tsang +(wrongly, Yüan Chwang), who left China on a similar mission in +629, and returned in 645, bringing with him six +<span class="sidenote">Hsüan Tsang.</span> +hundred and fifty-seven Buddhist books, besides many +images and pictures, and one hundred and fifty relics. +He spent the rest of his life in translating, with the help of other +learned priests, these books into Chinese, and completed in 648 +the important record of his own travels, known as the Record of +Western Countries.</p> + +<p><i>Philosophy.</i>—Even the briefest <i>résumé</i> of Chinese philosophical +literature must necessarily include the name of Lao Tzŭ, although +his era, as seen above, and his personality are +both matters of the vaguest conjecture. A number of +<span class="sidenote">Lao Tzŭ.</span> +his sayings, scattered over the works of early writers, have been +pieced together, with the addition of much incomprehensible +jargon, and the whole has been given to the world as the work +of Lao Tzŭ himself, said to be of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, under +the title of the <i>Tao Tê Ching</i>. The internal evidence against this +book is overwhelming; <i>e.g.</i> one quotation had been detached +from the writer who preserved it, with part of that writer’s +text clinging to it—of course by an oversight. Further, such a +treatise is never mentioned in Chinese literature until some time +after the Burning of the Books, that is, about four centuries +after its alleged first appearance. Still, after due expurgation, it +forms an almost complete collection of such apophthegms of Lao +Tzŭ as have come down to us, from which the reader can learn +that the author taught the great doctrine of Inaction—Do +nothing, and all things will be done. Also, that Lao Tzŭ +anticipated the Christian doctrine of returning good for evil, a +sentiment which was highly reprobated by the practical mind +of Confucius, who declared that evil should be met by justice. +Among the more picturesque of his utterances are such paradoxes +as, “He who knows how to shut, uses no bolts; yet you cannot +open. He who knows how to bind uses no ropes; yet you cannot +untie”; “The weak overcomes the strong; the soft overcomes +the hard,” &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>These, and many similar subtleties of speech, seem to have fired +the imagination of Chuang Tzŭ, 4th and 3rd centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, with the +result that he put much time and energy into the glorification of Lao +Tzŭ and his doctrines. Possessed of a brilliant style and a master of +<span class="sidenote">Chuang Tzŭ.</span> +irony, Chuang Tzŭ attacked the schools of Confucius and +Mo Ti (see below) with so much dialectic skill that the +ablest scholars of the age were unable to refute his +destructive criticisms. His pages abound in quaint anecdotes and +allegorical instances, arising as it were spontaneously out of the +questions handled, and imparting a lively interest to points which +might otherwise have seemed dusty and dull. He was an idealist +with all the idealist’s hatred of a utilitarian system, and a mystic +with all the mystic’s contempt for a life of mere external activity. +Only thirty-three chapters of his work now remain, though so many +as fifty-three are known to have been still extant in the 3rd century; +and even of these, several complete chapters are spurious, while in +others it is comparatively easy to detect here and there the hand of +the interpolator. What remains, however, after all reductions, has +been enough to secure a lasting place for Chuang Tzŭ as the most +original of China’s philosophical writers. His book is of course under +the ban of heterodoxy, in common with all thought opposed to the +Confucian teachings. His views as mystic, idealist, moralist and +social reformer have no weight with the aspirant who has his way to +make in official life; but they are a delight, and even a consolation, to +many of the older men, who have no longer anything to gain or to lose.</p> + +<p>Confucius, 551-479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who imagined that his Annals of the Lu +State would give him immortality, has always been much more +widely appreciated as a moralist than as an historian. +His talks with his disciples and with others have been +<span class="sidenote">Confucius.</span> +preserved for us, together with some details of his personal and +private life; and the volume in which these are collected forms one +of the Four Books of the Confucian Canon. Starting from the +axiomatic declaration that man is born good and only becomes evil +by his environment, he takes filial piety and duty to one’s neighbour +as his chief themes, often illustrating his arguments with almost +Johnsonian emphasis. He cherished a shadowy belief in a God, but +not in a future state of reward or punishment for good or evil actions +in this world. He rather taught men to be virtuous for virtue’s sake.</p> + +<p>The discourses of Mencius, who followed Confucius after an interval +of a hundred years, 372-289 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, form another of the Four Books, +the remaining two of which are short philosophical +treatises, usually ascribed to a grandson of Confucius. +<span class="sidenote">Mencius.</span> +Mencius devoted his life to elucidating and expanding the teachings +of the Master; and it is no doubt due to him that the Confucian +doctrines obtained so wide a vogue. But he himself was more a +politician and an economist (see below) than a simple preacher of +morality; and hence it is that the Chinese people have accorded to +him the title of The Second Sage. He is considered to have +<span class="sidenote">Mo Ti.</span> +effectually “snuffed out” the heterodox school of Mo Ti, +a philosopher of the 5th and 4th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> who propounded a +doctrine of “universal love” as the proper foundation for organized +society, arguing that under such a system all the calamities that men +bring upon one another would altogether disappear, and the Golden +Age would be renewed. At the same time Mencius exposed +<span class="sidenote">Yang Chu.</span> +the fallacies of the speculations of Yang Chu, 4th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who founded a school of ethical egoism as opposed to the +exaggerated altruism of Mo Ti. According to Mencius, Yang Chu +would not have parted with one hair of his body to save the whole +world, whereas Mo Ti would have sacrificed all. Another early +<span class="sidenote">Hsün Tzŭ.</span> +philosopher is Hsün Tzŭ, 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He maintained, +in opposition to Mencius, who upheld the Confucian +dogma, and in conformity with Christian doctrine, that the nature +of man at his birth is evil, and that this condition can only be changed +<span class="sidenote">Yang Hsiung.</span> +by efficient moral training. Then came Yang Hsiung, 53-18 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +who propounded an ethical criterion midway between the +rival positions insisted on by Mencius and Hsün Tzŭ, +teaching that the nature of man at birth is neither good +nor evil, but a mixture of both, and that development in either +direction depends wholly upon circumstances.</p> + +<p>There is a voluminous and interesting work, of doubtful age, which +passes under the title of <i>Huai-nan Tzŭ</i>, or the Philosopher of Huai-nan. +It is attributed to Liu An, prince of Huai-nan, who +died 122 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and who is further said to have written on +<span class="sidenote">Huai-nan Tzŭ.]</span> +alchemy; but alchemy was scarcely known in China at +the date of his death, being introduced about that time from Greece. +The author, whoever he may have been, poses as a disciple of Lao +Tzŭ; but the speculations of Lao Tzŭ, as glorified by Chuang Tzŭ, +were then rapidly sinking into vulgar efforts to discover the elixir of +life. It is very difficult in many cases of this kind to decide what +books are, and what books are not, partial or complete forgeries. +In the present instance, the aid of the <i>Shuo Wên</i>, a dictionary of the +1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (see below), may be invoked, but not in quite so +satisfactory a sense as that in which it will be seen lower down to +have been applied to the <i>Tao Tê Ching</i>. The <i>Shuo Wên</i> contains a +quotation said to be taken from <i>Huai-nan Tzŭ</i>; but that quotation +cannot be found in the work under consideration. It may be argued +that the words in question may have been taken from another work +by the same author; but if so, it becomes difficult to believe that +a book, more than two hundred years old, from which the author +of the <i>Shuo Wên</i> quoted, should have been allowed to perish +without leaving any trace behind. China has produced its Bentleys +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span> +in considerable numbers; but almost all of them have given their +attention to textual criticism of the Confucian Canon, and few have +condescended to examine critically the works of heterodox writers. +The foreign student therefore finds himself faced with many knotty +points he is entirely unable to solve.</p> + +<p>Of Wang Ch‘ung, a speculative and materialistic philosopher, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 27-97, banned by the orthodox for his attacks on Confucius +and Mencius, only one work has survived. it consists +of eighty-four essays on such topics as the nature of +<span class="sidenote">Wang Ch‘ung.</span> +things, destiny, divination, death, ghosts, poisons, +miracles, criticisms of Confucius and Mencius, exaggeration, sacrifice +and exorcism. According to Wang Ch‘ung, man, endowed at birth +sometimes with a good and sometimes with an evil nature, is informed +with a vital fluid, which resides in the blood and is nourished by +eating and drinking, its two functions being to animate the body +and keep in order the mind. It is the source of all sensation, passing +through the blood like a wave. When it reaches the eyes, ears and +mouth, the result is sight, hearing and speech respectively. Disturbance +of the vital fluid leads to insanity. Without the fluid, the body +cannot be maintained; without the body, the fluid loses its vitality. +Therefore, argues Wang Ch‘ung, when the body perishes and the +fluid loses its vitality, each being dependent on the other, there +remains nothing for immortality in a life beyond the grave. Ghosts +he held to be the hallucinations of disordered minds, and miracles to +be natural phenomena capable of simple explanations. His indictments +of Confucius and Mencius are not of a serious character; +though, as regards the former, it must be borne in mind that the +Chinese people will not suffer the faintest aspersion on the fair fame +of their great Sage. It is related in the <i>Lun Yü</i> that Confucius paid +a visit to the notoriously immoral wife of one of the feudal nobles, +and that a certain disciple was “displeased” in consequence, whereupon +the Master swore, saying, “If I have done any wrong, may the +sky fall and crush me!” Wang Ch‘ung points out that the form of +oath adopted by Confucius is unsatisfactory and fails to carry +conviction. Had he said, “May I be struck dead by lightning!” his +sincerity would have been more powerfully attested, because people +are often struck dead by lightning; whereas the fall of the sky is +too remote a contingency, such a thing never having been known to +happen within the memory of man. As to Mencius, there is a passage +in his works which states that a thread of predestination runs +through all human life, and that those who accommodate themselves +will come off better in the end than those who try to oppose; it is in +fact a statement of the <span class="grk" title="ouk uper moron">οὐκ ὑπὲρ μόρον</span> principle. On this Wang +Ch‘ung remarks that the will of God is consequently made to depend +on human actions; and he further strengthens his objection by +showing that the best men have often fared worst. For instance, +Confucius never became emperor; Pi Kan, the patriot, was +disembowelled; the bold and faithful disciple, Tzŭ Lu, was chopped +into small pieces.</p> + +<p>But the tale of Chinese philosophers is a long one. It is a department +of literature in which the leading scholars of all ages have +mostly had something to say. The great Chu Hsi, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1130-1200, whose fame is chiefly perhaps that of a +<span class="sidenote">Book of Changes.</span> +commentator and whose monument is his uniform +exegesis of the Confucian Canon, was also a voluminous writer on +philosophy. He took a hand in the mystery which surrounds the +<i>I Ching</i> (or <i>Yih King</i>), generally known as the Book of Changes, +which is held by some to be the oldest Chinese work and which forms +part of the Confucian Canon. It is ascribed to King Wên, the virtual +founder of the Chou dynasty, 1122-249 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, whose son became the +first sovereign and posthumously raised his father to kingly rank. +It contains a fanciful system of divination, deduced originally from +eight diagrams consisting of triplet combinations of a line and a +broken line, either one of which is necessarily repeated twice, and in two +cases three times, in the same combination. Thus there may be three lines +<img style="width:36px; height:20px" src="images/img227a.jpg" alt="" />, or three broken lines <img style="width:33px; height:20px" src="images/img227b.jpg" alt="" />, and other such +combinations as <img style="width:35px; height:20px" src="images/img227c.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:32px; height:20px" src="images/img227d.jpg" alt="" />. Confucius declared that he +would like to give another fifty years to the elucidation of this puzzling +text. Shao Yung, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1011-1077, sought the key in numbers: Ch‘êng I., <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +1033-1107, in the eternal fitness of things. “But Chu Hsi alone,” says a +writer of the 17th century, “was able to pierce through the meaning +and appropriate the thoughts of the inspired man who composed it.” +No foreigner, however, has been able quite to understand what Chu +Hsi did make of it, and several have gone so far as to set all native +interpretations aside in favour of their own. Thus, the <i>I Ching</i> has +been discovered by one to be a calendar of the lunar year; by another, +to contain a system of phallic worship; and by a third, to be a +vocabulary of the language of a tribe, whose very existence had to be +postulated for the purpose.</p> + +<p><i>Political Economy.</i>—This department of literature has been by no +means neglected by Chinese writers. So early as the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +we find Kuan Chung, the prime minister of the Ch‘i state, +devoting his attention to economic problems, and thereby +<span class="sidenote">Kuan Chung.</span> +making that state the wealthiest and the strongest of all +the feudal kingdoms. Beginning life as a merchant, he passed into +the public service, and left behind him at death a large work, parts +of which, as we now possess it, may possibly have come direct from +his own hand, the remainder being written up at a later date in +accordance with the principles he inculcated. His ideal State was +divided into twenty-one parts, fifteen of which were allotted to +officials and agriculturists, and six to manufacturers and traders. +His great idea was to make his own state self-contained; and +accordingly he fostered agriculture in order to be independent in +time of war, and manufactures in order to increase his country’s +wealth in time of peace. He held that a purely agricultural +population would always remain poor; while a purely manufacturing +population would risk having its supplies of raw material cut off in +time of war. He warmly encouraged free imports as a means of +enriching his countrymen, trusting to their ability, under these +conditions, to hold their own against foreign competition. He +protected capital, in the sense that he considered capitalists to be +necessary for the development of commerce in time of peace, and +for the protection of the state in time of war.</p> + +<p>Mencius (see above) was in favour of heavily taxing merchants +who tried to engross for the purpose of regrating, that is, to buy up +wholesale for the purpose of retailing at monopoly prices; he was in +fact opposed to all trusts and corners in trade. He was in favour of a +tax to be imposed upon such persons as were mere consumers, living +upon property which had been amassed by others and doing no work +themselves. No tax, however, was to be exacted from property-owners +who contributed by their personal efforts to the general +welfare of the community. The object of the tax was not revenue, +but the prevention of idleness with its attendant evil consequences +to the state.</p> + +<p>Wang An-shih, the Reformer, or Innovator, as he has been called, +flourished <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1021-1086. In 1069 he was appointed state councillor, +and forthwith entered upon a series of startling reforms +which have given him a unique position in the annals of +<span class="sidenote">Wang An-shih.</span> +China. He established a state monopoly in commerce, +under which the produce of a district was to be used first for the +payment of taxes, then for the direct use of the district itself, and +the remainder was to be purchased by the government at a cheap rate, +either to be held until there was a rise in price, or to be transported +to some other district in need of it. The people were to profit +by fixity of prices and escape from further taxation; and the +government, by the revenue accruing in the process of administration. +There was also to be a system of state advances to cultivators of +land; not merely to the needy, but to all alike. The loan was to be +compulsory, and interest was to be paid on it at the rate of 2% per +month. The soil was to be divided into equal areas and taxed according +to its fertility in each case, without reference to the number of +inhabitants contained in each area. All these, and other important +reforms, failed to find favour with a rigidly conservative people, and +Wang An-shih lived long enough to see the whole of his policy reversed.</p> + +<p><i>Military Writers.</i>—Not much, relatively speaking, has been written +by the Chinese on war in general, strategy or tactics. There is, +however, one very remarkable work which has come down +to us from the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, as to the genuineness of +<span class="sidenote">Sun-Tzŭ.</span> +which there now seems to be no reasonable doubt. A biographical +notice of the author, Sun Wu, is given in the <i>Shih Chi</i> (see above), +from which we learn that “he knew how to handle an army, and was +finally appointed General.” His work, entitled the <i>Art of War</i>, is a +short treatise in thirteen chapters, under the following headings: +“Laying Plans,” “Waging War,” “Attack by Stratagem,” “Tactical +Dispositions,” “Energy,” “Weak Points and Strong,” “Manœuvring,” +“Variation of Tactics,” “The Army on the March,” “Terrain,” +“The Nine Situations,” “The Attack by Fire,” and “The Use of +Spies.” Although the warfare of Sun Wu’s day was the warfare of +bow and arrow, of armoured chariots and push of pike, certain +principles inseparably associated with successful issue will be found +enunciated in his work. Professor Mackail, in his <i>Latin Literature</i> +(p. 86), declares that Varro’s <i>Imagines</i> was “the first instance in +history of the publication of an illustrated book.” But reference to +the Art Section of the history of the Western Han dynasty, 206 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 25, +will disclose the title of fifteen or sixteen illustrated books, +one of which is Sun Wu’s <i>Art of War</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—In spite of the high place accorded to agriculturists, +who rank second only to officials and before artisans and traders, +and in spite of the assiduity with which agriculture has been practised +in all ages, securing immunity from slaughter for the ploughing ox—what +agricultural literature the Chinese possess may be said to belong +entirely to modern times. Ch‘ên Fu of the 12th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> was the +author of a small work in three parts, dealing with agriculture, +cattle-breeding and silkworms respectively. There is also a well-known +work by an artist of the early 13th century, with forty-six woodcuts +illustrating the various operations of agriculture and weaving. This +book was reprinted under the emperor K‘ang Hsi, 1662-1723, and +new illustrations with excellent perspective were provided by Chiao +Ping-chên, an artist who had adopted foreign methods as introduced +by the famous Jesuit, Matteo Ricci. The standard work on agriculture, +<span class="sidenote">Hsü Kuang-ch‘i.</span> +entitled <i>Nung Chêng Ch‘üan Shu</i>, was compiled by +Hsü Kuang-ch‘i, 1562-1634, generally regarded as the +only influential member of the mandarinate who has ever +become a convert to Christianity. It is in sixty sections, +the first three of which are devoted to classical references. Then +follow two sections on the division of land, six on the processes of +husbandry, none on hydraulics, four on agricultural implements, +six on planting, six on rearing silkworms, four on trees, one on +breeding animals, one on food and eighteen on provision against a +time of scarcity.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span></p> + +<p><i>Medicine and Therapeutics.</i>—The oldest of the innumerable +medical works of all descriptions with which China has been flooded +from time immemorial is a treatise which has been credited to the +Yellow Emperor (see above), 2698-2598 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is entitled <i>Plain Questions +of the Yellow Emperor</i>, or <i>Su Wên</i> for short, and takes the form of +questions put by the emperor and answered by Earl Ch‘i, a minister, +who was himself author of the <i>Nei Ching</i>, a medical work no longer in +existence. Without accepting the popular attribution of the <i>Su +Wên</i>, it is most probable that it is a very old book, dating back to +several centuries before Christ, and containing traditional lore of a +still more remote period. The same may be said of certain works +on cautery and acupuncture, both of which are still practised by +Chinese doctors; and also of works on the pulse, the variations of +which have been classified and allocated with a minuteness hardly +credible. Special treatises on fevers, skin-diseases, diseases of the +feet, eyes, heart, &c., are to be found in great quantities, as well as +veterinary treatises on the treatment of diseases of the horse and +the domestic buffalo. But in the whole range of Chinese medical +literature there is nothing which can approach the <i>Pên Ts‘ao</i>, or +<span class="sidenote">Pên Ts‘no.</span> +<i>Materia Medica</i>, sometimes called the Herbal, a title (<i>i.e.</i> +<i>Pên Ts‘ao</i>) which seems to have belonged to some book of +the kind in pre-historic ages. The work under consideration was +compiled by Li Shih-chên, who completed his task in 1578 after +twenty-six years’ labour. No fewer than eighteen hundred and +ninety-two species of drugs, animal, vegetable and mineral, are dealt +with, arranged under sixty-two classes in sixteen divisions; and eight +thousand one hundred and sixty prescriptions are given in connexion +with the various entries. The author professes to quote from +the original <i>Pên Ts‘ao</i>, above mentioned; and we obtain from his +extracts an insight into some curious details. It appears that formerly +the number of recognized drugs was three hundred and sixty-five in +all, corresponding with the days of the year. One hundred and +twenty of these were called <i>sovereigns</i> (cf. a sovereign prescription); +and were regarded as entirely beneficial to health, taken in any +quantity or for any time. Another similar number were called +<i>ministers</i>; some of these were poisonous, and all had to be used with +discretion. The remaining one hundred and twenty-five were +<i>agents</i>; all very poisonous, but able to cure diseases if not taken in +over-doses. The modern <i>Pên Ts‘ao</i>, in its sixteen divisions, deals with +drugs classed under water, fire, earth, minerals, herbs, grain, vegetables, +fruit, trees, clothes and utensils, insects, fishes, crustacea, +birds, beasts and man. In each case the proper name of the drug is +first given, followed by its explanation, solution of doubtful points, +correction of errors, means of identification by taste, use in prescriptions, +&c. The work is fully illustrated, and there is an index to the +various medicines, classed according to the complaints for which they +are used.</p> + +<p><i>Divination, &c.</i>—The practice of divination is of very ancient +date in China, traceable, it has been suggested, back to the Canon of +Changes (see above), which is commonly used by the lettered classes +for that purpose. A variety of other methods, the chief of which is +astrology, have also been adopted, and have yielded a considerable +bulk of literature. Even the officially-published almanacs still mark +certain days as suitable for certain undertakings, while other days are +marked in the opposite sense. The spirit of Zadkiel pervades the +Chinese empire. In like manner, geomancy is a subject on which +many volumes have been written; and the same applies to the +pseudo sciences of palmistry, physiognomy, alchemy (introduced +from Greek sources) and others.</p> + +<p><i>Painting.</i>—Calligraphy, in the eyes of the Chinese, is just as much +a fine art as painting; the two are, in fact, considered to have come +into existence together, but as might be expected the latter occupies +the larger space in Chinese literature, and forms the subject of +numerous extensive works. One of the most important of these is +the <i>Hsüan Ho Hua P‘u</i>, the author of which is unknown. It contains +information concerning two hundred and thirty-one painters and the +titles of six thousand one hundred and ninety-two of their pictures, +all in the imperial collection during the dynastic period <i>Hsüan Ho</i>, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1119-1126, from which the title is derived. The artists are +classified under one of the following ten headings, supposed to +represent the line in which each particularly excelled: Religion, +Human Figures, Buildings, Barbarians (including their Animals), +Dragons and Fishes, Landscape, Animals, Flowers and Birds, The +Bamboo, Vegetables and Fruits.</p> + +<p><i>Music.</i>—The literature of music does not go back to a remote period. +The Canon of Music, which was formerly included in the Confucian +Canon, has been lost for many centuries; and the works now available, +exclusive of entries in the dynastic histories, are not older than +the 9th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, to which date may be assigned the <i>Chieh Ku +Lu</i>, a treatise on the deerskin drum, said to have been introduced into +China from central Asia, and evidently of Scythian origin. There are +several important works of the 16th and 17th centuries, in which the +history and theory of music are fully discussed, and illustrations of +instruments are given, with measurements in each case, and the +special notation required.</p> + +<p><i>Miscellaneous.</i>—Under this head may be grouped a vast number +of works, many of them exhaustive, on such topics as archaeology, +seals (engraved), numismatics, pottery, ink (the miscalled “Indian”), +mirrors, precious stones, tea, wine, chess, wit and humour, +even cookery, &c. There is, indeed, hardly any subject, within +reasonable limits, which does not find some corner in Chinese +literature.</p> + +<p><i>Collections</i>.—Reprints of miscellaneous books and pamphlets in a +uniform edition, the whole forming a “library,” has long been a +favourite means of disseminating useful (and other) +information. Of these, the <i>Lung Wei Pi Shu</i> may be taken +<span class="sidenote">Lung Wei Pi Shu.</span> +as a specimen. In bulk it would be about the equivalent +of twenty volumes, 8vo, of four hundred pages to each. Among its +contents we find the following. A handbook of phraseology, with +explanations; a short account of fabulous regions to the N., S., E. +and W.; notes on the plants and trees of southern countries; biographical +sketches of ninety-two wonderful personages; an account +of the choice of an empress, with standard measurements of the +height, length of limb, &c., of the ideal woman; “Pillow Notes” +(a term borrowed by the Japanese), or jottings on various subjects, +ranging from the Creation to an account of Fusang, a country where +the trees are thousands of feet high and of vast girth, thus supporting +the California, as opposed to the Mexico, identification of Fusang; +critiques on the style of various poets, and on the indebtedness of +each to earlier writers; a list of the most famous bronze vessels cast +by early emperors, with their dimensions, inscriptions, &c.; a treatise +on the bamboo; a list of famous swords, with dates of forging and +inscriptions; an account of the old Mongol palace, previous to its +destruction by the first Ming emperor; notes on the wild tribes of +China; historical episodes; biographical notices of one hundred and +four poets of the present dynasty; notes on archaeological, supernatural +and other topics, first published in the 9th century; notes +for bibliophiles on the care of books, and on paper, ink, pictures and +bric-à-brac; a collection of famous criminal cases; night thoughts +suggested by a meteor. Add to the above, numerous short stories +relating to magic, dreams, bilocation, and to almost every possible +phase of supernatural manifestation, and the reader will have some +idea of what he may expect in an ordinary “library” of a popular +character. It must always be remembered that with the Chinese, +style is of paramount importance. Documents, the subject-matter of +which would be recognized to be of no educative value, would still be +included, if written in a pleasing style, such as might be serviceable +as a model.</p> + +<p><i>Individual Authors</i>.—In a similar manner it has always been customary +for relatives or friends, sometimes for the trade, to publish the +“complete works” of important and often unimportant writers; +usually, soon after death. And as literary distinction has hitherto +almost invariably led to high office under the state, the collected +works of the great majority of authors open with selected Memorials +to the Throne and other documents of an official character. The +public interest in these may have long since passed away; but they +are valued by the Chinese as models of a style to be imitated, and the +foreign student occasionally comes across papers on once burning +questions arising out of commercial or diplomatic intercourse with +western nations. Then may follow—the order is not always the +same—the prefaces which the author contributed from time to time +to the literary undertakings of his friends. Preface-writing is almost +a department of Chinese literature. No one ever thinks of publishing +a book without getting one or more of his capable associates to provide +prefaces, which are naturally of a laudatory character, and +always couched in highly-polished and obscure terms, the difficulty of +the text being often aggravated by a fanciful and almost illegible +script. Prefaces written by emperors, many examples of which may +be seen, are of course highly esteemed, and are generally printed in +coloured ink. The next section may comprise biographical notices +of eminent men and women, or of mere local celebrities, who happened +to die in the author’s day. Then will follow Records, a title which +covers inscriptions carved on the walls of new buildings, or on +memorial tablets, and also notes on pictures which the author may +have seen, places which he may have visited, or allegorical incidents +which he may have imagined. Then come disquisitions, or essays +on various subjects; researches, being short articles of archaeological +interest; studies or monographs; birthday congratulations +to friends or to official colleagues; announcements, as to deities, a +cessation of whose worship is threatened if the necessary rain or fair +weather be not forthcoming; funeral orations, letters of condolence, +&c. The above items will perhaps fill half a dozen volumes; the +remaining volumes, running to twenty or thirty in all, as the case +may be, will contain the author’s poetry, together with his longer +and more serious works. The essential of such a collection is, in +Chinese eyes, its completeness.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Fiction</i>.—Although novels are not regarded as an integral +part of literature proper, it is generally conceded that some +novels may be profitably studied, if for no other +reason, from the point of view of style. With the +<span class="sidenote">San Kuo Chih.</span> +novel, however, we are no longer on perfectly safe +ground in regard to that decency which characterizes, as has +been above stated, the vast mass of Chinese literature. Chinese +novels range, in this sense, from the simplest and most unaffected +tale of daily life, down to low—not the lowest—depths +of objectionable pornography. The <i>San Kuo Chih</i>, an historical +romance based upon a period of disruption at the close of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span> +2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, is a delightful book, packed with episodes of +battle, heroism, self-sacrifice, skilful strategy, and all that goes +to make up a stirring picture of strenuous times. Its author, +who might almost have been Walter Scott, cannot be named for +certain; but the work itself probably belongs to the 13th +century, a date at which the novel begins to make its appearance +in China. Previous to that time, there had been current an +immense quantity of stories of various kinds, but nothing like a +novel, as we understand the term. From the 13th century +onwards, the growth of the novel was continuous; and finally, +in the 17th century, a point was reached which is not likely to +be surpassed.The <i>Hung Lou Mêng</i>, the author of which took +<span class="sidenote">Hung Lou Mêng.</span> +pains, for political reasons, to conceal his identity, +is a creation of a very high order. Its plot is intricate +and original, and the <i>dénouement</i> startlingly tragic. +In the course of the story, the chief clue of which is love, woven +in with intrigue, ambition, wealth, poverty, and other threads +of human life, there occur no fewer than over four hundred +characters, each one possessed of a distinctive personality drawn +with marvellous skill. It contains incidents which recall the +licence tolerated in Fielding; but the coarseness, like that of +Fielding, is always on the surface, and devoid of the ulterior +suggestiveness of the modern psychological novel. But perhaps +<span class="sidenote">Liao Chai.</span> +no work of fiction has ever enjoyed such vogue among literary +men as a collection of stories, some graceful, some +weird, written in 1679 by P‘u Sungling, a disappointed +candidate at the public examinations. This collection, known as +the <i>Liao Chai</i>, is exceedingly interesting to the foreign +student for its sidelights on folklore and family life; to the +native scholar, who professes to smile at the subject-matter as +beyond the pale of genuine literature, it is simply invaluable +as an expression of the most masterly style of which his +language is capable.</p> + +<p><i>Drama.</i>—Simultaneously with the appearance of the novel, +stage-plays seem to have come into existence in China. In +the earliest ages there were set dances by trained performers, +to the accompaniment of music and singing; and something of +the kind, more or less ornate as regards the setting, has always +been associated with solemn and festive occasions. But not until +the days of the Mongol rule, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1260-1368, can the drama proper +be said to have taken root and flourished in Chinese soil. The +probability is that both the drama and the novel were introduced +from Central Asia in the wake of the Mongol conquerors; +the former is now specially essential to the everyday happiness +of the Chinese people, who are perhaps the most confirmed +playgoers in the world. There is an excellent collection of one +hundred plays of the Mongol dynasty, with an illustration to +each, first published in 1615; there is also a further large +collection, issued in 1845, which contains a great number of +plays arranged under sixty headings, according to the style and +purport of each, besides many others. +<span class="sidenote">Hsi Hsiang Chi.</span> +There is one famous play of the Mongol period which deals largely +in plot and passion, and is a great favourite with the educated +classes. It is entitled <i>Hsi Hsiang Chi</i>, or the Story of +the Western Pavilion; and as if there was a doubt as to the +reception which would be accorded to the work, a minatory +sentence was inserted in the prolegomena: “If any one +ventures to call this book indecent, he will certainly have his +tongue torn out in hell.” So far as the written play is concerned, +its language is altogether unobjectionable; on the stage, +by means of gag and gesture, its presentation is often unseemly +and coarse. What the Chinese playgoer delights in, as an +evening’s amusement, is a succession of plays which are more +of the nature of sketches, slight in construction and generally +weak in plot, some of them based upon striking historical +episodes, and others dealing with a single humorous incident.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Dictionaries.</i>—The <i>Erh Ya</i>, or Nearing the Standard, is commonly +classed as a dictionary, and is referred by native scholars generally +to the 12th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The entries are arranged under nineteen +heads, to facilitate reference, and explain a large number of words and +phrases, including names of beasts, birds, plants and fishes. The +work is well illustrated in the large modern edition; but the actual +date of composition is an entirely open question, and the insertion of +woodcuts must necessarily belong to a comparatively late age (see +<i>Military Writers</i>).</p> + +<p>With the <i>Shuo Wên</i>, or Explanation of Written Words, we begin the +long list of lexicographical works which constitute such a notable +feature in Chinese literature. A scholar, named Hsü Shên, +who died about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 120, made an effort to bring together and +<span class="sidenote">Shuo Wên.</span> +analyse all the characters it was possible to gather from the written +language as it existed in his own day. He then proceeded to arrange +these characters—about ten thousand in all—on a system which +would enable a student to find a given word without having possibly +to search through the whole book. To do this, he simply grouped +together all such as had a common part, more or less indicative of +the meaning of each, much as though an English dictionary were to +consist of such groups as</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> + +<p>Dog-days</p> +<p>Dog-kennel</p> +<p>Dog-collar</p> +<p>Dog-meat</p> +<p>Dog-nap</p> + +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and so on.</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> + +<p>Horse-collar</p> +<p>Horse-flesh</p> +<p>Horse-back</p> +<p>Horse-fly</p> +<p>Horse-chestnut</p> + +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and so on.</p> + +<p>Hsü Shên selected five hundred and forty of these common parts, or +Radicals (see <i>Language</i>), a number which, as will be seen later +on, was found to be cumbrously large; and under each Radical he +inserted all the characters belonging to it, but with no particular +order or arrangement, so that search was still, in many cases, quite +a laborious task. The explanations given were chiefly intended to +establish the pictorial origin of the language; but whereas no one +now disputes this as a general conclusion, the steps by which Hsü +Shên attempted to prove his theory must in a large number of +instances be dismissed as often inadequate and sometimes ridiculous. +Nevertheless, it was a great achievement; and the <i>Shuo Wên</i> is +still indispensable to the student of the particular script in vogue a +century or two before Christ. It is also of value in another sense. +It may be used, with discretion, in testing the genuineness of an +alleged ancient document, which, if an important or well-known +document before the age of Hsü Shên, would not be likely to contain +characters not given in his work. Under this test the <i>Tao Tê +Ching</i>, for instance, breaks down (see <i>Huai-nan Tzŭ</i>).</p> + +<p>Passing over a long series of dictionaries and vocabularies which +appeared at various dates, some constructed on Hsü Shên’s plan, +with modifications and improvements, and others, known as phonetic +dictionaries, arranged under the finals according to the Tones, we +come to the great standard lexicon produced under the auspices, +and now bearing the name of the emperor K‘ang Hsi, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1662-1723.</p> + +<p>But before proceeding, a rough attempt may be made to exhibit in +English terms the principle of the phonetic as compared with the +radical dictionary described above. In the spoken language +there would occur the word <i>light</i>, the opposite of dark, +<span class="sidenote">Phonetic dictionaries.</span> +and this would be expressed in writing by a certain +symbol. Then, when it became necessary to write down <i>light</i>, +the opposite of heavy, the result would be precisely what we +see in English. But as written words increased, always with a limited +number of vocables (see <i>Language</i>), this system was found to be +impracticable, and Radicals were inserted as a means of distinguishing +one kind of <i>light</i> from another, but without altering the +original sound. Now, in the phonetic dictionary the words are no +longer arranged in such groups as</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> + +<p>Sun-light</p> +<p>Sun-beam</p> +<p>Sun-stroke</p> +<p>Sun-god, &c.</p> + +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">according to the Radicals, but in such groups as</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> + +<p>Sun-light</p> +<p>Moon-light</p> +<p>Foot-light</p> +<p>Gas-light, &c.</p> + +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">according to the phonetics, all the above four being pronounced simply +<i>light</i>, without reference to the radical portion which guides +towards the limited sense of the term. So, in a phonetic dictionary, +we should have such a group as</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> + +<p>Brass-bound</p> +<p>Morocco-bound</p> +<p>Half-bound</p> +<p>Spell-bound</p> +<p>Homeward-bound</p> +<p>Wind-bound</p> + +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and so on, all the above six being pronounced simply <i>bound</i>. +To return to “K‘ang Hsi,” as the lexicon in question is familiarly +styled, the total number of characters given therein +amounts to over forty-four thousand, grouped no longer +<span class="sidenote">K‘ang Hsi.</span> +under the five hundred and forty Radicals of Hsü Shên, but under +the much more manageable number of two hundred and fourteen, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span> +as already used in earlier dictionaries. Further, as the groups of +characters would now be more than four times as large as in the <i>Shuo +Wên</i>, they were subdivided under each Radical according to the +number of strokes in the other, or phonetic part of the character. +Thus, adopting letters as strokes, for the purpose of illustration, we +should have “dog-nap” in the group of Radical “dog” and three +strokes, while “dog-days” and “dog-meat” would both be found +under Radical “dog” with four strokes, and so on. The two +hundred and fourteen Radicals are themselves arranged in groups +according to the number of strokes; so that it is not a very arduous +task to turn up ordinary characters in a Chinese dictionary. Finally, +although Chinese is a monosyllabic and non-alphabetic language, +a method has been devised, and has been in use since the 3rd century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, by which the sound of any word can be indicated in a dictionary +otherwise than by simply quoting a word of similar sound, which of +course may be equally unknown to the searcher. Thus, the sound +of a word pronounced <i>ching</i> can be exhibited by selecting two words, +one having the initial <i>ch</i>, and the other a final <i>ing</i>. E.g. the sound +<i>ching</i> is given as <i>chien ling</i>; that is <i>ch[ien l]ing = ching</i>.</p> + +<p><i>The Concordance.</i>—Considering the long unbroken series of years +during which Chinese literature has always, in spite of many losses, +been steadily gaining in bulk, it is not astonishing to find that +classical, historical, mythological and other allusions to personages +or events of past times have also grown out of all proportion to the +brain capacity even of the most brilliant student. Designed especially +to meet this difficulty, there are several well-known handbooks, +elementary and advanced, which trace such allusions to their source +and provide full and lucid explanations; but even the most extensive +of these is on a scale incommensurate with the requirements of the +scholar. Again, it is due to the emperor K‘ang Hsi that we possess +one of the most elaborate compilations of the kind ever planned and +carried to completion. The <i>P‘ei Wên Yün Fu</i>, or Concordance to +Literature, is a key, not only to allusions in general, but to all +phraseology, including allusions, idiomatic expressions and other obscure +combinations of words, to be found in the classics, in the dynastic +histories, and in all poets, historians, essayists, and writers of +recognized eminence in their own lines. No attempt at explanation is +given; but enough of the passage, or passages, in which the phrase +occurs, is cited to enable the reader to gather the meaning required. +The trouble, of course, lies with the arrangement of these phrases in +a non-alphabetic language. Recourse has been had to the Rhymes +and the five Tones (see <i>Language</i>); and all phrases which end with +the same word form one of a number of groups which appear under +the same Rhyme, the Rhymes themselves being distributed over five +Tones. Thus, to find any phrase, the first point is to discover what is +its normal Rhyme; the next is to ascertain the Tone of that Rhyme. +Then, under this Tone-group the Rhyme-word will be found, and +under the Rhyme-word group will be found the final word of the +phrase in question. It will now only remain to run through this last +group of phrases, all of which have this same final word, and the +search—so vast is the collection—will usually yield a satisfactory +result. The <i>P‘ei Wên Yün Fu</i> runs of course to many volumes; a +rough estimate shows it to contain over fifteen million words.</p> + +<p><i>Encyclopaedias.</i>—In their desire to bring together condensed, yet +precise, information on a large variety of subjects, the Chinese may +be said to have invented the encyclopaedia. Though not the earliest +work of this kind, the <i>T‘ai P‘ing Yü Lan</i> is the first of any great +importance. It was produced towards the close of the 10th century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, under the direct supervision of the emperor, who is said to have +examined three sections every day for about a year, the total number +of sections being one thousand in all, arranged under fifty-five +headings. Another similar work, dealing with topics drawn from the +lighter literature of China, is the <i>T‘ai P‘ing Kuang Chi</i>, which was +issued at about the same date as the last-mentioned. Both of these, +and especially the former, have passed through several editions. +They help to inaugurate the great Sung dynasty, which for three +centuries to follow effected so much in the cause of literature. +Other encyclopaedias, differing in scope and in plan, appeared from +time to time, but it will be necessary to concentrate attention upon +two only. The third emperor of the Ming dynasty, known +<span class="sidenote">Yuan Lo Ta Tien.</span> +as Yung Lo, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1403-1425, issued a commission for the +production of a work on a scale which was colossal even +for China. His idea was to collect together all that had ever been +written in the four departments of (1) the Confucian Canon, +(2) History, (3) Philosophy and (4) General Literature, including +astronomy, geography, cosmogony, medicine, divination, Buddhism, +Taoism, arts and handicrafts; and in 1408 such an encyclopaedia +was laid before the Throne, received the imperial approval and was +named <i>Yung Lo Ta Tien</i>, or The Great Standard of Yung Lo. To +achieve this, 3 commissioners, with 5 directors, 20 sub-directors and a +staff of 2141 assistants, had laboured for the space of five years. +Its contents ran to no fewer than 22,877 separate sections, to which +must be added an index filling 60 sections. Each section contained +about 20 leaves, making a total of 917,480 pages for the whole work. +Each page consisted of sixteen columns of characters averaging +twenty-five to each column, or a total of 366,992,000 characters, to +which, in order to bring the amount into terms of English words, +about another third would have to be added. This extraordinary +work was never printed, as the expense would have been too great, +although it was actually transcribed for that purpose; and later on, +two more copies were made, one of which was finally stored in Peking +and the other, with the original, in Nanking. Both the Nanking +copies perished at the fall of the Ming dynasty; and a similar fate +overtook the Peking copy, with the exception of a few odd volumes, +at the siege of the legations in 1900. The latter was bound up in +11,100 volumes, covered with yellow silk, each volume being 1 ft. +8 in. in length by 1 ft. in breadth, and averaging over ½ in. in thickness. +This would perhaps be a fitting point to conclude any notice +of Chinese encyclopaedias, but for the fact that the work of Yung Lo +is gone while another encyclopaedia, also on a huge scale, designed +and carried out sonic centuries later, is still an important work of +reference.</p> + +<p>The <i>T‘u Shu Chi Ch‘êng</i> was planned, and to a great extent made +ready, under instructions from the emperor K‘ang Hsi (see above), +and was finally brought out by his successor, Yung Chêng, +1723-1736. Intended to embrace all departments of +<span class="sidenote">T‘u Shu.</span> +knowledge, its contents were distributed over six leading categories, +which for want of better equivalents may be roughly rendered by +(l) Heaven, (2) Earth, (3) Man, (4) Arts and Sciences, (5) Philosophy +and (6) Political Science. These were subdivided into thirty-two +classes; and in the voluminous index which accompanies the work +a further attempt was made to bring the searcher into still closer +touch with the individual items treated. Thus, the category Heaven +is subdivided into four classes, namely—again, for want of better +terms—(<i>a</i>) The Sky and its Manifestations, (<i>b</i>) The Seasons, (<i>c</i>) +Astronomy and Mathematics and (<i>d</i>) Natural Phenomena. Under +these classes come the individual items; and here it is that the +foreign student is often at a loss. For instance, class <i>a</i> includes +Earth, in its cosmogonic sense, as the mother of mankind; Heaven, +in its original sense of God; the Dual Principle in nature; the Sun, +Moon and Stars; Wind; Clouds; Rainbow; Thunder and Lightning; +Rain; Fire, &c. But Earth is itself a geographical category; +and all strange phenomena relating to many of the items under class +<i>a</i> are recorded under class <i>d</i>. Category No. 6, marked as Political +Science, contains such classes as Ceremonial, Music and Administration +of Justice, alongside of Handicrafts, making it essential to study +the arrangement carefully before it is possible to consult the work +with ease. Such preliminary trouble is, however, well repaid, the +amount of information given on any particular subject being practically +coextensive with what is known about that subject. The +method of presenting such information, with variations to suit the +nature of the topics handled, is to begin with historical excerpts, +chronologically arranged. These are usually followed by sometimes +lengthy essays dealing with the subject as a theme, taken from the +writings of qualified authors, and like all the other entries, also +chronologically arranged. Then come elegant extracts in prose and +verse, in all of which the subject may be simply mentioned and not +treated as in the essays. After these follow minor notices of incidents, +historical and otherwise, and all kinds of anecdotes, derived from a +great variety of sources. Occasionally, single poetical lines are +brought together, each contributing, some thought or statement +germane to the subject, expressed in elegant or forcible terms; and +also, wherever practicable, biographies of men and women are +inserted.</p> + +<p>Chronological and other tables are supplied where necessary, as +well as a very large number of illustrations, many of these being +reproductions of woodcuts from earlier works. It is said that the +<i>T‘u Shu Chi Ch‘êng</i> was printed from movable copper type cast by +the Jesuit Fathers employed by the emperor K‘ang Hsi at Peking; +also that only a hundred copies were struck off, the type being then +destroyed. An 8vo edition of the whole encyclopaedia was issued at +Shanghai in 1889; this is bound up in sixteen hundred and twenty-eight +handy volumes of about two hundred pages each. A copy of +the original edition stands on the shelves of the British Museum, and +a translation of the Index has recently been completed.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Manuscripts and Printing.</i>—At the conclusion of this brief +survey of Chinese literature it may well be asked how such an +enormous and ever-increasing mass has been handed down +from generation to generation. According to the views put forth +by early Chinese antiquarians, the first written records were +engraved with a special knife upon bamboo slips and wooden +tablets. The impracticability of such a process, as applied to +books, never seems to have dawned upon those writers; and +this snowball of error, started in the 7th century, long after the +knife and the tablet had disappeared as implements of writing, +continued to gather strength as time went on. Recent +researches, however, have placed it beyond doubt that when the +Chinese began to write in a literary sense, as opposed to mere +scratchings on bones, they traced their characters on slips of +bamboo and tablets of wood with a bamboo pencil, frayed at one +end to carry the coloured liquid which stood in the place of ink. +The knife was used only to erase. So things went on until about +200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when it would appear that a brush of hair was substituted +for the bamboo pencil; after which, silk was called into +requisition as an appropriate vehicle in connexion with the more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span> +delicate brush. But silk was expensive and difficult to handle, +so that the invention of paper in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 105 by a eunuch, named +Ts‘ai Lun, came as a great boon, although it seems clear that a +certain kind of paper, made from silk floss, was in use before his +date. However that may be, from the 1st century onwards the +Chinese have been in possession of the same writing materials +that are in use at the present day.</p> + +<p>In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 170, Ts‘ai Yung, who rose subsequently to the highest +offices of state, wrote out on stone in red ink the authorized text +of the Five Classics, to be engraved by workmen, and thus +handed down to posterity. The work covered forty-six huge +tablets, of which a few fragments are said to be still in existence. +A similar undertaking was carried out in 837, and the later +tablets are still standing at a temple in the city of Hsi-an Fu, +Shensi. With the T‘ang dynasty, rubbings of famous inscriptions, +wherein the germ of printing may be detected, whether for the +style of the composition or for the calligraphic excellence of the +script, came very much into vogue with scholars and collectors. +It is also from about the same date that the idea of multiplying +on paper impressions taken from wooden blocks seems to have +arisen, chiefly in connexion with religious pictures and prayers. +The process was not widely applied to the production of books +until the 10th century, when in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 932 the Confucian Canon +was printed for the first time. In 981 orders were issued for the +<i>T‘ai P‘ing Kuang Chi</i>, an encyclopaedia extending to many +volumes (see above) to be cut on blocks for printing. Movable +types of baked clay are said to have been invented by an +alchemist, named Pi Shêng, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1043; and under the Ming +dynasty, 1368-1644, these were made first of wood, and later +of copper or lead, but movable types have never gained the +favour accorded to block-printing, by means of which most of +China’s great typographical triumphs have been achieved. The +process is, and always has been, the same all over China. Two +consecutive pages of a book, separated by a column containing +the title, number of section, and number of leaf, are written out +and pasted face downwards on a block of wood (<i>Lindera tzŭ-mu</i>, +Hemsl.). This paper, where not written upon, is cut away with +sharp tools, leaving the characters in relief, and of course backwards, +as in the case of European type. The block is then inked, +and an impression is taken off, on one side of the paper only. +This sheet is then folded down the middle of the separating +column above mentioned, so that the blank halves come +together, leaving two pages of printed matter outside; and when +enough sheets have been brought together, they are stabbed at +the open ends and form a volume, to be further wrapped in +paper or pasteboard, and labelled with title, &c. It is almost +superfluous to say that the pages of a Chinese book must not be +cut. There is nothing inside, and, moreover, the column bearing +the title and leaf-number would be cut through. The Chinese +newspapers of modern times are all printed from movable types, +an ordinary fount consisting of about six to seven thousand +characters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Legge, <i>The Chinese Classics</i> (1861-1872); A. Wylie, <i>Notes +on Chinese Literature</i> (1867); E. Chavannes, <i>Mémoires historiques</i> +(1895-1905); H.A. Giles, <i>Chuang Tzŭ</i> (1889), <i>A Chinese Biographical +Dictionary</i> (1898), and <i>A History of Chinese Literature</i> (1901); A. +Forke, <i>Lun-Hêng</i> (1907); F. Hirth, <i>The Ancient History of China</i> +(1908); L. Giles, <i>Sun Tzŭ</i> (1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. A. GI.)</div> + + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1d" id="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> As to the origin of the names China and Cathay (the medieval +name) see below § <i>History</i>. According to one theory the name +China is of Malay origin, designating originally the region now called +Indo-China, but transferred in early times to China proper. By the +Chinese the country is often called <i>Shih-pa-shêng,</i> “the Eighteen +Provinces,” from the number of its great territorial divisions. It +is also called <i>Chung-kwo,</i> “the Middle Kingdom,” properly used of +the central part of China, and <i>Hwa-kwo,</i> “the Flowery Kingdom.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2d" id="Footnote_2d" href="#FnAnchor_2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A Chinese mile, <i>li</i>, or <i>le</i> = 0.36 English mile.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3d" id="Footnote_3d" href="#FnAnchor_3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the Grand Canal the chief authority is Dominique Gandar, +S.J., “Le Canal Impérial. Étude historique et descriptive,” <i>Variétés +sinologiques</i> No. 4 (Shanghai, 1903); see also Stenz, “Der Kaiserkanal,” +in <i>Beiträgen zur Kolonialpolitik</i>, Band v. (Berlin, 1903-1904), +and the works of Ney Elias, Sir J.F. Davis, A. Williamson, E.H. Parker +and W.R. Carles.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4d" id="Footnote_4d" href="#FnAnchor_4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Nevertheless there is considerable local traffic. The transit +trade with Shan-tung, passing the Chin-kiang customs and using +some 250 m. of the worst part of the canal, was valued in 1905 at +3,331,000 taels.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5d" id="Footnote_5d" href="#FnAnchor_5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The portion of the wall which abutted on to the sea has been destroyed.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6d" id="Footnote_6d" href="#FnAnchor_6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See the <i>Geog. Jnl.</i> (Feb. and March 1907). For a popular account +of the wall, with numerous photographs, see <i>The Great Wall of +China</i> (London, 1909), by W.E. Giel, who in 1908 followed its course +from east to west. Consult also A. Williamson, <i>Journey in North +China</i> (London, 1870); Martin, “La Grande Muraille de la Chine,” +<i>Revue scientifique</i> (1891).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7d" id="Footnote_7d" href="#FnAnchor_7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For Shanghai the figures are compiled from twenty-six years’ observations. +See <i>China Sea Directory</i>, vol. iii. (4th ed., 1904) p. 660.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8d" id="Footnote_8d" href="#FnAnchor_8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The thermometer registered 23° F. in January 1893, on the river +28 m. below Canton. This is the lowest reading known. Ibid, pp. 104-105.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9d" id="Footnote_9d" href="#FnAnchor_9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See W.W. Rockhill, <i>Inquiry into the Population of China</i> +(Washington, 1904).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10d" id="Footnote_10d" href="#FnAnchor_10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> For a bibliography of works relating to the aboriginal races of +China see Richard’s <i>Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire</i> +(1908 ed.), pp. 371-373.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11d" id="Footnote_11d" href="#FnAnchor_11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Evidences of the social changes taking place in China are to be +found in the strong movement for the education of girls, and in the +formation of societies, under official patronage, to prevent the binding +of women’s feet.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12d" id="Footnote_12d" href="#FnAnchor_12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> It must be remembered that there is great variety in the +costumes worn in the various provinces. The particulars here given +are of the most general styles of dress.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13d" id="Footnote_13d" href="#FnAnchor_13d"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Richard’s <i>Comprehensive Geography</i>, &c. (1908 edition), pp. 340-341.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14d" id="Footnote_14d" href="#FnAnchor_14d"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Otherwise Abū Ja‘far Ibn Mahommed al-Mansūr (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>, +C. § 2).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15d" id="Footnote_15d" href="#FnAnchor_15d"><span class="fn">15</span></a> For a summary of Chang Chih-tung’s treatise, see <i>Changing +China</i> (1910 edition), chap. xxii.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16d" id="Footnote_16d" href="#FnAnchor_16d"><span class="fn">16</span></a> It was announced in June 1910 that the throne had approved +a recommendation of the Board of Education that English should +be the official language for scientific and technical education, and +that the study of English should be compulsory in all provincial +scientific and technical schools.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17d" id="Footnote_17d" href="#FnAnchor_17d"><span class="fn">17</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 19th of February and the 3rd of May 1910.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18d" id="Footnote_18d" href="#FnAnchor_18d"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Another peculiarity of loess in China is that it lends itself +readily to the excavation of dwellings for the people. In many +places whole villages live in cave dwellings dug out in the vertical +wall of loess. They construct spiral staircases, selecting places +where the ground is firm, and excavate endless chambers and +recesses which are said to be very comfortable and salubrious.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19d" id="Footnote_19d" href="#FnAnchor_19d"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See J. Edkins, <i>The Poppy in China</i>, and H.B. Morse, <i>The Trade +and Administration of the Chinese Empire</i>, chap. xi.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20d" id="Footnote_20d" href="#FnAnchor_20d"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Richard’s <i>Comprehensive Geography, &c.</i> (1908 edition), p. 144.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21d" id="Footnote_21d" href="#FnAnchor_21d"><span class="fn">21</span></a> In the 18th century foreign trade was restricted to Canton. +In the 17th century, however, the Dutch traded to Formosa and +Amoy, and the English to Amoy also. The Portuguese traded with +Canton as early as 1517. For the early intercourse between Portugal +and China see the introductory chapter in Donald Ferguson’s +<i>Letters from Portuguese Captives in Canton</i> (Bombay, 1902).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22d" id="Footnote_22d" href="#FnAnchor_22d"><span class="fn">22</span></a> From <i>The Statesman’s Year Book</i>, 1910 edition.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23d" id="Footnote_23d" href="#FnAnchor_23d"><span class="fn">23</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 28th of March 1910.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24d" id="Footnote_24d" href="#FnAnchor_24d"><span class="fn">24</span></a> See Morse, <i>op. cit.</i> chap. x.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25d" id="Footnote_25d" href="#FnAnchor_25d"><span class="fn">25</span></a> The maritime customs had established a postal service for its +own convenience in 1861, and it first gave facilities to the general +public in 1876. An organized service for the conveyance of government +despatches has existed in China for many centuries, and the +commercial classes maintain at their own expense a system (“letter +hongs”) for the transmission of correspondence.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26d" id="Footnote_26d" href="#FnAnchor_26d"><span class="fn">26</span></a> For the causes leading to this movement and the progress of +reform see § <i>History</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27d" id="Footnote_27d" href="#FnAnchor_27d"><span class="fn">27</span></a> For recent authoritative accounts of the government of China +see H.B. Morse, <i>The Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire</i>, +chap. iii.; Richard’s <i>Comprehensive Geography</i>, &c., Bk. I. § v., and +<i>The Statesman’s Year Book</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28d" id="Footnote_28d" href="#FnAnchor_28d"><span class="fn">28</span></a> The empress-consort is chosen by the emperor from a number +of girls selected by his ministers from the families of Manchu nobles. +From the same candidates the emperor also selects secondary-empresses +(usually not more than four). Concubines, not limited in +number, are chosen from the daughters of Manchu nobles and free-men. +All the children are equally legitimate.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29d" id="Footnote_29d" href="#FnAnchor_29d"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Recent emperors have been children at accession and have been +kept in seclusion.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30d" id="Footnote_30d" href="#FnAnchor_30d"><span class="fn">30</span></a> See “Democratic China” in H.A. Giles, <i>China and the Chinese</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31d" id="Footnote_31d" href="#FnAnchor_31d"><span class="fn">31</span></a> W.F. Mayers, <i>The Chinese Government</i> (1878).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32d" id="Footnote_32d" href="#FnAnchor_32d"><span class="fn">32</span></a> This body is superseded by the Imperial Senate summoned to +meet for the first time on the 3rd of October 1910.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33d" id="Footnote_33d" href="#FnAnchor_33d"><span class="fn">33</span></a> Yamên is the name given to the residences of all high officials. +Tsung-li Yamên = the bureau for managing each (foreign) kingdom’s +affairs.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34d" id="Footnote_34d" href="#FnAnchor_34d"><span class="fn">34</span></a> An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a naval and military +advisory board. Up to that time the navy was controlled by the +viceroys at Canton, Nanking, Fu-chow and Tientsin; the viceroys +at Canton and Tientsin being ministers superintendent of the +southern and northern ports respectively.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35d" id="Footnote_35d" href="#FnAnchor_35d"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Thus in 1910 Prince Ching, president of the grand council, was, +for the third time, impeached by censors, being denounced as an +“old treacherous minister,” who filled the public service with a +crowd of men as unworthy as himself. The censor who made the +charge was stripped of his office (see <i>The Times</i> of the 30th of March +1910).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36d" id="Footnote_36d" href="#FnAnchor_36d"><span class="fn">36</span></a> For details of local government see Richard’s <i>Comprehensive +Geography</i>, 1908 edition, pp. 301 et seq.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_37d" id="Footnote_37d" href="#FnAnchor_37d"><span class="fn">37</span></a> Morse, op. cit., 1908 edition, p. 76</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_38d" id="Footnote_38d" href="#FnAnchor_38d"><span class="fn">38</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 28th of February 1910.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_39d" id="Footnote_39d" href="#FnAnchor_39d"><span class="fn">39</span></a> See <i>The Statesman’s Year-Book</i> (1910 edition).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_40d" id="Footnote_40d" href="#FnAnchor_40d"><span class="fn">40</span></a> A few of the old native customs stations, which are deemed +perquisites of the imperial court, may also be excepted, as, for +instance, the native custom-house at Canton, Hwei Kwan on the +Grand Canal, and various stations in the neighbourhood of Peking.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41d" id="Footnote_41d" href="#FnAnchor_41d"><span class="fn">41</span></a> The production of a budget in 1915 was promised in one of the +reform edicts of 1908.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42d" id="Footnote_42d" href="#FnAnchor_42d"><span class="fn">42</span></a> In this article the tael used as a standard is the Haikwan (<i>i.e.</i> +customs) tael, worth about 3s. It fluctuates with the value of silver.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_43d" id="Footnote_43d" href="#FnAnchor_43d"><span class="fn">43</span></a> Roughly £43,000,000.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_44d" id="Footnote_44d" href="#FnAnchor_44d"><span class="fn">44</span></a> <i>Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire</i> (1910), p. 118.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_45d" id="Footnote_45d" href="#FnAnchor_45d"><span class="fn">45</span></a> Temporary reductions are granted in provinces affected by +rebellion, drought or flood.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_46d" id="Footnote_46d" href="#FnAnchor_46d"><span class="fn">46</span></a> Information as to what extent the expenses of the new army +and navy are met by the central government is lacking.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_47d" id="Footnote_47d" href="#FnAnchor_47d"><span class="fn">47</span></a> To meet the expenditure on interest and redemption of the +indemnities for the Boxer outrages the Peking government required +the provincial authorities to increase their annual remittances by +taels 18,700,000 during the years 1902-1910.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_48d" id="Footnote_48d" href="#FnAnchor_48d"><span class="fn">48</span></a> It must be remembered that the Haikwan tael is here indicated.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_49d" id="Footnote_49d" href="#FnAnchor_49d"><span class="fn">49</span></a> See Morse’s <i>Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire</i>, +chap. ix.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_50d" id="Footnote_50d" href="#FnAnchor_50d"><span class="fn">50</span></a> A supplementary exchange of notes of the same date excepted +from the scope of this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang +extension which had already been conceded to the Hongkong & +Shanghai Bank.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_51d" id="Footnote_51d" href="#FnAnchor_51d"><span class="fn">51</span></a> The religious aspect of the Boxer movement gave it strength. +Its disciples believed that the spirits which defended China were +incensed by the introduction of Western methods and ideals. Many +of them believed themselves to be invulnerable to any Western +weapon. (See Lord W. Cecil, <i>Changing China</i>, 1910, ch. i.)</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_52d" id="Footnote_52d" href="#FnAnchor_52d"><span class="fn">52</span></a> The diary of a Manchu noble printed in <i>China under the +Empress Dowager</i> (1910) by J.O. Bland and E. Backhouse throws +light on the subject. It was to Jung-Lu, father-in-law of Prince +Chin, that the legations owed their escape from extermination.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_53d" id="Footnote_53d" href="#FnAnchor_53d"><span class="fn">53</span></a> It was at this time (July 17th) that the intense anxiety of the +civilized world with regard to the fate of the besieged reached its +culminating point. Circumstantial accounts of the fall of the legations +and the massacre of their inmates were circulated in Shanghai +and found general credence. It was not till near the end of the +month that an authentic message from the American minister +proved these fears to be premature.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_54d" id="Footnote_54d" href="#FnAnchor_54d"><span class="fn">54</span></a> In negotiating this agreement Lord Salisbury appears to have +been largely influenced by the aggressive features of Russia’s action +in North China, while Germany appears to have been actuated by a +desire to forestall isolated action by Great Britain in the Yangtsze +basin. In Germany the agreement was known as the Yangtsze +Agreement. Great Britain held, however, that it applied equally to +Manchuria.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_55d" id="Footnote_55d" href="#FnAnchor_55d"><span class="fn">55</span></a> Liu Kun-yi died in 1902. In the same year died Tao-mu, the +viceroy of Canton. In these men China lost two of her most capable +and enlightened officials.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_56d" id="Footnote_56d" href="#FnAnchor_56d"><span class="fn">56</span></a> Prince Chun was born in 1882. He was the first member of the +imperial family to be sent on a foreign mission.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_57d" id="Footnote_57d" href="#FnAnchor_57d"><span class="fn">57</span></a> Tung Fu-hsiang died in 1908. A sum of some £80,000 belonging +to him, and left in the provincial treasury, was appropriated for works +of public utility (see <i>The Times</i>, April 9th, 1910).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_58d" id="Footnote_58d" href="#FnAnchor_58d"><span class="fn">58</span></a> Lord W. Cecil, op. cit. p. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_59d" id="Footnote_59d" href="#FnAnchor_59d"><span class="fn">59</span></a> This institution was nominally a private concern which financed +the Manchurian railway, but it acted as part of the Russian government +machinery. The existence of the contract of the 27th of +August 1896 was frequently denied until expressly admitted by the +Russo-Chinese agreement of the 8th of April 1902.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_60d" id="Footnote_60d" href="#FnAnchor_60d"><span class="fn">60</span></a> On the 8th of October the Russian troops had been withdrawn +from Mukden, but they reoccupied the town on the 28th of the +same month, Admiral Alexeiev, the viceroy of the Far East, alleging +that the inertia of the Chinese officials seriously hindered the work of +extending civilization in Manchuria.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_61d" id="Footnote_61d" href="#FnAnchor_61d"><span class="fn">61</span></a> The form of outrage, probably the first of its kind in China, +was itself a symptom of the changed times. The bomb injured +Prince Tsai Tse and another commissioner, and the departure of the +commission was consequently delayed some months.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_62d" id="Footnote_62d" href="#FnAnchor_62d"><span class="fn">62</span></a> In 1907 further commissions were appointed, on the initiative +of Yuan Shih-kai, to study specifically the constitutions of Great +Britain, Germany and Japan.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_63d" id="Footnote_63d" href="#FnAnchor_63d"><span class="fn">63</span></a> This department was organized at Shanghai in 1854. The +Taiping rebels being in possession of the native city, the collection +of customs dues, especially on foreign ships, was placed in the hands +of foreigners. This developed into a permanent institution, the +European staff being mainly British.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_64d" id="Footnote_64d" href="#FnAnchor_64d"><span class="fn">64</span></a> The British official view, as stated in parliament on the 27th of +April 1910, was that the changes resulting from the creation of the +Board of Control had, so far, been purely departmental changes of +form, and that the position of the inspector-general remained +unaltered.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_65d" id="Footnote_65d" href="#FnAnchor_65d"><span class="fn">65</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 21st of April and 11th of May 1910.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_66d" id="Footnote_66d" href="#FnAnchor_66d"><span class="fn">66</span></a> A chest contained from 135 ℔ to 160 lb.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_67d" id="Footnote_67d" href="#FnAnchor_67d"><span class="fn">67</span></a> A picul = 133½ lb.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_68d" id="Footnote_68d" href="#FnAnchor_68d"><span class="fn">68</span></a> <i>Changing China</i>, p. 118.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_69d" id="Footnote_69d" href="#FnAnchor_69d"><span class="fn">69</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of 7th and 8th of March and 8th of April 1910.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_70d" id="Footnote_70d" href="#FnAnchor_70d"><span class="fn">70</span></a> The first recorded importation of morphia into China was in +1892, and it is suggested that it was first used as an anti-opium +medicine. Morphia-taking, however, speedily became a vice, and +in 1902 over 195,000 oz. of morphia were imported (enough for some +300,000,000 injections). To check the evil the Chinese government +during 1903 imposed a tax of about 200% <i>ad valorem</i>, with the result +that the imports declared to the customs fell in 1905 to 54 oz. only. +The falling off was explained “not by a diminished demand, but +by smuggling” (Morse’s <i>Trade and Administration of the Chinese +Empire</i>, p. 351).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_71d" id="Footnote_71d" href="#FnAnchor_71d"><span class="fn">71</span></a> A regulation by the ministry of education, dated the 14th of +January 1910, ordered that no girl should be admitted to school +dressed in foreign clothes or with unnatural (<i>i.e.</i> bound) feet.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_72d" id="Footnote_72d" href="#FnAnchor_72d"><span class="fn">72</span></a> For the growth of the education movement see <i>The Times</i>, 4th +of September 1909.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_73d" id="Footnote_73d" href="#FnAnchor_73d"><span class="fn">73</span></a> The Dalai Lama left Peking in December 1908 on his return +to Lhassa, which he reached in November 1909. Differences had +arisen between him and the Chinese government, which sought to +make the spiritual as well as the temporal power of the Dalai Lama +dependent on his recognition by the emperor of China. Early in +1910 the Dalai Lama, in consequence of the action of the Chinese +amban in Lhassa, fled from that city and sought refuge in India.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_74d" id="Footnote_74d" href="#FnAnchor_74d"><span class="fn">74</span></a> Chang Chih-tung died in October 1909. He was a man of considerable +ability, and one whose honesty and loyalty had never +been doubted. He was noted as an opponent of opium smoking, +and for over thirty years had addressed memorials to the throne +against the use of the drug.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_75d" id="Footnote_75d" href="#FnAnchor_75d"><span class="fn">75</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 7th of September 1909.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_76d" id="Footnote_76d" href="#FnAnchor_76d"><span class="fn">76</span></a> Proposals made early in 1910 by the American secretary of state +for the neutralization of the Manchurian railway received no support.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_77d" id="Footnote_77d" href="#FnAnchor_77d"><span class="fn">77</span></a> By a convention signed on July 4th, 1910, Russia and Japan +agreed to “maintain and respect” the <i>status quo</i> in Manchuria.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_78d" id="Footnote_78d" href="#FnAnchor_78d"><span class="fn">78</span></a> See the <i>Quinzaine coloniale</i> of the 10th of December 1909.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_79d" id="Footnote_79d" href="#FnAnchor_79d"><span class="fn">79</span></a> See <i>The Times</i> of the 20th of January 1910.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_80d" id="Footnote_80d" href="#FnAnchor_80d"><span class="fn">80</span></a> See for the prospects of reform <i>The Times</i> of 30th May 1910.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_81d" id="Footnote_81d" href="#FnAnchor_81d"><span class="fn">81</span></a> <i>La Sculpture sur pierre en Chine ait temps des deux dynasties Han</i> +(Paris, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINA<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span>, the common name for ware made of porcelain, given +because it came from China, where the first vitrified, translucent, +white ware was produced. The Portuguese or Italians gave it +the name of “porcelain” (<i>q.v.</i>). English usage was influenced +by India and the East, where the Persian <i>chīnī</i> was widely +prevalent as the name of the ware. This is seen also in some +of the earlier forms and pronunciations, <i>e.g.</i> <i>chiney</i>, <i>cheney</i>, and +later <i>chaney</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>; and for “china-clay” <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaolin</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINANDEGA<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chinendega</span>, the capital of the department +of Chinandega in western Nicaragua, 10 m. N.N.E. of the seaport +of Corinto by the Corinto-Managua railway. Pop. (1900) about +12,000. Chinandega is the centre of a fertile corn-producing +district, and has a large transit trade owing to its excellent situation +on the chief Nicaraguan railway. Its manufactures include +coarse cloth, pottery and Indian feather ornaments. Cotton, +sugar-cane and bananas are cultivated in the neighbourhood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHI-NAN FU<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span>, the capital of Shan-tung, China, in 36° 40′ N., +117° 1′ E. Pop. about 100,000. It is situated in one of the +earliest settled districts of the Chinese empire. The city, +which lies in the valley of the present channel of the Yellow +river (Hwang-Ho), and about 4 m. south of the river, is +surrounded by a triple line of defence. First is the city wall, +strongly built and carefully guarded, outside this a granite wall, +and beyond this again a mud rampart. Three springs outside +the west gate throw up streams of tepid water to a height of +about 2 ft. This water, which is highly prized for its healing +qualities, fills the moat and forms a fine lake in the northern +quarter of the city.</p> + +<p>Chi-nan Fu was formerly famous for its manufacture of silks +and of imitation precious stones. It is now the chief commercial +entrepôt of Western Shan-tung but no longer a manufacturing +centre. A highway connects it with the Yellow river, and it is +joined by a railway 280 m. long to Kiaochow. The city has a +university for instruction on Western lines, and an efficient +military school. American Presbyterians began mission work +in the city in 1873; it is also the see of a Roman Catholic +bishop.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINCHA ISLANDS<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span>, three small islands in the Pacific Ocean, +about 12 m. from the coast of Peru (to which country they +belong), opposite the town of Pisco, and 106 m. distant from +Callao, in 13° 38′ S., 76° 28′ W. The largest of the group, +known as the North Island or Isla del Norte, is only four-fifths +of a mile in length, and about a third in breadth. They are of +granitic formation, and rise from the sea in precipitous cliffs, +worn into countless caves and hollows, which furnish convenient +resting-places for the sea-fowl. Their highest points attain an +elevation of 113 ft. The islands have yielded a few remains of +the Chincha Indian race. They were formerly noted for +vast deposits of guano, and its export was begun by the Peruvian +government in 1840. The supply, however, was exhausted in +1874. In 1853-1854 the Chincha Islands were the chief object in +a contest known as the Guano War between President Echenique +and General Castilla; and in April 1864 they were seized by the +Spanish rear-admiral Pinzon in order to bring the Peruvian +government to apologize for its treatment of Spanish immigrants.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINCHEW<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span>, or CHINCHU, the name usually given in English +charts to an ancient and famous port of China in the province +of Fu-kien, of which the Chinese name is <i>Ch‘üanchow-fu</i> or +<i>Ts‘üanchow-fu</i>. It stands in 24° 57′ N., 118° 35′ E. The walls +have a circuit of 7 or 8 m., but embrace much vacant ground. +The chief exports are tea and sugar, tobacco, china-ware, nankeens, +&c. There are remains of a fine mosque, founded by the +Arab traders who resorted thither. The English Presbyterian +Mission has had a chapel in the city since about 1862. Beyond +the northern branch of the Min (several miles from the city) +there is a suburb called Loyang, approached by the most +celebrated bridge in China.</p> + +<p>Ch‘üanchow, owing to the obstruction of its harbour by sand +banks, has been supplanted as a port by Amoy, and its trade is +carried on through the port of Nganhai. It is still, however, a +large and populous city. It was in the middle ages the great port +of Western trade with China, and was known to the Arabs and to +Europeans as <i>Zaitūn</i> or <i>Zayton</i>, the name under which it appears in +Abulfeda’s geography and in the Mongol history of Rashīddudīn, +as well as in Ibn Batuta, Marco Polo and other medieval travellers. +Some argument has been alleged against the identity of Zayton +with Ch‘üanchow, and in favour of its being rather Changchow +(a great city 60 m. W.S.W. of Ch‘üanchow), or a port on the river +of Changchow near Amoy. “Port of Zayton” may have +embraced the great basin called Amoy Harbour, the chief part +of which lies within the <i>Fu</i> or department of Ch‘üanchow; but +there is hardly room for doubt that the Zayton of Marco Polo and +Abulfeda was the Ch‘üanchow of the Chinese. Ibn Batuta informs +us that a rich silk texture made here was called <i>Zaitūniya</i>; +and there can be little doubt that this is the real origin of the +word “Satin,” <i>Zettani</i> in medieval Italian, <i>Aceytuni</i> in Spanish.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span></p> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINCHILLA<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span>, a small grey hopping rodent mammal (<i>Chinchilla +lanigera</i>), of the approximate size of a squirrel, inhabiting +the eastern slopes of the Andes in Chile and Bolivia, at altitudes +between 8000 and 12,000 ft. It typifies not only the genus +<i>Chinchilla</i>, but the family <i>Chinchillidae</i>, for the distinctive +features of which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodentia</a></span>. The ordinary chinchilla is +about 10 in. in length, exclusive of the long tail, and in the form +of its head somewhat resembles a rabbit. It is covered with a +dense soft fur ¾ in. long on the back and upwards of an inch in +length on the sides, of a delicate French grey colour, darkly +mottled on the upper surf ace and dusky white beneath; the ears +being long, broad and thinly covered with hair. Chinchillas +live in burrows, and these subterranean dwellings undermine +the ground in some parts of the Chilean Andes to such an extent +as to cause danger to travellers on horseback. They associate +in communities, forming their burrows among loose rocks, and +coming out to feed in the early morning and towards sunset. +They feed chiefly on roots and grasses, in search of which they +often travel considerable distances; and when eating they sit on +their haunches, holding their food in their fore-paws. The +Indians in hunting them employ the grison (<i>Galictis vittata</i>), a +member of the weasel family, which is trained to enter the +crevices of the rocks where the chinchillas lie concealed during +the day. The fur (<i>q.v.</i>) of this rodent was prized by the ancient +Peruvians, who made coverlets and other articles with the skin, +and at the present day the skins are exported in large numbers +to Europe, where they are made into muffs, tippets and trimmings. +That chinchillas have not under such circumstances +become rare, if not extinct, is owing to their extraordinary +fecundity, the female usually producing five or six young twice +a year. They are docile in disposition, and thus well fitted for +domestication. The Peruvian chinchilla (<i>C. brevicaudata</i>) is +larger, with relatively shorter ears and tail; while still larger +species constitute the genus <i>Lagidium</i>, ranging from the Andes +to Patagonia, and distinguished by having four in place of five +front-toes, more pointed ears, and a somewhat differently formed +skull. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Viscacha</a></span>).</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINDE<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span>, a town of Portuguese East Africa, chief port for the +Zambezi valley and British Central Africa, at the mouth of the +Chinde branch of the Zambezi, in 18° 40′ S., 36° 30′ E. Pop. +(1907) 2790, of whom 218 were Europeans. Large steamers are +unable to cross the bar, over which the depth of water varies from +10 to 18 ft. Chinde owes its existence to the discovery in 1889 +that the branch of the river on the banks of which it is built is +navigable from the ocean (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zambezi</a></span>). The Portuguese in +1891 granted on lease for 99 years an area of 5 acres—subsequently +increased to 25—to the British government, on which +goods in transit to British possessions could be stored duty +free. This block of land is known as the British Concession, or +British Chinde. The prosperity of the town largely depends +on the transit trade with Nyasaland and North East Rhodesia. +There is also a considerable export from Portuguese districts, +sugar, cotton and ground nuts being largely cultivated in the +Zambezi valley, and gold and copper mines worked.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINDWIN<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>, a river of Burma, the largest tributary of the +Irrawaddy, its entire course being in Burmese territory. It is +called Ningthi by the Manipuris. The Chindwin is formed by the +junction of the Tanai, the Tawan and the Tarôn or Turông, +but it is still uncertain which is the main stream. The Tanai +has hitherto been looked on as the chief source. It rises in about +25° 30′ N. and 97° E., on the Shwedaung-gyi peak of the Kumôn +range, 12 m. N. of Mogaung, and flows due N. for the first part +of its course until it reaches the Hukawng valley, when it turns +to the W. and flows through the middle of the plain to the end +of the valley proper. There it curves round to the S., passes +through the Tarôn or Turông valley, takes the name of the +Chindwin, and maintains a general southerly course until it +enters the Irrawaddy, after flowing through the entire length +of the Upper and Lower Chindwin districts, in about 21° 30′ N. +and 95° 15′ E. Its extreme outlets are 22 m. apart, the interval +forming a succession of long, low, partially populated islands. +The most southerly mouth of the Chindwin is, according to +tradition, an artificial channel, cut by one of the kings of Pagān. +It was choked up for many centuries until in 1824 it was opened +out by an exceptional flood. The Tanai (it is frequently called +Tanaikha, but <i>kha</i> is merely the Kachin word for river), as long +as it retains that name, is a swift, clear river, from 50 to 300 yds. +wide and from 3 to 15 ft. deep. The river is navigated by native +boats in the Hukawng valley, but launches cannot come up +from the Chindwin proper because of the reefs below Taro.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Tarôn, Turông or Towang river seems to be the real main +source of the Chindwin. It flows into the Hukawng valley from the +north, and has a swift current with a succession of rapids. Its sources +are in the hills to the south of Sadiya, rising from 10,000 to 11,000 ft. +above sea-level. It flows through a deep valley, with a general E. +and W. direction, as far as its junction with the Loglai. It then +turns S., and after draining an intricate system of hills, breaks into +the Hukawng valley a few miles N. of Saraw, and joins or receives +the Tanai about 10 m. above Kintaw village. Except the Tanai, +the chief branches of the Upper Chindwin rise in mountains that are +covered at least with winter snows. Below the Hukawng valley the +Chindwin is interrupted at several places by fails or transverse reefs. +At the village of Haksa there is a fall, which necessitates transhipment +from large boats to canoes. Not far below this the Uyu river +comes in on the left bank at Homalin, and from this point downwards +the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company ply for the +greater part of the year. The Uyu flows through a fertile and well-cultivated +valley, and during the rainy season it is navigable for a +distance of 150 m. from its mouth by steamers of light draught. +Ordinarily regular steam communication with Homalin ceases in +the dry weather, but from Kindat, nearly 150 m. below it, there are +weekly steamers all the year round. Below Kindat the only considerable +affluent of the Chindwin is the Myit-tha, which receives +the Chin hills drainage. The Chindwin rises considerably during the +rains, but in March and April it is here and there so shallow as to +make navigation difficult even for small steam launches. Whirlpools +and narrows and shifting sandbanks also give some trouble, but +much has been done to improve navigation since the British annexation. +Kindat, the headquarters of the Upper Chindwin district, and +Mônywa of the Lower, are on the banks of the river.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. SC.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINDWIN, UPPER<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> and <span class="bold">LOWER</span>, two districts in the +Sagaing division of Upper Burma. Upper Chindwin has an +area of 19,062 sq. m., and a population, according to the census +of 1901, of 154,551. Lower Chindwin has an area of 3480 sq. m., +and a population of 276,383. Upper Chindwin lies to the north +of the lower district, and is bounded on the N. by the Chin, Nāga +and Kachin hills; on the E. they are bounded by the Myitkyina, +Katha and Shwebo districts; Lower Chindwin is bounded on +the S. by the Pakôkku and Sagaing districts; and both districts +are bounded on the W. by the Chin hills, and by Pakôkku on +the southern stretch. The western portion of both districts is +hilly, and the greater part of Upper Chindwin is of the same +character. Both have valuable teak forests. The total rainfall +averages in Lower Chindwin 27 and in Upper Chindwin 60 in. +Coal exists in extensive fields, but these are not very accessible. +Rice forms the great crop, but a certain amount of til-seed and +of indigo is also cultivated. Kindat, a mere village, is the headquarters +of the upper district, and Mônywa, with a population +of 7869, of the lower. Both are on the Chindwin river, and are +served by the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. Alôn, +close to Mônywa, and formerly the headquarters, is the terminus +of the railway from Sagaing westwards, which was opened in 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINESE PAVILLON<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Turkish Crescent, Turkish Jingle</span>, +or <span class="sc">Jingling Johnny</span> (Fr. <i>chapeau chinois</i>; Ger. <i>türkischer +Halbmond, Schellenbaum</i>; Ital. <i>cappello chinese</i>), an instrument +of percussion of indefinite sonorousness, <i>i.e.</i> not producing definite +musical tones. The <i>chapeau chinois</i> was formerly an adjunct +in military bands, but never in the orchestra, where an instrument +of somewhat similar shape, often confused with it and +known as the <i>Glockenspiel</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), is occasionally called into +requisition. The Chinese pavilion consists of a pole about 6 ft. +high terminating in a conical metal cap or pavilion, hung with +small jingling bells and surmounted by a crescent and a star. +Below this pavilion are two or more metal bands forming a +fanciful double crescent or squat lyre, likewise furnished with +tiny bells. The two points of the crescent are curved over, +ending in fanciful animal heads from whose mouths hang low +streaming tails of horse-hair. The Chinese pavilion is played by +shaking or waving the pole up and down and jingling the bells, a +movement which can at best be but a slow one repeated once or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span> +at most twice in a bar to punctuate the phrases and add brilliancy +to the military music. The Turkish crescent or “jingling Johnny,” +as it was familiarly called in the British army bands, was introduced +by the Janissaries into western Europe. It has fallen into +disuse now, having been replaced by the glockenspiel or steel +harmonica. Edinburgh University possesses two specimens.<a name="FnAnchor_1e" id="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +In the 18th century at Bartholomew Fair one of the chief bands +hired was one well known as playing in London on winter +evenings in front of the Spring-Garden coffee house and opposite +Wigley’s. This band consisted of a double drum, a Dutch organ +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barrel-organ</a></span>), a tambourine, a violin, pipes and the +Turkish jingle.<a name="FnAnchor_2e" id="FnAnchor_2e" href="#Footnote_2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1e" id="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Captain C.R. Day, <i>Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments</i> +(London, 1891), p. 233.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2e" id="Footnote_2e" href="#FnAnchor_2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Hone’s <i>Everyday Book</i>, i. 1248.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINGFORD<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span>, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary +division of Essex, England, 10½ m. N. of London (Liverpool +Street station) by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4373. +It lies between the river Lea and the western outskirts of Epping +Forest. The church of All Saints has Early English and Perpendicular +remains. Queen Elizabeth’s or Fair Mead hunting +lodge, a picturesque half-timbered building, is preserved under +the Epping Forest Preservation Act. A majestic oak, one of +the finest trees in the Forest, stands near it. Buckhurst Hill +(an urban district; pop. 4786) lies to the N.E.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINGLEPUT<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chengalpat</span>, a town and district of British +India, in the Madras presidency. The town, situated 36 m. by +rail from Madras, had a population in 1901 of 10,551. With +Chandragiri in North Arcot, Chingleput was once the capital of +the Vijayanagar kings, after their overthrow by the Mussulmans +at Talikota in 1565. In 1639 a chief, subject to these kings, +granted to the East India Company the land on which Fort St +George now stands. The fort built by the Vijayanagar kings in +the 16th century was of strategic importance, owing to its +swampy surroundings and the lake that flanked its side. It was +taken by the French in 1751, and was retaken in 1752 by Clive, +after which it proved invaluable to the British, especially when +Lally in his advance on Madras left it unreduced in his rear. +During the wars of the British with Hyder Ali it withstood his +power, and afforded a refuge to the natives; and in 1780, after +the defeat of Colonel W. Baillie, the army of Sir Hector Munro +here found refuge. The town is noted for its manufacture of +pottery, and carries on a trade in rice.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Chingleput</span> surrounds the city of Madras, +stretching along the coast for about 115 m. The administrative +headquarters are at Saidapet. Area, 3079 sq. m. Pop. (1901) +1,312,122, showing an increase of 9% in the decade. Salt is +extensively manufactured all along the coast. Cotton and silk +weaving is also largely carried on, and there are numerous indigo +vats, tanneries and an English cigar factory.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIN HILLS<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span>, a mountainous district of Upper Burma. It lies +on the border between the Lushai districts of Eastern Bengal and +Assam and the plains of Burma, and has an area of 8000 sq. m. +It is bounded N. by Assam and Manipur, S. by Arakan, E. by +Burma, and W. by Tippera and the Chittagong hill tracts. The +Chins, Lushais and Kukis are to the north-east border of India +what the Pathan tribes are to the north-west frontier. In 1895 +the Chin Hills were declared a part of the province of Burma, +and constituted a scheduled district which is now administered +by a political officer with headquarters at Falam. The tract +forms a parallelogram 250 m. from N. to S. by 100 to 150 m. wide. +The country consists of a much broken and contorted mass of +mountains, intersected by deep valleys. The main ranges run +generally N. to S., and vary in height from 5000 to 9000 ft., +among the most important being the Letha or Tang, which is +the watershed between the Chindwin and Manipur rivers; the +Imbukklang, which divides the Sokte tribe from the Whenchs +and sheds the water from its eastern slopes into Upper Burma +and that from its western slopes into Arakan; and the Rong-klang, +which with its prolongations is the main watershed of the +southern hills, its eastern slopes draining into the Myittha and +thus into the Chindwin, while the western fall drains into the +Boinu river, which winding through the hills discharges itself +eventually in the Bay of Bengal. The highest peak yet discovered +is the Liklang, between Rawywa and Lungno, some 70 m. +S. of Haka (nearly 10,000 ft.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is supposed that the Kukis of Manipur, the Lushais of Bengal +and Assam, and the Chins originally lived in Tibet and are of the same +stock; their form of government, method of cultivation, manners +and customs, beliefs and traditions all point to one origin. The slow +speech, the serious manner, the respect for birth and the knowledge +of pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous +method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the +clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body, +mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of +combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy +discouragement and panic in defeat, are common traits. The Chins, +Lushais and Kukis were noted for the secrecy of their plans, the +suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed in retreating +to their fastnesses. After committing a raid they have been known +to march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a +meal or sleeping, so as to escape from any parties which might follow +them. The British, since the occupation of Upper Burma, have been +able to penetrate the Chin-Lushai country from both sides at once. +The pacification of the Chin Hills is a triumph for British administration. +Roads, on which Chin coolies now readily work, have been constructed +in all directions. The rivers have been bridged; the people +have taken up the cultivation of English vegetables, and the indigenous +districts have been largely developed. The Chin Hills had a +population (1901 census) of 87,189, while the Chins in Burma totalled +179,292. The Pakôkku Chin Hills, which form a separate tract, have +an area of 2260 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 13,116.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. SC.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINKIANG<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Chen-Kiang-fu</span>, a treaty port of China, in +the province of Kiang-su, on the Yangtsze-kiang above Shanghai, +from which it is distant 160 m. It is in railway communication +both with Shanghai and Nanking (40 m. distant), and being at +the point where the Grand Canal running N. and S. intersects +the Yangtsze, which runs E. and W., is peculiarly well situated +to be a commercial entrepôt. The total value of exports and +imports for 1904 was £4,632,992; estimated pop. 168,000. In the +war of 1842 it yielded to the British only after a desperate +resistance. It was laid waste by the T‘aip‘ing rebels in 1853, +and was recaptured by the imperial forces in 1858.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINO-JAPANESE WAR<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1894-95). The causes of this +conflict arose out of the immemorial rivalry of China and Japan +for influence in Korea. In the 16th century a prolonged war in +the peninsula had ended with the failure of Japan to make good +her footing on the mainland—a failure brought about largely by +lack of naval resources. In more modern times (1875, 1882, 1884) +Japan had repeatedly sent expeditions to Korea, and had fostered +the growth of a progressive party in Seoul. The difficulties of +1884 were settled between China and Japan by the convention of +Tientsin, wherein it was agreed that in the event of future +intervention each should inform the other if it were decided to +despatch troops to the peninsula. Nine years later the occasion +arose. A serious rebellion induced the Korean government to +apply for military assistance from China. Early in June 1894 +a small force of Chinese troops were sent to Asan, and Japan, +duly informed of this action, replied by furnishing her minister +at Seoul with an escort, rapidly following up this step by the +despatch of about 5000 troops under Major-General Oshima. +A complicated situation thus arose. Chinese troops were present +in Korea by the request of the government to put down rebellion. +The Japanese controlled the capital, and declined to recognize +Korea as a tributary of China. But she proposed that the +two powers should unite to suppress the disturbance and to +inaugurate certain specified reforms. China considered that the +measures of reform must be left to Korea herself. The reply was +that Japan considered the government of Korea “lacking in +some of the elements which are essential to responsible independence.” +By the middle of July war had become inevitable +unless the Peking government were willing to abandon all claims +over Korea, and as Chinese troops were already in the country by +invitation, it was not to be expected that the shadowy suzerainty +would be abandoned.</p> + +<p>At Seoul the issue was forced by the Japanese minister, who +delivered an ultimatum to the Korean government on the 20th of +July. On the 23rd the palace was forcibly occupied. Meanwhile +China had despatched about 8000 troops to the Yalu river. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span> +The outbreak of war thus found the Japanese in possession of +Seoul and ready to send large forces to Korea, while the Chinese +occupied Asan (about 40 m. south of the capital), and had a +considerable body of troops in Manchuria in addition to those +despatched to the Yalu river. To Japan the command of the +sea was essential for the secure transport and supply of her +troops. Without it the experience of the war of the 16th century +would be repeated. China, too, could only utilize overland routes +to Korea by submitting to the difficulties and delays entailed. +To both powers the naval question was thus important.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>By the time war was finally declared (August 1) hostilities had +already begun. On the 25th of July Oshima set out from Seoul to +attack the Chinese at Asan. On the 29th he won a victory at +Söng-hwan, but the Chinese commander escaped with a considerable +part of his forces by a detour to Ping-Yang (Phyong-Yang). Meanwhile +a portion of the Japanese fleet had encountered some Chinese warships +and transports off Phung-Tao, and scored an important success, +sinking, amongst other vessels, the transport “Kowshing” (July 25). +The loss of more than 1000 Chinese soldiers in this vessel materially +lightened Oshima’s task. The intention of the Chinese to crush +their enemies between their forces at Asan and Ping-Yang was +completely frustrated, and the Japanese obtained control of all +southern Korea.</p> + +<p>Reinforcements from Japan were now pouring into Korea, in spite +of the fact that the rival navies had not yet tried conclusions, and +General Nozu, the senior Japanese officer present, soon found +himself in a position to move on Ping-Yang. Three columns converged +upon the place on the 15th of September, and in spite of its strong +walls carried it, though only after severe fighting.</p> + +<p>Nearly all the troops on either side had been conveyed to the +scene of war by sea, though the decisive contest for sea supremacy +was still to be fought. The Chinese admiral Ting with the Northern +Squadron (which alone took part in the war) had hitherto remained +inactive in Wei-hai-wei, and on the other side Vice-Admiral Ito’s +fleet had not directly interfered with the hostile transports which +were reinforcing the troops on the Yalu. But two days after the +battle of Ping-Yang, Ting, who had conveyed a large body of +troops to the mouth of the Yalu, encountered the Japanese fleet on +his return journey off Hai-Yang-Tao on the 17th of September. +The heavy battleships “Chen-Yuen” and “Ting-Yuen” constituted +the strongest element of the Chinese squadron, for the Japanese, +superior as they were in every other factor of success, had no vessels +which could compare with these in the matter of protection. Ting +advanced in a long irregular line abreast; the battleships in the +centre, the lighter vessels on the wings. Ito’s fast cruisers steamed +in line ahead against the Chinese right wing, crushing their weaker +opponents with their fire. In the end the Chinese fleet was defeated +and scattered, but the two heavy battleships drew off without +serious injury. This battle of the Yalu gave Japan command of +the sea, but Ito continued to act with great caution. The remnants +of the vanquished fleet took refuge in Port Arthur, whence after +repairs Ting proceeded to Wei-hai-wei.</p> + +<p>The victory of Ping-Yang had cleared Korea of the Chinese troops, +but on the lower Yalu—their own frontier—large forces threatened +a second advance. Marshal Yamagata therefore took the offensive +with his 1st army, and on the 24th and 25th of October, under great +difficulties—though without serious opposition from the enemy—forced +the passage of the river and occupied Chiulien-cheng. Part of the +Chinese force retired to the north-east, part to Feng-hwang-cheng +and Hsiu-yuen (Siu-Yen). The Japanese 1st army advanced +several columns towards the mountains of Manchuria to secure its +conquests and prepare for a future advance. General Tachimi’s +brigade occupied Feng-hwang-cheng on the 29th of October. On +the 7th of November a column from the Yalu took Takushan, and +a few days later a converging attack from these two places was made +upon Hsiu-yuen, which was abandoned by the Chinese. Meanwhile +Tachimi, skirmishing with the enemy on the Mukden and Liao-Yang +roads, found the Chinese in force. A simultaneous forward +move by both sides led to the action of Tsao-ho-ku (November 30), +after which both sides withdrew—the Chinese to the line of the +mountains covering Hai-cheng, Liao-Yang and Mukden, with the +Tatar general Ikotenga’s force, 14,000 strong, on the Japanese right +north-east of Feng-hwang-cheng; and the Japanese to Chiulien-cheng, +Takushan and Hsiu-yuen. The difficulties of supply in the +hills were almost insurmountable, and no serious advance was +intended by the Japanese until January 1895, when it was to be made +in co-operation with the 2nd army. This army, under Marshal +Oyama, had been formed in September and at first sent to Chemulpo +as a support to the forces under Yamagata; but its chief task was +the siege and capture of the Chinese fortress, dockyard and arsenal +of Port Arthur.</p> + +<p>The Liao-Tong peninsula was guarded by the walled city of +Kinchow and the forts of Ta-lien-wan (Dalny under the Russian +régime, and Tairen under the Japanese) as well as the fortifications +around Port Arthur itself. On the 24th of October the disembarkation +of the 2nd army began near Pi-tsze-wo, and the successive +columns of the Japanese gradually moved towards Kinchow, which +was carried without difficulty on the 6th of November. Even less +resistance was offered by the modern forts of Ta-lien-wan. The +Japanese now held a good harbour within a few miles of the main +fortress. Here they landed siege artillery, and on the 17th of +November the advance was resumed. The attack was made on the +19th at dawn. Yamaji’s division (Nogi’s and Nishi’s brigades) +after a trying night march assaulted and carried the western defences +and moved upon the town. Hasegawa in the centre, as soon as +Yamaji began to appear in rear of his opponents in the northern +forts, pushed home his attack with equal success, and by 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> +practically all resistance was at an end. The Japanese paid for +this important success with but 423 casualties. Meanwhile the +Chinese general Sung, who had marched from Hai-cheng to engage +the 2nd army, appeared before Kinchow, where he received on the +22nd a severe repulse at the hands of the Japanese garrison. Marshal +Oyama subsequently stationed his advanced guard towards Hai-cheng, +the main body at Kinchow, and a brigade of infantry at Port +Arthur. Soon after this overtures of peace were made by China; +but her envoy, a foreigner unfurnished with credentials, was not +received by the Tokyo government.</p> + +<p>The Japanese 1st army (now under General Nozu) at Antung +and Feng-hwang-cheng prepared, in spite of the season, to move +across the mountains, and on the 3rd of December General Katsura +left Antung for Hai-cheng. His line of march was by Hsi-mu-cheng, +and strong flank guards followed parallel routes on either side. +The march was accomplished safely and Hai-cheng occupied on the +13th of December. In the meantime Tachimi had moved northward +from Feng-hwang-cheng, in order to distract the attention of the +Chinese from Hai-cheng, and there were some small engagements +between this force and that of Ikotenga, who ultimately retired +beyond the mountains to Liao-Yang. Sung had already left Kai-ping +to secure Hai-cheng when he heard of the fall of that place; +his communications with Ikotenga being now severed, he swerved +to the north-west and established a new base at Niu-chwang. Once +on his new line Sung moved upon Hai-cheng. As it was essential +that he should be prevented from joining forces with Ikotenga, +General Katsura marched out of Hai-cheng to fight him. At Kang-wang-tsai +(December 19th) the Chinese displayed unusual steadiness, +and it cost the Japanese some 343 casualties to dislodge the enemy. +The victors returned to Hai-cheng exhausted with their efforts, but +secure from attack for some time to come. The advanced troops of +the 2nd army (Nogi’s brigade) were now ready to advance, and only +the Kai-ping garrison (left behind by Sung) barred their junction +with Katsura. At Kai-ping (January 10th) the resistance of the +Chinese was almost as steady as at Kang-wang-tsai, and the Japanese +lost 300 killed and wounded in their successful attack. In neither +of these actions was the defeated force routed, nor did it retire very +far. On the 17th of January and again on the 22nd Ikotenga +attacked Hai-cheng from the north, but was repulsed.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the 2nd army, still under Oyama, had undertaken +operations against Wei-hai-wei, the second great fortress and dockyard +of northern China, where Admiral Ting’s squadron had been +refitting since the battle of the Yalu; and it was hoped that both +armies would accomplish their present tasks in time to advance in +the summer against Peking itself. On the 18th of January a naval +demonstration was made at Teng-chow-fu, 70 m. west of Wei-hai-wei, +and on the 19th the Japanese began their disembarkation at +Yung-cheng Bay, about 12 m. from Wei-hai-wei. The landing was +scarcely opposed, and on the 26th the Japanese advance was begun. +The south-eastern defences of Wei-hai-wei harbour were carried by +the 6th division, whilst the 2nd division reached the inner waters +of the bay, driving the Chinese before them. The fleet under Ito +co-operated effectively. On the night of the 4th-5th of February +the Chinese squadron in harbour was attacked by ten torpedo +boats. Two boats were lost, but the armour-clad “Ting-Yuen” +was sunk. On the following night a second attack was made, and +three more vessels were sunk. On the 9th the “Ching-Yuen” +was sunk by the guns in one of the captured forts. On the 12th +Admiral Ting wrote to Admiral Ito offering to surrender, and then +took poison, other officers following his example. Wei-hai-wei was +then dismantled by the Japanese, who recovered the remnant of the +Chinese squadron, including the “Chen Yuen,” and the 2nd army +concentrated at Port Arthur for the advance on Peking.</p> + +<p>While this campaign was in progress the Chinese despatched a +second peace mission, also with defective credentials. The Japanese +declined to treat, and the mission returned to China. In February +the Chinese made further unsuccessful attacks on Hai-cheng. Yamaji +near Kai-ping fought a severe action on the 21st, 22nd and 23rd of +February at Taping-shan against a part of Sung’s army under +General Ma-yu-kun. This action was fought with 2 ft. of snow on +the ground, the thermometer registering zero F., and no less than +1500 cases of frost-bite were reported. It was the intention of +General Nozu, after freeing the Hai-cheng garrison from Ikotenga, +to seize Niu-chwang port. Two divisions converged on An-shan-chan, +and the Chinese, threatened in front and flank, retired to +Liao-Yang. Meanwhile two more attacks on Hai-cheng had been +repulsed. The 3rd and 5th divisions then moved on Niu-chwang, +and Yamaji’s 1st division at Kai-ping joined in the advance. The +column from An-shan-chan stormed Niu-chwang, which was +obstinately defended, and cost the stormers nearly 400 men. All +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span> +three divisions converged on Niu-chwang port (Ying-kow), and the +final engagement took place at Tien-chwang-tai, which was captured +on the 9th of March. The Chinese forces in Manchuria being +thoroughly broken and dispersed, there was nothing to prevent +the Japanese from proceeding to the occupation of Peking, since +they could, after the break-up of the ice, land and supply large +forces at Shan-hai-kwan, within 170 m. of the capital. Two more +Japanese divisions were sent out, with Prince Komatsu as supreme +commander. Seven divisions were at Port Arthur ready to embark, +when negotiations were reopened. Li Hung-Chang proceeded to +Shimonoseki, where the treaty was signed on the 17th of April 1895. +An expedition was sent towards the end of March to the Pescadores, +and later the Imperial Guard division was sent to Formosa.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to estimate the Chinese losses in the war. The +Japanese lost 4177 men by death in action or by sickness, and +56,862 were wounded or disabled by sickness, exclusive of the +losses in the Formosa and Pescadores expeditions. Nearly two-thirds +of these losses were incurred by the 1st army in the trying +winter campaign in Manchuria.</p> + +<p>The most important works dealing with the war are: Vladimir, +<i>China-Japan War</i> (London, 1896); Jukichi Inouye, <i>The Japan-China +War</i> (Yokohama, &c., 1896); du Boulay, <i>Epitome of the +China-Japanese War</i> (London, 1896), the official publication of the +British War Office; Atteridge, <i>Wars of the Nineties</i>, pp. 535-636 +(London, 1899); von Kunowski and Fretzdorff, <i>Der japanisch-chinesische +Krieg</i> (Leipzig, 1895); von Müller, <i>Der Krieg zwischen +China und Japan</i> (Berlin, 1895); Bujac, <i>Précis de quelques campagnes +contemporaines: II. La Guerre sino-japonaise</i> (Paris and +Limoges).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINON<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span>, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the +Vienne, 32m. S.W. of Tours on the State railway. Pop. (1906) +4071. Chinon lies at the foot of the rocky eminence which is +crowned by the ruins of the famous castle. Its narrow, winding +streets contain many houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. The +oldest of its churches, St Mexme, is in the Romanesque style, but +only the façade and nave are left. The church of St Etienne dates +from the 15th century, that of St Maurice from the 12th, 15th and +16th centuries. The castle, which has undergone considerable +modern restoration, consists of three portions. That to the east, +the Château de St Georges, built by Henry II. of England, has +almost vanished, only the foundation of the outer wall remaining. +The Château du Milieu (11th to 15th centuries) comprises the +keep, the Pavilion de l’Horloge and the Grand Logis, in the +principal apartment of which the first meeting between Joan of +Arc and Charles VII. took place. Of the Château du Coudray, +which is separated by a moat from the Château du Milieu, the +chief remains are the Tour du Moulin (10th century) and two less +ancient towers. A statue of Rabelais, who was born in the +vicinity of the town, stands on the river-quay. Chinon has +trade in wheat, brandy, red wine and plums. Basket and rope +manufacture, tanning and cooperage are among its industries. +Chinon (Caïno) existed before the Roman occupation of Gaul, +and was from early times an important fortress. It was occupied +by the Visigoths, and subsequently, after forming part of the +royal domain, came to the counts of Touraine and from them +to the counts of Anjou. Henry II. often resided in the castle, +and died there. The place was taken by Philip Augustus in +1205 after a year’s siege.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINOOK<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span>, a tribe of North American Indians, dwelling at the +mouth of the Columbia river, Washington. They were fishermen +and traders, and used huge canoes of hollowed cedar trunks. +The tribe is practically extinct, but the name survives in the trade +language known as “Chinook jargon.” This has been analysed +as composed of two-fifths Chinook, two-fifths other Indian +tongues, and the rest English and Canadian French; but the +proportion of English has tended to increase. The Chinookan +linguistic family includes a number of separate tribes.</p> + +<p>The name CHINOOK is also applied to a wind which blows from +W. or N. over the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it +descends as a dry wind warm in winter and cool in summer (cf. +<i>Föhn</i>). It is due to a cyclone passing northward, and continues +from a few hours to several days. It moderates the climate of the +eastern Rockies, the snow melting quickly on account of its +warmth and vanishing on account of its dryness, so that it is said +to “lick up” the snow from the slopes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gill, <i>Dictionary of Chinook Jargon</i> (Portland, Ore., 1891); +Boas, “Chinook Texts,” in <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, Bureau of Ethnology +(Washington, 1894); J.C. Pilling, “Bibliography of Chinookan +Languages,” <i>Smithsonian Report</i>, Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, +1893); Horatio Hale, <i>Manual of Oregon Trade Language</i> (London, +1890); G.C. Shaw, <i>The Chinook Jargon</i> (Seattle, 1909); +<i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINSURA<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span>, a town of British India, on the Hugli river, 24 m. +above Calcutta, formerly the principal Dutch settlement in +Bengal. The Dutch erected a factory here in 1656, on a healthy +spot of ground, much preferable to that on which Calcutta is +situated. In 1759 a British force under Colonel Forde was +attacked by the garrison of Chinsura on its march to Chandernagore, +but in less than half an hour the Dutch were entirely +routed. In 1795, during the Napoleonic wars, the settlement was +occupied by a British garrison. At the peace of 1814 it was +restored to the Dutch. It was among the cessions in India +made by the king of the Netherlands in 1825 in exchange for +the British possessions in Sumatra. Hugli College is maintained +by government; and there are a number of schools, several of +which are carried on by Scottish Presbyterian missionaries. +Chinsura is included in the Hugli municipality.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHINTZ<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span>, a word derived from the Hindu <i>chīnt</i>, spotted or +variegated. This name was given to a kind of stained or painted +calico produced in India. It is now applied to a highly glazed +printed calico, commonly made in several colours on a light +ground and used for bed hangings, covering furniture, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIOGGIA<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the +province of Venice, from which it is 18½ m. S. by sea. Pop. +(1901) 21,384 (town), 31,218 (commune). It is inhabited mostly +by fishermen, and is situated upon an island at the S. end of the +lagoons. It is traversed by one main canal, La Vena. The +peculiar dialect and customs of the inhabitants still survive to +some extent. It is of earlier origin than Venice, and indeed is +probably identical with the Roman Portus Aedro, or Ebro, +though its name is derived from the Roman Fossa Claudia, +a canalized estuary which with the two mouths of the Meduacus +(Brenta) went to form the harbour. In 672 it entered the +league of the cities of the lagoons, and recognized the authority +of the doge. In 809 it was almost destroyed by Pippin, but +in 1110 was made a city, remaining subject to Venice, whose +fortunes it thenceforth followed. It was captured after a determined +resistance by the Genoese in 1379, but recovered in 1380. Chioggia +is connected by rail with Rovigo, 35 m. to the south-west.</p> +<div class="author">(T. AS.)</div> + +<p><i>Naval War of Chioggia (1378-80).</i>—The naval war of 1378-1380, +carried on by Venice against the Genoese and their allies, +the lord of Carrara and the king of Hungary, is of exceptional +interest as one in which a superior naval power, having suffered +disaster in its home waters, and having been invaded, was yet +able to win in the end by holding out till its squadrons in distant +seas could be recalled for its defence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>When the war began in the spring of 1378, Venice was mainly +concerned for the safety of its trading stations in the Levant and +the Black Sea, which were exposed to the attacks of the Genoese. +The more powerful of the two fleets which it sent out was despatched +into the eastern Mediterranean under Carlo Zeno, the bailiff and +captain of Negropont. A smaller force was sent to operate against +the Genoese in the western Mediterranean, and was placed under the +command of Vettor Pisani. The possessions of Venice on the mainland, +which were then small, were assailed by Francesco Carrara and +the Hungarians. Her only ally in the war, Bernabó Visconti of +Milan, gave her little help on this side, but his mercenaries invaded +the territory of Genoa. The danger on land seemed trifling to Venice +so long as she could keep the sea open to her trade and press the +war against the Genoese in the Levant.</p> + +<p>During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were +carried out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the +Genoese stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their +squadrons to action on the 30th of May 1378 off Punta di Anzio to +the south of the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in +a gale by 10 Venetian against 11 Genoese galleys. The Genoese +admiral, Luigi de’ Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and +others were wrecked. Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for +Famagusta in Cyprus, then held by Genoa. If Pisani had directed +his course to Genoa itself, which was thrown into a panic by the +defeat at Anzio, it is possible that he might have dictated peace, +but he thought his squadron too weak, and preferred to follow the +Genoese galleys which had fled to Famagusta. During the summer +of 1378 he was employed partly in attacking the enemy in Cyprus, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span> +but mainly in taking possession of the Istrian and Dalmatian towns +which supported the Hungarians from fear of the aggressive ambition +of Venice. He was ordered to winter on the coast of Istria, where +his crews suffered from exposure and disease. Genoa, having +recovered from the panic caused by the disaster at Anzio, decided to +attack Venice at home while the best of her ships were absent with +Carlo Zeno. She sent a strong fleet into the Adriatic under Luciano +Doria. Pisani had been reinforced early in the spring of 1378, but +when he was sighted by the Genoese fleet of 25 sail off Pola in Istria +on the 7th of May, he was slightly outnumbered, and his crews were +still weak. The Venetian admiral would have preferred to avoid +battle, and to check an attack on Venice itself, by threatening the +Genoese fleet from his base on the Istrian coast. He was forced into +battle by the commissioner (<i>proveditore</i>) Michael Steno, who as +agent of the senate had authority over the admiral. The Venetians +were defeated with the loss of all their galleys except six. Luciano +Doria fell in the battle, and the Genoese, who had suffered severely, +did not at once follow up their success. On the arrival of his +successor, Pietro Doria, with reinforcements, they appeared off the +Lido, the outer barrier of the lagoon of Venice, in July, and in +August they entered on a combined naval and military attack on the +city, in combination with the Carrarese and the Hungarians. The +Venetians had closed the passages through the outer banks except +at the southern end, at the island of Brondolo, and the town of +Chioggia. The barrier here approaches close to the mainland, and +the position facilitated the co-operation of the Genoese with the +Carrarese and Hungarians, but Chioggia is distant from Venice, +which could only be reached along the canals across the lagoon. The +Venetians had taken up the buoys which marked the fairway, and +had placed a light squadron on the lagoon. The allies, after +occupying the island of Brondolo, attacked, and on the 13th of August +took the town of Chioggia with its garrison of 3000 men.</p> + +<p>There appeared to be nothing to prevent the enemy from advancing +to the city of Venice except the difficult navigation of the lagoon. +The senate applied for peace, but when the Genoese replied that +they were resolved to “bit and bridle the horses of Saint Mark” +the Venetians decided to fight to the end. Vettor Pisani, who had +been imprisoned after the defeat at Pola, but who possessed the +confidence of the people and the affection of the sailors, was released +and named commander-in-chief against the wish of the aristocracy. +Under his guidance the Venetians adopted a singularly bold and +ingenious policy of offensive defence. The heavy Genoese vessels +were much hampered by the shallow water and intricate passages +through the lagoon. By taking advantage of their embarrassment +and his own local knowledge, Pisani carried out a series of +movements which entirely turned the tables on the invaders. Between +the 23rd and 25th of August he executed a succession of night +attacks, during which he sank vessels laden with stores not only in +the canals leading through the lagoon to Venice, but in the fairways +leading from Chioggia to the open sea round both ends of the island +of Brondolo. The Genoese were thus shut in at the very moment +when they thought they were about to besiege Venice. Pisani +stationed the galleys under his command in the open sea outside +Brondolo, and during the rest of the year blockaded the enemy +closely. The distress of the Venetians themselves was great, but the +Doge Andrea Contarini and the nobles set an example by sharing the +general hardships, and taking an oath not to return to Venice till +they had recovered Chioggia. Carlo Zeno had long since been +ordered to return, but the slowness and difficulty of communication +and movement under 14th century conditions delayed his reappearance. +The besiegers of Chioggia were at the end of their powers of +endurance, and Pisani had been compelled to give a promise that +the siege would be raised, when Zeno’s fleet reached the anchorage +off Brondolo on the 1st of January 1380. The attack on Chioggia +was now pressed with vigour. The Genoese held out resolutely in +the hope of relief from home. But the resources of Genoa had been +taxed to fit out the squadrons she had already sent to sea. It was +not until the 12th of May 1380 that her admiral, Matteo Maruffo, +was able to reach the neighbourhood of Brondolo with a relieving +force. By this time the Venetians had recovered the island, and their +fleet occupied a fortified anchorage from which they refused to be +drawn. Maruffo could do nothing, and on the 24th of June 1380 +the defenders of Chioggia surrendered. The crisis of the war was +past. Venice, being now safe at home, recovered the command of the +sea, and before the close of the year was able to make peace as a +conqueror.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—S. Romanin, <i>Storia documentata di Venezia</i> (Venice, +1855); W.C. Hazlitt, <i>History of the Venetian Republic</i> (London, +1860); Horatio F. Brown, <i>Venice</i> (London, 1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIOS<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span>, an island on the west coast of Asia Minor, called by the +Greeks Chios (<span class="grk" title="Chios, 's tê Chio">Χίος ᾽σ τὴ Χίο</span>) and by the Turks Saki Adasi; +the soft pronunciation of Χ before ι in modern Greek, approximating +to <i>sh</i>, caused <span class="grk" title="Chio">Χίο</span> to be Italianized as Scio. It forms, +with the islands of Psara, Nikaria, Leros, Calymnus and Cos, +a sanjak of the Archipelago vilayet. Chios is about 30 m. long +from N. to S., and from 8 to 15 m. broad; pop. 64,000. It well +deserves the epithet “craggy” (<span class="grk" title="paipaloessa">παιπαλόεσσα</span>) of the Homeric +hymn. Its figs were noted in ancient times, but wine and gum +mastic have always been the most important products. The +climate is healthy; oranges, olives and even palms grow freely. +The wine grown on the N.W. coast, in the district called by +Strabo Ariusia, was known as <i>vinum Arvisium</i>. Early in the +7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Glaucus of Chios discovered the process of +welding iron (<span class="grk" title="kollêsis">κόλλησις</span>: see J.G. Frazer’s <i>Pausanias</i>, note +on x. 16. 1, vol. v. pp. 313-314), and the iron stand of a large +crater whose parts were all connected by this process was +constructed by him, and preserved as one of the most interesting +relics of antiquity at Delphi. The long line of Chian sculptors +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>) in marble bears witness to the fame of Chian +art. In literature the chief glory of Chios was the school of +epic poets called Homeridae, who helped to create a received +text of Homer and gave the island the reputation of being the +poet’s birthplace. The chief town, Chios (pop. 16,000), is on +the E. coast. A theatre and a temple of Athena Poliuchus +existed in the ancient city. About 6 m. N. of the city there is a +curious monument of antiquity, commonly called “the school +of Homer”; it is a very ancient sanctuary of Cybele, with an +altar and a figure of the goddess with her two lions, cut out +of the native rock on the summit of a hill. On the west coast +there is a monastery of great wealth with a church founded by +Constantine IX. Monomachus (1042-1054). Starting from the +city and encompassing the island, one passes in succession the +promontory Posidium; Cape Phanae, the southern extremity +of Chios, with a harbour and a temple of Apollo; Notium, +probably the south-western point of the island; Laii, opposite +the city of Chios, where the island is narrowest; the town +Bolissus (now Volisso), the home of the Homerid poets; Melaena, +the north-western point; the wine-growing district Ariusia; +Cardamyle (now Cardhamili); the north-eastern promontory +was probably named Phlium, and the mountains that cross +the northern part of the island Pelinaeus or Pellenaeus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The history of Chios is very obscure. According to Pherecydes, +the original inhabitants were Leleges, while according to other +accounts Thessalian Pelasgi possessed the island before it became +an Ionian state. The name Aethalia, common to Chios and Lemnos +in very early times, suggests the original existence of a homogeneous +population in these and other neighbouring islands. Oenopion, a +mythical hero, son of Dionysus or of Rhadamanthus, was an early +king of Chios. His successor in the fourth generation, Hector, united +the island to the Ionian confederacy (Pausan. vii. 4), though Strabo +(xiv. p. 633) implies an actual conquest by Ionian settlers. The regal +government was at a later time exchanged for an oligarchy or a +democracy. The names of two tyrants, Amphiclus and Polytecnus, +are mentioned. The products of the island were largely exported on +the ships of Miletus, with which city Chios formed a close mercantile +alliance in opposition to the rival league of Phocaea and Samos. +Similar commercial considerations determined the Chians in their +attitude towards the Persian conquerors: in 546 they submitted to +Cyrus as eagerly as Phocaea resisted him; during the Ionian revolt +their fleet of 100 sail joined the Milesians in offering a desperate +opposition at Lade (494). The island was subsequently punished +with great rigour by the Persians. The Chian ships, under the tyrant +Strattis, served in the Persian fleet at Salamis. After its liberation +in 479 Chios joined the Delian League and long remained a firm ally +of the Athenians, who allowed it to retain full autonomy. But in 413 +the island revolted, and was not recaptured. After the Peloponnesian +War it took the first opportunity to renew the Athenian alliance, +but in 357 again seceded. As a member of the Delian League it had +regained its prosperity, being able to equip a fleet of 50 or 60 sail. +Moreover, it was reputed one of the best-governed states in Greece, +for although it was governed alternately by oligarchs and democrats +neither party persecuted the other severely. It was not till late in +the 4th century that civil dissension became a danger to the state, +leaving it a prey to Idrieus, the dynast of Caria (346), and to the +Persian admiral Memnon (333). During the Hellenistic age Chios +maintained itself in a virtually independent position. It supported +the Romans in their Eastern wars, and was made a “free and allied +state.” Under Roman and Byzantine rule industry and commerce +were undisturbed, its chief export at this time being the Arvisian +wine, which had become very popular. After temporary occupations +by the Seljuk Turks (1089-1092) and by the Venetians (1124-1125, +1172, 1204-1225), it was given in fief to the Genoese family of +Zaccaria, and in 1346 passed definitely into the hands of a Genoese +<i>maona</i>, or trading company, which was organized in 1362 under the +name of “the Giustiniani.” This mercantile brotherhood, formerly +a privileged class, alone exploited the mastic trade; at the same time +the Greeks were allowed to retain their rights of self-government +and continued to exercise their industries. In 1415 the Genoese +became tributary to the Ottomans. In spite of occasional secessions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span> +which brought severe punishment upon the island (1453, 1479), the/# +rule of the Giustiniani was not abolished till 1566. Under the Ottoman +government the prosperity of Chios was hardly affected. But +the island underwent severe periods of suffering after its capture and +reconquest from the Florentines (1595) and the Venetians (1694-1695), +which greatly reduced the number of the Latins. Worst of all +were the massacres of 1822, which followed upon an attack by some +Greek insurgents executed against the will of the natives. In 1881 +Chios was visited by a very severe earthquake in which over 5600 +persons lost their lives and more than half the villages were seriously +damaged. The island has now recovered its prosperity. There is a +harbour at Castro, and steam flour-mills, foundries and tanneries +have been established. Rich antimony and calamine mines are +worked by a French undertaking, and good marble is quarried by an +Italian company.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Strabo xiv. pp. 632 f.; Athenaeus vi. 265-266; +Herodotus i. 160-165, vi. 15-31; Thucydides viii. 14-61; <i>Corpus +Inscr. Atticarum</i>, iv. (2), pp. 9, 10; H. Houssaye in <i>Revue des deux +mondes</i>, xlvi. (1876), pp. 1 ff.; T. Bent in <i>Historical Review</i> (1889), +pp. 467-480; Fustel de Coulanges, <i>L’Île de Chio</i> (ed. Jullian, Paris, +1893); for coinage, B.V. Head, <i>Historia numorum</i> (Oxford, 1887), +pp. 513-515, and NUMISMATICS: <i>Greek</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. GR.; M. O. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (d. 1779), the most famous of +English cabinetmakers. The materials for the biography of +Chippendale are exceedingly scanty, but he is known to have been +the son of Thomas Chippendale I., and is believed to have been +the father of Thomas Chippendale III. His father was a cabinet-maker +and wood-carver of considerable repute in Worcester +towards the beginning of the 18th century, and possibly he +originated some of the forms which became characteristic of +his son’s work. Thus a set of chairs and settees was made, +apparently at Worcester, for the family of Bury of Knateshill, +at a period when the great cabinetmaker could have been no +more than a boy, which are practically identical with much of the +work that was being turned out of the family factory as late +as the ’sixties of the 18th century. Side by side with the Queen +Anne or early Georgian feeling of the first quarter of the 18th +century we find the interlaced splats and various other details +which marked the Chippendale style. By 1727 the elder Chippendale +and his son had removed to London, and at the end of 1749 +the younger man—his father was probably then dead—established +himself in Conduit Street, Long Acre, whence in 1753 he +removed to No. 60 St Martin’s Lane, which with the addition of +the adjoining three houses remained his factory for the rest of +his life. In 1755 his workshops were burned down; in 1760 he +was elected a member of the Society of Arts; in 1766 his partnership +with James Ranni was dissolved by the latter’s death.</p> + +<p>It has always been exceedingly difficult to distinguish the work +executed in Chippendale’s factory and under his own eye from +that of the many copyists and adapters who throughout the +second half of the 18th century—the golden age of English +furniture—plundered remorselessly. Apart from his published +designs, many of which were probably never made up, we have to +depend upon the very few instances in which his original accounts +enable us to earmark work which was unquestionably his. For +Claydon House, the seat of the Verneys in Buckinghamshire, he +executed much decorative work, and the best judges are satisfied +that the Chinese bedroom there was designed by him. At +Harewood House, the seat of the earl of Harewood in Yorkshire, +we are on firmer ground. The house was furnished between +1765 and 1771, and both Robert Adam and Chippendale were +employed upon it. Indeed, there is unmistakable evidence to +show that certain work, so closely characteristic of the Adams +that it might have been assigned to them without hesitation, was +actually produced by Chippendale. This may be another of the +many indications that Chippendale was himself an imitator, or it +may be that Adam, as architect, prescribed designs which Chippendale’s +cabinetmakers and carvers executed. Chippendale’s +bills for this Adam work are still preserved. Stourhead, +the famous house of the Hoares in Wiltshire, contains much +undoubted Chippendale furniture, which may, however, be +the work of Thomas Chippendale III.; at Rowton Castle, +Shropshire, Chippendale’s bills as well as his works still exist.</p> + +<p>Our other main source of information is <i>The Gentleman and +Cabinet Maker’s Director</i>, which was published by Thomas +Chippendale in 1754. This book, the most important collection +of furniture designs issued up to that time in England, contains +one hundred and sixty engraved plates, and the list of subscribers +indicates that the author had acquired a large and distinguished +body of customers. The book is of folio size; there was a +second edition in 1759, and a third in 1762.</p> + +<p>In the rather bombastic introduction Chippendale says that he +has been encouraged to produce the book “by persons of distinction +and taste, who have regretted that an art capable of so +much perfection and refinement should be executed with so +little propriety and elegance.” He has some severe remarks +upon critics, from which we may assume that he had already +suffered at their hands. Perhaps, indeed, Chippendale may have +been hinted at in the caustic remarks of Isaac Ware, surveyor to +the king, who bewailed that it was the misfortune of the world in +his day “to see an unmeaning scrawl of C’s inverted and looped +together, taking the place of Greek and Roman elegance even in +our most expensive decorations. It is called French, and let +them have the praise of it! The Gothic shaft and Chinese bell +are not beyond nor below it in poorness of imitation.” It is the +more likely that these barbs were intended for Chippendale, +since he was guilty not only of many essays in Gothic, but of a +vast amount of work in the Chinese fashion, as well as in the +flamboyant style of Louis XV. The <i>Director</i> contains examples +of each of the manners which aroused the scorn of the king’s +surveyor. Chippendale has even shared with Sir William +Chambers the obloquy of introducing the Chinese style, but +he appears to have done nothing worse than “conquer,” as +Alexandre Dumas used to call it, the ideas of other people. Nor +would it be fair to the man who, whatever his occasional +extravagances and absurdities, was yet a great designer and a +great transmuter, to pretend that all his Chinese designs were +contemptible. Many of them, with their geometrical lattice-work +and carved tracery, are distinctly elegant and effective. +Occasionally we find in one piece of furniture a combination of +the three styles which Chippendale most affected at different +periods—Louis XV., Chinese and Gothic—and it cannot +honestly be said that the result is as incongruous as might have +been expected. Some of his most elegant and attractive work is +derived directly from the French, and we cannot doubt that the +inspiration of his famous ribbon-backed chair came directly from +some of the more artistic performances in rococo.</p> + +<p>The primary characteristic of his work is solidity, but it is a +solidity which rarely becomes heaviness. Even in his most +lightsome efforts, such as the ribbon-backed chair, construction is +always the first consideration. It is here perhaps that he differs +most materially from his great successor Sheraton, whose ideas of +construction were eccentric in the extreme. It is indeed in the +chair that Chippendale is seen at his best and most characteristic. +From his hand, or his pencil, we have a great variety of chairs, +which, although differing extensively in detail, may be roughly +arranged in three or four groups, which it would sometimes be +rash to attempt to date. He introduced the cabriole leg, +which, despite its antiquity, came immediately from Holland; +the claw and ball foot of ancient Oriental use; the straight, +square, uncompromising early Georgian leg; the carved lattice-work +Chinese leg; the pseudo-Chinese leg; the fretwork leg, +which was supposed to be in the best Gothic taste; the inelegant +rococo leg with the curled or hoofed foot; and even occasionally +the spade foot, which is supposed to be characteristic of the +somewhat later style of Hepplewhite. His chair-backs were very +various. His efforts in Gothic were sometimes highly successful; +often they took the form of the tracery of a church window, or +even of an ovalled rose window. His Chinese backs were distinctly +geometrical, and from them he would seem to have +derived some of the inspiration for the frets of the glazed book-cases +and cabinets which were among his most agreeable work. +The most attractive feature of Chippendale’s most artistic chairs—those +which, originally derived from Louis Quinze models, +were deprived of their rococo extravagances—is the back, which, +speaking generally, is the most elegant and pleasing thing that +has ever been done in furniture. He took the old solid or +slightly pierced back, and cut it up into a light openwork design +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span> +exquisitely carved—for Chippendale was a carver before everything—in +a vast variety of designs ranging from the elaborate +and extremely elegant, if much criticized, ribbon back, to a +comparatively plain but highly effective splat. His armchairs, +however, often had solid or stuffed backs. Next to his chairs +Chippendale was most successful with settees, which almost +invariably took the shape of two or three conjoined chairs, the +arms, backs and legs identical with those which he used for single +seats. He was likewise a prolific designer and maker of book-cases, +cabinets and escritoires with doors glazed with fretwork +divisions. Some of those which he executed in the style which in +his day passed for Gothic are exceedingly handsome and effective. +We have, too, from his hand many cases for long clocks, and a +great number of tables, some of them with a remarkable degree +of Gallic grace. He was especially successful in designing small +tables with fretwork galleries for the display of china. His +mirrors, which were often in the Chinese taste or extravagantly +rococo, are remarkable and characteristic. In his day the +cabinetmaker still had opportunities for designing and constructing +the four-post bedstead, and some of Chippendale’s +most graceful work was lavished upon the woodwork of the +lighter, more refined and less monumental four-poster, which, +thanks in some degree to his initiative, took the place of the +massive Tudor and the funereally hung Jacobean bed. From an +organ case to a washhand-stand, indeed, no piece of domestic +furniture came amiss to this astonishing man, and if sometimes he +was extravagant, grotesque or even puerile, his level of achievement +is on the whole exceedingly high.</p> + +<p>Since the revival of interest in his work he has often been +criticized with considerable asperity, but not always justly. +Chippendale’s work has stood the supreme test of posterity +more completely than that of any of his rivals or successors; and, +unlike many men of genius, we know him to have been warmly +appreciated in his lifetime. He was at once an artist and +a prosperous man of business. His claims to distinction are +summed up in the fact that his name has by general consent been +attached to the most splendid period of English furniture.</p> + +<p>Chippendale was buried on the 13th of November 1779, +apparently at the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and +administration of his intestate estate was granted to his widow +Elizabeth. He left four children, Thomas Chippendale III., John, +Charles and Mary. He was one of the assignees in bankruptcy of +the notorious Theresa Cornelys of Soho Square, of whom we read +in Casanova and other scandalous chronicles of the time. Thomas +Chippendale III. succeeded to the business of his father and +grandfather, and for some years the firm traded under the style +of Chippendale & Haig. The factory remained in St Martin’s +Lane, but in 1814 an additional shop was opened at No. 57 +Haymarket, whence it was in 1821 removed to 42 Jermyn Street. +Like his father, Thomas Chippendale III. was a member of the +Society of Arts; and he is known to have exhibited five pictures +at the Royal Academy between 1784 and 1801. He died at the +end of 1822 or the beginning of 1823.</p> +<div class="author">(J. P. -B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIPPENHAM<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span>, a market town and municipal borough in the +Chippenham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94 m. +W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5074. +Chippenham is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 361 acres. It lies in a hollow on the south +side of the Upper Avon, here crossed by a picturesque stone +bridge of 21 arches. St Andrew’s church, originally Norman of +the 12th century, has been enlarged in different styles. A paved +causeway running for about 4 m. between Chippenham Cliff and +Wick Hill is named after Maud Heath, said to have been a +market-woman, who built it in the 15th century, and bequeathed +an estate for its maintenance. After the decline of its woollen +and silk trades, Chippenham became celebrated for grain and +cheese markets. There are also manufactures of broadcloth, +churns, condensed milk, railway-signals, guns and carriages; +besides bacon-curing works, flour mills, tanneries and large +stone quarries. Bowood, the seat of the marquess of Lansdowne, +is 3½ m. S.E. of Chippenham. Lanhill barrow, or Hubba’s Low, +2½ m. N.W., is an ancient tomb containing a <i>kistvaen</i> or sepulchral +chamber of stone; it is probably British, though tradition makes +it the grave of Hubba, a Danish leader.</p> + +<p>Chippenham (<i>Chepeham, Chippeham</i>) was the site of a royal +residence where in 853 Æthelwulf celebrated the marriage +of his daughter Æthelswitha with Burhred, king of Mercia. The +town also figured prominently in the Danish invasion of the 9th +century, and in 933 was the meeting-place of the witan. In the +Domesday Survey Chippenham appears as a crown manor and is +not assessed in hides. The town was governed by a bailiff in the +reign of Edward I., and returned two members to parliament +from 1295, but it was not incorporated until 1553, when a +charter from Mary established a bailiff and twelve burgesses and +endowed the corporation with certain lands for the maintenance +of two parliamentary burgesses and for the repair of the bridge +over the Avon. In 1684 this charter was surrendered to Charles +II., and in 1685 a new charter was received from James II., which +was shortly abandoned in favour of the original grant. The +Representation Act of 1868 reduced the number of parliamentary +representatives to one, and the borough was disfranchised by +the Redistribution Act of 1885. The derivation of Chippenham +from <i>cyppan</i>, to buy, implies that the town possessed a market +in Saxon times. When Henry VII. introduced the clothing +manufacture into Wiltshire, Chippenham became an important +centre of the industry, which has lapsed. A prize, however, +was awarded to the town for this commodity at the Great +Exhibition of 1851.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIPPEWA<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span><a name="FnAnchor_1f" id="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">FALLS</span>, a city and the county-seat of Chippewa +county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, about 100 m. +E. of St Paul, Minnesota, and 12 m. N.E. of Eau Claire, Wisconsin. +Pop. (1890) 8670; (1900) 8094; (1910, census) 8893. It is served +by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago & +North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, +and by the electric line to Eau Claire. The first settlement on +the site was made in 1837; and the city was chartered in 1870.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1f" id="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the Chippewa Indians see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ojibway</a></span>, of which the word is a +popular adaptation.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIPPING CAMPDEN<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span>, a market town in the northern parliamentary +division of Gloucestershire, England, on the Oxford and +Worcester line of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1542. +It is picturesquely situated towards the north of the Cotteswold +hill-district. The many interesting ancient houses afford +evidence of the former greater importance of the town. The +church of St James is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a +number of brasses of the 15th and 16th centuries and several +notable monumental tombs. A ruined manor house of the 16th +century and some almshouses complete, with the church, a +picturesque group of buildings; and Campden House, also of +the 16th century, deserves notice.</p> + +<p>Apart from a medieval tradition preserved by Robert de +Brunne that it was the meeting-place of a conference of Saxon +kings, the earliest record of Campden (<i>Campedene</i>) is in Domesday +Book, when Earl Hugh is said to hold it, and to have there fifty +villeins. The number shows that a large village was attached to +the manor, which in 1173 passed to Hugh de Gondeville, and +about 1204 to Ralph, earl of Chester. The borough must have +grown up during the 12th century, for both these lords granted +the burgesses charters which are known from a confirmation of +1247, granting that they and all who should come to the market of +Campedene should be quit of toll, and that if any free burgess of +Campedene should come into the lord’s amerciament he should be +quit for 12d. unless he should shed blood or do felony. Probably +Earl Ralph also granted the town a portman-mote, for the +account of a skirmish in 1273 between the men of the town and +the county mentions a bailiff and implies the existence of some +sort of municipal government. In 1605 Campedene was incorporated, +but it never returned representatives to parliament. +Camden speaks of the town as a market famous for stockings, +a relic of that medieval importance as a mart for wool that had +given the town the name of Chipping.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIPPING NORTON<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span>, a market town and municipal borough in +the Banbury parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, 26 +m. N.W. of Oxford by a branch of the Great Western railway. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span> +Pop. (1901) 3780. It lies on the steep flank of a hill, and consists +mainly of one very wide street. The church of St Mary the +Virgin, standing on the lower part of the slope, is a fine building +of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, the hexagonal +porch and the clerestory being good examples of the later style. +The town has woollen and glove factories, breweries and an +agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and +12 councillors. Area, 2456 acres. Chipping Norton (<i>Chepyngnorton</i>) +was probably of some importance in Saxon times. At +the Domesday Survey it was held in chief by Ernulf de Hesding; +it was assessed at fifteen hides, and comprised three mills. It +returned two members to parliament as a borough in 1302 and +1304-1305, but was not represented after this date, and was not +considered to be a borough in 1316. The first and only charter +of incorporation was granted by James I., in 1608; it established +a common council consisting of 2 bailiffs and 12 burgesses; a +common clerk, 2 justices of the peace, and 2 serjeants-at-mace; +and a court of record every Monday. In 1205 William Fitz-Alan +was granted a four days’ fair at the feast of the Invention +of the Cross; and in 1276 Roger, earl of March, +was granted a four days’ fair at the feast of St Barnabas. +In the reign of Henry VI. the market was held +on Wednesday, and a fair was held at the Translation +of St Thomas Becket. These continued to be held in +the reign of James I., who annulled the former two +fairs, and granted fairs at the feasts of St Mark, St +Matthew, St Bartholomew, and SS. Simon and Jude.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIQUITOS<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (Span, “very small”), a group of +tribes in the province of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, +Bolivia, and between the head waters of the rivers +Mamoré and Itenez. When their country was first +invaded they fled into the forests, and the Spaniards, +coming upon their huts, the doorways of which are +built excessively low, supposed them to be dwarfs: +hence the name. They are in fact well formed and +powerful, of middle height and of an olive complexion. +They are an agricultural people, but made +a gallant resistance to the Spaniards for nearly two +centuries. In 1691, however, they made the Jesuit +missionaries welcome, and rapidly became civilized. +The Chiquito language was adopted as the means +of communication among the converts, who soon +numbered 50,000, representing nearly fifty tribes. +Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 the Chiquitos +became decadent, and now number short of 20,000. +Their houses, regularly ranged in streets, are built of +adobes thatched with coarse grass. They manufacture +copper boilers for making sugar and understand +several trades, weave ponchos and hammocks and +make straw hats. They are fond of singing and +dancing, and are a gentle-mannered and hospitable folk. +The group is now divided into forty tribes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIROMANCY<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheir">χεἰρ</span>, hand, and <span class="grk" title="manteia">μαντεία</span>, divination), +the art of telling the character or fortune of persons by studying +the lines of the palms of the hands (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palmistry</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIRON<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cheiron</span>, in Greek mythology, one of the Centaurs, +the son of Cronus and Philyra, a sea nymph. He dwelt at the +foot of Mount Pelion, and was famous for his wisdom and +knowledge of the healing art. He offers a remarkable contrast +to the other Centaurs in manners and character. Many of the +most celebrated heroes of Greece were brought up and instructed +by him (Apollodorus iii. 10. 13). Accidentally pierced by a +poisoned arrow shot by Heracles, he renounced his immortality +in favour of Prometheus, and was placed by Zeus among the +stars as the constellation <i>Sagittarius</i> (Apollodorus ii. 5; Ovid, +<i>Fasti</i>, v. 414). In a Pompeian wall-painting he is shown +teaching Achilles to play the lyre.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See articles in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i> and W.H. +Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; W. Mannhardt, <i>Wald- und +Feldkulte</i> (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIROPODIST<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (an invented word from Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheir">χεἰρ</span>, hand, and +<span class="grk" title="pous">ποῦς</span>, foot), properly one who treats the ailments of the hands +and feet, or is consulted as to keeping them in good condition; +the use of the word is now restricted, however, to the care of +the toes, “manicurist” having been invented for the corresponding +attentions to the fingers. The word was first introduced +in 1785, by a “corncutter” in Davies Street, London.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIROPTERA<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (Greek for “hand-wings”), an order of +mammals containing the bats, all of which are unique in the +class in possessing the power of true flight, and have their fore-limbs +specially modified for this purpose.</p> + +<div class="f90"> +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="figcenter1" colspan="2"><img style="border:0; width:670px; height:468px" src="images/img239.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Skeleton and Wing-Membranes of the Noctule Bat<br /> +(<i>Pipistrellus noctula</i>). × 1/3</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>c, Clavicle.</p> +<p>h, Humerus.</p> +<p>r, Radius.</p> +<p>u, Ulna.</p> +<p>d<span class="sp">1</span>, First digit.</p> +<p>d<span class="sp">2</span>, d<span class="sp">3</span>, d<span class="sp">4</span>, d<span class="sp">5</span>, Other digits of the fore-limb + supporting wm, the wing-membrane.</p> +<p>m, m, Metacarpal bones.</p></td> + +<td class="tcl"><p>ph<span class="sp">1</span>, First phalanx.</p> +<p>ph<span class="sp">2</span>, Second phalanx.</p> +<p>ph<span class="sp">3</span>, Third phalanx.</p> +<p>am, Antebrachial membrane.</p> +<p>f, Femur.</p> +<p>t, Tibia.</p> +<p>fb, Fibula.</p> +<p>c, Calcar supporting im, the interfemoral membrane.</p> +<p>pcb, Post-calcaneal lobe.</p></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="pt2">The mammals comprised in this order are at once distinguished +by the possession of true wings; this peculiarity being accompanied +by other modifications of bodily structure having relation +to aerial locomotion. Thus, in direct contrast to all other +mammals, in which locomotion is chiefly effected by action +from behind, and the hind-limbs consequently greatly preponderate +in size over the fore, in the Chiroptera the fore-limbs, +being the agents in propelling the body forward during flight, +immensely exceed the short and weak hinder extremities. The +thorax, giving origin to the great muscles which sustain flight, +and containing the proportionately large lungs and heart, is +remarkably capacious; and the ribs are flattened and close +together; while the shoulder-girdle is greatly developed in +comparison with the weak pelvis. The fore-arm (fig. 1) consists +of a rudimentary ulna, a long curved radius, and a carpus of +six bones supporting a thumb and four elongated fingers, between +which, the sides of the body, and the hinder extremities a thin +expansion of skin, the wing-membrane, is spread. The knee +is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind-limb, +outwards by the wing-membrane; an elongated cartilaginous +process (the calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from +the inner side of the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports +part of the posterior margin of an accessory membrane of flight, +extending from the tail or posterior extremity of the body to +the hind-limbs, and known as the interfemoral membrane. +The penis is pendent; the testes are abdominal or inguinal; +the teats, usually two in number, thoracic; the uterus is simple +or with more or less long cornua; the placenta discoidal and +deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend +backwards over the cerebellum. The teeth comprise incisors, +canines, premolars and molars; and the dental formula never +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span> +exceeds i. 2/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/8, m. 3/3; total 38. Despite the forward +position of the teats, which is merely an adaptive feature, bats +are evidently mammals of low organization, and are most +nearly related to the Insectivora.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the backward direction of the knee, a bat, +when placed on the ground, rests on all fours, having the knees +directed upwards, while the foot is rotated forwards and inwards +on the ankle. Walking is thus a kind of shuffle; but, notwithstanding +a general belief, bats can take wing from the walking posture.</p> + +<p>The bones of the skeleton are characterized by their slenderness +and the great size of the medullary canals in those of the +extremities. The vertebral column is short, and the vertebrae +differ but slightly in number and form throughout the group. +The general number of dorso-lumbar vertebrae is 17, whereof +12 are dorsal; the cervical vertebrae are broad, but short. +Except in fruit-bats (<i>Pteropodidae</i>), the vertebrae, from the +third cervical backwards, are devoid of spinous processes. From +the first dorsal to the last lumbar the vertebral column forms +a single curve, most pronounced in the lumbar region. The +bodies of the vertebrae are but slightly movable on each other, +and in old individuals become partially welded. The caudal +vertebrae are cylindrical bones without processes; their number +and length varying in allied species. The development of these +vertebrae is correlated with habits, the long tail in the +insectivorous species supporting and controlling the position of the +interfemoral membrane which aids bats in their doubling motions +when in pursuit of insects by acting as a rudder, and assists them +in the capture of the larger insects. In the fruit-bats this is +not required, and the tail is rudimentary or absent. In all bats +the presternum has a prominent keel for the attachment of the +great pectoral muscles.</p> + +<p>The shape of the skull varies greatly; but post-orbital processes +are developed only in some <i>Pteropodidae</i> and a few <i>Nycteridae</i> +and <i>Emballonuridae</i>; in <i>Pteropus leucopterus</i> alone does a +process from the zygomatic arch meet the post-orbital so as +to complete the orbital ring. Zygomatic arches, though slender, are +present in all except in some of the species of <i>Phyllostomatidae</i>.</p> + +<p>The milk-teeth differ from those of all other mammals in that +they are unlike those of the permanent series. They are slender, +with pointed recurved cusps, and are soon shed, but exist for +a short time with the permanent teeth. In the <i>Rhinolophidae</i> +the milk-teeth are absorbed before birth. The permanent +teeth exhibit great variety, sometimes even in the same family, as in +<i>Phyllostomatidae</i>, whilst in other families, as <i>Rhinolophidae</i>, +the resemblance between the dentition of species differing in +many respects is remarkable. In all they are provided with +well-developed roots, and their crowns are acutely tuberculate, +with more or less well-defined W-shaped cusps, in the insectivorous +species, or variously hollowed out or longitudinally +grooved in the frugivorous kinds.</p> + +<p>The shoulder-girdle varies but slightly, the clavicle being +long, strong and curved; and the scapula large, oval and +triangular, with a long curved coracoid process. The humerus, +though long, is scarcely two-thirds the length of the radius; +and the rudimentary ulna is welded with the radius. A sesamoid +bone exists in the tendon of the triceps muscle. The upper row +of the carpus consists of the united scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform +bones.</p> + +<p>The “hand” has five digits, the first, fourth and fifth of which +consist each of a metacarpal and two phalanges; but in the +second and third the number of phalanges is different in certain +families. The first digit terminates in a claw, most developed in +the frugivorous species, in most of which the second digit is also +clawed, although in other bats this and the remaining digits +are unarmed.</p> + +<p>In the weak pelvis the ilia are long and narrow, while in most +species the pubes of opposite sides are loosely united in front in +males, and widely separated in females; in the <i>Rhinolophidae</i> +alone they form a symphysis. Only in the <i>Molossinae</i> is there +a well-developed fibula; in the rest this bone is either very +slender or cartilaginous and ligamentous in its upper third, or +reduced to a small bony process above the heel, or absent. +The foot consists of a short tarsus, and of slender, laterally +compressed toes, with much-curved claws.</p> + +<p>Although the brain is of a low type, probably no animals +possess so delicate a sense of touch as Chiroptera. In ordinary +bats tactile organs exist, not only in the bristles on the sides of the +muzzle, but in the sensitive structures forming the wing-membranes +and ears, while in many species leaf-like expansions +surrounding the nasal apertures or extending backwards behind +them are added. These nose-leaves are made up partly of the +extended and thickened integument of the nostrils, and partly of +the glandular eminences occupying the sides of the muzzle, in +which in other bats the sensitive bristles are implanted.</p> + +<p>In no mammals are the ears so developed or so variable in +form; in most insectivorous species they are longer than the +head, while in the long-eared bat their length nearly equals +that of the head and body. The form is characteristic in each +of the families; in most the “earlet,” or tragus, is large, in +some cases extending nearly to the outer margin of the conch; +its office appears to be to intensify and prolong the waves of +sound by producing undulations in them. In the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>, +the only family of insectivorous bats wanting the tragus, the +auditory bullae reach their greatest size, and the nasal appendages +their highest development. In frugivorous bats the ear is simple +and but slightly variable. In all bats the ears are extremely +mobile, each independently at will.</p> + +<p>The oesophagus is narrow, especially in blood-sucking vampires. +The stomach presents two types of structure, corresponding +respectively to the two divisions of the order, Megachiroptera +and Microchiroptera; in the former the pyloric extremity is, with +one exception, elongated and folded upon itself, in the latter +simple; an exceptional type is met with in the blood-suckers, +where the cardiac extremity is elongated, forming a long +appendage. The intestine is comparatively short, varying from +one and a half to four times the length of the head and body; +longest in the frugivorous, shortest in the insectivorous species. +In <i>Rhinopoma</i> and <i>Megaderma</i> a small caecum has been found. +The liver is characterized by the great size of the left lateral lobe, +which occasionally equals half that of the whole organ; the right +and left lateral fissures are usually very deep; in Megachiroptera +the spigelian lobe is, with one exception, ill defined or absent, and +the caudate is generally large; but in Microchiroptera the former +lobe is large, while the caudate is small. The gall-bladder is +generally well developed.</p> + +<p>In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of +slender, long, cylindrical bones connecting the basi-hyoid with +the skull, while the pharynx is short, and the larynx shallow with +feebly developed vocal cords, and guarded by a short pointed +epiglottis. In the African epauletted bats, <i>Epomophorus</i>, the +pharynx is long and capacious, the aperture of the larynx far +removed from the fauces, and, opposite to it, opens a canal, +leading from the nasal chambers, and extending along the back +of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls +are ossified; the hyoids are unconnected, except by muscle +with the skull; while the cerato-hyals and epi-hyals are cartilaginous +and expanded, entering into the formation of the walls of +the pharynx, and (in males of some species) supporting the orifices +of a pair of air-sacs communicating with the pharynx (fig. 2).</p> + +<div class="figcenter1"><img style="border:0; width:600px; height:582px" src="images/img241a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Head and Neck of <i>Epomophorus franqueti</i> (adult male). +From Dobson. The anterior (<i>a.ph.s</i>) and posterior (<i>p.ph.s</i>) pharyngeal +sacs are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the points +where they communicate with the pharynx; <i>s</i>, thin membranous +partition in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of +opposite sides; <i>s.m</i>, sterno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior +from the posterior sac.</p> +</div> + +<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 350px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:300px; height:160px" src="images/img241b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Frontal Sac and Nose-Leaf +in Male and Female Masked Bat +(<i>Phyllorhina larvata</i>). From Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The extent and shape of the wings generally depend on the +form of the bones of the fore-limbs, and on the presence or +absence of the tail. The wings consist of an “antebrachial +membrane,” which extends from the point of the shoulder along +the humerus and more or less of the fore-arm to the base of the +thumb, the metacarpal bone of which is partially or wholly +included in it; the “wing-membrane” spread out between +the elongated fingers, and extending along the sides of the body +to the posterior extremities, generally reaching to the feet; +and the “interfemoral membrane,” the most variable of all, +which is supported between the extremity of the body, the legs +and the calcar (fig. 1). The antebrachial and wing membranes +are most developed in species fitted only for aerial locomotion +which when at rest hang with the body enveloped in the wings; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span> +but in the <i>Emballonuridae</i>, and also in the <i>Molossinae</i>, which +are the best fitted for terrestrial progression, the antebrachial +membrane is reduced to a small size, and not developed along +the fore-arm, leaving the thumb quite free, while the wing-membrane +is narrow and folded in repose under the forearm. +The relative development of the interfemoral membrane has been +referred to in connexion with the caudal vertebrae. Its small +size in the frugivorous and blood-sucking species, which do not +require it, is easily understood. +Scent-glands and +pouches opening on the surface +of the skin are developed +in many species, but in most +cases more so in males than +in females (fig. 3). As +rule, bats produce only a +single offspring at a birth, +which for some time is carried +about by the female parent +clinging to the fur of her breast; but certain North American +bats commonly give birth to three or four young ones at a +time, which are carried about in the same manner.</p> + +<p>Bats are divisible into two suborders, Megachiroptera and +Microchiroptera.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="center1"><i>Megachiroptera</i>.</p> + +<p>The first of these comprises the fruit-eating species, which are +generally of large size, with the crowns of the cheek-teeth smooth +and marked with a longitudinal groove. The bony palate +is continued behind the last molar, narrowing slowly +<span class="sidenote">Fruit-eating bats.</span> +backwards; there are three phalanges in the index +finger, the third phalange being terminated generally by +a claw; the sides of the ear form a ring at the base; the tail, when +present, is inferior to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane; +the pyloric extremity of the stomach is generally much elongated; +and the spigelian lobe of the liver is ill-defined or absent, while the +caudate is well developed. This group is limited to the tropical and +sub-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 450px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:400px; height:326px" src="images/img241c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Head of a Flying-Fox or +Fruit-Bat (<i>Pteropus personatus</i>). From +Gray.</td></tr></table> + +<p>All the members of this suborder are included in the single family +<i>Pteropodidae</i>, the first representatives of which are the African +epauletted bats, forming the genus <i>Epomophorus</i>. In this the dental +formula is <i>i.</i> 2/2 (or ½), <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> ½. Tail short or absent, when +present free from the interfemoral membrane; second finger with a +claw; premaxillae united in front. The species are strictly limited +to Africa south of the Sahara, and are distinguished by the large and +long head, expansible and often folded lips, and the white tufts of +hair on the margins of the ears. The males are provided with +glandular pouches, situated in the skin of the side of the neck near +the point of the shoulder, which are rudimentary or absent in +females. In the males they are lined with glandular membrane, +from which long coarse yellowish hairs project to form conspicuous +epaulet-like tufts on the shoulders. The males often have a pair of +air-sacs extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath +the integument of the neck, in the position shown in fig. 2. These +bats appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which +their voluminous lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow +without loss. The huge and ugly West African hammer-headed bat, +<i>Hypsignathus monstrosus</i>, represents an allied genus distinguished +by the absence of shoulder-pouches, +and the presence +of leaf-like expansions of +skin on the front of the +muzzle, and of distinct cusps +on the outer sides of the +cheek-teeth. The great +majority of the bats of this +group, commonly known as +“flying-foxes,” are included +in the typical genus <i>Pteropus</i>, +of which the dental +formula is <i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/3, +<i>m.</i> 2/3. All are of large size, +and the absence of a tail, +the long pointed muzzle, +and the woolly fur covering +the neck render their recognition +easy. One of the +species, <i>P. edulis</i>, inhabiting +Java, measures 5 ft. across the fully extended wings, and is the +largest member of the order.</p> + +<p>The range of the genus extends from Madagascar through the +Seychelles to India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Japan, +New Guinea, Australia and Polynesia. Although two species inhabit +the Comoro Islands, scarcely 200 m. from the mainland, not +one is found in Africa; while the common Indian species is closely +allied to the Madagascar flying-fox. The Malay Archipelago and +Australia form the headquarters of these bats, which in some places +occur in countless multitudes. The colonies exhale a strong musky +odour, and when awake the occupants utter a loud incessant chatter. +Wallace’s fruit-bat of Celebes and Macassar has been made the type +of a separate genus, as <i>Styloctenium wallacei</i>. In <i>Roussettus</i> (or +<i>Cynonycteris</i>) the dentition is as in <i>Pteropus</i>, but the tail is short, and +the fur of the nape of the neck not different from that of the back: +its distribution accords with that of <i>Pteropus</i>, except that it includes +Africa and does not reach farther east than New Ireland. <i>R. +aegyptiacus</i> inhabits the chambers of the Great Pyramid and other +deserted buildings in Egypt, and is probably the species figured in +Egyptian frescoes. <i>Boneia</i>, with two species, from Celebes, differs +in having only two upper incisors. <i>Harpyionycteris</i> and <i>Scotonycteris</i>, +respectively from the Philippines and West Africa, are represented +by a single species each; but of <i>Cynopterus</i>, which is mainly confined +to the Indo-Malay countries, there are some half-score different +kinds. The dentition is <i>i.</i> 2/(2 or 1), <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/3, <i>m.</i> 3/3, the muzzle is +shorter than in <i>Roussettus</i>, with the upper lip grooved in front as in +<i>Pteropus</i>, while the tail and fur resemble those of the former genus. +These bats are extremely voracious, a specimen of the Indian <i>C. +marginatus</i> having eaten a banana twice its own weight in three +hours. Among several Austro-Malay genera, such as <i>Ptenochirus</i> +and <i>Balionycteris</i>, the tube-nosed bats of the genus <i>Gelasinus</i> (or +<i>Harpyia</i>) are remarkable for the conformation of the nostrils (fig. 5). +<i>Cephalotes</i>, with one +species, ranging from +Celebes to the Solomon +group, has the dentition +<i>i.</i> 1/1, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> 2/3, premaxillae +not united in +front, nostrils simple, +muzzle short, index finger +without a claw, tail short. +As in <i>Gelasinus</i>, the wing-membrane +arises from the +middle line of the back, to +which it is attached by a +longitudinal thin process +of skin; the wings are +naked, but the back +covered with hair. <i>Leipenyx</i> is an allied West African genus with +one species.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 450px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:400px; height:222px" src="images/img241d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Head of Papuan Tube-Nosed +Bat (<i>Gelasinus major</i>). From G.E. +Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The foregoing belong to the typical subfamily <i>Pteropodinae</i>, while +the remainder represent a second group, <i>Carponycterinae</i> (or <i>Macroglossinae</i>), +characterized by having the facial part of the skull produced, +the molar teeth narrow, and scarcely raised above the gum, +and the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior third, +and armed with long recurved papillae near the tip. The single +representative of the first genus, <i>Notopteris macdonaldi</i>, inhabiting +Fiji, New Guinea and the New Hebrides, is distinguished from other +bats of this family by the length of its tail, which is nearly as long +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span> +as the forearm. The dentition is <i>i.</i> 2/1, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> 2/2, while the index +finger has no claw, and the wings arise from the spine. <i>Eonycteris</i>, +with the dentition <i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/3, <i>m.</i> 2/3, is also represented by a single +species, <i>E. spelaea</i>, from Tenasserim, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula +and Islands, which has somewhat the appearance of a <i>Roussettus</i>, +but the absence of a claw in the index finger and the presence of the +characteristic tongue and teeth at once distinguish it. <i>Carponycteris</i> +(<i>Macroglossus</i>) and <i>Melonycteris</i>, the former with several and the +latter with a single species, are closely allied Indo-Malay and Papuan +genera, the index finger in both having a claw, but the number of +the teeth being the same as in <i>Eonycteris</i>. <i>C. minimus</i> is the smallest +known species of the suborder, much smaller than the serotine bat +of Europe, with the fore-arm scarcely longer than that of the long-eared +bat. It is nearly as common in certain parts of Burma as +<i>Cynopterus marginatus</i>, and extends eastwards through the Malay +Archipelago as far as New Ireland, where it is associated with +<i>Melonycteris melanops</i>, distinguished by its larger size and the total +absence of the tail. An allied small <i>Carpopycteris</i> inhabits India. +<i>Trygenycteris</i> (<i>Megaloglossus</i>) <i>woermanni</i>, of West Africa, is the only +member of the group occurring west of the Himalaya. <i>Callinycteris</i> +of Celebes, with the dentition <i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/2, <i>m.</i> 3/3, has a short tail and +no index-claws, while <i>Nesonycteris</i> of the Solomons, with the dentition +<i>i.</i> 2/1, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/3, <i>m.</i> 3/3, differs by the absence of the tail.</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Microchiroptera.</i></p> + +<p>The second and larger suborder, the Microchiroptera, includes +all the insectivorous species, the majority of which are of relatively +small size as compared with the Megachiroptera. In these +bats, with a few specialized exceptions, the crowns of the +<span class="sidenote">Insect-eating bats.</span> +cheek-teeth are surmounted by sharp cusps, divided by +transverse grooves. In the skull the bony palate narrows +abruptly and is not continued backwards laterally behind the last +molar; there is one rudimentary phalange (rarely two or none) in the +index finger, which is never terminated by a claw; the outer and +inner sides of the ear commence interiorly from separate points of +origin; the tail, when present, is contained in the interfemoral +membrane, or appears on its upper surface; the stomach, except in +the blood-sucking group, is simple; and the spigelian lobe of the +liver large, and the caudate generally small.</p> + +<p>The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in genera (to +say nothing of species) that only some of the more important types +can be <span class="correction" title="superfluous parenthesis removed">mentioned.</span></p> + +<p>Brief references have already been made to the manner in which +in many or most of these bats the tail aids in the capture of prey. +From the observations of C. Oldham, it appears that these bats, +when walking, carry the tail downwards and forwards, so that the +membrane connecting this organ with the hind-legs forms a kind of +pouch or bag. If a large insect be encountered the bat seizes it with +a snatch, and slightly spreading its folded wings and pressing them +on the ground in order to steady itself, brings its feet forwards so +as to increase the capacity of the tail-pouch, into which, by bending +its neck and thrusting its head beneath the body, it pushes the +insect. Although the latter, especially if large, will often struggle +violently, when once in the pouch it but rarely escapes, from which +it is subsequently extracted and devoured. It is assumed that the +same method of capture is employed when on the wing; and a +naturalist who has observed the long-eared bat picking moths off +willows states that the bat always hovers when taking off the moth, +and bends up the tail so as to form a receptacle for the insect as it +drops.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 320px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:270px; height:327px" src="images/img242a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Head of Mitred +Horseshoe Bat (<i>Rhinolophus +mitratus</i>). From +Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>, Horse-shoe and Leaf-nosed bats of the Old +World, the nose-leaf is developed and surrounds the nasal apertures, +which are situated in a depression on +the upper surface of the muzzle so as to +look upwards; the ears are large and +generally separate, without trace of a +tragus or earlet; the premaxillae are +rudimentary, suspended from the nasal +cartilages, and support a single pair of +small incisors; the molars have acute +<b>W</b>-shaped cusps; the skull is large, and +the nasal bones which support the nose-leaf +much expanded vertically and laterally. +In females a pair of teat-like +appendages are found in front of the +pubis; and the long tail extends to the +margin of the interfemoral membrane. +The middle finger has two phalanges, but +the index is rudimentary. The fibula is +rudimentary.</p> + +<p>The <i>Rhinolophidae</i> are the most highly +organized of insectivorous bats, in which the osseous and cutaneous +systems reach the fullest development. Compared with theirs, the +bones of the extremities and the wings of other bats appear coarsely +formed, and their teeth seem less perfectly fitted to crush the hard +bodies of insects. The complicated nasal appendages reach their +highest development, and the differences in their form afford +characters in the discrimination of the species, which resemble one +another closely in dentition and the colour of the fur.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 420px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:370px; height:286px" src="images/img242b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Head of Squirrel Leaf-Bat +(<i>Phyllorhina calcarata</i>). From Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the first subfamily, <i>Rhinolophinae</i>, the first toe has two, and the +other toes three phalanges each; and the ilio-pectineal spine is not +connected by bone with the antero-inferior surface of the ilium. In the +horseshoe bats, <i>Rhinolophus</i>, the dentition is i. 1/2, c. 1/1, p. 2/3, +m. 3/8, the nose-leaf has a central process behind and between the nasal +orifices, with the posterior extremity lanceolate, and the antitragus +large. Among the numerous forms <i>R. luctus</i> is the largest, and inhabits +elevated hill-tracts in India and Malaysia; <i>R. hipposiderus</i> +of Europe, extending into south England and Ireland, is one of the +smallest; and <i>R. ferrum-equinum</i> represents the average size of the +species, which are mainly distinguished from one another by the +form of the nose-leaf. The last-named species extends from England +to Japan, and southward to the Cape of Good Hope, but is represented +by a number of local races. When sleeping, the horseshoe bats, at +least in some instances, suspend themselves head downwards, with +the wings wrapped round the body after the manner of fruit bats. The +posture of ordinary bats is quite different, and while the lesser horseshoe +(<i>R. hipposiderus</i>) alights from the air in an inverted position, +other bats, on first coming to rest, do so with the head upwards, +and then reverse their position.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 450px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:400px; height:379px" src="images/img242c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Head of Persian Leaf-Bat. +(<i>Triaenops persicus</i>). From Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the second subfamily, <i>Hippo-siderinae</i> (formerly called +<i>Phyllorhinae</i>), the toes are equal and include two phalanges each, while +the ilio-pectineal spine is united by a bony isthmus with a process +derived from the antero-inferior surface of the ilium. <i>Hipposiderus, +Clöeotis, Rhinonycteris, Triaenops, Anthops</i> and <i>Coelops</i> represent +this subfamily. <i>Hipposiderus</i> (<i>Phyllorhina</i>), with many species, +ranging over Asia, Africa and Australasia, and the dental formula i. 1/2, +c. 1/1, p. 2/2, or 1/2, m. 3/3, differs from <i>Rhinolophus</i> in the form +of the nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate behind (fig. 6), and is unprovided +with a central process covering the nostrils; the largest species, <i>H. +armiger</i>, appears to be the most northerly, having been taken at +Amoy in China, and in the Himalaya at an elevation of 5500 ft. +Many are provided with a frontal sac behind the nose-leaf, rudimentary +in females (see fig. 7), which can be everted at pleasure; +the sides of this sac secrete a waxy substance, and its extremity +supports a tuft of straight hairs. <i>Rhinonycteris</i>, +represented by <i>R. aurantia</i> from Australia, and <i>Triaenops</i>. +by <i>T. persicus</i> from Persia and other species from Africa and +Madagascar, are closely allied genera. <i>Triaenops</i> (fig. 8) is +characterized by the remarkable form of its nasal appendages +and ears, and the presence of a bony projection from +the upper extremity of the second phalange of the fourth +finger. <i>Coelops</i> (<i>C. Frithi</i>), from the Bengal Sanderbans, +Java and Siam is distinguished by the peculiar form of its +nose-leaf and the length of the +metacarpal bone of the index finger, as well as by the shortness of +the calcar and interfemoral membrane. <i>Clöeotis</i> is represented by a +single East African species, and <i>Anthops</i> by one from the Solomon +Islands characterized by the nose-leaf covering the whole front of the face.</p> + +<p>The next family, <i>Nycteridae</i>, which is also Old World, is a small +one, nearly allied to the last, in which it is included by Prof. +Max Weber as a subfamily under the name of <i>Myadermatinae</i>. +It differs by the presence of a small tragus in +<span class="sidenote">False vampires.</span> +the ears, which are united at their bases; and by the +nasal chamber not being inflated. The premaxillae are either small +and separated in front, or rudimentary; and the first phalange +of the middle finger when in repose is laid back on the metacarpus. +There are only pectoral teats.</p> + +<p>Of the two genera, <i>Megaderma</i>, as represented by the five species +of false vampires, is distinguished by the absence of ossified premaxillae +and upper incisors (i. 0/2, p. (2 or 1)/2), the cylindrical narrow +muzzle surmounted by an erect nose-leaf the base of which conceals +the nasal orifices, the immense joined ears with large bifid tragus, +and the great extent of the interfemoral membrane, in the base of +which the short tail is concealed. <i>M. gigas</i> (fig. 9), from central +Queensland, is the largest species of the genus, and of the suborder. +<i>M. lyra</i>, common in India (fore-arm 2.7 in.), has been caught in the +act of sucking the blood, while flying, from a small bat which it +afterwards devoured. The range of the genus includes Africa, the +Indo-Malay countries and Australasia. <i>Nycteris</i>, which is common +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span> +to Africa and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, has ossified premaxillae +and upper incisors (<i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 1/2), and a long tail; but lacks a +nose-leaf. As in <i>Megaderma</i>, the frontal bones are deeply hollowed +and expanded laterally, the muzzle presents a similar cylindrical +form, and the lower jaw also projects; but, instead of a nose-leaf, +the face is marked by a deep longitudinal sharp-edged groove extending +from the nostrils to the band connecting the base of the large +ears; the sides of this depression being margined as far back as the +eyes by small horizontal cutaneous appendages. With the exception +of <i>N. javanica</i>, the species are limited to Africa.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:530px; height:617px" src="images/img243a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—The False Vampire (<i>Megaderma gigas</i>). From Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>According to the classification followed by Dr G.E. Dobson, the +extensive family of New World bats known as <i>Phyllostomatidae</i> was +widely sundered from the two preceding groups; but in +Prof. Max Weber’s system they are placed next one +<span class="sidenote">Vampires.</span> +another—an arrangement which has the great advantage of bringing +together all the bats furnished with nose-leaves. It is indeed +probable that the vampires, as the members of the present family +may be collectively termed, are the New World representatives of the +Old World <i>Rhinolophidae</i> and <i>Nycteridae</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Phyllostomatidae</i> are characterized by the presence of a nose-leaf, +or of lappets on the chin, but the nostrils are not directed +upwards. The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal cavity form simple +plates (much as in the two preceding families). The premaxillae are +always well developed, with their palatal portions forming a suture +and denning the boundaries of distinct palatine foramina (in place +of being rudimentary, as in <i>Nycteridae</i> and <i>Rhinolophidae</i>). The +large ears have a tragus. The middle finger has three phalanges, and +the index one. There is an incomplete fibula. The tail may be +either long or short. Generally the dentition is <i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> 3/3.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 500px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:450px; height:273px" src="images/img243b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Head of Blainville’s Vampire +(<i>Mormops blainvillei</i>). From Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>All the bats of this family may be readily recognized by the +presence of a well-developed third phalange in the middle finger, +associated either with a +distinct nose-leaf, or +with central upper incisors, +or with both. +Unlike the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>, +their eyes are +generally large and the +tragus is well developed, +maintaining almost the +same form throughout +the species, however +much the other parts +of the body may vary. +Their fur is of a dull +colour, and the face and +back are often marked +with white streaks. A few species, probably all those with the +tail and interfemoral membrane well developed, feed principally +on insects, while the greater number of the species of the groups +<i>Vampyreae</i> and <i>Glossophageae</i> appear to live on a mixed diet +of insects and fruits, and the <i>Desmodonteae</i>, of which two species +are known, are true blood-suckers, and have their teeth and intestinal +tract specially modified in accordance with their habits. The group +is practically limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of Central +and South America, although one species of <i>Otopterus</i> reaches California. +In the first subfamily, <i>Mormopsinae</i> (<i>Lobostominae</i>), the +nostrils open by simple apertures at the extremity of the muzzle in +front, not margined by a distinct nose-leaf; while, in compensation, +the chin is furnished with expanded leaf-like appendages. The tail +is short. It includes two genera. In <i>Chilonycteris</i> the crown of the +head is moderately elevated above the face-line, and the basi-cranial +axis is almost in the same plane as the facial, while in <i>Mormops</i> (fig. +10) the crown of the head is greatly elevated above the face-line, and +the basi-cranial axis is nearly at right angles to the facial; <i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>p.</i> 2/3, +in both genera. As regards the species of <i>Chilonycteris</i>, the most +striking feature is the occurrence of a rufous and a dark brown phase +in each. In some the two phases are very marked, but in others they +are connected by intermediate shades. Here may be mentioned the +two species of tropical American hare-lipped bats, forming the genus +<i>Noctilio</i>, which presents characters common to this and the following +family, to which latter it is often referred. The typical <i>N. leporinus</i> +is a bat of curious aspect, with strangely folded lips, erect skin-processes +on the chin, and enormous feet and claws. The two middle +incisors are close together, and so large as to conceal the small outer +ones, while in the lower jaw there are but two small incisors; the +premolars numbering 1/2. These bats live near the coast, and feed on +small crabs and fishes.</p> + +<p>Most of the remaining members of the family are included in the +subfamily <i>Phyllostomatinae</i>, characterized by the presence of a +distinct nose-leaf and the warty chin. The clitoris is imperforate, +whereas it is perforated in the <i>Mormopsinae</i>. The incisors are generally +2/2 (occasionally 2/1), and the molars well developed. The subfamily +is divided into a number of groups or sections. The first of +them, the <i>Vampyreae</i>, is characterized as follows: Muzzle long and +narrow in front, the distance between the eyes generally less than +(rarely equal to) that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; +nose-leaf horseshoe-shaped in front, lanceolate behind; interfemoral +membrane well developed; tail generally distinct, rarely absent; +inner margin of the lips not fringed; <i>i.</i> 2/2 or 2/1, <i>p.</i> 2/2 or 2/3; molars with +<b>W</b>-shaped cusps, usually well developed.</p> + +<p>Nearly all the <i>Vampyreae</i> appear to be insectivorous, so that the +term cannot be considered indicative of habits; but a few, if not +all, probably supplement their insect diet with fruit. <i>Vampyrus +spectrum</i> (the largest bat in the New World) is said to be wholly +frugivorous, and <i>Otopterus waterhousei</i> appears to prey occasionally +on smaller bats. The genera may be arranged in two subgroups according +as the tail is produced to the margin of the interfemoral +membrane or perforates it to appear on its upper surface. In the +first division are included three genera, <i>Lonchorhina</i>, <i>Otopterus</i> (or +<i>Macrotus</i>) and <i>Dolichophyllum</i> (or <i>Macrophyllum</i>), the first represented +by <i>L. aurita</i>, characterized by an extraordinary long nose-leaf, and +peculiarly large ears and tragus. In the second subsection are included +<i>Vampyrus</i>, <i>Chrotopterus</i>, <i>Tonatia</i> (<i>Lophostoma</i>) <i>Micronycteris</i>, +<i>Glyphonycteris</i>, <i>Trachyops</i>, <i>Phylloderma</i>, <i>Phyllostoma</i>, <i>Anthorhina</i> +(<i>Tylostoma</i>), <i>Mimon</i>, <i>Hemiderma</i> (<i>Carollia</i>) and <i>Rhinophylla</i>; all, with +the exception of the last, distinguished chiefly by the form of the skull +and the presence or absence of the second lower premolar. <i>Phyllostoma +hastatum</i>, next in point of size to <i>Vampyrus spectrum</i>, is a well-known +species in South America; <i>P. elongatum</i> (fig. 11) differs in its +smaller size and larger nose-leaf. <i>Hemiderma brevicauda</i>, a small +species, closely resembles <i>Glossophaga soricina</i>, and forms a connecting +link between this and the next group. <i>Rhinophylla pumilio</i> is the +smallest species of the family; further +distinguished by the absence of a tail, +the narrowness of its molars, which +do not form <b>W</b>-shaped cusps, and the +small size of the last upper molar, +characters connecting it and the group +with the <i>Stenodermateae</i>. Both in +<i>Hemiderma</i> and <i>Rhinophylla</i> the zygomatic +arch is incomplete.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 350px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:278px" src="images/img243c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Head of Lesser +Javelin Vampire (<i>Phyllostoma +elongatura</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The next subsection, <i>Glossophageae</i>, +presents the following distinctive +features: Muzzle long and narrow; +tongue long and extensible, attenuated +towards the tip, and beset with +long filiform recurved papillae; lower +lip with a wide groove above, and in +front margined by small warts; +nose-leaf small; tail short or none; +<i>i.</i> 2/2, <i>p.</i> 2/3 or 3/3 or 2/2, <i>m.</i> 3/3 or 2/3 or 2/2; teeth narrow; molars with narrow +<b>W</b>-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent; lower incisors +small or deciduous. The species included in this group represent +some ten genera, distinguished principally by differences in the form +and number of the teeth, and the presence or absence of the zygomatic, +arch of the skull. In <i>Glossophaga</i> and <i>Phyllonycteris</i> the upper +incisors form a continuous row between the canines. In <i>Monophyllus</i> +and <i>Leptonycteris</i> (<i>Ischnoglossa</i>) they are separated into pairs +by a narrow interval in front; while in <i>Lonchoglossa</i>, <i>Glossonycteris</i> +and <i>Choeronycteris</i> they are widely separated and placed in pairs near +the canines. In the first four of these genera the lower incisors are +present (at least to a certain age), in the last three they are deciduous +even in youth. The zygomatic arch is wanting in <i>Phyllonycteris</i>, +<i>Glossonycteris</i> and <i>Choeronycteris</i>. The typical species is <i>Glossophaga +soricina</i>, which, as already mentioned, closely resembles <i>Hemiderma</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span> +<i>brevicauda</i>, both in form and dentition. Its long brush-tipped tongue +(which it possesses in common with other species of the group) is +used to lick out the pulpy contents of fruits having hard rinds. The +food of the species of this group appears to consist of both fruit and +insects, and the long tongue may be used for extracting the latter +from the deep corollas of flowers. Other genera are <i>Lonchophylla</i>, +<i>Rhithronycteris</i>, <i>Hylonycteris</i> and <i>Lychonycteris</i>, each with a single +species (in 1904).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 500px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:450px; height:185px" src="images/img244a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Head of Long-tongued Vampire +(<i>Choeronycteris mexicana</i>), showing brush-tipped +tongue. From Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The third group, <i>Stenodermateae</i>, presents the following characteristics:—Muzzle +very short and generally broad in front, the distance +between the eyes nearly always exceeding (rarely equalling) the +distance from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; nose-leaf +short, horseshoe-shaped +in front, +lanceolate behind +(except in <i>Brachyphylla</i> +and <i>Centurio</i>); +interfemoral membrane +concave behind; +tail none; +inner margin of the +lips fringed with +conical papillae; +<i>i.</i> 2/2 or 2/1, <i>p.</i> 2/2, <i>m.</i> 3/3 +or 2/3 or 2/2; cheek-teeth +broad (except +in <i>Sturnira</i>), molars +with concave or flat crowns margined externally by raised cutting-edges. +Although the <i>Stenodermateae</i> are generally easily distinguished +from the <i>Vampyreae</i> by the shortness and breadth of +the muzzle and the form of the cheek-teeth, certain species of the +latter resemble the former in external appearance, agreeing almost +absolutely in the form of the nose-leaf, the ears and the tragus, and +the warts on the chin. These resemblances show that, while the form +of the teeth and jaws has become modified to suit the food, the +external characters have remained much the same, and indicate the +common origin of the two sections. The food of these bats appears to +be wholly or in great part fruit. The species are divided into some +eleven genera, mostly distinguished by the form of the skull and teeth. +<i>Artibeus</i> includes the frugivorous <i>A. perspicillatus</i>. <i>Stenoderma +achradophilum</i>, found in Jamaica and Cuba, with the last, from which +it is scarcely distinguishable externally except by its much smaller +size, differs in the absence of the horizontal plate of the premaxillae +on the palate. <i>Sturnira lilium</i>, while agreeing with these in the form +of the nose-leaf and ears, differs from all the species of the family in +its longitudinally-grooved molars, which resemble those of the +<i>Pteropodidae</i> more closely than those of any other bats; and the +presence of tufts of long differently-coloured hairs over glands in the +sides of the neck is another character in common with that group. +<i>Centurio senex</i> (fig. 13) is the type of a small genus distinguished from +<i>Stenoderma</i> and other genera of this group by the absence of a distinct +nose-leaf. Some naturalists make this genus the type of a distinct +subgroup, <i>Centurioneae</i>. Up to 1904 the genera, exclusive of <i>Centurio</i>, +included in the <i>Stenodermateae</i> were <i>Artibeus</i> (with several sub-genera), +<i>Vampyrops</i> (also with subgenera), <i>Mesophylla</i>, <i>Chiroderma</i>, +<i>Stenoderma</i> (with 3 subgenera), <i>Ectophylla</i>, <i>Ametrida</i> (with 2 sub-genera), +<i>Pygoderma</i>, <i>Sturnira</i> and <i>Brachyphylla</i>.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 350px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:300px; height:237px" src="images/img244b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Head of Masked +Vampire (<i>Centurio senex</i>). +From Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The third subfamily, <i>Desmodontieae</i>, is represented only by the +blood-sucking bats, and distinguished by having <i>i.</i> ½, of which the +upper pair are cutting, the rudimentary +molars, the very short interfemoral +membrane, and the blood-sucking +habit. They are further characterized +as follows: Muzzle short and conical; +nose-leaf distinct; <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> 1/1 or 0/0; +upper incisors occupying the whole +space between the canines; premolars +narrow, with sharp-edged longitudinal +crowns; molars rudimentary or absent; +stomach elongated, and intestiniform. +There are two genera, <i>Desmodus</i>, without +calcar or molars, and <i>Diphylla</i>, +with a short calcar and a single rudimentary +molar on each side—restricted +to Central and South America. <i>Desmodus rufus</i>, the commoner +species, is a little larger than the noctule bat, and abundant +in certain parts of South America, where it is troublesome owing to +its attacks upon domestic animals, sucking their blood and leaving +them weakened from repeated bleedings. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vampire</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The fourth family of bats, unlike any of the three previous ones, +has a cosmopolitan distribution. These free-tailed bats, as they are +conveniently called, constituting the family <i>Emballonuridae</i>, +present the following distinctive features. The +<span class="sidenote">Free-tailed bats.</span> +nostrils are of normal form and without a nose-leaf. The +premaxillae have their palatal portion imperfectly developed, +and united by a slender process with the maxillae. The +ears are large, with a small tragus. The middle finger has two +phalanges, and the index generally a single one. The fibula is incomplete. +The tail is generally short, and always partly free from +the interfemoral membrane. There is generally only a single pair of +upper incisors, separated by gaps from the canines, and from one +another in the middle line.</p> + +<p>The distinctive feature of these bats is the free tail-tip, which +pierces the interfemoral membrane to appear on its upper surface, +and may project beyond its margin. As a rule, these bats may also +be recognized by the peculiar form of the muzzle, which is obliquely +truncated, the nostrils projecting more or less in front beyond the +lower lip, by the first phalange of the middle finger being folded in +repose forwards on the upper surface of the metacarpal bone, and by +the upper incisors. Although cosmopolitan, these bats rarely extend +north or south of the thirtieth parallels of latitude.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 280px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:230px; height:195px" src="images/img244c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Ear of <i>Emballonura raffrayana</i>. From Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The family may be divided into two subfamilies, of which the +<i>Emballonurinae</i> is characterized by the incomplete premaxillae, the +presence of only one phalange in the index finger, and the short tail. +The dental formula is generally <i>i.</i> 1/3 (sometimes 2/3 or 1/2), <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 2/3, <i>m.</i> 3/3. +This subfamily may be further subdivided +into subgroups or sections of which the +first, <i>Embalionurae</i>, is characterized by the +slender tail perforating the interfemoral +membrane, so as to appear on its upper +surface; the legs long, with a slender +fibula; the incisors weak; and the premolars +2/2. The typical genus <i>Emballonura</i> +presents the following features: <i>i.</i> 2/3, +extremity of the muzzle more or less +produced beyond the lower lip, forehead +flat. The genus contains several species, +inhabiting islands from Madagascar +through the Malay Archipelago and Siam +to the Navigator Islands. <i>Coleura</i>, with <i>i.</i> 1/3, the extremity +of the muzzle broad, and the forehead concave, has two species +from East Africa and the Seychelles. <i>Rhynchonycteris</i> is distinguished +from <i>Coleura</i> by the produced extremity of the muzzle. +The single species, <i>R. naso</i>, from Central and South America, is +common in the vicinity of streams, where it is usually found during +the day resting on the vertical faces of rocks, or on trunks of trees +growing over water; it escapes notice owing to the greyish colour of +the fur of the body and of small tufts on the antebrachial membrane +counterfeiting the weathered surfaces of rocks and bark. As evening +approaches it appears on the wing, flying close to the water. <i>Saccopteryx</i> +has <i>i.</i> 1/3 and the antibrachial membrane with a pouch opening +on its upper surface; it contains several species from Central and +South America. This sac is developed only in the male and in the +female is rudimentary. In adult males a valvular longitudinal +opening occupies the upper surface of the membrane leading into a +small pouch, the interior of which is lined with a glandular membrane +secreting an unctuous reddish substance with a strong ammoniacal +odour. Allied genera are the tropical American <i>Peropteryx</i> and the +Brazilian <i>Cormura</i>. The various species of tomb-bats (<i>Taphozous</i>) +inhabit the tropical and subtropical parts of all the eastern hemisphere +except Polynesia, and are distinguished by the cartilaginous +premaxillaries, the deciduous pair of upper incisors, and the presence +of only two pairs of lower incisors. Most of the species have a +glandular sac (fig. 15) between the angles of the lower jaw, more +developed in males than in females, in some species absent in the +latter. An open throat-sac is wanting in <i>T. melanopogon</i>, but about +its position are the openings of small pores, the secretion from which +probably causes the hairs to grow long, forming the black beard +found in many males. The three tropical American white bats, +<i>Diclidurus</i>, with <i>i.</i> 1/3, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/2, <i>m.</i> 3/3, resemble <i>Taphozous</i> in the form +of the head and ears, but, besides other characters, differ from all +other bats in possessing a pouch, opening off the centre of the +interior surface of the interfemoral membrane; the extremity of the +tail enters this, and perforates its base.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:600px; height:227px" src="images/img244d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Heads of Tomb-Bat (<i>Taphozous longimanus</i>), showing +relative development of throat-sacs in male and female. From +Dobson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The second subfamily of the <i>Emballonuridae</i>, <i>Rhinopomatinae</i>, is +represented only by the genus <i>Rhinopoma</i>, with several species +ranging from Egypt through Arabia to India, Burma and Sumatra. +The premaxillae (fig. 16) are complete; the index finger has two +phalanges; the tail is very long and mouselike; and the dental +formula <i>i.</i> 1/2, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 1/2, <i>m.</i> 2/3. Dr G.E. Dobson has remarked that +these mouse-tailed bats might be elevated to the rank of a family, for +it is difficult to determine their affinities, a kind of cross relationship +attaching them to the <i>Nycteridae</i> on the one hand and to the <i>Emballonuridae</i> +on the other. These bats, distinguished from all other +Microchiroptera by the presence of two phalanges in the index finger +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span> +and the long and slender tail projecting far beyond the narrow interfemoral +membrane, inhabit the subterranean tombs in Egypt and +deserted buildings generally from north-east Africa to Burma and +Sumatra.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 350px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:300px; height:176px" src="images/img245a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Skull of Mouse-tailed Bat (<i>Rhinopoma microphyllum</i>). ×2. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The last group, according to the system adopted by Prof. Max +Weber, is that of the <i>Vespertilionidae</i>, which includes such typical +bats as the pipistrelle, the noctule, and the long-eared +species. By Mr G.S. Miller<a name="FnAnchor_1g" id="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the first section of the +<span class="sidenote">Typical bats.</span> +family—<i>Natalinae</i>—is regarded as of family rank, while +the last section, or <i>Molossinae</i>, is included by Dr G.E. Dobson in the +<i>Emballonuridae</i>, from the typical forms of which its members differ +widely in tail-structure. In this +extended sense the family, which +has a cosmopolitan distribution, +may be defined as follows:—The +nostrils are normal and without a +nose-leaf. The ethmoturbinal bones +of the nasal chamber are involuted. +The palatine processes of the premaxillae +do not form a suture. The +ear is mostly large, with a tragus. +The middle finger (except in <i>Thyroptera</i>) +has two phalanges. The +fibula is usually rudimentary. The +tail is long and does not perforate the interfemoral membrane. +The incisors are generally 2/3 or 1/2, but may be reduced to 1/1 in the +<i>Molossinae</i>.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 450px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:400px; height:291px" src="images/img245b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Head of <i>Chilonatalus micropus</i>. ×2. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the first subfamily, <i>Natalinae</i>, which is exclusively tropical +American, the other upper incisors are separated from one +another and from the canines; palatine processes of the premaxillae +are at least partially developed; and the dental formula +is <i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> (2 or 3)/3, <i>m.</i> 3/3. In general appearance these bats recall +the more typical <i>Vespertilionidae</i>, although the form of the muzzle is +suggestive of the <i>Mormopsinae</i> among the <i>Phyllostomatidae</i>. Again, +while the form of the skull is +vespertilione, the relation of +the vomer to the front end +of the premaxillae is of the +phyllostomine type. The +molars and incisors are likewise +vespertilione, whereas the +premolars are as distinctly +phyllostomine. Finally, while +the third, or middle, finger +normally has two phalanges, +as in typical <i>Vespertilionidae</i>, +the second of these is elongated +and in <i>Thyroptera</i> +divided into two, as in <i>Phyllostomatidae</i>.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:600px; height:269px" src="images/img245c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—Suctorial Disks in <i>Thyroptera tricolor</i>, <i>a</i>, side, and <i>b</i>, +concave surface, of thumb disk; <i>c</i>, foot with disk, and calcar with +projections (all much enlarged). (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The first two genera, <i>Furipterus</i> and <i>Amorphochilus</i>, each have a +single species, the latter being distinguished from the former by the +wide separation of the nostrils and the backward prolongation of the +palate. In both the crown of the head is elevated, the thumb and +first phalange of the middle finger are very short, and the premolars +are 2/3. The same elevation of the crown characterizes the genera +<i>Natalus</i> and <i>Chilonatalus</i> (fig. 17), in which the premolars are 3/3: in +general appearance these bats are very like the Old World vespertilionine +genus <i>Cerivoula</i>, except for the short triangular tragus. +Lastly, <i>Thyroptera</i> includes two species distinguished by an additional +phalange in the middle finger and by accessory clinging-organs attached +to the extremities. In <i>Thyroptera tricolor, i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 3/3, from Brazil, +these have the appearance of small, circular, stalked, hollow disks +(fig. 18), resembling miniature sucking-cups of cuttle-fishes, and are +attached to the inferior surfaces of the thumbs and the soles of the +feet. By their aid the bat is able to maintain its hold when creeping +over smooth vertical surfaces.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 350px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:250px; height:214px" src="images/img245d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Head of <i>Scotophilus emarginatus</i>. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The second or typical subfamily, <i>Vespertilioninae</i>, includes all the +remaining members of the family with the exception of the aberrant +<i>Molossinae</i>. The upper incisors are in proximity to the canines; the +premaxillae widely separated; the ears medium or large; the dental +formula is <i>i.</i> 2/3 (or 1/3), <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 3/3 (2/3, 2/2, or 1/2), <i>m.</i> 3/3; and the fibula very +small and imperfect. All the members of this large cosmopolitan +group are closely allied, and differ chiefly by external characters. +They may be divided into subgroups. In the first of these, the +<i>Plecoteae</i>, of which the long-eared bat (<i>Plecotus auritus</i>) is the type, +the crown of the head is but slightly raised above the face-line, +the upper incisors are close to the canines, and the nostrils are +margined behind by grooves an the upper surface of the muzzle, or +by rudimentary nose-leaves; the ears being generally very large and +united. Of the six genera, <i>Plecotus</i>, with <i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 2/3, has three species:—one +the long-eared European bat referred to above; <i>P. macrotis</i>, +restricted to North America, is distinguished +by the great size of the glandular +prominences of the sides of the muzzle, +which meet in the centre above and behind +the nostrils; the third species being also +American. The second, <i>Barbastella</i>, with +<i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 2/2, distinguished by its dentition +and by the outer margin of the ear being +carried forwards above the mouth and in +front of the eye, includes the European +barbastelle bat, <i>B. barbastellus</i>, and <i>B. darjelingensis</i> +from the Himalaya. <i>Otonycteris</i>, +<i>i.</i> 1/3, <i>pm.</i>, 1/2, connecting this group with the +<i>Vespertilioneae</i>, is represented by <i>O. hemprichii</i>, from North Africa +and the Himalaya, and an Arabian species. The next two genera are +distinguished by the presence of a rudimentary nose-leaf: <i>Nyctophilus</i>, +<i>i.</i> 1/3, <i>p.</i> 1/2, with three species from Australasia; and <i>Antrozous</i>, +<i>i.</i> 1/2, <i>p.</i> 1/2, distinguished from all the other members of the subfamily +by having but two lower incisors, and from other <i>Plecoteae</i> by the +separate ears; the two species inhabit California. The sixth genus, +<i>Euderma</i>, is also represented by a Californian species.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 450px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:400px; height:152px" src="images/img245e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Head of <i>Cerivoula hardwickei</i>. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The second group <i>Vespertilioneae</i>, with about thirteen genera, +includes the great majority of the species; and a large number of +these may be classed under <i>Vespertilio</i>, which is divisible into subgenera, +differing from one another in the number of premolars, and +often ranked as separate genera. One group is represented by +<i>V.</i> (<i>Histiolus</i>) <i>magellanicus</i>, a species remarkable for its extreme +southern range, its relatives being also South American. A second +group, with <i>p.</i> 1/2, includes the British serotine, <i>V.</i> (<i>Eptesicus</i>) <i>serotinus</i>, +of Europe and northern Asia, and represented in North America by +the closely allied <i>V.</i> (<i>E.</i>) <i>fuscus</i>. In the typical group, which includes +the Old World <i>V. murinus</i>, one species, <i>V. borealis</i>, ranges to the +Arctic circle. The European noctule, <i>V.</i> (<i>Pierygistes</i>) <i>noctula</i>, and +Leisler’s bat, <i>V.</i> (<i>P.</i>) <i>leisleri</i>, represent another group; and the +common pipistrelle, <i>V.</i> (<i>Pipistrellus</i>) <i>pipistrellus</i>, yet another, with +<i>p.</i> 2/2. The only other group that need be mentioned is one represented +by the North American <i>V.</i> (<i>Lasionycteris</i>) <i>noctivagans</i>, with <i>p.</i> 2/3. +The African <i>Läephotes</i>, the Chinese <i>Ia</i>, and the Papuan <i>Philetor</i> are +allied genera, each with a single species. <i>Chalinolobus</i> and <i>Glauconycteris</i> +have the same general dental character as <i>Vespertilio</i>, +but are distinguished by the presence of a lobe projecting from the +lower lip near the gape; the former, with <i>p.</i> 2/2, is represented by five +Australasian species, one of which extends into New Zealand; while +the latter, with <i>p.</i> 1/2, is African. The species of <i>Glauconycteris</i> are +noticeable for their peculiarly thin membranes traversed by distinct +reticulations and parallel lines. <i>Scotophilus</i>, with <i>i.</i> 1/3, <i>p.</i> 1/2, includes +several species, restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions of +the eastern hemisphere, +though widely distributed +within these +limits. These bats, +though approaching certain +species of <i>Vespertilio</i> +in many points, are distinguished +by the single +(in place of two) pair +of unicuspidate upper +incisors separated by a +wide space and placed +close to the canines, by the small transverse first lower premolar +crushed in between the canine and second premolar, and, generally, +by their conical, nearly naked, muzzles and thick leathery membranes. +<i>S. temmincki</i> is the commonest bat in India, and appears often before +the sun has touched the horizon. <i>S. gigas</i>, from equatorial Africa, is +the largest species. <i>Nycticejus</i>, with the same dental formula as +<i>Scotophilus</i>, is distinguished, by the first lower premolar not being +crushed in between the adjoining teeth, and the comparatively +greater size of the last upper molar. It includes only the North +American <i>N. humeralis</i> (<i>crepuscularis</i>), a bat scarcely larger than the +pipistrelle. The hairy-membraned bats of the genus <i>Lasiurus</i> +(<i>Atalapha</i>), with <i>i.</i> 1/3, <i>p.</i> 2/2 or 1/2, are also limited to the New World, +and generally characterized by the interfemoral membrane being +more or less covered with hair and by the peculiar form of the tragus, +which is expanded above and abruptly curved inwards. In those +species which have two upper premolars the first is extremely small +and internal to the tooth-row. The genus, which is divided into +<i>Lasiurus</i> proper and <i>Dasypterus</i>, is further characterized by the +presence of four teats in the female, and by the general production +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span> +of three or four offspring at a birth. <i>Rhogëessa</i> and <i>Tomopeas</i> are +allied tropical American types. <i>Murina</i>, with the subgenus <i>Harpiocephalus</i>, +has <i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 2/2, and includes several small bats distinguished +by the prominent tube-like nostrils and hairy interfemoral membrane. +<i>M. suilla</i>, from Java, the Malay and neighbouring islands, is a well-known +species, and the closely allied <i>M. hilgendorfi</i> is from Japan. +The remaining species are from the Himalaya, Tibet and Ceylon; +and apparently restricted to the hill-tracts of the countries in which +they are found. Next to <i>Vespertilio</i> the genus <i>Myotis</i> (divisible into +several subgenera), with <i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 3/3, includes the largest number of +species, and has rather a wider geographical distribution in both +hemispheres, one species being recorded from the Navigator Islands. +The species may be recognized by the peculiar character of the pairs +of upper incisors on each side, the cusps of which diverge from each +other, by the large number of premolars, of which the second upper +is always small, and by the oval elongated ear and narrow tragus. +The British <i>M. bechsteini</i> and <i>M. nattereri</i> are examples of this group. +<i>Cerivoula</i> (<i>Kerivoula</i>), which also has <i>p.</i> 3/3, is distinguished by the +parallel upper incisors and the large second upper premolar. There +are numerous African and Indo-Malayan species, of which <i>C. picta</i>, +from India and Indo-Malay, is characterized by its brilliant orange +fur, and membranes variegated with orange and black. The genus +includes delicately formed insectivorous, tropical, forest-haunting +bats, whose colouring approximates them to the ripe bananas among +which they often pass the daytime.</p> + +<p>Another subgroup, <i>Minioptereae</i>, is represented solely by the genus +<i>Miniopterus</i>, with <i>i.</i> 2/3, <i>p.</i> 2/3. The incisors are separated from one +another in front and from the canines; the first phalange of the +middle finger is very short, the crown of the head elevated, and the +tail long. The genus is represented by some half-dozen Old World +species, among which the typical <i>M. schreibersi</i> ranges from Europe, +southern Asia, and Africa to Japan and Australasia.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:280px; height:294px" src="images/img246a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:280px; height:258px" src="images/img246b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—Head of Mastiff-bat (<i>Molossus glaucinus</i>). (From Dobson.)</td> +<td><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—Head of <i>Nyctinomops macrotis</i>. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The last subfamily is that of the <i>Molossinae</i>, included by Dobson +in the family <i>Emballonuridae</i>. In this group the premaxillae are in +contact or but very slightly separated; the ears are large, with the +tragus small; the dental formula is <i>i.</i> 1/1 (1/2 or 1/3), <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 1/2 (2/2), <i>m.</i> 3/3; +and the fibula is strongly developed. In their blunt muzzles and +many other features these bats undoubtedly resemble the <i>Emballonuridae</i>, +from the typical members of which they differ by the production +of the thick tail far beyond the margin of the interfemoral +membrane. They are further characterized by their broad and +stout feet, in which the first, and in most cases also the fifth, toe is +thicker than the rest, and furnished with long bent hairs; and by +the presence of callosities at the base of the thumbs, and a single +pair of large upper incisors occupying the centre of the space between +the canines. The feet are free from the wing-membrane, which +folds up under the fore-arm and legs; the interfemoral membrane +is retractile, being movable backwards and forwards along the tail; +this power of varying its superficial extent confers on these bats +great dexterity in changing the direction of flight. All are able to +walk or crawl well, and spend much of their time on trees. The +genus <i>Chiromeles</i>, with <i>i.</i> 1/1, <i>c.</i> 1/1, <i>p.</i> 1/2, <i>m.</i> 3/3, the first hind-toe much +larger than and separate from the others, and the widely sundered +ears, is represented by <i>C. torquata</i>, a large bat of peculiar aspect, +inhabiting the Indo-Malay countries. This species is nearly naked, +a collar only of thinly spread hairs half surrounding the neck, and +is remarkable for its enormous throat-sac and nursing-pouches. +The former consists of a semicircular fold of skin forming a pouch +round the neck beneath, concealing the orifices of subcutaneous +pectoral glands which discharge an oily fluid of offensive smell. The +nursing-pouch is formed on each side by an extension of a fold of +skin from the side of the body to the inferior surfaces of the humerus +and femur. In the anterior part of this pouch the teat is placed. +The typical genus <i>Molossus</i> (fig. 21) includes the mastiff-bats, +characterized by the dental formula <i>i.</i> 1/1 or 1/2, <i>p.</i> 1/2 or 2/2; and by the +upper incisors being close together in front. The genus is restricted +to the tropical and subtropical regions of the New World. <i>M. +obscurus</i>, a small species common in tropical America, inhabits the +hollow trunks of palms and other trees and the roofs of houses. +The males and females live apart (as is the case in most if not all +bats). In West Africa the mastiff-bats are represented by <i>Eomops</i>, +with one species; while <i>Nyctinomops</i> includes a number of tropical +American species more nearly related to the next genus, in which +some of them (fig. 22) were formerly included. The widely spread +<i>Nyctinomus</i>, with <i>i.</i> 1/3 or 1/2, <i>p.</i> 2/2 or 1/2, and the upper incisors separate +in front, includes numerous species inhabiting the tropical and +subtropical parts of both hemispheres. The lips of the bats of this +genus are even more expansible than in <i>Molossus</i>, in many of the +species (fig. 22) showing vertical wrinkles. <i>N. toeniotis</i> (or <i>cestonii</i>), +one of the largest species, alone extends into Europe, as far north +as Switzerland. <i>N. johorensis</i>, from the Malay Peninsula, is remarkable +for the extraordinary form of its ears. <i>N. brasiliensis</i> +is common in tropical America, and extends as far north as California.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:600px; height:271px" src="images/img246c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—Thumb and leg and foot of New Zealand bat (<i>Mystacops +tuberculatus</i>), enlarged. (From Dobson.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Here may be conveniently noticed two very rare and aberrant +bats, <i>Myzopoda</i> (or <i>Myxopoda</i>) <i>aurita</i> of Madagascar, and <i>Mystacops</i> +(or <i>Mystacina</i>) <i>tuberculatas</i> of New Zealand, the latter +of which is believed to be well-nigh, if not entirely, exterminated. +<span class="sidenote">Myzopoda and Mystacops.</span> +Their systematic position and affinities are +somewhat uncertain; but in the opinion of O. Thomas<a name="FnAnchor_2g" id="FnAnchor_2g" href="#Footnote_2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +the former should typify a separate family, <i>Myzopodidae</i>, in which +the latter may also find a place. From all other bats <i>Myzopoda</i> is +distinguished by the presence of a peculiar mushroom-shaped organ +at the base of the large ear, and by the union of the tragus with the +latter, on the inner base of which it forms a small projection. There +are three phalanges in the middle finger; and the whole inferior +surface of the thumb supports a large sessile horseshoe-shaped +adhesive pad, with the circular margin directed forwards and +notched along its edge, while a smaller pad occupies part of the sole +of the hind-foot. Mr Thomas regards this bat as related on the one +hand to the subfamily <i>Mormopsinae</i> of the <i>Phyllostomatidae</i>, and on +the other to the <i>Natalinae</i> among the <i>Vespertilionidae</i>; both these +groups being regarded by him as of family rank.</p> + +<p><i>Mystacops</i> resembles <i>Myzopoda</i> in having three phalanges to the +middle finger, but differs in that the tail perforates the interfemoral +membrane to appear on its upper surface in the manner characteristic +of the <i>Emballonuridae</i>. The greater part of the wing-membrane is +exceedingly thin, but a narrow portion along the fore-arm, the sides +of the body, and the legs, is thick and leathery, and beneath this +thickened portion the wings are folded. Other peculiarities of +structure are found in the form of the claws of the thumbs and toes, +each of which has a small heel projecting from its concave surface +near the base, also in the sole of the foot and inferior surface of the +leg, as shown in fig. 23. The plantar surface, including the toes, is +covered with soft and very lax, deeply wrinkled skin, and each toe +is marked by a central longitudinal groove with short grooves at +right angles to it. The lax wrinkled integument is continued along +the inferior flattened surface of the ankle and leg. These peculiarities +appear to be related to climbing habits in the species.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Extinct Bats</i>.</p> + +<p>Palaeontology tells us nothing with regard to the origin of +the Chiroptera, all the known fossil species, some of which date +back to the Oligocene, being more or less closely allied to existing +types, and therefore of comparatively little interest. The origin +of the order from primitive insectivorous mammals must have +taken place at least as early as the Lower Eocene. It is, however, +noteworthy that several of the earlier extinct species appear +to be related to the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>, which is the most generalized +family of the order. Remains of <i>Pteropodidae</i> belonging to +existing genera occur in the caves of tropical countries in the +eastern hemisphere; and the skeleton of an extinct generic +type, <i>Archaeopteropus</i>, has been obtained from the Miocene +lignite of Italy, which indicates a form to a certain extent +transitional in character between typical fruit-bats and the +insectivorous bats. The tail, for instance, which in most modern +fruit-bats is rudimentary, with only three or four vertebrae, in +the fossil has eight complete vertebrae; while the teeth of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span> +extinct form are distinctly cusped. Whether, however, the tail +is longer than in the existing <i>Notopteris</i> of Fiji and New Guinea, +or whether the molars are more distinctly cusped than is the +case with the Solomon Island <i>Pteropus</i> (<i>Pteralopex</i>), is not +stated. Still, the fact that the Miocene fruit-bat does show +certain signs of approximation to the insectivorous (and more +generalized) section of the order is of interest. Of the Oligocene +forms, <i>Pseudorhinolophus</i> of Europe is apparently a member of +the <i>Rhinolophidae</i>; but the affinities of <i>Alastor</i> and <i>Vespertiliavus</i>, +which are likewise European, are more doubtful, although +the latter may be related to <i>Taphozous</i>. The North American +<i>Vespertilio</i> (<i>Vesperugo</i>) <i>anemophilus</i> and the European <i>V. +aquensis</i> and <i>V. parisiensis</i> are, on the other hand, members of +the <i>Vespertilionidae</i>, the last being apparently allied to the +serotine (<i>V. serotinus</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>AUTHORITIES.—The above article is based to some extent on the +article in the 9th edition of this work by G.E. Dobson, whose +British Museum “Catalogue” is, however, now obsolete. Professor +H. Winge’s “Jordfundae og nulevende Flagermus (Chiroptera),” +published in <i>E. Mus. Lundi</i> (Copenhagen, 1892), contains much +valuable information; and for <i>Pteropodidae</i> Dr P. Matschie’s +<i>Megachiroptera</i> (Berlin, 1899), should be consulted. For the rest the +student must refer to namerous papers by G.M. Allen, K. Andersen, +F.A. Jentink, G.S. Miller, T.S. Palmer, A.G. Rehn, O. Thomas and +others, in various English and American zoological serials, all of +which are quoted in the volumes of the <i>Zoological Record</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1g" id="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. xii. (1899).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2g" id="Footnote_2g" href="#FnAnchor_2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> (London, 1904), vol. ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIRU<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span>, a graceful Tibetan antelope (<i>Pantholops Hodgsoni</i>), +of which the bucks are armed with long, slender and heavily-ridged +horns of an altogether peculiar type, while the does are +hornless. Possibly this handsome antelope may be the original +of the mythical unicorn, a single buck when seen in profile +looking exactly as if it had but one long straight horn. Although +far from uncommon, chiru are very wary, and consequently +difficult to approach. They are generally found in small parties, +although occasionally in herds. They inhabit the desolate +plateau of Tibet, at elevations of between 13,000 and 18,000 ft., +and, like all Tibetan animals, have a firm thick coat, formed in +this instance of close woolly hair of a grey fawn-colour. The most +peculiar feature about the chiru is, however, its swollen, puffy +nose, which is probably connected with breathing a highly rarefied +atmosphere. A second antelope inhabiting the same country +as the chiru is the goa (<i>Gazella picticaudata</i>), a member of the +gazelle group characterized by the peculiar form of the horns +of the bucks and certain features of coloration, whereby it is +markedly distinguished from all its kindred save one or two +other central Asian species. The chiru, which belongs to the +typical or antilopine section of antelopes, is probably allied to +the saiga.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHIRURGEON<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span>, one whose profession it is to cure disease by +operating with the hand. The word in its original form is now +obsolete. It derives from the Mid. Eng. <i>cirurgien</i> or <i>sirurgien</i>, +through the Fr. from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheirourgos">χειρουργός</span>, one who operates with +the hand (from <span class="grk" title="cheir">χεἰρ</span>, hand, <span class="grk" title="ergon">ἔργον</span>, work); from the early form +is derived the modern word “surgeon.” “Chirurgeon” is a +16th century reversion to the Greek origin. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Surgery</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHISEL<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>cisel</i>, modern <i>ciseau</i>, Late Lat. <i>cisellum</i>, +a cutting tool, from <i>caedere</i>, to cut), a sharp-edged tool for cutting +metal, wood or stone. There are numerous varieties of chisels +used in different trades; the carpenter’s chisel is wooden-handled +with a straight edge, transverse to the axis and bevelled +on one side; stone masons’ chisels are bevelled on both sides, +and others have oblique, concave or convex edges. A chisel with +a semicircular blade is called a “gouge.” The tool is worked +either by hand-pressure or by blows from a hammer or mallet. +The “cold chisel” has a steel edge, highly tempered to cut +unheated metal. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tool</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHISLEHURST<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span>, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parliamentary +division of Kent, England, 11-1/4 m. S.E. of London, +by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 7429. +It is situated 300 ft. above sea-level, on a common of furze +and heather in the midst of picturesque country. The church +of St Nicholas (Perpendicular with Early English portions, but +much restored) has a tomb of the Walsingham family, who had +a lease of the manor from Elizabeth; Sir Francis Walsingham, +the statesman, being born here in 1536. Another statesman +of the same age, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was born here in 1510. +Near the church is an ancient cockpit. The mortuary chapel +attached to the Roman Catholic church of St Mary was built +to receive the body of Napoleon III., who died at Camden +Place in 1873; and that of his son was brought hither in 1879. +Both were afterwards removed to the memorial chapel at +Farnborough in Hampshire. Camden Place was built by +William Camden, the antiquary, in 1609, and in 1765 gave +the title of Baron Camden to Lord Chancellor Pratt. The house +was the residence not only of Napoleon III., but of the empress +Eugénie and of the prince imperial, who is commemorated by a +memorial cross on Chislehurst Common. The house and grounds +are now occupied by a golf club. There are many villa residences +in the neighbourhood of Chislehurst.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHISWICK<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span>, an urban district in the Ealing parliamentary +division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, on the +Thames, 7½ m. W. by S. of St Paul’s cathedral. Pop. (1901) +29,809. The locality is largely residential, but there are breweries, +and the marine engineering works of Messrs Thornycroft on the +river. Chiswick House, a seat of the duke of Devonshire, is +surrounded by beautiful grounds; here died Fox (1806) and Canning +(1827). The gardens near belonged till 1903 to the Royal +Horticultural Society. The church of St Nicholas has ancient +portions, and in the churchyard is the tomb of William Hogarth +the painter, with commemorative lines by David Garrick. +Hogarth’s house is close at hand. Chiswick Hall, no longer +extant, was formerly a country seat for the masters and sanatorium +for the scholars of Westminster school. Here in 1811 the +Chiswick Press was founded by Charles Whittingham the elder, +an eminent printer (d. 1840).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHITA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span>, a town of east Siberia, capital of Transbaikalia, on +the Siberian railway, 500 m. E. of Irkutsk, on the Chita river, +half a mile above its confluence with the Ingoda. Pop. (1883) +12,600; (1897) 11,480. The Imperial Russian Geographical +Society has a museum here. Several of the palace revolutionaries, +known as Decembrists, were banished to this place from +St Petersburg in consequence of the conspiracy of December 1825. +The inhabitants support themselves by agriculture and by trade +in furs, cattle, hides and tallow bought from the Buriats, and +in manufactured wares imported from Russia and west Siberia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHITALDRUG<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span>, a district and town in the native state of +Mysore, India. The district has an area of 4022 sq. m. and a +population (1901) of 498,795. It is distinguished by its low +rainfall and arid soil. It lies within the valley of the Vedavati +or Hagari river, mostly dry in the hot season. Several parallel +chains of hills, reaching an extreme height of 3800 ft., cross the +district; otherwise it is a plain. The chief crops are cotton and +flax; the chief manufactures are blankets and cotton cloth. +The west of the district is served by the Southern Mahratta +railway. The largest town in the district is Davangere (pop. +10,402). The town of CHITALDRUG, which is the district headquarters +(pop. 1901, 5792), was formerly a military cantonment, +but this was abandoned on account of its unhealthiness. It +has massive fortifications erected under Hyder Ali and Tippoo +Sahib towards the close of the 18th century; and near it on the +west are remains of a city of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">CHITON<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span>, the name<a name="FnAnchor_1h" id="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> given to fairly common littoral animals +of rather small size which belong to the phylum Mollusca, and, +in the possession of a radula in the buccal cavity, resemble more +especially the Gastropoda. Their most important characteristic +in comparison with the latter is that they are, both in external +and internal structure, bilaterally symmetrical. The dorsal +integument or mantle bears, not a simple shell, but eight calcareous +plates in longitudinal series articulating with each other. +The ventral surface forms a flat creeping “foot,” and between +mantle and foot is a pallial groove in which there is on each side +a series of gills. Originally the Chitons were placed with the +limpets, <i>Patella</i>, in Cuvier’s <i>Cyclobranchia</i>, an order of the +Gastropoda. In 1876 H. von Jhering demonstrated the affinities +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span> +of <i>Neomenia</i> and <i>Chaetoderma</i>, vermiform animals destitute of +shell, with the Chitons, and placed them all in a division of worms +which he named Amphineura. The discovery by A.A.W. +Hubrecht in 1881 of a typical molluscan radula and odontophore +in a new genus <i>Proneomenia</i>, allied to <i>Neomenia</i>, showed that +the whole group belonged to the Mollusca. E. Ray Lankester +(<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, 9th ed., 1883) placed them under the name Isopleura +as a subclass of Gastropoda. Paul Pelseneer (1906) raised the +group to the rank of a class of Mollusca, under von Jhering’s +name Amphineura.</p> + +<p>The Amphineura are divided into two orders: (1) the Polyplacophora, +or Chitons; (2) the Aplacophora, or forms without +shells, <i>Neomenia</i>, <i>Chaetoderma</i> and their allies.</p> + +<p class="center1">Order I.—<span class="sc">Polyplacophora</span></p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:550px; height:314px" src="images/img248a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Three views of Chiton.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr f90" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>A. Dorsal view of <i>Chiton Wosnessenksii</i>, +Midd., showing +the eight shells. (After +Middendorf.)</p> + +<p>B. View from the pedal surface +of a species of Chiton from +the Indian Ocean, <i>p</i>, foot; +<i>o</i>, mouth (at the other end +of the foot is seen the anus +raised on a papilla); <i>kr</i>, +oral fringe; <i>br</i>, the numerous +ctenidia (branchial +plumes); spreading beyond +these, and all round the +animal, is the mantle-skirt. +(After Cuvier.)</p></td> + +<td class="tcl"><p>C. The same species of Chiton, +with the shells removed and +the dorsal integument reflected, +<i>b</i>, buccal mass; <i>m</i>, +retractor muscles of the +buccal mass; <i>ov</i>, ovary; +<i>od</i>, oviduct; <i>i</i>, coils of intestines; +<i>ao</i>, aorta; <i>c’</i>, left +auricle; <i>c</i>, ventricle.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:550px; height:448px" src="images/img248b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Pallial eye and aesthetes of <i>Acanthopleura spiniger</i> +(Moseley).</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Each of the eight valves of the shell is made up of two distinct +calcareous layers: (a) an outer or upper called the tegmentum, +which is visible externally; (b) a deeper layer called articulamentum +which is porcellaneous, quite compact, and entirely +covered by the tegmentum. In the lower forms the two layers +are coextensive and have smooth edges, but in the higher forms +the articulamentum projects laterally beyond and beneath the +tegmentum into the substance of the mantle. These projections +are termed insertion plates; they are usually slit or notched to +form teeth, the edges of which may be smooth and sharp, or may +be crenulated. The anterior margin of each valve except the +first is provided with two projections called sutural laminae +which underlie the posterior margin of the preceding valve.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:600px; height:358px" src="images/img248c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Lankester, <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Ventral aspect of three species of Polyplacophora showing +position of gills.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr f90" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl" style="width: 50%;"> +<p>A. <i>Lepidopleurus benthus</i>.</p> + +<p>B. <i>Boreochiton cinereus</i>.</p></td> + +<td class="tcl"><p>C. <i>Schizochiton incisus</i>. <i>a</i>, +anus; <i>f</i>, foot; <i>g</i>, gills; <i>m</i>, +mouth; <i>pa</i>, mantle; <i>pa’</i>, +anal lobe of mantle; <i>ps</i>, +pallial slit; <i>te</i>, pallial +tentacles.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="float: right; width: 400px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:350px; height:644px" src="images/img248d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Diagrams of the alimentary canal of Amphineura (from Hubrecht).</p> +<p>A. Neomenia and Proneomenia.</p> +<p>B. Chaetoderma.</p> +<p>C. Chiton.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Alimentary canal.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Liver (digestive gland).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The tegmentum is formed by the fold of mantle covering the +edge of the articulamentum, and extends over the latter from the +sides. It is the first part of the shell formed in development. +The tegmentum is much reduced in <i>Acanthochiton</i>, and absent +in the adult <i>Cryptochiton</i>. +The tegmentum is pierced +by numerous vertical ramified +canals which contain +epithelial papillae of the +epidermis. These papillae +form pallial sense-organs, +containing nerve-end +bulbs, covered by a dome +of cuticle, and innervated +from the pallial nerve-cords. +They are termed +according to their size, +micraesthetes and megalaesthetes. +In the common +species of <i>Chiton</i> and many +others of the family +<i>Chitonidae</i> the megalaesthetes +are developed into +definite eyes, the most +complicated of which have +retina, pigment within the +eye, cornea and crystalline +lens (intra-pigmental eyes) +(fig. 2). The eyes are +arranged in rows running +diagonally from the median +anterior beak of each valve +to its lateral borders +There may be only one +such row on either side, or +many rows. In some species +the total number present +amounts to thousands.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Branchiae.</i>—The series of +gills may extend the whole +length of the body in the pallial groove, or may be confined to the +posterior end. Each gill has the structure of a typical molluscan +ctenidium, consisting of an axis bearing an anterior and posterior +row of filaments or lamellae. The gills are thus metamerically +repeated; there may be from four to eighty pairs, but there is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span> +often a numerical asymmetry on the two sides. The largest pair of +branchiae is placed immediately behind the renal openings and +corresponds to the single pair of other molluscs, the organs being +repeated anteriorly only (Metamacrobranchs) or anteriorly and +posteriorly (Mesomacrobranchs).</p> + +<p><i>Intestine.</i>—The digestive tube in the Polyplacophora, which are +herbivorous, is longer than the body, and thrown into a few coils, +the anus being median and posterior. The mouth leads into the +buccal cavity, on the ventral side of which opens the radular caecum. +Each transverse row of teeth of the radula contains 17 teeth, one of +which is median, while the second and the fifth on each side are +enlarged. Two pairs of glands open into the buccal cavity, and at +the junction of pharynx and oesophagus is another pair called the +sugar glands. The stomach is surrounded by the liver or digestive +gland, consisting of two lobes which are symmetrical in the young +animals, but in the adult the right lobe is anterior and smaller.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:453px; height:620px" src="images/img249a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Diagrams of the excretory and reproductive organs of +Amphineura (after Hubrecht).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl" style="width: 50%;"> +<p>A, Chaetoderma.</p> +<p>B, Neomenia.</p> +<p>C, Proneomenia.</p> +<p>D, Chiton.</p> +<p>O, Ovary.</p> +<p>P, Pericardium.</p> +<p>N, Nephridium.</p></td> + +<td class="tcl"><p>u, External aperture of nephridium.</p> +<p>g, External aperture of the genital duct of Chiton.</p> +<p>r, Rectum.</p> +<p>Cl, Cloacal or pallial chamber of Neomeniae and Chaetoderma.</p> +<p>Br, Ctenidia (branchial plumes).</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs.</i>—As in other molluscs the +coelom is represented by a large pericardial cavity, situated above +the intestine posteriorly, and a generative sac which is single and +median and situated in front of the pericardium, except in the +<i>Nuttalochiton hyadesi</i>, where the gonads are in a similar position, +but are paired. The excretory organs are coelomoducts with an internal +ciliated opening into the pericardium and an opening to the exterior. +Both the openings are close together, the external opening being +just in front of the principal gill near the posterior end of the body. +The renal tube is doubled on itself, its middle part where the bend +occurs being situated more or less anteriorly. The excretory surface +is increased by numerous ramified caeca which extend beneath the +body wall laterally and ventrally, and open into the tube (fig. 6). +The sexes are distinct, and the ovary is frequently greenish in colour, +the testis red. The gonad is transversely wrinkled and lies between +the aorta and the intestine, extending from the pericardium to the +anterior end of the body. A simple gonaduct on each side arises +from the gonad near its posterior end and passes first forwards, +then backwards, and lastly outwards to the external opening in the +pallial groove, anterior to the renal aperture. There may be from +one to nine gills between the genital and renal pores.</p> + +<p><i>Heart and Vascular System.</i>—The heart is enclosed in the +pericardium, and consists of a median elongated ventricle and a pair of +lateral auricles, so that the structure somewhat resembles that in +the Lamellibranchiata. The openings of the auricles into the +ventricle vary in different forms. In many of the lower forms +(<i>Lepidopleuridae, Mopalidae, Ischnochitonidae</i>) the opening on each +side is single and anterior. In the true <i>Chitonidae</i> there are generally +two apertures on each side, and in two species three or four, another +instance of the tendency to metameric repetition in the group. +The auricles are connected with one another posteriorly behind the +ventricle. The ventricle leads into a single anterior median aorta. +As in other molluscs, the arteries do not extend far, but lead into +inter-visceral blood-spaces. The venous blood is conducted from +the tissues to a large sinus on either side above the pallial groove, +and from this sinus passes to the gills by an afferent vessel in each +gill on the internal or pedal margin of the axis. The oxygenated +blood is carried from each gill by an efferent vessel on the external +or pallial side of the axis to another longitudinal vessel which leads +to the auricle on each side.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px; margin-left: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:571px" src="images/img249b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> +<p class="f90">After Haller (<i>Arbeiten zool. Instit.</i>), Vienna, 1882.</p> +<p class="pt05"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Dissection of the renal organs (nephridia) of <i>Chiton siculus.</i></p> +<p class="pt05">F, Foot.</p> +<p>L, Edge of the mantle not removed in the front part of the specimen.</p> +<p>s.o., Oesophagus.</p> +<p>af, Anus.</p> +<p>gg, Genital duct.</p> +<p>go, External opening of the same.</p> +<p>eg, Stem of the nephridium leading to no, its external aperture.</p> +<p>nk, Reflected portion of the nephridial stem.</p> +<p>ng, Fine caeca of the nephridium, which are seen ramifying transversely + over the whole inner surface of the pedal muscular mass.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—There are no well-marked specialized ganglia +in the central nervous system, nerve-cells being distributed uniformly +along the cords. There are two pairs of longitudinal +cords, a pedal pair situated ventrally and united beneath +the intestine by numerous commissures, and a pallial +pair situated laterally and continuous with one another +above the rectum (fig. 7). The four cords are all connected +anteriorly with the cerebral commissure which +lies above the buccal mass anteriorly. From the points +where the cords meet the cerebral commissure, arise on +each an anterior labial commissure and a stomatogastric +commissure. The letter bears two ganglion swellings, the +buccal ganglia. The labial commissure gives off a subradular +commissure which also bears two ganglia, these being +in close relation to a special sense-organ called the subradular +organ, an epithelial projection with nerve-endings, +lying in front of the radula and probably gustatory in +function. One osphradium or branchial olfactory organ +is usually present on each side, on either side of the anus on +the inner wall of the mantle, near the base of the last gill. +In <i>Lepidopleuridae</i> an osphradium occurs at the base of +each gill. The sense organs of the shell-valves have +already been described.</p> + +<p><i>Development.</i>—The eggs may be laid separately invested +by a chitinous envelope, or as in <i>Ischnochiton +magdalenensis</i> they may form strings containing nearly +200,000 eggs, or the ova may be retained in the pallial +groove and undergo development there, as in <i>Chiton polii</i> +and <i>Hemiarthrum setulosum</i>. One species <i>Callistochiton +viviparus</i> is viviparous and its ova develop without a larval +stage in the maternal oviduct. Segmentation is total and at first +regular, and is followed by invagination, the blastopore passing to the +position of the future mouth. By the development of a ciliated ring +just in front of the mouth the embryo becomes a trochosphere. In +the centre of the praeoral lobe is a tuft of cilia. Just behind the +ciliated ring is a pair of larval eyes which disappear in the adult; +these correspond to the cephalic eyes of Lamellibranchs. An +ectodemic invagination forms a large mucous gland on the foot, +which is more or less atrophied in adult life. The gonads originate +by proliferation of the anterior wall of the pericardium. The shell-valves +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span> +arise as transverse thickenings of the dorsal cuticle behind the +ciliated ring, the tegmentum being the first part formed.</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Classification</i>.</p> + +<p>Suborder I. <span class="sc">Eoplacophora</span>, Pilsbry.—Tegmentum coextensive +with articulamentum, or the latter projecting in smooth unslit plates.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:330px; height:828px" src="images/img250a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter1" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:290px; height:392px" src="images/img250b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> +<p class="f90">After Hubrecht, loc. cit.</p> +<p class="pt05"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Diagrams of the nervous system of Amphineura.</p> + +<p class="pt05">A, Proneomenia.</p> +<p>B, Neomenia.</p> +<p>C, Chaetoderma.</p> +<p>D, Chiton.</p> +<p>c, Cerebral ganglia.</p> +<p>s, Sublingual ganglia.</p> +<p>v, Pedal (ventral) nerve-cord.</p> +<p>l, Visceral (lateral) nerve-cord.</p> +<p>pc. Post-anal junction of the visceral nerve-cords.</p></td> + +<td class="tcl" style="padding-left: 4em;"> +<p class="f90">From Gegenbaur, <i>Elements of Comp. Anatomy.</i></p> +<p class="pt05"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Anterior part of the nervous system of <i>Chiton cinereus</i>, +in more detail.</p> + +<p class="pt05">B, Buccal ganglia (concerned with the odontophore).</p> +<p>C, Cerebral nerve-mass.</p> +<p>P, Pedal ganglion and commencement of pedal nerve-cord.</p> +<p>pl, Visceral nerve-cord. The sublingual ganglia are not lettered.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 mind">Fam. 1. <i>Lepidopleuridae.</i>—Terminal margins of end valves never +elevated; form oval or oblong. <i>Lepidopleurus cancellatus</i>, Sow. +North Atlantic and Mediterranean; various abyssal species. +<i>Hanleya hanleyi</i>, Bean, north Atlantic. <i>Hemiarthrum Microplax</i>. +The extinct <i>Gryptochitonidae</i>, Pilsbry, with +other Palaeozoic genera, narrow and elongated in +form with terminal margins of end valves +elevated, belong to this group.</p> + +<p>Suborder II. <span class="sc">Mesoplacophora</span>, Pilsbry.—Insertion plates well developed and slit.</p> + +<p class="mind">Fam. 2. <i>Ischnochitonidae.</i>—All the valves with +slits, and the inner layer well covered by the outer.</p> + +<p class="mind2">Subfam. 1. <i>Ischnochitoninae.</i>—No shell-eyes: +sutural laminae separated; slits in the valves +1-7 do not correspond with the ribs of the +tegmentum. <i>Ischnochiton, Trachydermon, +Chaetopleura, Stenoplax, Stenoradsia</i>.</p> + +<p class="mind2">Subfam. 2. <i>Callochitoninae.</i> With shell-eyes and united sutural +laminae. <i>Callochiton laevis</i>, North Atlantic and Mediterranean.</p> + +<p class="mind2">Subfam. 3. <i>Callistoplacinae.</i> No shell-eyes, slits in the valves 1-7 +corresponding with the ribs of the tegmentum. <i>Callistochiton</i> +(viviparous). <i>Nuttalochiton.</i></p> + +<p class="mind">Fam. 3. <i>Mopaliidae.</i> Each intermediate valve with a single slit; +girdle hairy. <i>Mopalia, Placiphorella, Plaxiphora, Placophoropsis.</i></p> + +<p class="mind">Fam. 4. <i>Acanthochitonidae.</i> Valves immersed in the girdle, with +small tegmentum. <i>Acanthochiton</i> (A<i>. fascicularis</i>, North Atlantic +and Mediterranean). <i>Spongiochiton, Katharina, Amicula, Cryptochiton</i> +(<i>C. stelleri</i>, arctic).</p> + +<p class="mind">Fam. 5. <i>Cryptoplacidae.</i> Vermiform, with thick girdle and small +valves; insertion and sutural plates strongly drawn forward, +sharp and smooth. <i>Cryptoplax, Choneplax.</i></p> + +<p>Suborder III. <span class="sc">Teleoplacophora</span>, Pilsbry.—All the valves, or at +least the seven anterior, with insertion plates cut into teeth by slits.</p> + +<p class="mind">Fam. 6. <i>Chitonidae.</i> Characters of the suborder.</p> + +<p class="mind2">Subfam. 1. <i>Chitoninae.</i> No extra-pigmental eyes; insertion +plates with pectinations between the fissures. <i>Chiton, Eudoxochiton, +Trachyodon, Radsia.</i></p> + +<p class="mind2">Subfam. 2. <i>Toniciinae.</i> Extra-pigmental shell-eyes. <i>Tonicia, +Acanthopleura, Enoplochiton, Onithochiton, Schizochiton, +Lorica, Loricella, Liolophura.</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="center1">Order 2.—<span class="sc">Aplacophora</span>, von Jhering.</p> + +<p><i>Chaetoderma</i> was first described by S. Lovén, in 1841, and was +for a long time believed to be a Gephyrean worm. <i>Neomenia</i>, +mentioned first by Michael Sars in 1868 under the name <i>Solenopus</i>, +was afterwards included among the Opisthobranchs by +J. Koren and D.C. Danielssen. C. Gegenbaur placed the two +genera in a division of Vermes which he called Solenogastres.</p> + +<p>The chief points in which the Aplacophora differ from the +Polyplacophora are: (1) they are worm-like in shape; (2) there is +no distinct foot, and the mantle bears no shell-valves, but only +numerous calcareous spicules; (3) the digestive tube is straight.</p> + +<p><i>Neomenia</i> and its allies are marine animals living at depths +of 15 to 800 fathoms on soft muddy ground; they are found +crawling on corals and hydrozoa, on which they feed. The +British genera are: <i>Neomenia, Rhopalomenia</i> and <i>Myzomenia</i>. +They have been taken in nearly all seas except the South Atlantic +and S.E. and N.W. Pacific. About forty species are known. +<i>Chaetoderma</i>, of which nine species have been described, has +similar habits and distribution, but feeds chiefly on Protozoa. +The order Aplacophora is divided into two suborders.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Suborder I. <span class="sc">Neomeniomorpha</span>.—Aplacophora with a distinct +longitudinal ventral groove; bisexual with paired genital glands +and no distinct liver. The whole of the skin except the ventral groove +corresponds to the mantle of <i>Chiton</i>. The cuticle, in some species +very thick, contains numerous spicules which are long, hollow and +calcified; they are secreted by epithelial papillae. In some species +there are also sensory papillae comparable to the aesthetes of Chitons. +A small longitudinal projection in the ventral groove represents the +foot. Into the groove open mucous glands, a large one anteriorly +and another opening into a posteriorly cloacal, branchial cavity.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter1"><img style="width:550px; height:187px" src="images/img250c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—<i>Neomenia carinata</i>, Tullberg (after Tullberg).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl" style="width: 50%;"> +<p>A, Lateral view.</p> +<p>B, Ventral view.</p> +<p>C, Dorsal view.</p> +<p>D, Ventral view of a more extended specimen.</p></td> + +<td class="tcl" style="vertical-align: top;"> +<p>a, Anterior.</p> +<p>b, Posterior extremity.</p> +<p>c, Furrow, in which the narrow foot is concealed.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Branchiae.</i>—In <i>Neomeniidae</i> and most of the <i>Parameniidae</i> +there is a circlet of gills on the inner walls of the cloacal chamber. These +gills are simple folds or laminae of the body wall. In other species +they are absent.</p> + +<p><i>Intestine.</i>—-The mouth opens into a muscular pharynx lined by +a thick cuticle. Into the pharyngeal cavity open salivary glands +and radular sac. The former are paired and ventral, and open on +a subradular prominence. In some species there is a second dorsal +pair. <i>Neomenia</i> and other genera have no salivary glands.</p> + +<p>The radula when present comprises several transverse rows of +teeth, and each transverse row may have several teeth (polystichous), +two teeth (distichous), or one tooth (monostichous). It is a curious +fact that in the original type <i>Neomenia</i> the radula is entirely absent, +as it likewise is in several genera of <i>Proneomeniidae</i>. The oesophagus +is short and leads into a long, straight stomach, provided with +numerous symmetrical lateral caeca. The stomach opens into a +short straight rectum which opens into the branchial chamber.</p> + +<p><i>Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs.</i>—The coelom differs from +that of the Chitons in the fact that the cavities of the genital organs +are continuous with it, and in the fact that there is only one pair of +coelomoducts resembling the renal organs of Chitons, but serving +also as genital ducts. The gonads are paired and hermaphrodite, +they form a pair of anterior prolongations of the pericardium, +extending nearly to the anterior end of the body. Ova are developed +on the median, spermatozoa on the outer wall of each genital tube. +The pericardium is ciliated internally on its dorsal and lateral walls. +The urino-genital tubes arise from the posterior angles of the pericardium, +pass first forwards, then backwards, and unite to open +by a common opening into the cloaca below the anus except in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span> +<i>Strophomenia</i>, where the openings are separate. Usually each tube +is provided with caecal appendages on its proximal portion, and these +serve as vesiculae seminales, while the distal portion is enlarged +and glandular and secretes the egg-shell.</p> + +<p><i>Heart and Vascular System.</i>—There is a heart in the pericardium +consisting of a median ventricle attached, except in <i>Neomenia</i>, to +the dorsal wall of the pericardium, and in <i>Neomenia</i> a pair of auricular +ducts returning blood from the gills to the ventricle. The aorta is +not independent as in Chitons, but is a sinus like the other channels +of the circulation. A single median ventral sinus passes backwards +to the gills or cloaca. The blood is coloured red by haemoglobin in +blood corpuscles.</p> + +<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—Ganglionic enlargements are more conspicuous +than in the Chitons. In front of the buccal mass is a median cerebral +ganglion. From this pass off two pairs of cords, the pleural +and pedal, in <i>Proneomenia</i> separate from their origin, in <i>Neomenia</i> +united at first and diverging at a pleural ganglion. The pedal cords +anteriorly form a pair of pedal ganglia united by a thick commissure. +The supra-rectal commissure may be present and bear an ovoid +ganglion; or may be wanting. With regard to sense organs the +epithelial papillae of the mantle have been mentioned. There is +also in some genera a median retractile sensory papilla on the dorsal +posterior surface above the rectum, not covered by the cuticle.</p> + +<p><i>Development</i> has only been described in <i>Myzomenia banyulensis</i>, +by G. Pruvot. It closely resembles in the early stages that of +Chitons. The external surface of the trochosphere is formed of a +number of ciliated test-cells. The ectoderm behind the ciliated ring +develops spicules, and the post-oral region of the larva elongates. +Later the ciliated ring or velum disappears and seven imbricated +calcareous plates, made up of flattened spicules, are formed on the +dorsal surface. This appears to indicate that the Neomeniomorpha +are descended from <i>Chiton</i>-like ancestors, and that they have lost +their shell valves.</p> + +<p class="mind"><i>Classification of the</i> <span class="sc">Neomeniomorpha</span>.—Fam. 1. <i>Lepidomeniidae.</i> +Slender, tapering behind, with subventral cloacal orifice; thin +cuticle without papillae; flattened spicules; no gills. <i>Lepidomenia, +Ismenia, Ichthyodes, Stylomenia, Dondersia, Nematomenia, +Myzomenia, M. banyulensis</i>, Mediterranean and Plymouth.</p> + +<p class="mind">Fam. 2. <i>Neomeniidae.</i> Short, truncate in front and behind; +cloacal orifice transverse; gills present; rather thin cuticle; +no radula. <i>Neomenia</i> (<i>N. carinata</i>, N. Atlantic and N. and +N.W. Scotland), <i>Hemimenia</i>.</p> + +<p class="mind">Fam. 3. <i>Proneomeniidae.</i> Elongated, cylindrical, rounded at both +ends; thick cuticle with acicular spicules; radula polystichous +or wanting. <i>Proneomenia, Amphimenia, Echinomenia, Rhopalomenia</i> +(<i>R. aglaopheniae</i>, Mediterranean and Plymouth), +<i>Notomenia, Pruvotia, Strophomenia</i>.</p> + +<p class="mind">Fam. 4. <i>Parameniidae.</i> Short and truncated in front; thick +cuticle, often without papillae; gills and radula present. +<i>Paramenia, Macellomenia, Pararhopalia, Dinomenia, Cyclomenia, +Proparamenia, Uncimenia, Kruppomenia.</i></p> + +<table class="pic" style="float: left; width: 450px; margin-right: 2em;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:400px; height:102px" src="images/img251a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—<i>Chaetoderma nitidulum</i>, +Lovén (after Graff). The cephalic +enlargement is to the left, the anal +chamber (reduced pallial chamber, containing +the concealed pair of ctenidia) to the right.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Suborder II. <span class="sc">Chaetodermomorpha</span>.—Aplacophora without +distinct ventral groove, with single median unisexual gonad, with +differentiated hepatic sac, and with cloacal chamber +furnished with two bipectinate gills. There are only +two genera in this suborder: <i>Chaetoderma</i>, and +<i>Limifossor</i> from Alaska. The characters therefore +are very uniform. The body is worm-like and cylindrical, +the posterior half a little thicker than the anterior; +the posterior extremity +forms the enlarged funnel-like branchial or cloacal chamber. +The anterior extremity is also somewhat enlarged. The whole +surface is uniformly covered with short compressed calcareous spicula +embedded in the cuticle.</p> + +<p><i>Branchiae.</i>—The single pair of branchiae are placed symmetrically +right and left of the anus, and each has the structure +of a ctenidium bearing a row of lamellae on each side as in the Polyplacophora.</p> + +<p><i>Intestine.</i>—The mouth is anterior, terminal and crescentic, and +beneath it is a rounded ventral shield. On the floor of the pharynx +or buccal mass is a rudimentary radula, which in many species +consists of a single large tooth, bearing two small teeth or a row of +teeth. In other species the radula is more of the usual type consisting +of several transverse rows of two or three teeth each. Two +pairs of salivary glands open into the buccal cavity. The digestive +tube is straight and simple, wider in its anterior part, into which +opens the duct of the hepatic caecum (fig. 4, B). The latter extends +backwards on the ventral side of the intestine.</p> + +<p><i>Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs.</i>—These are closely similar +in their relations to those of the Neomeniomorpha. The chief +difference is that the gonad or generative portion of the coelom is +single and median, opening into the pericardium by a single posterior +aperture. The excretory organs or coelomoducts arise from the +posterior corners of the pericardium, run forwards and then backwards +to open by separate apertures lateral to the gills (fig. 5, A). +There are no accessory generative organs.</p> + +<p><i>The heart and vascular system</i> are similar to those of the +Neomeniomorpha, the only important differences being that the ventricle +is nearly free in the pericardial cavity, and that the latter is traversed +by the retractor muscles of the gills.</p> + +<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—There are two closely connected cerebral ganglia, +from which arise the usual two pairs of nerve cords. Pallial and +pedal on each side are closer together than in the other groups, and +posteriorly they unite into a supra-rectal cord provided with a +median ganglionic enlargement (fig. 7, C). A small stomatogastric +commissure bearing two small ganglia arises from the cerebral +ganglia and surrounds the oesophagus.</p> + +<p>The development is at present entirely unknown.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>General Remarks on the Amphineura.</i></p> + +<p>The most important theoretical question concerning the +Amphineura is how far do they represent the original condition +of the ancestral mollusc? That is to say, we have to inquire +which of their structural features is primitive and which modified. +Their bilateral symmetry is obviously to be regarded as primitive, +and the nervous system shows an original condition from which +that of the asymmetrical twisted Gastropods can be derived. +But in many other features both external and internal the three +principal divisions differ so much from one another that we have +to consider in the case of each organ-system which condition +is the more primitive. According to Paul Pelseneer the +Polyplacophora are the most archaic, the Aplacophora being +specialized in (1) the great reduction of the foot, (2) the +disappearance of the shell (<i>Cryploplax</i> among the Polyplacophora +showing both reductions in progress), (3) the disappearance of +the radula. But it is a widely recognized principle of morphology +that a much modified animal is by no means modified to the +same degree in all its organs. A form which is primitive on the +whole may show a more advanced stage of evolution in some +particular system of organs than another animal which is on the +whole more highly developed and specialized. Thus the +independent metamerism of certain organs in the Chitons is not +primitive but acquired within the group: <i>e.g.</i> the shell valves +and the ctenidia. And although embryology seems to prove +that the Neomeniomorphs are derived from forms with a series +of shell-valves, nevertheless it seems probable that the calcareous +spicules which alone are present in adult Aplacophora preceded +the solid shell in evolution.</p> + +<p>It is held by some morphologists that the mollusc body is +unsegmented, and therefore is to be compared to a single segment +of a Chaetopod or Arthropod. In this case there should be only +one pair of coelomoducts in the adult, the pair of true nephridia +which should also occur being represented by the larval nephridia. +There should also be only a single coelom, or a pair of lateral +coelomic cavities. On this view then the Aplacophora are more +primitive than the Polyplacophora in the relations of coelom, +gonad and coelomoducts; and the genital ducts of the Chitons +have arisen either by metameric repetition within the group, +or by the gradual loss of an original connexion between the +generative sac and the renal tube, as in Lamellibranchs and +Gastropods, the generative sac acquiring a separate duct and +opening to the exterior on each side.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—A. Sedgwick, “On certain Points in the Anatomy +of Chiton,” <i>Proc. R. Soc. Lond.</i> xxxiii., 1881; J. Blumrich, +“Das Integument der Chitonen,” <i>Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.</i> lii., 1891; +A.C. Haddon, “Report on the Polyplacophora,” <i>Challenger Reports. Zool.</i> +pt. xliii., 1886; +H.N. Moseley, “On the presence of Eyes in the Shells of certain Chitonidae, +and on the structure of these Organs,” <i>Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.</i> +new ser. xxv., 1885; A.A.W. Hubrecht, +“Proneomenia Sluiteri,” <i>Nied. Arch. f. Zool.</i> Suppl. 1., 1881; +A. Kowalewsky and A.F. Marion, “Contr. à l’histoire des Solenogastres +ou Aplacophores,” <i>Ann. Mus. Marseille, Zool.</i> iii., 1887; +A. Kowalewsky, “Sur le genre Chaetoderma,” +<i>Arch. de zool. expér</i>. (3) ix., 1901; +P. Pelseneer, “Mollusca,” <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>, edited by +E. Ray Lankester, pt. v., 1906; +E. Ray Lankester, “Mollusca,” in the 9th ed. of this Encyclopaedia, +to which this article is much indebted.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1h" id="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Gr. <span class="grk" title="chitôn">χιτών</span> was a garment in the shape of a loose tunic, +varying at different periods: see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>: <i>Greek</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 6, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 2 *** + +***** This file should be named 31329-h.htm or 31329-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/3/2/31329/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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