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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Why Bewick Succeeded, by Jacob Kainen
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Why Bewick Succeeded
+       A Note in the History of Wood Engraving
+
+
+Author: Jacob Kainen
+
+
+
+Release Date: September 7, 2009  [eBook #29928]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Miranda van de Heijning, Joseph Cooper,
+and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(http://www.pgdp.net)
+
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+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+      See 29928-h.htm or 29928-h.zip:
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+
+
+
+
+
+Contributions from The Museum of History and Technology:
+
+Paper 11
+
+WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED:
+
+A Note in the History of Wood Engraving
+
+by
+
+JACOB KAINEN
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CONTEMPORARY VIEW OF BEWICK   186
+
+LOW STATUS OF THE WOODCUT         188
+
+WOODCUT AND WOOD ENGRAVING        189
+
+WOOD ENGRAVING AND THE STEREOTYPE 197
+
+
+
+
+WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED:
+
+_By Jacob Kainen_
+
+_A Note in the History of Wood Engraving_
+
+
+_Thomas Bewick has been acclaimed as the pioneer of modern wood
+engraving whose genius brought this popular medium to prominence. This
+study shows that certain technological developments prepared a path for
+Bewick and helped give his work its unique character._
+
+The Author: _Jacob Kainen is curator of graphic arts, Museum of History
+and Technology, in the Smithsonian Institution's United States National
+Museum._
+
+
+
+
+No other artist has approached Thomas Bewick (1753-1828) as the
+chronicler of English rustic life. The little wood engravings which he
+turned out in such great number were records of typical scenes and
+episodes, but the artist could also give them social and moral
+overtones. Such an approach has attracted numerous admirers who have
+held him in esteem as an undoubted homespun genius. The fact that he had
+no formal training as a wood engraver, and actually never had a lesson
+in drawing, made his native inspiration seem all the more authentic.
+
+
+
+
+The Contemporary View of Bewick
+
+
+After 1790, when his _A general history of quadrupeds_ appeared with its
+vivid animals and its humorous and mordant tailpiece vignettes, he was
+hailed in terms that have hardly been matched for adulation. Certainly
+no mere book illustrator ever received equal acclaim. He was pronounced
+a great artist, a great man, an outstanding moralist and reformer, and
+the master of a new pictorial method. This flood of eulogy rose
+increasingly during his lifetime and continued throughout the remainder
+of the 19th century. It came from literary men and women who saw him as
+the artist of the common man; from the pious who recognized him as a
+commentator on the vanities and hardships of life (but who sometimes
+deplored the frankness of his subjects); from bibliophiles who welcomed
+him as a revolutionary illustrator; and from fellow wood engravers for
+whom he was the indispensable trail blazer.
+
+During the initial wave of Bewick appreciation, the usually sober
+Wordsworth wrote in the 1805 edition of _Lyrical ballads_:[1]
+
+O now that the genius of Bewick were mine,
+And the skill which he learned on the banks of the Tyne!
+Then the Muses might deal with me just as they chose,
+For I'd take my last leave both of verse and of prose.
+What feats would I work with my magical hand!
+Book learning and books would be banished the land.
+
+If art critics as a class were the most conservative in their estimates
+of his ability, it was one of the most eminent, John Ruskin, whose
+praise went to most extravagant lengths. Bewick, he asserted, as late as
+1890,[2] "... without training, was Holbein's equal ... in this frame
+are set together a drawing by Hans Holbein, and one by Thomas Bewick. I
+know which is most scholarly; but I do _not_ know which is best."
+Linking Bewick with Botticelli as a draughtsman, he added:[3] "I know no
+drawing so subtle as Bewick's since the fifteenth century, except
+Holbein's and Turner's." And as a typical example of popular
+appreciation, the following, from the June 1828 issue of _Blackwood's
+Magazine_, appearing a few months before Bewick's death, should suffice:
+
+     Have we forgotten, in our hurried and imperfect enumeration of wise
+     worthies,--have we forgotten "_The Genius that dwells on the banks
+     of the Tyne_," the matchless, Inimitable Bewick? No. His books lie
+     in our parlour, dining-room, drawing-room, study-table, and are
+     never out of place or time. Happy old man! The delight of
+     childhood, manhood, decaying age!--A moral in every tail-piece--a
+     sermon in every vignette.
+
+This acclaim came to Bewick not only because his subjects had a homely
+honesty, but also, although not generally taken into account, because of
+the brilliance and clarity with which they were printed. Compared with
+the wood engravings of his predecessors, his were more detailed and
+resonant in black and white, and accordingly seemed miraculous and
+unprecedented. He could engrave finer lines and achieve better
+impressions in the press because of improvements in technology which
+will be discussed later, but for a century the convincing qualities of
+this new technique in combination with his subject matter led admirers
+to believe that he was an artist of great stature.
+
+[1] William Wordsworth, _Lyrical ballads_, London, 1805, vol. 1. p. 199.
+
+[2] John Ruskin, _Ariadne Florentina_, London, 1890, pp. 98, 99.
+
+[3] _Ibid._, p. 246.
+
+Later, more mature judgment has made it plain that his contributions as
+a craftsman outrank his worth as an artist. He was no Holbein, no
+Botticelli--it is absurd to think of him in such terms--but he did
+develop a fresh method of handling wood engraving. Because of this he
+represents a turning point in the development of this medium which led
+to its rise as the great popular vehicle for illustration in the 19th
+century. In his hands wood engraving underwent a special transformation;
+it became a means for rendering textures and tonal values. Earlier work
+on wood could not do this; it could manage only a rudimentary suggestion
+of tones. The refinements that followed, noticeable in the highly
+finished products of the later 19th century, came as a direct and
+natural consequence of Bewick's contributions to the art.
+
+Linton[4] and a few others object to the general claim that Bewick was
+the reviver or founder of modern wood engraving, not only because the
+art was practiced earlier, if almost anonymously, and had never really
+died out, but also because his bold cuts had little in common with their
+technician's concern with infinite manipulation of surface tones, a
+feature of later work. But this misses the main point--that Bewick had
+taken the first actual steps in the new direction.
+
+[4] William Linton, _The masters of wood engraving_, London, 1889, p.
+133.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.--Woodcutting Procedure, showing method of
+cutting with the knife on the plank grain, from Jean Papillon's _Traité
+de la gravure en bois_, 1766.]
+
+Unquestionably he gave the medium a new purpose, even though it was not
+generally adopted until after 1830. Through his pupils, his unrelenting
+industry, and his enormous influence he fathered a pictorial activity
+that brought a vastly increased quantity of illustrations to the public.
+Periodical literature, spurred by accompanying pictures that could be
+cheaply made, quickly printed, and dramatically pointed, became a
+livelier force in education. Textbooks, trade journals, dictionaries,
+and other publications could more effectively teach or describe;
+scientific journals could include in the body of text neat and accurate
+pictures to enliven the pages and illustrate the equipment and
+procedures described. Articles on travel could now have convincingly
+realistic renditions of architectural landmarks and of foreign sights,
+customs, personages, and views. The wood engraving, in short, made
+possible the modern illustrated publication because, unlike copper plate
+engraving or etching, it could be quickly set up with printed matter.
+Its use, therefore, multiplied increasingly until just before 1900, when
+it was superseded for these purposes by the photomechanical halftone.
+
+But while Bewick was the prime mover in this revolutionary change,
+little attention has been given to the important technological
+development that cleared the way for him. Without it he could not have
+emerged so startlingly; without it there would have been no modern wood
+engraving. It is not captious to point out the purely industrial basis
+for his coming to prominence. Even had he been a greater artist, a study
+of the technical means at hand would have validity in showing the
+interrelation of industry and art although, of course, the aesthetic
+contribution would stand by itself.
+
+But in Bewick's case the aesthetic level is not particularly high. Good
+as his art was, it wore an everyday aspect: he did not give it that
+additional expressive turn found in the work of greater artists. It
+should not be surprising, then, that his work was not inimitable. It is
+well-known that his pupils made many of the cuts attributed to him,
+making the original drawings and engraving in his style so well that the
+results form almost one indistinguishable body of work. The pupils were
+competent but not gifted, yet they could turn out wood engravings not
+inferior to Bewick's own. And so we find that such capable technicians
+as Nesbit, Clennell, Robinson, Hole, the Johnsons, Harvey, and others
+all contributed to the Bewick cult.
+
+Linton, who worshipped him as an artist but found him primitive as a
+technician, commented:[5] "Widely praised by a crowd of unknowing
+connoisseurs and undiscriminating collectors, we have yet, half a
+century after his death, to point out how much of what is attributed to
+him is really by his hand."
+
+Chatto,[6] who obtained his information from at least one Bewick pupil,
+says that many of the best tailpieces in the _History of British birds_
+were drawn by Robert Johnson, and that "the greater number of those
+contained in the second volume were engraved by Clennell." Granted that
+the outlook and the engraving style were Bewick's, and that these were
+notable contributions, the fact that the results were so close to his
+own points more to an effective method of illustration than to the
+outpourings of genius.
+
+[5] _Ibid._
+
+
+
+
+Low Status of the Woodcut
+
+
+Bewick's training could not have been less promising. Apprenticed to
+Ralph Beilby at the age of fourteen, he says of his master:[7]
+
+     ... The work-place was filled with the coarsest kind of
+     steel-stamps, pipe moulds, bottle moulds, brass clock faces, door
+     plates, coffin plates, bookbinders letters and stamps, steel,
+     silver and gold seals, mourning rings, &c. He also undertook the
+     engraving of arms, crests and cyphers, on silver, and every kind of
+     job from the silversmiths; also engraving bills of exchange, bank
+     notes, invoices, account heads, and cards.... The higher department
+     of engraving, such as landscapes or historical plates, I dare say,
+     was hardly thought of by my master....
+
+A little engraving on wood was also done, but Bewick tells us that his
+master was uncomfortable in this field and almost always turned it over
+to him. His training, obviously, was of a rough and ready sort, based
+upon serviceable but routine engraving on metal. There was no study of
+drawing, composition, or any of the refinements that could be learned
+from a master who had a knowledge of art. Whatever Bewick had of the
+finer points of drawing and design he must have picked up by himself.
+
+[6] William Chatto, and John Jackson, _A treatise on wood engraving_,
+London, 1861 (1st ed. 1839), pp. 496-498.
+
+[7] Thomas Bewick, _Memoir of Thomas Bewick_, New York, 1925 (1st ed.
+London, 1862), pp. 50, 51.
+
+When he completed his apprenticeship in 1774 at the age of twenty-one,
+the art of engraving and cutting on wood was just beginning to show
+signs of life after more than a century and a half of occupying the
+lowest position in the graphic arts. Since it could not produce a full
+gamut of tones in the gray register, which could be managed brilliantly
+by the copper plate media--line engraving, etching, mezzotint and
+aquatint--it was confined to ruder and less exacting uses, such as
+ornamental headbands and tailpieces for printers and as illustrations
+for cheap popular broadsides. When good illustrations were needed in
+books and periodicals, copper plate work was almost invariably used,
+despite the fact that it was more costly, was much slower in execution
+and printing, and had to be bound in with text in a separate operation.
+But while the Society of Arts had begun to offer prizes for engraving or
+cutting on wood (Bewick received such a prize in 1775) the medium was
+still moribund. Dobson[8] described its status as follows:
+
+     During the earlier part of the eighteenth century engraving on wood
+     can scarcely be said to have flourished in England. It existed--so
+     much may be admitted--but it existed without recognition or
+     importance. In the useful little _État des Arts en Angleterre_,
+     published in 1755 by Roquet the enameller,--a treatise so catholic
+     in its scope that it included both cookery and medicine,--there is
+     no reference to the art of wood-engraving. In the _Artist's
+     Assistant_, to take another book which might be expected to afford
+     some information, even in the fifth edition of 1788, the subject
+     finds no record, even though engraving on metal, etching,
+     mezzotinto-scraping--to say nothing of "painting on silks, sattins,
+     etc." are treated with sufficient detail. Turning from these
+     authorities to the actual woodcuts of the period, it must be
+     admitted that the survey is not encouraging.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2.--Wood Engraving Procedure, showing manipulation
+of the burin, from Chatto and Jackson, _A treatise on wood engraving_,
+1861. (See footnote 6.)]
+
+Earlier, among other critics of the deficiencies of the woodcut, Horace
+Walpole[9] had remarked:
+
+     I have said, and for two reasons, shall say little of wooden cuts;
+     that art never was executed with any perfection in England;
+     engraving on metal was a final improvement of the art, and supplied
+     the defects of cuttings in wood. The ancient wooden cuts were
+     certainly carried to a great heighth, but that was the merit of the
+     masters, not of the method.
+
+[8] Austin Dobson, _Thomas Bewick and his pupils_, Boston, 1884, pp. 1,
+2.
+
+[9] Horace Walpole, _Anecdotes of painting in England. A catalogue of
+engravers who have been born, or resided in England. Digested from the
+manuscript of Mr. George Vertue_ ... London, 1782 (1st ed. 1762), p. 4.
+
+
+
+
+Woodcut and Wood Engraving
+
+
+It is necessary, before continuing, to distinguish clearly between the
+woodcut and the wood engraving, not only because early writers used
+these terms interchangeably, but also to determine exactly what Bewick
+contributed technically. The woodcut began with a drawing in pen-and-ink
+on the plank surface of a smooth-grained wood such as pear,
+serviceberry, or box. The woodcutter, using knife, gouges, and chisels,
+then lowered the wood surrounding the lines to allow the original
+drawing, unaltered, to be isolated in relief (see fig. 1). Thus the
+block, when inked and printed, produced facsimile impressions of the
+drawing in black lines on white paper. Usually an accomplished artist
+made the drawing, whereas only a skilled craftsman was needed to do the
+cutting; very few cutters were also capable of making their own
+drawings.
+
+The wood engraving, on the other hand, started with a section of dense
+wood of a uniform texture, usually box or maple, and with the end-grain
+rather than the plank as surface. For larger engravings a number of
+sections were mortised together. The drawing was made on the block, not
+in pen-and-ink although this could be done (certain types of wood
+engraving reproduced pen drawings) but in gray washes with a full range
+of tones. The engraver, using a burin similar to that employed in copper
+plate work, then ploughed out wood in delicate ribbons (see fig. 2).
+Since the surface was to receive ink, the procedure moved from black to
+white: the more lines taken away, the lighter the tones would appear,
+and, conversely, where fewest or finest lines were removed the tones
+would be the darkest. In the finished print the unworked surface printed
+black while each of the engraved lines showed as white. It was the
+"white line" that gave wood engraving its special quality. On the
+smoother end-grain it could be manipulated with extreme fineness, an
+impossibility with the plank side, which would tear slightly or
+"feather" when the burin was moved across the grain. Tones and textures
+approaching the scale of copper plate engraving could be created,
+except, of course, that the lines were white and the impressions not so
+brilliant. But since grays were achieved by the visual synthesis of
+black ink and white paper, it mattered little whether the engraved lines
+were black or white so long as the desired tones could be produced.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3.--Late 15th-Century White-Line Engraving "The
+crowning of the Virgin," in the "dotted manner" executed on metal for
+relief printing. Parts were hand colored.]
+
+For purposes of realism, this was an enormous improvement over the old
+black-line woodcut. Natural tones and textures could be imitated. The
+engraver was no longer a mere mechanical craftsman cutting around
+existing lines; special skill was needed to translate tones in terms of
+white lines of varying thickness and spacing. The opportunity also
+existed for each engraver to work his own tones in his own manner, to
+develop a personal system. In short, the medium served the same purpose
+as copper plate line engraving, with the added virtue that it could be
+printed together with type in one impression. If it failed artistically
+to measure up to line engraving or to plank woodcut, this was not the
+fault of the process but of the popular reproductive ends which it
+almost invariably served.
+
+Actually, white-line engraving for relief printing dates from the 15th
+century. The most conspicuous early examples are the so-called "dotted
+prints" or "gravures en manière criblée," in which the designs were
+brought out by dots punched in the plates, and by occasional engraved
+lines (see fig. 3). Until Koehler's[10] study made this fact plain,
+19th-century critics could hardly believe that these were merely
+white-line metal relief prints, inked on the surface like woodcuts. But
+a number of other examples of the same period exist which were also made
+directly on copper or type metal--the method, although rudimentary,
+being similar in intent to 19th-century wood engraving. One of these
+examples (fig. 4), in the collection of the U. S. National Museum, is
+typical. This was not simply an ordinary line engraving printed in
+relief rather than in the usual way; the management of the lights shows
+that it was planned as a white-line engraving. The reason for this
+treatment, obviously, was to permit the picture and the type to be
+printed in one operation.
+
+The well-known wood engravings of soldiers with standards, executed by
+Urs Graf in the early 1500's, are probably the only white-line prints in
+this medium by an accomplished artist until the 18th century. But these
+are mainly in outline, with little attempt to achieve tones. No
+advantage was gained by having the lines white rather than black other
+than an engaging roughness in spots: the prints were simply whimsical
+excursions by an inventive artist.
+
+[10] Sylvester R. Koehler, "White-line engraving for relief-printing in
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries," in _Annual report of the ...
+Smithsonian Institution ... for the year ending June 30, 1890, report of
+the U. S. National Museum_, Washington, 1892, pp. 385-389.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4.--White-Line Engraving on Metal for Relief
+Printing, "The Franciscan, Pelbart of Temesvar, Studying in a Garden,"
+from "_Pomerium quadragesimale, fratris Pelbarti ordinis sancti
+Francisci_," Augsburg, 1502.]
+
+Relief engraving on type metal and end-grain wood really got under way
+as a consistent process in England at the beginning of the 18th century.
+Chatto[11] gives this date as conjecture, without actual evidence, but a
+first-hand account can be found in the rare and little-known book,
+published in 1752, in which the combination of anonymous authorship and
+a misleading title obscured the fact that it is a digest of John Baptist
+Jackson's manuscript journal. This eminent woodcutter, who was born
+about 1700 and worked in England during the early years of the century,
+must be considered an important and reliable witness. The unknown editor
+paraphrases Jackson on the subject of engraving for relief purposes:[12]
+
+     ... I shall give a brief Account of the State of Cutting on Wood in
+     _England_ for the Type Press before he [Jackson] went to _France_
+     in 1725. In the beginning of this Century a remarkable Blow was
+     given to all Cutters on Wood, by an Invention of engraving on the
+     same sort of Metal which Types are cast with. The celebrated Mr.
+     _Kirkhal_, an able Engraver on Copper, is said to be the first who
+     performed a Relievo Work to answer the use of Cutting on Wood. This
+     could be dispatched much sooner, and consequently answered the
+     purpose of Booksellers and Printers, who purchased those sort of
+     Works at a much chaper [sic] Rate than could be expected from an
+     Engraver on Wood; it required much more Time to execute with
+     accuracy any piece of Work of the same Measure with those carved on
+     Metal. This performance was very much in Vogue, and continued down
+     to this Day, to serve for Initials, Fregii and Finali; it is called
+     a clear Impression, but often gray and hazy, far from coming up to
+     that clear black Impression produced with cutting on the side of a
+     piece of Box-wood or Pear-tree. Much about the same time there
+     started another Method of Engraving on the end ways of Wood itself,
+     which was cut to the height of the Letters to accompany them in the
+     Press, and engraved in the same Manner as the Metal Performance;
+     this Method was also encouraged, and is the only way of Engraving
+     on Wood at present used in the English Printing-houses. These
+     performances are to be seen in Magazines, News Papers, &c. and are
+     the Remains of the ancient Manner of Cutting on Wood, and is the
+     reason why the Curious concluded it was intirely lost.
+
+[11] Chatto, _op. cit._ (footnote 6), p. 446.
+
+[12] _An enquiry into the origins of printing in Europe, by a lover of
+art_, London, 1752, pp. 25, 26.
+
+This is important evidence that end-grain wood engraving was not only
+known in England in the early 18th century but was actually the
+prevailing style. In that country, where a woodcut tradition did not
+exist, the new method gained its first foothold. But it was not yet
+conceived in terms of white lines; it was merely a cheaper substitute
+for cutting with the knife on the plank. In European countries with long
+art and printing traditions, this substitute method was considered
+beneath contempt. Jackson[13] describes the aversion of French
+woodcutters for the newer and cheaper process:
+
+     From this Account it is evident that there was little encouragement
+     to be hoped for in _England_ to a Person whose Genius led him to
+     prosecute his Studies in the ancient Manner; which obliged Mr.
+     _Jackson_ to go over to the Continent, and see what was used in the
+     Parisian Printing-houses. At his arrival there he found the
+     _French_ engravers on Wood all working in the old Manner; no Metal
+     engravers, or any of the same performance on the end of the Wood,
+     was ever used or countenanced by the Printers or Booksellers in
+     that City.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5.--Example of the Woodcut Style that Created
+Facsimile Drawings. Woodcut (actual size) by Hans Lutzelburger, after a
+drawing by Holbein for his "Dance of Death," 1538.]
+
+There were good reasons for the lack of development of a white-line
+style, even in England with its lower standards in printing and
+illustrative techniques. On the coarse paper of the period fine white
+lines could not be adapted to relief (typographical) presswork; they
+would be lost in printing because the ribbed paper received ink
+unevenly. Even the simple black lines of the traditional woodcut
+usually printed spottily when combined with type. The white lines, then,
+had to be broadly separated. This did not permit the engraving of
+delicate tones. If this could not be achieved, the effect was similar to
+woodcutting but with less crispness and accuracy in the drawing. A good
+woodcut in the old manner could do everything the wood engraving could
+do, before Bewick, with the added virtue that the black line was
+comparatively clear and unequivocal, as can be seen in figure 5.
+
+[13] _Ibid._, p. 27.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6.--Woodcut Tailpiece by J. M. Papillon, from
+_Traité historique et pratique de la gravure en bois_, 1766. The cutting
+was done so minutely that some details were lost in printing. (Actual
+size.)]
+
+The woodcut, in the hands of a remarkable cutter, could produce miracles
+of delicacy. It could, in fact, have black lines so fine and so closely
+spaced as to take on the character of line engraving. It did not, of
+course, have the range of tones or the delicacy of modeling possible in
+the copper plate medium, where every little trench cut by the burin
+would hold ink BELOW the wiped-off surface, to be transferred to
+dampened paper under the heavy pressure of the cylinder press. In
+addition, the roughness of early paper, which was serious for the
+woodcut, created no difficulties for the line engraver or for other
+workers in the intaglio or gravure media.
+
+But the influence of copper plate work was strong, and some skillful but
+misguided woodcut craftsmen tried to obtain some degree of its richness.
+French artists from about 1720, notably Jean M. Papillon, produced cuts
+so delicate that their printing became a problem (see fig. 6). Jackson,
+who had worked with the French artist in Paris, condemned his efforts to
+turn the woodcut into a tonal medium through the creation of numerous
+delicate lines because such effects were impossible to print.
+Jackson[14] is quoted in the _Enquiry_:
+
+     In 1728 Mr. _Pappillon_ began his small _Paris_ Almanack, wherein
+     is placed Cuts (done on Wood) allusive to each Month, with the
+     Signs of the Zodiack, in such a Minute Stile, that he seems to
+     forget in that Work the Impossibility of printing it in a Press
+     with any Clearness ... But alas! His father and M. _le Seur_ [also
+     woodcutters] had examined Impression and its Process, and saw how
+     careful the Ancients were to keep a proper Distance between their
+     Lines and hatched Works, so as to produce a clean Impression ... I
+     saw the Almanack in a horrid Condition before I left _Paris_, the
+     Signs of the Zodiack wore like a Blotch, notwithstanding the utmost
+     Care and Diligence the Printer used to take up very little Ink to
+     keep them clean.
+
+It is clear that too thin a strip of white between black lines was not
+suitable for printing in the first half of the 18th century. But when
+Bewick's cuts after 1790 are examined we can see many white lines
+thinner than a hair. Obviously something had happened to permit him a
+flexibility not granted to earlier workers on wood. Bewick's whole craft
+depended upon his ability to control white lines of varying thickness.
+Why was he able to do this, and why could it be done without trouble by
+others after him?
+
+Early paper, as already mentioned, had a ribbed grain because it was
+made on a hand mould in which wires were closely laid in one direction,
+but with enough space between to allow the water in the paper pulp to
+drain through. Crossing wires, set some distance apart, held them
+together. Each wire, however, made a slight impression in the finished
+paper, the result being a surface with minute ripples. The surface of
+this laid paper presented irregularities even after the glazing
+operation, done with hammers before about 1720 and with wooden rollers
+up to about 1825.[15]
+
+In 1756 James Whatman began to manufacture a new, smooth paper to
+replace the laid variety that had been used since the importation of
+paper into Europe in the 12th century. Whether Whatman or the renowned
+printer John Baskerville was the guiding spirit in this development is
+uncertain.[16] Baskerville, who had been experimenting with type faces
+of a lighter and more delicate design, had been dissatisfied with the
+uneven surface of laid paper. Possibly he saw examples of the Chinese
+wallpaper on wove stock, made from a cloth mesh, which was a staple of
+the trade with the Orient. Hunter[17] describes the new mould:
+
+     The wove covering was made of fine brass screening and received its
+     name because it was woven on a loom in about the same manner as
+     cloth. It left in the paper an indistinct impression resembling a
+     fabric. Baskerville had been in the japanning and metal-working
+     trades before becoming a printer, so that he was naturally familiar
+     with this material, metal screening having been used in England for
+     other purposes before it was put to use as a material upon which to
+     mould sheets of paper.
+
+The first book printed in Europe on wove paper unquestionably was the
+Latin edition of Virgil produced by Baskerville in 1757. This was,
+however, partly on laid also. The actual paper was made in James
+Whatman's mill in Maidstone, Kent, on the banks of the river Len, where
+paper had been made since the 17th century. Whatman, who became sole
+owner of the mill in 1740, specialized in fine white paper of the
+highest quality. But while the book attracted considerable attention it
+did not immediately divert the demand for laid paper, since it was
+looked on more as an oddity than as a serious achievement. Baskerville
+was strictly an artist: he took unlimited time and pains, he had no
+regard for the prevailing market, and he produced sporadically; also, he
+was harshly criticized and even derided for his strange formats.[18]
+With such a reputation for impracticality the printer's influence was
+negligible during his lifetime although, of course, it was widely felt
+later.
+
+[14] Jackson, _op. cit._ (footnote 12), p. 29.
+
+[15] Dard Hunter, _Papermaking through eighteen centuries_, New York,
+1930, pp. 148, 152.
+
+[16] A. T. Hazen, "Baskerville and James Whatman," _Studies in
+Bibliography, Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia_,
+vol. 5, 1952-53. For a brilliant study of the Whatman mill, where
+practically all wove paper up to the 1780's was manufactured, see Thomas
+Balston's _James Whatman, father and son_, London, 1957.
+
+[17] Hunter, _op. cit._ (footnote 15), p. 215.
+
+[18] R. Straus and R. K. Dent, _John Baskerville_, Cambridge, 1907. On
+page 19 the authors include a letter to Baskerville from Benjamin
+Franklin, written in 1760 in a jocular tone, which notes that he
+overheard a friend saying that Baskerville's types would be "the means
+of blinding all the Readers in the Nation owing to the thin and narrow
+strokes of the letters."
+
+About 1777 the French became acquainted with wove paper, which Franklin
+brought to Paris for exhibition. In 1779, according to Hunter,[19] M.
+Didot the famous printer, "having seen the _papier vélin_ that
+Baskerville used, addressed a letter to M. Johannot of Annonay, a
+skilled papermaker, asking him to endeavour to duplicate the smooth and
+even surface of this new paper. Johannot was successful in his
+experiments, and for his work in this field he was in 1781 awarded a
+gold medal by Louis XVI."
+
+[19] Hunter, _op. cit._ (footnote 15), p. 219.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7.--Wood Engraving by Thomas Bewick, "The Man and
+the Flea," for _Fables, by the late Mr. Gay_, 1779. (Actual size.) Note
+how the closely worked lines of the sky and water have blurred in
+printing on laid paper. The pale vertical streak is caused by the laid
+mould.]
+
+Wove paper was so slow to come into use that Jenkins gives the date 1788
+for its first appearance in book printing.[20] While he missed a few
+examples, notably by Baskerville, it is certain that few books with wove
+paper were published before 1790. But after that date its manufacture
+increased with such rapidity that by 1805 it had supplanted laid paper
+for many printing purposes.
+
+The reasons for this gap between the introduction and the acceptance of
+the new paper are not clear; the inertia of tradition as well as the
+probable higher cost no doubt played a part, and we may assume that
+early wove paper had imperfections and other drawbacks serious enough to
+cause printers to prefer the older material.
+
+Bewick's early work was printed on laid paper. Up to 1784 he had worked
+in a desultory fashion on wood, much of his time being occupied with
+seal cutting because there was still no real demand for wood engraving.
+In Gay's _Fables_, published in 1779, the cuts printed so poorly on the
+laid paper (see fig. 7) that Dobson[21] was moved to say:
+
+     Generally speaking, the printing of all these cuts, even in the
+     earlier editions (and it is absolutely useless to consult any
+     others), is weak and unskillful. The fine work of the backgrounds
+     is seldom made out, and the whole impression is blurred and
+     unequal.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8.--"The Spanish Pointer", illustration (actual
+size) by Thomas Bewick, from _A general history of quadrupeds_, 1790, in
+the collections of the Library of Congress.]
+
+
+[20] Rhys Jenkins, "Early papermaking in England, 1495-1788," _Library
+Association Record_, London, 1900-1902, vol. 2, nos. 9 and 11; vol. 3,
+no. 5; vol. 4, nos. 3 and 4.
+
+[21] Dobson, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 56.
+
+Even in the _Select fables of Aesop and others_ of 1784, when Bewick's
+special gifts began to emerge, the cuts on laid paper appeared weak in
+comparison with his later work. Bewick was still using wood engraving as
+a cheaper, more quickly executed substitute for the woodcut. The designs
+were based upon Croxall's edition of _Aesop's Fables_, published in
+1722, which was probably the best and most popular illustrated book
+published in England during the century up to Bewick's time. According
+to Chatto, the cuts were made with the burin on end-grain wood, probably
+by Kirkall,[22] but Bewick believed they were engraved on type
+metal.[23] It was not easy to tell the difference. Type metal usually
+made grayer impressions than wood and sometimes, but not always,
+nail-head marks appeared where the metal was fastened to the wood base.
+The Croxall cuts, in turn, were adapted with little change from
+17th-century sources--etchings by Francis Barlow and line engravings by
+Sebastian Le Clerc. Bewick's cuts repeated the earlier designs but
+changed the locale to the English countryside of the late 18th century.
+This was to be expected; to have a contemporary meaning the actors of
+the old morality play had to appear in modern dress and with up-to-date
+scenery. But technically the cuts followed the pattern of Croxall's wood
+engraver, although with a slightly greater range of tone. Artistically
+Bewick's interpretation was inferior because it was more literal; it
+lacked the grander feeling of the earlier work.
+
+Bewick really became the prophet of a new pictorial style in his _A
+general history of quadrupeds_, published in 1790 on wove paper (see
+figs. 8, 9, and 10). Here his animals and little vignetted tailpieces of
+observations in the country announced an original subject for
+illustration and a fresh treatment of wood engraving, although some
+designs were still copied from earlier models. The white line begins to
+function with greater elasticity; tones and details beyond anything
+known previously in the medium appear with the force of innovation. The
+paper was still somewhat coarse and the cuts were often gray and muddy.
+But the audacity of the artist in venturing tonal subtleties was
+immediately apparent.
+
+[22] Chatto, _op. cit._ (footnote 6), p. 448.
+
+[23] Thomas Bewick, _Fables of Aesop and others_, Newcastle, 1818.
+
+One of Bewick's old friends at Newcastle had been William Bulmer, who by
+the 1790's had become a famous printer. In 1795 he published an edition
+of _Poems by Goldsmith and Parnell_, which was preceded by an
+Advertisement announcing his intentions:
+
+     The present volume ... [is] particularly meant to combine the
+     various beauties of PRINTING, TYPE-FOUNDING, ENGRAVING, and
+     PAPER-MAKING.... The ornaments are all engraved on blocks of wood,
+     by two of my earliest acquaintances, Messrs. Bewick [Thomas and his
+     brother and apprentice John], of Newcastle upon Tyne and London,
+     after designs made from the most interesting passages of the Poems
+     they embellish. They have been executed with great care, and I may
+     venture to say, without being supposed to be influenced by ancient
+     friendship, that they form the most extraordinary effort of the art
+     of engraving upon wood that ever was produced in any age, or any
+     country. Indeed it seems almost impossible that such delicate
+     effects could be obtained from blocks of wood. Of the Paper, it is
+     only necessary to say that it comes from the manufactory of Mr.
+     Whatman.
+
+The following year, 1796, a companion volume, _The Chase, a Poem_, by
+William Somervile, appeared with cuts by Bewick after drawings by his
+brother John (see fig. 11). In both books, although no acknowledgment
+was given, there was considerable assistance from pupils Robert and
+John Johnson and Charlton Nesbit, as well as from an artist associate
+Richard Westall.[24] Bulmer was quite conscious that a new era in
+printing and illustration had begun. Updike[25] notes Bulmer's
+recognition of the achievements of both Baskerville and Bewick in giving
+the art of printing a new basis:
+
+     To understand the causes of the revival of English printing which
+     marked the last years of the century, we must remember that by 1775
+     Baskerville was dead.... There seems to have been a temporary lull
+     in English fine printing and the kind of type-founding that
+     contributed to it. The wood-engraving of Thomas Bewick, produced
+     about 1780, called, nevertheless, for more brilliant and delicate
+     letter-press than either Caslon's or Wilson's types could supply.
+     If Baskerville's fonts had been available, no doubt they would have
+     served.... So the next experiments in typography were made by a
+     little coterie composed of the Boydells, the Nicols, the Bewicks
+     (Thomas and John), and Bulmer.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick (actual size), from
+_A general history of quadrupeds_, 1790, in the collections of the
+Library of Congress.]
+
+When the cuts in this book are compared with earlier impressions from
+wood blocks, the difference is quickly seen. The blocks are more highly
+wrought, yet every line is crisp and clear and the impressions are black
+and brilliant. When we realize that the only new technological factor of
+any consequence was the use of good smooth wove paper, we can appreciate
+its significance.
+
+There were no other developments of note in the practice of printing
+during the 18th century. The old wooden hand press, unimproved except
+for minor devices, was still in universal use. Ink was little improved;
+paper was handmade; type was made from hand moulds. The ink was still
+applied by dabbing with inking balls of wool-stuffed leather nailed to
+wooden forms. The leather was still kept soft by removing it and soaking
+it in urine, after which it was trampled for some time to complete the
+unsavory operation. Paper still had to be dampened overnight before
+printing, and freshly inked sheets were still hung to dry over cords
+stretched across the room.
+
+[24] D. C. Thomson, _The life and works of Thomas Bewick_, London, 1882,
+p. 152.
+
+[25] D. B. Updike, _Printing types, their history, forms and use_,
+Cambridge and London, 1922, vol. 2, pp. 122, 123.
+
+But with a more sympathetic surface for receiving ink from relief
+blocks, a new avenue for wood engraving was now open. In the following
+year, 1797, the first volume of Bewick's finest and best-known work was
+published. This was the _History of British birds_, for which he and his
+pupils did the cuts while Ralph Beilby, his partner and former master,
+provided the descriptions (see figs. 12, 13, and 14.) It achieved an
+immense and instantaneous popularity that carried the artist's name over
+the British Isles. The attractiveness of the subject, the freshness of
+the medium--which could render the softness of feathers and could be
+interspersed with text--the powerful and decorative little tail pieces,
+and the comparative inexpensiveness of the volumes, brought the _Birds_
+into homes everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick (actual size),
+from _A general history of quadrupeds_, 1790, in the collections of the
+Library of Congress.]
+
+Actually, wood engraving was not immediately adopted on a wide scale.
+Having done without it for so long, printers and publishers made no
+concerted rush to avail themselves of the new type of cuts. Bewick's
+pupils found little of this kind of work to do before about 1830. Luke
+Clennell dropped engraving for painting; William Harvey restricted
+himself to drawing and designing; Charlton Nesbit and John Jackson
+remained engravers, as did a host of lesser individuals. Dobson
+says:[26]
+
+     The pupils who quitted him to seek their fortunes in London either
+     made their way with difficulty, or turned to other pursuits, and
+     the real popularization of wood-engraving did not take place until
+     some years after his death.
+
+One reason for delay in adopting the new technique may have been the
+danger of the block splitting, or of the sections of wood coming apart
+at the mortise-joints during the printing operation. If this happened,
+work had to be suspended until a new block was engraved, or until the
+sections were reglued. For periodicals with deadlines, this was a
+serious hazard.
+
+
+
+
+Wood Engraving and the Stereotype
+
+
+In any event, wood engraving did not really flourish until a practical
+stereotyping process was perfected. By this procedure substitute blocks
+of type metal could replace the wood engravings in the press, and the
+danger of splitting the block was eliminated. The first steps of any
+importance toward a practical process were made by the Earl of Stanhope
+around 1800, but not until Claude Genoux in France, between 1828 and
+1829, developed the papier mâché or wet mat process could acceptable
+stereotypes of entire pages be produced.[27] By this method, patented on
+July 24, 1829, and others that followed, a number of duplicate plates of
+each page could be made as required for rapid printing on a battery of
+presses. Wood engraving now emerged as a practical method of
+illustration for popular publications. The _Penny Magazine_ and the
+_Saturday Magazine_, founded in 1832, immediately made use of Genoux's
+stereotyping process. Dobson[28] describes the effect of these
+periodicals:
+
+     "The art of wood engraving received an astonishing impact from
+     these publications. The engraver, instead of working merely with
+     his own hands, has been obliged to take five or six pupils to get
+     through the work." (Mr. Cowper's evidence before the Select
+     Committee on Arts and Manufactures, 1835). It is difficult nowadays
+     [1884] to understand what a revelation these two periodicals, with
+     their representations of far countries and foreign animals, of
+     masterpieces of painting and sculpture, were to middle-class
+     households fifty years ago.
+
+[26] Dobson, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 174.
+
+[27] George Kubler, _A history of stereotyping_, New York, 1941, p. 75.
+
+[28] Dobson, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 173.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick (actual size),
+engraved after a drawing by John Bewick, from _The Chase_, by William
+Somervile, 1796. (_Photo courtesy the Library of Congress._)]
+
+We will not pursue Bewick's career further. With habits of hard work
+deeply ingrained, he kept at his bench until his death in 1828,
+engraving an awesome quantity of cuts. But he never surpassed his work
+on the _Birds_, although his reputation grew in proportion to the spread
+of wood engraving throughout the world.
+
+The medium became more and more detailed, and eventually rivaled
+photography in its minute variations of tone (see figs. 15 and 16). But
+printing wood engravings never was a problem again. Not only was wove
+paper always used in this connection, but it had become much cheaper
+through the invention of a machine for producing it in lengths. Nicholas
+Louis Robert, in France, had developed and exhibited such an apparatus
+in 1797, at the instigation of M. Didot. John Gamble in England, working
+with Henry and Charles Fourdrinier, engaged a fine mechanic, Bryan
+Donkin, to build a machine on improved principles. The first
+comparatively successful one was completed in 1803. It was periodically
+improved, and wove paper appeared in increasing quantities. Spicer[29]
+says: "Naturally these improvements and economies in the manufacture of
+paper were accompanied by a corresponding increase in output. Where, in
+1806, a machine was capable of making 6 cwt. in twelve hours, in 1813 it
+could turn out double that quantity in the same time at one quarter the
+expense."
+
+[29] A. D. Spicer, _The paper trade_, London, 1907, p. 63.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12.--Wood Engraving by W. J. Linton, 1878 (Actual
+Size). The detail opposite is enlarged four times to show white
+line-technique.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13.--"Pintail Duck" by Thomas Bewick (actual
+size), from _History of British birds_, vol. 2, 1804. The detail
+opposite is enlarged three times.]
+
+At about the same time the all-iron Stanhope press began to be
+manufactured in quantity, and shortly the new inking roller invented by
+the indispensable Earl came into use to supplant the old inking balls.
+Later in the century (there is no need to go into specific detail here)
+calendered and coated papers were introduced, and wood engraving on
+these glossy papers became a medium that could reproduce wash drawings,
+crayon drawings, pencil drawings, and oil paintings so faithfully that
+all the original textures were apparent.[30] The engraver, concerned
+entirely with accurate reproduction, became little more than a mechanic
+who rendered pictures drawn on the blocks by an artist. In time,
+photographic processes came to be used for transferring pictures to the
+blocks and eventually, of course, photomechanical halftones replaced the
+wood engraver altogether.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14.--Title-Page Illustration by Thomas Bewick,
+from _History of British birds_, vol. 1, 1797. (Actual size.)]
+
+[30] The electrotyping process, which came into prominence in 1839
+through the experiments of Professor Jacobi in St. Petersburg and Jordan
+and Spencer in England, had made it possible to produce substitute
+plates of the highest fidelity. For fine work, these were much superior
+to stereotyping.
+
+Bewick was an artist, not a reproductive craftsman. His blocks were
+conceived as original engravings, not as imitations of tones and
+textures created in another medium. If wood engraving advanced in the
+direction of commercialism to fill an overwhelming mass need, it was
+only because he had given it a technical basis. But it had greater
+artistic potentialities, as proved by Blake, Calvert, and Lepére, among
+others, and has found new life in the engravers of the 20th-century
+revival.
+
+The reasons for Bewick's remarkable effectiveness can now be summed up.
+He succeeded, first, because he was the natural inheritor of a
+specifically English graphic arts process, burin-engraving on the end
+grain of wood. This had been practiced almost solely in England, which
+lacked a woodcut tradition, for about 75 years before the date he
+finished his apprenticeship. We know from Jackson's contemporary account
+that end-grain wood engraving was standard practice in England from
+about 1700. Bewick merely continued and refined a medium that came down
+to him as a national tradition.
+
+Secondly, his country isolation and lack of academic training saved him
+from the inanity of repeating the old decorative devices--trophies,
+cartouches, classical figures, Roman ruins, and other international
+conventions that had lost their significance by the 1780's, although a
+spurious classicism was still kept alive for genteel consumption and the
+romantic picturesque still persisted in interior decoration.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Thirdly, he looked at life and nature with a fresh eye, without
+preconceptions. While his lack of larger vision held him down as an
+artist, it contributed to his feeling for natural textures and
+story-telling detail. His approach to illustration, therefore, was the
+spontaneous expression of an observant but unimaginative nature, coated
+with a bitter-sweet sentiment. It was this quality, so homely and common
+and yet so charged with integrity, that delivered the shock of
+recognition to a mass audience.
+
+Lastly, and perhaps most importantly in the long run, he was fortunate
+enough to live at a time when a necessary prerequisite for the physical
+appearance of his work, wove paper, was coming into use. Without it he
+would soon have had to simplify his line system, returning to older and
+less detailed methods, or his work would have remained unprintable. It
+was the new paper that allowed him to extract unprecedented subtleties
+from the wood block, that made his cuts print clearly and evenly, and
+that encouraged the expansion of the wood engraving process. These
+factors, taken together, make up the phenomenon of Thomas Bewick.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick, from _History of
+British birds_, vol. 2, 1804. (Actual size.)]
+
+U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1959
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED***
+
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Why Bewick Succeeded, by Jacob Kainen</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Why Bewick Succeeded</p>
+<p>       A Note in the History of Wood Engraving</p>
+<p>Author: Jacob Kainen</p>
+<p>Release Date: September 7, 2009  [eBook #29928]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Miranda van de Heijning, Joseph Cooper,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="p_185" id="p_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Contributions from</span></p>
+
+<p class="title"><span class="smcap">The Museum of History and Technology:</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">Paper 11</span></p>
+
+<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Why Bewick Succeeded:
+A Note in the History of Wood Engraving</span></p>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><i>Jacob Kainen</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 599px;">
+<img src="images/icover.jpg" width="599" height="800" alt="Cover" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<table id="toc" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tbody>
+  <tr><td class="tdlt"></td><td class="tdr mixcap">Page</td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tdlt"><a href="#The_Contemporary_View_of_Bewick">The Contemporary View of Bewick</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#p_186">186</a></td></tr>
+
+  <tr><td class="tdlt"><a href="#Low_Status_of_the_Woodcut">Low Status of the Woodcut</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#p_188">188</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tdlt"><a href="#Woodcut_and_Wood_Engraving">Woodcut and Wood Engraving</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#p_189">189</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td class="tdlt"><a href="#Wood_Engraving_and_the_Stereotype">Wood Engraving and the Stereotype</a></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#p_197">197</a></td></tr>
+
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="p_186" id="p_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="WHY_BEWICK_SUCCEEDED" id="WHY_BEWICK_SUCCEEDED"></a>WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED:</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>By Jacob Kainen</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>A Note in the History
+of Wood Engraving</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Thomas Bewick has been acclaimed as the pioneer of
+modern wood engraving whose genius brought this popular
+medium to prominence. This study shows that certain
+technological developments prepared a path for Bewick
+and helped give his work its unique character.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Author:</span> <i>Jacob Kainen is curator of graphic
+arts, Museum of History and Technology, in the Smithsonian
+Institution's United States National Museum.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p>No other artist has approached Thomas Bewick
+(1753-1828) as the chronicler of English rustic
+life. The little wood engravings which he turned out
+in such great number were records of typical scenes
+and episodes, but the artist could also give them social
+and moral overtones. Such an approach has attracted
+numerous admirers who have held him in
+esteem as an undoubted homespun genius. The fact
+that he had no formal training as a wood engraver,
+and actually never had a lesson in drawing, made his
+native inspiration seem all the more authentic.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="The_Contemporary_View_of_Bewick" id="The_Contemporary_View_of_Bewick"></a>The Contemporary View of Bewick</h2>
+
+
+<p>After 1790, when his <i>A general history of quadrupeds</i>
+appeared with its vivid animals and its humorous and
+mordant tailpiece vignettes, he was hailed in terms
+that have hardly been matched for adulation. Certainly
+no mere book illustrator ever received equal
+acclaim. He was pronounced a great artist, a great
+man, an outstanding moralist and reformer, and the
+master of a new pictorial method. This flood of
+eulogy rose increasingly during his lifetime and continued
+throughout the remainder of the 19th century.
+It came from literary men and women who saw him
+as the artist of the common man; from the pious who
+recognized him as a commentator on the vanities and
+hardships of life (but who sometimes deplored the
+frankness of his subjects); from bibliophiles who
+welcomed him as a revolutionary illustrator; and from
+fellow wood engravers for whom he was the indispensable
+trail blazer.</p>
+
+<p>During the initial wave of Bewick appreciation,
+the usually sober Wordsworth wrote in the 1805 edition
+of <i>Lyrical ballads</i>:<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>
+O now that the genius of Bewick were mine,<br />
+And the skill which he learned on the banks of the Tyne!<br />
+Then the Muses might deal with me just as they chose,<br />
+For I'd take my last leave both of verse and of prose.<br />
+What feats would I work with my magical hand!<br />
+Book learning and books would be banished the land.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>If art critics as a class were the most conservative
+in their estimates of his ability, it was one of the most
+eminent, John Ruskin, whose praise went to most
+extravagant lengths. Bewick, he asserted, as late as
+1890,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> " ... without training, was Holbein's equal
+... in this frame are set together a drawing by Hans
+Holbein, and one by Thomas Bewick. I know which
+is most scholarly; but I do <i>not</i> know which is best."
+Linking Bewick with Botticelli as a draughtsman, he
+added:<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> "I know no drawing so subtle as Bewick's
+since the fifteenth century, except Holbein's and
+Turner's." And as a typical example of popular
+appreciation, the following, from the June 1828 issue
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="p_187" id="p_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>of <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>, appearing a few months before
+Bewick's death, should suffice:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Have we forgotten, in our hurried and imperfect enumeration
+of wise worthies,&mdash;have we forgotten "<i>The Genius that
+dwells on the banks of the Tyne</i>," the matchless, Inimitable
+Bewick? No. His books lie in our parlour, dining-room,
+drawing-room, study-table, and are never out of place or
+time. Happy old man! The delight of childhood, manhood,
+decaying age!&mdash;A moral in every tail-piece&mdash;a
+sermon in every vignette.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This acclaim came to Bewick not only because his
+subjects had a homely honesty, but also, although
+not generally taken into account, because of the
+brilliance and clarity with which they were printed.
+Compared with the wood engravings of his predecessors,
+his were more detailed and resonant in
+black and white, and accordingly seemed miraculous
+and unprecedented. He could engrave finer lines
+and achieve better impressions in the press because
+of improvements in technology which will be discussed
+later, but for a century the convincing qualities
+of this new technique in combination with his subject
+matter led admirers to believe that he was an
+artist of great stature.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> William Wordsworth, <i>Lyrical ballads</i>, London, 1805, vol. 1.
+p. 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> John Ruskin, <i>Ariadne Florentina</i>, London, 1890, pp. 98, 99.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 246.</p></div>
+
+<p>Later, more mature judgment has made it plain that
+his contributions as a craftsman outrank his worth
+as an artist. He was no Holbein, no Botticelli&mdash;it is
+absurd to think of him in such terms&mdash;but he did
+develop a fresh method of handling wood engraving.
+Because of this he represents a turning point in the
+development of this medium which led to its rise as
+the great popular vehicle for illustration in the
+19th century. In his hands wood engraving underwent
+a special transformation; it became a means
+for rendering textures and tonal values. Earlier
+work on wood could not do this; it could manage
+only a rudimentary suggestion of tones. The refinements
+that followed, noticeable in the highly
+finished products of the later 19th century, came as
+a direct and natural consequence of Bewick's contributions
+to the art.</p>
+
+<p>Linton<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and a few others object to the general
+claim that Bewick was the reviver or founder of
+modern wood engraving, not only because the art
+was practiced earlier, if almost anonymously, and
+had never really died out, but also because his bold
+cuts had little in common with their technician's
+concern with infinite manipulation of surface tones,
+a feature of later work. But this misses the main
+point&mdash;that Bewick had taken the first actual steps
+in the new direction.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> William Linton, <i>The masters of wood engraving</i>, London,
+1889, p. 133.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 386px;">
+<img src="images/i007.jpg" width="386" height="700" alt="Figure 1.&mdash;Woodcutting Procedure, showing
+method of cutting with the knife on the plank grain,
+from Jean Papillon&#39;s Traité de la gravure en bois, 1766." title="Figure 1.&mdash;Woodcutting Procedure, showing
+method " />
+<span class="caption">Figure 1.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Woodcutting Procedure</span>, showing
+method of cutting with the knife on the plank grain,
+from Jean Papillon&#39;s Traité de la gravure en bois, 1766.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Unquestionably he gave the medium a new purpose,
+even though it was not generally adopted until
+after 1830. Through his pupils, his unrelenting industry,
+and his enormous influence he fathered a pictorial
+activity that brought a vastly increased quantity
+of illustrations to the public. Periodical literature,
+spurred by accompanying pictures that could be
+cheaply made, quickly printed, and dramatically
+pointed, became a livelier force in education. Textbooks,<span class="pagenum"><a name="p_188" id="p_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+trade journals, dictionaries, and other publications
+could more effectively teach or describe; scientific
+journals could include in the body of text neat
+and accurate pictures to enliven the pages and illustrate
+the equipment and procedures described. Articles
+on travel could now have convincingly realistic
+renditions of architectural landmarks and of foreign
+sights, customs, personages, and views. The wood engraving,
+in short, made possible the modern illustrated
+publication because, unlike copper plate engraving
+or etching, it could be quickly set up with
+printed matter. Its use, therefore, multiplied increasingly
+until just before 1900, when it was superseded
+for these purposes by the photomechanical halftone.</p>
+
+<p>But while Bewick was the prime mover in this revolutionary
+change, little attention has been given to the
+important technological development that cleared
+the way for him. Without it he could not have
+emerged so startlingly; without it there would have
+been no modern wood engraving. It is not captious
+to point out the purely industrial basis for his coming
+to prominence. Even had he been a greater artist, a
+study of the technical means at hand would have
+validity in showing the interrelation of industry and
+art although, of course, the aesthetic contribution
+would stand by itself.</p>
+
+<p>But in Bewick's case the aesthetic level is not particularly
+high. Good as his art was, it wore an everyday
+aspect: he did not give it that additional expressive
+turn found in the work of greater artists. It
+should not be surprising, then, that his work was not
+inimitable. It is well-known that his pupils made
+many of the cuts attributed to him, making the original
+drawings and engraving in his style so well that
+the results form almost one indistinguishable body of
+work. The pupils were competent but not gifted, yet
+they could turn out wood engravings not inferior to
+Bewick's own. And so we find that such capable
+technicians as Nesbit, Clennell, Robinson, Hole, the
+Johnsons, Harvey, and others all contributed to the
+Bewick cult.</p>
+
+<p>Linton, who worshipped him as an artist but found
+him primitive as a technician, commented:<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> "Widely
+praised by a crowd of unknowing connoisseurs and
+undiscriminating collectors, we have yet, half a century
+after his death, to point out how much of what is
+attributed to him is really by his hand.</p>
+
+<p>Chatto,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> who obtained his information from at least
+one Bewick pupil, says that many of the best tailpieces
+in the <i>History of British birds</i> were drawn by Robert
+Johnson, and that "the greater number of those contained
+in the second volume were engraved by Clennell."
+Granted that the outlook and the engraving
+style were Bewick's, and that these were notable contributions,
+the fact that the results were so close to his
+own points more to an effective method of illustration
+than to the outpourings of genius.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Low_Status_of_the_Woodcut" id="Low_Status_of_the_Woodcut"></a>Low Status of the Woodcut</h2>
+
+
+<p>Bewick's training could not have been less promising.
+Apprenticed to Ralph Beilby at the age of fourteen,
+he says of his master:<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>... The work-place was filled with the coarsest kind
+of steel-stamps, pipe moulds, bottle moulds, brass clock
+faces, door plates, coffin plates, bookbinders letters and
+stamps, steel, silver and gold seals, mourning rings, &amp;c. He
+also undertook the engraving of arms, crests and cyphers,
+on silver, and every kind of job from the silversmiths; also
+engraving bills of exchange, bank notes, invoices, account
+heads, and cards.... The higher department of engraving,
+such as landscapes or historical plates, I dare say, was
+hardly thought of by my master....</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>A little engraving on wood was also done, but
+Bewick tells us that his master was uncomfortable in
+this field and almost always turned it over to him.
+His training, obviously, was of a rough and ready sort,
+based upon serviceable but routine engraving on
+metal. There was no study of drawing, composition,
+or any of the refinements that could be learned from
+a master who had a knowledge of art. Whatever
+Bewick had of the finer points of drawing and design
+he must have picked up by himself.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> William Chatto, and John Jackson, <i>A treatise on wood engraving</i>,
+London, 1861 (1st ed. 1839), pp. 496-498.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Thomas Bewick, <i>Memoir of Thomas Bewick</i>, New York,
+1925 (1st ed. London, 1862), pp. 50, 51.</p></div>
+
+<p>When he completed his apprenticeship in 1774
+at the age of twenty-one, the art of engraving and
+cutting on wood was just beginning to show signs
+of life after more than a century and a half of occupying
+the lowest position in the graphic arts. Since it
+could not produce a full gamut of tones in the gray
+register, which could be managed brilliantly by the
+copper plate media&mdash;line engraving, etching, mezzotint
+and aquatint&mdash;it was confined to ruder and
+less exacting uses, such as ornamental headbands
+and tailpieces for printers and as illustrations for
+cheap popular broadsides. When good illustrations<span class="pagenum"><a name="p_189" id="p_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+were needed in books and periodicals, copper plate
+work was almost invariably used, despite the fact
+that it was more costly, was much slower in execution
+and printing, and had to be bound in with text in
+a separate operation. But while the Society of
+Arts had begun to offer prizes for engraving or
+cutting on wood (Bewick received such a prize in
+1775) the medium was still moribund. Dobson<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>
+described its status as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>During the earlier part of the eighteenth century
+engraving on wood can scarcely be said to have flourished
+in England. It existed&mdash;so much may be admitted&mdash;but
+it existed without recognition or importance. In the
+useful little <i>État des Arts en Angleterre</i>, published in 1755 by
+Roquet the enameller,&mdash;a treatise so catholic in its scope
+that it included both cookery and medicine,&mdash;there is no
+reference to the art of wood-engraving. In the <i>Artist's
+Assistant</i>, to take another book which might be expected to
+afford some information, even in the fifth edition of 1788,
+the subject finds no record, even though engraving on metal,
+etching, mezzotinto-scraping&mdash;to say nothing of "painting
+on silks, sattins, etc." are treated with sufficient detail.
+Turning from these authorities to the actual woodcuts of the
+period, it must be admitted that the survey is not encouraging.</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i010.jpg" width="700" height="435" alt="Figure 2.&mdash;Wood Engraving
+Procedure, showing manipulation
+of the burin, from Chatto and
+Jackson, A treatise on wood engraving,
+1861. (See footnote 6.)" title="Figure 2.&mdash;Wood Engraving
+Procedure, showing man" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 2.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wood Engraving
+Procedure</span>, showing manipulation
+of the burin, from Chatto and
+Jackson, <i>A treatise on wood engraving</i>,
+1861. (See footnote 6.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Earlier, among other critics of the deficiencies of
+the woodcut, Horace Walpole<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> had remarked:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>I have said, and for two reasons, shall say little of wooden
+cuts; that art never was executed with any perfection in
+England; engraving on metal was a final improvement of
+the art, and supplied the defects of cuttings in wood. The
+ancient wooden cuts were certainly carried to a great
+heighth, but that was the merit of the masters, not of the
+method.</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Austin Dobson, <i>Thomas Bewick and his pupils</i>, Boston, 1884,
+pp. 1, 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Horace Walpole, <i>Anecdotes of painting in England. A catalogue
+of engravers who have been born, or resided in England. Digested
+from the manuscript of Mr. George Vertue</i> ... London, 1782
+(1st ed. 1762), p. 4.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Woodcut_and_Wood_Engraving" id="Woodcut_and_Wood_Engraving"></a>Woodcut and Wood Engraving</h2>
+
+
+<p>It is necessary, before continuing, to distinguish
+clearly between the woodcut and the wood engraving,
+not only because early writers used these terms interchangeably,
+but also to determine exactly what Bewick
+contributed technically. The woodcut began
+with a drawing in pen-and-ink on the plank surface
+of a smooth-grained wood such as pear, serviceberry,
+or box. The woodcutter, using knife, gouges, and
+chisels, then lowered the wood surrounding the lines
+to allow the original drawing, unaltered, to be isolated
+in relief (see fig. 1). Thus the block, when
+inked and printed, produced facsimile impressions of
+the drawing in black lines on white paper. Usually
+an accomplished artist made the drawing, whereas
+only a skilled craftsman was needed to do the cutting;
+very few cutters were also capable of making their own
+drawings.</p>
+
+<p>The wood engraving, on the other hand, started
+with a section of dense wood of a uniform texture, usually
+box or maple, and with the end-grain rather than
+the plank as surface. For larger engravings a number
+of sections were mortised together. The drawing was
+made on the block, not in pen-and-ink although this
+could be done (certain types of wood engraving reproduced
+pen drawings) but in gray washes with a full
+range of tones. The engraver, using a burin similar
+to that employed in copper plate work, then ploughed<span class="pagenum"><a name="p_190" id="p_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+out wood in delicate ribbons (see fig. 2). Since the
+surface was to receive ink, the procedure moved from
+black to white: the more lines taken away, the lighter
+the tones would appear, and, conversely, where fewest
+or finest lines were removed the tones would be the
+darkest. In the finished print the unworked surface
+printed black while each of the engraved lines showed
+as white. It was the "white line" that gave wood engraving
+its special quality. On the smoother end-grain
+it could be manipulated with extreme fineness,
+an impossibility with the plank side, which would
+tear slightly or "feather" when the burin was moved
+across the grain. Tones and textures approaching
+the scale of copper plate engraving could be created,
+except, of course, that the lines were white and the
+impressions not so brilliant. But since grays were
+achieved by the visual synthesis of black ink and white
+paper, it mattered little whether the engraved lines
+were black or white so long as the desired tones could
+be produced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 469px;">
+<img src="images/i012.jpg" width="469" height="700" alt="Figure 3.&mdash;Late 15th-Century White-Line Engraving
+&quot;The crowning of the Virgin,&quot; in the &quot;dotted
+manner&quot; executed on metal for relief printing. Parts
+were hand colored." title="Figure 3.&mdash;Late 15th-Century White-Line Engraving
+&quot;" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 3.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Late 15th-Century White-Line Engraving</span>
+&quot;The crowning of the Virgin,&quot; in the &quot;dotted
+manner&quot; executed on metal for relief printing. Parts
+were hand colored.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For purposes of realism, this was an enormous improvement
+over the old black-line woodcut. Natural
+tones and textures could be imitated. The engraver
+was no longer a mere mechanical craftsman cutting
+around existing lines; special skill was needed to translate
+tones in terms of white lines of varying thickness
+and spacing. The opportunity also existed for each
+engraver to work his own tones in his own manner, to
+develop a personal system. In short, the medium
+served the same purpose as copper plate line engraving,
+with the added virtue that it could be printed together
+with type in one impression. If it failed
+artistically to measure up to line engraving or to
+plank woodcut, this was not the fault of the process
+but of the popular reproductive ends which it almost
+invariably served.</p>
+
+<p>Actually, white-line engraving for relief printing
+dates from the 15th century. The most conspicuous
+early examples are the so-called "dotted prints" or
+"gravures en manière criblée," in which the designs
+were brought out by dots punched in the plates, and
+by occasional engraved lines (see fig. 3). Until
+Koehler's<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> study made this fact plain, 19th-century
+critics could hardly believe that these were merely
+white-line metal relief prints, inked on the surface
+like woodcuts. But a number of other examples of
+the same period exist which were also made directly
+on copper or type metal&mdash;the method, although rudimentary,
+being similar in intent to 19th-century wood
+engraving. One of these examples (fig. 4), in the collection
+of the U. S. National Museum, is typical.
+This was not simply an ordinary line engraving printed
+in relief rather than in the usual way; the management
+of the lights shows that it was planned as a
+white-line engraving. The reason for this treatment,
+obviously, was to permit the picture and the type to
+be printed in one operation.</p>
+
+<p>The well-known wood engravings of soldiers with
+standards, executed by Urs Graf in the early 1500's,
+are probably the only white-line prints in this medium
+by an accomplished artist until the 18th century.
+But these are mainly in outline, with little attempt
+to achieve tones. No advantage was gained by having
+the lines white rather than black other than an
+engaging roughness in spots: the prints were simply
+whimsical excursions by an inventive artist.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Sylvester R. Koehler, "White-line engraving for relief-printing
+in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries," in <i>Annual
+report of the ... Smithsonian Institution ... for the year ending
+June 30, 1890, report of the U. S. National Museum</i>, Washington,
+1892, pp. 385-389.</p></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="p_191" id="p_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 522px;">
+<img src="images/i014.jpg" width="522" height="700" alt="Figure 4.&mdash;White-Line Engraving on Metal for Relief Printing, &quot;The Franciscan,
+Pelbart of Temesvar, Studying in a Garden,&quot; from &quot;Pomerium quadragesimale, fratris Pelbarti
+ordinis sancti Francisci,&quot; Augsburg, 1502." title="Figure 4.&mdash;White-Line Engraving on Metal for Relief Printing, &quot;The Franciscan,
+Pelbart of Temesvar, Studying in a Garden,&quot; from &quot;Pomerium quadragesimale, fratris Pelbarti
+ordinis sancti Francisci,&quot; Augsburg, 1502." />
+<span class="caption">Figure 4.&mdash;<span class="smcap">White-Line Engraving on Metal for Relief Printing</span>, &quot;The Franciscan,
+Pelbart of Temesvar, Studying in a Garden,&quot; from &quot;<i>Pomerium quadragesimale, fratris Pelbarti
+ordinis sancti Francisci</i>,&quot; Augsburg, 1502.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="p_192" id="p_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Relief engraving on type metal and end-grain wood
+really got under way as a consistent process in England
+at the beginning of the 18th century. Chatto<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> gives
+this date as conjecture, without actual evidence, but
+a first-hand account can be found in the rare and
+little-known book, published in 1752, in which the
+combination of anonymous authorship and a misleading
+title obscured the fact that it is a digest of
+John Baptist Jackson's manuscript journal. This
+eminent woodcutter, who was born about 1700 and
+worked in England during the early years of the
+century, must be considered an important and reliable
+witness. The unknown editor paraphrases
+Jackson on the subject of engraving for relief purposes:<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>... I shall give a brief Account of the State of Cutting
+on Wood in <i>England</i> for the Type Press before he [Jackson]
+went to <i>France</i> in 1725. In the beginning of this Century a
+remarkable Blow was given to all Cutters on Wood, by an
+Invention of engraving on the same sort of Metal which
+Types are cast with. The celebrated Mr. <i>Kirkhal</i>, an able
+Engraver on Copper, is said to be the first who performed a
+Relievo Work to answer the use of Cutting on Wood.
+This could be dispatched much sooner, and consequently
+answered the purpose of Booksellers and Printers, who
+purchased those sort of Works at a much chaper [sic] Rate
+than could be expected from an Engraver on Wood; it
+required much more Time to execute with accuracy any
+piece of Work of the same Measure with those carved on
+Metal. This performance was very much in Vogue, and
+continued down to this Day, to serve for Initials, Fregii and
+Finali; it is called a clear Impression, but often gray and
+hazy, far from coming up to that clear black Impression
+produced with cutting on the side of a piece of Box-wood
+or Pear-tree. Much about the same time there started
+another Method of Engraving on the end ways of Wood
+itself, which was cut to the height of the Letters to accompany
+them in the Press, and engraved in the same
+Manner as the Metal Performance; this Method was also
+encouraged, and is the only way of Engraving on Wood
+at present used in the English Printing-houses. These
+performances are to be seen in Magazines, News Papers,
+&amp;c. and are the Remains of the ancient Manner of Cutting
+on Wood, and is the reason why the Curious concluded it
+was intirely lost.</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Chatto, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 6), p. 446.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>An enquiry into the origins of printing in Europe, by a lover of
+art</i>, London, 1752, pp. 25, 26.</p></div>
+
+<p>This is important evidence that end-grain wood
+engraving was not only known in England in the
+early 18th century but was actually the prevailing
+style. In that country, where a woodcut tradition did
+not exist, the new method gained its first foothold.
+But it was not yet conceived in terms of white lines;
+it was merely a cheaper substitute for cutting with
+the knife on the plank. In European countries with
+long art and printing traditions, this substitute method
+was considered beneath contempt. Jackson<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> describes
+the aversion of French woodcutters for the
+newer and cheaper process:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>From this Account it is evident that there was little
+encouragement to be hoped for in <i>England</i> to a Person whose
+Genius led him to prosecute his Studies in the ancient
+Manner; which obliged Mr. <i>Jackson</i> to go over to the
+Continent, and see what was used in the Parisian Printing-houses.
+At his arrival there he found the <i>French</i> engravers
+on Wood all working in the old Manner; no Metal engravers,
+or any of the same performance on the end of the Wood,
+was ever used or countenanced by the Printers or Booksellers
+in that City.</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 522px;">
+<img src="images/i016.jpg" width="522" height="700" alt="Figure 5.&mdash;Example of the Woodcut
+Style that Created Facsimile
+Drawings. Woodcut (actual size) by
+Hans Lutzelburger, after a drawing
+by Holbein for his &quot;Dance of Death,&quot;
+1538." title="Figure 5.&mdash;Example of the Woodcut
+Style that Created Facsimile
+Drawings. Woodcut (actual size) by
+Hans Lutzelburger, after a drawing
+by Holbein for his &quot;Dance of Death,&quot;
+1538." />
+<span class="caption">Figure 5.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Example of the Woodcut
+Style that Created Facsimile
+Drawings</span>. Woodcut (actual size) by
+Hans Lutzelburger, after a drawing
+by Holbein for his &quot;Dance of Death,&quot;
+1538.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There were good reasons for the lack of development
+of a white-line style, even in England with its lower
+standards in printing and illustrative techniques. On
+the coarse paper of the period fine white lines could
+not be adapted to relief (typographical) presswork;
+they would be lost in printing because the ribbed
+paper received ink unevenly. Even the simple black<span class="pagenum"><a name="p_193" id="p_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+lines of the traditional woodcut usually printed spottily
+when combined with type. The white lines, then,
+had to be broadly separated. This did not permit the
+engraving of delicate tones. If this could not be
+achieved, the effect was similar to woodcutting but
+with less crispness and accuracy in the drawing. A
+good woodcut in the old manner could do everything
+the wood engraving could do, before Bewick, with the
+added virtue that the black line was comparatively
+clear and unequivocal, as can be seen in figure 5.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i017.jpg" width="700" height="650" alt="Figure 6.&mdash;Woodcut Tailpiece by
+J. M. Papillon, from Traité historique
+et pratique de la gravure en bois, 1766.
+The cutting was done so minutely that
+some details were lost in printing.
+(Actual size.)" title="Figure 6.&mdash;Woodcut Tailpiece by
+J. M. Papillon, from Traité historique
+et pratique de la gravure en bois, 1766.
+The cutting was done so minutely that
+some details were lost in printing.
+(Actual size)" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 6.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Woodcut Tailpiece by
+J. M. Papillon</span>, from <i>Traité historique
+et pratique de la gravure en bois</i>, 1766.
+The cutting was done so minutely that
+some details were lost in printing.
+(Actual size.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The woodcut, in the hands of a remarkable cutter,
+could produce miracles of delicacy. It could, in fact,
+have black lines so fine and so closely spaced as to take
+on the character of line engraving. It did not, of
+course, have the range of tones or the delicacy of
+modeling possible in the copper plate medium, where
+every little trench cut by the burin would hold ink
+BELOW the wiped-off surface, to be transferred to
+dampened paper under the heavy pressure of the
+cylinder press. In addition, the roughness of early
+paper, which was serious for the woodcut, created no
+difficulties for the line engraver or for other workers
+in the intaglio or gravure media.</p>
+
+<p>But the influence of copper plate work was strong,
+and some skillful but misguided woodcut craftsmen
+tried to obtain some degree of its richness. French
+artists from about 1720, notably Jean M. Papillon,
+produced cuts so delicate that their printing became
+a problem (see fig. 6). Jackson, who had worked
+with the French artist in Paris, condemned his efforts
+to turn the woodcut into a tonal medium through the
+creation of numerous delicate lines because such effects
+were impossible to print. Jackson<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> is quoted in the
+<i>Enquiry</i>:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>In 1728 Mr. <i>Pappillon</i> began his small <i>Paris</i> Almanack,
+wherein is placed Cuts (done on Wood) allusive to each
+Month, with the Signs of the Zodiack, in such a Minute
+Stile, that he seems to forget in that Work the Impossibility
+of printing it in a Press with any Clearness ... But
+alas! His father and M. <i>le Seur</i> [also woodcutters] had
+examined Impression and its Process, and saw how careful
+the Ancients were to keep a proper Distance between their
+Lines and hatched Works, so as to produce a clean Impression ...
+I saw the Almanack in a horrid Condition
+before I left <i>Paris</i>, the Signs of the Zodiack wore like a
+Blotch, notwithstanding the utmost Care and Diligence
+the Printer used to take up very little Ink to keep them clean.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>It is clear that too thin a strip of white between black
+lines was not suitable for printing in the first half of
+the 18th century. But when Bewick's cuts after 1790
+are examined we can see many white lines thinner
+than a hair. Obviously something had happened to
+permit him a flexibility not granted to earlier workers
+on wood. Bewick's whole craft depended upon his
+ability to control white lines of varying thickness.
+Why was he able to do this, and why could it be done
+without trouble by others after him?</p>
+
+<p>Early paper, as already mentioned, had a ribbed
+grain because it was made on a hand mould in which
+wires were closely laid in one direction, but with
+enough space between to allow the water in the paper
+pulp to drain through. Crossing wires, set some distance
+apart, held them together. Each wire, however,
+made a slight impression in the finished paper, the
+result being a surface with minute ripples. The surface
+of this laid paper presented irregularities even after
+the glazing operation, done with hammers before about
+1720 and with wooden rollers up to about 1825.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1756 James Whatman began to manufacture a
+new, smooth paper to replace the laid variety that
+had been used since the importation of paper into
+Europe in the 12th century. Whether Whatman or
+the renowned printer John Baskerville was the guiding
+spirit in this development is uncertain.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Baskerville,<span class="pagenum"><a name="p_194" id="p_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+who had been experimenting with type faces of
+a lighter and more delicate design, had been dissatisfied
+with the uneven surface of laid paper. Possibly
+he saw examples of the Chinese wallpaper on wove
+stock, made from a cloth mesh, which was a staple
+of the trade with the Orient. Hunter<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> describes
+the new mould:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The wove covering was made of fine brass screening
+and received its name because it was woven on a loom
+in about the same manner as cloth. It left in the paper an
+indistinct impression resembling a fabric. Baskerville had
+been in the japanning and metal-working trades before
+becoming a printer, so that he was naturally familiar with
+this material, metal screening having been used in England
+for other purposes before it was put to use as a material
+upon which to mould sheets of paper.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The first book printed in Europe on wove paper
+unquestionably was the Latin edition of Virgil
+produced by Baskerville in 1757. This was, however,
+partly on laid also. The actual paper was made in
+James Whatman's mill in Maidstone, Kent, on the
+banks of the river Len, where paper had been made
+since the 17th century. Whatman, who became sole
+owner of the mill in 1740, specialized in fine white
+paper of the highest quality. But while the book attracted
+considerable attention it did not immediately
+divert the demand for laid paper, since it was looked
+on more as an oddity than as a serious achievement.
+Baskerville was strictly an artist: he took unlimited
+time and pains, he had no regard for the prevailing
+market, and he produced sporadically; also, he was
+harshly criticized and even derided for his strange
+formats.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> With such a reputation for impracticality
+the printer's influence was negligible during his lifetime
+although, of course, it was widely felt later.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Jackson, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 12), p. 29.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Dard Hunter, <i>Papermaking through eighteen centuries</i>, New
+York, 1930, pp. 148, 152.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> A. T. Hazen, "Baskerville and James Whatman," <i>Studies
+in Bibliography, Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia</i>,
+vol. 5, 1952-53. For a brilliant study of the Whatman mill,
+where practically all wove paper up to the 1780's was manufactured,
+see Thomas Balston's <i>James Whatman, father and son</i>,
+London, 1957.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Hunter, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 15), p. 215.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> R. Straus and R. K. Dent, <i>John Baskerville</i>, Cambridge,
+1907. On page 19 the authors include a letter to Baskerville
+from Benjamin Franklin, written in 1760 in a jocular tone,
+which notes that he overheard a friend saying that Baskerville's
+types would be "the means of blinding all the Readers in the
+Nation owing to the thin and narrow strokes of the letters."</p></div>
+
+<p>About 1777 the French became acquainted with
+wove paper, which Franklin brought to Paris for exhibition.
+In 1779, according to Hunter,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> M. Didot
+the famous printer, "having seen the <i>papier vélin</i> that
+Baskerville used, addressed a letter to M. Johannot of
+Annonay, a skilled papermaker, asking him to endeavour
+to duplicate the smooth and even surface of
+this new paper. Johannot was successful in his
+experiments, and for his work in this field he was in
+1781 awarded a gold medal by Louis XVI."</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Hunter, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 15), p. 219.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i020.jpg" width="700" height="574" alt="Figure 7.&mdash;Wood Engraving by
+Thomas Bewick, &quot;The Man and the
+Flea,&quot; for Fables, by the late Mr. Gay,
+1779. (Actual size.) Note how the
+closely worked lines of the sky and
+water have blurred in printing on laid
+paper. The pale vertical streak is
+caused by the laid mould." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 7.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wood Engraving by
+Thomas Bewick</span>, &quot;The Man and the
+Flea,&quot; for <i>Fables, by the late Mr. Gay,
+1779</i>. (Actual size.) Note how the
+closely worked lines of the sky and
+water have blurred in printing on laid
+paper. The pale vertical streak is
+caused by the laid mould.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Wove paper was so slow to come into use that Jenkins
+gives the date 1788 for its first appearance in book
+printing.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> While he missed a few examples, notably
+by Baskerville, it is certain that few books with wove
+paper were published before 1790. But after that
+date its manufacture increased with such rapidity
+that by 1805 it had supplanted laid paper for many
+printing purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The reasons for this gap between the introduction
+and the acceptance of the new paper are not clear; the
+inertia of tradition as well as the probable higher cost
+no doubt played a part, and we may assume that early
+wove paper had imperfections and other drawbacks
+serious enough to cause printers to prefer the older
+material.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick's early work was printed on laid paper. Up
+to 1784 he had worked in a desultory fashion on wood,
+much of his time being occupied with seal cutting because
+there was still no real demand for wood engraving.
+In Gay's <i>Fables</i>, published in 1779, the cuts
+printed so poorly on the laid paper (see fig. 7) that
+Dobson<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> was moved to say:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Generally speaking, the printing of all these cuts, even
+in the earlier editions (and it is absolutely useless to consult<span class="pagenum"><a name="p_195" id="p_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+any others), is weak and unskillful. The fine work of the
+backgrounds is seldom made out, and the whole impression
+is blurred and unequal.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Rhys Jenkins, "Early papermaking in England, 1495-1788,"
+<i>Library Association Record</i>, London, 1900-1902, vol. 2,
+nos. 9 and 11; vol. 3, no. 5; vol. 4, nos. 3 and 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Dobson, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 8), p. 56.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i021.jpg" width="700" height="468" alt="Figure 8.&mdash;&quot;The Spanish Pointer&quot;, illustration
+(actual size) by Thomas Bewick, from A general
+history of quadrupeds, 1790, in the collections of the
+Library of Congress." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 8.&mdash;&quot;<span class="smcap">The Spanish Pointer</span>&quot;, illustration
+(actual size) by Thomas Bewick, from <i>A general
+history of quadrupeds</i>, 1790, in the collections of the
+Library of Congress.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even in the <i>Select fables of Aesop and others</i> of 1784,
+when Bewick's special gifts began to emerge, the cuts
+on laid paper appeared weak in comparison with his
+later work. Bewick was still using wood engraving as
+a cheaper, more quickly executed substitute for the
+woodcut. The designs were based upon Croxall's
+edition of <i>Aesop's Fables</i>, published in 1722, which was
+probably the best and most popular illustrated book
+published in England during the century up to Bewick's
+time. According to Chatto, the cuts were
+made with the burin on end-grain wood, probably by
+Kirkall,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> but Bewick believed they were engraved on
+type metal.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> It was not easy to tell the difference.
+Type metal usually made grayer impressions than
+wood and sometimes, but not always, nail-head marks
+appeared where the metal was fastened to the wood
+base. The Croxall cuts, in turn, were adapted with
+little change from 17th-century sources&mdash;etchings by
+Francis Barlow and line engravings by Sebastian Le
+Clerc. Bewick's cuts repeated the earlier designs but
+changed the locale to the English countryside of the
+late 18th century. This was to be expected; to have a
+contemporary meaning the actors of the old morality
+play had to appear in modern dress and with up-to-date
+scenery. But technically the cuts followed the
+pattern of Croxall's wood engraver, although with a
+slightly greater range of tone. Artistically Bewick's
+interpretation was inferior because it was more literal;
+it lacked the grander feeling of the earlier work.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick really became the prophet of a new pictorial
+style in his <i>A general history of quadrupeds</i>, published in
+1790 on wove paper (see figs. 8, 9, and 10). Here his
+animals and little vignetted tailpieces of observations
+in the country announced an original subject for illustration
+and a fresh treatment of wood engraving,
+although some designs were still copied from earlier
+models. The white line begins to function with
+greater elasticity; tones and details beyond anything
+known previously in the medium appear with the
+force of innovation. The paper was still somewhat
+coarse and the cuts were often gray and muddy. But
+the audacity of the artist in venturing tonal subtleties
+was immediately apparent.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Chatto, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 6), p. 448.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Thomas Bewick, <i>Fables of Aesop and others</i>, Newcastle, 1818.</p></div>
+
+<p>One of Bewick's old friends at Newcastle had been
+William Bulmer, who by the 1790's had become a
+famous printer. In 1795 he published an edition of
+<i>Poems by Goldsmith and Parnell</i>, which was preceded by
+an Advertisement announcing his intentions:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The present volume ... [is] particularly meant to
+combine the various beauties of <span class="smcap">PRINTING</span>, <span class="smcap">TYPE-FOUNDING</span>,
+<span class="smcap">ENGRAVING</span>, and <span class="smcap">PAPER-MAKING</span>.... The ornaments are
+all engraved on blocks of wood, by two of my earliest
+acquaintances, Messrs. Bewick [Thomas and his brother
+and apprentice John], of Newcastle upon Tyne and London,
+after designs made from the most interesting passages of the
+Poems they embellish. They have been executed with
+great care, and I may venture to say, without being supposed
+to be influenced by ancient friendship, that they form the
+most extraordinary effort of the art of engraving upon
+wood that ever was produced in any age, or any country.
+Indeed it seems almost impossible that such delicate effects
+could be obtained from blocks of wood. Of the Paper,
+it is only necessary to say that it comes from the manufactory
+of Mr. Whatman.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The following year, 1796, a companion volume, <i>The
+Chase, a Poem</i>, by William Somervile, appeared with
+cuts by Bewick after drawings by his brother John
+(see fig. 11). In both books, although no acknowledgment
+was given, there was considerable assistance<span class="pagenum"><a name="p_196" id="p_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+from pupils Robert and John Johnson and Charlton
+Nesbit, as well as from an artist associate Richard
+Westall.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Bulmer was quite conscious that a new
+era in printing and illustration had begun. Updike<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+notes Bulmer's recognition of the achievements of both
+Baskerville and Bewick in giving the art of printing a
+new basis:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>To understand the causes of the revival of English
+printing which marked the last years of the century, we
+must remember that by 1775 Baskerville was dead....
+There seems to have been a temporary lull in English fine
+printing and the kind of type-founding that contributed to
+it. The wood-engraving of Thomas Bewick, produced
+about 1780, called, nevertheless, for more brilliant and
+delicate letter-press than either Caslon's or Wilson's
+types could supply. If Baskerville's fonts had been available,
+no doubt they would have served.... So the
+next experiments in typography were made by a little
+coterie composed of the Boydells, the Nicols, the Bewicks
+(Thomas and John), and Bulmer.</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i023.jpg" width="700" height="431" alt="Figure 9.&mdash;Tailpiece by Thomas
+Bewick (actual size), from A general
+history of quadrupeds, 1790, in the
+collections of the Library of Congress." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 9.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tailpiece by Thomas
+Bewick</span> (actual size), from <i>A general
+history of quadrupeds</i>, 1790, in the
+collections of the Library of Congress.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the cuts in this book are compared with
+earlier impressions from wood blocks, the difference
+is quickly seen. The blocks are more highly wrought,
+yet every line is crisp and clear and the impressions
+are black and brilliant. When we realize that the
+only new technological factor of any consequence was
+the use of good smooth wove paper, we can appreciate
+its significance.</p>
+
+<p>There were no other developments of note in the
+practice of printing during the 18th century. The old
+wooden hand press, unimproved except for minor devices,
+was still in universal use. Ink was little
+improved; paper was handmade; type was made from
+hand moulds. The ink was still applied by dabbing
+with inking balls of wool-stuffed leather nailed to
+wooden forms. The leather was still kept soft by removing
+it and soaking it in urine, after which it was
+trampled for some time to complete the unsavory
+operation. Paper still had to be dampened overnight
+before printing, and freshly inked sheets were still
+hung to dry over cords stretched across the room.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> D. C. Thomson, <i>The life and works of Thomas Bewick</i>, London,
+1882, p. 152.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> D. B. Updike, <i>Printing types, their history, forms and use</i>, Cambridge
+and London, 1922, vol. 2, pp. 122, 123.</p></div>
+
+<p>But with a more sympathetic surface for receiving
+ink from relief blocks, a new avenue for wood engraving
+was now open. In the following year, 1797, the
+first volume of Bewick's finest and best-known work
+was published. This was the <i>History of British birds</i>,
+for which he and his pupils did the cuts while Ralph
+Beilby, his partner and former master, provided the
+descriptions (see figs. 12, 13, and 14.) It achieved
+an immense and instantaneous popularity that carried
+the artist's name over the British Isles. The attractiveness
+of the subject, the freshness of the medium&mdash;which
+could render the softness of feathers and could
+be interspersed with text&mdash;the powerful and decorative
+little tail pieces, and the comparative inexpensiveness
+of the volumes, brought the <i>Birds</i> into homes everywhere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i024.jpg" width="700" height="411" alt="Figure 10.&mdash;Tailpiece by Thomas
+Bewick (actual size), from A general
+history of quadrupeds, 1790, in the
+collections of the Library of Congress." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 10.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tailpiece by Thomas
+Bewick</span> (actual size), from <i>A general
+history of quadrupeds</i>, 1790, in the
+collections of the Library of Congress.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Actually, wood engraving was not immediately
+adopted on a wide scale. Having done without it
+for so long, printers and publishers made no concerted
+rush to avail themselves of the new type of
+cuts. Bewick's pupils found little of this kind of
+work to do before about 1830. Luke Clennell dropped
+engraving for painting; William Harvey restricted
+himself to drawing and designing; Charlton Nesbit<span class="pagenum"><a name="p_197" id="p_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+and John Jackson remained engravers, as did a host
+of lesser individuals. Dobson says:<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The pupils who quitted him to seek their fortunes in
+London either made their way with difficulty, or turned to
+other pursuits, and the real popularization of wood-engraving
+did not take place until some years after his death.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>One reason for delay in adopting the new technique
+may have been the danger of the block splitting, or
+of the sections of wood coming apart at the mortise-joints
+during the printing operation. If this happened,
+work had to be suspended until a new block was
+engraved, or until the sections were reglued. For
+periodicals with deadlines, this was a serious hazard.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Wood_Engraving_and_the_Stereotype" id="Wood_Engraving_and_the_Stereotype"></a>Wood Engraving and the Stereotype</h2>
+
+
+<p>In any event, wood engraving did not really flourish
+until a practical stereotyping process was perfected.
+By this procedure substitute blocks of type metal
+could replace the wood engravings in the press, and
+the danger of splitting the block was eliminated.
+The first steps of any importance toward a practical
+process were made by the Earl of Stanhope around
+1800, but not until Claude Genoux in France, between
+1828 and 1829, developed the papier mâché
+or wet mat process could acceptable stereotypes of
+entire pages be produced.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> By this method, patented
+on July 24, 1829, and others that followed, a number
+of duplicate plates of each page could be made as
+required for rapid printing on a battery of presses.
+Wood engraving now emerged as a practical method
+of illustration for popular publications. The <i>Penny
+Magazine</i> and the <i>Saturday Magazine</i>, founded in
+1832, immediately made use of Genoux's stereotyping
+process. Dobson<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> describes the effect of these
+periodicals:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The art of wood engraving received an astonishing
+impact from these publications. The engraver, instead of
+working merely with his own hands, has been obliged to
+take five or six pupils to get through the work." (Mr.
+Cowper's evidence before the Select Committee on Arts
+and Manufactures, 1835). It is difficult nowadays [1884]
+to understand what a revelation these two periodicals, with
+their representations of far countries and foreign animals,
+of masterpieces of painting and sculpture, were to middle-class
+households fifty years ago.</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Dobson, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 8), p. 174.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> George Kubler, <i>A history of stereotyping</i>, New York, 1941,
+p. 75.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Dobson, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 8), p. 173.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i026.jpg" width="700" height="530" alt="Figure 11.&mdash;Tailpiece by Thomas
+Bewick (actual size), engraved after a
+drawing by John Bewick, from The
+Chase, by William Somervile, 1796.
+(Photo courtesy the Library of Congress.)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 11.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tailpiece by Thomas
+Bewick</span> (actual size), engraved after a
+drawing by John Bewick, from <i>The
+Chase</i>, by William Somervile, 1796.
+(<i>Photo courtesy the Library of Congress</i>.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We will not pursue Bewick's career further. With
+habits of hard work deeply ingrained, he kept at his
+bench until his death in 1828, engraving an awesome
+quantity of cuts. But he never surpassed his work
+on the <i>Birds</i>, although his reputation grew in proportion
+to the spread of wood engraving throughout
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>The medium became more and more detailed, and
+eventually rivaled photography in its minute variations
+of tone (see figs. 15 and 16). But printing wood
+engravings never was a problem again. Not only was
+wove paper always used in this connection, but it had
+become much cheaper through the invention of a machine
+for producing it in lengths. Nicholas Louis
+Robert, in France, had developed and exhibited such
+an apparatus in 1797, at the instigation of M. Didot.
+John Gamble in England, working with Henry and
+Charles Fourdrinier, engaged a fine mechanic, Bryan
+Donkin, to build a machine on improved principles.
+The first comparatively successful one was completed
+in 1803. It was periodically improved, and wove
+paper appeared in increasing quantities. Spicer<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
+says: "Naturally these improvements and economies
+in the manufacture of paper were accompanied by a
+corresponding increase in output. Where, in 1806, a
+machine was capable of making 6 cwt. in twelve hours,
+in 1813 it could turn out double that quantity in the
+same time at one quarter the expense."</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> A. D. Spicer, <i>The paper trade</i>, London, 1907, p. 63.</p></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="p_198" id="p_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 511px;">
+<img src="images/i027.jpg" width="511" height="700" alt="Figure 12.&mdash;Wood Engraving by W. J. Linton, 1878 (Actual Size). The detail
+opposite is enlarged four times to show white line-technique." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 12.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wood Engraving by W. J. Linton, 1878 (Actual Size)</span>. The detail
+opposite is enlarged four times to show white line-technique.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="p_199" id="p_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 547px;">
+<img src="images/i028.jpg" width="547" height="700" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="p_200" id="p_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i029a.jpg" width="700" height="532" alt="Figure 13.&mdash;&quot;Pintail Duck&quot; by Thomas Bewick
+(actual size), from History of British birds, vol. 2,
+1804. The detail opposite is enlarged three times." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 13.&mdash;&quot;<span class="smcap">Pintail Duck</span>&quot; by Thomas Bewick
+(actual size), from <i>History of British birds</i>, vol. 2,
+1804. The detail opposite is enlarged three times.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At about the same time the all-iron Stanhope press
+began to be manufactured in quantity, and shortly the
+new inking roller invented by the indispensable Earl
+came into use to supplant the old inking balls. Later
+in the century (there is no need to go into specific detail
+here) calendered and coated papers were introduced,
+and wood engraving on these glossy papers became a
+medium that could reproduce wash drawings, crayon
+drawings, pencil drawings, and oil paintings so faithfully
+that all the original textures were apparent.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+The engraver, concerned entirely with accurate reproduction,
+became little more than a mechanic who
+rendered pictures drawn on the blocks by an artist.
+In time, photographic processes came to be used for
+transferring pictures to the blocks and eventually, of
+course, photomechanical halftones replaced the wood
+engraver altogether.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The electrotyping process, which came into prominence in
+1839 through the experiments of Professor Jacobi in St. Petersburg
+and Jordan and Spencer in England, had made it possible
+to produce substitute plates of the highest fidelity. For fine
+work, these were much superior to stereotyping.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i029b.jpg" width="700" height="392" alt="Figure 14.&mdash;Title-Page Illustration by Thomas
+Bewick, from History of British birds, vol. 1, 1797.
+(Actual size.)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 14.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Title-Page Illustration</span> by Thomas
+Bewick, from <i>History of British birds</i>, vol. 1, 1797.
+(Actual size.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bewick was an artist, not a reproductive craftsman.
+His blocks were conceived as original engravings, not
+as imitations of tones and textures created in another
+medium. If wood engraving advanced in the direction
+of commercialism to fill an overwhelming mass
+need, it was only because he had given it a technical
+basis. But it had greater artistic potentialities, as
+proved by Blake, Calvert, and Lepére, among others,
+and has found new life in the engravers of the 20th-century
+revival.</p>
+
+<p>The reasons for Bewick's remarkable effectiveness
+can now be summed up. He succeeded, first, because
+he was the natural inheritor of a specifically English
+graphic arts process, burin-engraving on the end
+grain of wood. This had been practiced almost
+solely in England, which lacked a woodcut tradition,
+for about 75 years before the date he finished his
+apprenticeship. We know from Jackson's contemporary
+account that end-grain wood engraving was
+standard practice in England from about 1700.
+Bewick merely continued and refined a medium that
+came down to him as a national tradition.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, his country isolation and lack of academic
+training saved him from the inanity of repeating the
+old decorative devices&mdash;trophies, cartouches, classical
+figures, Roman ruins, and other international conventions
+that had lost their significance by the 1780's,
+although a spurious classicism was still kept alive for
+genteel consumption and the romantic picturesque
+still persisted in interior decoration.<span class="pagenum"><a name="p_201" id="p_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i031a.jpg" width="700" height="564" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Thirdly, he looked at life and nature with a fresh
+eye, without preconceptions. While his lack of larger
+vision held him down as an artist, it contributed to
+his feeling for natural textures and story-telling detail.
+His approach to illustration, therefore, was the
+spontaneous expression of an observant but unimaginative
+nature, coated with a bitter-sweet sentiment.
+It was this quality, so homely and common and yet
+so charged with integrity, that delivered the shock
+of recognition to a mass audience.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, and perhaps most importantly in the long
+run, he was fortunate enough to live at a time when
+a necessary prerequisite for the physical appearance
+of his work, wove paper, was coming into use. Without
+it he would soon have had to simplify his line
+system, returning to older and less detailed methods,
+or his work would have remained unprintable.
+It was the new paper that allowed him to extract
+unprecedented subtleties from the wood block, that
+made his cuts print clearly and evenly, and that
+encouraged the expansion of the wood engraving
+process. These factors, taken together, make up
+the phenomenon of Thomas Bewick.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/i031b.jpg" width="700" height="486" alt="Figure 15.&mdash;Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick, from
+History of British birds, vol. 2, 1804. (Actual size.)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Figure 15.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick</span>, from
+<i>History of British birds</i>, vol. 2, 1804. (Actual size.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1959</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 29928-h.txt or 29928-h.zip *******</p>
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+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/9/9/2/29928">http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/9/2/29928</a></p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Why Bewick Succeeded, by Jacob Kainen
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Why Bewick Succeeded
+       A Note in the History of Wood Engraving
+
+
+Author: Jacob Kainen
+
+
+
+Release Date: September 7, 2009  [eBook #29928]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Miranda van de Heijning, Joseph Cooper,
+and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 29928-h.htm or 29928-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29928/29928-h/29928-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29928/29928-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+Contributions from The Museum of History and Technology:
+
+Paper 11
+
+WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED:
+
+A Note in the History of Wood Engraving
+
+by
+
+JACOB KAINEN
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CONTEMPORARY VIEW OF BEWICK   186
+
+LOW STATUS OF THE WOODCUT         188
+
+WOODCUT AND WOOD ENGRAVING        189
+
+WOOD ENGRAVING AND THE STEREOTYPE 197
+
+
+
+
+WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED:
+
+_By Jacob Kainen_
+
+_A Note in the History of Wood Engraving_
+
+
+_Thomas Bewick has been acclaimed as the pioneer of modern wood
+engraving whose genius brought this popular medium to prominence. This
+study shows that certain technological developments prepared a path for
+Bewick and helped give his work its unique character._
+
+The Author: _Jacob Kainen is curator of graphic arts, Museum of History
+and Technology, in the Smithsonian Institution's United States National
+Museum._
+
+
+
+
+No other artist has approached Thomas Bewick (1753-1828) as the
+chronicler of English rustic life. The little wood engravings which he
+turned out in such great number were records of typical scenes and
+episodes, but the artist could also give them social and moral
+overtones. Such an approach has attracted numerous admirers who have
+held him in esteem as an undoubted homespun genius. The fact that he had
+no formal training as a wood engraver, and actually never had a lesson
+in drawing, made his native inspiration seem all the more authentic.
+
+
+
+
+The Contemporary View of Bewick
+
+
+After 1790, when his _A general history of quadrupeds_ appeared with its
+vivid animals and its humorous and mordant tailpiece vignettes, he was
+hailed in terms that have hardly been matched for adulation. Certainly
+no mere book illustrator ever received equal acclaim. He was pronounced
+a great artist, a great man, an outstanding moralist and reformer, and
+the master of a new pictorial method. This flood of eulogy rose
+increasingly during his lifetime and continued throughout the remainder
+of the 19th century. It came from literary men and women who saw him as
+the artist of the common man; from the pious who recognized him as a
+commentator on the vanities and hardships of life (but who sometimes
+deplored the frankness of his subjects); from bibliophiles who welcomed
+him as a revolutionary illustrator; and from fellow wood engravers for
+whom he was the indispensable trail blazer.
+
+During the initial wave of Bewick appreciation, the usually sober
+Wordsworth wrote in the 1805 edition of _Lyrical ballads_:[1]
+
+O now that the genius of Bewick were mine,
+And the skill which he learned on the banks of the Tyne!
+Then the Muses might deal with me just as they chose,
+For I'd take my last leave both of verse and of prose.
+What feats would I work with my magical hand!
+Book learning and books would be banished the land.
+
+If art critics as a class were the most conservative in their estimates
+of his ability, it was one of the most eminent, John Ruskin, whose
+praise went to most extravagant lengths. Bewick, he asserted, as late as
+1890,[2] "... without training, was Holbein's equal ... in this frame
+are set together a drawing by Hans Holbein, and one by Thomas Bewick. I
+know which is most scholarly; but I do _not_ know which is best."
+Linking Bewick with Botticelli as a draughtsman, he added:[3] "I know no
+drawing so subtle as Bewick's since the fifteenth century, except
+Holbein's and Turner's." And as a typical example of popular
+appreciation, the following, from the June 1828 issue of _Blackwood's
+Magazine_, appearing a few months before Bewick's death, should suffice:
+
+     Have we forgotten, in our hurried and imperfect enumeration of wise
+     worthies,--have we forgotten "_The Genius that dwells on the banks
+     of the Tyne_," the matchless, Inimitable Bewick? No. His books lie
+     in our parlour, dining-room, drawing-room, study-table, and are
+     never out of place or time. Happy old man! The delight of
+     childhood, manhood, decaying age!--A moral in every tail-piece--a
+     sermon in every vignette.
+
+This acclaim came to Bewick not only because his subjects had a homely
+honesty, but also, although not generally taken into account, because of
+the brilliance and clarity with which they were printed. Compared with
+the wood engravings of his predecessors, his were more detailed and
+resonant in black and white, and accordingly seemed miraculous and
+unprecedented. He could engrave finer lines and achieve better
+impressions in the press because of improvements in technology which
+will be discussed later, but for a century the convincing qualities of
+this new technique in combination with his subject matter led admirers
+to believe that he was an artist of great stature.
+
+[1] William Wordsworth, _Lyrical ballads_, London, 1805, vol. 1. p. 199.
+
+[2] John Ruskin, _Ariadne Florentina_, London, 1890, pp. 98, 99.
+
+[3] _Ibid._, p. 246.
+
+Later, more mature judgment has made it plain that his contributions as
+a craftsman outrank his worth as an artist. He was no Holbein, no
+Botticelli--it is absurd to think of him in such terms--but he did
+develop a fresh method of handling wood engraving. Because of this he
+represents a turning point in the development of this medium which led
+to its rise as the great popular vehicle for illustration in the 19th
+century. In his hands wood engraving underwent a special transformation;
+it became a means for rendering textures and tonal values. Earlier work
+on wood could not do this; it could manage only a rudimentary suggestion
+of tones. The refinements that followed, noticeable in the highly
+finished products of the later 19th century, came as a direct and
+natural consequence of Bewick's contributions to the art.
+
+Linton[4] and a few others object to the general claim that Bewick was
+the reviver or founder of modern wood engraving, not only because the
+art was practiced earlier, if almost anonymously, and had never really
+died out, but also because his bold cuts had little in common with their
+technician's concern with infinite manipulation of surface tones, a
+feature of later work. But this misses the main point--that Bewick had
+taken the first actual steps in the new direction.
+
+[4] William Linton, _The masters of wood engraving_, London, 1889, p.
+133.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.--Woodcutting Procedure, showing method of
+cutting with the knife on the plank grain, from Jean Papillon's _Traite
+de la gravure en bois_, 1766.]
+
+Unquestionably he gave the medium a new purpose, even though it was not
+generally adopted until after 1830. Through his pupils, his unrelenting
+industry, and his enormous influence he fathered a pictorial activity
+that brought a vastly increased quantity of illustrations to the public.
+Periodical literature, spurred by accompanying pictures that could be
+cheaply made, quickly printed, and dramatically pointed, became a
+livelier force in education. Textbooks, trade journals, dictionaries,
+and other publications could more effectively teach or describe;
+scientific journals could include in the body of text neat and accurate
+pictures to enliven the pages and illustrate the equipment and
+procedures described. Articles on travel could now have convincingly
+realistic renditions of architectural landmarks and of foreign sights,
+customs, personages, and views. The wood engraving, in short, made
+possible the modern illustrated publication because, unlike copper plate
+engraving or etching, it could be quickly set up with printed matter.
+Its use, therefore, multiplied increasingly until just before 1900, when
+it was superseded for these purposes by the photomechanical halftone.
+
+But while Bewick was the prime mover in this revolutionary change,
+little attention has been given to the important technological
+development that cleared the way for him. Without it he could not have
+emerged so startlingly; without it there would have been no modern wood
+engraving. It is not captious to point out the purely industrial basis
+for his coming to prominence. Even had he been a greater artist, a study
+of the technical means at hand would have validity in showing the
+interrelation of industry and art although, of course, the aesthetic
+contribution would stand by itself.
+
+But in Bewick's case the aesthetic level is not particularly high. Good
+as his art was, it wore an everyday aspect: he did not give it that
+additional expressive turn found in the work of greater artists. It
+should not be surprising, then, that his work was not inimitable. It is
+well-known that his pupils made many of the cuts attributed to him,
+making the original drawings and engraving in his style so well that the
+results form almost one indistinguishable body of work. The pupils were
+competent but not gifted, yet they could turn out wood engravings not
+inferior to Bewick's own. And so we find that such capable technicians
+as Nesbit, Clennell, Robinson, Hole, the Johnsons, Harvey, and others
+all contributed to the Bewick cult.
+
+Linton, who worshipped him as an artist but found him primitive as a
+technician, commented:[5] "Widely praised by a crowd of unknowing
+connoisseurs and undiscriminating collectors, we have yet, half a
+century after his death, to point out how much of what is attributed to
+him is really by his hand."
+
+Chatto,[6] who obtained his information from at least one Bewick pupil,
+says that many of the best tailpieces in the _History of British birds_
+were drawn by Robert Johnson, and that "the greater number of those
+contained in the second volume were engraved by Clennell." Granted that
+the outlook and the engraving style were Bewick's, and that these were
+notable contributions, the fact that the results were so close to his
+own points more to an effective method of illustration than to the
+outpourings of genius.
+
+[5] _Ibid._
+
+
+
+
+Low Status of the Woodcut
+
+
+Bewick's training could not have been less promising. Apprenticed to
+Ralph Beilby at the age of fourteen, he says of his master:[7]
+
+     ... The work-place was filled with the coarsest kind of
+     steel-stamps, pipe moulds, bottle moulds, brass clock faces, door
+     plates, coffin plates, bookbinders letters and stamps, steel,
+     silver and gold seals, mourning rings, &c. He also undertook the
+     engraving of arms, crests and cyphers, on silver, and every kind of
+     job from the silversmiths; also engraving bills of exchange, bank
+     notes, invoices, account heads, and cards.... The higher department
+     of engraving, such as landscapes or historical plates, I dare say,
+     was hardly thought of by my master....
+
+A little engraving on wood was also done, but Bewick tells us that his
+master was uncomfortable in this field and almost always turned it over
+to him. His training, obviously, was of a rough and ready sort, based
+upon serviceable but routine engraving on metal. There was no study of
+drawing, composition, or any of the refinements that could be learned
+from a master who had a knowledge of art. Whatever Bewick had of the
+finer points of drawing and design he must have picked up by himself.
+
+[6] William Chatto, and John Jackson, _A treatise on wood engraving_,
+London, 1861 (1st ed. 1839), pp. 496-498.
+
+[7] Thomas Bewick, _Memoir of Thomas Bewick_, New York, 1925 (1st ed.
+London, 1862), pp. 50, 51.
+
+When he completed his apprenticeship in 1774 at the age of twenty-one,
+the art of engraving and cutting on wood was just beginning to show
+signs of life after more than a century and a half of occupying the
+lowest position in the graphic arts. Since it could not produce a full
+gamut of tones in the gray register, which could be managed brilliantly
+by the copper plate media--line engraving, etching, mezzotint and
+aquatint--it was confined to ruder and less exacting uses, such as
+ornamental headbands and tailpieces for printers and as illustrations
+for cheap popular broadsides. When good illustrations were needed in
+books and periodicals, copper plate work was almost invariably used,
+despite the fact that it was more costly, was much slower in execution
+and printing, and had to be bound in with text in a separate operation.
+But while the Society of Arts had begun to offer prizes for engraving or
+cutting on wood (Bewick received such a prize in 1775) the medium was
+still moribund. Dobson[8] described its status as follows:
+
+     During the earlier part of the eighteenth century engraving on wood
+     can scarcely be said to have flourished in England. It existed--so
+     much may be admitted--but it existed without recognition or
+     importance. In the useful little _Etat des Arts en Angleterre_,
+     published in 1755 by Roquet the enameller,--a treatise so catholic
+     in its scope that it included both cookery and medicine,--there is
+     no reference to the art of wood-engraving. In the _Artist's
+     Assistant_, to take another book which might be expected to afford
+     some information, even in the fifth edition of 1788, the subject
+     finds no record, even though engraving on metal, etching,
+     mezzotinto-scraping--to say nothing of "painting on silks, sattins,
+     etc." are treated with sufficient detail. Turning from these
+     authorities to the actual woodcuts of the period, it must be
+     admitted that the survey is not encouraging.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2.--Wood Engraving Procedure, showing manipulation
+of the burin, from Chatto and Jackson, _A treatise on wood engraving_,
+1861. (See footnote 6.)]
+
+Earlier, among other critics of the deficiencies of the woodcut, Horace
+Walpole[9] had remarked:
+
+     I have said, and for two reasons, shall say little of wooden cuts;
+     that art never was executed with any perfection in England;
+     engraving on metal was a final improvement of the art, and supplied
+     the defects of cuttings in wood. The ancient wooden cuts were
+     certainly carried to a great heighth, but that was the merit of the
+     masters, not of the method.
+
+[8] Austin Dobson, _Thomas Bewick and his pupils_, Boston, 1884, pp. 1,
+2.
+
+[9] Horace Walpole, _Anecdotes of painting in England. A catalogue of
+engravers who have been born, or resided in England. Digested from the
+manuscript of Mr. George Vertue_ ... London, 1782 (1st ed. 1762), p. 4.
+
+
+
+
+Woodcut and Wood Engraving
+
+
+It is necessary, before continuing, to distinguish clearly between the
+woodcut and the wood engraving, not only because early writers used
+these terms interchangeably, but also to determine exactly what Bewick
+contributed technically. The woodcut began with a drawing in pen-and-ink
+on the plank surface of a smooth-grained wood such as pear,
+serviceberry, or box. The woodcutter, using knife, gouges, and chisels,
+then lowered the wood surrounding the lines to allow the original
+drawing, unaltered, to be isolated in relief (see fig. 1). Thus the
+block, when inked and printed, produced facsimile impressions of the
+drawing in black lines on white paper. Usually an accomplished artist
+made the drawing, whereas only a skilled craftsman was needed to do the
+cutting; very few cutters were also capable of making their own
+drawings.
+
+The wood engraving, on the other hand, started with a section of dense
+wood of a uniform texture, usually box or maple, and with the end-grain
+rather than the plank as surface. For larger engravings a number of
+sections were mortised together. The drawing was made on the block, not
+in pen-and-ink although this could be done (certain types of wood
+engraving reproduced pen drawings) but in gray washes with a full range
+of tones. The engraver, using a burin similar to that employed in copper
+plate work, then ploughed out wood in delicate ribbons (see fig. 2).
+Since the surface was to receive ink, the procedure moved from black to
+white: the more lines taken away, the lighter the tones would appear,
+and, conversely, where fewest or finest lines were removed the tones
+would be the darkest. In the finished print the unworked surface printed
+black while each of the engraved lines showed as white. It was the
+"white line" that gave wood engraving its special quality. On the
+smoother end-grain it could be manipulated with extreme fineness, an
+impossibility with the plank side, which would tear slightly or
+"feather" when the burin was moved across the grain. Tones and textures
+approaching the scale of copper plate engraving could be created,
+except, of course, that the lines were white and the impressions not so
+brilliant. But since grays were achieved by the visual synthesis of
+black ink and white paper, it mattered little whether the engraved lines
+were black or white so long as the desired tones could be produced.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3.--Late 15th-Century White-Line Engraving "The
+crowning of the Virgin," in the "dotted manner" executed on metal for
+relief printing. Parts were hand colored.]
+
+For purposes of realism, this was an enormous improvement over the old
+black-line woodcut. Natural tones and textures could be imitated. The
+engraver was no longer a mere mechanical craftsman cutting around
+existing lines; special skill was needed to translate tones in terms of
+white lines of varying thickness and spacing. The opportunity also
+existed for each engraver to work his own tones in his own manner, to
+develop a personal system. In short, the medium served the same purpose
+as copper plate line engraving, with the added virtue that it could be
+printed together with type in one impression. If it failed artistically
+to measure up to line engraving or to plank woodcut, this was not the
+fault of the process but of the popular reproductive ends which it
+almost invariably served.
+
+Actually, white-line engraving for relief printing dates from the 15th
+century. The most conspicuous early examples are the so-called "dotted
+prints" or "gravures en maniere criblee," in which the designs were
+brought out by dots punched in the plates, and by occasional engraved
+lines (see fig. 3). Until Koehler's[10] study made this fact plain,
+19th-century critics could hardly believe that these were merely
+white-line metal relief prints, inked on the surface like woodcuts. But
+a number of other examples of the same period exist which were also made
+directly on copper or type metal--the method, although rudimentary,
+being similar in intent to 19th-century wood engraving. One of these
+examples (fig. 4), in the collection of the U. S. National Museum, is
+typical. This was not simply an ordinary line engraving printed in
+relief rather than in the usual way; the management of the lights shows
+that it was planned as a white-line engraving. The reason for this
+treatment, obviously, was to permit the picture and the type to be
+printed in one operation.
+
+The well-known wood engravings of soldiers with standards, executed by
+Urs Graf in the early 1500's, are probably the only white-line prints in
+this medium by an accomplished artist until the 18th century. But these
+are mainly in outline, with little attempt to achieve tones. No
+advantage was gained by having the lines white rather than black other
+than an engaging roughness in spots: the prints were simply whimsical
+excursions by an inventive artist.
+
+[10] Sylvester R. Koehler, "White-line engraving for relief-printing in
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries," in _Annual report of the ...
+Smithsonian Institution ... for the year ending June 30, 1890, report of
+the U. S. National Museum_, Washington, 1892, pp. 385-389.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4.--White-Line Engraving on Metal for Relief
+Printing, "The Franciscan, Pelbart of Temesvar, Studying in a Garden,"
+from "_Pomerium quadragesimale, fratris Pelbarti ordinis sancti
+Francisci_," Augsburg, 1502.]
+
+Relief engraving on type metal and end-grain wood really got under way
+as a consistent process in England at the beginning of the 18th century.
+Chatto[11] gives this date as conjecture, without actual evidence, but a
+first-hand account can be found in the rare and little-known book,
+published in 1752, in which the combination of anonymous authorship and
+a misleading title obscured the fact that it is a digest of John Baptist
+Jackson's manuscript journal. This eminent woodcutter, who was born
+about 1700 and worked in England during the early years of the century,
+must be considered an important and reliable witness. The unknown editor
+paraphrases Jackson on the subject of engraving for relief purposes:[12]
+
+     ... I shall give a brief Account of the State of Cutting on Wood in
+     _England_ for the Type Press before he [Jackson] went to _France_
+     in 1725. In the beginning of this Century a remarkable Blow was
+     given to all Cutters on Wood, by an Invention of engraving on the
+     same sort of Metal which Types are cast with. The celebrated Mr.
+     _Kirkhal_, an able Engraver on Copper, is said to be the first who
+     performed a Relievo Work to answer the use of Cutting on Wood. This
+     could be dispatched much sooner, and consequently answered the
+     purpose of Booksellers and Printers, who purchased those sort of
+     Works at a much chaper [sic] Rate than could be expected from an
+     Engraver on Wood; it required much more Time to execute with
+     accuracy any piece of Work of the same Measure with those carved on
+     Metal. This performance was very much in Vogue, and continued down
+     to this Day, to serve for Initials, Fregii and Finali; it is called
+     a clear Impression, but often gray and hazy, far from coming up to
+     that clear black Impression produced with cutting on the side of a
+     piece of Box-wood or Pear-tree. Much about the same time there
+     started another Method of Engraving on the end ways of Wood itself,
+     which was cut to the height of the Letters to accompany them in the
+     Press, and engraved in the same Manner as the Metal Performance;
+     this Method was also encouraged, and is the only way of Engraving
+     on Wood at present used in the English Printing-houses. These
+     performances are to be seen in Magazines, News Papers, &c. and are
+     the Remains of the ancient Manner of Cutting on Wood, and is the
+     reason why the Curious concluded it was intirely lost.
+
+[11] Chatto, _op. cit._ (footnote 6), p. 446.
+
+[12] _An enquiry into the origins of printing in Europe, by a lover of
+art_, London, 1752, pp. 25, 26.
+
+This is important evidence that end-grain wood engraving was not only
+known in England in the early 18th century but was actually the
+prevailing style. In that country, where a woodcut tradition did not
+exist, the new method gained its first foothold. But it was not yet
+conceived in terms of white lines; it was merely a cheaper substitute
+for cutting with the knife on the plank. In European countries with long
+art and printing traditions, this substitute method was considered
+beneath contempt. Jackson[13] describes the aversion of French
+woodcutters for the newer and cheaper process:
+
+     From this Account it is evident that there was little encouragement
+     to be hoped for in _England_ to a Person whose Genius led him to
+     prosecute his Studies in the ancient Manner; which obliged Mr.
+     _Jackson_ to go over to the Continent, and see what was used in the
+     Parisian Printing-houses. At his arrival there he found the
+     _French_ engravers on Wood all working in the old Manner; no Metal
+     engravers, or any of the same performance on the end of the Wood,
+     was ever used or countenanced by the Printers or Booksellers in
+     that City.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5.--Example of the Woodcut Style that Created
+Facsimile Drawings. Woodcut (actual size) by Hans Lutzelburger, after a
+drawing by Holbein for his "Dance of Death," 1538.]
+
+There were good reasons for the lack of development of a white-line
+style, even in England with its lower standards in printing and
+illustrative techniques. On the coarse paper of the period fine white
+lines could not be adapted to relief (typographical) presswork; they
+would be lost in printing because the ribbed paper received ink
+unevenly. Even the simple black lines of the traditional woodcut
+usually printed spottily when combined with type. The white lines, then,
+had to be broadly separated. This did not permit the engraving of
+delicate tones. If this could not be achieved, the effect was similar to
+woodcutting but with less crispness and accuracy in the drawing. A good
+woodcut in the old manner could do everything the wood engraving could
+do, before Bewick, with the added virtue that the black line was
+comparatively clear and unequivocal, as can be seen in figure 5.
+
+[13] _Ibid._, p. 27.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6.--Woodcut Tailpiece by J. M. Papillon, from
+_Traite historique et pratique de la gravure en bois_, 1766. The cutting
+was done so minutely that some details were lost in printing. (Actual
+size.)]
+
+The woodcut, in the hands of a remarkable cutter, could produce miracles
+of delicacy. It could, in fact, have black lines so fine and so closely
+spaced as to take on the character of line engraving. It did not, of
+course, have the range of tones or the delicacy of modeling possible in
+the copper plate medium, where every little trench cut by the burin
+would hold ink BELOW the wiped-off surface, to be transferred to
+dampened paper under the heavy pressure of the cylinder press. In
+addition, the roughness of early paper, which was serious for the
+woodcut, created no difficulties for the line engraver or for other
+workers in the intaglio or gravure media.
+
+But the influence of copper plate work was strong, and some skillful but
+misguided woodcut craftsmen tried to obtain some degree of its richness.
+French artists from about 1720, notably Jean M. Papillon, produced cuts
+so delicate that their printing became a problem (see fig. 6). Jackson,
+who had worked with the French artist in Paris, condemned his efforts to
+turn the woodcut into a tonal medium through the creation of numerous
+delicate lines because such effects were impossible to print.
+Jackson[14] is quoted in the _Enquiry_:
+
+     In 1728 Mr. _Pappillon_ began his small _Paris_ Almanack, wherein
+     is placed Cuts (done on Wood) allusive to each Month, with the
+     Signs of the Zodiack, in such a Minute Stile, that he seems to
+     forget in that Work the Impossibility of printing it in a Press
+     with any Clearness ... But alas! His father and M. _le Seur_ [also
+     woodcutters] had examined Impression and its Process, and saw how
+     careful the Ancients were to keep a proper Distance between their
+     Lines and hatched Works, so as to produce a clean Impression ... I
+     saw the Almanack in a horrid Condition before I left _Paris_, the
+     Signs of the Zodiack wore like a Blotch, notwithstanding the utmost
+     Care and Diligence the Printer used to take up very little Ink to
+     keep them clean.
+
+It is clear that too thin a strip of white between black lines was not
+suitable for printing in the first half of the 18th century. But when
+Bewick's cuts after 1790 are examined we can see many white lines
+thinner than a hair. Obviously something had happened to permit him a
+flexibility not granted to earlier workers on wood. Bewick's whole craft
+depended upon his ability to control white lines of varying thickness.
+Why was he able to do this, and why could it be done without trouble by
+others after him?
+
+Early paper, as already mentioned, had a ribbed grain because it was
+made on a hand mould in which wires were closely laid in one direction,
+but with enough space between to allow the water in the paper pulp to
+drain through. Crossing wires, set some distance apart, held them
+together. Each wire, however, made a slight impression in the finished
+paper, the result being a surface with minute ripples. The surface of
+this laid paper presented irregularities even after the glazing
+operation, done with hammers before about 1720 and with wooden rollers
+up to about 1825.[15]
+
+In 1756 James Whatman began to manufacture a new, smooth paper to
+replace the laid variety that had been used since the importation of
+paper into Europe in the 12th century. Whether Whatman or the renowned
+printer John Baskerville was the guiding spirit in this development is
+uncertain.[16] Baskerville, who had been experimenting with type faces
+of a lighter and more delicate design, had been dissatisfied with the
+uneven surface of laid paper. Possibly he saw examples of the Chinese
+wallpaper on wove stock, made from a cloth mesh, which was a staple of
+the trade with the Orient. Hunter[17] describes the new mould:
+
+     The wove covering was made of fine brass screening and received its
+     name because it was woven on a loom in about the same manner as
+     cloth. It left in the paper an indistinct impression resembling a
+     fabric. Baskerville had been in the japanning and metal-working
+     trades before becoming a printer, so that he was naturally familiar
+     with this material, metal screening having been used in England for
+     other purposes before it was put to use as a material upon which to
+     mould sheets of paper.
+
+The first book printed in Europe on wove paper unquestionably was the
+Latin edition of Virgil produced by Baskerville in 1757. This was,
+however, partly on laid also. The actual paper was made in James
+Whatman's mill in Maidstone, Kent, on the banks of the river Len, where
+paper had been made since the 17th century. Whatman, who became sole
+owner of the mill in 1740, specialized in fine white paper of the
+highest quality. But while the book attracted considerable attention it
+did not immediately divert the demand for laid paper, since it was
+looked on more as an oddity than as a serious achievement. Baskerville
+was strictly an artist: he took unlimited time and pains, he had no
+regard for the prevailing market, and he produced sporadically; also, he
+was harshly criticized and even derided for his strange formats.[18]
+With such a reputation for impracticality the printer's influence was
+negligible during his lifetime although, of course, it was widely felt
+later.
+
+[14] Jackson, _op. cit._ (footnote 12), p. 29.
+
+[15] Dard Hunter, _Papermaking through eighteen centuries_, New York,
+1930, pp. 148, 152.
+
+[16] A. T. Hazen, "Baskerville and James Whatman," _Studies in
+Bibliography, Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia_,
+vol. 5, 1952-53. For a brilliant study of the Whatman mill, where
+practically all wove paper up to the 1780's was manufactured, see Thomas
+Balston's _James Whatman, father and son_, London, 1957.
+
+[17] Hunter, _op. cit._ (footnote 15), p. 215.
+
+[18] R. Straus and R. K. Dent, _John Baskerville_, Cambridge, 1907. On
+page 19 the authors include a letter to Baskerville from Benjamin
+Franklin, written in 1760 in a jocular tone, which notes that he
+overheard a friend saying that Baskerville's types would be "the means
+of blinding all the Readers in the Nation owing to the thin and narrow
+strokes of the letters."
+
+About 1777 the French became acquainted with wove paper, which Franklin
+brought to Paris for exhibition. In 1779, according to Hunter,[19] M.
+Didot the famous printer, "having seen the _papier velin_ that
+Baskerville used, addressed a letter to M. Johannot of Annonay, a
+skilled papermaker, asking him to endeavour to duplicate the smooth and
+even surface of this new paper. Johannot was successful in his
+experiments, and for his work in this field he was in 1781 awarded a
+gold medal by Louis XVI."
+
+[19] Hunter, _op. cit._ (footnote 15), p. 219.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7.--Wood Engraving by Thomas Bewick, "The Man and
+the Flea," for _Fables, by the late Mr. Gay_, 1779. (Actual size.) Note
+how the closely worked lines of the sky and water have blurred in
+printing on laid paper. The pale vertical streak is caused by the laid
+mould.]
+
+Wove paper was so slow to come into use that Jenkins gives the date 1788
+for its first appearance in book printing.[20] While he missed a few
+examples, notably by Baskerville, it is certain that few books with wove
+paper were published before 1790. But after that date its manufacture
+increased with such rapidity that by 1805 it had supplanted laid paper
+for many printing purposes.
+
+The reasons for this gap between the introduction and the acceptance of
+the new paper are not clear; the inertia of tradition as well as the
+probable higher cost no doubt played a part, and we may assume that
+early wove paper had imperfections and other drawbacks serious enough to
+cause printers to prefer the older material.
+
+Bewick's early work was printed on laid paper. Up to 1784 he had worked
+in a desultory fashion on wood, much of his time being occupied with
+seal cutting because there was still no real demand for wood engraving.
+In Gay's _Fables_, published in 1779, the cuts printed so poorly on the
+laid paper (see fig. 7) that Dobson[21] was moved to say:
+
+     Generally speaking, the printing of all these cuts, even in the
+     earlier editions (and it is absolutely useless to consult any
+     others), is weak and unskillful. The fine work of the backgrounds
+     is seldom made out, and the whole impression is blurred and
+     unequal.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8.--"The Spanish Pointer", illustration (actual
+size) by Thomas Bewick, from _A general history of quadrupeds_, 1790, in
+the collections of the Library of Congress.]
+
+
+[20] Rhys Jenkins, "Early papermaking in England, 1495-1788," _Library
+Association Record_, London, 1900-1902, vol. 2, nos. 9 and 11; vol. 3,
+no. 5; vol. 4, nos. 3 and 4.
+
+[21] Dobson, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 56.
+
+Even in the _Select fables of Aesop and others_ of 1784, when Bewick's
+special gifts began to emerge, the cuts on laid paper appeared weak in
+comparison with his later work. Bewick was still using wood engraving as
+a cheaper, more quickly executed substitute for the woodcut. The designs
+were based upon Croxall's edition of _Aesop's Fables_, published in
+1722, which was probably the best and most popular illustrated book
+published in England during the century up to Bewick's time. According
+to Chatto, the cuts were made with the burin on end-grain wood, probably
+by Kirkall,[22] but Bewick believed they were engraved on type
+metal.[23] It was not easy to tell the difference. Type metal usually
+made grayer impressions than wood and sometimes, but not always,
+nail-head marks appeared where the metal was fastened to the wood base.
+The Croxall cuts, in turn, were adapted with little change from
+17th-century sources--etchings by Francis Barlow and line engravings by
+Sebastian Le Clerc. Bewick's cuts repeated the earlier designs but
+changed the locale to the English countryside of the late 18th century.
+This was to be expected; to have a contemporary meaning the actors of
+the old morality play had to appear in modern dress and with up-to-date
+scenery. But technically the cuts followed the pattern of Croxall's wood
+engraver, although with a slightly greater range of tone. Artistically
+Bewick's interpretation was inferior because it was more literal; it
+lacked the grander feeling of the earlier work.
+
+Bewick really became the prophet of a new pictorial style in his _A
+general history of quadrupeds_, published in 1790 on wove paper (see
+figs. 8, 9, and 10). Here his animals and little vignetted tailpieces of
+observations in the country announced an original subject for
+illustration and a fresh treatment of wood engraving, although some
+designs were still copied from earlier models. The white line begins to
+function with greater elasticity; tones and details beyond anything
+known previously in the medium appear with the force of innovation. The
+paper was still somewhat coarse and the cuts were often gray and muddy.
+But the audacity of the artist in venturing tonal subtleties was
+immediately apparent.
+
+[22] Chatto, _op. cit._ (footnote 6), p. 448.
+
+[23] Thomas Bewick, _Fables of Aesop and others_, Newcastle, 1818.
+
+One of Bewick's old friends at Newcastle had been William Bulmer, who by
+the 1790's had become a famous printer. In 1795 he published an edition
+of _Poems by Goldsmith and Parnell_, which was preceded by an
+Advertisement announcing his intentions:
+
+     The present volume ... [is] particularly meant to combine the
+     various beauties of PRINTING, TYPE-FOUNDING, ENGRAVING, and
+     PAPER-MAKING.... The ornaments are all engraved on blocks of wood,
+     by two of my earliest acquaintances, Messrs. Bewick [Thomas and his
+     brother and apprentice John], of Newcastle upon Tyne and London,
+     after designs made from the most interesting passages of the Poems
+     they embellish. They have been executed with great care, and I may
+     venture to say, without being supposed to be influenced by ancient
+     friendship, that they form the most extraordinary effort of the art
+     of engraving upon wood that ever was produced in any age, or any
+     country. Indeed it seems almost impossible that such delicate
+     effects could be obtained from blocks of wood. Of the Paper, it is
+     only necessary to say that it comes from the manufactory of Mr.
+     Whatman.
+
+The following year, 1796, a companion volume, _The Chase, a Poem_, by
+William Somervile, appeared with cuts by Bewick after drawings by his
+brother John (see fig. 11). In both books, although no acknowledgment
+was given, there was considerable assistance from pupils Robert and
+John Johnson and Charlton Nesbit, as well as from an artist associate
+Richard Westall.[24] Bulmer was quite conscious that a new era in
+printing and illustration had begun. Updike[25] notes Bulmer's
+recognition of the achievements of both Baskerville and Bewick in giving
+the art of printing a new basis:
+
+     To understand the causes of the revival of English printing which
+     marked the last years of the century, we must remember that by 1775
+     Baskerville was dead.... There seems to have been a temporary lull
+     in English fine printing and the kind of type-founding that
+     contributed to it. The wood-engraving of Thomas Bewick, produced
+     about 1780, called, nevertheless, for more brilliant and delicate
+     letter-press than either Caslon's or Wilson's types could supply.
+     If Baskerville's fonts had been available, no doubt they would have
+     served.... So the next experiments in typography were made by a
+     little coterie composed of the Boydells, the Nicols, the Bewicks
+     (Thomas and John), and Bulmer.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick (actual size), from
+_A general history of quadrupeds_, 1790, in the collections of the
+Library of Congress.]
+
+When the cuts in this book are compared with earlier impressions from
+wood blocks, the difference is quickly seen. The blocks are more highly
+wrought, yet every line is crisp and clear and the impressions are black
+and brilliant. When we realize that the only new technological factor of
+any consequence was the use of good smooth wove paper, we can appreciate
+its significance.
+
+There were no other developments of note in the practice of printing
+during the 18th century. The old wooden hand press, unimproved except
+for minor devices, was still in universal use. Ink was little improved;
+paper was handmade; type was made from hand moulds. The ink was still
+applied by dabbing with inking balls of wool-stuffed leather nailed to
+wooden forms. The leather was still kept soft by removing it and soaking
+it in urine, after which it was trampled for some time to complete the
+unsavory operation. Paper still had to be dampened overnight before
+printing, and freshly inked sheets were still hung to dry over cords
+stretched across the room.
+
+[24] D. C. Thomson, _The life and works of Thomas Bewick_, London, 1882,
+p. 152.
+
+[25] D. B. Updike, _Printing types, their history, forms and use_,
+Cambridge and London, 1922, vol. 2, pp. 122, 123.
+
+But with a more sympathetic surface for receiving ink from relief
+blocks, a new avenue for wood engraving was now open. In the following
+year, 1797, the first volume of Bewick's finest and best-known work was
+published. This was the _History of British birds_, for which he and his
+pupils did the cuts while Ralph Beilby, his partner and former master,
+provided the descriptions (see figs. 12, 13, and 14.) It achieved an
+immense and instantaneous popularity that carried the artist's name over
+the British Isles. The attractiveness of the subject, the freshness of
+the medium--which could render the softness of feathers and could be
+interspersed with text--the powerful and decorative little tail pieces,
+and the comparative inexpensiveness of the volumes, brought the _Birds_
+into homes everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick (actual size),
+from _A general history of quadrupeds_, 1790, in the collections of the
+Library of Congress.]
+
+Actually, wood engraving was not immediately adopted on a wide scale.
+Having done without it for so long, printers and publishers made no
+concerted rush to avail themselves of the new type of cuts. Bewick's
+pupils found little of this kind of work to do before about 1830. Luke
+Clennell dropped engraving for painting; William Harvey restricted
+himself to drawing and designing; Charlton Nesbit and John Jackson
+remained engravers, as did a host of lesser individuals. Dobson
+says:[26]
+
+     The pupils who quitted him to seek their fortunes in London either
+     made their way with difficulty, or turned to other pursuits, and
+     the real popularization of wood-engraving did not take place until
+     some years after his death.
+
+One reason for delay in adopting the new technique may have been the
+danger of the block splitting, or of the sections of wood coming apart
+at the mortise-joints during the printing operation. If this happened,
+work had to be suspended until a new block was engraved, or until the
+sections were reglued. For periodicals with deadlines, this was a
+serious hazard.
+
+
+
+
+Wood Engraving and the Stereotype
+
+
+In any event, wood engraving did not really flourish until a practical
+stereotyping process was perfected. By this procedure substitute blocks
+of type metal could replace the wood engravings in the press, and the
+danger of splitting the block was eliminated. The first steps of any
+importance toward a practical process were made by the Earl of Stanhope
+around 1800, but not until Claude Genoux in France, between 1828 and
+1829, developed the papier mache or wet mat process could acceptable
+stereotypes of entire pages be produced.[27] By this method, patented on
+July 24, 1829, and others that followed, a number of duplicate plates of
+each page could be made as required for rapid printing on a battery of
+presses. Wood engraving now emerged as a practical method of
+illustration for popular publications. The _Penny Magazine_ and the
+_Saturday Magazine_, founded in 1832, immediately made use of Genoux's
+stereotyping process. Dobson[28] describes the effect of these
+periodicals:
+
+     "The art of wood engraving received an astonishing impact from
+     these publications. The engraver, instead of working merely with
+     his own hands, has been obliged to take five or six pupils to get
+     through the work." (Mr. Cowper's evidence before the Select
+     Committee on Arts and Manufactures, 1835). It is difficult nowadays
+     [1884] to understand what a revelation these two periodicals, with
+     their representations of far countries and foreign animals, of
+     masterpieces of painting and sculpture, were to middle-class
+     households fifty years ago.
+
+[26] Dobson, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 174.
+
+[27] George Kubler, _A history of stereotyping_, New York, 1941, p. 75.
+
+[28] Dobson, _op. cit._ (footnote 8), p. 173.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick (actual size),
+engraved after a drawing by John Bewick, from _The Chase_, by William
+Somervile, 1796. (_Photo courtesy the Library of Congress._)]
+
+We will not pursue Bewick's career further. With habits of hard work
+deeply ingrained, he kept at his bench until his death in 1828,
+engraving an awesome quantity of cuts. But he never surpassed his work
+on the _Birds_, although his reputation grew in proportion to the spread
+of wood engraving throughout the world.
+
+The medium became more and more detailed, and eventually rivaled
+photography in its minute variations of tone (see figs. 15 and 16). But
+printing wood engravings never was a problem again. Not only was wove
+paper always used in this connection, but it had become much cheaper
+through the invention of a machine for producing it in lengths. Nicholas
+Louis Robert, in France, had developed and exhibited such an apparatus
+in 1797, at the instigation of M. Didot. John Gamble in England, working
+with Henry and Charles Fourdrinier, engaged a fine mechanic, Bryan
+Donkin, to build a machine on improved principles. The first
+comparatively successful one was completed in 1803. It was periodically
+improved, and wove paper appeared in increasing quantities. Spicer[29]
+says: "Naturally these improvements and economies in the manufacture of
+paper were accompanied by a corresponding increase in output. Where, in
+1806, a machine was capable of making 6 cwt. in twelve hours, in 1813 it
+could turn out double that quantity in the same time at one quarter the
+expense."
+
+[29] A. D. Spicer, _The paper trade_, London, 1907, p. 63.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12.--Wood Engraving by W. J. Linton, 1878 (Actual
+Size). The detail opposite is enlarged four times to show white
+line-technique.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13.--"Pintail Duck" by Thomas Bewick (actual
+size), from _History of British birds_, vol. 2, 1804. The detail
+opposite is enlarged three times.]
+
+At about the same time the all-iron Stanhope press began to be
+manufactured in quantity, and shortly the new inking roller invented by
+the indispensable Earl came into use to supplant the old inking balls.
+Later in the century (there is no need to go into specific detail here)
+calendered and coated papers were introduced, and wood engraving on
+these glossy papers became a medium that could reproduce wash drawings,
+crayon drawings, pencil drawings, and oil paintings so faithfully that
+all the original textures were apparent.[30] The engraver, concerned
+entirely with accurate reproduction, became little more than a mechanic
+who rendered pictures drawn on the blocks by an artist. In time,
+photographic processes came to be used for transferring pictures to the
+blocks and eventually, of course, photomechanical halftones replaced the
+wood engraver altogether.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14.--Title-Page Illustration by Thomas Bewick,
+from _History of British birds_, vol. 1, 1797. (Actual size.)]
+
+[30] The electrotyping process, which came into prominence in 1839
+through the experiments of Professor Jacobi in St. Petersburg and Jordan
+and Spencer in England, had made it possible to produce substitute
+plates of the highest fidelity. For fine work, these were much superior
+to stereotyping.
+
+Bewick was an artist, not a reproductive craftsman. His blocks were
+conceived as original engravings, not as imitations of tones and
+textures created in another medium. If wood engraving advanced in the
+direction of commercialism to fill an overwhelming mass need, it was
+only because he had given it a technical basis. But it had greater
+artistic potentialities, as proved by Blake, Calvert, and Lepere, among
+others, and has found new life in the engravers of the 20th-century
+revival.
+
+The reasons for Bewick's remarkable effectiveness can now be summed up.
+He succeeded, first, because he was the natural inheritor of a
+specifically English graphic arts process, burin-engraving on the end
+grain of wood. This had been practiced almost solely in England, which
+lacked a woodcut tradition, for about 75 years before the date he
+finished his apprenticeship. We know from Jackson's contemporary account
+that end-grain wood engraving was standard practice in England from
+about 1700. Bewick merely continued and refined a medium that came down
+to him as a national tradition.
+
+Secondly, his country isolation and lack of academic training saved him
+from the inanity of repeating the old decorative devices--trophies,
+cartouches, classical figures, Roman ruins, and other international
+conventions that had lost their significance by the 1780's, although a
+spurious classicism was still kept alive for genteel consumption and the
+romantic picturesque still persisted in interior decoration.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Thirdly, he looked at life and nature with a fresh eye, without
+preconceptions. While his lack of larger vision held him down as an
+artist, it contributed to his feeling for natural textures and
+story-telling detail. His approach to illustration, therefore, was the
+spontaneous expression of an observant but unimaginative nature, coated
+with a bitter-sweet sentiment. It was this quality, so homely and common
+and yet so charged with integrity, that delivered the shock of
+recognition to a mass audience.
+
+Lastly, and perhaps most importantly in the long run, he was fortunate
+enough to live at a time when a necessary prerequisite for the physical
+appearance of his work, wove paper, was coming into use. Without it he
+would soon have had to simplify his line system, returning to older and
+less detailed methods, or his work would have remained unprintable. It
+was the new paper that allowed him to extract unprecedented subtleties
+from the wood block, that made his cuts print clearly and evenly, and
+that encouraged the expansion of the wood engraving process. These
+factors, taken together, make up the phenomenon of Thomas Bewick.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15.--Tailpiece by Thomas Bewick, from _History of
+British birds_, vol. 2, 1804. (Actual size.)]
+
+U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1959
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WHY BEWICK SUCCEEDED***
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