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diff --git a/29508.txt b/29508.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f082f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/29508.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1328 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Ethics of Coöperation, by James Hayden +Tufts + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Ethics of Coöperation + + +Author: James Hayden Tufts + + + +Release Date: July 25, 2009 [eBook #29508] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ETHICS OF COöPERATION*** + + +E-text prepared by the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading +Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from digital material generously made available +by Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries +(http://www.archive.org/details/toronto) + + + +Note: Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See + http://www.archive.org/details/ethicsofcopera00tuftuoft + + + + + +THE ETHICS OF COOPERATION + + * * * * * + +Barbara Weinstock Lectures on The Morals of Trade + + +THE ETHICS OF COOPERATION. +By JAMES H. TUFTS. + +HIGHER EDUCATION AND BUSINESS STANDARDS. +By WILLARD EUGENE HOTCHKISS. + +CREATING CAPITAL: MONEY-MAKING AS AN AIM IN BUSINESS. +By FREDERICK L. LIPMAN. + +IS CIVILIZATION A DISEASE? +By STANTON COIT. + +SOCIAL JUSTICE WITHOUT SOCIALISM. +By JOHN BATES CLARK. + +THE CONFLICT BETWEEN PRIVATE MONOPOLY AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP. +By JOHN GRAHAM BROOKS. + +COMMERCIALISM AND JOURNALISM. +By HAMILTON HOLT. + +THE BUSINESS CAREER IN ITS PUBLIC RELATIONS. +By ALBERT SHAW. + + * * * * * + +THE ETHICS OF COOPERATION + +by + +JAMES H. TUFTS + +Professor of Philosophy in the University of Chicago + + + + + + + +Boston and New York +Houghton Mifflin Company +The Riverside Press Cambridge +1918 + +Copyright, 1918, by the Regents of the +University of California +All Rights Reserved + +Published September 1918 + + + + + +BARBARA WEINSTOCK +LECTURES ON THE MORALS OF TRADE + + +This series will contain essays by representative scholars and men of +affairs dealing with the various phases of the moral law in its bearing +on business life under the new economic order, first delivered at the +University of California on the Weinstock foundation. + + + + +THE ETHICS OF COOPERATION + + + + +I + + +According to Plato's famous myth, two gifts of the gods equipped man +for living: the one, arts and inventions to supply him with the means +of livelihood; the other, reverence and justice to be the ordering +principles of societies and the bonds of friendship and conciliation. +Agencies for mastery over nature and agencies for cooperation among men +remain the two great sources of human power. But after two thousand +years, it is possible to note an interesting fact as to their relative +order of development in civilization. Nearly all the great skills and +inventions that had been acquired up to the eighteenth century were +brought into man's service at a very early date. The use of fire, the +arts of weaver, potter, and metal worker, of sailor, hunter, fisher, +and sower, early fed man and clothed him. These were carried to higher +perfection by Egyptian and Greek, by Tyrian and Florentine, but it +would be difficult to point to any great new unlocking of material +resources until the days of the chemist and electrician. Domestic +animals and crude water mills were for centuries in man's service, and +until steam was harnessed, no additions were made of new powers. + +During this long period, however, the progress of human association +made great and varied development. The gap between the men of +Santander's caves, or early Egypt, and the civilization of a century +ago is bridged rather by union of human powers, by the needs and +stimulating contacts of society, than by conquest in the field of +nature. It was in military, political, and religious organization that +the power of associated effort was first shown. Army, state, and +hierarchy were its visible representatives. Then, a little over a +century ago, began what we call the industrial revolution, still +incomplete, which combined new natural forces with new forms of human +association. Steam, electricity, machines, the factory system, +railroads: these suggest the natural forces at man's disposal; capital, +credit, corporations, labor unions: these suggest the bringing together +of men and their resources into units for exploiting or controlling the +new natural forces. Sometimes resisting the political, military, or +ecclesiastical forces which were earlier in the lead, sometimes +mastering them, sometimes combining with them, economic organization +has now taken its place in the world as a fourth great structure, or +rather as a fourth great agency through which man achieves his greater +tasks, and in so doing becomes conscious of hitherto unrealized powers. + +Early in this great process of social organization three divergent +types emerged, which still contend for supremacy in the worlds of +action and of valuation: dominance, competition, and cooperation. All +mean a meeting of human forces. They rest respectively on power, +rivalry, and sympathetic interchange. Each may contribute to human +welfare. On the other hand, each may be taken so abstractly as to +threaten human values. I hope to point out that the greatest of these +is cooperation, and that it is largely the touchstone for the others. + +Cooperation and dominance both mean organization. Dominance implies +inequality, direction and obedience, superior and subordinate. +Cooperation implies some sort of equality, some mutual relation. It +does not exclude difference in ability or in function. It does not +exclude leadership, for leadership is usually necessary to make +cooperation effective. But in dominance the special excellence is kept +isolated; ideas are transmitted from above downward. In cooperation +there is interchange, currents flowing in both directions, contacts of +mutual sympathy, rather than of pride-humility, condescension-servility. +The purpose of the joint pursuit in organization characterized by +dominance may be either the exclusive good of the master or the joint +good of the whole organized group, but in any case it is a purpose +formed and kept by those few who know. The group may share in its +execution and its benefits, but not in its construction or in the +estimating and forecasting of its values. The purpose in cooperation is +joint. Whether originally suggested by some leader of thought or +action, or whether a composite of many suggestions in the give and take +of discussion or in experiences of common need, it is weighed and +adopted as a common end. It is not the work or possession of leaders +alone, but embodies in varying degrees the work and active interest of +all. + +Cooperation and competition at first glance may seem more radically +opposed. For while dominance and cooperation both mean union of forces, +competition appears to mean antagonism. _They_ stand for combination; +_it_ for exclusion of one by another. Yet a deeper look shows that this +is not true of competition in what we may call its social, as +contrasted with its unsocial, aspect. The best illustration of what I +venture to call social competition is sport. Here is rivalry, and here +in any given contest one wins, the other loses, or few win and many +lose. But the great thing in sport is not to win; the great thing is +the game, the contest; and the contest is no contest unless the +contestants are so nearly equal as to forbid any certainty in advance +as to which will win. The best sport is found when no one contestant +wins too often. There is in reality a common purpose--the zest of +contest. Players combine and compete to carry out this purpose; and the +rules are designed so to restrict the competition as to rule out +certain kinds of action and preserve friendly relations. The contending +rivals are in reality uniting to stimulate each other. Without the +cooperation there would be no competition, and the competition is so +conducted as to continue the relation. Competition in the world of +thought is similarly social. In efforts to reach a solution of a +scientific problem or to discuss a policy, the spur of rivalry or the +matching of wits aids the common purpose of arriving at the truth. +Similar competition exists in business. Many a firm owes its success to +the competition of its rivals which has forced it to be efficient, +progressive. As a manufacturing friend once remarked to me: "When the +other man sells cheaper, you generally find he has found out something +you don't know." + +But we also apply the term "competition" to rivalry in which there is +no common purpose; to contests in which there is no intention to +continue or repeat the match, and in which no rules control. Weeds +compete with flowers and crowd them out. The factory competes with the +hand loom and banishes it. The trust competes with the small firm and +puts it out of business. The result is monopoly. When plants or +inventions are thus said to compete for a place, there is frequently no +room for both competitors, and no social gain by keeping both in the +field. Competition serves here sometimes as a method of selection, +although no one would decide to grow weeds rather than flowers because +weeds are more efficient. In the case of what are called natural +monopolies, there is duplication of effort instead of cooperation. +Competition is here wasteful. But when we have to do, not with a +specific product, or with a fixed field such as that of street railways +or city lighting, but with the open field of invention and service, we +need to provide for continuous cooperation, and competition seems at +least one useful agency. To retain this, we frame rules against "unfair +competition." As the rules of sport are designed to place a premium +upon certain kinds of strength and skill which make a good game, so the +rules of fair competition are designed to secure efficiency for public +service, and to exclude efficiency in choking or fouling. In unfair +competition there is no common purpose of public service or of +advancing skill or invention; hence, no cooperation. The cooperative +purpose or result is thus the test of useful, as contrasted with +wasteful or harmful, competition. + +There is also an abstract conception of cooperation, which, in its +one-sided emphasis upon equality, excludes any form of leadership, or +direction, and in fear of inequality allows no place for competition. +Selection of rulers by lot in a large and complex group is one +illustration; jealous suspicion of ability, which becomes a cult of +incompetence, is another. Refusals to accept inventions which require +any modification of industry, or to recognize any inequalities of +service, are others. But these do not affect the value of the principle +as we can now define it in preliminary fashion: union tending to secure +common ends, by a method which promotes equality, and with an outcome +of increased power shared by all. + + + + +II + + +What are we to understand by the Ethics of Cooperation? Can we find +some external standard of unquestioned value or absolute duty by which +to measure the three processes of society which we have named, +dominance, competition, cooperation? Masters of the past have offered +many such, making appeal to the logic of reason or the response of +sentiment, to the will for mastery or the claim of benevolence. To make +a selection without giving reasons would seem arbitrary; to attempt a +reasoned discussion would take us quite beyond the bounds appropriate +to this lecture. But aside from the formulations of philosophers, +humanity has been struggling--often rather haltingly and blindly--for +certain goods and setting certain sign-posts which, if they do not +point to a highway, at least mark certain paths as blind alleys. Such +goods I take to be the great words, liberty, power, justice; such signs +of blind paths I take to be rigidity, passive acceptance of what is. + +But those great words, just because they are so great, are given +various meanings by those who would claim them for their own. Nor is +there complete agreement as to just what paths deserve to be posted as +leading nowhere. Groups characterized by dominance, cut-throat +competition, or cooperation, tend to work out each its own +interpretations of liberty, power, justice; its own code for the +conduct of its members. Without assuming to decide your choice, I can +indicate briefly what the main elements in these values and codes are. + +The group of masters and servants will develop what we have learned to +call a morality of masters and a morality of slaves. This was +essentially the code of the feudal system. We have survivals of such a +group morality in our code of the gentleman, which in England still +depreciates manual labor, although it has been refined and softened and +enlarged to include respect for other than military and sportsman +virtues. The code of masters exalts liberty--for the ruling class--and +resents any restraint by inferiors or civilians, or by public opinion +of any group but its own. It has a justice which takes for its premise +a graded social order, and seeks to put and keep every man in his +place. But its supreme value is power, likewise for the few, or for the +state as consisting of society organized and directed by the ruling +class. Such a group, according to Treitschke, will also need war, in +order to test and exhibit its power to the utmost in fierce struggle +with other powers. It will logically honor war as good. + +A group practicing cut-throat competition will simply reverse the +order: first, struggle to put rivals out of the field; then, monopoly +with unlimited power to control the market or possess the soil. It +appeals to nature's struggle for existence as its standard for human +life. It too sets a high value upon liberty in the sense of freedom +from control, but originating as it did in resistance to control by +privilege and other aspects of dominance, it has never learned the +defects of a liberty which takes no account of ignorance, poverty, and +ill health. It knows the liberty of nature, the liberty of the strong +and the swift, but not the liberty achieved by the common effort for +all. It knows justice, but a justice which is likely to be defined as +securing to each his natural liberty, and which therefore means +non-interference with the struggle for existence except to prevent +violence and fraud. It takes no account as to whether the struggle +kills few or many, or distributes goods widely or sparingly, or whether +indeed there is any room at the table which civilization spreads; +though it does not begrudge charity if administered under that name. + +A cooperating group has two working principles: first, common purpose +and common good; second, that men can achieve by common effort what +they cannot accomplish singly. The first, reinforced by the actual +interchange of ideas and services, tends to favor equality. It implies +mutual respect, confidence, and good-will. The second favors a +constructive and progressive attitude, which will find standards +neither in nature nor in humanity's past, since it conceives man able +to change conditions to a considerable extent and thus to realize new +goods. + +These principles tend toward a type of liberty different from those +just mentioned. As contrasted with the liberty of a dominant group, +cooperation favors a liberty for all, a liberty of live and let live, a +tolerance and welcome for variation in type, provided only this is +willing to make its contribution to the common weal. Instead of +imitation or passive acceptance of patterns on the part of the +majority, it stimulates active construction. As contrasted with the +liberty favored in competing groups, cooperation would emphasize +positive control over natural forces, over health conditions, over +poverty and fear. It would make each person share as fully as possible +in the knowledge and strength due to combined effort, and thus liberate +him from many of the limitations which have hitherto hampered him. + +Similarly with justice. Cooperation's ethics of distribution is not +rigidly set by the actual interest and rights of the past on the one +hand, nor by hitherto available resources on the other. Neither natural +rights nor present ability and present service form a complete measure. +Since cooperation evokes new interests and new capacities, it is +hospitable to new claims and new rights; since it makes new sources of +supply available, it has in view the possibility at least of doing +better for all than can an abstract insistence upon old claims. It may +often avoid the deadlock of a rigid system. It is better to grow two +blades of grass than to dispute who shall have the larger fraction of +the one which has previously been the yield. It is better, not merely +because there is more grass, but also because men's attitude becomes +forward-looking and constructive, not pugnacious and rigid. + +Power is likewise a value in a cooperating group, but it must be power +not merely used for the good of all, but to some extent controlled by +all and thus actually shared. Only as so controlled and so shared is +power attended by the responsibility which makes it safe for its +possessors. Only on this basis does power over other men permit the +free choices on their part which are essential to full moral life. + +As regards the actual efficiency of a cooperating group, it may be +granted that its powers are not so rapidly mobilized. In small, +homogeneous groups, the loss of time is small; in large groups the +formation of public opinion and the conversion of this into action is +still largely a problem rather than an achievement. New techniques have +to be developed, and it may be that for certain military tasks the +military technique will always be more efficient. To the cooperative +group, however, this test will not be the ultimate ethical test. It +will rather consider the possibilities of substituting for war other +activities in which cooperation is superior. And if the advocate of war +insists that war as such is the most glorious and desirable type of +life, cooperation may perhaps fail to convert him. But it may hope to +create a new order whose excellence shall be justified of her children. + + + + +III + + +A glance at the past roles of dominance, competition, and cooperation +in the institutions of government, religion, and commerce and industry, +will aid us to consider cooperation in relation to present +international problems. + +Primitive tribal life had elements of each of the three principles we +have named. But with discovery by some genius of the power of +organization for war the principle of dominance won, seemingly at a +flash, a decisive position. No power of steam or lightning has been so +spectacular and wide-reaching as the power which Egyptian, Assyrian, +Macedonian, Roman, and their modern successors introduced and +controlled. Political states owing their rise to military means +naturally followed the military pattern. The sharp separation between +ruler or ruling group and subject people, based on conquest, was +perpetuated in class distinction. Gentry and simple, lord and villein, +were indeed combined in exploitation of earth's resources, but +cooperation was in the background, mastery in the fore. And when +empires included peoples of various races and cultural advance the +separation between higher and lower became intensified. Yet though +submerged for long periods, the principle of cooperation has asserted +itself, step by step and it seldom loses ground. Beginning usually in +some group which at first combined to resist dominance, it has made its +way through such stages as equality before the law, abolition of +special privileges, extension of suffrage, influence of public +sentiment, interchange of ideas, toward genuine participation by all in +the dignity and responsibility of political power. It builds a Panama +Canal, it maintains a great system of education, and has, we may easily +believe, yet greater tasks in prospect. It may be premature to predict +its complete displacement of dominance in our own day as a method of +government, yet who in America doubts its ultimate prevalence? + +Religion presents a fascinating mixture of cooperation with dominance +on the one hand, and exclusiveness on the other. The central fact is +the community, which seeks some common end in ritual, or in beneficent +activity. But at an early period leaders became invested, or invested +themselves, with a sanctity which led to dominance. Not the power of +force, but that of mystery and the invisible raised the priest above +the level of the many. And, on another side, competition between rival +national religions, like that between states, excluded friendly +contacts. Jew and Samaritan had no dealings; between the followers of +Baal and Jehovah there was no peace but by extermination. Yet it was +religion which confronted the _Herrenmoral_ with the first reversal of +values, and declared, "So shall it not be among you. But whosoever will +be great among you let him be your minister." And it was religion which +cut across national boundaries in its vision of what Professor Royce so +happily calls the Great Community. Protest against dominance resulted, +however, in divisions, and although cooperation in practical activities +has done much to prepare the way for national understanding, the +hostile forces of the world to-day lack the restraint which might have +come from a united moral sentiment and moral will. + +In the economic field the story of dominance, cooperation, and +competition is more complex than in government and religion. It +followed somewhat different courses in trade and in industry. The +simplest way to supply needs with goods is to go and take them; the +simplest way to obtain services is to seize them. Dominance in the +first case gives piracy and plunder, when directed against those +without; fines and taxes, when exercised upon those within; in the +second case, it gives slavery or forced levies. But trade, as a +voluntary exchange of presents, or as a bargaining for mutual +advantage, had likewise its early beginnings. Carried on at first with +timidity and distrust, because the parties belonged to different +groups, it has developed a high degree of mutual confidence between +merchant and customer, banker and client, insurer and insured. By its +system of contracts and fiduciary relations, which bind men of the most +varying localities, races, occupations, social classes, and national +allegiance, it has woven a new net of human relations far more +intricate and wide-reaching than the natural ties of blood kinship. It +rests upon mutual responsibility and good faith; it is a constant force +for their extension. + +The industrial side of the process has had similar influence toward +union. Free craftsmen in the towns found mutual support in guilds, when +as yet the farm laborer or villein had to get on as best he could +unaided. The factory system itself has been largely organized from +above down. It has very largely assumed that the higher command needs +no advice or ideas from below. Hours of labor, shop conditions, wages, +have largely been fixed by "orders," just as governments once ruled by +decrees. But as dominance in government has led men to unite against +the new power and then has yielded to the more complete cooperation of +participation, so in industry the factory system has given rise to the +labor movement. As for the prospects of fuller cooperation, this may be +said already to have displaced the older autocratic system within the +managing group, and the war is giving an increased impetus to extension +of the process. + +Exchange of goods and services is indeed a threefold cooperation: it +meets wants which the parties cannot themselves satisfy or cannot well +satisfy; it awakens new wants; it calls new inventions and new forces +into play. It thus not only satisfies man's existing nature, but +enlarges his capacity for enjoyment and his active powers. It makes not +only for comfort, but for progress. + + + + +IV + + +If trade and industry, however, embody so fully the principle of +cooperation, how does it come about that they have on the whole had a +rather low reputation, not only among the class groups founded on +militarism, but among philosophers and moralists? Why do we find the +present calamities of war charged to economic causes? Perhaps the +answer to these questions will point the path along which better +cooperation may be expected. + +There is, from the outset, one defect in the cooperation between buyer +and seller, employer and laborer. The cooperation is largely +unintended. Each is primarily thinking of his own advantage, rather +than that of the other, or of the social whole; he is seeking it in +terms of money, which as a material object must be in the pocket of one +party or of the other, and is not, like friendship or beauty, sharable. +Mutual benefit is the result of exchange--it need not be the motive. +This benefit comes about as if it were arranged by an invisible hand, +said Adam Smith. Indeed, it was long held that if one of the bargainers +gained, the other must lose. And when under modern conditions labor is +considered as a commodity to be bought and sold in the cheapest market +by an impersonal corporate employer, there is a strong presumption +against the cooperative attitude on either side. + +The great problem here is, therefore: How can men be brought to seek +consciously what now they unintentionally produce? How can the man +whose ends are both self-centered and ignoble be changed into the man +whose ends are wide and high? Something may doubtless be done by +showing that a narrow selfishness is stupid. If we rule out monopoly +the best way to gain great success is likely to lie through meeting +needs of a great multitude; and to meet these effectively implies +entering by imagination and sympathy into their situation. The business +maxim of "service," the practices of refunding money if goods are +unsatisfactory, of one price to all, of providing sanitary and even +attractive factories and homes, and of paying a minimum wage far in +excess of the market price, have often proved highly remunerative. Yet, +I should not place exclusive, and perhaps not chief, reliance on these +methods of appeal. They are analogous to the old maxim, honesty is the +best policy; and we know too well that while this holds under certain +conditions,--that is, among intelligent people, or in the long run,--it +is often possible to acquire great gains by exploiting the weak, +deceiving the ignorant, or perpetrating a fraud of such proportions +that men forget its dishonesty in admiration at its audacity. In the +end it is likely to prove that the level of economic life is to be +raised not by proving that cooperation will better satisfy selfish and +ignoble interests, but rather by creating new standards for measuring +success, new interests in social and worthy ends, and by strengthening +the appeal of duty where this conflicts with present interests. The one +method stakes all on human nature as it is; the other challenges man's +capacity to listen to new appeals and respond to better motives. It is, +if you please, idealism; but before it is dismissed as worthless, +consider what has been achieved in substituting social motives in the +field of political action. There was a time when the aim in political +life was undisguisedly selfish. The state, in distinction from the +kinship group or the village community, was organized for power and +profit. It was nearly a gigantic piratical enterprise, highly +profitable to its managers. The shepherd, says Thrasymachus in Plato's +dialogue, does not feed his sheep for their benefit, but for his own. +Yet now, what president or minister, legislator or judge, would +announce as his aim to acquire the greatest financial profit from his +position? Even in autocratically governed countries, it is at least the +assumption that the good of the state does not mean solely the prestige +and wealth of the ruler. + +A great social and political order has been built up, and we all hold +that it must not be exploited for private gain. It has not been created +or maintained by chance. Nor could it survive if every man sought +primarily his own advantage and left the commonwealth to care for +itself. Nor in a democracy would it be maintained, provided the +governing class alone were disinterested, deprived of private property, +and given education, as Plato suggested. The only safety is in the +general and intelligent desire for the public interest and common +welfare. At this moment almost unanimous acceptance of responsibility +for what we believe to be the public good and the maintenance of +American ideals--though it brings to each of us sacrifice and to many +the full measure of devotion--bears witness to the ability of human +nature to adopt as its compelling motives a high end which opposes +private advantage. + +Is the economic process too desperate a field for larger motives? To me +it seems less desperate than the field of government in the days of +autocratic kings. One great need is to substitute a different standard +of success for the financial gains which have seemed the only test. Our +schools of commerce are aiming to perform this service, by introducing +professional standards. A physician is measured by his ability to cure +the sick, an engineer by the soundness of his bridge and ship; why not +measure a railroad president by his ability to supply coal in winter, +to run trains on time, and decrease the cost of freight, rather than by +his private accumulations? Why not measure a merchant or banker by +similar tests? + +Mankind has built up a great economic system. Pioneer, adventurer, +inventor, scientist, laborer, organizer, all have contributed. It is as +essential to human welfare as the political system, and like that +system it comes to us as an inheritance. I can see no reason why it +should be thought unworthy of a statesman or a judge to use the +political structure for his own profit, but perfectly justifiable for a +man to exploit the economic structure for private gain. This does not +necessarily exclude profit as a method of paying for services, and of +increasing capital needed for development, but it would seek to adjust +profits to services, and treat capital, just as it regards political +power, as a public trust in need of cooperative regulation and to be +used for the general welfare. + +But the war is teaching with dramatic swiftness what it might have +needed decades of peace to bring home to us. We _are_ thinking of the +common welfare. High prices may still be a rough guide to show men's +needs, but we are learning to raise wheat because others need it--not +merely because the price is high. Prices may also be a rough guide to +consumption, but we are learning that eating wheat or sugar is not +merely a matter of what I can afford. It is a question of whether I +take wheat or sugar away from some one else who needs it--the soldier +in France, the child in Belgium, the family of my less fortunate +neighbor. The great argument for not interfering with private exchange +in all such matters has been that if prices should by some authority be +kept low in time of scarcity, men would consume the supply too rapidly; +whereas if prices rise in response to scarcity, men at once begin to +economize and so prevent the total exhaustion of the supply. We now +reflect that if prices of milk rise it does not mean uniform +economy--it means cutting off to a large degree the children of the +poor and leaving relatively untouched the consumption of the +well-to-do. Merely raising the _price_ of meat or wheat means taking +these articles from the table of one class to leave them upon the table +of another. War, requiring, as it does, the united strength and purpose +of the whole people, has found this method antiquated. In Europe +governments have said to their peoples: we _must_ all think of the +common weal; we _must_ all share alike. In this country, the appeal of +the food administrator, though largely without force of law, has been +loyally answered by the great majority. It is doubtless rash to predict +how much peace will retain of what war has taught, but who of us will +again say so easily, "My work or leisure, my economy or my luxury, is +my own affair, if I can afford it?" Who can fail to see that common +welfare comes not without common intention? + +The second great defect in our economic order, from the point of view +of cooperation, has been the inequality of its distribution. This has +been due largely to competition when parties were unequal, not merely +in their ability, but in their opportunity. And the most serious, +though not the most apparent, aspect of this inequality, has not been +that some have more comfort or luxuries to enjoy; it is the fact that +wealth means power. In so far as it can set prices on all that we eat, +wear, and enjoy, it is controlling the intimate affairs of life more +thoroughly than any government ever attempted. In so far as it controls +natural resources, means of transportation, organization of credit, and +the capital necessary for large-scale manufacturing and marketing, it +can set prices. The great questions then are, as with political power: +How can this great power be cooperatively used? Is it serving all or a +few? + +Two notable doctrines of the courts point ways for ethics. The first is +that of property affected with public interest. Applied thus far by the +courts to warehouses, transportation, and similar public services, what +limits can we set ethically to the doctrine that power of one man over +his fellows, whether through his office, or through his property, is +affected with public interest? + +The police power, which sets the welfare of all above private property +when these conflict, is a second doctrine whose ethical import far +outruns its legal applications. + +Yet it is by neither of these that the most significant progress has +been made toward removing that handicap of inequality which is the +chief injustice of our economic system. It is by our great educational +system, liberal in its provisions, generously supported by all classes, +unselfishly served, opening to all doors of opportunity which once were +closed to the many, the most successful department of our democratic +institutions in helping and gaining confidence of all--a system of +which this University of California is one of the most notable leaders +and the most useful members--that fair conditions for competition and +intelligent cooperation in the economic world are increasingly +possible. + + + + +V + + +What bearing has this sketch of the significance and progress of +cooperation upon the international questions which now overshadow all +else? Certainly the world cannot remain as before: great powers +struggling for empire; lesser powers struggling for their separate +existence; great areas of backward peoples viewed as subjects for +exploitation; we ourselves aloof. It must then choose between a future +world order based on dominance, which means world empire; a world order +based on nationalism joined with the non-social type of competition, +which means, every nation the judge of its own interests, continuance +of jealousies and from time to time the recurrence of war; and a world +order based on nationalism plus international cooperation, "to +establish justice, to provide for common defense, to promote the +general welfare, and to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves +and our posterity." + +It is not necessary to discuss in this country the principle of +dominance and world empire. It contradicts our whole philosophy. Safety +for dominance lies only in a civilization of discipline from above +down, in ruthless repression of all thinking on the part of the subject +class or race. + +Nor can I see any genuine alternative in what some advocate--reliance +by each nation on its own military strength as the sole effective +guarantee for its interests. After the military lessons of this war, +the concentration of scientific, economic, and even educational +attention upon military purposes would almost inevitably be vastly in +excess of anything previously conceived. What limits can be set to the +armies of France and Great Britain if these are to protect those +countries from a German empire already double its previous extent, and +taking steps to control the resources of eastern Europe and the near +East? What navy could guarantee German commerce against the combined +forces of Great Britain and the United States? What limits to the +frightfulness yet to be discovered by chemist and bacteriologist? What +guarantee against the insidious growth of a militarist attitude even in +democratically minded peoples if the constant terror of war exalts +military preparations to the supreme place? Something has changed the +Germany of other days which many of us loved even while we shrank from +its militarist masters. Is it absolutely certain that nothing can +change the spirit of democratic peoples? At any rate, America, which +has experimented on a larger scale with cooperation--political, +economic, and religious--than any other continent, may well assert +steadily and insistently that this is the more hopeful path. It may +urge this upon distrustful Europe. + +The obstacles to cooperation are: + +1. The survival of the principle of dominance, showing itself in desire +for political power and prestige, and in certain conceptions of +national honor. + +2. The principle of non-social competition, exhibited in part in the +political policy of eliminating weaker peoples, and conspicuously in +foreign trade when the use of unfair methods relies upon national power +to back up its exploitation or monopoly. + +3. The principle of nationalistic sentiment, itself based on +cooperation, on social tradition and common ideals, but bound up so +closely with political sovereignty and antagonisms as to become +exclusive instead of cooperative in its attitude toward other cultures. + +The principle of dominance deters from cooperation, not only the people +that seeks to dominate, but peoples that fear to be dominated or to +become involved in entangling alliances. Doubtless a policy of +aloofness was long the safe policy for us. We could not trust political +liberty to an alliance with monarchies, even as with equal right some +European peoples might distrust the policies of a republic seemingly +controlled by the slavery interest. At the present time one great power +professes itself incredulous of the fairness of any world tribunal; +smaller powers fear the commanding influence of the great; new national +groups just struggling to expression fear that a league of nations +would be based on present status and therefore give them no +recognition, or else a measure of recognition conditioned by past +injustices rather than by future aspirations and real desert. All these +fears are justified in so far as the principle of dominance is still +potent. The only league that can be trusted by peoples willing to live +and let live, is one that is controlled by a cooperative spirit. And +yet who can doubt that this spirit is spreading? Few governments are +now organized on the avowed basis that military power, which embodies +the spirit of dominance, should be superior to civil control, and even +with them the principle of irresponsible rule, despite its +reinforcement by military success, is likely to yield to the spirit of +the age when once the pressure of war is removed which now holds former +protesters against militarism solid in its support. For all powers that +are genuine in their desire for cooperation there is overwhelming +reason to try it; for only by the combined strength of those who accept +this principle can liberty and justice be maintained against the +aggression of powers capable of concentrating all their resources with +a suddenness and ruthlessness in which dominance is probably superior. + +Yet cooperation for protection of liberty and justice is liable to fall +short of humanity's hopes unless liberty and justice be themselves +defined in a cooperative sense. The great liberties which man has +gained, as step by step he has risen from savagery, have not been +chiefly the assertion of already existing powers or the striking-off of +fetters forged by his fellows. They have been _additions_ to previous +powers. Science, art, invention, associated life in all its forms, have +opened the windows of his dwelling, have given possibilities to his +choice, have given the dream and the interpretation which have set him +free from his prison. The liberty to which international cooperation +points is not merely self-direction or self-determination, but a larger +freedom from fear, a larger freedom from suspicion, a fuller control +over nature and society, a new set of ideas, which will make men free +in a far larger degree than ever before. + +Similarly justice needs to be cooperatively defined. A justice that +looks merely to existing status will not give lasting peace. Peoples +change in needs as truly as they differ in needs. But no people can be +trusted to judge its own needs any more than to judge its own right. A +justice which adheres rigidly to vested interests, and a justice which +is based on expanding interests, are likely to be deadlocked unless a +constructive spirit is brought to bear. Abstract rights to the soil, to +trade, to expansion, must be subordinate to the supreme question: How +can peoples live together and help instead of destroy? This can be +approached only from an international point of view. + +The second obstacle, unsocial competition, is for trade what dominance +is in politics. It prevents that solution for many of the delicate +problems of international life which cooperation through trade might +otherwise afford. Exchange of goods and services by voluntary trade +accomplishes what once seemed attainable only by conquest or slavery. +If Germany or Japan or Italy needs iron or coal; if England needs +wheat, or if the United States sugar, it is possible, or should be +possible, to obtain these without owning the country in which are the +mines, grain, and sugar cane. The United States needs Canada's +products; it has no desire to own Canada. But in recent years the +exchange of products has been subjected to a new influence. National +self-interest has been added to private self-interest. This has +intensified and called out many of the worst features of antagonism and +inequality. + +Few in this country have realized the extent to which other countries +have organized their foreign commerce on national lines. We are now +becoming informed as to the carefully worked-out programmes of +commercial education, merchant marines, trade agreements, consular +service, financial and moral support from the home government, and +mutual aid among various salesmen of the same nationality living in a +foreign country. We are preparing to undertake similar enterprises. We +are reminded that "eighty per cent of the world's people live in the +countries bordering on the Pacific Ocean, and that as a result of the +rearrangement of trade routes, San Francisco's chance of becoming the +greatest distributing port of the Pacific for goods _en route_ to the +markets of the Orient, are now more promising than ever before." Can +the United States take part in this commerce in such a way as to help, +not hinder, international progress in harmony? Not unless we remember +that commerce may be as predatory as armies, and that we must provide +international guarantees against the exclusive types of competition +which we have had to control by law in our own domestic affairs. An +Indian or an African may be deprived of his possessions quite as +effectively by trade as by violence. We need at least as high standards +of social welfare as in domestic commerce. I cannot better present the +situation than by quoting from a recent article by Mr. William Notz in +the "Journal of Political Economy" (Feb. 1918): + + During the past twenty-five years competition in the world markets + became enormously keen. In the wild scramble for trade the + standards of honest business were disregarded more and more by all + the various rival nations. In the absence of any special regulation + or legislation, it appeared as though a silent understanding + prevailed in wide circles that foreign trade was subject to a code + of business ethics widely at variance with the rules observed in + domestic trade. What was frowned upon as unethical and poor + business policy, if not illegal at home, was condoned and winked at + or openly espoused when foreign markets formed the basis of + operations and foreigners were the competitors. High-minded men of + all nations have long observed with concern the growing tendency of + modern international trade toward selfish exploitation, + concession-hunting, cut-throat competition, and commercialistic + practices of the most sordid type. Time and again complaints have + been voiced, retaliatory measures threatened, and more than once + serious friction has ensued. + +Mr. Notz brings to our attention various efforts by official and +commercial bodies looking toward remedies for such conditions and +toward official recognition by all countries of unfair competition as a +penal offense. + +What more do we need than fair competition to constitute the +cooperative international life which we dreamed yesterday and now must +consider, not merely as a dream, but as the only alternative to a +future of horror? + +Free trade has been not unnaturally urged as at least one condition. +Tariffs certainly isolate. To say to a country: "You shall manufacture +nothing unless you own the raw material; you shall sell nothing unless +at prices which I fix," is likely to provoke the reply: "Then I must +acquire lands in which raw materials are found; I must acquire colonies +which will buy my products." Trade agreements mean cooperation for +those within, unless they are one-sided and made under duress; in any +case they are exclusive of those without. Free trade, the open door, +seems to offer a better way. But free trade in name is not free trade +unless the parties are really free--free from ignorance, from pressure +of want. If one party is weak and the other unscrupulous; if one +competitor has a lower standard of living than the other, freedom of +trade will not mean genuine cooperation. Such cooperation as means good +for all requires either an equality of conditions between traders and +laborers of competing nations and of nations which exchange goods, or +else an international control to prevent unfair competition, +exploitation of weaker peoples, and lowering of standards of living. +Medical science is giving an object lesson which may well have a wide +application. It is seeking to combat disease in its centers of +diffusion. Instead of attempting to quarantine against the Orient, it +is aiding the Orient to overcome those conditions which do harm alike +to Orient and Occident. Plague, anthrax, yellow fever, cannot exist in +one country without harm to all. Nor in the long run can men reach true +cooperation so long as China and Africa are a prize for the exploiter +rather than equals in the market. Not merely in the political sense, +but in its larger meanings democracy here is not safe without democracy +there. Education, and the lifting of all to a higher level, is the +ultimate goal. And until education, invention, and intercommunication +have done their work of elevation, international control must protect +and regulate. + +In many respects the obstacle to international cooperation which is +most difficult to remove is the strong and still growing sentiment of +nationality. This is not, like dominance, a waning survival of a cruder +method of social order; it is a genuine type of cooperation. Rooted as +it is in a historic past, in community of ideals and traditions, and +usually of language and art, it wakens the emotional response to a +degree once true only of religion. Born of such a social tradition, the +modern may be said in truth mentally and spiritually, as well as +physically, to be born a Frenchman or a German, a Scotchman or Irishman +or Englishman. He may be content to merge this inheritance in an empire +if he can be senior partner, but the struggles of Irish, Poles, Czechs, +and South Slavs, the Zionist movement, the nationalistic stirrings in +India, with their literary revivals, their fierce self-assertions, seem +to point away from internationalism rather than toward it. The Balkans, +in which Serb, Bulgar, Roumanian, and Greek have been developing this +national consciousness, have been the despair of peacemakers. + +The strongest point in the nationalist programme is, however, not in +any wise opposed to cooperation, but rather to dominance or non-social +competition. The strongest point is the importance of diversity +combined with group unity for the fullest enrichment of life and the +widest development of human capacity. A world all of one sort would not +only be less interesting, but less progressive. We are stimulated by +different customs, temperaments, arts, and ideals. But all this is the +strongest argument for genuine cooperation, since by this only can +diversity be helpful, even as it is only through diversity in its +members that a community can develop fullest life. A world organization +based on the principle that any single group is best and therefore +ought to rule, or to displace all others, would be a calamity. A world +organization which encourages every member to be itself would be a +blessing. + +Why do nationalism and internationalism clash? Because this national +spirit has rightly or wrongly been bound up so intimately with +political independence. Tara's harp long hangs mute when Erin is +conquered. Poland's children must not use a language in which they +might learn to plot against their masters. A French-speaking Alsatian +is suspected of disloyalty. Professor Dewey has recently pointed out +that in the United States we have gone far toward separating culture +from the state, and suggests that this may be the path of peace for +Europe. We allow groups to keep their religion, their language, their +song festivals. It may perhaps be claimed that this maintenance of +distinct languages and separate cultures is a source of weakness in +such a crisis as we now face. Yet it may well be urged, on the other +hand, that a policy less liberal would have increased rather than +diminished disunion and disloyalty. + + + + +VI + + +The student of human progress is likely to be increasingly impressed +with the interaction between ideas and institutions. How far does man +build and shape institutions to give body to his ideas? How far is it +the organized life with its social contacts, its give and take, its +enlargement of its membership to see life _sub specie communitatis_, +which itself brings ideas to birth? Desire may bring the sexes +together, but it is the association and organized relationships of the +family which transform casual to permanent affection and shape our +conceptions of its values. A herding instinct or a common need of +defense or of food supplies may bring together early groups, and will +to power may begin the state, but it is the living together which +generates laws and wakens the craving for liberty and the struggle for +justice. Seer and poet doubtless contribute to progress by their +kindling appeals to the imagination and sympathy; the philosopher may, +as Plato claimed for him, live as citizen of a perfect state which has +no earthly being, and shape his life according to its laws; but mankind +in general has learned law and right, as well as the arts of use and +beauty, in the school of life in common. + +So it is likely to be with international cooperation. Fears and hopes +now urge it upon a reluctant, incredulous world. But the +beginnings--scientific, legal, commercial, political--timid and +imperfect though they be, like our own early confederation, will work +to reshape those who take part. Mutual understanding will increase with +common action. When men work consistently to create new resources +instead of treating their world as a fixed system, when they see it as +a fountain, not as a cistern, they will gradually gain a new spirit. +The Great Community must create as well as prove the ethics of +cooperation. + + +_The Riverside Press_ +CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS +U . S . A + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ETHICS OF COöPERATION*** + + +******* This file should be named 29508.txt or 29508.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/9/5/0/29508 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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