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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Ethics of Coöperation, by James Hayden
+Tufts
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Ethics of Coöperation
+
+
+Author: James Hayden Tufts
+
+
+
+Release Date: July 25, 2009  [eBook #29508]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ETHICS OF COöPERATION***
+
+
+E-text prepared by the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from digital material generously made available
+by Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/toronto)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/ethicsofcopera00tuftuoft
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ETHICS OF COOPERATION
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+Barbara Weinstock Lectures on The Morals of Trade
+
+
+THE ETHICS OF COOPERATION.
+By JAMES H. TUFTS.
+
+HIGHER EDUCATION AND BUSINESS STANDARDS.
+By WILLARD EUGENE HOTCHKISS.
+
+CREATING CAPITAL: MONEY-MAKING AS AN AIM IN BUSINESS.
+By FREDERICK L. LIPMAN.
+
+IS CIVILIZATION A DISEASE?
+By STANTON COIT.
+
+SOCIAL JUSTICE WITHOUT SOCIALISM.
+By JOHN BATES CLARK.
+
+THE CONFLICT BETWEEN PRIVATE MONOPOLY AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP.
+By JOHN GRAHAM BROOKS.
+
+COMMERCIALISM AND JOURNALISM.
+By HAMILTON HOLT.
+
+THE BUSINESS CAREER IN ITS PUBLIC RELATIONS.
+By ALBERT SHAW.
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+THE ETHICS OF COOPERATION
+
+by
+
+JAMES H. TUFTS
+
+Professor of Philosophy in the University of Chicago
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Boston and New York
+Houghton Mifflin Company
+The Riverside Press Cambridge
+1918
+
+Copyright, 1918, by the Regents of the
+University of California
+All Rights Reserved
+
+Published September 1918
+
+
+
+
+
+BARBARA WEINSTOCK
+LECTURES ON THE MORALS OF TRADE
+
+
+This series will contain essays by representative scholars and men of
+affairs dealing with the various phases of the moral law in its bearing
+on business life under the new economic order, first delivered at the
+University of California on the Weinstock foundation.
+
+
+
+
+THE ETHICS OF COOPERATION
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+
+According to Plato's famous myth, two gifts of the gods equipped man
+for living: the one, arts and inventions to supply him with the means
+of livelihood; the other, reverence and justice to be the ordering
+principles of societies and the bonds of friendship and conciliation.
+Agencies for mastery over nature and agencies for cooperation among men
+remain the two great sources of human power. But after two thousand
+years, it is possible to note an interesting fact as to their relative
+order of development in civilization. Nearly all the great skills and
+inventions that had been acquired up to the eighteenth century were
+brought into man's service at a very early date. The use of fire, the
+arts of weaver, potter, and metal worker, of sailor, hunter, fisher,
+and sower, early fed man and clothed him. These were carried to higher
+perfection by Egyptian and Greek, by Tyrian and Florentine, but it
+would be difficult to point to any great new unlocking of material
+resources until the days of the chemist and electrician. Domestic
+animals and crude water mills were for centuries in man's service, and
+until steam was harnessed, no additions were made of new powers.
+
+During this long period, however, the progress of human association
+made great and varied development. The gap between the men of
+Santander's caves, or early Egypt, and the civilization of a century
+ago is bridged rather by union of human powers, by the needs and
+stimulating contacts of society, than by conquest in the field of
+nature. It was in military, political, and religious organization that
+the power of associated effort was first shown. Army, state, and
+hierarchy were its visible representatives. Then, a little over a
+century ago, began what we call the industrial revolution, still
+incomplete, which combined new natural forces with new forms of human
+association. Steam, electricity, machines, the factory system,
+railroads: these suggest the natural forces at man's disposal; capital,
+credit, corporations, labor unions: these suggest the bringing together
+of men and their resources into units for exploiting or controlling the
+new natural forces. Sometimes resisting the political, military, or
+ecclesiastical forces which were earlier in the lead, sometimes
+mastering them, sometimes combining with them, economic organization
+has now taken its place in the world as a fourth great structure, or
+rather as a fourth great agency through which man achieves his greater
+tasks, and in so doing becomes conscious of hitherto unrealized powers.
+
+Early in this great process of social organization three divergent
+types emerged, which still contend for supremacy in the worlds of
+action and of valuation: dominance, competition, and cooperation. All
+mean a meeting of human forces. They rest respectively on power,
+rivalry, and sympathetic interchange. Each may contribute to human
+welfare. On the other hand, each may be taken so abstractly as to
+threaten human values. I hope to point out that the greatest of these
+is cooperation, and that it is largely the touchstone for the others.
+
+Cooperation and dominance both mean organization. Dominance implies
+inequality, direction and obedience, superior and subordinate.
+Cooperation implies some sort of equality, some mutual relation. It
+does not exclude difference in ability or in function. It does not
+exclude leadership, for leadership is usually necessary to make
+cooperation effective. But in dominance the special excellence is kept
+isolated; ideas are transmitted from above downward. In cooperation
+there is interchange, currents flowing in both directions, contacts of
+mutual sympathy, rather than of pride-humility, condescension-servility.
+The purpose of the joint pursuit in organization characterized by
+dominance may be either the exclusive good of the master or the joint
+good of the whole organized group, but in any case it is a purpose
+formed and kept by those few who know. The group may share in its
+execution and its benefits, but not in its construction or in the
+estimating and forecasting of its values. The purpose in cooperation is
+joint. Whether originally suggested by some leader of thought or
+action, or whether a composite of many suggestions in the give and take
+of discussion or in experiences of common need, it is weighed and
+adopted as a common end. It is not the work or possession of leaders
+alone, but embodies in varying degrees the work and active interest of
+all.
+
+Cooperation and competition at first glance may seem more radically
+opposed. For while dominance and cooperation both mean union of forces,
+competition appears to mean antagonism. _They_ stand for combination;
+_it_ for exclusion of one by another. Yet a deeper look shows that this
+is not true of competition in what we may call its social, as
+contrasted with its unsocial, aspect. The best illustration of what I
+venture to call social competition is sport. Here is rivalry, and here
+in any given contest one wins, the other loses, or few win and many
+lose. But the great thing in sport is not to win; the great thing is
+the game, the contest; and the contest is no contest unless the
+contestants are so nearly equal as to forbid any certainty in advance
+as to which will win. The best sport is found when no one contestant
+wins too often. There is in reality a common purpose--the zest of
+contest. Players combine and compete to carry out this purpose; and the
+rules are designed so to restrict the competition as to rule out
+certain kinds of action and preserve friendly relations. The contending
+rivals are in reality uniting to stimulate each other. Without the
+cooperation there would be no competition, and the competition is so
+conducted as to continue the relation. Competition in the world of
+thought is similarly social. In efforts to reach a solution of a
+scientific problem or to discuss a policy, the spur of rivalry or the
+matching of wits aids the common purpose of arriving at the truth.
+Similar competition exists in business. Many a firm owes its success to
+the competition of its rivals which has forced it to be efficient,
+progressive. As a manufacturing friend once remarked to me: "When the
+other man sells cheaper, you generally find he has found out something
+you don't know."
+
+But we also apply the term "competition" to rivalry in which there is
+no common purpose; to contests in which there is no intention to
+continue or repeat the match, and in which no rules control. Weeds
+compete with flowers and crowd them out. The factory competes with the
+hand loom and banishes it. The trust competes with the small firm and
+puts it out of business. The result is monopoly. When plants or
+inventions are thus said to compete for a place, there is frequently no
+room for both competitors, and no social gain by keeping both in the
+field. Competition serves here sometimes as a method of selection,
+although no one would decide to grow weeds rather than flowers because
+weeds are more efficient. In the case of what are called natural
+monopolies, there is duplication of effort instead of cooperation.
+Competition is here wasteful. But when we have to do, not with a
+specific product, or with a fixed field such as that of street railways
+or city lighting, but with the open field of invention and service, we
+need to provide for continuous cooperation, and competition seems at
+least one useful agency. To retain this, we frame rules against "unfair
+competition." As the rules of sport are designed to place a premium
+upon certain kinds of strength and skill which make a good game, so the
+rules of fair competition are designed to secure efficiency for public
+service, and to exclude efficiency in choking or fouling. In unfair
+competition there is no common purpose of public service or of
+advancing skill or invention; hence, no cooperation. The cooperative
+purpose or result is thus the test of useful, as contrasted with
+wasteful or harmful, competition.
+
+There is also an abstract conception of cooperation, which, in its
+one-sided emphasis upon equality, excludes any form of leadership, or
+direction, and in fear of inequality allows no place for competition.
+Selection of rulers by lot in a large and complex group is one
+illustration; jealous suspicion of ability, which becomes a cult of
+incompetence, is another. Refusals to accept inventions which require
+any modification of industry, or to recognize any inequalities of
+service, are others. But these do not affect the value of the principle
+as we can now define it in preliminary fashion: union tending to secure
+common ends, by a method which promotes equality, and with an outcome
+of increased power shared by all.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+
+What are we to understand by the Ethics of Cooperation? Can we find
+some external standard of unquestioned value or absolute duty by which
+to measure the three processes of society which we have named,
+dominance, competition, cooperation? Masters of the past have offered
+many such, making appeal to the logic of reason or the response of
+sentiment, to the will for mastery or the claim of benevolence. To make
+a selection without giving reasons would seem arbitrary; to attempt a
+reasoned discussion would take us quite beyond the bounds appropriate
+to this lecture. But aside from the formulations of philosophers,
+humanity has been struggling--often rather haltingly and blindly--for
+certain goods and setting certain sign-posts which, if they do not
+point to a highway, at least mark certain paths as blind alleys. Such
+goods I take to be the great words, liberty, power, justice; such signs
+of blind paths I take to be rigidity, passive acceptance of what is.
+
+But those great words, just because they are so great, are given
+various meanings by those who would claim them for their own. Nor is
+there complete agreement as to just what paths deserve to be posted as
+leading nowhere. Groups characterized by dominance, cut-throat
+competition, or cooperation, tend to work out each its own
+interpretations of liberty, power, justice; its own code for the
+conduct of its members. Without assuming to decide your choice, I can
+indicate briefly what the main elements in these values and codes are.
+
+The group of masters and servants will develop what we have learned to
+call a morality of masters and a morality of slaves. This was
+essentially the code of the feudal system. We have survivals of such a
+group morality in our code of the gentleman, which in England still
+depreciates manual labor, although it has been refined and softened and
+enlarged to include respect for other than military and sportsman
+virtues. The code of masters exalts liberty--for the ruling class--and
+resents any restraint by inferiors or civilians, or by public opinion
+of any group but its own. It has a justice which takes for its premise
+a graded social order, and seeks to put and keep every man in his
+place. But its supreme value is power, likewise for the few, or for the
+state as consisting of society organized and directed by the ruling
+class. Such a group, according to Treitschke, will also need war, in
+order to test and exhibit its power to the utmost in fierce struggle
+with other powers. It will logically honor war as good.
+
+A group practicing cut-throat competition will simply reverse the
+order: first, struggle to put rivals out of the field; then, monopoly
+with unlimited power to control the market or possess the soil. It
+appeals to nature's struggle for existence as its standard for human
+life. It too sets a high value upon liberty in the sense of freedom
+from control, but originating as it did in resistance to control by
+privilege and other aspects of dominance, it has never learned the
+defects of a liberty which takes no account of ignorance, poverty, and
+ill health. It knows the liberty of nature, the liberty of the strong
+and the swift, but not the liberty achieved by the common effort for
+all. It knows justice, but a justice which is likely to be defined as
+securing to each his natural liberty, and which therefore means
+non-interference with the struggle for existence except to prevent
+violence and fraud. It takes no account as to whether the struggle
+kills few or many, or distributes goods widely or sparingly, or whether
+indeed there is any room at the table which civilization spreads;
+though it does not begrudge charity if administered under that name.
+
+A cooperating group has two working principles: first, common purpose
+and common good; second, that men can achieve by common effort what
+they cannot accomplish singly. The first, reinforced by the actual
+interchange of ideas and services, tends to favor equality. It implies
+mutual respect, confidence, and good-will. The second favors a
+constructive and progressive attitude, which will find standards
+neither in nature nor in humanity's past, since it conceives man able
+to change conditions to a considerable extent and thus to realize new
+goods.
+
+These principles tend toward a type of liberty different from those
+just mentioned. As contrasted with the liberty of a dominant group,
+cooperation favors a liberty for all, a liberty of live and let live, a
+tolerance and welcome for variation in type, provided only this is
+willing to make its contribution to the common weal. Instead of
+imitation or passive acceptance of patterns on the part of the
+majority, it stimulates active construction. As contrasted with the
+liberty favored in competing groups, cooperation would emphasize
+positive control over natural forces, over health conditions, over
+poverty and fear. It would make each person share as fully as possible
+in the knowledge and strength due to combined effort, and thus liberate
+him from many of the limitations which have hitherto hampered him.
+
+Similarly with justice. Cooperation's ethics of distribution is not
+rigidly set by the actual interest and rights of the past on the one
+hand, nor by hitherto available resources on the other. Neither natural
+rights nor present ability and present service form a complete measure.
+Since cooperation evokes new interests and new capacities, it is
+hospitable to new claims and new rights; since it makes new sources of
+supply available, it has in view the possibility at least of doing
+better for all than can an abstract insistence upon old claims. It may
+often avoid the deadlock of a rigid system. It is better to grow two
+blades of grass than to dispute who shall have the larger fraction of
+the one which has previously been the yield. It is better, not merely
+because there is more grass, but also because men's attitude becomes
+forward-looking and constructive, not pugnacious and rigid.
+
+Power is likewise a value in a cooperating group, but it must be power
+not merely used for the good of all, but to some extent controlled by
+all and thus actually shared. Only as so controlled and so shared is
+power attended by the responsibility which makes it safe for its
+possessors. Only on this basis does power over other men permit the
+free choices on their part which are essential to full moral life.
+
+As regards the actual efficiency of a cooperating group, it may be
+granted that its powers are not so rapidly mobilized. In small,
+homogeneous groups, the loss of time is small; in large groups the
+formation of public opinion and the conversion of this into action is
+still largely a problem rather than an achievement. New techniques have
+to be developed, and it may be that for certain military tasks the
+military technique will always be more efficient. To the cooperative
+group, however, this test will not be the ultimate ethical test. It
+will rather consider the possibilities of substituting for war other
+activities in which cooperation is superior. And if the advocate of war
+insists that war as such is the most glorious and desirable type of
+life, cooperation may perhaps fail to convert him. But it may hope to
+create a new order whose excellence shall be justified of her children.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+
+A glance at the past roles of dominance, competition, and cooperation
+in the institutions of government, religion, and commerce and industry,
+will aid us to consider cooperation in relation to present
+international problems.
+
+Primitive tribal life had elements of each of the three principles we
+have named. But with discovery by some genius of the power of
+organization for war the principle of dominance won, seemingly at a
+flash, a decisive position. No power of steam or lightning has been so
+spectacular and wide-reaching as the power which Egyptian, Assyrian,
+Macedonian, Roman, and their modern successors introduced and
+controlled. Political states owing their rise to military means
+naturally followed the military pattern. The sharp separation between
+ruler or ruling group and subject people, based on conquest, was
+perpetuated in class distinction. Gentry and simple, lord and villein,
+were indeed combined in exploitation of earth's resources, but
+cooperation was in the background, mastery in the fore. And when
+empires included peoples of various races and cultural advance the
+separation between higher and lower became intensified. Yet though
+submerged for long periods, the principle of cooperation has asserted
+itself, step by step and it seldom loses ground. Beginning usually in
+some group which at first combined to resist dominance, it has made its
+way through such stages as equality before the law, abolition of
+special privileges, extension of suffrage, influence of public
+sentiment, interchange of ideas, toward genuine participation by all in
+the dignity and responsibility of political power. It builds a Panama
+Canal, it maintains a great system of education, and has, we may easily
+believe, yet greater tasks in prospect. It may be premature to predict
+its complete displacement of dominance in our own day as a method of
+government, yet who in America doubts its ultimate prevalence?
+
+Religion presents a fascinating mixture of cooperation with dominance
+on the one hand, and exclusiveness on the other. The central fact is
+the community, which seeks some common end in ritual, or in beneficent
+activity. But at an early period leaders became invested, or invested
+themselves, with a sanctity which led to dominance. Not the power of
+force, but that of mystery and the invisible raised the priest above
+the level of the many. And, on another side, competition between rival
+national religions, like that between states, excluded friendly
+contacts. Jew and Samaritan had no dealings; between the followers of
+Baal and Jehovah there was no peace but by extermination. Yet it was
+religion which confronted the _Herrenmoral_ with the first reversal of
+values, and declared, "So shall it not be among you. But whosoever will
+be great among you let him be your minister." And it was religion which
+cut across national boundaries in its vision of what Professor Royce so
+happily calls the Great Community. Protest against dominance resulted,
+however, in divisions, and although cooperation in practical activities
+has done much to prepare the way for national understanding, the
+hostile forces of the world to-day lack the restraint which might have
+come from a united moral sentiment and moral will.
+
+In the economic field the story of dominance, cooperation, and
+competition is more complex than in government and religion. It
+followed somewhat different courses in trade and in industry. The
+simplest way to supply needs with goods is to go and take them; the
+simplest way to obtain services is to seize them. Dominance in the
+first case gives piracy and plunder, when directed against those
+without; fines and taxes, when exercised upon those within; in the
+second case, it gives slavery or forced levies. But trade, as a
+voluntary exchange of presents, or as a bargaining for mutual
+advantage, had likewise its early beginnings. Carried on at first with
+timidity and distrust, because the parties belonged to different
+groups, it has developed a high degree of mutual confidence between
+merchant and customer, banker and client, insurer and insured. By its
+system of contracts and fiduciary relations, which bind men of the most
+varying localities, races, occupations, social classes, and national
+allegiance, it has woven a new net of human relations far more
+intricate and wide-reaching than the natural ties of blood kinship. It
+rests upon mutual responsibility and good faith; it is a constant force
+for their extension.
+
+The industrial side of the process has had similar influence toward
+union. Free craftsmen in the towns found mutual support in guilds, when
+as yet the farm laborer or villein had to get on as best he could
+unaided. The factory system itself has been largely organized from
+above down. It has very largely assumed that the higher command needs
+no advice or ideas from below. Hours of labor, shop conditions, wages,
+have largely been fixed by "orders," just as governments once ruled by
+decrees. But as dominance in government has led men to unite against
+the new power and then has yielded to the more complete cooperation of
+participation, so in industry the factory system has given rise to the
+labor movement. As for the prospects of fuller cooperation, this may be
+said already to have displaced the older autocratic system within the
+managing group, and the war is giving an increased impetus to extension
+of the process.
+
+Exchange of goods and services is indeed a threefold cooperation: it
+meets wants which the parties cannot themselves satisfy or cannot well
+satisfy; it awakens new wants; it calls new inventions and new forces
+into play. It thus not only satisfies man's existing nature, but
+enlarges his capacity for enjoyment and his active powers. It makes not
+only for comfort, but for progress.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+
+If trade and industry, however, embody so fully the principle of
+cooperation, how does it come about that they have on the whole had a
+rather low reputation, not only among the class groups founded on
+militarism, but among philosophers and moralists? Why do we find the
+present calamities of war charged to economic causes? Perhaps the
+answer to these questions will point the path along which better
+cooperation may be expected.
+
+There is, from the outset, one defect in the cooperation between buyer
+and seller, employer and laborer. The cooperation is largely
+unintended. Each is primarily thinking of his own advantage, rather
+than that of the other, or of the social whole; he is seeking it in
+terms of money, which as a material object must be in the pocket of one
+party or of the other, and is not, like friendship or beauty, sharable.
+Mutual benefit is the result of exchange--it need not be the motive.
+This benefit comes about as if it were arranged by an invisible hand,
+said Adam Smith. Indeed, it was long held that if one of the bargainers
+gained, the other must lose. And when under modern conditions labor is
+considered as a commodity to be bought and sold in the cheapest market
+by an impersonal corporate employer, there is a strong presumption
+against the cooperative attitude on either side.
+
+The great problem here is, therefore: How can men be brought to seek
+consciously what now they unintentionally produce? How can the man
+whose ends are both self-centered and ignoble be changed into the man
+whose ends are wide and high? Something may doubtless be done by
+showing that a narrow selfishness is stupid. If we rule out monopoly
+the best way to gain great success is likely to lie through meeting
+needs of a great multitude; and to meet these effectively implies
+entering by imagination and sympathy into their situation. The business
+maxim of "service," the practices of refunding money if goods are
+unsatisfactory, of one price to all, of providing sanitary and even
+attractive factories and homes, and of paying a minimum wage far in
+excess of the market price, have often proved highly remunerative. Yet,
+I should not place exclusive, and perhaps not chief, reliance on these
+methods of appeal. They are analogous to the old maxim, honesty is the
+best policy; and we know too well that while this holds under certain
+conditions,--that is, among intelligent people, or in the long run,--it
+is often possible to acquire great gains by exploiting the weak,
+deceiving the ignorant, or perpetrating a fraud of such proportions
+that men forget its dishonesty in admiration at its audacity. In the
+end it is likely to prove that the level of economic life is to be
+raised not by proving that cooperation will better satisfy selfish and
+ignoble interests, but rather by creating new standards for measuring
+success, new interests in social and worthy ends, and by strengthening
+the appeal of duty where this conflicts with present interests. The one
+method stakes all on human nature as it is; the other challenges man's
+capacity to listen to new appeals and respond to better motives. It is,
+if you please, idealism; but before it is dismissed as worthless,
+consider what has been achieved in substituting social motives in the
+field of political action. There was a time when the aim in political
+life was undisguisedly selfish. The state, in distinction from the
+kinship group or the village community, was organized for power and
+profit. It was nearly a gigantic piratical enterprise, highly
+profitable to its managers. The shepherd, says Thrasymachus in Plato's
+dialogue, does not feed his sheep for their benefit, but for his own.
+Yet now, what president or minister, legislator or judge, would
+announce as his aim to acquire the greatest financial profit from his
+position? Even in autocratically governed countries, it is at least the
+assumption that the good of the state does not mean solely the prestige
+and wealth of the ruler.
+
+A great social and political order has been built up, and we all hold
+that it must not be exploited for private gain. It has not been created
+or maintained by chance. Nor could it survive if every man sought
+primarily his own advantage and left the commonwealth to care for
+itself. Nor in a democracy would it be maintained, provided the
+governing class alone were disinterested, deprived of private property,
+and given education, as Plato suggested. The only safety is in the
+general and intelligent desire for the public interest and common
+welfare. At this moment almost unanimous acceptance of responsibility
+for what we believe to be the public good and the maintenance of
+American ideals--though it brings to each of us sacrifice and to many
+the full measure of devotion--bears witness to the ability of human
+nature to adopt as its compelling motives a high end which opposes
+private advantage.
+
+Is the economic process too desperate a field for larger motives? To me
+it seems less desperate than the field of government in the days of
+autocratic kings. One great need is to substitute a different standard
+of success for the financial gains which have seemed the only test. Our
+schools of commerce are aiming to perform this service, by introducing
+professional standards. A physician is measured by his ability to cure
+the sick, an engineer by the soundness of his bridge and ship; why not
+measure a railroad president by his ability to supply coal in winter,
+to run trains on time, and decrease the cost of freight, rather than by
+his private accumulations? Why not measure a merchant or banker by
+similar tests?
+
+Mankind has built up a great economic system. Pioneer, adventurer,
+inventor, scientist, laborer, organizer, all have contributed. It is as
+essential to human welfare as the political system, and like that
+system it comes to us as an inheritance. I can see no reason why it
+should be thought unworthy of a statesman or a judge to use the
+political structure for his own profit, but perfectly justifiable for a
+man to exploit the economic structure for private gain. This does not
+necessarily exclude profit as a method of paying for services, and of
+increasing capital needed for development, but it would seek to adjust
+profits to services, and treat capital, just as it regards political
+power, as a public trust in need of cooperative regulation and to be
+used for the general welfare.
+
+But the war is teaching with dramatic swiftness what it might have
+needed decades of peace to bring home to us. We _are_ thinking of the
+common welfare. High prices may still be a rough guide to show men's
+needs, but we are learning to raise wheat because others need it--not
+merely because the price is high. Prices may also be a rough guide to
+consumption, but we are learning that eating wheat or sugar is not
+merely a matter of what I can afford. It is a question of whether I
+take wheat or sugar away from some one else who needs it--the soldier
+in France, the child in Belgium, the family of my less fortunate
+neighbor. The great argument for not interfering with private exchange
+in all such matters has been that if prices should by some authority be
+kept low in time of scarcity, men would consume the supply too rapidly;
+whereas if prices rise in response to scarcity, men at once begin to
+economize and so prevent the total exhaustion of the supply. We now
+reflect that if prices of milk rise it does not mean uniform
+economy--it means cutting off to a large degree the children of the
+poor and leaving relatively untouched the consumption of the
+well-to-do. Merely raising the _price_ of meat or wheat means taking
+these articles from the table of one class to leave them upon the table
+of another. War, requiring, as it does, the united strength and purpose
+of the whole people, has found this method antiquated. In Europe
+governments have said to their peoples: we _must_ all think of the
+common weal; we _must_ all share alike. In this country, the appeal of
+the food administrator, though largely without force of law, has been
+loyally answered by the great majority. It is doubtless rash to predict
+how much peace will retain of what war has taught, but who of us will
+again say so easily, "My work or leisure, my economy or my luxury, is
+my own affair, if I can afford it?" Who can fail to see that common
+welfare comes not without common intention?
+
+The second great defect in our economic order, from the point of view
+of cooperation, has been the inequality of its distribution. This has
+been due largely to competition when parties were unequal, not merely
+in their ability, but in their opportunity. And the most serious,
+though not the most apparent, aspect of this inequality, has not been
+that some have more comfort or luxuries to enjoy; it is the fact that
+wealth means power. In so far as it can set prices on all that we eat,
+wear, and enjoy, it is controlling the intimate affairs of life more
+thoroughly than any government ever attempted. In so far as it controls
+natural resources, means of transportation, organization of credit, and
+the capital necessary for large-scale manufacturing and marketing, it
+can set prices. The great questions then are, as with political power:
+How can this great power be cooperatively used? Is it serving all or a
+few?
+
+Two notable doctrines of the courts point ways for ethics. The first is
+that of property affected with public interest. Applied thus far by the
+courts to warehouses, transportation, and similar public services, what
+limits can we set ethically to the doctrine that power of one man over
+his fellows, whether through his office, or through his property, is
+affected with public interest?
+
+The police power, which sets the welfare of all above private property
+when these conflict, is a second doctrine whose ethical import far
+outruns its legal applications.
+
+Yet it is by neither of these that the most significant progress has
+been made toward removing that handicap of inequality which is the
+chief injustice of our economic system. It is by our great educational
+system, liberal in its provisions, generously supported by all classes,
+unselfishly served, opening to all doors of opportunity which once were
+closed to the many, the most successful department of our democratic
+institutions in helping and gaining confidence of all--a system of
+which this University of California is one of the most notable leaders
+and the most useful members--that fair conditions for competition and
+intelligent cooperation in the economic world are increasingly
+possible.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+
+What bearing has this sketch of the significance and progress of
+cooperation upon the international questions which now overshadow all
+else? Certainly the world cannot remain as before: great powers
+struggling for empire; lesser powers struggling for their separate
+existence; great areas of backward peoples viewed as subjects for
+exploitation; we ourselves aloof. It must then choose between a future
+world order based on dominance, which means world empire; a world order
+based on nationalism joined with the non-social type of competition,
+which means, every nation the judge of its own interests, continuance
+of jealousies and from time to time the recurrence of war; and a world
+order based on nationalism plus international cooperation, "to
+establish justice, to provide for common defense, to promote the
+general welfare, and to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves
+and our posterity."
+
+It is not necessary to discuss in this country the principle of
+dominance and world empire. It contradicts our whole philosophy. Safety
+for dominance lies only in a civilization of discipline from above
+down, in ruthless repression of all thinking on the part of the subject
+class or race.
+
+Nor can I see any genuine alternative in what some advocate--reliance
+by each nation on its own military strength as the sole effective
+guarantee for its interests. After the military lessons of this war,
+the concentration of scientific, economic, and even educational
+attention upon military purposes would almost inevitably be vastly in
+excess of anything previously conceived. What limits can be set to the
+armies of France and Great Britain if these are to protect those
+countries from a German empire already double its previous extent, and
+taking steps to control the resources of eastern Europe and the near
+East? What navy could guarantee German commerce against the combined
+forces of Great Britain and the United States? What limits to the
+frightfulness yet to be discovered by chemist and bacteriologist? What
+guarantee against the insidious growth of a militarist attitude even in
+democratically minded peoples if the constant terror of war exalts
+military preparations to the supreme place? Something has changed the
+Germany of other days which many of us loved even while we shrank from
+its militarist masters. Is it absolutely certain that nothing can
+change the spirit of democratic peoples? At any rate, America, which
+has experimented on a larger scale with cooperation--political,
+economic, and religious--than any other continent, may well assert
+steadily and insistently that this is the more hopeful path. It may
+urge this upon distrustful Europe.
+
+The obstacles to cooperation are:
+
+1. The survival of the principle of dominance, showing itself in desire
+for political power and prestige, and in certain conceptions of
+national honor.
+
+2. The principle of non-social competition, exhibited in part in the
+political policy of eliminating weaker peoples, and conspicuously in
+foreign trade when the use of unfair methods relies upon national power
+to back up its exploitation or monopoly.
+
+3. The principle of nationalistic sentiment, itself based on
+cooperation, on social tradition and common ideals, but bound up so
+closely with political sovereignty and antagonisms as to become
+exclusive instead of cooperative in its attitude toward other cultures.
+
+The principle of dominance deters from cooperation, not only the people
+that seeks to dominate, but peoples that fear to be dominated or to
+become involved in entangling alliances. Doubtless a policy of
+aloofness was long the safe policy for us. We could not trust political
+liberty to an alliance with monarchies, even as with equal right some
+European peoples might distrust the policies of a republic seemingly
+controlled by the slavery interest. At the present time one great power
+professes itself incredulous of the fairness of any world tribunal;
+smaller powers fear the commanding influence of the great; new national
+groups just struggling to expression fear that a league of nations
+would be based on present status and therefore give them no
+recognition, or else a measure of recognition conditioned by past
+injustices rather than by future aspirations and real desert. All these
+fears are justified in so far as the principle of dominance is still
+potent. The only league that can be trusted by peoples willing to live
+and let live, is one that is controlled by a cooperative spirit. And
+yet who can doubt that this spirit is spreading? Few governments are
+now organized on the avowed basis that military power, which embodies
+the spirit of dominance, should be superior to civil control, and even
+with them the principle of irresponsible rule, despite its
+reinforcement by military success, is likely to yield to the spirit of
+the age when once the pressure of war is removed which now holds former
+protesters against militarism solid in its support. For all powers that
+are genuine in their desire for cooperation there is overwhelming
+reason to try it; for only by the combined strength of those who accept
+this principle can liberty and justice be maintained against the
+aggression of powers capable of concentrating all their resources with
+a suddenness and ruthlessness in which dominance is probably superior.
+
+Yet cooperation for protection of liberty and justice is liable to fall
+short of humanity's hopes unless liberty and justice be themselves
+defined in a cooperative sense. The great liberties which man has
+gained, as step by step he has risen from savagery, have not been
+chiefly the assertion of already existing powers or the striking-off of
+fetters forged by his fellows. They have been _additions_ to previous
+powers. Science, art, invention, associated life in all its forms, have
+opened the windows of his dwelling, have given possibilities to his
+choice, have given the dream and the interpretation which have set him
+free from his prison. The liberty to which international cooperation
+points is not merely self-direction or self-determination, but a larger
+freedom from fear, a larger freedom from suspicion, a fuller control
+over nature and society, a new set of ideas, which will make men free
+in a far larger degree than ever before.
+
+Similarly justice needs to be cooperatively defined. A justice that
+looks merely to existing status will not give lasting peace. Peoples
+change in needs as truly as they differ in needs. But no people can be
+trusted to judge its own needs any more than to judge its own right. A
+justice which adheres rigidly to vested interests, and a justice which
+is based on expanding interests, are likely to be deadlocked unless a
+constructive spirit is brought to bear. Abstract rights to the soil, to
+trade, to expansion, must be subordinate to the supreme question: How
+can peoples live together and help instead of destroy? This can be
+approached only from an international point of view.
+
+The second obstacle, unsocial competition, is for trade what dominance
+is in politics. It prevents that solution for many of the delicate
+problems of international life which cooperation through trade might
+otherwise afford. Exchange of goods and services by voluntary trade
+accomplishes what once seemed attainable only by conquest or slavery.
+If Germany or Japan or Italy needs iron or coal; if England needs
+wheat, or if the United States sugar, it is possible, or should be
+possible, to obtain these without owning the country in which are the
+mines, grain, and sugar cane. The United States needs Canada's
+products; it has no desire to own Canada. But in recent years the
+exchange of products has been subjected to a new influence. National
+self-interest has been added to private self-interest. This has
+intensified and called out many of the worst features of antagonism and
+inequality.
+
+Few in this country have realized the extent to which other countries
+have organized their foreign commerce on national lines. We are now
+becoming informed as to the carefully worked-out programmes of
+commercial education, merchant marines, trade agreements, consular
+service, financial and moral support from the home government, and
+mutual aid among various salesmen of the same nationality living in a
+foreign country. We are preparing to undertake similar enterprises. We
+are reminded that "eighty per cent of the world's people live in the
+countries bordering on the Pacific Ocean, and that as a result of the
+rearrangement of trade routes, San Francisco's chance of becoming the
+greatest distributing port of the Pacific for goods _en route_ to the
+markets of the Orient, are now more promising than ever before." Can
+the United States take part in this commerce in such a way as to help,
+not hinder, international progress in harmony? Not unless we remember
+that commerce may be as predatory as armies, and that we must provide
+international guarantees against the exclusive types of competition
+which we have had to control by law in our own domestic affairs. An
+Indian or an African may be deprived of his possessions quite as
+effectively by trade as by violence. We need at least as high standards
+of social welfare as in domestic commerce. I cannot better present the
+situation than by quoting from a recent article by Mr. William Notz in
+the "Journal of Political Economy" (Feb. 1918):
+
+    During the past twenty-five years competition in the world markets
+    became enormously keen. In the wild scramble for trade the
+    standards of honest business were disregarded more and more by all
+    the various rival nations. In the absence of any special regulation
+    or legislation, it appeared as though a silent understanding
+    prevailed in wide circles that foreign trade was subject to a code
+    of business ethics widely at variance with the rules observed in
+    domestic trade. What was frowned upon as unethical and poor
+    business policy, if not illegal at home, was condoned and winked at
+    or openly espoused when foreign markets formed the basis of
+    operations and foreigners were the competitors. High-minded men of
+    all nations have long observed with concern the growing tendency of
+    modern international trade toward selfish exploitation,
+    concession-hunting, cut-throat competition, and commercialistic
+    practices of the most sordid type. Time and again complaints have
+    been voiced, retaliatory measures threatened, and more than once
+    serious friction has ensued.
+
+Mr. Notz brings to our attention various efforts by official and
+commercial bodies looking toward remedies for such conditions and
+toward official recognition by all countries of unfair competition as a
+penal offense.
+
+What more do we need than fair competition to constitute the
+cooperative international life which we dreamed yesterday and now must
+consider, not merely as a dream, but as the only alternative to a
+future of horror?
+
+Free trade has been not unnaturally urged as at least one condition.
+Tariffs certainly isolate. To say to a country: "You shall manufacture
+nothing unless you own the raw material; you shall sell nothing unless
+at prices which I fix," is likely to provoke the reply: "Then I must
+acquire lands in which raw materials are found; I must acquire colonies
+which will buy my products." Trade agreements mean cooperation for
+those within, unless they are one-sided and made under duress; in any
+case they are exclusive of those without. Free trade, the open door,
+seems to offer a better way. But free trade in name is not free trade
+unless the parties are really free--free from ignorance, from pressure
+of want. If one party is weak and the other unscrupulous; if one
+competitor has a lower standard of living than the other, freedom of
+trade will not mean genuine cooperation. Such cooperation as means good
+for all requires either an equality of conditions between traders and
+laborers of competing nations and of nations which exchange goods, or
+else an international control to prevent unfair competition,
+exploitation of weaker peoples, and lowering of standards of living.
+Medical science is giving an object lesson which may well have a wide
+application. It is seeking to combat disease in its centers of
+diffusion. Instead of attempting to quarantine against the Orient, it
+is aiding the Orient to overcome those conditions which do harm alike
+to Orient and Occident. Plague, anthrax, yellow fever, cannot exist in
+one country without harm to all. Nor in the long run can men reach true
+cooperation so long as China and Africa are a prize for the exploiter
+rather than equals in the market. Not merely in the political sense,
+but in its larger meanings democracy here is not safe without democracy
+there. Education, and the lifting of all to a higher level, is the
+ultimate goal. And until education, invention, and intercommunication
+have done their work of elevation, international control must protect
+and regulate.
+
+In many respects the obstacle to international cooperation which is
+most difficult to remove is the strong and still growing sentiment of
+nationality. This is not, like dominance, a waning survival of a cruder
+method of social order; it is a genuine type of cooperation. Rooted as
+it is in a historic past, in community of ideals and traditions, and
+usually of language and art, it wakens the emotional response to a
+degree once true only of religion. Born of such a social tradition, the
+modern may be said in truth mentally and spiritually, as well as
+physically, to be born a Frenchman or a German, a Scotchman or Irishman
+or Englishman. He may be content to merge this inheritance in an empire
+if he can be senior partner, but the struggles of Irish, Poles, Czechs,
+and South Slavs, the Zionist movement, the nationalistic stirrings in
+India, with their literary revivals, their fierce self-assertions, seem
+to point away from internationalism rather than toward it. The Balkans,
+in which Serb, Bulgar, Roumanian, and Greek have been developing this
+national consciousness, have been the despair of peacemakers.
+
+The strongest point in the nationalist programme is, however, not in
+any wise opposed to cooperation, but rather to dominance or non-social
+competition. The strongest point is the importance of diversity
+combined with group unity for the fullest enrichment of life and the
+widest development of human capacity. A world all of one sort would not
+only be less interesting, but less progressive. We are stimulated by
+different customs, temperaments, arts, and ideals. But all this is the
+strongest argument for genuine cooperation, since by this only can
+diversity be helpful, even as it is only through diversity in its
+members that a community can develop fullest life. A world organization
+based on the principle that any single group is best and therefore
+ought to rule, or to displace all others, would be a calamity. A world
+organization which encourages every member to be itself would be a
+blessing.
+
+Why do nationalism and internationalism clash? Because this national
+spirit has rightly or wrongly been bound up so intimately with
+political independence. Tara's harp long hangs mute when Erin is
+conquered. Poland's children must not use a language in which they
+might learn to plot against their masters. A French-speaking Alsatian
+is suspected of disloyalty. Professor Dewey has recently pointed out
+that in the United States we have gone far toward separating culture
+from the state, and suggests that this may be the path of peace for
+Europe. We allow groups to keep their religion, their language, their
+song festivals. It may perhaps be claimed that this maintenance of
+distinct languages and separate cultures is a source of weakness in
+such a crisis as we now face. Yet it may well be urged, on the other
+hand, that a policy less liberal would have increased rather than
+diminished disunion and disloyalty.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+
+The student of human progress is likely to be increasingly impressed
+with the interaction between ideas and institutions. How far does man
+build and shape institutions to give body to his ideas? How far is it
+the organized life with its social contacts, its give and take, its
+enlargement of its membership to see life _sub specie communitatis_,
+which itself brings ideas to birth? Desire may bring the sexes
+together, but it is the association and organized relationships of the
+family which transform casual to permanent affection and shape our
+conceptions of its values. A herding instinct or a common need of
+defense or of food supplies may bring together early groups, and will
+to power may begin the state, but it is the living together which
+generates laws and wakens the craving for liberty and the struggle for
+justice. Seer and poet doubtless contribute to progress by their
+kindling appeals to the imagination and sympathy; the philosopher may,
+as Plato claimed for him, live as citizen of a perfect state which has
+no earthly being, and shape his life according to its laws; but mankind
+in general has learned law and right, as well as the arts of use and
+beauty, in the school of life in common.
+
+So it is likely to be with international cooperation. Fears and hopes
+now urge it upon a reluctant, incredulous world. But the
+beginnings--scientific, legal, commercial, political--timid and
+imperfect though they be, like our own early confederation, will work
+to reshape those who take part. Mutual understanding will increase with
+common action. When men work consistently to create new resources
+instead of treating their world as a fixed system, when they see it as
+a fountain, not as a cistern, they will gradually gain a new spirit.
+The Great Community must create as well as prove the ethics of
+cooperation.
+
+
+_The Riverside Press_
+CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS
+U . S . A
+
+
+
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