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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Why Bewick Succeeded, by Jacob Kainen
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
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+
+
+
+
+Title: Why Bewick Succeeded
+       A Note in the History of Wood Engraving
+
+
+Author: Jacob Kainen
+
+
+
+Release Date: September 7, 2009  [eBook #29928]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Miranda van de Heijning, Joseph Cooper,
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+
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+
+Contributions from The Museum of History and Technology:
+
+Paper 11
+
+WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED:
+
+A Note in the History of Wood Engraving
+
+by
+
+JACOB KAINEN
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CONTEMPORARY VIEW OF BEWICK   186
+
+LOW STATUS OF THE WOODCUT         188
+
+WOODCUT AND WOOD ENGRAVING        189
+
+WOOD ENGRAVING AND THE STEREOTYPE 197
+
+
+
+
+WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED:
+
+_By Jacob Kainen_
+
+_A Note in the History of Wood Engraving_
+
+
+_Thomas Bewick has been acclaimed as the pioneer of modern wood
+engraving whose genius brought this popular medium to prominence. This
+study shows that certain technological developments prepared a path for
+Bewick and helped give his work its unique character._
+
+The Author: _Jacob Kainen is curator of graphic arts, Museum of History
+and Technology, in the Smithsonian Institution's United States National
+Museum._
+
+
+
+
+No other artist has approached Thomas Bewick (1753-1828) as the
+chronicler of English rustic life. The little wood engravings which he
+turned out in such great number were records of typical scenes and
+episodes, but the artist could also give them social and moral
+overtones. Such an approach has attracted numerous admirers who have
+held him in esteem as an undoubted homespun genius. The fact that he had
+no formal training as a wood engraver, and actually never had a lesson
+in drawing, made his native inspiration seem all the more authentic.
+
+
+
+
+The Contemporary View of Bewick
+
+
+After 1790, when his _A general history of quadrupeds_ appeared with its
+vivid animals and its humorous and mordant tailpiece vignettes, he was
+hailed in terms that have hardly been matched for adulation. Certainly
+no mere book illustrator ever received equal acclaim. He was pronounced
+a great artist, a great man, an outstanding moralist and reformer, and
+the master of a new pictorial method. This flood of eulogy rose
+increasingly during his lifetime and continued throughout the remainder
+of the 19th century. It came from literary men and women who saw him as
+the artist of the common man; from the pious who recognized him as a
+commentator on the vanities and hardships of life (but who sometimes
+deplored the frankness of his subjects); from bibliophiles who welcomed
+him as a revolutionary illustrator; and from fellow wood engravers for
+whom he was the indispensable trail blazer.
+
+During the initial wave of Bewick appreciation, the usually sober
+Wordsworth wrote in the 1805 edition of _Lyrical ballads_:[1]
+
+O now that the genius of Bewick were mine,
+And the skill which he learned on the banks of the Tyne!
+Then the Muses might deal with me just as they chose,
+For I'd take my last leave both of verse and of prose.
+What feats would I work with my magical hand!
+Book learning and books would be banished the land.
+
+If art critics as a class were the most conservative in their estimates
+of his ability, it was one of the most eminent, John Ruskin, whose
+praise went to most extravagant lengths. Bewick, he asserted, as late as
+1890,[2] "... without training, was Holbein's equal ... in this frame
+are set together a drawing by Hans Holbein, and one by Thomas Bewick. I
+know which is most scholarly; but I do _not_ know which is best."
+Linking Bewick with Botticelli as a draughtsman, he added:[3] "I know no
+drawing so subtle as Bewick's since the fifteenth century, except
+Holbein's and Turner's." And as a typical example of popular
+appreciation, the following, from the June 1828 issue of _Blackwood's
+Magazine_, appearing a few months before Bewick's death, should suffice:
+
+     Have we forgotten, in our hurried and imperfect enumeration of wise
+     worthies,--have we forgotten "_The Genius that dwells on the banks
+     of the Tyne_," the matchless, Inimitable Bewick? No. His books lie
+     in our parlour, dining-room, drawing-room, study-table, and are
+     never out of place or time. Happy old man! The delight of
+     childhood, manhood, decaying age!--A moral in every tail-piece--a
+     sermon in every vignette.
+
+This acclaim came to Bewick not only because his subjects had a homely
+honesty, but also, although not generally taken into account, because of
+the brilliance and clarity with which they were printed. Compared with
+the wood engravings of his predecessors, his were more detailed and
+resonant in black and white, and accordingly seemed miraculous and
+unprecedented. He could engrave finer lines and achieve better
+impressions in the press because of improvements in technology which
+will be discussed later, but for a century the convincing qualities of
+this new technique in combination with his subject matter led admirers
+to believe that he was an artist of great stature.
+
+[1] William Wordsworth, _Lyrical ballads_, London, 1805, vol. 1. p. 199.
+
+[2] John Ruskin, _Ariadne Florentina_, London, 1890, pp. 98, 99.
+
+[3] _Ibid._, p. 246.
+
+Later, more mature judgment has made it plain that his contributions as
+a craftsman outrank his worth as an artist. He was no Holbein, no
+Botticelli--it is absurd to think of him in such terms--but he did
+develop a fresh method of handling wood engraving. Because of this he
+represents a turning point in the development of this medium which led
+to its rise as the great popular vehicle for illustration in the 19th
+century. In his hands wood engraving underwent a special transformation;
+it became a means for rendering textures and tonal values. Earlier work
+on wood could not do this; it could manage only a rudimentary suggestion
+of tones. The refinements that followed, noticeable in the highly
+finished products of the later 19th century, came as a direct and
+natural consequence of Bewick's contributions to the art.
+
+Linton[4] and a few others object to the general claim that Bewick was
+the reviver or founder of modern wood engraving, not only because the
+art was practiced earlier, if almost anonymously, and had never really
+died out, but also because his bold cuts had little in common with their
+technician's concern with infinite manipulation of surface tones, a
+feature of later work. But this misses the main point--that Bewick had
+taken the first actual steps in the new direction.
+
+[4] William Linton, _The masters of wood engraving_, London, 1889, p.
+133.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.--Woodcutting Procedure, showing method of
+cutting with the knife on the plank grain, from Jean Papillon's _Traite
+de la gravure en bois_, 1766.]
+
+Unquestionably he gave the medium a new purpose, even though it was not
+generally adopted until after 1830. Through his pupils, his unrelenting
+industry, and his enormous influence he fathered a pictorial activity
+that brought a vastly increased quantity of illustrations to the public.
+Periodical literature, spurred by accompanying pictures that could be
+cheaply made, quickly printed, and dramatically pointed, became a
+livelier force in education. Textbooks, trade journals, dictionaries,
+and other publications could more effectively teach or describe;
+scientific journals could include in the body of text neat and accurate
+pictures to enliven the pages and illustrate the equipment and
+procedures described. Articles on travel could now have convincingly
+realistic renditions of architectural landmarks and of foreign sights,
+customs, personages, and views. The wood engraving, in short, made
+possible the modern illustrated publication because, unlike copper plate
+engraving or etching, it could be quickly set up with printed matter.
+Its use, therefore, multiplied increasingly until just before 1900, when
+it was superseded for these purposes by the photomechanical halftone.
+
+But while Bewick was the prime mover in this revolutionary change,
+little attention has been given to the important technological
+development that cleared the way for him. Without it he could not have
+emerged so startlingly; without it there would have been no modern wood
+engraving. It is not captious to point out the purely industrial basis
+for his coming to prominence. Even had he been a greater artist, a study
+of the technical means at hand would have validity in showing the
+interrelation of industry and art although, of course, the aesthetic
+contribution would stand by itself.
+
+But in Bewick's case the aesthetic level is not particularly high. Good
+as his art was, it wore an everyday aspect: he did not give it that
+additional expressive turn found in the work of greater artists. It
+should not be surprising, then, that his work was not inimitable. It is
+well-known that his pupils made many of the cuts attributed to him,
+making the original drawings and engraving in his style so well that the
+results form almost one indistinguishable body of work. The pupils were
+competent but not gifted, yet they could turn out wood engravings not
+inferior to Bewick's own. And so we find that such capable technicians
+as Nesbit, Clennell, Robinson, Hole, the Johnsons, Harvey, and others
+all contributed to the Bewick cult.
+
+Linton, who worshipped him as an artist but found him primitive as a
+technician, commented:[5] "Widely praised by a crowd of unknowing
+connoisseurs and undiscriminating collectors, we have yet, half a
+century after his death, to point out how much of what is attributed to
+him is really by his hand."
+
+Chatto,[6] who obtained his information from at least one Bewick pupil,
+says that many of the best tailpieces in the _History of British birds_
+were drawn by Robert Johnson, and that "the greater number of those
+contained in the second volume were engraved by Clennell." Granted that
+the outlook and the engraving style were Bewick's, and that these were
+notable contributions, the fact that the results were so close to his
+own points more to an effective method of illustration than to the
+outpourings of genius.
+
+[5] _Ibid._
+
+
+
+
+Low Status of the Woodcut
+
+
+Bewick's training could not have been less promising. Apprenticed to
+Ralph Beilby at the age of fourteen, he says of his master:[7]
+
+     ... The work-place was filled with the coarsest kind of
+     steel-stamps, pipe moulds, bottle moulds, brass clock faces, door
+     plates, coffin plates, bookbinders letters and stamps, steel,
+     silver and gold seals, mourning rings, &c. He also undertook the
+     engraving of arms, crests and cyphers, on silver, and every kind of
+     job from the silversmiths; also engraving bills of exchange, bank
+     notes, invoices, account heads, and cards.... The higher department
+     of engraving, such as landscapes or historical plates, I dare say,
+     was hardly thought of by my master....
+
+A little engraving on wood was also done, but Bewick tells us that his
+master was uncomfortable in this field and almost always turned it over
+to him. His training, obviously, was of a rough and ready sort, based
+upon serviceable but routine engraving on metal. There was no study of
+drawing, composition, or any of the refinements that could be learned
+from a master who had a knowledge of art. Whatever Bewick had of the
+finer points of drawing and design he must have picked up by himself.
+
+[6] William Chatto, and John Jackson, _A treatise on wood engraving_,
+London, 1861 (1st ed. 1839), pp. 496-498.
+
+[7] Thomas Bewick, _Memoir of Thomas Bewick_, New York, 1925 (1st ed.
+London, 1862), pp. 50, 51.
+
+When he completed his apprenticeship in 1774 at the age of twenty-one,
+the art of engraving and cutting on wood was just beginning to show
+signs of life after more than a century and a half of occupying the
+lowest position in the graphic arts. Since it could not produce a full
+gamut of tones in the gray register, which could be managed brilliantly
+by the copper plate media--line engraving, etching, mezzotint and
+aquatint--it was confined to ruder and less exacting uses, such as
+ornamental headbands and tailpieces for printers and as illustrations
+for cheap popular broadsides. When good illustrations were needed in
+books and periodicals, copper plate work was almost invariably used,
+despite the fact that it was more costly, was much slower in execution
+and printing, and had to be bound in with text in a separate operation.
+But while the Society of Arts had begun to offer prizes for engraving or
+cutting on wood (Bewick received such a prize in 1775) the medium was
+still moribund. Dobson[8] described its status as follows:
+
+     During the earlier part of the eighteenth century engraving on wood
+     can scarcely be said to have flourished in England. It existed--so
+     much may be admitted--but it existed without recognition or
+     importance. In the useful little _Etat des Arts en Angleterre_,
+     published in 1755 by Roquet the enameller,--a treatise so catholic
+     in its scope that it included both cookery and medicine,--there is
+     no reference to the art of wood-engraving. In the _Artist's
+     Assistant_, to take another book which might be expected to afford
+     some information, even in the fifth edition of 1788, the subject
+     finds no record, even though engraving on metal, etching,
+     mezzotinto-scraping--to say nothing of "painting on silks, sattins,
+     etc." are treated with sufficient detail. Turning from these
+     authorities to the actual woodcuts of the period, it must be
+     admitted that the survey is not encouraging.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2.--Wood Engraving Procedure, showing manipulation
+of the burin, from Chatto and Jackson, _A treatise on wood engraving_,
+1861. (See footnote 6.)]
+
+Earlier, among other critics of the deficiencies of the woodcut, Horace
+Walpole[9] had remarked:
+
+     I have said, and for two reasons, shall say little of wooden cuts;
+     that art never was executed with any perfection in England;
+     engraving on metal was a final improvement of the art, and supplied
+     the defects of cuttings in wood. The ancient wooden cuts were
+     certainly carried to a great heighth, but that was the merit of the
+     masters, not of the method.
+
+[8] Austin Dobson, _Thomas Bewick and his pupils_, Boston, 1884, pp. 1,
+2.
+
+[9] Horace Walpole, _Anecdotes of painting in England. A catalogue of
+engravers who have been born, or resided in England. Digested from the
+manuscript of Mr. George Vertue_ ... London, 1782 (1st ed. 1762), p. 4.
+
+
+
+
+Woodcut and Wood Engraving
+
+
+It is necessary, before continuing, to distinguish clearly between the
+woodcut and the wood engraving, not only because early writers used
+these terms interchangeably, but also to determine exactly what Bewick
+contributed technically. The woodcut began with a drawing in pen-and-ink
+on the plank surface of a smooth-grained wood such as pear,
+serviceberry, or box. The woodcutter, using knife, gouges, and chisels,
+then lowered the wood surrounding the lines to allow the original
+drawing, unaltered, to be isolated in relief (see fig. 1). Thus the
+block, when inked and printed, produced facsimile impressions of the
+drawing in black lines on white paper. Usually an accomplished artist
+made the drawing, whereas only a skilled craftsman was needed to do the
+cutting; very few cutters were also capable of making their own
+drawings.
+
+The wood engraving, on the other hand, started with a section of dense
+wood of a uniform texture, usually box or maple, and with the end-grain
+rather than the plank as surface. For larger engravings a number of
+sections were mortised together. The drawing was made on the block, not
+in pen-and-ink although this could be done (certain types of wood
+engraving reproduced pen drawings) but in gray washes with a full range
+of tones. The engraver, using a burin similar to that employed in copper
+plate work, then ploughed out wood in delicate ribbons (see fig. 2).
+Since the surface was to receive ink, the procedure moved from black to
+white: the more lines taken away, the lighter the tones would appear,
+and, conversely, where fewest or finest lines were removed the tones
+would be the darkest. In the finished print the unworked surface printed
+black while each of the engraved lines showed as white. It was the
+"white line" that gave wood engraving its special quality. On the
+smoother end-grain it could be manipulated with extreme fineness, an
+impossibility with the plank side, which would tear slightly or
+"feather" when the burin was moved across the grain. Tones and textures
+approaching the scale of copper plate engraving could be created,
+except, of course, that the lines were white and the impressions not so
+brilliant. But since grays were achieved by the visual synthesis of
+black ink and white paper, it mattered little whether the engraved lines
+were black or white so long as the desired tones could be produced.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3.--Late 15th-Century White-Line Engraving "The
+crowning of the Virgin," in the "dotted manner" executed on metal for
+relief printing. Parts were hand colored.]
+
+For purposes of realism, this was an enormous improvement over the old
+black-line woodcut. Natural tones and textures could be imitated. The
+engraver was no longer a mere mechanical craftsman cutting around
+existing lines; special skill was needed to translate tones in terms of
+white lines of varying thickness and spacing. The opportunity also
+existed for each engraver to work his own tones in his own manner, to
+develop a personal system. In short, the medium served the same purpose
+as copper plate line engraving, with the added virtue that it could be
+printed together with type in one impression. If it failed artistically
+to measure up to line engraving or to plank woodcut, this was not the
+fault of the process but of the popular reproductive ends which it
+almost invariably served.
+
+Actually, white-line engraving for relief printing dates from the 15th
+century. The most conspicuous early examples are the so-called "dotted
+prints" or "gravures en maniere criblee," in which the designs were
+brought out by dots punched in the plates, and by occasional engraved
+lines (see fig. 3). Until Koehler's[10] study made this fact plain,
+19th-century critics could hardly believe that these were merely
+white-line metal relief prints, inked on the surface like woodcuts. But
+a number of other examples of the same period exist which were also made
+directly on copper or type metal--the method, although rudimentary,
+being similar in intent to 19th-century wood engraving. One of these
+examples (fig. 4), in the collection of the U. S. National Museum, is
+typical. This was not simply an ordinary line engraving printed in
+relief rather than in the usual way; the management of the lights shows
+that it was planned as a white-line engraving. The reason for this
+treatment, obviously, was to permit the picture and the type to be
+printed in one operation.
+
+The well-known wood engravings of soldiers with standards, executed by
+Urs Graf in the early 1500's, are probably the only white-line prints in
+this medium by an accomplished artist until the 18th century. But these
+are mainly in outline, with little attempt to achieve tones. No
+advantage was gained by having the lines white rather than black other
+than an engaging roughness in spots: the prints were simply whimsical
+excursions by an inventive artist.
+
+[10] Sylvester R. Koehler, "White-line engraving for relief-printing in
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries," in _Annual report of the ...
+Smithsonian Institution ... for the year ending June 30, 1890, report of
+the U. S. National Museum_, Washington, 1892, pp. 385-389.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4.--White-Line Engraving on Metal for Relief
+Printing, "The Franciscan, Pelbart of Temesvar, Studying in a Garden,"
+from "_Pomerium quadragesimale, fratris Pelbarti ordinis sancti
+Francisci_," Augsburg, 1502.]
+
+Relief engraving on type metal and end-grain wood really got under way
+as a consistent process in England at the beginning of the 18th century.
+Chatto[11] gives this date as conjecture, without actual evidence, but a
+first-hand account can be found in the rare and little-known book,
+published in 1752, in which the combination of anonymous authorship and
+a misleading title obscured the fact that it is a digest of John Baptist
+Jackson's manuscript journal. This eminent woodcutter, who was born
+about 1700 and worked in England during the early years of the century,
+must be considered an important and reliable witness. The unknown editor
+paraphrases Jackson on the subject of engraving for relief purposes:[12]
+
+     ... I shall give a brief Account of the State of Cutting on Wood in
+     _England_ for the Type Press before he [Jackson] went to _France_
+     in 1725. In the beginning of this Century a remarkable Blow was
+     given to all Cutters on Wood, by an Invention of engraving on the
+     same sort of Metal which Types are cast with. The celebrated Mr.
+     _Kirkhal_, an able Engraver on Copper, is said to be the first who
+     performed a Relievo Work to answer the use of Cutting on Wood. This
+     could be dispatched much sooner, and consequently answered the
+     purpose of Booksellers and Printers, who purchased those sort of
+     Works at a much chaper [sic] Rate than could be expected from an
+     Engraver on Wood; it required much more Time to execute with
+     accuracy any piece of Work of the same Measure with those carved on
+     Metal. This performance was very much in Vogue, and continued down
+     to this Day, to serve for Initials, Fregii and Finali; it is called
+     a clear Impression, but often gray and hazy, far from coming up to
+     that clear black Impression produced with cutting on the side of a
+     piece of Box-wood or Pear-tree. Much about the same time there
+     started another Method of Engraving on the end ways of Wood itself,
+     which was cut to the height of the Letters to accompany them in the
+     Press, and engraved in the same Manner as the Metal Performance;
+     this Method was also encouraged, and is the only way of Engraving
+     on Wood at present used in the English Printing-houses. These
+     performances are to be seen in Magazines, News Papers, &c. and are
+     the Remains of the ancient Manner of Cutting on Wood, and is the
+     reason why the Curious concluded it was intirely lost.
+
+[11] Chatto, _op. cit._ (footnote 6), p. 446.
+
+[12] _An enquiry into the origins of printing in Europe, by a lover of
+art_, London, 1752, pp. 25, 26.
+
+This is important evidence that end-grain wood engraving was not only
+known in England in the early 18th century but was actually the
+prevailing style. In that country, where a woodcut tradition did not
+exist, the new method gained its first foothold. But it was not yet
+conceived in terms of white lines; it was merely a cheaper substitute
+for cutting with the knife on the plank. In European countries with long
+art and printing traditions, this substitute method was considered
+beneath contempt. Jackson[13] describes the aversion of French
+woodcutters for the newer and cheaper process:
+
+     From this Account it is evident that there was little encouragement
+     to be hoped for in _England_ to a Person whose Genius led him to
+     prosecute his Studies in the ancient Manner; which obliged Mr.
+     _Jackson_ to go over to the Continent, and see what was used in the
+     Parisian Printing-houses. At his arrival there he found the
+     _French_ engravers on Wood all working in the old Manner; no Metal
+     engravers, or any of the same performance on the end of the Wood,
+     was ever used or countenanced by the Printers or Booksellers in
+     that City.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5.--Example of the Woodcut Style that Created
+Facsimile Drawings. Woodcut (actual size) by Hans Lutzelburger, after a
+drawing by Holbein for his "Dance of Death," 1538.]
+
+There were good reasons for the lack of development of a white-line
+style, even in England with its lower standards in printing and
+illustrative techniques. On the coarse paper of the period fine white
+lines could not be adapted to relief (typographical) presswork; they
+would be lost in printing because the ribbed paper received ink
+unevenly. Even the simple black lines of the traditional woodcut
+usually printed spottily when combined with type. The white lines, then,
+had to be broadly separated. This did not permit the engraving of
+delicate tones. If this could not be achieved, the effect was similar to
+woodcutting but with less crispness and accuracy in the drawing. A good
+woodcut in the old manner could do everything the wood engraving could
+do, before Bewick, with the added virtue that the black line was
+comparatively clear and unequivocal, as can be seen in figure 5.
+
+[13] _Ibid._, p. 27.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6.--Woodcut Tailpiece by J. M. Papillon, from
+_Traite historique et pratique de la gravure en bois_, 1766. The cutting
+was done so minutely that some details were lost in printing. (Actual
+size.)]
+
+The woodcut, in the hands of a remarkable cutter, could produce miracles
+of delicacy. It could, in fact, have black lines so fine and so closely
+spaced as to take on the character of line engraving. It did not, of
+course, have the range of tones or the delicacy of modeling possible in
+the copper plate medium, where every little trench cut by the burin
+would hold ink BELOW the wiped-off surface, to be transferred to
+dampened paper under the heavy pressure of the cylinder press. In
+addition, the roughness of early paper, which was serious for the
+woodcut, created no difficulties for the line engraver or for other
+workers in the intaglio or gravure media.
+
+But the influence of copper plate work was strong, and some skillful but
+misguided woodcut craftsmen tried to obtain some degree of its richness.
+French artists from about 1720, notably Jean M. Papillon, produced cuts
+so delicate that their printing became a problem (see fig. 6). Jackson,
+who had worked with the French artist in Paris, condemned his efforts to
+turn the woodcut into a tonal medium through the creation of numerous
+delicate lines because such effects were impossible to print.
+Jackson[14] is quoted in the _Enquiry_:
+
+     In 1728 Mr. _Pappillon_ began his small _Paris_ Almanack, wherein
+     is placed Cuts (done on Wood) allusive to each Month, with the
+     Signs of the Zodiack, in such a Minute Stile, that he seems to
+     forget in that Work the Impossibility of printing it in a Press
+     with any Clearness ... But alas! His father and M. _le Seur_ [also
+     woodcutters] had examined Impression and its Process, and saw how
+     careful the Ancients were to keep a proper Distance between their
+     Lines and hatched Works, so as to produce a clean Impression ... I
+     saw the Almanack in a horrid Condition before I left _Paris_, the
+     Signs of the Zodiack wore like a Blotch, notwithstanding the utmost
+     Care and Diligence the Printer used to take up very little Ink to
+     keep them clean.
+
+It is clear that too thin a strip of white between black lines was not
+suitable for printing in the first half of the 18th century. But when
+Bewick's cuts after 1790 are examined we can see many white lines
+thinner than a hair. Obviously something had happened to permit him a
+flexibility not granted to earlier workers on wood. Bewick's whole craft
+depended upon his ability to control white lines of varying thickness.
+Why was he able to do this, and why could it be done without trouble by
+others after him?
+
+Early paper, as already mentioned, had a ribbed grain because it was
+made on a hand mould in which wires were closely laid in one direction,
+but with enough space between to allow the water in the paper pulp to
+drain through. Crossing wires, set some distance apart, held them
+together. Each wire, however, made a slight impression in the finished
+paper, the result being a surface with minute ripples. The surface of
+this laid paper presented irregularities even after the glazing
+operation, done with hammers before about 1720 and with wooden rollers
+up to about 1825.[15]
+
+In 1756 James Whatman began to manufacture a new, smooth paper to
+replace the laid variety that had been used since the importation of
+paper into Europe in the 12th century. Whether Whatman or the renowned
+printer John Baskerville was the guiding spirit in this development is
+uncertain.[16] Baskerville, who had been experimenting with type faces
+of a lighter and more delicate design, had been dissatisfied with the
+uneven surface of laid paper. Possibly he saw examples of the Chinese
+wallpaper on wove stock, made from a cloth mesh, which was a staple of
+the trade with the Orient. Hunter[17] describes the new mould:
+
+     The wove covering was made of fine brass screening and received its
+     name because it was woven on a loom in about the same manner as
+     cloth. It left in the paper an indistinct impression resembling a
+     fabric. Baskerville had been in the japanning and metal-working
+     trades before becoming a printer, so that he was naturally familiar
+     with this material, metal screening having been used in England for
+     other purposes before it was put to use as a material upon which to
+     mould sheets of paper.
+
+The first book printed in Europe on wove paper unquestionably was the
+Latin edition of Virgil produced by Baskerville in 1757. This was,
+however, partly on laid also. The actual paper was made in James
+Whatman's mill in Maidstone, Kent, on the banks of the river Len, where
+paper had been made since the 17th century. Whatman, who became sole
+owner of the mill in 1740, specialized in fine white paper of the
+highest quality. But while the book attracted considerable attention it
+did not immediately divert the demand for laid paper, since it was
+looked on more as an oddity than as a serious achievement. Baskerville
+was strictly an artist: he took unlimited time and pains, he had no
+regard for the prevailing market, and he produced sporadically; also, he
+was harshly criticized and even derided for his strange formats.[18]
+With such a reputation for impracticality the printer's influence was
+negligible during his lifetime although, of course, it was widely felt
+later.
+
+[14] Jackson, _op. cit._ (footnote 12), p. 29.
+
+[15] Dard Hunter, _Papermaking through eighteen centuries_, New York,
+1930, pp. 148, 152.
+
+[16] A. T. Hazen, "Baskerville and James Whatman," _Studies in
+Bibliography, Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia_,
+vol. 5, 1952-53. For a brilliant study of the Whatman mill, where
+practically all wove paper up to the 1780's was manufactured, see Thomas
+Balston's _James Whatman, father and son_, London, 1957.
+
+[17] Hunter, _op. cit._ (footnote 15), p. 215.
+
+[18] R. Straus and R. K. Dent, _John Baskerville_, Cambridge, 1907. On
+page 19 the authors include a letter to Baskerville from Benjamin
+Franklin, written in 1760 in a jocular tone, which notes that he
+overheard a friend saying that Baskerville's types would be "the means
+of blinding all the Readers in the Nation owing to the thin and narrow
+strokes of the letters."
+
+About 1777 the French became acquainted with wove paper, which Franklin
+brought to Paris for exhibition. In 1779, according to Hunter,[19] M.
+Didot the famous printer, "having seen the _papier velin_ that
+Baskerville used, addressed a letter to M. Johannot of Annonay, a
+skilled papermaker, asking him to endeavour to duplicate the smooth and
+even surface of this new paper. Johannot was successful in his
+experiments, and for his work in this field he was in 1781 awarded a
+gold medal by Louis XVI."
+
+[19] Hunter, _op. cit._ (footnote 15), p. 219.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7.--Wood Engraving by Thomas Bewick, "The Man and
+the Flea," for _Fables, by the late Mr. Gay_, 1779. (Actual size.) Note
+how the closely worked lines of the sky and water have blurred in
+printing on laid paper. The pale vertical streak is caused by the laid
+mould.]
+
+Wove paper was so slow to come into use that Jenkins gives the date 1788
+for its first appearance in book printing.[20] While he missed a few
+examples, notably by Baskerville, it is certain that few books with wove
+paper were published before 1790. But after that date its manufacture
+increased with such rapidity that by 1805 it had supplanted laid paper
+for many printing purposes.
+
+The reasons for this gap between the introduction and the acceptance of
+the new paper are not clear; the inertia of tradition as well as the
+probable higher cost no doubt played a part, and we may assume that
+early wove paper had imperfections and other drawbacks serious enough to
+cause printers to prefer the older material.
+
+Bewick's early work was printed on laid paper. Up to 1784 he had worked
+in a desultory fashion on wood, much of his time being occupied with
+seal cutting because there was still no real demand for wood engraving.
+In Gay's _Fables_, published in 1779, the cuts printed so poorly on the
+laid paper (see fig. 7) that Dobson[21] was moved to say:
+
+     Generally speaking, the printing of all these cuts, even in the
+     earlier editions (and it is absolutely useless to consult any
+     others), is weak and unskillful. The fine work of the backgrounds
+     is seldom made out, and the whole impression is blurred and
+     unequal.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8.--"The Spanish Pointer", illustration (actual
+size) by Thomas Bewick, from _A general history of quadrupeds_, 1790, in
+the collections of the Library of Congress.]
+
+
+[20] Rhys Jenkins, "Early papermaking in England, 1495-1788," _Library
+Association Record_, London, 1900-1902, vol. 2, nos. 9 and 11; vol. 3,
+no. 5; vol. 4, nos. 3 and 4.
+
+[21] Dobson, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 56.
+
+Even in the _Select fables of Aesop and others_ of 1784, when Bewick's
+special gifts began to emerge, the cuts on laid paper appeared weak in
+comparison with his later work. Bewick was still using wood engraving as
+a cheaper, more quickly executed substitute for the woodcut. The designs
+were based upon Croxall's edition of _Aesop's Fables_, published in
+1722, which was probably the best and most popular illustrated book
+published in England during the century up to Bewick's time. According
+to Chatto, the cuts were made with the burin on end-grain wood, probably
+by Kirkall,[22] but Bewick believed they were engraved on type
+metal.[23] It was not easy to tell the difference. Type metal usually
+made grayer impressions than wood and sometimes, but not always,
+nail-head marks appeared where the metal was fastened to the wood base.
+The Croxall cuts, in turn, were adapted with little change from
+17th-century sources--etchings by Francis Barlow and line engravings by
+Sebastian Le Clerc. Bewick's cuts repeated the earlier designs but
+changed the locale to the English countryside of the late 18th century.
+This was to be expected; to have a contemporary meaning the actors of
+the old morality play had to appear in modern dress and with up-to-date
+scenery. But technically the cuts followed the pattern of Croxall's wood
+engraver, although with a slightly greater range of tone. Artistically
+Bewick's interpretation was inferior because it was more literal; it
+lacked the grander feeling of the earlier work.
+
+Bewick really became the prophet of a new pictorial style in his _A
+general history of quadrupeds_, published in 1790 on wove paper (see
+figs. 8, 9, and 10). Here his animals and little vignetted tailpieces of
+observations in the country announced an original subject for
+illustration and a fresh treatment of wood engraving, although some
+designs were still copied from earlier models. The white line begins to
+function with greater elasticity; tones and details beyond anything
+known previously in the medium appear with the force of innovation. The
+paper was still somewhat coarse and the cuts were often gray and muddy.
+But the audacity of the artist in venturing tonal subtleties was
+immediately apparent.
+
+[22] Chatto, _op. cit._ (footnote 6), p. 448.
+
+[23] Thomas Bewick, _Fables of Aesop and others_, Newcastle, 1818.
+
+One of Bewick's old friends at Newcastle had been William Bulmer, who by
+the 1790's had become a famous printer. In 1795 he published an edition
+of _Poems by Goldsmith and Parnell_, which was preceded by an
+Advertisement announcing his intentions:
+
+     The present volume ... [is] particularly meant to combine the
+     various beauties of PRINTING, TYPE-FOUNDING, ENGRAVING, and
+     PAPER-MAKING.... The ornaments are all engraved on blocks of wood,
+     by two of my earliest acquaintances, Messrs. Bewick [Thomas and his
+     brother and apprentice John], of Newcastle upon Tyne and London,
+     after designs made from the most interesting passages of the Poems
+     they embellish. They have been executed with great care, and I may
+     venture to say, without being supposed to be influenced by ancient
+     friendship, that they form the most extraordinary effort of the art
+     of engraving upon wood that ever was produced in any age, or any
+     country. Indeed it seems almost impossible that such delicate
+     effects could be obtained from blocks of wood. Of the Paper, it is
+     only necessary to say that it comes from the manufactory of Mr.
+     Whatman.
+
+The following year, 1796, a companion volume, _The Chase, a Poem_, by
+William Somervile, appeared with cuts by Bewick after drawings by his
+brother John (see fig. 11). In both books, although no acknowledgment
+was given, there was considerable assistance from pupils Robert and
+John Johnson and Charlton Nesbit, as well as from an artist associate
+Richard Westall.[24] Bulmer was quite conscious that a new era in
+printing and illustration had begun. Updike[25] notes Bulmer's
+recognition of the achievements of both Baskerville and Bewick in giving
+the art of printing a new basis:
+
+     To understand the causes of the revival of English printing which
+     marked the last years of the century, we must remember that by 1775
+     Baskerville was dead.... There seems to have been a temporary lull
+     in English fine printing and the kind of type-founding that
+     contributed to it. The wood-engraving of Thomas Bewick, produced
+     about 1780, called, nevertheless, for more brilliant and delicate
+     letter-press than either Caslon's or Wilson's types could supply.
+     If Baskerville's fonts had been available, no doubt they would have
+     served.... So the next experiments in typography were made by a
+     little coterie composed of the Boydells, the Nicols, the Bewicks
+     (Thomas and John), and Bulmer.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick (actual size), from
+_A general history of quadrupeds_, 1790, in the collections of the
+Library of Congress.]
+
+When the cuts in this book are compared with earlier impressions from
+wood blocks, the difference is quickly seen. The blocks are more highly
+wrought, yet every line is crisp and clear and the impressions are black
+and brilliant. When we realize that the only new technological factor of
+any consequence was the use of good smooth wove paper, we can appreciate
+its significance.
+
+There were no other developments of note in the practice of printing
+during the 18th century. The old wooden hand press, unimproved except
+for minor devices, was still in universal use. Ink was little improved;
+paper was handmade; type was made from hand moulds. The ink was still
+applied by dabbing with inking balls of wool-stuffed leather nailed to
+wooden forms. The leather was still kept soft by removing it and soaking
+it in urine, after which it was trampled for some time to complete the
+unsavory operation. Paper still had to be dampened overnight before
+printing, and freshly inked sheets were still hung to dry over cords
+stretched across the room.
+
+[24] D. C. Thomson, _The life and works of Thomas Bewick_, London, 1882,
+p. 152.
+
+[25] D. B. Updike, _Printing types, their history, forms and use_,
+Cambridge and London, 1922, vol. 2, pp. 122, 123.
+
+But with a more sympathetic surface for receiving ink from relief
+blocks, a new avenue for wood engraving was now open. In the following
+year, 1797, the first volume of Bewick's finest and best-known work was
+published. This was the _History of British birds_, for which he and his
+pupils did the cuts while Ralph Beilby, his partner and former master,
+provided the descriptions (see figs. 12, 13, and 14.) It achieved an
+immense and instantaneous popularity that carried the artist's name over
+the British Isles. The attractiveness of the subject, the freshness of
+the medium--which could render the softness of feathers and could be
+interspersed with text--the powerful and decorative little tail pieces,
+and the comparative inexpensiveness of the volumes, brought the _Birds_
+into homes everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick (actual size),
+from _A general history of quadrupeds_, 1790, in the collections of the
+Library of Congress.]
+
+Actually, wood engraving was not immediately adopted on a wide scale.
+Having done without it for so long, printers and publishers made no
+concerted rush to avail themselves of the new type of cuts. Bewick's
+pupils found little of this kind of work to do before about 1830. Luke
+Clennell dropped engraving for painting; William Harvey restricted
+himself to drawing and designing; Charlton Nesbit and John Jackson
+remained engravers, as did a host of lesser individuals. Dobson
+says:[26]
+
+     The pupils who quitted him to seek their fortunes in London either
+     made their way with difficulty, or turned to other pursuits, and
+     the real popularization of wood-engraving did not take place until
+     some years after his death.
+
+One reason for delay in adopting the new technique may have been the
+danger of the block splitting, or of the sections of wood coming apart
+at the mortise-joints during the printing operation. If this happened,
+work had to be suspended until a new block was engraved, or until the
+sections were reglued. For periodicals with deadlines, this was a
+serious hazard.
+
+
+
+
+Wood Engraving and the Stereotype
+
+
+In any event, wood engraving did not really flourish until a practical
+stereotyping process was perfected. By this procedure substitute blocks
+of type metal could replace the wood engravings in the press, and the
+danger of splitting the block was eliminated. The first steps of any
+importance toward a practical process were made by the Earl of Stanhope
+around 1800, but not until Claude Genoux in France, between 1828 and
+1829, developed the papier mache or wet mat process could acceptable
+stereotypes of entire pages be produced.[27] By this method, patented on
+July 24, 1829, and others that followed, a number of duplicate plates of
+each page could be made as required for rapid printing on a battery of
+presses. Wood engraving now emerged as a practical method of
+illustration for popular publications. The _Penny Magazine_ and the
+_Saturday Magazine_, founded in 1832, immediately made use of Genoux's
+stereotyping process. Dobson[28] describes the effect of these
+periodicals:
+
+     "The art of wood engraving received an astonishing impact from
+     these publications. The engraver, instead of working merely with
+     his own hands, has been obliged to take five or six pupils to get
+     through the work." (Mr. Cowper's evidence before the Select
+     Committee on Arts and Manufactures, 1835). It is difficult nowadays
+     [1884] to understand what a revelation these two periodicals, with
+     their representations of far countries and foreign animals, of
+     masterpieces of painting and sculpture, were to middle-class
+     households fifty years ago.
+
+[26] Dobson, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 174.
+
+[27] George Kubler, _A history of stereotyping_, New York, 1941, p. 75.
+
+[28] Dobson, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 173.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick (actual size),
+engraved after a drawing by John Bewick, from _The Chase_, by William
+Somervile, 1796. (_Photo courtesy the Library of Congress._)]
+
+We will not pursue Bewick's career further. With habits of hard work
+deeply ingrained, he kept at his bench until his death in 1828,
+engraving an awesome quantity of cuts. But he never surpassed his work
+on the _Birds_, although his reputation grew in proportion to the spread
+of wood engraving throughout the world.
+
+The medium became more and more detailed, and eventually rivaled
+photography in its minute variations of tone (see figs. 15 and 16). But
+printing wood engravings never was a problem again. Not only was wove
+paper always used in this connection, but it had become much cheaper
+through the invention of a machine for producing it in lengths. Nicholas
+Louis Robert, in France, had developed and exhibited such an apparatus
+in 1797, at the instigation of M. Didot. John Gamble in England, working
+with Henry and Charles Fourdrinier, engaged a fine mechanic, Bryan
+Donkin, to build a machine on improved principles. The first
+comparatively successful one was completed in 1803. It was periodically
+improved, and wove paper appeared in increasing quantities. Spicer[29]
+says: "Naturally these improvements and economies in the manufacture of
+paper were accompanied by a corresponding increase in output. Where, in
+1806, a machine was capable of making 6 cwt. in twelve hours, in 1813 it
+could turn out double that quantity in the same time at one quarter the
+expense."
+
+[29] A. D. Spicer, _The paper trade_, London, 1907, p. 63.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12.--Wood Engraving by W. J. Linton, 1878 (Actual
+Size). The detail opposite is enlarged four times to show white
+line-technique.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13.--"Pintail Duck" by Thomas Bewick (actual
+size), from _History of British birds_, vol. 2, 1804. The detail
+opposite is enlarged three times.]
+
+At about the same time the all-iron Stanhope press began to be
+manufactured in quantity, and shortly the new inking roller invented by
+the indispensable Earl came into use to supplant the old inking balls.
+Later in the century (there is no need to go into specific detail here)
+calendered and coated papers were introduced, and wood engraving on
+these glossy papers became a medium that could reproduce wash drawings,
+crayon drawings, pencil drawings, and oil paintings so faithfully that
+all the original textures were apparent.[30] The engraver, concerned
+entirely with accurate reproduction, became little more than a mechanic
+who rendered pictures drawn on the blocks by an artist. In time,
+photographic processes came to be used for transferring pictures to the
+blocks and eventually, of course, photomechanical halftones replaced the
+wood engraver altogether.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14.--Title-Page Illustration by Thomas Bewick,
+from _History of British birds_, vol. 1, 1797. (Actual size.)]
+
+[30] The electrotyping process, which came into prominence in 1839
+through the experiments of Professor Jacobi in St. Petersburg and Jordan
+and Spencer in England, had made it possible to produce substitute
+plates of the highest fidelity. For fine work, these were much superior
+to stereotyping.
+
+Bewick was an artist, not a reproductive craftsman. His blocks were
+conceived as original engravings, not as imitations of tones and
+textures created in another medium. If wood engraving advanced in the
+direction of commercialism to fill an overwhelming mass need, it was
+only because he had given it a technical basis. But it had greater
+artistic potentialities, as proved by Blake, Calvert, and Lepere, among
+others, and has found new life in the engravers of the 20th-century
+revival.
+
+The reasons for Bewick's remarkable effectiveness can now be summed up.
+He succeeded, first, because he was the natural inheritor of a
+specifically English graphic arts process, burin-engraving on the end
+grain of wood. This had been practiced almost solely in England, which
+lacked a woodcut tradition, for about 75 years before the date he
+finished his apprenticeship. We know from Jackson's contemporary account
+that end-grain wood engraving was standard practice in England from
+about 1700. Bewick merely continued and refined a medium that came down
+to him as a national tradition.
+
+Secondly, his country isolation and lack of academic training saved him
+from the inanity of repeating the old decorative devices--trophies,
+cartouches, classical figures, Roman ruins, and other international
+conventions that had lost their significance by the 1780's, although a
+spurious classicism was still kept alive for genteel consumption and the
+romantic picturesque still persisted in interior decoration.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Thirdly, he looked at life and nature with a fresh eye, without
+preconceptions. While his lack of larger vision held him down as an
+artist, it contributed to his feeling for natural textures and
+story-telling detail. His approach to illustration, therefore, was the
+spontaneous expression of an observant but unimaginative nature, coated
+with a bitter-sweet sentiment. It was this quality, so homely and common
+and yet so charged with integrity, that delivered the shock of
+recognition to a mass audience.
+
+Lastly, and perhaps most importantly in the long run, he was fortunate
+enough to live at a time when a necessary prerequisite for the physical
+appearance of his work, wove paper, was coming into use. Without it he
+would soon have had to simplify his line system, returning to older and
+less detailed methods, or his work would have remained unprintable. It
+was the new paper that allowed him to extract unprecedented subtleties
+from the wood block, that made his cuts print clearly and evenly, and
+that encouraged the expansion of the wood engraving process. These
+factors, taken together, make up the phenomenon of Thomas Bewick.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick, from _History of
+British birds_, vol. 2, 1804. (Actual size.)]
+
+U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1959
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED***
+
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