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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/28766-8.txt b/28766-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a1bfa36 --- /dev/null +++ b/28766-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8530 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Elements of Gaelic Grammar, by Alexander Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Elements of Gaelic Grammar + +Author: Alexander Stewart + +Release Date: May 12, 2009 [EBook #28766] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. + + * * * * * + + + * * * * * + + +ELEMENTS + +OF + +GAELIC GRAMMAR + +IN FOUR PARTS + +I. OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY + +II. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH + +III. OF SYNTAX + +IV. OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION + +BY + +ALEXANDER STEWART + +MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL AT DINGWALL +HONORARY MEMBER OF THE HIGHLAND SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND + +Royal Celtic Society Edition. + +FOURTH EDITION REVISED. + +WITH PREFACE BY THE REV. DR McLAUCHLAN + +EDINBURGH + +JOHN GRANT, GEORGE IV. BRIDGE + +1892 + + * * * * * + + +{iii} + +PREFACE. + + * * * * * + +For several years the Grammar of the Gaelic language by the Rev. Dr Stewart +of Moulin has been out of print. This has been a source of regret to +scholars and students of that tongue. Not but that there are other Grammars +of real value, which it would be unjust either to ignore or to depreciate, +and which have served, and are serving, an excellent purpose in connection +with Celtic Literature. But the Grammar of Dr Stewart has peculiar features +of its own which give it a permanent value. It is distinguished by its +simplicity, conciseness, and philosophical accuracy. No Grammar of any +language bears on its pages the marks of real and profound scholarship, in +so far as it goes, more than does the Grammar of Dr Stewart. One cannot +read a sentence of it without seeing how carefully he had collected his +materials, and with what judgment, caution, and sagacity he has compared +them and drawn his conclusions. His discussions upon the Article, the Noun, +the Verb, and the Preposition, are ample evidence of this. It is no doubt +true that a much fuller discussion is, with the more abundant resources of +modern scholarship, {iv} competent and desirable, but, so far as he goes, +Dr Stewart's treatment of the subject is of a masterly character. + +That there are defects to be found in the work is very true. On the subject +of Syntax his disquisitions are deficient in fulness, and there is a want +of grammatical exercises throughout. It was at first thought desirable by +the publishers and their advisers to remedy these defects by introducing +fuller notices on the subject of Syntax, and a considerable number of +grammatical exercises from other sources open to them. But it was finally +deemed best in every view of it to give Stewart's work just as he had left +it, and that is done here with the exception of a list of subscribers' +names in the introduction. Messrs Maclachlan and Stewart are doing the +literary community a service in republishing this volume, and thanks are +specially due to the Royal Celtic Society of Edinburgh, a society which has +done much to foster the interests of education in the Highlands, and which +has given substantial aid towards the accomplishment of this undertaking. + +THOS. MCLAUCHLAN. + +EDINBURGH, _1st August 1876._ + + * * * * * + + +{v} + +CONTENTS. + + * * * * * + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION. + + PART I. + + Of Pronunciation and Orthography, 1 + + PART II. + + OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. + + CHAP. I.--Of the Article, 37 + + CHAP. II.--Of Nouns, 37 + Of Gender, 38 + Of Declension, 43 + + CHAP. III.--Of Adjectives, 55 + Of Numeral Adjectives, 59 + + CHAP. IV.--Of Pronouns, 61 + + CHAP. V.--Of Verbs, 65 + Formation of the Tenses, 76 + Use and import of the Moods and Tenses, 85 + Irregular Verbs, 95 + Defective Verbs, 99 + Reciprocating state of Verbs, 102 + Impersonal use of Verbs, 105 + Auxiliary Verbs, 107 + + CHAP. VI.--Of Adverbs, 109 + + CHAP. VII.--Of Prepositions, 116 + Idiomatic phrases, 125 + + CHAP. VIII.--Of Conjunctions, 134 + + CHAP. IX.--Of Interjections, 136 + + {vi} + PART III. + + OF SYNTAX. + + CHAP. I.--Of Concord, 137 + + Sect. 1. Of the agreement of the Article with a Noun, 137 + Sect. 2. Of the agreement of an Adjective with a Noun, 141 + Sect. 3. Of the agreement of a Pronoun with its Antecedent, 146 + Sect. 4. Of the agreement of a Verb with its Nominative, 149 + Sect. 5. Of the agreement of one Noun with another, 152 + + CHAP. II.--Of Government, 154 + + Sect. 1. Of the Government of Nouns, 154 + Sect. 2. Of the Government of Adjectives, 159 + Sect. 3. Of the Government of Verbs, 159 + Sect. 4. Of the Government of Adverbs, 160 + Sect. 5. Of the Government of Prepositions, 160 + Sect. 6. Of the Government of Conjunctions, 162 + + PART IV. + + OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. + + CHAP. I.--Of Derivation, 164 + + CHAP. II.--Of Composition, 168 + + Exercises in Reading, &c., 175 + + * * * * * + + +{vii} + +INTRODUCTION. + + * * * * * + +The utility of a Grammar of the Scottish Gaelic will be variously +appreciated. Some will be disposed to deride the vain endeavour to restore +vigour to a decaying superannuated language. Those who reckon the +extirpation of the Gaelic a necessary step toward that general extension of +the English which they deem essential to the political interest of the +Highlands, will condemn every project which seems likely to retard its +extinction. Those who consider that there are many parts of the Highlands, +where the inhabitants can, at present, receive no useful knowledge whatever +except through the channel of their native tongue, will probably be of +opinion that the Gaelic ought at least to be tolerated. Yet these too may +condemn as useless, if not ultimately detrimental, any attempt to cultivate +its powers, or to prolong its existence. Others will entertain a different +opinion. They will judge from experience, as well as from the nature of the +case, that no measure merely of a literary kind will prevail to hinder the +progress of the English language over the Highlands; while general +convenience and emolument, not to mention private emulation and vanity, +conspire to facilitate its introduction, and prompt the natives to its +acquisition. They {viii} will perceive at the same time, that while the +Gaelic continues to be the common speech of multitudes,--while the +knowledge of many important facts, of many necessary arts, of morals, of +religion, and of the laws of the land, can be conveyed to them only by +means of this language,--it must be of material service to preserve it in +such a state of cultivation and purity, as that it may be fully adequate to +these valuable ends; in a word, that while it is a living language, it may +answer the purpose of a living language. + +To those who wish for an uniformity of speech over the whole kingdom, it +may not be impertinent to suggest one remark. The more that the human mind +is enlightened, the more desirous it becomes of farther acquisitions in +knowledge. The only channel through which the rudiments of knowledge can be +conveyed to the mind of a remote Highlander is the Gaelic language. By +learning to read and to understand what he reads, in his native tongue, an +appetite is generated for those stores of science which are accessible to +him only through the medium of the English language. Hence an acquaintance +with the English is found to be necessary for enabling him to gratify his +desire after further attainments. The study of it becomes, of course, an +object of importance; it is commenced, and prosecuted with increasing +diligence. These premises seem to warrant a conclusion which might at first +appear paradoxical, that, by cultivating the Gaelic, you effectually, +though indirectly, promote the study and diffuse the knowledge of the +English. + +To public teachers it is of the highest moment that the medium through +which their instructions are communicated be properly adapted to that use, +and that they be enabled to avail themselves of it in the fittest manner. A +language destitute of grammatical regularity can possess neither {ix} +perspicuity nor precision, and must therefore be very inadequate to the +purpose of conveying one's thoughts. The Gaelic is in manifest danger of +falling into this discreditable condition, from the disuse of old idioms +and distinctions, and the admission of modern corruptions, unless means be +applied to prevent its degenerating. It is obvious that a speaker cannot +express himself with precision without a correct knowledge of grammar. When +he is conscious of his ignorance in this respect, he must deliver himself +sometimes ambiguously or erroneously, always with diffidence and +hesitation, whereas one who has an accurate knowledge of the structure and +phraseology of the language he speaks, will seldom fail to utter his +thoughts with superior confidence, energy, and effect. + +A competent degree of this knowledge is requisite to the hearer also, to +enable him to apprehend the full import and the precise force of the words +of the speaker. Among the readers of Gaelic, who are every day becoming +more numerous, those only who have studied it grammatically are qualified +to understand accurately what they read, and to explain it distinctly to +others. Yet it cannot be denied that comparatively few ever arrive at a +correct, or even a tolerable knowledge of grammar, without the help of a +treatise composed for the purpose. Whoever, therefore, allows that the +Gaelic must be employed in communicating to a large body of people the +knowledge of revealed Truth and the way of eternal Life, will readily admit +the extensive utility of investigating and unfolding its grammatical +principles. Impressed with this conviction, I have been induced to offer to +the public the following attempt to develop the grammar of the Scottish +Gaelic. + +While I have endeavoured to render this treatise useful to those who wish +to improve the knowledge of Gaelic which {x} they already possess, I have +also kept in view the gratification of others, who do not understand the +Gaelic, but yet may be desirous to examine the structure and properties of +this ancient language. To serve both these purposes, I have occasionally +introduced such observations on the analogy between the Gaelic idiom and +that of some other tongues, particularly the Hebrew, as a moderate +knowledge of these enabled me to collect. The Irish dialect of the Gaelic +is the nearest cognate of the Scottish Gaelic. An intimate acquaintance +with its vocables and structure, both ancient and modern, would have been +of considerable use. This I cannot pretend to have acquired. I have not +failed, however, to consult, and to derive some advantage from such Irish +philologists as were accessible to me, particularly O'Molloy, O'Brien, +Vallancey, and Lhuyd. To these very respectable names I have to add that of +the Rev. Dr Neilson, author of "An Introduction to the Irish Language," +Dublin, 1808, and E. O'C., author of "A Grammar of the Gaelic Language," +Dublin, 1808; to the latter of whom I am indebted for some good-humoured +strictures, and some flattering compliments, which, however unmerited, it +were unhandsome not to acknowledge. I know but one publication professedly +on the subject of Gaelic grammar written by a Scotsman[1]. I have consulted +it also, but in this quarter I have no obligations to acknowledge. + +With respect to my literary countrymen who are proficients in the Gaelic, +and who may cast an eye on this volume, less with a view to learn than to +criticise, while I profess a due deference to their judgment, and declare +my anxiety to obtain their favourable suffrage, I must take the liberty to +entreat their attention to the following considerations. + +{xi} + +The subject of Universal Grammar has been examined in modern times with a +truly philosophical spirit, and has been settled on rational and stable +principles; yet, in applying these principles to explain the grammar of a +particular language, the divisions, the arrangements, and the rules to be +given are, in a good measure, mechanical and arbitrary. One set of rules +may be equally just with another. For what is it that grammatical rules do? +They bring into view the various parts, inflections, or, as they may be +termed, the _phenomena_ of a language, and class them together in a certain +order. If these _phenomena_ be all brought forward, and stated according as +they actually appear in the language, the rules may be said to be both just +and complete. Different sets of rules may exhibit the same things in a +different order, and yet may all be equally just. The superiority seems, on +a comparison, to belong to that system which follows most nearly the order +of nature, or the process of the mind in forming the several inflections; +or rather, perhaps, to that system which, from its simplicity, or clear and +comprehensive arrangement, is most fitted to assist the memory in acquiring +and retaining the parts of speech with their several inflections. + +In distributing the various parts of language into their several classes, +and imposing names on them, we ought always to be guided by the nature of +that language, and to guard against adopting, with inconsiderate servility, +the distributions and technical terms of another. This caution is the more +necessary because, in our researches into the grammar of any particular +tongue, we are apt to follow implicitly the order of the Latin grammar, on +which we have been long accustomed to fix our attention, and which we are +ever ready to erect into a model for the grammar of all languages. To force +the several parts of speech into moulds formed for the {xii} idioms of the +Latin tongue, and to frame them so as to suit a nomenclature adapted to the +peculiarities of Latin grammar, must have the effect of disguising or +concealing the peculiarities, and confounding the true distinctions, which +belong to the language under discussion. + +Although, in treating of Gaelic grammar, the caution here suggested ought +never to be forgotten, yet it is needless to reject indiscriminately all +the forms and terms introduced into the grammar of other languages. Where +the same classifications which have been employed in the grammar of the +Latin, or of any other well-known tongue, will suit the Gaelic also, it is +but a convenient kind of courtesy to adopt these, and apply to them the +same names which are already familiar to us. + +In stating the result of my researches into Gaelic grammar, I have +endeavoured to conform to these general views. The field of investigation +was wide, and almost wholly untrodden. My task was not to fill up or +improve the plan of any former writer, but to form a plan for myself. In +the several departments of my subject that distribution was adopted which, +after various trials, appeared the most eligible. When there were terms +already in use in the grammars of other languages that suited tolerably +well the divisions which it was found requisite to make, I chose to adopt +these, rather than load the treatise with novel or uncommon terms. If their +import was not sufficiently obvious already, it was explained, either by +particular description, or by reference to the use of these terms in other +grammars. In some instances it was found necessary to employ less common +terms, but in the choice of these I endeavoured to avoid the affectation of +technical nicety. I am far from being persuaded that I am so fortunate as +to have hit on the best possible plan. I am certain that it must {xiii} be +far from complete. To such charges a first essay must necessarily be found +liable. Still there is room to hope that the work may not prove wholly +useless or unacceptable. Imperfect as it is, I may be allowed to think I do +a service of its kind to my countrymen by frankly offering the fruits of my +labour to such as may choose to make use of them. It has been, if I mistake +not, the misfortune of Gaelic grammar that its ablest friends have done +nothing directly in its support, because they were apprehensive that they +could not do everything. + +I confess that my circumscribed knowledge of the varieties of dialect used +in different parts of the Highlands, may have left me unacquainted with +some genuine Gaelic idioms which ought to be noticed in a work of this +kind. The same cause may have led me to assert some things in too general +terms, not being sufficiently informed concerning the exceptions which may +be found in use in some particular districts. I respectfully invite, and +will thankfully receive, the correction of any person whose more accurate +and extensive information enables him to supply my omissions, or to rectify +my mistakes. + +In a few particulars I have differed from some of the highest living +authorities,--I mean those gentlemen whose superior abilities are so +conspicuous in the masterly translation of the sacred Scriptures with which +the Highlands of Scotland are now blessed.[2] Here I have been careful to +{xiv} state the grounds on which my judgment was formed. In doing this, I +would always be understood to advance my opinion and propose my reasons +with the view of suggesting them to the consideration of my countrymen, +rather than in the expectation of having my conclusions universally +sustained and adopted. + +Among my grammatical readers, it is probable that some may have formed to +themselves arrangements on the subjects different from mine. Of these I +have to request that they do not form a hasty judgment of the work from a +partial inspection of it, nor condemn it merely because it may differ from +their preconceived schemes. Let them indulge me with a patient perusal of +the whole, and a candid comparison of the several parts of the system with +each other. To a judicious critic, some faults and many defects may appear, +and several improvements will occur. On this supposition, I have one +request more to make: that he join his efforts with mine in serving a +common cause, interesting to our country, and dear to every patriotic +Highlander. + + * * * * * + + +{xv} + +ADVERTISEMENT + +TO THE + +SECOND EDITION. + + * * * * * + +In preparing a Second Edition of the following treatise, the author has +endeavoured to avail himself of every assistance in his power, from books, +observation, and the communications of some literary friends, to whom he is +indebted for several judicious remarks. In comparing the opinions of +different critics, it was not to be expected that all should be found to +agree together. It sometimes happened that one approved what another would +have rejected. If the author has not adopted every hint that was offered +him, but used the privilege of exercising his own judgment, the +responsibility must rest with himself. He hopes those gentlemen who most +obligingly favoured him with their remarks will forgive him for mentioning +their names, for he is unwilling to withhold from the public the +satisfaction of knowing that he has had the best assistance which his +country could afford him in compiling and modelling his work. He thankfully +acknowledges his obligations to the Rev. Dr Robertson, of Callander; Dr +Graham, of Aberfoyle; Dr Stuart, of Luss; Dr Macleod, of Kilmarnock; and Mr +Irvine, of Little Dunkeld. + +From these sources of emendation, omissions have been {xvi} supplied, +idiomatic phrases have been collected and inserted, some alterations have +been made by simplifying or compressing particular parts, and new examples +and illustrations have been introduced throughout, according as the +advantages which the author enjoyed enabled him to extend his knowledge of +the language, and served to correct, or to confirm, his former judgments. +He thought it might be acceptable to Gaelic scholars to have a few lessons +subjoined as exercises in translating and analysing. For this purpose he +has selected some specimens of original prose composition, extracted from +unpublished manuscripts, and from the oldest Gaelic books that are known to +be extant. These specimens, short as they are, may suffice to exhibit +something of the powers and elegances of the language in its native purity, +unmixed with foreign words and idioms, as well as to show the manner in +which it was written two or three centuries ago. + +The present edition owes its existence to the generous patronage of Sir +John Macgregor Murray of Lanrick, Bart., to whom the author is happy in +avowing his obligations for the unsolicited and liberal encouragement given +him in the execution and publication of his work. To the same gentleman he +is indebted for the honour of being permitted here to record the names of +those patriotic sons of Caledonia who, in concert with the honourable +baronet, and at his suggestion, though residing in the remote provinces of +India, yet mindful of their country's fame, contributed a liberal sum of +money for promoting Celtic literature, more especially for publishing the +poems of Ossian in their original language. It is owing, in a principal +degree, to their munificent aid, that the anxious expectation of the public +has been at last so richly gratified by Sir John Sinclair's elegant and +elaborate edition of the poems of that tender and lofty bard. + + * * * * * + + +{1} + +ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR. + + * * * * * + +PART I. + +OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY. + +The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, +i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e, i, o, u; the +rest consonants. + +In explaining the powers of the letters, and of their several combinations, +such obstacles lie in the way that complete success is not to be expected. +In order to explain, in writing, the sounds of a particular language, the +only obvious method is to represent them by the letters commonly employed +to exhibit similar sounds in some well-known living language. But there are +sounds in the Gaelic to which there are none perfectly similar in English, +nor perhaps in any modern European tongue. Besides, the same combination of +letters does not invariably represent the same sound in one age that it did +in a former, or that it may do in the next. And this may be equally true of +the letters of the Gaelic alphabet, whose powers are to be taught; and of +the letters of any other language, by whose sounds the powers of the former +are to be explained. A diversity of pronunciation is very distinguishable +also in different districts of the Highlands of Scotland, even in uttering +the same words written in the same manner. Though the powers of the +letters, then, may be explained to a certain degree of accuracy, yet much +will still remain to be learned by the information of the ear alone. {2} + +Although the chief use of the vowels be to represent the _vocal sounds_ of +speech, and that of the consonants to represent its _articulations_, yet, +as in many languages, so in Gaelic, the consonants sometimes serve to +modify the sound of the vowels with which they are combined; while, on the +other hand, the vowels often qualify the sound of the consonants by which +they are preceded or followed. + +It may not appear obvious at first sight how a vowel should be employed, +not to represent a vocal sound, but to modify an articulation. Yet examples +are to be found in modern languages. Thus, in the English words, George, +sergeant, the _e_ has no other effect than to give _g_ its soft sound; and +in guest, guide, the _u_ only serves to give _g_ its hard sound. So in the +Italian words giorno, giusto, and many others, the _i_ only qualifies the +sound of the preceding consonant. The same use of the vowels will be seen +to take place frequently in Gaelic orthography. + +Besides the common division of the letters into Vowels and Consonants, it +is found convenient to adopt some further subdivisions. + +The Vowels are divided into _broad_ and _small_: a, o, u, are called +_broad_ vowels; e, i, _small_ vowels. + +The Consonants are divided into _Mutes_ and _Liquids_: _Mutes_, b, c, d, f, +g, m, p, t; _Liquids_, l, n, r, s[3]. They are also divided into _Labials_, +_Palatals_, and _Linguals_, so named from the organs employed in +pronouncing them: _Labials_, b, f, m, p; _Palatals_, c, g; _Linguals_, d, +l, n, r, s, t. + +The aspirate _h_ is not included in any of these divisions[4]. + +{3} + + + +OF THE SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS[5]. + +All the vowels are sometimes long, sometimes short. A long vowel is often +marked with an accent, especially when the _quantity_ of the vowel +determines the meaning of the word; as, bàs _death_, sàil _the heel_, +càraid _a pair_, rìs _again_, mò _more_, lòn _a marsh_; which are +distinguished by the accent alone from bas _the palm_ of the hand, sail _a +beam_, caraid _a friend_, ris _to_, lon _the elk_. + +All the vowels, but especially the broad ones, have somewhat of a nasal +sound when preceded or followed by m, mh, n, nn. No vowels are doubled in +the same syllable like _ee_, _oo_, in English. + +In almost all polysyllables, excepting some words compounded with a +preposition, the accent falls on the first syllable[6]. The other syllables +are short and unaccented, and the vowels in that situation have in general +the same short obscure sound. Hence it happens that the broad vowels in +these syllables are often used indiscriminately. + +There are no quiescent final vowels. + +A. + +A has three sounds. + +1. The first is both long and short; long, like _a_ in the English words +_far_, _star_; as, àr _slaughter_, àth _a ford_, gràdh, {4} _love_, sàruich +_oppress_; short, like _a_ in _that_; as, cath _a battle_, alt _a joint_; +abuich _ripe_. + +2. Both long and short, before _dh_ and _gh_. This sound has none like it +in English. Long, as, adhbhar _a cause_, adhradh _worship_; short, as, lagh +_a law_, magh _a field_, adharc _a horn_. + +3. Short and obscure, like _e_ in _mother_; as, an, a _the_, ar _our_, ma +_if_, and in the plural termination a or an. + +E. + +_E_ has three sounds. + +1. Both long and short: long, like _e_ in _where, there_; as, è, sè _he_, +rè _during_. This _e_ is generally marked with a grave accent. Short, like +_e_ in _met_; as, le _with_, leth _half_. + +2. Long, as, ré _the moon_, cé _the earth_, and dé _yesterday_. This _e_ is +commonly marked with an acute accent. + +3. Short, like _e_ in _mother_; as, duine _a man_, ceannuichte _bought_. + +I. + +_I_ has two sounds. + +1. Both long and short, like _ee_ in _seem_: long, as, mìn _smooth_, righ +_a king_; short, as, min _meal_, crith _trembling_. + +2. Short and obscure, like _i_ in _this_; as, is _am_, _art_, &c. + +O. + +_O_ has three sounds. + +1. Both long and short: long, somewhat like _o_ in _more_; as, mòr _great_, +òr _gold_, dòchas _expectation_; short, like _o_ in _hot_; as, mo _my_, do +_thy_, dochann _harm_. + +2. Both long and short: long, nearly like _o_ in _old_; as, lom _bare_, +toll _a hole_; short, as, lomadh _making bare_, tolladh _boring_. + +3. Both long and short, like (2) a[7]: long, as, foghlum _to learn_; short, +as, roghuinn _choice_, logh _to forgive_. + +{5} + +U. + +_U_ has one sound, both long and short, like _oo_ in _fool_: long, as, ùr +_fresh_, ùraich _to renew_; short, as, ubh _an egg_, urras _a surety_. + + + +OF THE DIPHTHONGS. + +There are thirteen Diphthongs reckoned in Gaelic; ae, ai, ao, ea, ei, eo, +eu; ia, io, iu; oi; ua, ui. Of these, ao, eu, ia, ua, are always long; the +others are sometimes long, sometimes short. + +AE. + +The sound of _ae_ is made up of (1) _a_ long, and (1) _e_ short. This +diphthong hardly occurs, except in Gael _a Gaul_ or _Highlander_, and +Gaelic the _Gaelic_ language[8]. + +AI. + +The sound of _ai_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of the former. + +1. Made up of (1) _a_ and (1) _i_: the _a_ long, the _i_ short; as, fàidh +_a prophet_; the _a_ short, the _i_ short; as, claidheamh _a sword_. + +2. Made up of (2) _a_ and (1) _i_: the _a_ long, the _i_ short; as, saighde +_arrows_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ often loses its +sound, and only serves to qualify the sound of the following consonant[9]; +hence, + +3. Like (1) _a_ alone: long, as, fàisg _squeeze_, fàilte _salutation_; +short, as, glaic _a hollow_, tais _soft_. + +4. Like (2) _a_ alone: short, as, airm _arms_, gairm _a call_. + +AO. + +1. The sound of _ao_ is like (2) _a_, long: as, caora _a sheep_, faobhar +_the edge of a tool_, saothair _labour_. + +{6} + +EA. + +The sound of _ea_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of one of them. + +1. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _a_: _e_ very short, _a_ long, as, beann _a +summit_, _pinnacle_, feall _deceit_; _a_ short, as, meal _to enjoy_, speal +_a scythe_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _a_ frequently loses its +sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _e_, long: as, dean _do_; short, as, fear _a man_, bean _a +woman_. + +3. Like (2) _e_, long: as, easlan _sick_; short, as, fead _whistle_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _e_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +4. Like (1) _a_, long: as, cèard _an artificer_; short, as, geal _white_. + +5. Like (3) _a_, short: as, itheadh _eating_, coireach _faulty_. + +EI. + +The sound of _ei_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of _e_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _e_ and (1) _i_: _e_ long, _i_ short, as, sgeimh +_beauty_; _e_ short, as, meidh _a balance_. + +2. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _i_: _e_ long, _i_ short, as, feidh _deer_; +_e_ short, as, greigh _a herd_, _stud_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +3. Like (1) _e_ alone: long, as, mèise _of a plate_. + +4. Like (2) _e_ alone: long, as, éigin _necessity_; short, as, eich +_horses_. + +EO. + +The sound of _eo_ is either made up of the sounds of both vowels, or like +that of _o_ alone. {7} + +1. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _o_: _e_ very short, _o_ long, as, beo +_alive_, eolas _knowledge_; _o_ short, as, beothail _lively_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _e_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _o_: long, as, leomhann _a lion_; short, as, deoch _drink_. + +EU. + +The sound of _eu_ is like (2) _e_ alone: long, as, teum _to bite_, gleus +_trim, entertainment_. + +One of the most marked variations of dialect occurs in the pronunciation of +the diphthong _eu_, which, instead of being pronounced like long _e_, is +over all the North Highlands commonly pronounced like _ia_; as, nial, ian, +fiar, for neul, eun, feur. + +IA. + +The sound of _ia_ is made up of the sounds of both the vowels. + +1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (1) _a_: both of equal length, as, fial +_liberal_, iar _west_. + +2. Made up of (1) _i_ and (2) _a_: of equal length, as, fiadh _a deer_, +ciall _common sense_. + +In cia _which?_ iad _they_, _ia_ is often found like (1) _è_. + +IO. + +The sound of _io_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like one of them alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (3) _o_: _i_ long, _o_ short, as, diol _to pay_, +fior _true_; _i_ short, as, iolach _a shout_, ionnsuidh _an attack_. + +Before a Lingual or Palatal, not quiescent, the _o_ sometimes loses its +sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _i_: long, as, iodhol _an idol_; short, as, crios _a girdle_, +biorach _pointed_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ {8} sometimes loses +its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +3. Like _u_ in _fun_, short and obscure: as, cionta _guilt_, tiondadh _to +turn_. + +IU. + +The sound of _iu_ is either made up of the sound of both the vowels, or +like _u_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (1) _u_: _i_ short, _u_ long, as, fiù _worthy_; +_u_ short, as, iuchair _a key_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _u_: long, as, diù _worst part, refuse_; short, as, tiugh +_thick_, giuthas _fir_. + +OI. + +The sound of _oi_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of _o_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _o_ and (1) _i_: _o_ long, _i_ short, as, òigh _a +virgin_; _o_ short, as, troidh _a foot_. + +2. Made up of (3) _o_ and (1) _i_: _o_ long, _i_ short, as, oidhche +_night_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +3. Like (1) _o_ long: as, mòid _more_; short, as, toic _wealth_. + +4. Like (2) _o_ long: as, fòid _a turf_; short, as, fois _rest_. + +5. Like (3) _o_ short; as, coileach _a cock_, doire _a wood_. + +UA. + +The sound of _ua_ is made up of the sounds of both the vowels. + +1. Made up of (1) _u_ and (1) _a_, equally long; as, cuan _the sea_, fuar +_cold_. + +2. Made up of (1) _u_ and (2) _a_; as, tuadh _a hatchet_, sluagh _people_. +{9} + +UI. + +The sound of _ui_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of _u_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _u_ and (1) _i_: _u_ long, _i_ short, as, suigheag _a +rasp-berry_; _u_ short, as, buidheann _a company_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _u_ long: as, dùil _expectation_, cùig _five_; short, as, fuil +_blood_, muir _the sea_. + + + +OF THE TRIPHTHONGS. + +There are five Triphthongs, in each of which _i_ is the last letter: aoi, +eoi, iai, iui, uai. In these the two first vowels have the same sounds and +powers as when they form a diphthong. The final _i_ is sounded short; but +before a Palatal or a Lingual, not quiescent, it loses its sound, and only +qualifies that of the following consonant. + +AOI. + +1. Made up of _ao_ and (1) _i_; as, caoidh _lamentation_, aoibhneas _joy_, +laoigh _calves_. + +2. Like _ao_; as, caoineadh _wailing_, maoile _baldness_. + +EOI. + +1. Made up of (2) _eo_ and (1) _i_; as, geoigh _geese_. + +2. Like (1) _eo_; as, meoir _fingers_. + +3. Like (2) _eo_; as, deoir _tears_, treoir _ability_. + +IAI. + +1. Like (1) _ia_; as, fiaire _more awry_. + +IUI. + +1. Like (2) _iu_; as, ciùil _of music_, fliuiche _more wet_. {10} + +UAI. + +1. Made up of (1) _ua_ and (1) _i_; as, luaithe _quicker_. + +2. Made up of (2) _ua_ and (1) _i_; as, cruaidh _hard_, fuaim _sound_. + +3. Like (1) _ua_; as, uair _time, an hour_, cluaise _of an ear_. + + + +OF THE POWERS OF THE CONSONANTS. + +The simple powers of the consonants differ not much from their powers in +English. Those called _mediae_ by the writers on Greek grammar, viz., _b_, +_d_, _g_, approach nearer in force to the corresponding _tenues_ _p_, _t_, +_c_, than they do in English. + +In accented syllables, where, if the vocal sound be short, the voice +necessarily rests on the subsequent articulation, the consonants, though +written single, are pronounced with the same degree of force as when +written double in English; as, bradan _a salmon_, cos _a foot_; pronounced +braddan, coss. No consonants are written double except _l_, _n_, _r_. + +A propensity to aspiration is a conspicuous feature in the Gaelic +tongue[10]. The aspirating of a consonant has been {11} usually marked, in +the Irish dialect, by a dot over the letter aspirated; in the Scottish +dialect by writing _h_ after it. All the consonants have their sounds +changed by being aspirated, and the effect is different on different +consonants. In some cases the articulation is changed, but still formed by +the same organ. In others the articulation is formed by a different organ. +In others the _h_ alone retains its power. And sometimes both the _h_ and +the consonant to which it is subjoined become entirely quiescent. + +{12} + +In treating of the consonants separately, it will be convenient to depart a +little from the alphabetical order of the letters, and to consider first +the _Labials_, next the _Palatals_, and lastly the _Linguals_. + + + +LABIALS. + +P. + +1. Plain. Like _p_ in English; as, poll _a pool_, pill _return_. + +2. Aspirated. Like _ph_ or _f_ in English; as, a' phuill _of the pool_, +phill _returned_[11]. + +B. + +1. Plain. Like _b_ in English; as, baile _a town_, beo _alive_. + +2. Aspirated. Like _v_ in English, as, bhuail _struck_. In the end of a +syllable the articulation is sometimes feeble, and often passes into the +vocal sound of _u_[12]; as in marbh[13] _dead_, garbh _rough_, dabhach _a +vat_. + +M. + +1. Plain. Like _m_ in English; as, mac _a son_, cam _crooked_. + +2. Aspirated. Somewhat like _v_ in English, but more feeble and nasal; as, +mhathair _O mother_, lamh _the hand_. The sound _mh_ has the same relation +to that of _bh_, as the sound of _m_ has to that of b. Sometimes, like +_bh_, it becomes a vocal sound like a nasal _u_; as, in damh _an ox_, +samhradh _summer_: and sometimes the articulation becomes so feeble as not +to be perceived; as, comhradh _speech_, domhainn _deep_. + +{13} + +F. + +1. Plain. Like _f_ in English, as, faigh _to get_, fòid _a turf_. + +2. Aspirated. Quiescent; as, fheara _O men_. In fhuair _found_, the +aspiration is retained, and the word is pronounced as if written _huair_. +It is probable that it was originally written and pronounced fuair[14]; +that huair is but a provincial pronunciation[15]; and that to adapt the +spelling in some shape to this pronunciation, the word came to be written +fhuair. + + + +PALATALS AND LINGUALS. + +In treating of the Diphthongs (ai, ea, ei, &c.) notice has been often taken +of the powers of certain vowels in modifying the sound of the adjoining +consonants. This refers to a twofold mode of pronouncing the Palatal and +Lingual consonants, whether _plain_ or _aspirated_. The difference between +these two modes of pronunciation is, in some consonants, abundantly +striking; in others it is minute, but sufficiently discernible to an ear +accustomed to the Gaelic. The one of these modes of articulation belongs to +Palatals and Linguals, chiefly when connected with a _broad vowel_; the +other belongs to them when connected with a _small vowel_. Hence, the +former may be called the _broad_ sound, the latter the _small_ sound of a +_Palatal_ or a _Lingual_. + +These sounds are not distinguished in writing, but may be known, for the +most part, by the relative situation of the letters. + +C. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: like _c_ in _come_, _curb_; as, cùl _the back_, cridhe +_the heart_. + +{14} + +2. _Small_: like _c_ in _care_, _cure_; as, taic _support_, circe _of a +hen_[16]. + +3. Aspirated. _Broad_: like the Greek [chi], as pronounced in Scotland, in +[Greek: chôra]; as, croch _to hang_, chaidh _went_. + +4. _Small_: like [chi] in [Greek: chiôn]; as, chi _shall see_, eich +_horses_. + +G. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: like _g_ in _go_, _rogue_; as, gabh _to take_, glor +_speech_, bog _soft_. + +2. _Small_: like _g_ in _give_, _fatigue_; as, gin _to produce_, thig +_shall come_, tilg _to throw_. + +3. Aspirated. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; ghabh _took_, +ghleidh _kept_. + +4. _Small_: nearly like _y_ in _young_; as, ghin _produced_. + +5. _Gh_ in the end of a syllable is often quiescent; as, righ _a king_, +tiugh _thick_, fuigheall _remainder_. + +T. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: nearly like _t_ in _tone_, _bottom_; as, tog _to raise_, +trom _heavy_, brat _a covering_. + +{15} + +2. _Small_: like _ch_ in _cheek_, _choose_; as, tinn _sick_, caillte +_lost_. + +3. Aspirated. Like _h_ in _house_; as, thig _shall come_, throisg _fasted_, +maith _good_. + +4. _Quiescent_: in the middle of a polysyllable, in the end of a long +syllable, and in certain tenses of a few irregular verbs when preceded by +_d'_; as, snitheach[17] _watery_, sìth _peace_, an d' thug e? _did he +give?_ also in the pronoun thusa _thou_. + +D. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: nearly like _d_ in _done_; as, dol _going_, dlù _near_, +_close_, ciod _what_. + +2. _Small_: like _j_ in _June_, _jewel_; as, diù _refuse_, maide _a stick_, +airde _height_. + +_D_, after _ch_, is commonly sounded like _c_; as, bochd _poor_, pronounced +as if written bochc[18]. + +{16} + +3. Aspirated[19]. _Broad_: like broad _gh_, as, dhruid _did shut_, gradh +_love_. + +4. _Small_: like small _gh_; as, dhearc _looked_. + +5. Quiescent; as, fàidh _a prophet_, cridhe _a heart_, radh _saying_, +bualadh _striking_. + +RULE.--_The consonants c, g, t, d, have their _SMALL_ sound, when, in the +same syllable, they are preceded, or immediately followed, by a _SMALL +VOWEL_; in all other situations they have their _BROAD_ sound._ + +S. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: like _s_ in _sun_, _this_; as, speal _a scythe_, cas _a +foot_, sùil _an eye_, scian _a knife_. + +2. _Small_: like _sh_ in _show_, _rash_; as, bris _to break_, sèimh +_quiet_, sniomh _to twine_, stéidh _foundation_. + +3. Aspirated: like _h_ in _him_; as, shuidh _sat_, shrann _snorted_. Before +_l_ and _n_, it is almost, if not altogether, quiescent; as, shlanuich +_healed_, shniomh _twisted_. _S_ followed by a _mute_ consonant is never +aspirated. + +RULE.--_S has its _SMALL_ sound, when, in the same syllable, it is preceded +or followed by a _SMALL VOWEL_, with or without an intervening Lingual. In +all other situations it has its _BROAD_ sound._ EXCEPT. _S_ is _broad_ in +is _am_. It is _small_ in so _this_, sud _yon_. It is customary to give _s_ +its _broad_ sound in the beginning of a word, when the former word ends +with _r_, in which case the _r_ also has its broad sound; as, chuir sinn +_we put_, air son _on account_. + +{17} + + + +OF L, N, R. + +A distinction between a consonant when _plain_, and the same consonant when +_aspirated_, has been easily traced thus far. This distinction readily +discovers itself, not only in the pronunciation and orthography, but also +(as will be seen in its proper place) throughout the system of inflection. +It takes place uniformly in those consonants which have been already +considered. With respect to the remaining linguals, _l_, _n_, _r_, a +corresponding distinction will be found to take place in their +pronunciation, and likewise in the changes they suffer by inflection. This +close correspondence between the changes incident to _l_, _n_, _r_, and the +changes which the other consonants undergo, seems to be a sufficient reason +for still using the same discriminative terms in treating of their powers, +though these terms may not appear to be so strictly applicable to these +three consonants as to the rest. The powers of _l_, _n_, _r_, shall +accordingly be explained under the divisions _plain_ and _aspirated_, +_broad_ and _small_. + +L. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; lom _bare_, labhair +_speak_, mall _slow_, alt _a joint_, ald _a brook_, slat _a rod_, dlù +_near_. + +2. _Small_: like _ll_ in _million_; as, linn _an age_, lion _fill_, pill +_to return_, slighe _a way_. + +3. Aspirated. _Broad_: like _l_ in _loom_, _fool_; as, labhair _spoke_, lom +feminine of lom _bare_, mol _to praise_, dhlù feminine of dlù _near_. + +4. _Small:_ nearly like _l_ in _limb_, _fill_; as, a linn _his age_, lion +_filled_, mil _honey_, dligheach _due, lawful_. + +N. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; nuadh _new_, naisg +_bind_, lann _a blade_, carn _a heap of stones_. + +2. _Small_: like _n_ in the second syllable of _opinion_; as, nigh _wash_, +binn _melodious_, cuirn _heaps of stones_. {18} + +3. Aspirated. _Broad:_ like _n_ in _no_, _on_; as, nuadh feminine of nuadh +_new_, naisg _bound_, shnamh _swam_, sean _old_[20], chon _of dogs_, dàn _a +poem_. + +4. _Small_: like _n_ in _keen_, _near_; as, nigh _washed_, shniomh +_twisted_, coin _dogs_, dàin _poems_. + +In an when followed by a Palatal, the _n_ is pronounced like _ng_ in +English; as, an gille _the lad_, an comhnuidh _always_. + +_N_, after a mute, is in a few instances pronounced like _r_[21]; as in +mnathan _women_, cnatan _a cold_, an t-snàth _of the yarn_; pronounced +mrathan, cratan, &c. + +R. + +1. Plain. Nearly like _r_ in _roar_; as, ruadh _reddish_, righ _a king_, +ruith _run_, torr _a heap_, ceartas _justice_. + +2. Aspirated. _Broad_: nearly like _r_ in _rear_; as, car _a turn_, ruith +_ran_, mòr _great_. + +3. _Small_: has no sound like it in English; a righ _O king_, seirbhe +_satiety_, mòir gen. of mòr _great_. + +The _plain_, _aspirated_, _broad_, and _small_ sounds of these Linguals are +not distinguished in writing; but they may, for the most part, be known +from the relative position of the letters. + +RULE.--L, N, R, _have their _PLAIN_ sound when, in the same syllable, they +are immediately preceded by a plain Liquid, or immediately followed by a +plain Lingual; also in the beginning of certain cases and tenses; in all +other situations, they have their _ASPIRATED_ sound. They have their +_SMALL_ sound when, in the same syllable, they are preceded or followed by +a small vowel, with or without an intervening Liquid; in other situations, +they have their _BROAD_ sound._ + +{19} + +H. + +H is never used as an independent radical letter. When prefixed to a word +beginning with a vowel, it is pronounced like h in _how_; as, na h-òighean +_the virgins_, na h-oidhche _of the night_. + + + +The following scheme exhibits a succinct view of the letters, both singly +and in their several combinations. The first column contains the letters +whose sound is to be exhibited; the prefixed figures marking the number of +different sounds denoted by the same letter. The second column explains the +sounds by examples or by references. The third column contains Gaelic +words, with their translation, in which the several sounds are exemplified. + +VOWELS. + + 1 a {long far star àr _slaughter_, àth _a ford_. + {short that ar _to plow_, abuîch _ripe_. + + 2 a {long adhradh _worship_, adhbhar _reason_. + {short adharc _a horn_, adhart _a bolster_. + + 3 a short similar ma _if_, an _the_, a _his, her_. + + 1 e {long there è sè _he_, gnè _sort, kind_. + {short met le _with_, leth _half_. + + 2 e long an dé _yesterday_, cé _the earth_. + + 3 e short mother duine _a man_, briste _broken_. + + 1 i see {mìn _smooth_, righ _a king_. + {min _meal_, crith _a shaking_. + + 2 i short this is _am, art, is_. + + 1 o {long more mòr _great_, lòn _food_. + {short hot mo _my_, do _thy_, lon _the ouzle_. + + 2 o {long } old lom _bare_, toll _a hole_. + {short} lomadh _making bare_. + + 3 o {long } (2) a roghnuich _to choose_. + {short} roghuinn _choice_. + {20} + + 1 u {long } fool {ùr _fresh_, sùgh _juice_. + {short} {ubh _an egg_, tur _quite_. + +DIPHTHONGS. + + 1 ae (1) a (2) e laeth _days_. + 1 ai (1) a (1) i fàidh _a prophet_, claidheamh _a sword_. + 2 ai (2) a (1) i saidhbhir, _rich_. + 3 ai (1) a fàisg _squeeze_, tais _soft_. + 4 ai (2) a airm _arms_, gairm _to call_. + 1 ao (2) a faobhar _edge_ of an instrument. + 1 ea (2) e (1) a beann _a pinnacle_, meal _enjoy_. + 2 ea (1) e dean _to do, make_, bean _a woman_. + 3 ea (2) e easlan _sick_, fead _whistle_. + 4 ea (1) a ceard _an artificer_, geal _white_. + 5 ea (3) a coireach _faulty_. + 1 ei (1) e (1) i sgèimh _beauty_, meidh _a balance_. + 2 ei (2) e (1) i feidh _deer_, greigh _a herd_. + 3 ei (1) e mèise _of a plate_. + 4 ei (2) e éigin _necessity_, eich _horses_. + 1 eo (2) e (1) o beo _alive_, beothail _lively_. + 2 eo (1) o leomhann _a lion_, deoch _a drink_. + 1 eu (2) e teum _to bite_, gleus _trim_. + 1 ia (1) i (1) a fial _liberal_, fiar _oblique_. + 2 ia (1) i (2) a fiadh _a deer_, biadh _food_. + 1 io (1) i (3) o diol _to pay_, iolach _a spout_. + 2 io (1) i iodhol _an idol_, crios _a girdle_. + 3 io fun cionta _guilt_. + 1 iu (1) i u fiù _worth_, iuchair _a key_. + 2 iu u diù _refuse_, tiugh _thick_. + 1 oi (1) o (1) i òigh _a virgin_, troidh _a foot_. + 2 oi (3) o (1) i oidhche _night_. + 3 oi (1) o mòid _more_, toic _wealth_. + 4 oi (2) o fòid _a turf_, fois _rest_. + 5 oi (3) o coileach _a cock_, goirid _short_. + 1 ua u (1) a cuan _the sea_, fuath _hatred_. + 2 ua u (2) a tuadh _a hatchet_, sluagh _people_. + {21} + 1 ui u (1) i sùigheah _a raspberry_, buidheann _a company_. + 2 ui u dùil _expectation_, fuil _blood_. + +TRIPHTHONGS. + + 1 aoi (1) ao (1) i caoidh _lamentation_. + 2 aoi (1) ao caoin _mild_, saoil _to think_. + 1 eoi (2) eo (1) i geoigh _geese_. + 2 eoi (1) eo meoir _fingers_. + 3 eoi (2) eo deoir _tears_. + 1 iai (1) ia fiaire _more oblique_. + 1 iui (2) iu ciùil _of music_. + 1 uai (1) ua (1) i luaithe _quicker_. + 2 uai (2) ua (1) i cruaidh _hard_, fuaim _sound_. + 3 uai (1) ua gluais _to move_, uair _time_. + +CONSONANTS + +_Labials._ + + 1 p part poll _a pool_, streap _to climb_. + 2 ph Philip phill _returned_. + 1 b boil baile _a town_, breab _to kick_. + 2 bh vile bhuail _struck_, gabh _to take_. + 1 m my mòr _great_, anam _life, soul_. + 2 mh mhothuich _perceived_, damh _an ox_. + 1 f feel fill _to fold_. + 2 fh _quiescent_ fheara _O men_. + + _Palatals._ + + 1 c cock can _to say, sing_, creid _to believe_. + 2 c kick ceann _end, head_, reic _to sell_. + 3 ch [Greek: chôra] chaidh _went_, rach _go_. + 4 ch [Greek: cheimôn] chi _shall see_, crìche _of a boundary_. + 1 g go gabh _to take_, rag _stiff_. + {22} + 2 g give geinne _a wedge_, ruig _to reach_. + 3 gh ghabh _took_, ghleidh _kept_. + 4 gh you gheibh _will get_. + 5 _quiescent_ righ _a king_, sluagh _people_. + +_Linguals._ + + 1 t tone tog _to raise_, slat _a rod_. + 2 t chin tinn _sick_, àite _a place_. + 3 th have thainig _came_. + 4 th _quiescent_ maith _good_, fàth _occasion_. + 1 d done dol _going_, dragh _trouble_. + 2 d join diom _resentment_, maide _a stick_. + 3 dh (3) gh dhall _blind_. + 4 dh (4) gh dhearc _looked_. + 5 dh _quiescent_ radh _saying_, bualadh _threshing_. + 1 s so sannt _desire_, sloc _a pit_. + 2 s show sèimh _gentle_, so _this_. + 3 sh how shuidh _sat_, shaoil _thought_. + 1 l lom _bare_, slat _a rod_, moll _chaff_. + 2 l million lìnn _an age_, caillte _lost_. + 3 l look blàth _blossom_, shlanuich _healed_. + 4 l believe leum _leaped_, shleamhnuich _slipped_. + 1 n crann _a tree_, naomh _holy_, naisg _bind_. + 2 n opinion seinn _to sing_, nigh _wash_. + 3 n no fan _to stay_, naisg _bound_. + 4 n near coin _dogs_, nigh _washed_. + 1 r roar fearr _better_, righ _a king_, ruith _run_. + 2 r rear fear _a man_, ruith _ran_. + 3 r fir _men_, a righ _O king_, treoir _strength_. + + + +There is no doubt that the Gaelic has been for many ages a written +language. It is equally certain that its orthography, since it was first +committed to writing, has undergone {23} considerable changes. In this +respect it has shared the common fate of all written languages. + +In the first exhibition of the sounds of a living language, by alphabetical +characters, it is probable that the principle which regulated the system of +orthography was, that every elementary sound should be represented by a +corresponding character, either simple or compounded, and that the same +sound should be represented by the same character. If different sounds were +represented by the same letter; if the same sound were represented by +different letters; if more letters were employed then were necessary to +exhibit the sound; or if any sound were not represented by a corresponding +character; then the _written_ language would not be an adequate +representation of the _spoken_. It is hardly to be supposed that, in the +first rude attempts at alphabetical writing, the principle above laid down +could be strictly and uniformly followed. And though it had, yet, in the +course of a few generations, many causes would occur to bring about +considerable departures from it. A gradual refinement of ear, and +increasing attention to _euphonia_; contractions and elisions brought into +vogue by the carelessness or the rapidity of colloquial speech, or by the +practice of popular speakers; above all, the mixture of the speech of +different nations would introduce numberless varieties into the +pronunciation. Still, those who wrote the language might choose to adhere +to the original orthography for the sake of retaining the radical parts, +and preserving the etymon of vocables undisguised, and for maintaining an +uniformity in the mechanism of the inflections. Hence the pronunciation and +the orthography would disagree in many instances, till at length it would +be found expedient to alter the orthography, and to adapt it to such +changes in the speech or spoken language as long use had established, in +order to maintain what was most necessary of all, a due correspondence +between the mode of speaking and the mode of writing the same language. + +It will probably be found on inquiry that in all languages when the +_speech_ has undergone material and striking changes, {24} the _written +language_ also has varied in a considerable degree in conformity to these +changes, but that it has not scrupulously kept pace with the spoken +language in every smaller variation. The written language of the Greeks +suffered many changes between the time that the old Pelasgic was spoken and +the days of Demosthenes. The various modes of pronunciation used in the +different districts of Greece are marked by a diversity in the orthography +of the written language. The writing of the Latin underwent considerable +alterations between the era of the _Decemviri_ and the Augustan age, +corresponding, no doubt, to the changes which had taken place during that +interval in speaking the Latin. English and French books printed within the +last century exhibit a mode of orthography very different from what is +found in books printed two or three hundred years ago. These instances show +the tendency which the written language has to follow the lead of the +spoken language, and to maintain a certain degree of conformity to those +modes of pronunciation which are from time to time adopted by those who +speak it. + +On the other hand, numberless examples might be adduced from any living +language to prove that the written language does not adapt itself, on all +occasions and with strict uniformity, to the sounds of speech. Words are +written differently which are pronounced alike. The same combinations of +letters, in different situations, represent different sounds. Letters are +retained in writing, serving to point out the derivations of words, after +they have been entirely dropped in speaking. + +From such facts as these, it appears a just conclusion that _written +language_ generally follows the _spoken language_ through its various +revolutions, but still at a certain distance,--not dropping so far behind +as to lose sight of its precursor, nor following so close as to be led +through all its fantastic deviations. + +Here a question occurs of importance in settling the orthography of any +particular tongue: How near ought the _written language_ to correspond to +the _spoken_, and where may a disagreement between them be allowed with +{25} propriety? The following observations may serve to throw some light on +the subject of this question, though by no means sufficient to furnish a +complete answer. + +It is obvious that in speech the _articulations_ (which are represented by +consonants in writing) are the least liable to variation. _Vowel sounds_ +are continually varying. In this variety chiefly consists that diversity of +tone and dialect which is found in the speech of different districts of the +same country, where the same words are spoken. The changes, too, which are +introduced by time fall with greater effect on the vowel sounds than on the +articulations. This circumstance will strike an observer who steps into any +deliberative assembly, where the speakers are of different ages. St Jerome +makes a remark on the reading of Hebrew, which is applicable, in some +measure, to the pronunciation of all languages: "Nec refert utrum _Salem_ +aut _Salim_ nominetur; cum vocalibus in medio literis perraro utantur +Hebraei; et pro voluntate lectorum, ac _varietate regionum_, eadem verba +_diversis sonis_ atque accentibus proferantur." It may be observed that the +superior stability of the articulations above the vowel sounds is the +natural consequence of the position of the organs of speech in uttering +them. The different modifications of the vowel sounds are effected by +minute changes in the conformation of the organs; those of the +articulations are made by more distinct and operose inflections of the +organs. + +It seems, then, a warrantable conclusion that, of the elementary +constituents of speech, viz., articulations and vowel sounds, the +_articulations_ are, in their own nature, ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and +PREDOMINANT; the _vowel sounds_, comparatively considered, are ADJUNCTIVE, +FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE. + +Further, all the vowel sounds that usually occur in speech seem to be +uttered with equal ease, in whatever situation they occur, as the same +organs are employed for all. In forming the common articulations of speech, +as different organs are employed, a degree of difficulty is sometimes felt +in making a transition from one articulation to another. {26} Thus a +difficulty will occasionally occur in pronouncing certain words, where the +general analogy of inflection or of collocation has brought together +articulations which do not easily coalesce. Hence a necessity arises of +departing in such a case from the general analogy, and altering or +displacing some of those discrepant articulations, for the sake of ease and +convenience in pronunciation, and to relieve the ear from an offensive +discordant sound. Departures are made from the general rules of speech in +the case of the vowel sounds also, of which the Greek tongue abounds with +examples. These departures, however, seem to have been made from a desire +to indulge the ear in certain national predilections or aversions which it +had conceived with regard to particular sounds. In examining the anomalies +of speech, or those peculiarities which have been reckoned anomalous, it +will be found that such of them as affect the articulations have, for the +most part, been adopted for the purpose of ease and convenience in +pronunciation; while those which affect the vowel sounds have proceeded +from the peculiar taste of the speakers. Thus the former spring from a +cause urgent and constant in its nature, and uniform in its operation; the +latter, from a cause local and temporary in its nature, and variable in its +operation. + +If this theory be just, it ought to follow that, in all polished tongues, +an agreement will be found among those irregularities which affect the +articulations, that is not so observable in those which affect the vowel +sounds. There is reason to believe that, if a full comparison were made +between different languages, this would accordingly be found to be the +case. Let it be observed, then, that in speech a deference has been usually +paid to the articulations which has not been paid to the vowel sounds, +inasmuch as the latter have been changed from the state in which the +structure of each tongue had at first placed them, frequently and from +peculiar taste or humour; the former more rarely, and for the most part +from necessity. If this observation be found to be well supported, we shall +have the sanction of general practice in favour of the conclusion that was +formerly {27} drawn from the nature of articulate sounds, viz., that the +articulations are ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and PREDOMINANT; the vowel sounds +ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE. + +If it appear, then, that the vowel sounds in speech are perpetually varying +in the mouths of different speakers, from causes which either elude our +search, or, when discovered, are seen to be of small importance, may we not +judge that it would be equally vain and improper to attempt to make +_Writing_ follow all these minute variations; and that, however it may +happen that the same vowel sound may be represented in many instances by +different letters, and different vowel sounds by the same letters, yet this +disagreement between _Speech_ and _Writing_ must be connived at, for the +sake of preserving some degree of uniformity, where alone it can be +preserved, in the _written language_? If it appear, again, that the +variations from the established analogy which are made on the articulations +are less frequent, and proceed from causes obvious and cogent, ought not +these variations to be exhibited in writing, for preserving that general +correspondence between the written and the spoken language which ought to +be preserved, as far as the limited powers of letters will permit, and +without which the words I speak and those I write do not belong to the same +language? + +One exception from this principle seems allowable in the case of quiescent +consonants. It may be inferred, from the practice of all living languages, +that consonants whereof the corresponding articulations have been +suppressed in speaking may yet be retained with propriety in writing, when +they are requisite to point out the derivation of vocables, or the radical +part of declinable words. But this exception ought to be allowed only to a +moderate extent, for the reasons already assigned; to which it may be +added, that the far greater part of the suppressed articulations can be +easily discovered and retraced to their roots, without any index in the +_written_ any more than in the _spoken_ language to point them out. {28} + +These observations being premised, I shall proceed to explain the present +state of Gaelic Orthography, and shall endeavour to assist the reader in +forming a judgment of its merit, and how far it may admit of improvement. + +I. It may be laid down as one settled principle in orthography, that each +letter or combination of letters in the written language ought always to +denote one and the same sound. From the explanation that has been given of +the powers of the letters, it may be seen how far this principle has been +regarded in the Gaelic. Though almost every one of the letters represents +more than one sound, yet there is an evident affinity between the several +sounds of the same letter. And it may be readily allowed that less +confusion and inconvenience follow from exhibiting a few kindred sounds by +the same letter, than would have taken place had the characters been +multiplied to such a degree as that a separate one could have been +appropriated to each minute variety of sound. + +It is obvious to remark, as a departure from this principle, that in the +case of the consonants _l_, _n_, _r_, the distinction between their _plain_ +and their _aspirated_ state is not marked in writing, but that in both +states the consonant is written in one way. In the middle and end of words, +as has been shown, this distinction may be known from the relative +situation of the letters. In the beginning of certain cases and tenses of +declinable words, it may often be known from their _grammatical_ +connection, but is not marked by any _graphical_ index whatever. The proper +reading is to be determined by the sense of the passage, instead of the +sense being understood by the proper reading. It is not easy to discover +how those who first committed the Gaelic to writing neglected to mark such +a material distinction. Inconveniencies and ambiguities not unfrequently +arise from this cause, which have been long felt and regretted. Is there +room to hope that it is not yet too late to recommend a method of remedying +this defect? The method I would suggest is the most simple and obvious of +any. It is to annex to the initial _l_, _n_, and _r_, in their aspirated +state, the letter _h_, just as has been {29} done to all the other +consonants. The analogy of orthography would thus be maintained, the system +of inflection would be more justly exhibited, and carried on by an uniform +process in _Writing_ as it is in _Speech_, and errors in reading and +ambiguities in syntax would be avoided[22]. + +II. Another principle of authority in regulating orthography is, that each +sound ought always to be represented by one and the same letter, or +combination of letters. The deviations from this rule in Gaelic are +extremely few. The sound of _ao_ is represented sometimes by _a_ alone, +sometimes by _o_ alone. The sound of _gh_ is represented also by _dh_; and +final _c_ often, though corruptly, represents the same sound with _chd_. + +III. A third principle in orthography is, that no more letters ought to be +employed than are necessary to represent the sound. There are probably few +polished languages in which departures from this rule are not found in +abundance. Reasons have been already mentioned which render it expedient to +retain letters in writing many words, after the corresponding sounds have +been dropped in pronouncing the same words. Quiescent letters, both vowels +and consonants, are not unfrequent in Gaelic. Though these quiescent +letters have no sound themselves, they are not always without effect in +pronunciation, as they often determine the sound of other letters. Most, if +not all, the quiescent vowels seem to have been introduced for this +purpose. They ascertain the _broad_ or the _small_ sound of the adjoining +{30} consonants. This has been made sufficiently clear in treating of the +vowels and diphthongs separately. A consonant, as has been shown, has its +_broad_ sound, both when preceded and when followed by a broad vowel; and +in like manner has its _small_ sound, both when preceded and when followed +by a small vowel. If a consonant were preceded by a vowel of one quality, +and followed by one of a different quality, the reader, it has been +thought, might be doubtful whether that consonant ought to be pronounced +with its broad or with its small sound. Hence this rule has long obtained +in Gaelic orthography, that in polysyllables the last vowel of one syllable +and the first vowel of the subsequent syllable must be both of the same +quality[23]. To the extensive application and the rigid observance of this +rule it is owing that so many diphthongs appear where one vowel is +sufficient to express the vocal sound, and that the homogeneous vowels, +when used in their quiescent capacity, are often exchanged for each other, +or written indiscriminately[24]. From the former of these circumstances, +most of the words in the language appear loaded with superfluous vowels; +from the latter, the orthography of many words appears, in some respects, +arbitrary and unsettled. Even a partial correction of these blemishes must +be desirable. It may therefore be worth while to examine this long +established canon of Gaelic orthography, with a view to discover whether it +has not been extended farther than is necessary, and whether it ought not +in many cases to be set aside. + +We have seen that the Labials _b_, _m_, _f_, _p_, whether aspirated or not, +have no distinction of broad and small sound. + +{31} It cannot, then, be necessary to employ vowels, either prefixed or +postfixed, to indicate the sound of these. Thus, abuich _ripe_, gabhaidh +_will take_, chromainn _I would bow_, ciomaich _captives_, have been +written with a broad vowel in the second syllable, corresponding to the +broad vowel in the first syllable; yet the letters abich, gabhidh, +chrominn, ciomich, fully exhibit the sound. The prepositive syllable im, +when followed by a small vowel, is written im, as in imlich _to lick_, +imcheist _perplexity_. But when the first vowel of the following syllable +is broad, it has been the practice to insert an _o_ before the _m_, as in +iomlan _complete_, iomghaoth _a whirlwind_, iomluasg _agitation_. Yet the +inserted _o_ serves no purpose, either in respect of derivation, of +inflection, or of pronunciation. The unnecessary application of the rule in +question appears most unequivocally in words derived from other languages. +From the Latin words _imago_, _templum_, _liber_, are formed in Gaelic +iomhaigh, teampull, leabhar. Nothing but a servile regard to the rule under +consideration could have suggested the insertion of a broad vowel in the +first syllable of these words, where it serves neither to guide the +pronunciation, nor to point out the derivation. + +Another case, in which the observation of this rule seems to be wholly +unnecessary, is when two syllables of a word are separated by a quiescent +consonant. Thus in gleidheadh _keeping_, itheadh _eating_, buidheann _a +company_, dligheach _lawful_, the aspirated consonants in the middle are +altogether quiescent. The vocal sound of the second syllable is +sufficiently expressed by the last vowel. No good reason, then, appears for +writing a small vowel in the second syllable. + +Thus far it is evident that the rule respecting the correspondence of +vowels is wholly impertinent in the case of syllables divided by Labials, +or by quiescent consonants. If we examine further into the application of +this rule, we shall find more cases in which it may be safely set aside. + +Many of the inflections of nouns and verbs are formed by adding one or more +syllables to the root. The final {32} consonant of the root must always be +considered as belonging to the radical part, not to the adjected +termination. The sound of that consonant, whether broad or small, falls to +be determined by the quality of the vowel which precedes it in the same +syllable, not by the quality of that which follows it in the next syllable. +It seems, therefore, unnecessary to employ any more vowels in the adjected +syllable than what are sufficient to represent its own vocal sound. The +rule under consideration has, notwithstanding, been extended to the +orthography of the oblique cases and tenses, and a supernumerary vowel has +been thrown into the termination, whenever that was requisite to preserve +the supposed necessary correspondence with the foregoing syllable. Thus, in +forming the nominative and dative plural of many nouns, the syllables _an_ +and _ibh_ are added to the singular, which letters fully express the true +sound of these terminations. If the last vowel of the nominative singular +is broad, _an_ alone is added for the nominative plural; as, lamh-an +_hands_, cluas-an _ears_. But if the last vowel be small, an _e_ is thrown +into the termination; as, sùil-ean _eyes_, sròin-ean _noses_. Now if it be +observed that, in the two last examples, the small sound of the _l_ and _n_ +in the root is determined by the preceding small vowel _i_, with which they +are necessarily connected in one syllable, and that the letters _an_ fully +represent the sound of the termination, it must be evident that the _e_ in +the final syllable is altogether superfluous. So in forming the dative +plural: if the last vowel of the root be small, _ibh_ is added; as, +sùil-ibh, sroin-ibh. But if the last vowel of the root is broad, the +termination is written _aibh_; as, lamh-aibh, cluas-aibh, where the _a_, +for the reason already assigned, is totally useless. + +These observations apply with equal justness to the tenses of verbs, as +will be seen by comparing the following examples: creid-idh _will believe_, +stad-aidh _will stop_; chreid-inn _I would believe_, stad-_a_inn _I would +stop_; creid-_e_am _let me believe_, stad-am _let me stop_; creid-ibh +_believe ye_, stad-_a_ibh _stop ye_. + +The same observations may be further applied to derivative words, formed by +adding to their primitives the syllables {33} _ach_, _achd_, _ag_, _an_, +_ail_, _as_; in all which _e_ has been unnecessarily introduced, when the +last vowel of the preceding syllable was small; as, sannt-ach _covetous_, +toil-_e_ach _willing_; naomh-achd _holiness_, doimhn-_e_achd _depth_; +sruth-an _a rivulet_, cuil-_e_an _a whelp_; cauch-ag _a little cup_, +cail-_e_ag _a girl_; fear-ail _manly_, caird-_e_il _friendly_[25]; ceart-as +_justice_, caird-_e_as _friendship_. + +The foregoing observations appear sufficient to establish this general +conclusion, that in all cases in which a vowel serves neither to exhibit +the vocal sound, nor to modify the articulations of _the syllable to which +it belongs_, it may be reckoned nothing better than an useless incumbrance. +There seems, therefore, much room for simplifying the present system of +Gaelic Orthography, by the rejection of a considerable number of quiescent +vowels[26]. + +{34} + +Almost the only quiescent consonants which occur in Gaelic are _d_, _f_, +_g_, _s_, _t_, in their aspirated state. When these occur in the +inflections of declinable words, serving to indicate the Root, or in +derivatives, serving to point out the primitive word, the omission of them +might, on the whole, be unadvisable. Even when such letters appear in their +absolute form, though they have been laid aside in pronunciation, yet it +would be rash to discard them in writing, as they often serve to show the +affinity of the words in which they are found to others in different +languages, or in different dialects of the Celtic. The aspirated form of +the consonant in writing sufficiently shows that, in speaking, its +articulation is either attenuated or wholly suppressed. + +The writers of Gaelic seem to have carefully avoided bringing into +apposition two vowels which belong to different syllables. For this purpose +they have sometimes introduced a quiescent consonant into the middle of +compound or of inflected words; as, gneidheil, or rather gnethail _kindly_, +made up of gnè and ail; beothail _lively_, made up of beo and ail; diathan +_gods_, from the singular dia; lathaibh _days_, from the singular là, &c. +It may at least bear a question, whether it would not be better to allow +the vowels to denote the sound of the word by their own powers, without the +intervention of quiescent consonants, as has been done in {35} mnaibh +_women_, déibh _gods_, rather than insert consonants which have nothing to +do with either the radical or the superadded articulations of the word. + +From the want of an established standard in orthography, the writers of +Gaelic, in spelling words wherein quiescent consonants occurred, must have +been often doubtful which of two or three consonants was the proper one, +and may therefore have differed in their manner of spelling the same word. +Accordingly we find, in many instances, the same words written by different +writers, and even at different times by the same writer, with different +quiescent consonants. This variation affects not indeed the pronunciation, +or does it in a very slight degree. Hence, however, some who judge of the +language only from its appearance in writing, have taken occasion to vilify +it, as unfixed and nonsensical[27]. A proper attention to the affinity +which the Scottish Gaelic bears to some other languages, particularly to +other dialects of the Celtic, might contribute to fix the orthography in +some cases where it appears doubtful, or has become variable[28]. + +IV. The last principle to be mentioned, which ought to regulate +orthography, is that every sound ought to be represented by a corresponding +character. From this rule there is hardly a single deviation in Gaelic, as +there is no sound in the spoken language which is not, in some measure, +{36} exhibited in the written language. The fault of the Gaelic orthography +is sometimes a redundancy, but never a deficiency of letters. + +A few observations on the mode of writing some particular words, or +particular parts of speech, remain to be brought forward in the sequel of +this work, which it would be premature to introduce here. + +The Scottish writers of Gaelic in general followed the Irish orthography, +till after the middle of the last century. However that system may suit the +dialect of Ireland, it certainly is not adapted to the Gaelic of this +country. In the Gaelic translation of the New Testament, printed in 1767, +not only were most of the Irish idioms and inflections which had been +admitted into the Scottish Gaelic writings rejected, and the language +adapted to the dialect of the Scottish Highlands, but the orthography also +was adapted to the language. In later publications, the manner of writing +the language was gradually assimilated to that pattern. The Gaelic version +of the sacred Scriptures lately published has exhibited a model, both of +style and orthography, still more agreeable to the purest Scottish idiom, +and has a just title to be acknowledged as the standard in both. Little +seems to be now wanting to confer on the orthography of the Scottish Gaelic +such a degree of uniformity as may redeem its credit and ensure its +stability. This, it is to be hoped, may be attained by a judicious regard +to the separate, and especially the relative powers of the letters, to the +most common and approved modes of pronunciation, to the affinity of the +Scottish Gaelic with other branches of the Celtic tongue, to the analogy of +inflection and derivation, and, above all, to the authority of some +generally received standard, to which pre-eminence the late Gaelic version +of the Scriptures has the only indisputable claim. + + * * * * * + + +{37} + +PART II. + +OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. + +The parts of speech in Gaelic may be conveniently divided and arranged as +follows:--Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, +Conjunction, Interjection. Of these, the first five are declinable; the +other four are indeclinable. + + + +CHAPTER I. + +OF THE ARTICLE. + +The Gaelic article an corresponds to the English definite article _the_. +There is in Gaelic no indefinite article corresponding to the English _a_ +or _an_. The inflections of the article are but few. They depend on the +gender, the number, and the case, of the noun to which it is prefixed. +Hence the article is declined by gender, number, and case, as follows: + + Singular. Plural. + _Masc._ _Fem._ _Masc. & Fem._ + _Nom._ an, am an, a' na + _Gen._ an, a' na nan, nam + _Dat._ an, a', n' an, a', n' na + +In the singular, final _n_ of the article is sometimes cut off, and its +absence marked by an apostrophe. The same happens to the initial _a_ of the +dative singular. + + + +CHAPTER II. + +OF NOUNS. + +A Noun is the Name of any person, object, or thing whatsoever, that we have +occasion to mention. In treating of {38} this Part of Speech, we have to +consider the _Gender_ and the _Declension_ of Nouns. + +OF GENDER. + +In imposing names on sensible objects, the great and obvious distinction of +Sex in the animal world suggested the expediency of inventing names, not +only for the particular species of animals, but also for distinguishing +their Sex. Such are _vir_, _femina_; _bull_, _cow_; _coileach_, _cearc_, +&c. To mark at once identity of species, and diversity of Sex, the same +word, with a slight change on its form, was applied to both sexes: as +_equus_, _equa_; _lion_, _lioness_; _oglach_, _banoglach_. In most +languages, distinction of Sex has been marked, not only thus by the form of +the noun, but further by the form of the adjective connected with the noun. +Most adjectives were furnished with two forms, the one of which indicated +its connection with the name of a male, the other its connection with the +name of a female. The one was called by grammarians the _masculine gender_, +the other the _feminine gender_ of the adjective. Adjectives possessing +thus a two-fold form, must necessarily have appeared under one or other of +these forms, with whatever noun they happened to be conjoined. Even nouns +significant of inanimate objects came thus to possess one mark of nouns +discriminative of Sex, as they happened to be accompanied by an adjective +of the masculine or by one of the feminine gender. If any noun was observed +to be usually coupled with an adjective of the masculine gender, it was +termed by grammarians a _masculine noun_; if it was found usually coupled +with an adjective of the feminine gender, it was termed a _feminine noun_. +Thus a distinction of nouns into masculine and feminine came to be noted, +and this also was called gender. + +It is observable, then, that gender, in grammar, is taken in two different +acceptations. When applied to an adjective, {39} it signifies a certain +_form_, by which _bonus_ is distinguished from _bona_. When applied to a +noun, it signifies a certain _relation_ of the word to the attributives +connected with it, by which _amor_ is distinguished from _cupido_. As Sex +is a natural characteristic pertaining to living objects, so gender is a +grammatical characteristic pertaining to nouns, the names of objects +whether animate or inanimate. The gender of nouns is not, properly +speaking, indicated; it is constituted by that of the attributives +conjoined with them. If there were no distinction of gender in adjectives, +participles, &c. there could be none in nouns. When we say that _amor_ is a +noun of the masculine gender, and _cupido_ a noun of the feminine gender, +we do not mean to intimate any distinction between the things signified by +these nouns; we mean nothing more than to state a grammatical fact, viz., +that an adjective connected with _amor_ is always of the same form as when +joined to a noun denoting a male, and that an adjective connected with +_cupido_ is always of the same form as when joined to a noun denoting a +female[29]. + +{40} + +When an adjective was to be connected with a noun that denoted an object +devoid of Sex, it is not always easy to guess what views might have +determined the speaker to use the adjective in one gender rather than in +the other. Perhaps Sex was attributed to the object signified by the noun. +Perhaps its properties were conceived to bear some resemblance to the +qualities characteristic of Sex in living creatures. In many instances, the +form of the noun seems to have decided the point. It must be confessed that +in this mental process, the judgment has been often swayed by trivial +circumstances, and guided by fanciful analogies. At least it cannot be +denied that in the Gaelic, where all nouns whatever are ranked under the +class of masculines or of feminines, the gender of each has been fixed by a +procedure whereof the grounds cannot now be fully investigated or +ascertained. Neither the natural nor artificial qualities or uses of the +things named, nor the form of the names given them, furnish any invariable +rule by which the gender of nouns may be known. It ought to be remembered, +however, that the Gaelic is far from being singular in this respect. The +oldest language with which we are acquainted, as well as some of the most +polished modern tongues, stand in the same predicament. + +The following observations may serve to give some idea of the analogy of +gender in Gaelic nouns; though they do not furnish a complete set of rules +sufficient to ascertain the gender of every noun:-- + +{41} + +MASCULINES. Nouns signifying males are masculines; as, fear _a man_, righ +_a king_, sagart _a priest_, tarbh _a bull_, cu _a dog_. + +Many nouns, signifying the young of animals of either Sex, are masculine, +even when the individual objects they denote are mentioned as being of the +female Sex; as, laogh _a calf_, isean _a gosling_, uan _a lamb_, &c.[30]. + +Diminutives in _an_; as, rothan _a little wheel_, dealgan _a little pin_, +&c. + +Derivatives in _as_, which are, for the most part, abstract nouns; as, +cairdeas _friendship_, naimhdeas _enmity_, ciuineas _calmness_, +breitheamhnas _judgment_, ceartas _justice_, maitheas _goodness_, &c. + +Derivatives in _air_, _ach_, _iche_, which are, for the most part, agents; +as, cealgair _a deceiver_, sealgair _a huntsman_, dorsair _a door-keeper_, +marcach _a rider_, maraiche _a sailor_, coisiche _a foot traveller_, &c. + +Names of such kinds of trees as are natives of Scotland; as, darach _oak_, +giuthas _fir_, uimhseann _ash_. + +Most polysyllables whereof the last vowel is broad, are masculine. + +FEMININES. Nouns signifying females are feminine; as, bean _a woman_, +mathair _a mother_, bo _a cow_, &c. Except bainionnach or boirionnach _a +female_, mart _a cow_, capull _a horse_ or _mare_, but commonly _a mare_, +which are masculine, and caileann or cailinn _a damsel_, masculine or +feminine.[31] Mark, vi. 28. + +{42} + +Some nouns denoting a species are feminine, even when the individual spoken +of is characterised as a male; as, gabhar fhirionn, _a he-goat_. Psal. l. +9. + +Names of countries; as, Albainn _Scotland_, Eirinn _Ireland_. + +Names of musical instruments; as, clarsach _a harp_, piob, _a pipe_. + +Names of the heavenly bodies; as, Grian _sun_, Gealach _moon_. + +Names of diseases; as, teasach _a fever_, a' ghriuthach _the measles_, a' +bhreac _the small-pox_, a' bhuidheach _the jaundice_, a' bhuinneach, _a +diarrhoea_, &c. + +Collective names of trees or shrubs are feminine; as, giuthasach _a fir +wood_, iugharach _a yew copse_, seileach _a willow copse_, droighneach _a +thorny brake_. + +Diminutives in _ag_ or _og_; as, caileag _a girl_, cuachag _a little cup_. + +Derivatives in _achd_; as, iomlanachd _fulness_, doillearachd _duskiness_, +doimhneachd _depth_, rioghachd _kingdom_, sinnsireachd _ancestry_, &c. + +Abstract nouns formed from the genitive of adjectives; as, doille +_blindness_, gile _whiteness_, leisge _laziness_, buidhre _deafness_, &c. + +Many monosyllables in _ua_ followed by one or more consonants are feminine; +as, bruach _a bank_, cruach _a heap_, cuach _a cup_, cluas _an ear_, gruag +_the hair of the head_, sguab _a sheaf_, tuadh _a hatchet_, tuath +_peasantry_. + +Almost all polysyllables, whereof the last vowel is small, except those in +_air_ and _iche_, already noticed, are feminine. + +A few nouns are of either gender; Salm _a Psalm_, creidimh _belief_, are +used as masculine nouns in some places, and feminine in others. Cruinne +_the globe_, talamb _the earth, land_, are masculine in the nominative; as, +an cruinne-cé _the globe of the earth_. Psal. lxxxix. 11., xc. 2.--D. +Buchan. 1767. p. 12. 15; an talamh tioram _the dry land_. Psal. xcv. {43} +5. The same nouns are generally feminine in the genitive; as, gu crìch na +cruinne _to the extremity of the world_. Psal. xix. 4.; aghaidh na +talmhainn _the face of the earth_. Gen. i. 29. Acts xvii. 24. + +OF DECLENSION. + +Nouns undergo certain changes significant of Number and of Relation. + +The forms significant of Number are two: the _Singular_, which denotes one; +and the _Plural_, which denotes any number greater than one. + +The changes expressive of Relation are made on nouns in two ways: 1. On the +beginning of the noun; 2. On its termination. The relations denoted by +changes on the termination are different from those denoted by changes on +the beginning; they have no necessary connection together; the one may take +place in absence of the other. It seems proper, therefore, to class the +changes on the termination by themselves in one division, and give it a +name, and to class the changes on the beginning also by themselves in +another division, and give it a different name. As the changes on the +termination denote, in general, the same relations which are denoted by the +Greek and Latin cases, that seems a sufficient reason for adopting the term +case into the Gaelic Grammar, and applying it, as in the Greek and Latin, +to signify "the changes made on the _termination_ of nouns or adjectives to +mark relation".[32] According to this description of them, there are four +cases in Gaelic. These may be {44} named, like the corresponding cases in +Latin, the _Nominative_, the _Genitive_, the _Dative_, and the +_Vocative_.[33] The Nominative is used when any person or thing is +mentioned as the _subject_ of a proposition or question, or as the _object_ +of an action or affection. The Genitive corresponds to an English noun +preceded by _of_. The Dative is used only after a preposition. The Vocative +is employed when a person or thing is addressed. + +The changes on the beginning of nouns are made by aspirating an initial +consonant; that is, writing _h_ after it. This may be called the +_Aspirated_ form of the noun. The aspirated form extends to all the cases +and numbers. A noun, whereof the initial form is not changed by aspiration, +is in the _Primary_ form. + +The _accidents_ of nouns may be briefly stated thus. A noun is declined by +Number, Case, and Initial form. The Numbers are two: _Singular_ and +_Plural_. The Cases are four: _Nominative_, _Genitive_, _Dative_, and +_Vocative_. The Initial form is twofold: the _Primary form_, and the +_Aspirated form_ peculiar to nouns beginning with a consonant. + +In declining nouns, the formation of the cases is observed to depend more +on the last vowel of the nominative than on {45} the final letter. Hence +the last vowel of the nominative, or in general of any declinable word, may +be called the _characteristic_ vowel. The division of the vowels into +_broad_ and _small_ suggests the distribution of nouns into two +Declensions, distinguished by the quality of the characteristic vowel. The +first Declension comprehends those nouns whereof the _characteristic_ vowel +is _broad_; the second Declension comprehends those nouns whereof the +_characteristic_ vowel is _small_. + +The following examples are given of the inflection of nouns of the + + FIRST DECLENSION. + + Bard, mas. _a Poet_. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Bard Baird + _Gen._ Baird Bard + _Dat._ Bard Bardaibh + _Voc._ Bhaird Bharda + + Cluas, fem. _an Ear_. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Cluas Cluasan + _Gen._ Cluaise Cluas + _Dat._ Cluais Cluasaibh + _Voc._ Chluas Chluasa + +_Formation of the Cases of Nouns of the First Declension._ + +_Singular Number._ + +_General Rule for forming the Genitive._--The Genitive is formed from the +Nominative, by inserting _i_ after the characteristic vowel, as, bàs mas. +_death_, Gen. sing. bàis; fuaran m. a _fountain_, g. s. fuarain; clarsach +f. _a harp_, g. s. clarsaich. Feminine monosyllables likewise add a short +_e_ to the Nominative; as, cluas f. _an ear_, g. s. cluaise; làmh _a hand_, +g. s. làimhe[34]. + +{46} + +_Particular Rules for the Genitive._--1. If the nominative ends in a vowel, +the genitive is like the nominative; as, trà m. _a time_ or _season_, g. s. +trà; so also beatha f. _life_, cro m. _a sheepfold_, cliu m. _fame_, duine +_a man_, Donncha _Duncan_, a man's name, and many others. Except bo f. _a +cow_, g. s. boin; cu m. _a dog_, g. s. coin; bru f. _the belly_, g. s. +broinn or bronn. + +2. Nouns ending in _chd_ or _rr_ have the genitive like the nominative; as, +uchd m. _the breast_, sliochd m. _offspring_, feachd m. _a host_, reachd m. +_statute_, cleachd m. _habit_, beachd m. _vision_, smachd m. _authority_, +fuachd m. _cold_, sprochd m. _gloom_, beannachd m. _a blessing_, naomhachd +f. _holiness_, earr m. _the tail_, torr m. _a heap_. Except slochd g. s. +sluichd m. _a pit_, unless this word should rather be written sloc, like +boc, cnoc, soc. + +3. Monosyllables ending in _gh_ or _th_ add _a_ for the genitive; as, lagh +m. _law_, g. s. lagha; roth m. _a wheel_, g. s. rotha; sruth m. _a stream_, +g. s. srutha. Except àgh m. _felicity_, _grace_, or _charm_, g. s. +aigh[35]. + +4. Monosyllables characterised by _io_ either drop the _o_ or add _a_ for +the genitive; as, siol m. _seed_, g. s. sìl; lion m. _a net_, g. s. lìn; +crioch f. _a boundary_, g. s. crìch; cioch f. _the pap_, g. s. cìche; fion +m. _wine_, g. s. fiona; crios m. _a girdle_, g. s. criosa; fiodh m. +_timber_, g. s. fiodha. Except Criost or Criosd m. _Christ_, which has the +gen. like the nominative. + +5. Many monosyllables, whose characteristic vowel is _a_ or _o_, change it +into _u_ and insert _i_ after it; as, gob m. _the bill of a bird_, g. s. +guib; crodh m. _kine_, g. s. cruidh; bolg or balg m. _a bag_, g. s. builg; +clog or clag m. _a bell_, g. s. cluig; lorg f. _a staff_, g. s. luirge; +long f. _a ship_, g. s. luinge; alt m. _a {47} joint_, g. s. uilt; alld m. +_a rivulet_, g. s. uilld; car m. _a turn_, g. s. cuir; carn m. _a heap of +stones_, g. s. cuirn. So also ceol m. _music_, g. s. ciuil; seol m. _a +sail_, g. s. siuil. Except nouns in _on_ and a few feminines, which follow +the general rule; as, bròn m. _sorrow_, g. s. bròin; lòn m. _food_, g. s. +lòin; cloch or clach f. _a stone_, g. s. cloiche; cos or cas f. _the foot_, +g. s. coise; bròg f. _a shoe_, g. s. bròige. So also clann f. _children_, +g. s. cloinne; crann m. _a tree_, g. s. croinn. Mac m. _a son_, has its g. +s. mic. + +6. Polysyllables characterised by _ea_ change _ea_ into _i_; as, fitheach +m. _a raven_, g. s. fithich; cailleach f. _an old woman_, g. s. +caillich[36]. These two suffer a syncope, and add _e_; buidheann f. _a +company_, g. s. buidhne; sitheann f. _venison_, g. s. sithne. + +Of monosyllables characterised by _ea_, some throw away _a_ and insert _i_; +as, each m. _a horse_, g. s. eich; beann f. _a peak_, g. s. beinne; fearg +f. _anger_, g. s. feirge. Some change _ea_ into _i_; as, breac m. _a +trout_, g. s. bric; fear m. _a man_, g. s. fir; ceann m. _a head_, _end_, +g. s. cinn; preas m. _a bush_, g. s. pris; breac f. _the small-pox_, g. s. +brice; cearc f. _a hen_, g. s. circe; leac f. _a flag_, g. s. lice. Gleann +m. _a valley_, adds _e_, g. s. glinne. Some add _a_ to the nominative; as, +speal m. _a scythe_, g. s. speala. Dream f. _people_, _race_, gean m. +_humour_, have their genitive like the nominative. Feall f. _deceit_, g. s. +foill or feill. Geagh m. _a goose_, makes g. s. geoigh. + +{48} + +7. Nouns in _eu_ followed by a liquid, change _u_ into _o_ and insert _i_ +after it; as, neul m. _a cloud_, g. s. neoil, eun m. _a bird_, g. s. eoin; +feur m. _grass_, g. s. feoir; meur m. _a finger_, g. s. meoir; leus m. _a +torch_, g. s. leois. Beul m. _the mouth_, g. s. beil or beoil; sgeul. m. _a +tale_, g. s. sgeil or sgeoil. Other nouns characterised by _eu_ add _a_ for +the gen., as, treud m. _a flock_, g. s. treuda; feum m. _use_, _need_, g. +s. feuma; beum m. _a stroke_, g. s. beuma. Meud m. _bulk_, beuc m. _a +roar_, freumh f. _a fibre_, _root_, hardly admit of _a_, but have their +gen. rather like the nom. + +8. Monosyllables characterised by _ia_ change _ia_ into _ei_; as, sliabh m. +_a moor_, g. s. sleibh; fiadh m. _a deer_, g. s. feidh; biadh m. _food_, g. +s. beidh or bidh; iasg m. _fish_, g. s. eisg; grian f. _the sun_, g. s. +greine; sgiath f. _a wing_, g. s. sgeithe. Except Dia m. _God_, g. s. De; +sgian f. _a knife_, g. s. sgine. + +Piuthar f. _a sister_, has g. s. peathar; leanabh m. _a child_, g. s. +leinibh; ceathramh m. _a fourth part_, g. s. ceithrimh, leabaidh or leaba +f. _a bed_, g. s. leapa; talamh m. _earth_, g. s. talmhainn. + +The _Dative_ singular of masculine nouns is like the nominative; of +feminine nouns, is like the genitive; as, tobar m. _a well_, d. s. tobar; +clarsach f. _a harp_, g. s. and d. s. clarsaich; misneach f. _courage_, g. +s. and d. s. misnich. + + + +_Particular Rules for the Dative of Feminine Nouns._--1. If _e_ was added +to the nominative in forming the genitive, it is thrown away in the dative; +as, slat f. _a rod_, g. s. slaite--d. s. slait; grian f. _the sun_, g. s. +greine, d. s. grein. + +2. If the nominative suffered a syncope in forming the genitive, or if the +last vowel of the genitive is broad, the dative is like the nominative; as, +buidheann f. _a company_, g. s. buidhne, d. s. buidheann; piuthar f. _a +sister_, g. s. peathar, d. s. piuthar. + +The _Vocative_ of masc. nouns is like the genitive; of feminine nouns is +like the nominative; as, bàs m. _death_, g. s. bàis, v. s. bhais; cu m. _a +dog_, g. s. coin, v. s. choin; grian f. _the sun_, v. s. ghaoth. {49} + +_Plural Number._ + +_Nominative._ Masculine nouns which insert _i_ in the gen. sing. have their +nom. plur. like the gen. sing.; as, oglach m. _a servant_, g. s. oglaich, +n. p. oglaich; fear m. _a man_, g. s. and n. p. fir. Many of these form +their nom. plur. also by adding a short _a_ to the nominative singular. +Other masculine nouns, and all feminine nouns, have their nom. plural in +_a_, to which _n_ is added, _euphoniæ causa_, before an initial vowel[37]. + + + +_Particular Rules_ for forming the Nom. Plur. in _a_ or _an_. + +1. By adding _a_ to the nom. singular; as, dubhar m. _a shadow_, n. p. +dubhara; rioghachd f. _a kingdom_, n. p. rioghachdan. Under this Rule, some +nouns suffer a syncope; as, dorus m. _a door_, n. p. dorsa for dorusa. + +2. Nouns ending in _l_ or _nn_, often insert _t_ before _a_; as, reul m. _a +star_, n. p. reulta; beann f. _a pinnacle_, n. p. beannta. So lòn m. _a +marsh_, n. p. lòintean. + +3. Some nouns in _ar_ drop the _a_, and add to the nom. sing. the syllable +_aich_; and then the final _a_ becomes _e_, to correspond to the preceding +small vowel; as, leabhar m. _a book_, n. p. leabhraiche; tobar m. _a well_, +n. p. tobraiche; lann. f. _an enclosure_, inserts _d_, n. p. lanndaiche. +Piuthar f. _a sister_, from the g. s. peathar, has n. p. peathraiche; so +leaba f. _a bed_, g. s. leapa, n. p. leapaiche. Bata m. _a staff_, n. p. +batacha; la or latha _a day_, n. p. lathachan or laithean. + +4. Some polysyllables in _ach_ add _e_ or _ean_ to the genitive singular; +as, mullach m. _summit_, g. s. mullaich, n. p. mullaichean; otrach m. _a +dunghill_, n. p. otraichean; clarsach f. _a harp_, n. p. clarsaichean; +deudach f. _the jaw_, n. p. deudaichean. So sliabh m. _a moor_, g. s. +sleibh, with _t_ {50} inserted, n. p. sleibhte. Sabhul m. _a barn_, g. s. +sabhuil, n. p. saibhlean, contracted for sabhuilean. + +The following Nouns form their Nominative Plural irregularly: Dia m. _God_, +n. p. dée or diathan; scian f. _a knife_, n. p. sceana or scinichean; +sluagh m. _people_, n. p. sloigh; bo. f. _a cow_, n. p. ba. + + + +_Genitive._ 1. Monosyllables, and nouns which form their nominative plural +like the genitive singular, have the genitive plural like the nominative +singular; as, geug f. _a branch_, g. p. geug; coimhearsnach m. _a +neighbour_, g. s. and n. p. coimhearsnach. + +2. Polysyllables which have their nominative plural in _a_ or _an_, form +the genitive like the nominative; leabhar m. _a book_, n. p. and g. p. +'leabraichean'--When the nominative plural is twofold, the genitive is so +too; as 'fear' n. _a man_, n. p. fir, or sometimes feara, g. p. fear or +feara. + +Cu m. _a dog_ has its g. p. con; caora f. _a sheep_, g. p. caorach; sluagh +m. _people_, g. p. sluagh or slogh. + + + +_Dative._ The dative plural is formed either from the nominative singular +or from the nominative plural. If the nominative plural ends in a +consonant, the dative plural is formed by adding _ibh_ to the nominative +singular; as, crann m. _a tree_, n. p. croinn, d. p. crannaibh; mac m. _a +son_, n. p. mic, d. p. macaibh. If the nominative plural ends in a vowel, +the final vowel is changed into _ibh_; as, tobar _a well_, n. p. tobraiche, +d. p. tobraichibh. + +2. Monosyllables ending in an aspirated consonant, which have their +nominative plural like the genitive singular, form their dative plural like +the nominative plural; as, damh _an ox_, g. s. and n. p. daimh, d. p. +daimh, not damhaibh; fiadh m. _a deer_, g. s. and n. p. and d. p. feidh. So +sluagh m. _people_, _host_, g. s. sluaigh, n. p. and d. p. sloigh. Nouns +ending in _ch_, of three or more syllables, form their dative plural like +the nominative plural, rather than in _ibh_; as, coimhearsnach m. _a +neighbour_, d. p. coimhearsnaich rather than coimhearsnachaibh; phairiseach +m. _a Pharisee_, d. p. phairisich rather than phairiseachaibh. {51} + +_Vocative._ The vocative plural is like the nominative plural, terminating +in _a_, but seldom in _an_; as, fear m. _a man_, n. p. fir or feara, v. p. +_fheara_; oglach m. _a servant_, n. p. _oglaich_, v. p. _oglacha_. Except +perhaps monosyllables which never form their nominative plural in _a_, nor +their dative plural in _ibh_; as, damh m. _an ox_, n. p. daimh, v. p. +dhaimh; a shloigh, Rom. xv. 11. + +The irregular noun Bean f. _a woman_, is declined thus: + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Bean Mnai, mnathan + _Gen._ Mna Ban + _Dat._ Mnaoi Mnathaibh + _Voc._ Bhean. Mhnathan. + + + + SECOND DECLENSION. + + Cealgair, mas. _a deceiver_. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Cealgair Cealgaire + _Gen._ Cealgair Cealgair + _Dat._ Cealgair Cealgairibh + _Voc._ Chealgair. Chealgaire. + + Clais, fem. _a gully_. + + _Nom._ Clais Claisean + _Gen._ Claise Clais + _Dat._ Clais Claisibh + _Voc._ Chlais. Chlaise. + +_Formation of the cases of nouns of the second Declension._ + +_Singular Number._ + +_General Rule for the Genitive._ The genitive of polysyllables is like the +nominative; of monosyllables is made by adding _e_ to the nominative; as, +caraid m. _a friend_, g. s. caraid; aimsir f. _time_, g. s. aimsir; tigh m. +_a house_, g. s. tighe; ainm m. _a name,_ g. s. ainme; im m. _butter_, g. +s. ime; craig f. _a rock_, g. s. craige. {52} + +_Particular Rules for the Genitive._ 1. Feminine nouns in _ail_ and _air_ +drop the _i_ and add _ach_; if the nominative be a polysyllable, _ai_ is +thrown away; as, sail f. _a beam_, g. s. salach; dail f. _a plain_, g. s. +dalach; lair f. _a mare_, g. s. làrach; cathair f. _a seat_, g. s. +cathrach; nathair f. _a serpent_, g. s. nathrach; lasair f. _a flame_, g. +s. lasrach. To these add còir f. _right_, g. s. còrach or còire. + +2. Monosyllables characterised by _oi_ drop _i_ and add _a_; as, feoil f. +_flesh_, g. s. feola; tòin f. _bottom_, g. s. tòna; sròin f. _the nose_, g. +s. sròine or sròna. + +3. Monosyllables characterised by _ui_ change _ui_ into _a_ or _o_, and add +_a_; as, muir f. _the sea_, g. s. mara; fuil f. _blood_, g. s. fola or +fala; druim f. _a ridge_, g. s. droma. Except sùil f. _the eye_, g. s. +sùla; cuid f. _a part_, g. s. codach or cuid. + +4. A few feminine polysyllables in _eir_ form their genitive like +monosyllables; as, inneir f. _dung_, g. s. inneire; suipeir f. _supper_, g. +s. suipeire. + +5. The following dissyllables seem to have formed their genitive like +monosyllables, and then suffered a contraction. Sometimes the +characteristic vowel is retained, and sometimes it is thrown away, the +final _e_ of the genitive being converted into _a_, when requisite to suit +an antecedent broad vowel. + + Amhainn, f. _a river_, g. s. aimhne, _contracted for_ amhainne + Aghainn } + Aghann } f. _a pan_, g. s. aighne, aghainne + Banais f. _a wedding_, g. s. bainse, banaise + Coluinn f. _the body_, g. s. colna, colla coluinne + Duthaich f. _a country_, g. s. duthcha, duthaiche + Fiacail f. _a tooth_, g. s. fiacla, fiacaile + Gamhuinn m. _a steer_, g. s. gamhna, gamhuinne + Gualainn f. _the shoulder_, g. s. guaille, gualainne + Madainn f. _morning_, g. s. maidne, madainne + Obair f. _work_, g. s. oibre, obaire + Uilinn f. _the elbow_, g. s. uillne, uilinne + +{53} + +6. The following nouns form their genitive by dropping the characteristic +small vowel; athair m. _a father_, g. s. athar; mathair f. _a mother_, g. +s. mathar; brathair m. _a brother_, g. s. brathar; namhaid m. _an enemy_, +g. s. namhad. Cnaimh m. _a bone_, g. s. cnamha; uaimh f. _a cave_, g. s. +uamha. Mil f. _honey_, has g. s. meala. + +7. A few monosyllables ending in a vowel have their genitive like the +nominative; as, ni m. _a thing_, ti m. _a person_, ré m. _the moon_; to +which add righ m. _a king_. + +_Dative._ The dative singular is like the nominative; as, duine m. _a man_, +d. s. duine; madainn f. _morning_, d. s. madainn. + +_Vocative._ The vocative singular is like the nominative, as, caraid m. +_friend_, v. s. charaid; mathair f. _mother_, v. s. mhathair. + +_Plural Number._ + +_Nominative.--General Rule._ The nominative plural is formed by adding to +the nominative singular _a_ or _an_, written _e_ or _ean_ to correspond to +a preceding small vowel; as, piobair m. _a piper_, n. p. piobairean; aimsir +f. _time_, _season_, n. p. aimsirean. Some nouns suffer a contraction in +the nominative plural; as, caraid m. _a friend_, n. p. càirdean; naimhaid +m. _an enemy_, n. p. naimhdean; fiacail f. _a tooth_, n. p. fiaclan. + +_Particular Rules._ 1. Some nouns, whose last consonant is _l_ or _n_, +insert _t_ in the nominative plural; as, tuil f. _a flood_, n. p. tuilte; +smuain f. _thought_, n. p. smuaintean; coille f. _a wood_, n. p. coilltean; +àithne f. _a command_, n. p. àithnte. The _t_ is aspirated in dail f. _a +plain_, n. p. dailthean; sail f. _a beam_, n. p. sailthean. + +2. Some nouns in _air_, chiefly such as form their genitive singular in +_ach_, retain the same syllable in the nominative plural, and insert _i_ +after _a_; as, + + Cathair, f. _a seat_, g. s. cathrach, n. p. cathraichean. + Lasair, f. _a flame_, g. s. lasrach, n. p. lasraichean. + Nathair, f. _a serpent_, g. s. nathrach, n. p. nathraichean. + +{54} So also cuid f. _a part_, from the g. s. codach, has the n. p. +codaichean; athair m. _a father_, n. p. aithrichean; mathair f. _a mother_, +n. p. maithrichean. To which add amhainn f. _a river_, n. p. aimhnichean; +uisge m. _water_, n. p. uisgeachan; cridhe m. _the heart_, n. p. +cridheachan. + +The following nouns form their nominative plural irregularly; duine m. _a +man_, n. p. daoine; righ m. _a king_, n. p. righre; ni m. _a thing_, n. p. +nithe; cliamhuinn m. _a son-in-law_, or _brother-in-law_, n. p. cleamhna. + +_Genitive._ The genitive plural of monosyllables and masculine +polysyllables is twofold, like the nominative singular, and like the +nominative plural; as, righ m. _a king_, g. p. righ or righre. The genitive +plural of feminine polysyllables is like the nominative plural only; as, +amhainn f. _a river_, g. p. aimhnichean. Suil f. _the eye_, has its g. p. +sùl. + +_Dative._ The dative plural is formed from the nominative plural by +changing the final vowel into _ibh_; as, coluinn f. _the body_, n. p. +coluinne, d. p. coluinnibh; cridhe m. _the heart_, n. p. cridheacha, d. p. +cridheachaibh. + +_Vocative._ The vocative plural is like the nominative plural; as, duine m. +_a man_, n. p. daoine, v. p. dhaoine. + +Final _a_ or _e_ in all the singular cases of polysyllables is occasionally +cut off, especially in verse; as, leab _bed_, teang _tongue_, coill _wood_, +cridh _heart_. + +_Of the Initial form of Nouns._ + +In nouns beginning with a consonant, all the cases admit of the _aspirated +form_. In the vocative singular and plural the aspirated form alone is +used, except in nouns beginning with a lingual, which are generally in the +primary form, when preceded by a lingual; as, a sheann duine _old man_. +Nouns beginning with _s_ followed by a mute consonant have no aspirated +form, because _s_ in that situation does not admit of the aspirate. In +nouns beginning with _l_, _n_, _r_, a distinction is uniformly observed in +pronouncing the initial consonant, corresponding precisely to the +distinction of primary and {55} aspirated forms in nouns beginning with +other consonants. This distinction has already been fully stated in +treating of pronunciation. + +The general use of the singular and plural numbers has been already +mentioned. A remarkable exception occurs in the Gaelic. When the numerals +fichead _twenty_, ceud _a hundred_, mile _a thousand_, are prefixed to a +noun, the noun is not put in the plural, but in the singular number, and +admits no variation of case. The termination of a noun preceded by da +_two_, is the same with that of the dative singular, except when the noun +is governed in the genitive case, and then it is put in the genitive +plural[38]; when preceded by fichead, ceud, &c., the termination is that of +the nominative singular; thus da laimh _two hands_, da chluais _two ears_, +dà fhear _two men_, fichead làmh _twenty hands_, ceud fear _a hundred men_, +mìle caora _a thousand sheep_, deich mìle bliadhna _ten thousand +years_[39]. + + + +CHAPTER III. + +OF ADJECTIVES. + +An adjective is a word used along with a noun, to express some quality of +the person or thing signified by the noun. + +Adjectives undergo changes which mark their relation to other words. These +changes are made, like those on nouns, partly on the beginning, and partly +on the termination, and may be fitly denominated by the same names. The +changes on the beginning are made by aspirating an initial consonant. The +numbers and cases, like those of nouns, are distinguished by changes on the +termination. The gender is marked partly by the initial form, partly by the +termination. + +Adjectives whereof the characteristic vowel is broad, follow, {56} in most +of their inflections, the form of nouns of the first declension, and may be +termed Adjectives of the first declension. Those adjectives whereof the +characteristic vowel is small, may be called Adjectives of the second +declension. + +_Example of Adjectives of the First Declension._ + +Mòr, _great_. + + Singular. Plural + _Mas._ _Fem._ _Com. Gend._ + _Nom._ Mor, Mhor, Mora. + _Gen._ Mhoir, Moire, Mora. + _Dat._ Mor, Mhoir, Mora. + _Voc._ Mhoir, Mhor, Mora. + +_Formation of the Cases of Adjectives of the First Declension._ + +_Singular._ + +_Nominative._ The feminine gender is, in termination, like the masculine. + +The other cases, both mas. and fem., are formed from the nominative, +according to the rules already given for forming the cases of nouns of the +first declension. Take the following examples in adjectives:-- + +_Genitive._--_General rule._ Marbh _dead_, g. s. m. mhairbh, f. mairbhe; +dubh _black_, g. s. m. dhuibh, f. duibhe; fadalach _tedious_, g. s. m. +fhadalaich, f. fadalaich. + +_Particular rules._ 1. Sona _happy_, g. s. m. shona, f. sona; aosda _aged_, +g. s. m. and f. aosda; beo _alive_, g. s. m. bheo, f. beo. + +2. Bochd _poor_, g. s. m. bhochd, f. bochd; gearr _short_, g. s. m. ghearr, +f. gearr. + +3. Breagh _fine_, g. s. m. bhreagha, f. breagha. + +4. Crion _little_, _diminutive_, g. s. m. chrìn, f. crìne. + +5. Donn _brown_, g. s. m. dhuinn, f. duinne; gorm _blue_, g. s. m. ghuirm, +f. guirme; lom _bare_, g. s. m. luim, f. luime. {57} But dall _blind_, g. +s. m. dhoill, f. doille; mall _slow_, g. s. m. mhoill, f. moille; like the +nouns crann, clann. + +6. Cinnteach _certain_, g. s. m. chinntich, f. cinntich; maiseach +_beautiful_, g. s. m. mhaisich, f. maisich. Tearc _rare_, g. s. m, theirc, +f. teirce; dearg _red_, g. s. m. dheirg, f. deirge; deas _ready_, g. s. m. +dheis, f. deise. Breac _speckled_, g. s. m, bhric, f. brice; geal _white_, +g. s. m. ghil, f. gile. + +7. Geur _sharp_, g. s. m. ghéir, f. géire; like the nouns breug, geug. + +8. Liath _hoary_, g. s. m. leith, f. léithe; dian _keen_, g. s. m. dhéin, +f. déine. + +Irregulars. Odhar _pale_, g. s. m. and f. uidhir; bodhar _deaf_, g. s. m. +bhuidhir, f. buidhir. + +_Dative._--_General rule._ Uasal _noble_, d. s. m. uasal f. uasail; bodhar +_deaf_, d. s. m. bodhar, f. bhuidhir. + +_Particular rule._ 1. Trom _heavy_, d. s. m. trom, f. thruim. + +_Vocative._ Beag _small_, v. s. m. bhig, f. bheag. + +_Plural._ + +In Monosyllables the plural, through all its cases, is formed by adding _a_ +to the nom. sing.; in Polysyllables, it is like the nom. sing.; as, crom +_crooked_, pl. croma; tuirseach _melancholy_, pl. tuirseach. + +A few Dissyllables form their Plural like Monosyllables, and suffer a +contraction; as, reamhar _fat_, pl. reamhra, contracted for reamhara. Gen. +xli. 20. + +_Adjectives of the Second Declension._ + +All the Cases of Adjectives of the Second Declension are formed according +to the general rules for nouns of the second declension; that is, +Monosyllables add _e_ for the gen. sing. fem. and for the plural cases; +Polysyllables are like the nom. sing. throughout. + +In the Second Declension, as in the First, Dissyllables sometimes suffer a +contraction in the plural; as, milis _sweet_, pl. milse contracted for +milise. {58} + +_Of the Initial Form of Adjectives._ + +Adjectives admit the _aspirated form_ through all the Numbers and Cases. In +Adjectives beginning with a Labial or a Palatal, the aspirated form alone +is used in the gen. and voc. sing. masc. the nom. dat. and voc. sing. +feminine. + +_Comparison of Adjectives._ + +There are in Gaelic two forms of Comparison, which may be called the +_First_ and the _Second Comparative_. + +The _First Comparative_ is formed from the gen. sing. mas. by adding _e_; +as, geal _white_, g. s. m. gil, comp. gile, ghile; ciontach _guilty_, g. s. +m. ciontaich, comp. ciontaiche. Some Adjectives suffer a contraction in the +Comparative; as, bodhar _deaf_, comp. buidhre for buidhire; boidheach +_pretty_, comp. boidhche for boidhiche. + +If the last letter of the gen. be _a_, it is changed into _e_, and _i_ +inserted before the last consonant; as, fada _long_, g. s. m. fada, comp. +faide; tana _thin_, g. s. m. tana, comp. taine. + +_The Second Comparative_ is formed from the first, by changing final _e_ +into _id_; as, trom _heavy_, 1. comp. truime, 2. comp. truimid; tiugh +_thick_, 1. comp. tiuighe, 2. comp. tiuighid. Many Adjectives, especially +Polysyllables, do not admit of the Second Comparative. + +Both these forms of Comparison have an _aspirated_ as well as a _primary +form_, but are otherwise indeclinable. + +The following Adjectives are compared irregularly. + + _Positive._ _1. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Math, maith, _good_, fearr, feaird. + Olc, _bad, evil_, miosa, misd. + Mòr, _great_, mò, mòid. + Beag, _small_, lugha, lughaid. + Goirid, gearr, _short_, giorra, giorraid. + Duilich, _difficult_, dorra. + Teath, _hot_, teoithe, teoithid. + Leathan, _broad_, leatha, lèithne. + Fogus, _near_, foisge. + {59} + Càirdeach, _akin_, càra. + Furas, _easy_, fhusa, + Toigh, _dear_, docha. + Ionmhuinn, _beloved_, annsa, ionnsa. + +To these may be added the nouns-- + +Moran _a great number_ or _quantity_, and Tuilleadh _more_. + +The _Superlative_, which is but a particular mode of expressing comparison, +is the same in form with the First Comparative. + +An eminent degree of any quality is expressed by putting one of the +particles ro, glé, before the Positive; as, ro ghlic _very wise_, glé gheal +_very white_. The same effect is produced by prefixing fior _true_, sàr +_exceeding_, &c., which words are, in that case, used adverbially; as, fior +mhaiseach _truly beautiful_, sàr mhaith _exceedingly good_. + +_Cardinal Numbers._ + + 1 Aon, a h-aon, _one_. 40 Dà fhichead. + 2 Dà, a dhà 50 Deich is dà fhichead. + 3 Tri. 60 Tri fichead. + 4 Ceithir. 100 Ceud. + 5 Cuig. 200 Dà cheud. + 6 Sè, sia. 300 Tri ceud. + 7 Seachd. 400 Ceithir cheud. + 8 Ochd. 500 Cuig ceud. + 9 Naoi. 1,000 Mìle. + 10 Deich. 2,000 Dà mhìle. + 11 Aon deug. 3,000 Tri mìle. + 12 A dhà dheug. 10,000 Deich mìle. + 13 Tri deug. 20,000 Fichead mìle. + 20 Fichead. 100,000 Ceud mìle. + 21 Aon thar fhichead. 200,000 Dà cheud mìle. + 22 Dha 'ar fhichead. 1,000,000 Deich ceud mìle, + 23 Tri 'ar fhichead. Mìle de mhìltibh. + 30 Deich 'ar fhichead. &c. &c. + 31 Aon deug thar fhichead. + +{60} + +_Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun._ + + Of the mas. gender. Of the fem. gender. + + 1 Aon fhear, _one man_. Aon chlach, _one stone_. + 2 Dà fhear. Dà chloich. + 3 Tri fir. Tri clachan. + 10 Deich fir. Deich clachan. + 11 Aon fhear deug. Aon chlach dheug. + 12 Dà fhear dheug. Dà chloich dheug. + 13 Tri fir dheug. Tri clachan deug. + 20 Fichead fear. Fichead clach. + 21 Aon fhear thar fhichead. Aon chlach thar fhichead. + 22 Dà fhear thar fhichead. Dà chloich thar fhichead. + 23 Tri fir fhichead. Tri clacha fichead. + 30 Deich fir fhichead. Deich clacha fichead. + 31 Aon fhear deug 'ar fhichead. Aon chlach dheug thar fhichead. + 40 Dà fhichead fear. Dà fhichead clach. + 41 Fear is dà fhichead. Clach is dà fhichead. + 42 Dà fhear is dà fhichead. Dà chloich is da fhichead. + 50 Deich is dà fhichead fear. Deich is da fhichead clach. + 60 Tri fichead fear. Tri fichead clach. + 70 Tri fichead fear agus deich. Tri fichead clach agus deich. + 100 Ceud fear. Ceud clach. + 101 Ceud fear agus a h-aon. Ceud clach agus a h-aon. + 300 Tri cheud fear. Tri cheud clach. + 1,000 Mìle fear. Mìle clach. + 10,000 Deich mìle fear, &c. Deich mìle clach, &c. + +_Ordinal Numbers._ + + 1 An ceud fhear, _the first man_; a' cheud chlach, _the first stone_. + 2 An dara fear. + 3 An treas fear, an tri-amh fear. + 4 An ceathramh fear. + 5 An cuigeamh fear. + 6 An seathamh fear. + 7 An seachdamh fear. + 8 An t-ochdamh fear. + {61} + 9 An naothamh fear. + 10 An deicheamh fear. + 11 An t-aon fear deug. + 12 An dara fear deug. + 20 Am ficheadamh fear. + 21 An t-aon fhear fichead. + 22 An dara fear fichead. + 31 An t-aon fhear deug thar fhichead. + 40 An dà fhicheadamh fear. + 60 An tri ficheadamh fear. + 100 An ceudamh fear. + 101 An t-aon fhear thar cheud. + 120 Am ficheadamh fear thar cheud. + 200 An da cheudamh fear. + 1000 Am mìleamh fear, &c. + +The following numeral Nouns are applied only to persons:-- + + 2. Dithis, _two persons_. 7. Seachdnar. + 3. Triuir. 8. Ochdnar. + 4. Ceathrar. 9. Naoinar. + 5. Cuignear. 10. Deichnar. + 6. Sèanar. + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +OF PRONOUNS. + +The _Pronouns_ are, for the most part, words used instead of nouns. They +may be arranged under the following divisions: Personal, Possessive, +Relative, Demonstrative, Interrogative, Indefinite, Compound. + +The _Personal Pronouns_ are those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons. They have +a Singular and a Plural Number, a Simple and an Emphatic Form. They are +declined thus:-- {62} + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Simple Form._ _Emphat. F._ _Simple F._ _Emphat._ + 1. Mi, mhi, _I_, _me_, Mise, mhise. Sinn, _we_, _us_, Sinne. + 2. {Th, thu, _thou_, } Tusa, thusa. Sibh, _ye_, _you_, Sibhse. + {Thu, _thee_, } + 3. {E, se, _he_, } Esan. + {E, _him_, } + {I, si, _she_, } Ise. {Iad, siad, _they_} + {I, _her_, } {Iad, _them,_ } Iadsan[40] + +The Pronoun 'sibh' _you_, of the plural number is used almost universally +in addressing a single person of superior rank or of greater age; while +'tu' _thou_, of the singular number is used in addressing an inferior or an +equal. But the degree of seniority or of superiority, which is understood +to entitle a person to this token of respect, varies in different parts of +the Highlands[41]. The Supreme Being is always addressed by the pronoun +'tu' _thou_, of the singular number. + +The _Possessive Pronouns_ correspond to the Personal Pronouns, and, like +them, may be called those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons singular, and 1st, +2d, and 3d persons plural. They have an Emphatic Form, which is made by +connecting the syllable _sa_ with the possessive pronoun of the 1st, 2d, +{63} and 3d persons singular, and 2d person plural; _ne_ with that of the +1st person plural, and _san_ with that of the 3d person plural. These +syllables are placed immediately after the nouns to which the possessive +pronouns are prefixed, and connected by a hyphen. + +These Pronouns are as follow:-- + + _Simple._ _Emphatic._ _Simple._ _Emphatic._ + _Singular._ _Plural._ + 1. Mo, _my_, mo mhac-sa 1. Ar, _our_, ar mac-ne + 2. Do, _thy_, do ----sa 2. Bhur, 'ur, _your_, bhur ----sa + 3. {A, _his_, a mhac-sa, san} 3. An, am, _their_, an, am ----sa, san + {A, _her_, a mac-sa, san } + +If the noun be followed by an adjective, the emphatic syllable is affixed +to the adjective; as, do làmh gheal-sa _thy white hand_. + +The possessive pronouns mo, do, when followed by a vowel, commonly lose the +_o_, whose absence is marked by an apostrophe; as, m' aimn _my name_; d' +athair[42] _thy father_. The same pronouns when preceded by the preposition +ann _in_, suffer a transposition of their letters, and are written am, ad, +one broad vowel being substituted for another, as, ann ad chridhe _in thy +heart_, 1 Sam. xiv. 7, ann am aire _in my thoughts_. + +The possessive pronoun a _his_, is often suppressed altogether after a +vowel; as, na sanntaich bean do choimhearsnaich, no oglach, no bhanoglach, +no dhamh, no asal, _covet not thy neighbour's wife, or his man-servant, or +his maid-servant_, &c., Exod. xx. 17. In these and similar instances, as +the tense is but imperfectly expressed (especially when the noun begins +with a vowel), and cannot be gathered with certainty from any other part of +the sentence, perhaps it might {64} be an improvement to retain the +pronoun, even at the expense of cutting off the final vowel of the +preceding word; as, n' a oglach, n' a bhanoglaich, &c. In many cases, +however, this appears hardly practicable; as, cha bheo athair _his father +is not alive_, which could not with any propriety be written cha bheo a +athair[43]. + +The word fein corresponding to the English words _self_, _own_, is +subjoined occasionally both to the personal and possessive pronouns: thus +mi fein _myself_, mise fein _I myself_, thu fein _thyself_, thusa fein +_thou thyself_, or _thy own self_, mo shluagh fein _my own people_. + +The other Pronouns are as follow:-- + + _Relative._ _Demonstrative._ _Interrogative._ + _N._ A, _who_, _which_, So, _this_, _these_. Co? _who?_ + _that_. + _G.&D._ An. Sin, _that_, _those_. Cia? _which?_ + Nach, _who not_, Sud[44], ud, _yon_. Ciod, creud? _what?_ + _which not_, + Na, _that which_, + _what_[45]. + + _Indefinite._ _Compound._ + Eigin, _some_. E so, _this one_, m. E sud, _yon one_, m. + Ge b'e } _whoever_[46]. I so, _this one_, f. I sud, _yon one_, f. + Cia b'e } + {65} + Eile, _other_. Iad so, _these_. Iad sud, _yon_, pl. + Gach, } _each_, } E sin, _that one_, m. Cach eile, _the rest_. + Cach, } _every_[47]. } + Cach, _others, the rest_. Iad sin, _those_. Cach a chéile, + Cuid, _some_. _each other_[48]. + + + +CHAPTER V. + +OF VERBS. + +A word that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer anything, is called a +_Verb_. + +The Verb in Gaelic, as in other languages, is declined by Voices, Moods, +Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. + +The _Voices_ are two: Active and Passive. + +The _Moods_ are five: the Affirmative or Indicative, the Negative or +Interrogative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. Many, +but not all, Transitive Verbs have a Passive Participle. + +The _Tenses_ are three: the Present, the Preterite, and the Future. + +The _Numbers_ are two: Singular and Plural. + +The _Persons_ are three: First, Second, and Third. The {66} distinction of +number and person takes place only in a few tenses. + +The inflections of Verbs, like those of nouns, are made by changes at the +beginning, and on the termination. + +The changes on the termination are made according to one model, and by the +same rules. But for the sake of stating some diversity in the _initial_ +changes, it may be convenient to arrange the verbs in two _conjugations_, +whereof the first comprehends those verbs which begin with a consonant, the +second, those verbs which begin with a vowel. Verbs beginning with _f_, +followed by a vowel, are ranged under the second conjugation, along with +verbs beginning with a vowel. + +The verb Bi _be_, which is used as an auxiliary to other verbs, is declined +as follows:-- + +Bi, _be_. + + _Affirmative_ or _Indicative Mood_. + + Present. Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1. Ta mi, _I am_, Bha mi, _I was_, Bithidh mi, _I will be_, + 2. Ta thu, Bha thu, Bithidh tu, + 3. Ta e; Bha e; Bithidh se; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1. Ta sinn, Bha sinn, Bithidh sinn, + 2. Ta sibh, Bha sibh, Bithidh sibh, + 3. Ta iad. Bha iad. Bithidh siad. + + _Negative_ or _Interrogative Mood_. + + Present. Preterite. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 Bheil mi, _I am not,_ Robh mi, _I was not,_ + ni { 2 Bheil thu, Robh thu, + cha { 3 Bheil e; Robh e; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 Bheil sinn, Robh sinn, + { 2 Bheil sibh, Robh sibh, + { 3 Bheil iad. Robh iad. + +{67} + + Future. + _Sing._ + { Bi mi, _I shall not be_, + ni { Bi thu, + cha { Bi se; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ + &c. { Bi sinn, + { Bi sibh, + { Bi siad. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite or Imperfect. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhithinn, _I would be_, Ma bhitheas mi, _If I shall be_, + 2 Bhitheadh tu, Bhitheas tu, + 3 Bhitheadh e; Bhitheas e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhitheadheamaid, Bhitheas sinn, + Bhitheadh sinn, + 2 Bhitheadh sibh, Bhitheas sibh, + 3 Bhitheadh iad. Bhitheas iad. + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _Sing._ + 1 Bitheam, _let me be_, Bith, _being_, + 2 Bi, bi thusa, do bhith, } _to be_, + 3 Bitheadh e; a bhith, } + gu bhith, } _to be_, + _Plur._ gu bith, } + 1 Bitheamaid, iar bhith,} _after being_, _been_, + 2 Bithibh, iar bith, } + 3 Bitheadh iad. o bhith, _from being_, &c. + +_Compound Tenses._ + + Present. Preterite. Future. + _Affirmative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ _Sing._ + Ta mi iar bith, Bha mi iar bith, Bithidh mi iar bith, + _I have been_, &c. _I had been_, &c. _I shall have been_, &c. + {68} + + _Negative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ _Sing._ + ni, {Bheil mi iar bith, Robh mi iar bith, Bi mi air bith, + &c. {_I have not been._ _I had not been._ _I shall not have been._ + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite or Pluperfect. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhithinn iar bith, Ma bhitheas mi iar bith, + _I should have been, &c._ _If I shall have been, &c._ + +The present affirmative ta is often written tha. This is one of many +instances where there appears reason to complain of the propensity remarked +in Part I. in those who speak the Gaelic, to attenuate its articulations by +aspiration. Another corrupt way of writing ta which has become common, is +ata. This has probably taken its rise from uniting the relative to the +verb; as, an uair _ata_ mi; instead of an uair _a ta_, &c., mar _a ta_, &c. +Or perhaps it may have proceeded from a too compliant regard to a +provincial pronunciation. + +The pret. neg. robh appears to be made up of the verbal participle ro, the +same with do, and bha, throwing away the last vowel; ro bha, robh. + +The verb and pronoun of the 1st per. sing. and 3d per. plur. are frequently +incorporated into one word, and written taim _I am_, taid _they are_. + +The pres. neg. loses the initial _bh_ after the participle cha _not_, mur +_if not_, nach _that not_; _n_ is inserted, _euphoniae causa_, betwixt the +participle cha and the verb; as, cha n 'eil, mur 'eil, nach 'eil. This +Tense is often pronounced beil after the participle am; as, am beil e? _is +it?_ + +In the North Highlands, the pret. neg. often takes the common verbal +participle do before it; as, cha do robh mi, or cha d'robh mi, _I was not_. + +Initial _b_ of the fut. neg. is aspirated after the participle cha _not_; +as, cha bhi. + +Initial _bh_ of the pret. subj. loses the aspiration after the {69} +participles ni _not_, mur _if not_, nach _that not_, gu _that_, nam _if_; +as, mur bithinn, nam bitheadh tu. + +The subjunct. and imper. often suffer a contraction, by changing _ithea_ +into _io_; as, biodh, biom, bios, &c. + +Some of the compound tenses of Bi are rarely if ever used. They are here +given complete, because they correspond to the analogy of other verbs; and +show how accurately the various modifications of time may be expressed by +the substantive verb itself. + +Example of a verb of the First Conjugation. Buail _to strike_. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Simple Tenses. + + _Affirmative_ or _Indicative Moods_. + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Do bhuail mi, _I struck_, Buailidh mi, _I will strike_, + Bhuail mi, + 2 Bhuail thu, Buailidh tu, + 3 Bhuail e; Buailidh se; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuail sinn, Buailidh sinn, + 2 Bhuail sibh, Buailidh sibh, + 3 Bhuail iad. Buailidh siad. + + _Negative_ or _Interrogative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 Do bhuail mi, _I struck not_ Buail mi, _I will not strike_, + ni { 2 Do bhuail thu, Buail thu, + cha { 3 Do bhuail e; Buail e; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 Do bhuail sinn, Buail sinn, + { 2 Do bhuail sibh, Buail sibh, + { 3 Do bhuail iad. Buail iad. + +{70} + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhuailinn, _I would strike_, Ma bhuaileas mi, _If I shall strike_, + 2 Bhuaileadh tu, Bhuaileas tu, + 3 Bhuaileadh e; Bhuaileas e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuaileamaid, Bhuaileas sinn, + Bhuaileadh sinn, + 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, Bhuaileas sinn, + 3 Bhuaileadh iad. Bhuaileas iad. + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _Sing._ + 1 Buaileam, _let me strike_, Bualadh, _striking_, + 2 Buail, ag bualadh, _a-striking_, _striking_, + 3 Buaileadh e; iar bualadh, _struck_, + do bhualadh, } + _Plur._ a bhualadh, } _to strike_, + 1 Buaileamaid, ri bualadh, _at striking_, + 2 Buailibh, le bualadh, _with striking_, + 3 Buaileadh iad. o bhualadh, _from striking_, &c. + +Compound Tenses. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ta mi ag bualadh, Bha mi ag bualadh, Bithidh mi ag bualadh, + _I am striking_, &c. _I was striking_, &c. _I will be striking_, &c. + + {71} + Present. Preterite. Future. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ta mi iar bualadh, Bha mi iar bualadh, Bithidh mi iar bualadh, + _I have struck_, &c. _I had struck_, &c. _I will have struck_, &c. + + _Negative Mood_ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + { Bheil mi ag bualadh, Robh mi ag bualadh, + { _I am not striking_, &c. _I was not striking_, &c. + { + { Future. + { _1. Comp._ + { Bi mi ag bualadh, + ni { _I will not be striking_, &c. + cha { + nach { Present. Preterite, + mur, { _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + &c. { Bheil mi iar bualadh, Robh mi iar bualadh, + { _I have not struck_,&c. _I had not struck,_ &c. + { + { Future. + { _2. Comp._ + { Bi mi iar bualadh, + { _I will not have struck,_ &c. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bhithinn ag bualadh, Ma bhitheas mi ag bualadh, + _I would be striking_, &c. _If I shall be striking_, &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bhithinn iar bualadh, Ma bhitheas mi iar bualadh, + _I would have struck,_ &c. _If I shall have struck_, &c. + {72} + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bitheam ag bualadh, Do bhith ag bualadh, + _Let me be striking,_ &c. _To be striking,_ &c. + Iar bith ag bualadh, + _Been striking,_ &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bitheam iar bualadh, Do bhith iar bualadh, + _Let me have struck,_ &c. _To have been striking,_ &c. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Simple Tenses. + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, _I was struck._ Buailear mi, _I shall be struck._ + Bhuaileadh mi, + 2 Bhuaileadh thu, Buailear thu, + 3 Bhuaileadh e; Buailear e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuaileadh sinn, Buailear sinn, + 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, Buailear sibh, + Bhuaileadh iad. Buailear iad. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, Buailear mi, + { _I was not struck_, _I shall not be struck_, + ni { 2 Do bhuaileadh thu, Buailear thu, + cha { 3 Do bhuaileadh e; Buailear e; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 Do bhuaileadh sinn, Buailear sinn, + { 2 Do bhuaileadh sibh, Buailear sibh, + { 3 Do bhuaileadh iad, Buailear iad. + +{73} + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhuailteadh mi, _ Ma bhuailear mi, + _I would be struck,_ _If I shall be struck._ + 2 Bhuailteadh thu, Bhuailear thu, + 3 Bhuailteadh e; Bhuailear e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuailteadh sinn, Bhuailear sinn, + 2 Bhuailteadh sibh, Bhuailear sibh, + 3 Bhuailteadh iad. Bhuailear iad. + + _Imperative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + 1 Buailtear mi, _Let me be struck,_ 1 Buailtear sinn, + 2 Buailtear thu, 2 Buailtear sibh, + 3 Buailtear e. 3 Buailtear iad. + + _Participle._ + Buailte, _struck._ + + Compound Tenses + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ta mi buailte, _I am struck,_ &c. Bha mi buailte, _I was struck,_ &c. + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Bithidh mi buailte, _I shall be struck,_ &c. + +{74} + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Ta mi iar mo bhualadh, Bha mi iar mo bhualadh, + _I have been struck,_ _I had been struck,_ + 2 Ta thu iar do bhualadh, Bha thu iar do bhualadh, + 3 Ta se iar a bhualadh; Bha se iar a bhualadh; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Ta sinn iar ar bualadh, Bha sinn iar ar bualadh, + 2 Ta sibh iar 'ur bualadh, Bha sibh iar 'ur bualadh, + 3 Ta siad iar am bualadh. Bha siad iar am bualadh. + + Future. + _2. Comp._ + _Sing._ + 1 Bithidh mi iar mo bhualadh, _I shall have been struck._ + 2 Bithidh tu iar do bhualadh, + 3 Bithidh se iar a bhualadh; + + _Plur._ + 1 Bithidh sinn iar ar bualadh, + 2 Bithidh sibh iar 'ur bualadh, + 3 Bithidh siad iar am bualadh. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ni bheil mi buailte, Ni'n robh mi buailte, + _I am not struck,_ &c. _I was not struck,_ &c. + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi buailte, _I shall not be struck,_ &c. + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ni 'm bheil mi iar mo bhualadh, Ni'n robh mi iar mo bhualadh, + _I have not been struck,_ &c. _I had not been struck,_ &c. + {75} + + Future. + _2. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi iar mo bhualadh, _I shall not have been struck,_ &c. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bhithinn buailte, Ma bhitheas mi buailte, + _I would be struck,_ &c. _If I shall be struck,_ &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bhithinn iar mo bhualadh, Ma bhitheas mi iar mo bhualadh, + _I would have been struck,_ &c. _If I shall have been struck,_ &c. + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bitheam buailte, Do bhith buailte, + _Let me be struck,_ &c. _To be struck,_ &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bitheam iar mo bhualadh, Do bhith iar mo bhualadh, + _Let me have been struck,_ &c. _To have been struck,_ &c. + + + +_Examples of Verbs of the Second Conjugation._ + +Orduich, _to appoint._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Simple Tenses + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirmat._ Dh'orduich, Orduichidh, + _Negat._ D'orduich, Orduich, + _Subjunct._ Dh'orduichinn. Dh'orduicheas. + _Imperat._ Orduicheam. _Infinit._ Orduchadh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirmat._ Dh'orduicheadh, Orduichear, + _Negat._ D'orduicheadh, Orduichear, + _Subjunct._ Dh'orduichteadh. Dh'orduicheas. + _Imperat._ Orduichear. _Particip._ Orduichte. + +{76} + +Folaich, _to hide._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirmat._ Dh'fholaich, Folaichidh, + _Negat._ D'fholaich, Folaich, + _Subjunct._ Dh'fholaichinn. Dh'fholaicheas. + _Imperat._ Folaicheam. _Infinit._ Folachadh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirmat._ Dh'fholaicheadh, Folaichear, + _Negat._ D'fholaicheadh, Folaichear, + _Subjunct._ Dh'fholaichteadh. Dh'fholaichear. + _Imperat._ Folaichtear. _Particip._ Folaichte. + +The Compound tenses may be easily learned from those of the Verb Buail in +the first Conjugation, being formed exactly in the same manner. + + + +FORMATION OF THE TENSES. + +_Of the Initial Form._ + +An Initial Consonant is aspirated in the Preterite Tense, through all the +Moods and Voices, except in the Preterite Subjunctive after the Particles +ni, mur, nach, gu, an, am. An initial Consonant is occasionally aspirated +in the Future Tense, and in the Infinitive and Participle, indicating their +connection with the preceding word. + +In the first Conjugation, do is prefixed to the Pret. Aff. and Neg. Active +and Passive. However, it often is, and always may be, omitted before the +Pret. Aff. It is sometimes omitted in the Pret. Neg. in verse, and in +common conversation. In the second Conjugation, the same Particle do is +prefixed to the Preterite through all the Moods and Voices, and to the Fut. +Subj. excepting only the Subjunctive Tenses after ni, mur, nach, gu, an, +am. In this {77} Conjugation, do always loses the _o_ to avoid a _hiatus_, +and the _d_ is aspirated in the Affirm. and Subjunct. Moods[49]. + +_Of the Termination._ + +In all regular Verbs, the Terminations adjected to the Root are, strictly +speaking, the same in Verbs characterised by a small vowel. But where the +first vowel of the Termination does not correspond in quality to the last +vowel of the Root, it has become the constant practice to insert in the +Termination a vowel of the requisite quality, in order to produce this +correspondence. Thus a variety has been introduced into the Terminations +even of regular Verbs, prejudicial to the uniformity of inflection, and of +no use to ascertain either the sense or the pronunciation[50]. In the +foregoing examples of regular Verbs, the common mode of Orthography has +been followed, but in the following rules the simple Terminations only are +specified. + +ACTIVE VOICE. + +Simple Tenses. + +The Theme or Root of the Verb is always found in the second Per. sing. of +the imperative. + +The _Preterite_ Affirm. and Negat. is like the Root, and has no distinction +of Number or Person. In most of the editions of the Gaelic Psalms, some +inflections of the {78} Preterite have been admitted, with good effect, +from the Irish Verb; such as, bhuaileas _I struck_, bhuailis _thou didst +strike_, bhuaileamar _we struck_, bhuaileadar _they struck_. The Pret. +Subj. is formed by adding to the Root _inn_ for the first pers. sing., and +_adh_ for the other persons. The first pers. plur. also terminates in +_amaid_. + +The _Future_ Affirm. adds _idh_ to the Root; in the Negat. it is like the +Root; and in the Subjunct. it adds _as_. A poetic Future Tense terminating +in _ann_ or _onn_, is frequent in the Gaelic Psalms; as, gairionn _will +call_, seasfann _will stand_, do bheirionn, _will give_, &c. The Future has +no distinction of Number or Person. The Termination of the Future Affirm. +and Negat. in many Verbs was formerly _fidh_, like the Irish; of which many +examples occur in the earlier editions of the Gaelic Psalms. In later +Gaelic publications, the _f_ has been uniformly set aside[51]. The +Termination of the first pers. and third pers. plur. is often incorporated +with the corresponding Pronoun; as, seinnam cliu _I will sing praise_, +Psal. lxi. 8., Ni fuigham bàs, ach mairfam beo, _I shall not die, but shall +remain alive_, Ps. cxviii. 17., Ithfid, geillfid, innsid, _they will eat_, +_they will submit_, _they will tell_, Ps. xxii, 26, 29, 31. [52]. + +{79} + +In the _Imperative_ Mood, the second pers. sing. is the Root of the Verb. +The other persons are distinguished by these Terminations; 1st pers. sing. +_am_, 3d pers. sing. _adh_, 1st pers. plur. _amaid_, 2d pers. plur. _ibh_, +3d pers. plur. _adh_. + +The Terminations peculiar to the 1st pers. sing. and plur. of the Pret. +Subj. and of the Imperat. supply the place of the Personal Pronouns; as +does also the Termination of the 2d pers. plur. of the Imperative. + +The _Infinitive_ is variously formed. + +_General Rule._ The Infinitive is formed by adding _adh_ to the Root; as, +aom _bow, incline_, Infin. aomadh; ith _eat_, Infin. itheadh. + +1. Some Verbs suffer a syncope in the penult syllable, and are commonly +used in their contracted form; as, + + _Imper._ _Infin._ + Caomhain, _spare_, Caomhnadh. + Coisin, _win_, Coisneadh, Cosnadh. + Diobair, _deprive_, Diobradh. + Fògair, _remove_, Fògradh. + Foghain, _suffice_, Foghnadh. + Fosgail, _open_, Fosgladh. + Innis, _tell_, Innseadh. + Iobair, _sacrifice_, Iobradh. + Mosgail, _awake_, Mosgladh. + Seachain, _avoid_, Seachnadh. + Tionsgain, _begin_, Tionsgnadh. + Togair, _desire_, Togradh. + +Observe that Verbs which thus suffer a syncope in forming {80} the +Infinitive, suffer a like syncope in the Preterite Subjunctive, and in the +Imperative Mood; as, innis _tell_, Infin. innseadh, Pret. Subj. innsinn, +innseadh, innseamaid, Imperat. innseam, innseamaid, innsibh. + +2. A considerable number of Verbs have their Infinitive like the Root; as, + + Caoidh, _lament_. Ol, _drink_. + Dearmad, _neglect_. Ruith, _run_. + Fàs, _grow_. Snamh, _swim_. + Gairm, _call_. Sniomh, _twine_. + Meas, _estimate_. + +3. Polysyllables in _ch_, whose characteristic Vowel is small, either throw +it away, or convert it into a broad Vowel and add _adh_; as, + + Ceannaich, _buy_, Ceannachadh. + Smuainich, _think_, Smuaineachadh. + +Most Monosyllables in _sg_, and a few others, follow the same Rule; as, + + _Imper._ _Infin._ _Imper._ _Infin._ + Coisg, _check_, Cosgadh. Naisg, _bind_, Nasgadh. + Fàisg, _wring_, Fàsgadh. Paisg, _wrap_, Pasgadh. + Loisg, _burn_, Losgadh. Blais, _taste_, Blasadh. + Luaisg, _rock_, Luasgadh. Buail, _strike_, Bualadh. + +4. Many Verbs, whose characteristic Vowel is small, either throw it away, +or convert it into a broad Vowel, without adding _adh_; as, + + _Imper._ _Infin._ _Imper._ _Infin._ + Amhairc, _look_, Amharc. Iomain, _drive_, Ioman. + Amais, _reach_, Amas. Leighis, _cure_, Leigheas. + Caill, _lose_, Call. Sguir, _cease_, Sgur. + Ceangail, _bind_, Ceangal. Siubhail, _travel_, Siubhal. + Cuir, _put_, Cur. Tachrais, _wind_, Tachras. + Coimhid, _keep_, Coimhead. Tiondaidh, _turn_, Tiondadh. + Fulaing, _suffer_, Fulang. Toirmisg, _forbid_, Toirmeasg. + Fuirich, _stay_, Fuireach. Toinail, _gather_, Toinal. + Guil, _weep_, Gul. Tionsgail, _contrive_, Tionsgal. + +{81} + +5. The following Verbs in _air_ add _t_ to the Root:-- + + _Imper._ _Infin._ + Agair, _claim_, Agairt. + Bagair, _threaten_, Bagairt. + Casgair, _slaughter_, Casgairt. + Freagair, _answer_, Freagairt. + Iomair, _use_, Iomairt. + Labhair, _speak_, Labhairt. + Lomair, _shear_, Lomairt. + Saltair, _trample_, Saltairt. + Tabhair, _give_, Tabhairt. + Tachair, _meet_, Tachairt. + +6. These Monosyllables add _sinn_ to the Root:-- + + Beir, _bear_, Beirsinn. + Creid, _believe_, Creidsinn. + Faic, _see_, Faicsinn. + Goir, _crow_, Goirsinn. + Mair, _continue_, Mairsinn. + Saoil, _think_, Saoilsinn. + Tréig, _forsake_, Tréigsinn. + Tuig, _understand_, Tuigsinn, or Tuigeil. + Ruig, _reach_, Ruigsinn, or Ruigheachd. + +7. These Monosyllables add _tuinn_ or _tinn_ to the Root:-- + + Bean, _touch_, Beantuinn. + Buin, _take away_, Buntuinn. + Can, _say, sing_, Cantuinn. + Cinn, _grow_, Cinntinn. + Cluinn, _hear_, Cluinntinn. + Fan, _stay_, Fantuinn. + Gin, _produce_, Giontuinn, or Gionmhuin. + Lean, _follow_, Leantuinn, or Leanmhuin. + Meal, _enjoy_, Mealtuinn. + Pill, _return_, Pilltinn. + Seall, _look_, Sealltuinn. + +{82} + +8. The following Monosyllables add _ail_ to the Root:-- + + _Imper._ _Infin._ _Imper._ _Infin._ + Cum, _hold_, Cumail. Leag, _cast down_, Leagail. + Gabh, _take_, Gabhail. Tog, _raise_, Togail. + Fàg, _leave_, Fàgail. Tuig, _understand_, Tuigeil. + +9. These Monosyllables add _amh_ to the Root:-- + + _Imper._ _Infin._ + Caith, _spend_, Caitheamh. + Dean, _do, make_, Deanamh. + Feith, _wait_, Feitheamh. + Seas, _stand_, Seasamh. + +10. The following Verbs form the Infinitive irregularly:-- + + Beuc, _roar_, Beucaich. + Bùir, _bellow_, Bùirich. + Geum, _low_, Geumnaich. + Glaodh, _cry_, Glaodhaich. + Caisd, _listen_, Caisdeachd. + Eisd, _hearken_, Eisdeachd. + Marcaich, _ride_, Marcachd. + Thig, _come_, Teachd, tighinn. + Faigh, _find_, Faghail, faotainn. + Eirich, _rise_, Eirigh. + Iarr, _request_, Iarraidh. + Taisg, _lay up_, Tasgaidh. + Coidil, _sleep_, Codal. + Fuaigh, _sew_, Fuaghal. + Gluais, _move_, Gluasad, gluasachd. + Tuit, _fall_, Tuiteam. + Teirig, _wear out_, Teireachduinn. + Teasairg, _deliver_, Teasairgin. + +_Compound Tenses._ + +The _compound Tenses of the first order_ are made up of the several simple +Tenses of the auxiliary verb Bi _be_, and the Infinitive preceded by the +Preposition ag _at_. Between two Consonants, ag commonly loses the _g_, and +is written _a'_; as, {83} ta iad a' deanamh _they are doing_. Between two +Vowels, the _a_ is dropped, and the _g_ is retained; as, ta mi 'g iarruidh +_I am asking_. When preceded by a Consonant, and followed by a Vowel, the +Preposition is written entire, as, ta iad ag iarruidh _they are asking_. +When preceded by a Vowel, and followed by a Consonant, it is often +suppressed altogether; as, ta mi deanamh _I am doing_[53]. + +The _compound Tenses of the second order_ are made up of the simple Tenses +of Bi and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition iar _after_[54]. + +PASSIVE VOICE. + +_Simple Tenses._ + +The _Preterite_ Affirm. and Negat. is formed from the same Tense in the +Active, by adding _adh_. The Preter. Subj. adds _teadh_. + +The _Future_ is formed from the Fut. Act. by changing the Terminations in +the Affirm. and Subj. into _ar_, (more properly _far_, as of old) and +adding the same syllable in the Negative. + +The _Imperative_ is formed from the Imperat. Act. by adding to the second +pers. sing. _tar_, _thar_, or _ar_.[55] + +{84} + +The _Participle_ is formed by adding _te_ to the Root[56]. + +There is no distinction of Number or Person in the Tenses of the Passive +Voice. + +Verbs which suffer a syncope in the Infinitive, suffer a like syncope in +the Pret. Aff. and Neg. throughout the Future Tense, and in the Imperative. + +_Compound Tense._ + +The _compound Tenses of the first order_ are made up of the simple Tenses +of the auxiliary Bi and the Passive Participle. + +{85} + +The _compound Tenses of the second order_ are made up of the simple Tenses +of _Bi_ and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition _iar_ and the +Possessive Pronoun corresponding in Person to the Pronoun, or to the Noun, +which is the Nominative to the verb. + +_Use and Import of the Moods and Tenses._ + +The _Affirmative_ or _Indicative_ Mood expresses affirmation, and is used +in affirmative propositions only, as, Do bhuail mi _I struck_, bha mi ag +bualadh _I was striking_. + +The _Negative_ or _Interrogative_ Mood is used in negative propositions and +interrogative clauses, after the Particles ni _not_, cha _not_, nach _which +not_, _that not_, _not?_ mur _if not_; also, gu, gur, _that_, an, am, +whether used relatively or interrogatively; as, cha d'fholaich mi _I did +not hide_, mur buail sinn _if we shall not strike_, nach robh iad _that +they were not_, gu robh iad _that they were_; am buail mi? _shall I +strike?_ It is used in the Future Tense after ged _although_; as, ged +bhuail e mi, _though he strike me_[57]. + +The _Subjunctive_ Mood is used in the Preterite, either with or without +conjunctions; as, bhuailinn _I would strike_, na'm, mur, nach, &c., +buailinn _if, unless, &c., I should strike_. In the Future it is used only +after the conjunctions ma _if_, o, o'n _since_, and the Relative _a_ +expressed or understood; as, ma bhuaileas mi _if I shall strike_, am fear a +bhuaileas mi _the man {86} who will strike me_, or _the man whom I shall +strike_; an uair a bhuaileas mi, tra bhuaileas mi _the time [in] which I +shall strike, i. e., when I shall strike_; c'uin [cia ùine] a bhuaileas mi? +_what [is] the time [in] which I shall strike? i. e., when shall I strike?_ + +The _Imperative_ Mood expresses desire, whether purpose, command, or +request; as, buaileam _let me strike_, buailibh _strike ye_. + +The _Infinitive_[58] is, in all respects, a noun, denoting the action or +energy of the verb, and commonly preceded by a Preposition which marks the +time of the action; as, ag bualadh _at striking_, am bualadh _the striking, +the threshing_. It assumes a regular genitive case, bualadh g. s. bualaidh; +as, urlar-bualaidh _a threshing floor_. The Infinitive sometimes loses the +termination, and is regularly declined in its abridged form; thus, +cruinnich _assemble_, inf. cruinneach-adh per. apocop. cruinneach g. s. +cruinnich; hence, àite-cruinnich _a place of meeting_, Acts xix. 29, 31, +so, fear-criochnaich, Heb. xii. 2, fear-cuidich, Psalm xxx. 10, liv. 4, +ionad-foluich, Psalm xxxii. 7, cxix. 114, litir-dhealaich, Matt. v. 31[59]. + +There is no part of the Active Voice that can, strictly speaking, be +denominated a Participle. The Infinitive preceded by the Preposition ag +_at_, corresponds in meaning to the present Participle; and preceded by iar +_after_, it corresponds to the participle of the past time; as, ag bualadh +_at striking_, or _striking_; iar bualadh _after striking_, or +_struck_[60]. + +{87} + +Many words, expressing state or action, take the Preposition _ag_ before +them, and may be considered as Infinitives of Verbs, whereof the other +parts are not in use; as, ag atharrais _mimicking_, ag gàireachdaich +_laughing_, a' fanoid, a' magadh _mocking_, _jeering_. + +{88} + +The _Participle_ passive is an adjective, denoting the completion of the +action or energy expressed by the verb; as, arbhar buailte _threshed corn_. + +The _Simple Tenses_ which belong to all verbs are the Preterite or Future, +besides which the verb Bi to _be_, and the defective verb Is I _am_, have a +Present Tense[61]. + +The _Present_ expresses present existence, state, or energy. + +The _Preterite Affirmative_ and _Negative_ expresses past time +indefinitely. The _Preterite Subjunctive_ corresponds to the English Tenses +formed by the auxiliaries _would_, _could_, &c. In general it denotes that +the action or energy of the verb takes place eventually or conditionally. +The Pret. Aff. or {89} Neg. is used sometimes in this sense, like the +English, when the Pret. Subj. occurred in the preceding clause of a +sentence, as, na'm biodh tus' an so, cha d' fhuair mo bhrathair bàs, _if +thou hadst been here, my brother had not [would not have] died_; mur +bitheamaid air deanamh moille bha sinn a nis air pilltinn air ar n-ais, _if +we had not lingered, we had [should have] now returned_, Gen. xliii. 10. + +The _Future_ marks future time indefinitely. This Tense is used in a +peculiar sense in Gaelic, to signify that an action or event takes place +uniformly, habitually, according to ordinary practice, or the course of +nature. Thus; Blessed is he that _considereth_ the poor, expressed +according to the Gaelic idiom, would be, Blessed is he that _will +consider_, &c. A wise son _maketh_ a glad father, in Gaelic would run, A +wise son _will make_, &c. Your patient, I am told, is in a bad way; he +neither _enjoys_ rest, nor _takes_ medicine. Nay, his situation is worse +than you know of; yesterday, he became delirious, and is now almost +unmanageable; he _tosses_ his arms, and _endeavours_ to beat every one +within his reach. In Gaelic, _will enjoy--will take--will toss--will +endeavour_. In like manner, a great many Gaelic Proverbs express a general +truth by means of the Future tense; _e.g._, bithidh dùil ri fear feachd, +ach cha bhi dùil ri fear lic, _There _is_ hope that a man may return from +war, but there _is_ no hope that a man may return from the grave_; +literally, there _will be_ hope--there _will be_ no hope. Teirgidh gach ni +r' a chaitheamh, _every thing_ wears _out in the using_; literally,--_will +wear_ out[62]. + +The _Compound Tenses_ mark different modifications of time, {90} which will +be easily understood by analysing their component parts. + +In the _Active Voice_, the compound tenses of the first order denote that +the action is going on, but not completed at the time specified by the +auxiliary verb, or its adjuncts; as, ta mi ag bualadh, _I am at striking_, +i.e., _I am striking_; bha mi ag bualadh an dé, _I was striking yesterday_. + +Those of the second order denote that the action is newly completed and +past, at the time marked by the auxiliary verb; ta mi iar bualadh, _I am +after striking_, i.e., _I have struck_, _Je viens de frapper_; Bha mi iar +bualadh, _I was striking_, i.e., _I had struck_. + +In the _Passive Voice_, the compound tenses of the first order denote that +the action is _finished_ at the time marked by the auxiliary verb; ta mi +buailte, _I am struck_. + +Those of the second order denote that the action is _newly finished_ at the +time marked by the auxiliary[63]; ta mi iar mo bhualadh, _I am after my +striking_, or, _I am after the striking of me_, which has always a passive +signification; that is, it is always understood, from this form of +expression, that _striking_ is the action of some agent different from the +person struck. It is equivalent to _I have been struck_, _Je viens d'etre +frappé_. + +A set of Compound Tenses, of a structure similar to these last, having the +preposition ag, in place of iar, is sometimes used, and in a passive sense, +denoting that the action is _going on_ at the time marked by the auxiliary; +as, tha 'n tigh 'g a thogail, _the house is at its building_, i.e., +_a-building_; sea bliadhna agus da fhichead bha 'n teampull 'g a thogail, +_forty and six years was this temple in building_. John ii. 20, 1 Kings vi. +7. Bha an crodh 'g an leigeadh, _the cows were a-milking_; bidh deudaichean +'g an rusgadh. "Gillies' Collect." p. 82. So {91} in English, the book is +a-printing; the deed's a-doing now, "Douglas," Act 1. + +The following scheme shows the different modifications of time, as +expressed by the several Tenses of the Gaelic Verb, brought together into +one view, and compared with the corresponding Tenses of the Greek Verb in +Moor's Greek Grammar. + + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + _Indicative or Affirmative Mood._ + + Present Tense. + Ta mi ag bualadh, [Greek: tuptô], I strike, + or am striking. + + Imperfect. + Bha mi ag bualadh, [Greek: etupton], I was striking. + + Future. + + Buailidh mi } [Greek: tupsô], I will strike, + Bithidh mi ag bualadh } or be striking. + + Aorist or Preterite. + Bhuail mi, [Greek: etupsa], I struck. + + Perfect. + Ta mi iar bualadh, [Greek: tetupha], I have struck. + + Pluperfect. + Bha mi iar bualadh, [Greek: etetuphein], I had struck. + + _Interrogative or Negative Mood._ + + Present. + Am bheil mi ag bualadh? Am I striking? + + Imperfect. + An robh mi ag bualadh? Was I striking? + + Future. + Am buail mi? Shall I strike? + + {92} + + Aorist or Preterite. + An do bhuail mi? Did I strike? + + Perfect. + Am bheil mi iar bualadh? Have I struck? + + Pluperfect. + An robh mi iar bualadh? Had I struck? + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Imperfect. + Bhuailinn, } [Greek: etupton an], I would strike. + Bhithinn ag bualadh, } + + Future. + Ma bhuaileas mi, If I shall strike. + + Pluperfect. + Bhithinn iar bualadh, [Greek: etupsa an], I would have struck. + + _Imperative Mood._ + Buaileam, Let me strike. + Buail, [Greek: tupte], Strike. + + _Infinitive Mood._ + Am bualadh, [Greek: to tuptein], The striking. + A' bhualaidh, [Greek: tou tuptein], Of the striking. + Ag bualadh, [Greek: en tôi tuptein], A-striking. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Indicative or Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. + Ta mi 'g am bhualadh, [Greek: tuptomai], I am in striking[64]. + + Imperfect. + Bha mi 'g am bhualadh, [Greek: etuptomên], I was in striking. + + {93} + Future. + Buailear mi, } [Greek: tuphthêsomai], I shall be struck. + Bithidh mi buailte, } + + Aorist or Preterite. + Bhuaileadh mi, [Greek: etuphthên], I was struck. + + Perfect. + Ta mi buailte, } [Greek: tetummenos eimi], I have been struck. + Ta mi iar mo bhualadh } + Pluperfect. + Bha mi buailte, } [Greek: tetummenos ên], I had been struck. + Bha mi iar mo bhualadh} + + _Interrogative or Negative Mood._ + + Future. + Am buailear mi? Shall I be struck? + + Aorist or Preterite. + An do bhuaileadh mi? Was I struck? + + Perfect. + Am bheil mi buailte? } Have I been struck? + Am bheil mi iar mo bhualadh? } + + Pluperfect. + An robh mi buailte? } Had I been struck? + An robh mi iar mo bhualadh? } + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Imperfect. + Bhuailteadh mi, [Greek: etuptomên an], I should be struck. + + Future. + Ma bhuailtear mi, If I shall be struck. + {94} + + Pluperfect. + Bhithinn buailte, } + Bhithinn iar mo } [Greek: etuphthên an], I should have been + bhualadh, } struck. + + _Imperative Mood._ + Buailtear mi, Let me be struck. + Buailtear thu, [Greek: tuptou], Be thou struck. + &c. + + Participle. + Buailte, [Greek: tetummenos] Struck. + +It will afford satisfaction to the grammatical reader, to see how correctly +the various modifications of time, as distinguished and arranged by Mr +Harris, are expressed in the Gaelic verb, by the auxiliaries, bi _be_, and +dol _going_. See _Hermes B. I. c. 7._ + + + Aorist of the Present. + [Greek: Tuptô], I strike, ---- + + Aorist of the Past. + [Greek: Etupsa], I struck, Bhuail mi. + + Aorist of the Future. + [Greek: Tupsô], I shall strike, Buailidh mi. + + Inceptive Present. + [Greek: Mellô tuptein], I am going to strike, Ta mi dol a bhualadh. + + Middle or extended Present. + [Greek: Tunchanô tuptôn], I am striking, Ta mi ag bualadh. + + Completive Present. + [Greek: Tetupha], I have struck, Ta mi iar bualadh. + + ------ + + Inceptive Past. + [Greek: Emellon tuptein], I was going to strike, Bha mi dol a bhualadh. + {95} + + Middle or extended Past. + [Greek: Etupton], I was striking, Bha mi ag bualadh. + + Completive Past. + [Greek: Etetuphein], I had struck, Bha mi iar bualadh. + + ------ + + Inceptive future. + [Greek: Mellêsô tuptein], I shall be going to Bithidh mi dol a + strike, bhualadh. + + Middle or extended Future. + [Greek: Esomai tuptôn], I shall be striking, Bithidh mi ag bualadh. + + Completive Future. + [Greek: Esomai tetuphôs], I shall have struck, Bithidh mi iar bualadh. + + + +IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. + + Beir, _bear._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do rug, Beiridh. + _Negat._ D' rug, Beir. + _Subjunct._ Bheirinn, Bheireas. + _Imperat._ Beiream. _Infin._ Beirsinn, breith. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do rugadh, Beirear. + _Negat._ D' rugadh, Beirear. + _Subjunct._ Bheirteadh, Bheirear. + _Imperat._ Beirthear. + + {96} + + Cluinn, _hear._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do chuala, Cluinnidh. + _Negat._ Cuala, Cluinn. + _Subjunct._ Chluinnin, Chluinneas. + _Imperat._ Cluinneam. _Infin._ Cluinntinn. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do Chualadh, Cluinnear. + _Negat._ Cualadh, Cluinnear. + _Subjunct._ Chluinnteadh, Chluinnear. + _Imperat._ Cluinntear. + + Dean, _do_ or _make._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do rinn, Ni. + _Negat._ D' rinn, Dean. + _Subjunct._ Dheanainn, Ni. + _Imperat._ Deanam. _Infin._ Deanamh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do rinneadh, Nithear. + _Negat._ D' rinneadh, Deanar. + _Subjunct._ Dheantadh, Nithear. + _Imperat._ Deantar. _Particip._ Deanta. + + Rach, _go._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do chaidh, Théid. + _Negat._ Deachaidh, Téid[65]. + _Subjunct._ Rachainn, Théid. + _Imperat._ Racham. _Infin._ Dol. + + {97} + Ruig, _reach._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do rainig, Ruigidh. + _Negat._ D' rainig, Ruig. + _Subjunct._ Ruiginn, Ruigeas. + _Imperat._ Ruigeam. _Infin._ Ruigsinn, ruigheachd. + + Tabhair,[66] _give._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do thug, Bheir. + _Negat._ D' thug, Tabhair. + _Subjunct._ Bheirinn, tabhairinn, Bheir. + _Imperat._ Tabhaiream, thugam. _Infin._ Tabhairt. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do thugadh, Bheirear. + _Negat._ D' thugadh, Tabhairear. + _Subjunct._ Bheirteadh, tugtadh. Bheirear. + _Imperat._ Thugthar. + + Thig, _come._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do thainig, Thig. + _Negat._ D' thainig, Tig[67]. + _Subjunct._ Thiginn, Thig. + _Imperat._ Thigeam. _Infin._ Tighinn, teachd. + +{98} + + + +IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. + + Abair,[68] _say._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Thubhairt, dubhairt, Their. + _Negat._ Dubhairt, Abair. + _Subjunct._ Theirinn, abairinn, Their. + _Imperat._ Abaiream. _Infin._ Radh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Dubhradh, Theirear. + _Negat._ Dubhradh, Abairear. + _Subjunct._ Theirteadh, abairteadh, Theirear. + _Imperat._ Abairear[69]. + + Faic, _see._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do chunnaic, Chi. + _Negat._ Faca, Faic. + _Subjunct._ Chithinn, faicinn, Chi. + _Imperat._ Faiceam. _Infin._ Faicsinn. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do chunnacadh, Chithear. + _Negat._ Facadh, Faicear. + _Subjunct._ Chiteadh, faicteadh, Chithear. + _Imperat._ Faicthear. _Infin._ Faicsinn. + + {99} + Faigh, _get._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Fhuair, Gheibh. + _Negat._ D'fhuair, Faigh. + _Subjunct._ Gheibhinn, faighinn, Gheibh. + _Imperat._ Faigheam. _Infin._ Faghail, faotainn. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Fhuaradh, Gheibhear. + _Negat._ D' fhuaradh, Faighear. + _Subjunct._ Gheibhteadh, faighteadh, Gheibhear. + _Imperat._ Faightear. + +The verbs Tabhair, Abair, Faic, Faigh, have a double Preterite Subjunctive. +The latter form of it, which is derived regularly from the Root, is used +after the same particles which are prefixed to the Negative Mood, _viz._ +ni, cha, nach, mur, gu, an, am. + + * * * * * + +OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. + +The following defective verbs are in common use. + +Arsa _said_, _quoth_, indeclinable; used only in the Pret. Aff. through all +the persons; arsa Donull, _quoth Donald_. + +Tiucainn _come along_, tiucainnibh _come ye along_, used only in the 2d +pers. sing. and plur. of the Imperative. + +Theab mi _I was near to, I had almost_; used through all the persons of the +Pret. Aff. and Neg.; as, theab iad bhith caillte _they had nearly +perished_. + +Is mi _I am_, used in the Pres. and Pret. Tenses, which are declined as +follows:-- {100} + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Is mi, _I am, it is I._ Bu mhi, _I was, it was I._ + 2 Is tu. Bu tu. + 3 Is e. B' e. + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Is sinn. Bu sinn. + 2 Is sibh. Bu sibh. + 3 Is iad. B' iad. + + _Negative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 mi, _I am not_, &c. Bu mhi, _I was not_, &c. + { 2 tu. Bu tu. + ni, { 3 e. B' e. + cha, { + nach,{ _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 sinn. Bu sinn. + { 2 sibh. Bu sibh. + { 3 iad. B' iad. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Ma 's mi, _If I be, it be I._ Nam bu mhi, _If I were, it were I._ + 2 's tu. Bu tu. + 3 's e. B' e. + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 's sinn. Bu sinn. + 2 's sibh. Bu sibh. + 3 's iad. B' iad. + +The only varieties of form which this Verb admits of, are the two syllables +_is_ and _bu_. Each of these syllables {101} commonly loses the vowel when +it comes in apposition with another vowel. + +It is remarkable, that in the Pres. Neg. the Verb disappears altogether, +and the preceding Particle, ni, cha, nach, gur, &c., and the subsequent +Pronoun, or Noun, are always understood to convey a proposition, or a +question, as unequivocally as though a Verb had been expressed; as, cha tu +_thou art not_, nach e? _is he not? is it not he?_ am mise e? _is it I?_ +cha luchd-brathaidh sinn _we are not spies_, Gen. xlii. 31. Am mò thusa na +Abraham? _Art thou greater than Abraham?_ gur còir urnuigh a dheanamh _that +it is proper to pray_, Luke xviii. 1[70]. + +{102} + +OF THE RECIPROCATING STATE OF VERBS. + +Any transitive Verb may be so combined with a Pronoun, either Personal or +Possessive, that it shall denote the agent to be also the object of the +action. This may be called the _reciprocating state_ of the Verb. It is +declined as follows:-- + +Buail thu fein, _strike thyself_. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Simple Tenses. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, Buailidh mi mi fein, + Bhuail mi mi fein, _I will strike myself._ + _I struck myself._ + 2 Do bhuail thu thu fein, Buailidh tu thu fein. + 3 Do bhuail se e fein; Buailidh se e fein. + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Do bhuail sinn sinn fein, Buailidh sinn sinn fein. + 2 Do bhuail sibh sibh fein, Buailidh sibh sibh fein. + 3 Do bhuail siad iad fein. Buailidh siad iad fein. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + cha,{ 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, Bhuail mi mi fein, + &c. { _I struck not myself._ _I shall not strike myself._ + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhuailinn mi fein, 1 Bhuaileas mi mi fein, + _I would strike myself._ _I shall strike myself._ + + {103} + _Imperative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + 1 Buaileam mi fein, Buaileamaid sinn fein. + _Let me strike myself._ + 2 Buail thu fein. Buailibh sibh fein. + 3 Buaileadh e e fein. Buaileadh iad iad fein. + +_Infinitive Mood._ + + 'g am bhualadh fein, _striking myself_. + 'g ad bhualadh fein, _striking thyself_. + 'g a bhualadh fein, _striking himself_. + 'g ar bualadh fein, _striking ourselves_. + 'g 'ur bualadh fein, _striking yourselves_. + 'g am bualadh fein, _striking themselves_. + iar mo bhualadh fein, _after striking myself_, &c. + gu mo bhualadh fein, _to strike myself_, &c. + + Compound Tenses. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, Bha mi 'g am bhualadh fein, + _I am striking myself._ _I was striking myself._ + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Bidh mi 'g am bhualadh fein, + _I will be striking myself._ + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ta mi iar mo, &c. Bha mi iar mo, &c. + _I have struck myself._ _I had struck myself._ + + {104} + Future. + _2. Comp._ + Bidh mi iar mo, &c. + _I shall have struck_, &c. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ni bheil mi 'g am, &c. Ni robh mi 'g am, &c. + _I am not striking myself._ _I was not striking myself._ + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi 'g am bhualadh fein. + _I shall not be striking myself._ + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ni bheil mi iar mo, &c. Ni robh mi iar mo, &c. + _I have not struck myself._ _I had not struck myself._ + + Future. + _2. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi iar mo, &c. + _I shall not have struck myself._ + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bhithinn 'g am, &c. Ma bhitheas mi 'g am, + _I would be striking_, &c. _If I shall be striking_, &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bhithinn iar mo, &c. Ma bhitheas mi iar mo, &c. + _I would have struck_, &c. _If I shall have struck_, &c. + + {105} + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + + _1. Comp._ Do bhith 'g am bhualadh fein, + _To be striking myself._ + + Bitheam 'g am bhualadh fein, Iar bith 'g am bhualadh fein. + _Let me be striking myself._ _To have been striking myself._ + +From the foregoing example it appears that the Verb, in its reciprocating +state, retains its original form throughout its several Moods, Tenses, and +Persons. In the _simple Tenses_, the Personal Pronoun immediately following +the Verb is the Nominative to the Verb. The same pronoun repeated is to be +understood as in the objective state. The word fein, corresponding to the +English _self_, accompanies the last Pronoun. + +In the _compound Tenses_, the auxiliary Verb, as usual, is placed first; +then follows the Personal Pronoun as its Nominative, then the Prep. _ag_ +abridged to _'g_ in the compound Tenses of the first order, iar in those of +the second order; after which follows the Possessive Pronoun, corresponding +in Person to that which is the Nominative to the Verb; and lastly the +Infinitive, which is the noun to the Possessive Pronoun. Mo and do are here +changed, by Metathesis and the substitution of one broad vowel for another, +into am and ad. Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, rendered literally, is, _I am at +my own striking, i.e., I am at the striking of myself_, equivalent to, _I +am striking myself_. The reciprocal fein is sometimes omitted in the +compound Tenses, but is generally retained in the 3d Persons, to prevent +their being mistaken for the same persons when used without reciprocation: +ta e 'g a bhualadh, _he is striking him_, ta e 'g a bhualadh fein, _he is +striking himself_. + +OF THE IMPERSONAL USE OF VERBS. + +Intransitive Verbs, though they do not regularly admit of a Passive Voice, +yet are used _impersonally_ in the 3d Pers. Sing. of the Passive Tenses. +This impersonal use of the Passive of intransitive Verbs is founded on the +same principle with the Latin Impersonals _concurritur_, _pugnatum est_, +{106} &c., which are equivalent to _concursus fit_, _pugna facta est_. So +in Gælic, gluaisfear leam, _I will move_, Psal. cxvi. 9; gluaisfear leo, +_they will move_, Psal. cxix. 3; ghuileadh leinn, _we did weep_, flebatur a +nobis, Psal. cxxxvii. 1, Edit. Edinb. 1787; cha bhithear saor o pheacadh, +_there wanteth not sin_, Prov. x. 19. + +To the class of Impersonals ought to be referred a certain part of the Verb +which has not yet been mentioned. It resembles in form the Fut. Negat. +Passive; buailear, faicear, faighear, &c. In signification, it is Active, +Present, and Affirmative. In the course of a narrative, when the speaker +wishes to enliven his style by representing the occurrences narrated as +present, and passing actually in view, instead of the Preterite Tenses, he +adopts the Part of the Verb now described, employing it in an impersonal +acceptation, without a Nominative to it expressed. One or two examples will +serve to exhibit the use and effect of this anomalous Tense:--Shuidh an òg +bhean air sgeir, is a sùil air an lear. Chunnaic i long a' teachd air +barraibh nan tonn. Dh' aithnich i aogas a leannain, is chlisg a cridhe 'n a +com. Gun mhoille gun tamh, _buailear_ dh' fhios na traighe; agus _faighear_ +an laoch, 's a dhaoine m' a thimchioll. In English thus: The young woman +sat on a rock, and her eye on the sea. She spied a ship coming on the tops +of the waves. She perceived the likeness of her lover, and her heart +bounded in her breast. Without delay or stop, she _hastens_ to the shore; +and _finds_ the hero, with his men around him. Again: Mar sin chuir sinn an +oidhche tharuinn. 'S a' mhadainn dh' imich sinn air ar turus. O bha sinn 'n +ar coigrich anns an tir, _gabhar_ suas gu mullach an t-sleibh, _direar_ an +tulach gu grad, agus _seallar_ mu 'n cuairt air gach taobh. _Faicear_ thall +fa 'r comhair sruth cas ag ruith le gleann cumhann, &c. Thus we passed the +night. In the morning we pursued our journey. As we were strangers in the +land, we _strike_ up to the top of the moor, _ascend_ the hill with speed, +and _look_ around us on every side. We _see_ over against us a rapid +stream, rushing down a narrow valley, &c. {107} + +The scrupulous chastenesss of style maintained in the Gaelic version of the +Sacred Scriptures, has totally excluded this form of expression. It is, +however, universally known and acknowledged, as an established idiom of the +Gaelic, very common in the mouths of those who speak it, and in animated +narration almost indispensable[71]. + +OF AUXILIARY VERBS. + +It has been already shown how bi _be_, is used as an Auxiliary in the +declension of all verbs. There are two other verbs which are occasionally +employed in a similar capacity; the one with an Active the other with a +Passive effect. These are dean to _do_ or _make_, and rach to _go_. + +The simple tenses of dean combined with the Infinitive of any verb, +correspond to the English auxiliary _do_, _did_. It sometimes adds to the +emphasis, but not to the sense. The following are examples of this +Auxiliary combined with the Infinitive of an _Intransitive_ verb:--Rinn e +seasamh _he made standing_, i.e., _he did stand;_ dean suidhe _make +sitting_, i.e., _sit down_; dheanainn gul agus caoidh _I would make weeping +{108} and lamentation_, i.e., _I would weep and lament._ The same +arrangement takes place when the Auxiliary is combined with the Infinitive +of a _Transitive_ verb, accompanied by a possessive pronoun; as, rinn e mo +bhualadh _he made my striking_, i.e., _he made [or caused] the striking of +me_, or, _he did strike me_; cha dean mi do mholadh, _I will not make your +praising_, i.e., _I will not praise you_; dean do gharadh, _make your +warming_, dean do gharadh fein, _make your own warming_, i.e., _warm +yourself._ + +The Simple Tenses of rach, combined with the Infinitive of a transitive +verb, correspond to the Passive Voice of the verb; as, chaidh mo bhualadh +_my striking went_, i.e., _came to pass_, or _happened_, equivalent to _I +was struck_; rachadh do mharbhadh _your killing would happen_, i.e., _you +would be killed._ + +In phrases where either of the auxiliaries dean or rach is combined with a +transitive verb, as above, the possessive pronoun may be exchanged for the +corresponding personal pronoun in the emphatic form, followed by the +preposition _do_ before the Infinitive. The preposition in this case is +attenuated into _a_, which, before a verb of the second conjugation is +dropped altogether. Thus, rinn e mo bhualadh _he struck me_, rinn e mis' a +bhualadh _he struck_ ME, chaidh mo bhualadh _I was struck_, chaidh mis' a +bhualadh _I myself was struck_. In like manner, a noun, or a demonstrative +pronoun, may occupy the place of this personal pronoun; as, chaidh an +ceannard a mharbhadh[72], agus na daoine chur san ruaig, _the leader was +killed, and the men put to flight_; theid am buachaill a bhualadh, agus an +treud a sgapadh, _the shepherd will be smitten, and the sheep scattered_; +is math a chaidh sin innseadh dhuit, _that was well told you_. + +{109} + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +OF ADVERBS. + +An Adverb, considered as a separate part of speech, is a single +indeclinable word, significant of time, place, or any other circumstance or +modification of an action or attribute. The number of simple Adverbs in +Gaelic is but small. Adverbial phrases, made up of two or more words, are +sufficiently numerous. Any adjective may be converted into an adverbial +expression, by prefixing to it the preposition gu _to_; as, fìrinneach +_true_, gu fìrinneach _[corresponding] to [what is] true_, [Greek: kata to +alêthes], i.e., _truly_. Adverbs of this form need not be enumerated. It +may be useful, however, to give a list of other adverbs and adverbial +phrases, most commonly in use; subjoining, where it can be done, a literal +translation of their component parts, and also the English expression which +corresponds most nearly to the sense of the Gaelic phrase. + + _Adverbs of Time._ + + A cheana; already, truly. + A chianamh; a little while ago. + A chlisge; quickly, in a trice. + A choidhche, } + Choidh; } for ever. + A nis, } + Nise; } now. + A rìs, } + Rithist; } again. + Ainmic, } + Ainmeach; } seldom. + Air ball; _on [the] spot_, immediately. + Air dheireadh; hindmost. + Air thoiseach; foremost. + Air tùs; in the beginning, at first. + Air uairibh; _at times_, sometimes. + {110} + Am bliadhna; this year. + Am feadh; whilst. + Am feasd; for ever. + Am màireach; to-morrow. + An ceart uair; _the very hour_, presently. + An comhnuidh; _in continuation_, continually. + An dé; yesterday. + An deigh laimh; _behind hand_, afterwards. + An diugh; _the [present] day_, to-day[73]. + An ear-thrath, } + An iar-thraith; } _the after time_, the day after to-morrow. + An nochd; _the [present] night_, to-night. + An raoir, } + An reidhr; } yesternight. + An sin; _in that [time]_, then. + An trath; _the time_, when. + An tràth so, } + An tràs'; } _this time_, at present. + An uair; _the time_, when. + An uiridh; last year. + Aon uair; _one time_, once. + Cia fhada; how long. + Cia minic, } + Cia tric; } how often. + C'uine; _what time_, when. + Do la, } + A la; } by day[74]. + Dh' oidhche; by night[74]. + Do ghnàth; _[according] to custom_, always. + Fa dheoidh; _at the end_, at last. + Fathast, } + Fòs; } yet, still. + {111} + Gu bràth[75], } + Gu la bhràth; } _to the general conflagration_, for ever. + Gu dìlinn[75]; _to the expiration of time_, or _till the deluge_, for + ever. + Gu minic; often. + Gu siorruidh; _to ever-flowing_, for ever. + Gu suthainn; for ever. + Gu tric; often. + Idir; at all. + Mar tha; _as it is_, already. + Mu dheireadh; at last. + O cheann tamuill; a while ago. + O chian; _from far_, of old, long ago. + Rè seal, } + Rè tamuill; } for a time. + Riamh; ever, said of past time only. + Roimh làimh; before hand. + Uair eigin; some time. + + _Adverbs of Place._ + + A bhos, } + Bhos; } on this side, here below. + A leth taobh; to one side, aside. + A mach, } + A muigh; } without, out. + A mhàn[76]; downwards, down. + An aird; _to the height_, upwards, up. + A nall, } + Nall; } to this side. + A nuas; _from above_, down hither. + A null, } + Null, nunn; } to the other side. + {112} + A thaobh; aside. + Air aghaidh, } + Air adhart; } _on [the] face_, forward. + Air ais; backwards. + Air dheireadh; hindmost. + Air thoiseach; foremost. + Am fad, } + An céin; } afar. + An gar; close to. + An laimh; in hand, in custody. + An sin; _in that [place]_, there. + An so; _in this [place]_, here. + An sud; _in yon [place]_, yonder. + An taice; close adjoining, in contact. + Asteach, } + Astigh; }[77] within, in. + C' àite; _what place_, where. + Cia an taobh; _what side_, whither. + C' ionadh; _what place_, whither. + Fad as; afar off. + Fad air astar; far away. + Far; where,--relatively. + Fogus, } + Am fogus; } near. + H-uig' agus uaith; to and fro. + Iolar, } + Ioras; } below there, below yonder. + Le leathad; _by a descent_, downwards. + Leis; _along with it_, down a stream, declivity, &c. + Mu 'n cuairt; _by the circuit_, around. + Ri bruthach; _to an ascent_, upwards. + Ris; in an exposed state, bare, uncovered. + Seachad; past, aside. + Sios, a sios; downwards. + Suas, a suas; upwards. + {113} + Shios; below there, below yonder. + Shuas; above there, above yonder. + Tarsuing; across. + Thairis; over. + Thall; on the other side. + Uthard; above there, above yonder. + + Deas[78]; south. + Gu deas; southward. + A deas; from the south. + + Iar[79], } + Siar; } west. + Gus an aird an iar; westward. + O'n iar; from the west. + + Tuath; north. + Gu tuath; northward. + A tuath; from the north. + + Ear, Oir, Soir; east. + Gus an aird an ear; eastward. + O'n ear; from the east. + + _Adverbs of Manner._ + + Air achd; in a manner. + Air a' chuthach, } + Air boile; } distracted, mad. + Air chall; lost. + Air chòir; aright. + Air chor; in a manner. + Air chor eigin; in some manner, somehow. + Air chuairt; sojourning. + Air chuimhne; in remembrance. + Air éigin; with difficulty, scarcely. + Air fogradh; in exile, in a fugitive state. + {114} + Air ghleus; in trim. + Air iomadan; adrift. + Air iomroll; astray. + Air iunndrain; amissing. + Air lagh; trimmed for action, as a bow bent, a firelock cocked, &c. + Air leth; apart, separately. + Air seacharan; astray. + Air sgeul; found, not lost. + Amhàin; only. + Amhuil, } + Amhludh; } like as. + Am bidheantas; customarily, habitually. + Am feabhas; convalescent, improving. + An coinnimh a chinn; headlong. + An coinnimh a chùil; backwards. + An deidh, } + An geall; } desirous, enamoured. + An nasgaidh; for nothing, gratis. + An tòir; in pursuit. + Araon; together. + As an aghaidh; _out of the face_, to the face, outright. + As a chéile; loosened, disjointed. + Car air char; rolling, tumbling over and over. + Cia mar; _as how_, how. + C' arson; _on account of what_, why, wherefore. + C' ionnas; _what manner_, how. + Cha, cho; not. + Comhla[80], mar chomhla, } + Cuideachd; } together, in company. + C'uime, for what, why. + Do dheoin, a dheoin; spontaneously, intentionally. + Dh' aindeoin; against one's will. + Do dhìth, a dhìth; a-wanting. + Do rìreadh; really, actually, indeed. + {115} + Fa leth; severally, individually. + Gle; very. + Gu beachd; _to observation_, evidently, clearly. + Gu buileach; _to effect_, thoroughly, wholly. + Gu dearbh; _to conviction_, truly, certainly. + Gu deimhin; _to assurance_, assuredly, verily. + Gu leir; altogether. + Gu leor; _to sufficiency_, enough. + Gun amharus; _without doubt_, doubtless. + Gun chàird; _without rest_, incessantly, without hesitation. + Leth mar leth; half and half. + Le chéile; _with each other_, together. + Maraon; _as one_, together, in concert. + Mar an ceudna; in like manner, likewise. + Mar sin; _as that_, in that manner. + Mar so; _as this_, thus. + Mar sud; _as yon_, in yon manner. + Mu seach; in return, alternately. + Na, Nar; let not,--used optatively, or imperatively. + Nach; that not, who not, not? + Ni; not. + Ni h-eadh[81]; it is not so. + Os àird; openly. + Os barr; _on top_, besides. + Os iosal; secretly, covertly. + Ro; very. + Roimh a cheile; prematurely, too hastily. + Seadh[81]; it is so. + Thar a chéile, } + Troimh a chéile; } in disorder, in confusion, stirred about. + Theagamh; perhaps. + Uidh air 'n uidh; _stage by stage_, gradually. + +{116} + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +OF PREPOSITIONS. + +The Prepositions, strictly so called, are single words, most of them +monosyllables, employed to mark relation. Relation is also expressed by +combinations of words which often correspond to simple prepositions in +other languages. These combinations are, not improperly, ranked among the +prepositions. The following lists contain first the Prepositions properly +so called, which are all simple; secondly, improper Prepositions, which, +with one or two exceptions, seem all to be made up of a simple Preposition +and a Noun. + +Proper Prepositions. + + Aig, Ag, _at_. + Air, _on_. + Ann, _in_. + As, A, _out of_. + De, _of_. + Do, _to_ + Eadar, _between_. + Fa, _upon_. + Fuidh, Fo, _under_. + Gu, Gus, _to_. + Gun, _without_. + Iar, _after_. + Le, Leis, _with, by_. + Mar, _like to_. + Mu, _about_. + O, Ua, _from_. + Os, _above_. + Re, Ri, Ris, _to_. + Roimh, _before_. + Tar, Thar, _over, across_. + Tre, } + Troimh, } _through_. + Throimh, } + Seach, _past, in comparison with_. + +The Preposition ann is often written double, ann an eolas, _in knowledge_; +ann an gliocas, _in wisdom_. The final _n_ or _nn_ is changed into _m_ +before a labial; as, am measg, _among_; ann am meadhon, _in midst_. Before +the Article or the Relative, this Preposition is written anns; as, anns an +toiseach, _in the beginning_, an cor anns am bheil e, _the condition in +which he is_; and in this situation the letters _ann_ are often dropped, +and the _s_ alone retained, 's an toiseach, _in the beginning_. + +De, so far as I know, is found in no Scottish publications. The reasons +which have induced me to assign it a place among the prepositions will be +mentioned in treating of the combinations of the Proper Prepositions with +the Personal Pronouns. + +The Preposition _do_, like the verbal particle, and the Possessive Pronoun +of the same sound, loses the _o_ before a vowel, and the consonant is +aspirated; thus, dh' Albainn, _to {117} Scotland_. It is also preceded +sometimes by the vowel _a_ when it follows a final consonant; as, dol a dh' +Eirin, _going to Ireland_. This _a_ seems to be nothing else than the vowel +of _do_ transposed; just as the letters of the pronouns mo, do, are in +certain situations transposed, and become am, ad. In this situation, +perhaps it would be advisible to join the _a_, in writing, to the _dh_ +thus, dol adh Eirin. This would rid us of one superfluous _a_ appearing as +a separate inexplicable word. The same remarks apply to the prep. _de_; +_e.g._, armailt mhòr de dhaoinibh agus _a dh'_ eachaibh, _a great army of +men and of horses_, lan do [de] reubainn agus a dh' aingidheachd, _full of +ravining and wickedness_, Luke xi. 39. Do, as has been already observed, +often loses the _d_ altogether, and is written _a_; as, dol a Dhuneidin, +_going to Edinburgh_. When the preposition is thus robbed of its +articulation, and only a feeble obscure vowel sound is left, another +corruption very naturally follows, and this vowel, as well as the +consonant, is discarded, not only in speaking, but even in writing; as, +chaidh e Dhuneidin, _he went to Edinburgh_; chaidh e thìr eile, _he went to +another land_; where the nouns appear in their aspirated form, without any +word to govern them. + +Fa has been improperly confounded with fuidh or fo. That fa signifies +_upon_, is manifest from such phrases as fa 'n bhord, _upon the board_, +said of a dead body stretched upon a board; leigeader fa làr, _dropped on +the ground_, Carswell: fa 'n adhbhar ud, _on that account_, equivalent to +air an adhbhar ud, see Psal. cvi. 42, and xlv. 2, metr. version. + +The reason for admitting iar _after_, has been already given in treating of +the Compound Tenses of Verbs in Chap. V. + +The manner of combining these prepositions with nouns will be shown in +treating of Syntax. The manner of combining them with the personal pronouns +must be explained in this place, because in that connection they appear in +a form somewhat different from their radical form. A Proper Preposition is +joined to a Personal Pronoun by incorporating both into one word, commonly +with some change on the Preposition, or on the Pronoun, or on both. + +The following are the Prepositions which admit of this kind of combination, +incorporated with the several Personal Pronouns: {118} + + Prep. Singular. + + _1st Pers._ _2d Pers._ _3d Pers._ + + { m. aige, + Aig, } agam, agad, { _at him;_ + Ag; } _at_. _at me_, _at thee_. { f. aice, + { _at her_. + + { m. air. + { f. oirre. + Air; orm, ort, { uirre. + { orra. + + { m. ann. + Ann; annam, annad, { f. innte. + + { m. as. + As; asam, asad, { f. aisde. + + { m. dheth. + De; dhiom, dhiot, { f. dh'i. + + { dhomh, } { m. dha. + Do; { dhom, } dhuit, { f. dh'i. + + Eadar; ... ... ... + + { m. fodha. + Fo, Fuidh; fodham, fodhad, { f. fuidhpe. + + { m. h-uige. + Gu; h-ugam, h-ugad, { f. h-uice. + + { m. leis. + Le; leam, leat, { f. leatha. + + { m. uime. + Mu; umam, umad, { f. uimpe. + + { m. uaith. + O, Ua; uam, uait, { f. uaipe. + + { m. ris. + Re, Ri; rium, riut, { f. rithe. + + { m. roimhe. + Roimh; romham, romhad, { f. roimpe. + + Thar; tharam, tharad, f. thairte. + + { m. troimhe. + Troimh; tromham, tromhad, { f. troimpe. + + {119} + Plural. + _1st Pers._ _2d Pers._ _3d Pers._ + + Aig, } againn, agaibh, aca, + Ag; } _at_. _at us_. _at you_. _at them_. + + Air; oirnn, oirbh, orra. + + Ann; annainn, annaibh, annta. + + As; asainn, asaibh, asda. + + De; dhinn, dhibh, dhiu. + + Do; dhuinn, dhuibh, dhoibh. + + Eadar; eadarainn, eadaraibh, eatorra. + + Fo, Fuidh; fodhainn, fodhaibh, fodhpa. + + Gu; h-ugainn, h-ugaibh, h-uca. + + Le; leinn, leibh, leo. + + Mu; umainn, umaibh, umpa. + + O, Ua; uainn, uaibh, uapa. + + Re, Ri; ruinn, ribh, riu. + + Roimh; romhainn, romhaibh, rompa. + + Thar; tharuinn, tharuibh, tharta. + + Troimh; tromhainn, tromhaibh, trompa. + +{120} + +In most of these compound terms, the fragments of the Pronouns which enter +into their composition, especially those of the first and second Persons, +are very conspicuous[82]. These fragments take after them occasionally the +emphatic syllables _sa_, _san_, _ne_, in the same manner as the Personal +Pronouns themselves do; as, agamsa _at ME_, aigesan _at HIM_, uainne _from +US_. + +The two prepositions _de_ and _do_ have long been confounded together, both +being written _do_. It can hardly be supposed that the composite words +dhiom, dhiot, &c. would have been distinguished from dhomh, dhuit, &c., by +orthography, pronunciation, and signification, if the Prepositions, as well +as the Pronouns, which enter into the composition of these words, had been +originally the same. In dhiom, &c., the initial Consonant is always +followed by a small vowel. In dhomh, &c., with one exception, it is +followed by a broad vowel. Hence it is presumable that the Preposition +which is the root of dhiom, &c., must have had a small vowel after _d_, +whereas the root of dhomh, &c., has a broad vowel after d. _De_ is a +preposition preserved in Latin (a language which has many marks of affinity +with the Gaelic), in the same sense which must have belonged to the root of +dhiom, &c., in Gaelic. The preposition in question itself occurs in Irish, +in the name given to a Colony which is supposed to have settled in Ireland, +A.M. 2540, called Tuath de Danann. (See Lh. "Arch. Brit." tit. x. _voc._ +Tuath; also Miss Brooke's "Reliques of Irish Poetry," p. 102.) These facts +afford more than a presumption that the true root of the Composite dhiom, +&c., is _de_, and that it signifies _of_. It has therefore appeared proper +to separate it from _do_, and to assign to each its appropriate +meaning[83]. + +{121} + +Dhiom, dhiot, &c., and dhomh, dhuit, &c., are written with a _plain d_ +after a Lingual; diom, domh, &c. + +Eadar is not incorporated with the pronouns of the singular number, but +written separately; eadar mis agus thusa, _between me and thee_. + +In combining _gu_ and _mu_ with the pronouns, the letters of the +Prepositions suffer a transposition, and are written _ug_, _um_. The former +of these was long written with _ch_ prefixed, thus chugam, &c. The +translators of the Scriptures, observing that _ch_ neither corresponded to +the pronunciation, nor made part of the radical Preposition, exchanged it +for _th_, and wrote thugam. The _th_, being no more than a simple +aspiration, corresponds indeed to the common mode of pronouncing the word. +Yet it may well be questioned whether the _t_, even though aspirated, ought +to have a place, if _g_ be the only radical consonant belonging to the +Preposition. The component parts of the word might be exhibited with less +disguise, and the common pronunciation (whether correct or not), also +represented, by retaining the _h_ alone, and connecting it with the +Preposition by a hyphen, as when written before a Noun, thus h-ugam, +h-ugaibh, &c. + + Improper Prepositions. + + Air cheann; _at [the] end_, against a certain time. + Air feadh, } + Air fad; } throughout, during. + Air muin; _on the back_, mounted on. + Air sgàth; for the sake, on pretence. + Air son; on account. + Air tòir; in pursuit. + Air beulaobh; _on the fore side_, before. + Air culaobh; _on the back side_, behind. + Am fochair; _in presence_. + Am measg; _in the mixture_, amidst, among. + {122} + An aghaidh; _in the face_, against, in opposition. + An ceann; _in the end_, at the expiration. + An comhail, } + An coinnimh; } _in meeting_, to meet. + An cois, } + A chois; } _at the foot_, near to, hard by. + An dàil; _in the rencounter_, to meet. + An diaigh, } + An deigh, } probably for } + An deaghaidh, } an deireadh; } in the end, after. + An déis; } + An eiric; in return, in requital. + Am fianuis, } + An lathair; } in presence. + An lorg; _in the track_, in consequence. + As eugais, } + As easbhuidh; } _in want_, without. + As leth; in behalf, for the sake. + A los; in order to, with the intention of. + Car; during. + Do bhrigh, a bhrigh; _by virtue_, because. + Do chòir, a chòir; _to the presence_, near, implying motion. + Do chum, a chum[84]; to, towards, in order to. + Do dhìth, a dhìth, } + Dh' easbhuidh; } for want. + Dh' fhios; _to the knowledge_, to. + Dh' ionnsuidh; _to the approach_, or _onset_, toward. + Do réir, a réir; according to. + Do thaobh, a thaobh; _on the side_, with respect, concerning. + Fa chùis; by reason, because. + Fa chomhair; opposite. + Mu choinnimh; opposite, over against. + Mu thimchoill, timchioll; _by the circuit_, around. + O bharr, bharr; _from the top_, off. + Os ceann; _on the top_, above, atop. + {123} + Ré; _duration_, during. + Taréis; _after_[85]. + Trid; through, by means. + +It is evident, from inspection, that almost all these improper Prepositions +are compounded; and comprehend, as one of their component parts, a Noun, +which is preceded by a simple or Proper Preposition; like the English, _on +account, with respect_, &c. The words ceann, aghaidh, lorg, barr, taobh, +&c., are known to be real Nouns, because they are employed in that capacity +in other connections, as well as in the phrases here enumerated. The case +is not so clear with regard to son, cum, or cun, reir, which occur only in +the above phrases; but it is probable that these are nouns likewise, and +that, when combined with simple Prepositions, they constitute phrases of +precisely the same structure with the rest of the foregoing list[86]. +Comhair is probably comh-aire _mutual attention_. Dàil and còir, in the +sense of proximity, are found in their compounds comh-dhail and fochair [fa +chòir.] Tòir, in like manner, in its derivative tòireachd, _the act of +pursuing_. Dh' fhios, _to the knowledge_, must have been originally applied +to persons only. So it is used in many Gaelic songs: beir mo shoiridh le +dùrachd dh' fhios na cailinn, &c., _bear my good wishes with cordiality to +the knowledge of the maid_, &c., i.e., _present my affectionate regards_, +&c. This appropriate meaning and use of the phrase came by degrees to be +overlooked; and it was employed, promiscuously with do chum and dh' +ionnsuidh, to signify _unto_ in a more general sense. If this analysis of +the expression be just, then ghios[87] must be deemed only a different, and +a corrupt manner of writing dh' fhios. + +In the improper preposition os ceann, the noun has almost {124} always been +written cionn. Yet in all other situations, the same noun is uniformly +written ceann. Whence has arisen this diversity in the orthography of a +simple monosyllable? And is it maintained upon just grounds? It must have +proceeded either from a persuasion that there are two distinct nouns +signifying _top_, one of which is to be written ceann, and the other +cionn[88]; or from an opinion that, granting the two words to be the same +individual noun, yet it is proper to distinguish its meaning when used in +the capacity of a preposition, from its meaning in other situations, by +spelling it in different ways. I know of no good argument in support of the +former of these two opinions; nor has it probably been ever maintained. The +latter opinion, which seems to be the real one, is founded on a principle +subversive of the analogy and stability of written language, namely, that +the various significations of the same word are to be distinguished in +writing, by changing its letters, the constituent elements of the word. The +variation in question, instead of serving to point out the meaning of a +word or phrase in one place, from its known meaning in another connection, +tends directly to disguise it; and to mislead the reader into a belief that +the words, which are thus presented to him under different forms, are +themselves radically and essentially different. If the same word has been +employed to denote several things somewhat different from each other, that +does by no means appear a sufficient reason why the writers of the language +should make as many words of one[89]. + +{125} + +The use of the _proper Prepositions_ has been already shown in the +composition of adverbial phrases, and of the _improper Prepositions_. The +following examples show the further use of them in connection with Nouns +and Verbs, and in some idiomatic expressions which do not always admit of +being literally rendered in English. + +Ag, aig. + +_At_: aig an dorus, _at the door_; aig an tigh, _at the house, at home_. + +_By reason of_: aig ro mheud aighir 's a shòlais, _by reason of his great +joy and satisfaction_, Smith's _Seann dàna_, p. 9; ag meud a mhiann +_through intense desire_, Psal. lxxxiv. 2, metr. vers.; ag lionmhoireachd, +Psal. xl. 5. + +Signifying possession: tha tuill aig na sionnaich, _the foxes have holes_; +bha aig duine araidh dithis mhac, _a certain man had two sons_; cha n'eil +fhios agam, _I have not the knowledge of it, I do not know it_. + +Chaidh agam air, _I have prevailed over him_, Psal. xiii. 4, metr. vers. + +Joined to the Infinitive of Verbs: ag imeachd, _a-walking, walking_. + +Air. + +On, upon: air an làr, _on the ground_; air an là sin, _on that day_; air an +adhbhar sin, _on that account, for that reason_. + +{126} + +Denoting claim of debt: ioc dhomh na bheil agam ort, _pay me what thou +owest me_, Matt. xviii. 28; cia meud ata aig mo thighearn ortsa? _how much +owest thou unto my lord?_ Luke xvi. 57.[90] + +Denoting an oath: air m' fhocal, _upon my word_; air làimh d' athar 's do +sheanathar, _by the hand of your father and grandfather_. + +Tha eagal, mulad, sgìos, ocras, &c., air, _he is afraid, sad, fatigued, +hungry_, &c. + +Thig mo bheul air do cheartas, is air do chliù, _my mouth shall speak of +thy justice and thy praise_, Psal. xxxv. 28. metr.; thig mo bheul air +gliocas, _my mouth shall speak of wisdom_, Psal. xlix. 3, metr. v.; sin +cùis air am bheil mi nis a' teachd, _that is the matter of which I am now +to treat_. + +Tog ort, _rouse thyself, bestir thyself_, Psal lxxiv. 22, metr. v. + +Chaidh agam air, _I prevailed over him_, Psal. xiii. 4.; metr.; 'S ann +ormsa chaidh, _it was I that was worsted_. + +Thug e am monadh air, _he betook himself to the mountain_. + +_In respect of_: cha 'n fhaca mi an samhuil air olcas, _I never saw their +like for badness_, Gen. xli. 19; air a lughad, _however small it be_. + +_Joined with, accompanied by_: mòran iarruinn air bheag faobhar, _much iron +with little edge_, McIntyre's Songs. Oidhche bha mi 'n a theach, air mhòran +bìdh 's air bheagan eudaich, _I was a night in his house, with plenty of +{127} food, but scanty clothing_; air leth laimh, _having but one hand_. + +Denoting measure or dimension: dà throidh air àirde, _two feet in height_. + +Olc air mhath leat e, _whether you take it well or ill_. + +Ann, ann an, anns. + +_In.:_ Anns an tigh, _in the house_; anns an oidhche, _in the night_; ann +an dòchas, _in hope_; anns a' bharail sin, _of that opinion_. + +Denoting existence: ta abhainn ann, _there is a river_, Psal. xlvi. 4, +metr.; nach bithinn ann ni 's mò, _that I should not be any more_; b' +fhearr a bhi marbh na ann, _it were better to be dead than to be alive_; +ciod a th' ann? _what is it?_ is mise th' ann, _it is I_; mar gu b' ann, +_as it were_; tha e 'n a dhuine ionraic, _he is a just man_; tha i 'n a +bantraich, _she is a widow_[91]. + +Marking emphasis: is ann air eigin a thàr e as, _it was with difficulty he +got off_; an àite seasamh is ann a theich iad, _instead of standing +(keeping their ground) they fled_; nach freagair thu? fhreagair mi ann, +_will you not answer? I have answered_. + +As. + +_Out of:_ as an dúthaich, _out of the country_. + +Denoting extinction: tha an solus, no an teine, air dol as, _the light, or +the fire, is gone out_. + +As an alt, _out of joint_; as a' ghualainn, as a' chruachainn, as an +uilinn, &c., _dislocated in the shoulder, hip, elbow-joint_. + +{128} + +Chaidh e as, _he escaped_. + +Cuir as da, _destroy him_, or _it_. + +Chaidh as da, _he is perished, undone_. + +Thug e na buinn as, _he scampered off_. + +Dubh as, _blot out_. + +De. + +_Of:_ Armailt mhòr de dhaoinibh agus a dh' eachaibh, _a great army of men +and horses_. + +_Off:_ Bha na geugan air an sgathadh dheth, _the branches were lopped off_; +thug iad an ceann deth, _they beheaded him_. + +Dh' aon rùn, _with one consent, with one purpose_; dh' aon bharail, _with +one mind, judgment_. + +A là agus a dh' oidhche, _i.e._, de là agus de oidhche, _by day and by +night_. Lat. _de nocte_, Hor. + +Saidhbhreas mór d'a mheud, _riches however great_. Psal. cxix. 14, metr. + +Do. + +_To:_ Tabhair dhomh, _give to me, give me_; thug sinn a bos mìn do Dhearg, +_we gave her soft hand to Dargo_. + +Dh' eirich sud dha gu h-obann, _that befell him suddenly_. Mar sin duinne +gu latha, _so it fared with us till day, so we passed the night_; ma 's olc +dhomh, cha n-fhearr dhoibh, _if it goes ill with me, they fare no better_. + +Latha dhomhsa siubhal bheann, _one day as I travelled the hills_; latha +dhuinn air machair Alba, _one day when we were in the lowlands of Scotland; +on Scotia's plains_. + +Eadar. + +_Between:_ eadar an dorus agus an ursainn, _between the door and the post_. + +Dh' eirich eadar mi agus mo choimhearsnach, _a quarrel arose betwixt me and +my neighbour_. + +{129} Eadar mhòr agus bheag, _both great and small_, Psal. xlix. 2, metr.; +Rev. xix. 5, eadar bhochd agus nochd, _both the poor and the naked_. + +Fa. + +_Upon:_ Fa 'n bhòrd, _upon the board_; leigeadar fa làr, _was dropped on +the ground, omitted, neglected_. Carswel. Fa 'n adhbhar ud, _on that +account_; creud fa 'n abradh iad? _wherefore should they say?_ + +Fa sheachd, _seven times_, Psal. vii. 6, metr.; fa cheud, _a hundred +times_, Psal. lxii. 9, metr. + +Fuidh, fo. + +_Under:_ Fuidh 'n bhòrd, _under the board_; fuidh bhlàth _in blossom_; tha +an t-arbhar fo dhéis, _the corn is in the ear_; fuidh smuairean, _under +concern_; fo ghruaim, _gloomy_; fo mhi-ghean, _in bad humour_; fuidh +mhi-chliu, _under bad report_. + +Denoting intention or purpose: air bhi fuidhe, _it being his purpose_, Acts +xx. 7; tha tighinn fodham, _it is my intention or inclination_. + +Gu, Gus. + +_To:_ O thigh gu tigh, _from house to house_; gu crìch mo shaoghail fein, +_to the end of my life_; gus an crion gu luaithre a' chlach, _until the +stone shall crumble to dust_. Sm. Seann dàna. + +A' bhliadhna gus an àm so, _this time twelvemonth, a year ago_; a +sheachduin gus an dé, _yesterday se'ennight_. + +Mile gu leth, _a mile and a half_; bliadhna gu leth, _a year and a half_. + +Gun. + +_Without:_ Gun amharus, _without doubt_; gun bhrogan, _without shoes_; gun +fhios, _without knowledge, unwittingly_; gun fhios nach faic thu e, _in +case you may see him_, {130} _if perhaps you may see him_; gun fhios am +faic thu e, _if perhaps you may not see him_. Gun chomas aig air, _without +his being able to prevent it, or avoid it_; _involuntarily_. Gniomh gun +chomain, _an unmerited, or unprovoked deed_. Dh' àithn e dha gun sin a +dheanamh, _he ordered him not to do that_. Fhuair iad rabhadh gun iad a +philltinn, _they were warned not to return_. + +Iar. + +_After_: Iar sin, _after that_; iar leughadh an t-Soisgeil, _after the +reading of the Gospel_; iar tuiteam sios da aig a chosaibh, _having fallen +down at his feet_; bha mi iar mo mhealladh, _I was received_. + +Le, leis. + +_With_: Chaidh mi leis a' chuideachd mhòir, _I went with the multitude_. + +Denoting the instrument: mharbh e Eoin leis a' chlaidheamh, _he killed John +with the sword_. + +Denoting the agent: thomhaiseadh le Diarmid an torc, _the boar was measured +by Diarmid_. + +Denoting possession: is le Donull an leabhar, _the book is Donald's_; cha +leis e, _it is not his_. + +Denoting opinion or feeling: is fada leam an là gu h-oidhche, _I think the +day long, or tedious, till night come_; is cruaidh leam do chor, _I think +your case a hard one_; is dòcha leam, _I think it probable_; is doilich +leam, _I am sorry_; is aithreach leis, _he repents_. + +_Along_: leis an t-sruth _along the stream_; leis an leathad, _down the +declivity_. + +Leig leam, _let me alone_; leig leis, _let him alone_. + +Mu. + +_About_: ag iadhadh mu a cheann, _winding about his head_; labhair e mu +Iudas, _he spoke about Judas_; nuair smachduichear duine leat mu 'lochd, +_when thou {131} correctest a man for his sin_, Psal. xxxix. 11, metr.; sud +am fàth mu'n goir a' chorr, _that is the reason of the heron's cry_. Seann +dàna. Sud fàth mu 'n guidheann ort na naoimh, _for this reason will the +saints make supplication to Thee_. + +O. + +_From_: O bhaile gu baile, _from town to town_; o mhadainn gu feasgar, +_from morning to evening_; o 'n là thainig mi dhachaidh, _from the day that +I came home_; o 'n là, is often abridged into la; as, la thainig mi +dhachaidh, _since I came home_. + +_Since_, _because_: thugamaid uil' oirnn a' bhanais, o fhuair sinn cuireadh +dhol ann, _let us all to the wedding, since we have been bidden to it_. + +Denoting want in opposition to possession, denoted by _aig_: na tha uainn +'s a b' fheairrd sinn againn, _what we want and should be the better for +having_. + +Implying desire: ciod tha uait? _what would you have?_ Tha claidheamh uam, +_I want a sword_. + +Os. + +_Above_: Mar togam os m' uil' aoibhneas àrd cathair Ierusaleim, _if I +prefer not Jerusalem above my chief joy_, Psal. cxxxvii. 6, metr.; os mo +cheann, _above me_, _over me_. + +Ri, ris. + +_To_: cosmhuil ri mac righ, _like to the son of a king_; chuir iad teine +ris an tigh, _they set fire to the house_. + +Maille ri, _together with_. + +Laimh ris a' bhalla, _nigh to the wall_. + +Ri là gaoithe, _on a day of wind_; ri fad mo ré 's mo là, _during all the +days of my life_; ri lìnn Righ Uilliam, _in the reign of King William_. + +Na bi rium, _don't molest me_. + +Feuch ris, _try it_. + +Cuir ris, _ply your work_, _exert yourself_; cuirear na {132} nithe so +ribh, _these things shall be added unto you_, Matt. vi. 33. Tha an Spiorad +ag cur ruinn na saorsa, _the Spirit applieth to us the redemption_, Assemb. +Sh. Catech. + +_Exposed_: tha an craicionn ris, _the skin is exposed, or bare_; leig ris, +_expose or make manifest_. + +Roimh. + +_Before_: roimh 'n charbad, _before the chariot_; roimh 'n chamhair, +_before the dawn_; roimh na h-uile nithibh, _before, in preference to, all +things_; chuir mi romham, _I set before me, purposed, intended_. + +Imich romhad, _go forward_; dh' fhalbh e roimhe, _he went his way_, _he +went off_. + +Seach. + +_Past_: chaidh e seach an dorus, _he passed by the door_. + +_In comparison with_: is trom a' chlach seach a' chlòineag, _the stone is +heavy compared with the down_. + +Tar, thar. + +_Over_, _across_: chaidh e thar an amhainn, thar a' mhonadh, _he went over +the river, over the mountain_; tha sin thar m' eolas, thar mo bheachd, &c., +_that is beyond my knowledge, beyond my comprehension_, &c. + +Tre, troimh, throimh. + +_Through_: tre uisge is tre theine, _through water and through fire_. + + + +OF INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. + +The following initial syllables, used only in composition, are prefixed to +nouns, adjectives, or verbs, to modify or alter their signification:-- +{133} + +An[92], Di, Ao, ea, eu, eas, Mi, Neo:--Privative syllables signifying +_not_, or serving to change the signification of the words to which they +are prefixed into its contrary; as, socair _ease_, anshocair _distress_, +_uneasiness_; ciontach _guilty_, dichiontach _innocent_; treabh _to +cultivate_, dithreabh _an uncultivated place_, _a desert_; dionach _tight_, +_close_, aodionach _leaky_; còir _justice_, eucoir _injustice_; slàn +_whole_, _in health_, easlan _sick_; caraid _a friend_, eascaraid _an +enemy_; buidheachas _gratitude_, mibhuidheachas _ingratitude_; claon +_awry_, neochlaon _unbiassed_, _impartial_; duine _a man_, neodhuine _a +worthless unnatural creature_. + +An, ain, intensitive, denoting an immoderate degree, or faulty excess; as, +tighearnas _dominion_, aintighearnas _tyranny_; tromaich _to make heavy_, +antromaich _to make very heavy_, _to aggravate_; teas _heat_, ainteas +_excessive heat_; miann _desire_, ainmhiann _inordinate desire_, _lust_. + +Ais, ath, _again_, _back_; as, eirigh _rising_, aiseirigh _resurrection_; +beachd _view_, ath-bheachd _retrospect_; fàs _growth_, ath-fhàs +_after-growth_. + +Bith, _continually_; as, bithdheanamh _doing continually_, _busy_; am +bithdheantas _incessantly_. + +Co, com, comh, con, _together_, _equally_, _mutually_; as, gleacadh +_fighting_, co-ghleacadh _fighting together_; lion _to fill_, colion _to +fulfil_, _accomplish_; ith _to eat_, comith _eating together_; radh +_saying_, comhradh _conversation, speech_; trom _weight_, cothrom _equal +weight_, _equity_; aois _age_, comhaois _a contemporary_. + +Im, _about_, _round_, _entire_; as, làn _full_, iomlan _quite complete_; +gaoth _wind_, iomghaoth _a whirlwind_; slainte _health_, iom-shlainte +_perfect health_. + +{134} + +In, or ion, _worthy_: as, ion-mholta _worthy to be praised_: ion-roghnuidh +_worthy to be chosen_, Psal. xxv. 12, metr. vers. + +So, _easily_, _gently_: as, faicsin _seeing_, so-fhaicsin _easily seen_; +sion _weather_, soinion [so-shion] _calm weather_; sgeul _a tale_, soisgeul +_a good tale_, _gospel_. + +Do, _with difficulty_, _evil_; as, tuigsin _understanding_, do-thuigsin +_difficult to be understood_; doinion _stormy weather_; beart _deed, +exploit_. do-bheart _evil deed_. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +OF CONJUNCTIONS. + +Under this class of words, it is proper to enumerate not only those single +Particles which are usually denominated Conjunctions; but also the most +common phrases which are used as Conjunctions to connect either words or +sentences. + + Ach; but. + Agus, is; and. + A chionn gu; because that. + A chum as gu; in order that. + A chum as nach; that not. + Air chor as gu; so that. + Air eagal gu, } + D' eagal gu; } _for fear that_, lest. + Air son gu, } + Du bhrigh gu; } by reason that + Bheil fhios, 'l fhios? _is there knowledge?_ is it known? an expression + of curiosity, or desire to know. + Co; as. + Ged, giodh; although[93]. + {135} + Ged tha, ge ta; _though it be_, notwithstanding. + Gidheadh; yet, nevertheless. + Gu, gur; that. + Gun fhios; _without knowledge_, it being uncertain whether or not, in + case not. + Ionnas gu; insomuch that, so that. + {136} + Ma; if. + Mar; as, like as. + Mar sud agus; so also. + Ma seadh, } + Ma ta; } _if so_, _if it be so_, _then_. + Mur; if not. + Mur bhiodh gu; were it not that. + Mus an, mu 'n; before that, lest. + Na; than. + Nach; that not. + Na'n, na'm; if. + No; or. + O; since, because. + Oir; for. + Os barr; moreover. + Sol, suil; before that. + Tuille eile; further. + Uime sin; therefore. + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +OF INTERJECTIONS. + +The syllables or sounds, employed as expressions of various emotions or +sensations, are numerous in Gaelic, but for the most part provincial, and +arbitrary. Only one or two single vocables, and a few phrases, require to +be noticed under this division. + + Och! Ochan! alas! + Ochan nan och! _alas_ and _well-a-day!_ + Fire faire! what a pother! + Mo thruaighe! _my misery!_ } + Mo chreachadh! _my despoiling!_ } woe's me! + Mo nàire! _my shame_, for shame! fy! + H-ugad, _at you_, take care of yourself, _gardez-vous_. + Feuch! behold! lo! + + * * * * * + + +{137} + +PART III. + +OF SYNTAX. + +Syntax treats of the connection of words with each other in a sentence; and +teaches the proper method of expressing their connection by the +_Collection_ and the _Form_ of the words. Gaelic Syntax may be conveniently +enough explained under the common divisions of Concord and Government. + + + +CHAPTER I. + +OF CONCORD. + +Under Concord is to be considered the agreement of the Article with its +Noun;--of an Adjective with its Noun;--of a Pronoun with its +Antecedent;--of a Verb with its Nominative;--and of one Noun with another. + +SECTION I. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE ARTICLE WITH A NOUN. + +_Collocation._ + +The article is always placed before its Noun, and next to it, unless when +an Adjective intervenes. + +_Form._ + +The article agrees with its Noun in Gender, Number, and Case. Final _n_ is +changed into _m_ before a plain Labial; as, am baile _the town_, am fear +_the man_. It is usually cut off before an aspirated Palatal, or Labial, +excepting _fh_; as, a' chaora _the sheep_, a' mhuc _the sow_, a' choin _of +the dog_. In the Dat. Sing. initial _a_ is cut off after a Preposition +ending in a Vowel; as, do 'n chloich _to the stone_[94]. + +{138} + +A Noun, when immediately preceded by the Article, suffers some changes in +Initial Form:--1. With regard to Nouns beginning with a Consonant, the +_aspirated_ form is assumed by a mas. Noun in the gen. and dat. singular; +by a fem. noun in the nom. and dat. singular. If the Noun begins with _s_ +followed by a vowel or by a Liquid, instead of having the _s_ aspirated, +_t_ is inserted between the Article and the Noun, in the foresaid cases; +and the _s_ becomes entirely quiescent[95]. 2. With regard to Nouns +beginning with a Vowel, _t_ or _h_ is inserted between the Article and the +Noun in certain Cases, viz. _t_ in the Nom. sing. of mas. Nouns, _h_ in the +gen. sing. of fem. Nouns, and _h_ in the nom. and dat. plur. of Nouns of +either gender. Throughout the other sing. and plur. Cases, all Nouns retain +their Primary form. + +The following examples show all the varieties that take place in declining +a Noun with the Article. + +_Nouns beginning with a Labial or a Palatal._ + + Bard, mas. _a Poet_. + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ am Bard, na Baird, + _G._ a' Bhaird, nam Bard, + _D._ a', 'n Bhard[96]. na Bardaibh. + + Cluas, fem. _an Ear_. + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ a' Chluas, na Cluasan, + _G._ na Cluaise, nan Cluas, + _D._ a', 'n Chluais. na Cluasaibh. + + {139} + _Nouns beginning with f._ + + Fleasgach, m. _a Bachelor._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ am Fleasgach, na Fleasgaich, + _G._ an Fhleasgaich, nam Fleasgach, + _D._ an, 'n Fhleasgach. na Fleasgaich. + + Fòid, f. a _Turf._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Fhòid, na Foidean, + _G._ na Fòide, nam Fòid, + _D._ an, 'n Fhòid. na Foidibh. + + _Nouns beginning with a Lingual._ + + Dorus, m. _a Door._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Dorus, na Dorsan, + _G._ an Doruis, nan Dorsa, + _D._ an, 'n Dorus, na Dorsaibh. + + Teasach, f. _a Fever._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Teasach, na Teasaichean, + _G._ na Teasaich, nan Teasach, + _D._ an, 'n Teasaich. na Teasaichibh. + + _Nouns beginning with s._ + + Sloc, mas. _a Pit._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Sloc, na Sluic, + _G._ an t-Sluic, nan Sloc, + _D._ an, 'n t-Sloc. na Slocaibh. + + {140} + Sùil, fem. _an Eye._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an t-Sùil, na Suilean, + _G._ na Sùla nan Sùl, + _D._ an, 'n t-Sùil. na Suilibh. + + _Nouns beginning with a Vowel._ + + Iasg, m. _a Fish._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an t-Iasg, na h-Iasga, + _G._ an Eisg, nan Iasg, + _D._ an, 'n Iasg. na h-Iasgaibh. + + Adharc, f. _a Horn._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Adharc, na h-Adhaircean, + _G._ na h-Adhairc, nan Adharc, + _D._ an, 'n Adhairc. na h-Adhaircibh. + +The initial Form of Adjectives immediately preceded by the Article, follows +the same rules with the initial Form of Nouns. + +Besides the common use of the Article as a Definitive to ascertain +individual objects, it is used in Gaelic-- + +1. Before a Noun followed by the Pronouns _so_, _sin_, or _ud_; as, am fear +so, _this man_; an tigh ud, _yon house_. + +2. Before a Noun preceded by the Verb _is_ and an Adjective; as, is maith +an sealgair e, _he is a good huntsman_; bu luath an coisiche e, _he was a +swift footman_. + +3. Before some names of countries; as, righ na Spainne, _the king of +Spain_; chaidh e do 'n Fhrainc, _he went to France_; but righ Bhreatain, +_the king of Britain_; chaidh e dh' Eirin, _he went to Ireland_, without +the Article. {141} + + + +SECTION II. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF AN ADJECTIVE WITH A NOUN. + +_Collocation._ + +When an Adjective and the Noun which it qualifies are in the same clause or +member of a sentence, the Adjective is usually placed after its Noun; as, +ceann liath, _a hoary head_; duine ro ghlic, _a very wise man_. If they be +in different clauses, or if the one be in the subject, and the other in the +predicate of a proposition, this rule does not apply; as, is glic an duine +sin, _that is a wise man_; cha truagh leam do chor, _I do not think your +case unfortunate_. + +1. Numerals, whether Cardinal or Ordinal, to which add, iomadh _many_, gach +_every_, are placed before their Nouns; as, tri lathan, _three days_; an +treas latha, _the third day_; iomadh duine, _many a man_; gach eun g' a +nead, _every bird to its nest_.--Except such instances as the following : +Righ Tearlach a h-Aon, _King Charles the First_; Righ Seumas a Cuig, _King +James the Fifth_. + +2. The possessive pronouns mo, do, &c., are always placed before their +nouns; as, mo lamh, _my hand_. The interrogatives co, cia, &c., are placed +before their nouns, with the article intervening; as, cia am fear? _which +man?_ + +3. Some adjectives of one syllable are usually placed before their Nouns; +as, deadh dhuine, _a good man_; droch ghniomh, _a bad action_; seann +sluagh, _old people_. Such Adjectives, placed before their Nouns, often +combine with them, so as to represent one complex idea, rather than two +distinct ones; and the adjective and noun, in that situation, may rather be +considered as one complex term, than as two distinct words, and written +accordingly; as, oigfhear, _a young man_; ogbhean, _a young woman_; +garbhchriochan, _rude regions_[97]. + +{142} + +_Form._ + +Though a Gaelic Adjective possesses a variety of Forms, yet its Form is not +always determined by the Noun whose signification it modifies. The Form of +the Adjective depends on its Noun, when it immediately follows the Noun, or +only with the intervention of an intensitive Particle, ro, gle, &c., and +when both the Noun and the Adjective are in the Subject, or both in the +Predicate, or in the same clause or member of a sentence. In all other +situations, the form of the Adjective does in no respect depend on the +Noun; or, in other words, the Adjective does not agree with the Noun[98]. + +To illustrate this rule, let the following examples be attentively +considered:--Is beag orm a' ghaoth fhuar, _I dislike the cold wind_; is +beag orm fuaim na gaoithe fuaire, _I dislike the sound of the cold wind_; +is beag orm seasamh anns a' ghaoith fhuair, _I dislike standing in the cold +wind_. In these examples, the Adjective and the Noun are both in the same +clause or member of a sentence, and therefore they must agree together. In +the following examples the Adjective and the Noun do not necessarily agree +together:--Is fuar a' ghaoth á tuath, _cold is the wind from the north_; is +tric leis a' ghaoith á tuath bhi fuar, _it is usual for the wind from the +north to be cold_. In these examples, the Noun is in the Subject, and the +Adjective in the Predicate of the proposition. + +{143} + +The grammatical distinction observable in the following examples is +agreeable to the strictest philosophical propriety:--Rinn mis an scian +gheur, _I made the sharp knife_: here the Adjective agrees with the Noun, +for it modifies the Noun, distinguishing that knife from others. Rinn mis +an scian geur, _I made the knife sharp_: here the Adjective does not agree +with the Noun, for it modifies not the Noun but the Verb. It does not +characterize the _object_ on which the operation is performed, hut it +combines with the Verb in specifying the _nature of the operation_ +performed. The expression is equivalent to gheuraich mi an scian, _I +sharpened the knife_. So also, mhothaich mi a' ghaoth fhuar, _I felt the +cold wind_; but mhothaich mi a' ghaoth fuar, _I felt the wind cold_. In the +former of these examples the Adjective modifies the Noun, and agrees with +it; in the latter it does not agree with the Noun, for its use is to modify +the Verb, or to specify the nature of the sensation felt. In like manner, +dh' fhàg iad an obair criochnaichte, _they left the work finished_; +fhuaradh an òigh sìnte, marbh, _the maid was found stretched out dead_. And +so in other similar instances. + + + +1. When an Adjective and Noun are so situated and related, that an +agreement takes place between them, then the Adjective agrees with its noun +in Gender, Number, and Case. A Noun preceded by the Numeral da _two_, +though it be in the Singular Number, [see conclusion of Part II. Chap I.] +takes an Adjective in the Plural; as, da iasg bheaga, _two small fishes_, +John, vi. 9. The Initial Form of the Adjective depends partly on the Gender +of the Noun, partly on its Termination, and partly on its being preceded by +the Article. + +The following examples of an Adjective declined along with its Noun, +exhibit the varieties in the Initial Form, as well as in the Termination of +the Adjective:-- + +{144} + + MONOSYLLABLES. + + Fear mòr, mas. _a Great Man_. + + _Without the Article._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ Fear mòr, Fir mhòra, + _G._ Fir mhòir, Fheara mòra, + _D._ Fear mòr, Fearaibh mòra, + _V._ Fhir mhòir. Fheara mòra. + + _With the Article._ + + _N._ Am Fear mòr, Na Fir mhòra, + _G._ An Fhir mhòir, Nam Fear mòra, + _D._ An Fhear mhòr. Na Fearaibh mòra. + + Slat gheal, fem. _a white rod_. + + _Without the Article._ + + _N._ Slat gheal, Slatan geala, + _G._ Slaite gile, Shlatan geala, + _D._ Slait ghil, Slataibh geala, + _V._ Shlat gheal. Shlata geala. + + _With the Article._ + + _N._ An t-Slat gheal, Na Slatan geala, + _G._ Na Slaite gile, Nan Slata geala, + _D._ An t-Slait ghil. Na Slataibh geala. + + POLYSYLLABLES. + + Oglach dileas, m. _a Faithful Servant_. + + _Without the Article._ + + _N._ Oglach dileas, Oglaich dhileas, + _G._ Oglaich dhilis, Oglach dileas, + _D._ Oglach dileas, Oglachaibh dileas, + _V._ Oglaich dhilis. Oglacha dileas. + + {145} + _With the Article._ + + _N._ An t-Oglach dileas, Na h-Oglaich dhileas. + _G._ An Oglaich dhilis, Nan Oglach dileas. + _D._ An Oglach dhileas, Na h-Oglachaibh dileas. + + Clarsach fhonnmhor, f. _a Tuneful Harp._ + + _Without the Article._ + + _N._ Clarsach fhonnmhor, Clarsaichean fonnmhor. + _G._ Clarsaich fhonnmhoir, Chlarsach fonnmhor. + _D._ Clarsaich fhonnmhoir, Clarsaichibh fonnmhor. + _V._ Chlarsach fhonnmhor, Chlarsaiche fonnmhor. + + _With the Article._ + + _N._ A' Chlarsach fhonnmhor, Na Clarsaichean fonnmhor. + _G._ Na Clarsaich fonnmhoir, Nan Clarsach fonnmhor. + _D._ A', 'n Chlarsaich fhonnmhoir, Na Clarsaichibh fonnmhor. + +An Adjective, beginning with a Lingual, and preceded by a Noun terminating +in a Lingual, retains its primary Form in all the Singular cases; for the +sake, it would seem, of preserving the agreeable sound arising from the +coalescence of the two Linguals; as, nighean donn _a brown maid_, instead +of nighean dhonn; a' choin duibh _of the black dog_, instead of a' choin +dhuibh; air a' chois deis _on his right foot_, instead of air a chois +dheis. + +II. A Noun preceded by an Adjective assumes the aspirated Form; as, ard +bheann _a high hill_, cruaidh dheuchainn _a hard trial_. + +1. A Noun preceded by a Numeral is in the primary Form; as, tri meoir +_three fingers_; to which add iomadh _many_, gach _every_; as, iomadh fear +_many a man_; gach craobh _every tree_.--Except aon _one_, da _two_; ceud +_first_; as, aon fhear _one man_, da chraoibh _two trees_. + +2. A Noun preceded by any of the following Possessive Pronouns, a _her_, ar +_our_, bhur _your_, an _their_, is in the primary {146} Form; as, a mathair +_her mother_, ar brathair _our brother_. When the Possessive Pronoun a +_her_, precedes a Noun or an Adjective beginning with a vowel, _h_ is +inserted between them; as, a h-athair, _her father_, a h-aon mhac _her only +son_. The Possessive Pronouns ar _our_, bhur _your_, usually take _n_ +between them and the following Noun or Adjective beginning with a vowel; +as, ar n-athair _our father_, bhur n-aran _your bread_. Perhaps a +distinction ought to be made, by inserting _n_ only after ar, and not after +bhur[99]. This would serve often to distinguish the one word from the other +in speaking, where they are ready to be confounded by bhur being pronounced +ur. + +3. A Noun beginning with a Lingual, preceded by an Adjective ending in _n_, +is in the primary Form; as, aon duine _one man_, seann sluagh _old people_. + + + +SECTION III. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF A PRONOUN WITH ITS ANTECEDENT. + +The Personal and Possessive Pronouns follow the _Number_ of their +Antecedents, _i.e._ of the Nouns which they represent. Those of the 3d +Pers. Sing. follow also the Gender of their antecedent; as, sheas a'bhean +aig _a_ chosaibh, agus thoisich _i air am_ fliuchadh leis _a_ deuraibh, +agus thiormaich _i iad_ le gruaig _a_ cinn, _the woman stood at his feet, +and she began to wet them with her tears, and she wiped them with the hair +of her head_, Luke vii. 38. They follow, however, not the Gender of the +Antecedent, but the sex of the creature signified by the Antecedent, in +those words in which Sex and Gender disagree, as, an gobhlan-gaoithe mar an +ceudn' do sholair nead dh'i fein _the swallow too hath provided a nest for +herself_, Psal. lxxxiv. 3. Gobhlan-gaoithe _a swallow_, is a mas. Noun, as +appears by the mas. Article: but as it is the dam that is spoken of, the +reference is made by the Personal Pronoun of the fem. gender. Ta gliocas +air a fireanachadh leis a cloinn _Wisdom {147} is justified by her +children_, Matt. xi. 19. Gliocas is a mas. noun; but as Wisdom is here +personified as a female, the regimen of the Possessive Pronoun is adapted +to that idea[100]. See also Prov. ix. 1-3. In this sentence Och nach b' i +mhaduinn e, Deut. xxviii. 67, the former pronoun _i_ is correctly put in +the fem. gender, as referring to the fem. noun _maduinn_; while the latter +pron. _e_ is put in the mas. gend. because referring to no expressed +antecedent. + +If the Antecedent be a sentence, or clause of a sentence, the Pronoun is of +the 3d Pers. Sing. masculine; as, dh' ith na bà caola suas na bà reamhra, +agus cha n-aithnichteadh orra _e_, _the lean cattle ate up the fat cattle, +and could not be known by them_. + +If the Antecedent be a collective Noun, the Pronoun is of the 3d Pers. +Plur. as, thoir àithne do 'n t-sluagh, d' eagal gu m bris _iad_ asteach +_charge the people lest they break in_, Exod. xix. 21. + +An Interrogative combined with a Personal Pronoun, asks a question without +the intervention of the Substantive verb; as, co mise? _who [am] I?_ co iad +na daoine sin? _who [are] those men?_ cia i a' cheud àithne? _which [is] +the first commandment?_ In interrogations of this form, the noun is +sometimes preceded by the Personal Pronoun, and sometimes not; as, co e am +fear? _who [is] the man?_ co am fear? _what man?_ Co am fear? is evidently +an incomplete sentence, like _what man?_ in English. The ellipsis may be +supplied thus; co e am fear a ta thu ciallachadh? _who is the man whom you +mean?_ This example may be abridged into another common interrogation, in +which the Interrogative is immediately followed by the Relative; as, co a +ta thu ciallachadh? _who [is he] whom you mean?_ ciod a ta thu faicinn? +_what [is it] that you see?_ + +In an interrogative sentence including a Personal Pronoun and a Noun, as, +co e am fear sin? if the Noun be restricted in {148} its signification by +some other words connected with it, such as the Article, an Adjective, +another Noun in the Genitive, or a relative clause, then the Pronoun +usually follows the Gender of the Noun, or the Sex of the object signified +by the Noun, if the Gender does not correspond to it; as, co _e_ am fear a +theid a suas? _who is the man that shall ascend?_ co _i_ am boirionnach +sin? _who is that woman?_ cia _i_ a' cheud àithne? _which is the first +commandment?_ If the Noun be not _so restricted_, the Pronoun is of the +masculine gender; as, ciod e uchdmhacachd? _what is adoption?_ ciod e +urnuigh? _what is prayer?_[101] + +{149} + + + +SECTION IV. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF A VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. + +As the Verb has no variation of _form_ corresponding to the Person or +Number of its Nominative, the connection between a Verb and its Nominative +can be marked only by its _collocation_. Little variety therefore is +allowed in this respect. The Nominative, whether Noun or Pronoun, is +ordinarily placed after the Verb; as, ta mi _I am_, rugadh duine-cloinne _a +man-child is born_[102]. The Article or an Adjective, is frequently {150} +placed between the Verb and its Nominative; as, thainig an uair, _the hour +is come_; aithrisear iomadh droch sgeul, _many an evil tale will be told_. +Sometimes, but more rarely, circumstances are expressed beween the Verb and +its Nominative; as, rugadh dhuinne, an diugh, ann am baile Dhaibhi, an +Slanuighear, _there is born to us, this day, in David's town, the Saviour_. + +The word denoting the object of the verbal action, can never, even in +poetry, be placed between the Verb and its Nominative, without altering the +sense. Hence the arrangement in the following passages is incorrect:--Ghabh +domblas agus fiongeur iad, _they took gall and vinegar_. "Buch. Gael. +Poems," Edin. 1767. p. 14. The collocation should have been ghabh iad +domblas, &c. Do chual e 'n cruinne-cé, _the world heard it_, id. p. 15, +ought to have been, do chual an cruinne-cé e. So also, do ghabh truaighe, +Iosa dhoibh, _Jesus took pity {151} on them_. Matt. xx. 34, Irish vers. It +ought to have been, do ghabh Iosa truaighe, &c.[103]. + +The Relatives a _who_, nach _who not_, are always put before the verb; as, +am fear a thuit, _the man who fell_; am fear nach dean beud, _the man who +will not commit a fault_. + +In poetry, or poetical style, where inversion is allowed, the Nominative is +sometimes placed before the Verb; as doimhneachd na talmhain ta 'n a laimh, +_in his hand is the depth of the earth_. Psal. xcv. 4. + + Oigh cha tig le clàr 'n an comhdhail, + _No virgin with harp will come to meet them._ + Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 285. + + Gach doire, gach coire, 's gach eas, + Bheir a' m' chuimhne cneas mo Ghraidh. + +_Each grove, each dell, and each water-fall, will bring to my remembrance +the form of my love._ Id. p. 30. + + An la sin cha tigh gu bràth, + A bheir dearrsa mo ghraidh gu tuath. + +_That day shall never come, which shall bring the sun-beam of my love to +the North._ Fingal II. 192. + + Am focail geilleam do Mhorlamh; + Mo lann do neach beo cha gheill. + +_In words I yield to Morla; my sword to no living man shall yield._ Fing. +II. 203. This inversion is never admitted into plain discourse or +unimpassioned narrative. + +In those Persons of the Verb in which the terminations supply the place of +the Personal Pronouns, no Nominative is expressed along with the Verb. In +all the other Persons of the Verb, a Noun or a Pronoun is commonly +expressed as its Nominative. In sentences of a poetical structure, the +Nominative is sometimes, though rarely, omitted; as, am fear nach {152} +gabh 'nuair gheibh, cha 'n fhaigh 'nuair 's aill, _the man who will not +take when [he] can get, will not get when [he] wishes_. + + A Gharna, cuim a sheas? a Ghuill, cuim a thuit? + _Garno, why stoodst? Gaul, why didst fall?_ + Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 153. + +The Infinitive often takes before it the Nominative of the Agent; in which +case the Preposition _do_ is either expressed or understood before the +Infinitive; as, feuch, cia meud a mhaith, braithre do bhi 'n an comhnuidh +ann sith! _behold how great a good it is, that brethren dwell in peace!_ +Psal. cxxxiii, 1. Is e mi dh' fhantuinn 's an fheoil, a 's feumaile +dhuibhse, _my abiding in the flesh is more needful for you_, Phil. i. 24, +Cha n'eil e iomchuidh sinne dh' fhagail focail Dé, agus a fhrithealadh do +bhordaibh, _it is not meet that we should leave the word of God, and serve +tables_, Acts vi. 2. The Preposition _do_, being softened as usual into +_a_, readily disappears after a Vowel; as, air son mi bhi a rìs a lathàir +maille ribh, _by my being again present with you_, Phil. i. 26[104]. + + + +SECTION V. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF ONE NOUN WITH ANOTHER. + +When in the same sentence two or more Nouns, applied as names to the same +object, stand in the same grammatical relation to other words, it should +naturally be expected that their Form, in so far as it depends on that +relation, should be the same; in other words, that Nouns denoting the same +object, and related alike to the governing word, should agree in Case. This +accordingly happens in Greek and Latin. In Gaelic, where a variety of form +gives room for the application of the same rule, it has been followed in +some instances; as, Doncha mac Chailain mhic Dhonuil, _Duncan the son of +{153} Colin the son of Donald_; where the words Chailain and mhic denoting +the same person, and being alike related to the preceding Noun mac are on +that account both in the same Case. It must be acknowledged, however, that +this rule, obvious and natural as it is, has not been uniformly observed by +the speakers of Gaelic. For example; instead of mac Ioseiph an t-saoir, +_the son of Joseph the carpenter_, many would more readily say, mac Ioseiph +an saor; instead of thuit e le laimh Oscair an laoich chruadalaich, _he +fell by the hand of Oscar the bold hero_, it would rather be said, thuit e +le laimh Oscair an laoch cruadalach. The latter of these two modes of +expression may perhaps be defended on the ground of its being elliptical; +and the ellipsis may be supplied thus: mac Ioseiph [is e sin] an saor; +laimh Oscair [neach is e] an laoch cruadalach. Still it must be allowed, in +favour of the rule in question, that the observance of it serves to mark +the relation of the Nouns to each other, which would otherwise remain, in +many instances, doubtful. Thus in one of the foregoing examples, if we +should reject the rule, and write mac Ioseiph an saor; it would be +impossible to know, from the form of the words, whether Joseph or his son +were the carpenter. + +The translators of the Scriptures into Gaelic, induced probably by the +reasonableness and utility of the rule under consideration, by the example +of the most polished Tongues, and by the usage of the Gaelic itself in some +phrases, have uniformly adhered to this rule when the leading Noun was in +the Genitive; as, do mhacaibh Bharsillai a' Ghileadaich, 1 Kings ii. 7; +righ-chathair Dhaibhi athar, 1 Kings ii. 12; do thaobh Bheniamin am +brathar, Judg. xxi. 6; ag gabhail nan clar chloiche, eadhon chlar a' +cho-cheangail, Deut. ix. 9. The rule seems to have been disregarded when +the leading Noun was in the Dative. See 1 Kings i. 25, Ruth iv. 5, Acts +xiii. 33. {154} + + + +CHAPTER II. + +OF GOVERNMENT. + +Under this head is to be explained the Government of Nouns, of Adjectives, +of Verbs, of Prepositions, and of Conjunctions. + + + +SECTION I. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF NOUNS. + +One Noun governs another in the Genitive. The Noun governed is always +placed after that which governs it; as, ceann tighe, _the head of a house +or family_; solus na gréine, _light of the sun_; bainne ghabhar _milk of +goats_. + +The Infinitives of Transitive Verbs, being themselves Nouns, (See Part II. +Chap. V. p. 86.) govern in like manner the Genitive of their object; as, ag +cur sìl, _sowing seed_; a dh' fhaicinn an t-sluaigh, _to see the people_; +iar leughadh an t-soisgeil, _after reading the gospel_[105]. + +Although no good reason appears why this rule, which is common to the +Gaelic with many other languages, should ever be set aside, yet it has been +set aside in speaking, and sometimes in writing Gaelic. + +1. When the Noun governed does in its turn govern another Noun in the +Genitive, the former is often put in the Nominative instead of the Genitive +case. The following instances of this anomaly occur in the Gaelic +Scriptures:--Guth briathran an t-sluaigh, instead of, bhriathran, _the +voice of the words of the people_, Deut. v. 28; do mheas craobhan a' +gharaidh, instead of, chraobhan, _of the fruit of the trees of the garden_, +{155} Gen. iii. 2; ag itheadh tighean bhantrach, for thighean, _devouring +widows' houses_, Matt. xxiii. 14; ag nochdadh obair an lagha, for oibre, +_showing the work of the law_, Rom. ii. 15; ag cuimhneachadh gun sgur obair +bhur creidimh, agus saothair bhur graidh, for oibre, saoithreach, +_remembering without ceasing your work of faith, and labour of love_, 1 +Thess. i. 3; trid fuil is fearta Chriost, _through the blood and merits of +Christ_, Gael. Paraph. 1787, p. 381, for trid fola Chriost, as in Eph. ii. +13; ag àiteach sliabh Shioin, for sleibh, _inhabiting the hill of Zion_, +Psal. ix. 11. metr; air son obair Chriosd, Phil. ii. 30, 1767, according to +the usage of the language, but changed to oibre, in Edit. 1796, to suit the +Grammatical Rule[106]. For the most part, however, the general rule, even +in these circumstances, is followed; as, guth fola do bhrathar, _the voice +of thy brother's blood_, Gen. iv. 10; amhainn duthcha cloinne a shluaigh +_the river of the land of the children of his people_, Numb. xxii. 5; a' +nigheadh chos sheirbhiseach mo thighearna, _to wash the feet of the +servants of my lord_, 1 Sam. xxv. 41. + +2. Such expressions as the following seem to be exceptions to the +rule:--Dithis mac, 2 Sam. xv. 27, 36; ceathrar mac, 1 Chron. xxi. 20; +leanabaibh mac, Matt. ii. 16. In the following similar instances, the rule +is observed:--Dithis mhac, Gen. xli. 50; dithis fhear, 2 Sam. xii. 1; +ceathrar fhear, Acts xxi. 23; ceathrar mhaighdiona, Acts xxi. 9. + +The same anomaly takes place in the regimen of the infinitive, as in that +of other Nouns. Though an Infinitive be in that grammatical relation to a +preceding Noun which would require its being put in the Genitive, yet when +itself also governs another noun in the Genitive, it often retains the form +of the Nominative. The Infinitives naomhachadh, gnathachadh, briseadh, +admit of a regular Genitive, naomhachaidh, gnathachaidh, brisidh. In the +following examples, {156} these Infinitives, because they govern a +subsequent Noun in the Genitive, are themselves in the Nominative, though +their relation to the preceding word naturally requires their being put in +the Genitive Case. Tha an treas àithne a' toirmeasg mi-naomhach_adh_ no +mi-ghnathach_adh_ ni sam bith, &c., _the third commandment forbids the +profaning or the abusing of any thing_, &c. Assem. Cat. Gael. Edin. 1792, +Answer to Q. 55. Ged fheud luchdbris_eadh_ na h-aithne so dol as, &c., id. +Q. 56., _though the transgressors of this commandment may escape_, &c. Cuis +crath_adh_ cinn is cas_adh_ béil, Psal. xxii. 7, as it is in the older +edition of the Gaelic Psalms. An deigh leugh_adh_ an lagha, _after the +reading of the Law_, Acts. xiii. 15; luchd cum_adh_ uilc, Rom. i. 30[107]. + +The Infinitive is not put in the Genitive, when preceded {157} by a +Possessive Pronoun, because it is in the same limited state as if it +governed a Noun in the Genitive Case; as, a chum am marbh_a_dh 's na +beanntaibh, _to kill them in the mountains_, Exod. xxxii., not marbh_ai_dh, +which is the Case regularly governed by chum. Co tha 'g iarraidh do +mharbh_a_dh? John vii. 20, not do mharbh_ai_dh. Thug iad leo e chum a +cheus_adh_. Matt. xxvii. 31. Chum an cruinneach_adh_ gu cath. Rev. xx. +8[108]. + +This coincidence in the Regimen of the Infinitive in two similar +situations, viz., when limited by a Possessive Pronoun, and when limited by +a subsequent Noun, furnishes no slight argument in support of the +construction defended above, of putting the Infin. in the Nom. case when +itself governs a Noun in the Genitive; for we find the Infin. is invariably +put in the Nom. when limited in its signification by a Possess. Pronoun. + +When one Noun governs another in the Genitive, the Article is never joined +to both, even though each be limited in its signification, as, mac an righ, +_the son of the king_, not am mac an righ; taobh deas a' bhaile, _the south +side of the town_, not an taobh deas a' bhaile[109]. For the most part, the +Article is thus joined to the latter Noun. Sometimes it is joined to the +former Noun; as, an ceann tighe, _the head of the family_; an ceann iuil, +_the pilot_; but in such instances the two Nouns figure as one complex +term, like _paterfamilias_, rather than as two terms. The following +examples, in which the Article is joined to both Nouns, seem to be totally +repugnant to the Gaelic idiom: cuimhneachadh _nan_ cùig aran _nan_ cùig +mìle, Matt. xvi. 9; _nan_ seachd aran _nan_ ceithir mìle, Matt. xvi. +10[110]. + +{158} + +A Possessive Pronoun joined to the Noun governed excludes, in like manner, +the Article from the Noun governing; as, barr-iall a bhròige, _the latchet +of his shoe_, not am barr-iall a bhròige; obair bhur lamh, _the work of +your hands_, not an obair bhur lamh. + +The Noun governed is sometimes in the Primary, sometimes in the Aspirated +Form. + +Proper Names of the Masculine Gender are in the Aspirated Form; as, +bràthair Dhonuill, _Donald's brother_; uaigh Choluim, _Columba's grave_. +Except when a final and an initial Lingual meet; as, clann Donuill, +_Donald's descendants_; beinn Deirg _Dargo's hill_. + +When both Nouns are Appellatives, and no word intervenes between them, the +initial Form of the latter Noun follows, for the most part, that of an +Adjective agreeing with the former Noun. See p. 144. + +Thus, d' a ghàradh _f_iona, g' a ghàradh _f_iona, without the Article, +Matt, xx. 1, 2, like do dhuine _m_aith; but do 'n ghàradh _fh_iona, with +the Article _v._ 4, 7, like do 'n duine _mh_aith. So we should say do 'n +ard fhear-_ch_iuil, rather than do 'n ard fhear-_c_iuil, as in the title of +many of the Psalms. + +EXCEPT.--If the latter Noun denote an individual of a species, that is, if +it take the Article _a_ before it in English, it is put in the _primary +form_, although the former Noun be feminine; as, sùil caraid, _the eye of a +friend_, not sùil _ch_araid, like sùil _mh_or, duais _f_àidh, _a prophet's +reward_, Matt. x. 4, not duais _fh_àidh, like duais _mh_òr. Chum +maitheanais _p_eacaidh, Acts, ii. 38, signifies _for the remission of a +sin_; rather chum maitheanais _ph_eacaidh _for the remission of sin_. + +{159} + + + +SECTION II. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. + +Adjectives of fulness govern the Genitive; as, làn uamhainn _full of +dread_, Acts, ix. 6, buidheach beidh, _satisfied with meat_. + +The first Comparative takes the Particle na _than_, before the following +Noun; as, ni 's gile na an sneachdadh, _whiter than the snow_, b' fhaide +gach mios na bliadhna, _each month seemed longer than a year_. Smith's +"Ant. Poems," p. 9. + +The second Comparative is construed thus: is feairrd mi so, _I am the +better for this_; bu mhisd e am buille sin, _he was the worse for that +blow_; cha truimid a' choluinn a ciall, _the body is not the heavier for +its understanding_. + +Superlatives are followed by the Preposition de or dhe _of_; as, am fear a +'s àirde dhe 'n triuir, _the man who is tallest of the three_, _the tallest +man of the three_. + + + +SECTION III. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. + +A Transitive Verb governs its object in the Nominative or Objective Case; +as, mharbh iad an righ, _they killed the king_; na buail mi, _do not strike +me_. The object is commonly placed after the Verb, but never between the +Verb and its Nominative. [See Part III. Chap. I., Sect. IV.] Sometimes the +object is placed, by way of emphasis, before the Verb; as, mise chuir e rìs +ann am àite, agus esan chroch e, _me he put again in my place, and him he +hanged_, Gen. xli. 13. An t-each agus a mharcach thilg e 's an fhairge, +_the horse and his rider hath he cast into the sea_, Exod. xv. 1. + +Many Transitive Verbs require a Preposition before their object; as, iarr +air Donull, _desire Donald_; labhair ri Donull, _speak to Donald_; leig le +Donull, _let Donald alone_; beannuich do Dhonull, _salute Donald_; +fiosraich de Dhonull, _enquire of Donald_. {160} + +Bu _was_, requires the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, bu +mhaith dhuit, _it was good for you_; bu chruaidh an gnothuch, _it was a +hard case_; except initial _d_, and _t_ which are not aspirated; as, bu +dual duit, _it was natural for you_; bu trom an eallach, _the burden was +heavy_; bu ghearr a lo, 's bu dubh a sgeul, _short was her course, and sad +was her story_. Smith's "Ant. Poems." + + + +SECTION IV. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ADVERBS. + +The collocation of Adverbs is for the most part arbitrary. + +The Adverbs ro, gle, _very_, are placed before the Adjectives they modify, +and require the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, ro bheag, +_very little_; gle gheal, _very white_. + +The Negative cha or cho _not_, when followed by a word beginning with a +Labial or Palatal, requires the initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, cha +mhòr e, _it is not great_; cha bhuail mi, _I will not strike_; cha chuala +mi, _I did not hear_; but an initial Lingual remains unaspirated; as, cha +dean mi, _I will not do_; cha tog e, _he will not raise_; cha soirbhich +iad, _they will not prosper_. _N_ is inserted between cha and an initial +Vowel or an aspirated _f_; as, cha n-e, _it is not_; cha n-éigin, _it is +not necessary_; cha n-fhaca mi, _I saw not_. + +The Negative ni requires _h_ before an initial Vowel; as, ni h-iad, _they +are not_; ni h-eudar, _it may not_. + + + +SECTION V. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS. + +The Proper Prepositions aig, air, &c., govern the Dative; as, aig mo chois, +_at my foot_; air mo laimh, _on my hand_. They are always placed before the +word they govern. The following Prepositions require the Noun governed to +be put in the Aspirated Form, viz., de, do, fuidh, fo, fa, gun, mar, mu, o, +tre. Air sometimes governs the Noun in the Aspirated Form; as, air +bharraibh sgiath na gaoithe, _on the extremities of the {161} wings of the +wind_, Psal. xviii. 10. Gun governs either the Nominative or Dative; as, +gun chrioch, _without end_, Heb. vii. 16; gun chéill, _without +understanding_, Psal. xxxii. 9; gun chloinn, Gen. xv. 2. Mar, and gus or +gu, when prefixed to a Noun without the Article, usually govern the Dative +case; as, mar nighin, _as a daughter_, 2 Sam. xii. 13; mar amhainn mhòir, +_like a great river_, Psal. cv. 41; gu crìch mo shaoghail fein, _to the end +of my life-time_, Psal. cxix. 33, xlviii. 10. But if the Article be joined +to the Noun, it is governed in the Nominative; as, mar a' ghrian, _like the +sun_, Psal. lxxxix. 36, 37; gus an sruth, _to the stream_, Deut. iii. 16; +gus a' chrioch, _to the end_, Heb. iii. 6, 14. Eadar governs the Nom.; as, +eadar a' chraobh agus a' chlach, _between the tree and the stone_. Eadar, +when signifying _between_, requires the Primary Form; as, eadar maighstir +agus muinntireach, _between a master and a servant_; when it signifies +_both_, it requires the Aspirated Form; as, eadar shean agus òg, _both old +and young_; eadar fheara agus mhnai, _both men and women_, Acts viii. 12. + +The Prepositions as, gus, leis, ris, are used before the Monosyllables an, +am, a'. The corresponding Prepositions a, gu, le, ri, often take an _h_ +before an initial Vowel; as, a h-Eirin, _out of Ireland_; gu h-ealamh, +_readily_; le h-eagal, _with fear_. + +The Improper Prepositions govern the following Noun in the Genitive; as, +air feadh na tìre, _throughout the land_; an aghaidh an t-sluaigh, _against +the people_; ré na h-ùine, _during the time_. It is manifest that this +Genitive is governed by the Noun feadh, aghaidh, ré, &c., which is always +included in the Preposition. See Part II. Chap. VII. + +Prepositions are often prefixed to a Clause of a sentence; and then they +have no regimen; as, gus am bord a ghiulan, _to carry the table_, Exod. +xxv. 27; luath chum fuil a dhortadh, _swift to shed blood_, Rom. iii. 15. +Edit. 1767; an déigh an obair a chriochnachadh, _after finishing the work_. +{162} + + + +SECTION VI. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CONJUNCTIONS. + +The Conjunctions agus _and_, no _or_, couple the same Cases of Nouns; as, +air feadh chreagan agus choilltean, _through rocks and woods_; ag reubadh +nam bruach 's nan crann, _tearing the banks and the trees_. When two or +more Nouns, coupled by a Conjunction, are governed in the Dative by a +Preposition, it is usual to repeat the Preposition before each Noun; as, +air fad agus air leud, _in length and in breadth_; 'n an cridhe, 'n an +cainnt, agus 'n am beus, _in their heart, in their speech, and in their +behaviour_. + +Co _as_, prefixed to an Adjective, commonly requires the initial consonant +of the Adj. to be aspirated; as, co mhaith, _as good_, co ghrinn, _as +fine_. But sometimes we find co mòr, _as great_, co buan, _as durable_, +&c., without the aspirate. Sometimes the aspirate is transferred from the +Adj. to the Conjunct. as, cho beag, _as little_, for co bheag. In the North +Highlands, an adjective preceded by co is commonly put in the Comparative +form; as, co miosa, _as bad_; co treise, _as strong_. + +The Conjunctions mur _if not_, gu, gur _that_, are always joined to the +Negative Mood; as, mur 'eil mi, _if I be not_; gu robh e, _that he was_. +_M_ or _n_ is often inserted, _euphoniæ causa_, between gu and an initial +Consonant; viz., _m_ before a Labial, _n_ before a Palatal or Lingual; as, +gu-m faca tu, _that you saw_; gu-n dubhairt iad, _that they said_[111]. + +The Conjunctions ma _if_, o, o'n _because, since_, are joined to the Pres. +and Pret. Affirmative, and Fut. Subjunctive; as, ma ta e, _if he be_; o'n +tha e, _since he is_; ma bhuail e, _if he struck_; o'n bhuail e, _because +he struck_; ma bhuaileas tu, _if you strike_; o bhitheas sinn, _since we +shall be_. + +Na'm, na'n _if_, is joined only to the Pret. Subjunctive. {163} The initial +Consonant of the Verb loses its aspiration after this Conjunction; as, na'm +bithinn, _if I were_; nan tuiteadh a' chraobh, _if the tree should fall_. + +Ged _although_, is used before the Present and Preterite Affirmative, the +Fut. Negative, and the Pret. Subjunctive; as, ged tha e, _though he be_; +ged bha mi, _though I was_; ge do bhuail thu mi, _though you struck me_; +ged bhuail thu mi, _though you strike me_; ged bheireadh e dhomh, _though +he should give me_[112]. + + * * * * * {164} + + +PART IV. + +OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. + +CHAPTER I. + +OF DERIVATION. + +The Parts of Speech which are formed by derivation from other words are +Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. These are chiefly derived from Nouns and +Adjectives, and a few from Verbs. + +I. NOUNS. + +Derivative Nouns may be classed as follows, according to the varieties of +their termination. + +1. Abstract Nouns in _as_, formed from Adjectives or Nouns; as, from ceart +_just_, ceartas _justice_; from diomhan _idle, vain_, diomhanas _idleness, +vanity_; from caraid _a friend_, cairdeas contracted for caraideas +_friendship_; from namhaid _an enemy_, naimhdeas contracted for namhaideas +_enmity_. + +2. Abstract Nouns in _achd_, formed from Adjectives, and sometimes, though +more rarely, from Verbs and Nouns; as, from naomh _holy_, naomhachd +_holiness_; from domhain _deep_, doimhneachd contracted for domhaineachd +_depth_; from righ _a king_, rioghachd _a kingdom_; coimhid _to keep_, +coimheadachd _keeping_; clachair _a mason_, clachaireachd _mason-work_; +gobhain _a smith_, goibhneachd contracted for gobhaineachd _iron-work_, or +rather _the trade or occupation of a smith_. + +3. Abstract Nouns formed from the genitive of Adjectives, by adding _e_; +as, from dall gen. doill _blind_, doille _blindness_; from geal gen. gil +_white_, gile _whiteness_; from leasg gen. leisg _lazy_, leisge _laziness_; +tearc gen. teirc _rare_, teirce _rarity_; trom gen. truim _heavy_, truime +_heaviness_; truagh gen. truaigh _unhappy_, truaighe _misery_; uasal gen. +{165} uasail _noble_, uasaile contr. uaisle or by metath. uailse +_nobility_. + +4. Abstract Nouns in _ad_, formed from the Comparative of Adjectives, and +used in speaking of the degree of a quality; as, gilead _whiteness_, +boidhchead _beauty_, doimhnead _depth_, lughad _smallness_, tainead +_thinness_; these are construed with the Prepositions _de_, _air_; as, cha +n-fhaca mi a samhuil air bhoidhchead, _I have not seen her match for +beauty_; air a lughad or d' a lughad, _however small it be_. + +5. Nouns in _air_ or _oir_, _ach_, _iche_, derived, most of them, from +nouns, and signifying persons or agents, as, pìobair _a player on the +pipe_, from pìob _a pipe_; clàrsair _a player on the harp_, from clàrsach +_a harp_; cealgair or cealgoir _a deceiver_, from cealg _deceit_; sealgair +or sealgoir _a huntsman_, from sealg _hunting_; marcach _a rider_, from +marc _a horse_; athach _a man of terror, a gigantic figure_, from atha +_fear_; oibriche _a workman_, from obair _work_; sgeulaiche _a reciter of +tales_, from sgeul _a tale_; ceannaiche _a merchant_, from ceannaich _to +buy_[113]. + +6. Diminutives in _an_, and in _ag_ or _og_, formed from Nouns or +Adjectives; as, lochan _a small lake_, from loch _a lake_; from braid +_theft_, bradag _a thievish girl_; from ciar _dark-coloured_, ciarag _a +little dark-coloured creature_. These Diminutives are often formed from the +Genitive of their Primitives; as, from feur gen. feoir _grass_, feoirnean +_a pile of grass_; moll gen. muill _chaff_, muillean _a particle of chaff_; +folt gen. fuilt _hair_, fuiltean _a single hair_; clag gen. cluig _a bell_, +cluigean _a little bell_; gual gen. guail _coal_, guailnean _a cinder_; +smùr gen. smùir _dust_, smùirnean _a particle of dust, a mote_; clòimh +_plumage_, clòimhneag _a small feather, a flake of snow_. + +Some Nouns are formed in _an_, which are not Diminutives; as, from lùb _to +bend_, lùban _a bow_; from buail _to beat, thresh_, {166} buailtean _a +beater_, or _thresher_, applied to that part of the flail which threshes +out the grain. + +7. Collective Nouns in _ridh_ or _ri_, derived from Nouns or Adjectives; +as, from òg _young_, òigridh _youth_, in the collective sense of the word; +from mac _a son_, macruidh _sons, young men_, Psal. cxlviii. 12;[114] from +laoch _a hero_, laochruidh _a band of heroes_, Psal. xxix. 1. Macfarlan's +Paraph. vi. 15, from ceol _music_, ceolraidh _the muses_. A. Macdonald's +Songs, p. 7, from cos the _foot_, coisridh _infantry, a party on foot_. +McIntyre's Songs, Edin. 1768, p. 110, from gas _a lad_, gasradh _a band of +domestic attendants_. O'Brien's Ir. Dict. voc. gas; eachradh, eachruith +_cavalry_, Fingal. IV. 299, Carthon, 59.--This termination is probably the +Noun ruith _a troop_. See Lhuyd et O'Brien, in voc.[115] + +8. Nouns in _ach_, chiefly Patronymics, formed from Proper Names, thus; +from Donull _Donald_, is formed Donullach _a man of the name of Macdonald_; +from Griogar _Gregor_, Griogarach _a Macgregor_; so Leodach _a Macleod_, +Granntach _a Grant_, &c., from Albainn _Scotland_, Albannach _a Scotsman_; +from Eirin _Ireland_, Eirineach _an Irishman_. These Nouns form their +Plural regularly, Donullaich, Leodaich, Albannaich, Eirinich. So the +following _Gentile_ Nouns, which occur in the Gaelic Scriptures, are +regularly formed from their respective Primitives, Partuich _Parthians_, +Medich _Medes_, Elamuich _Elamites_, Acts ii. 9. Macedonaich _Macedonians_, +2 Cor. ix. 2, 4. See also Gen. xv. 19, 20, 21; Exod. xxiii. 23, 28.[116]. + +{167} + +9. Collective Nouns in _ach_; as, duille _a leaf_, duilleach _foliage_; +giuthas _fir_, giuthasach _a fir wood_; iughar _yew_, iugharach _a yew +copse_; fiadh _a deer_, fiadhach _deer, a herd of deer_; crion _diminutive, +shrunk_, crionach _decayed wood_. + +II. ADJECTIVES. + +1. Adjectives in _ach_, formed generally from Nouns; as, from fìrinn +_truth_, fìrinneach _true, faithful_; from sunnt _glee_, sunntach +_cheerful_; cràdh _pain_, cràiteach _painful_; togradh _desire_, togarrach +_willing, desirous_. + +2. Adjectives in _mhor_ or _or_, derived from Nouns; as, from àdh +_felicity_, adhmhor _happy, blessed_; from feoil _flesh_, feolmhor +_carnal_; from neart _strength_, neartmhor _strong_. + +3. Adjectives in _ail_ derived from Nouns; as, from fear _man_, fearail +_manful_; from caraid _a friend_, cairdail contr. for caraidail _friendly_; +from namhaid _an enemy_, naimhdail contr. for namhaidail _hostile_; from +sùrd _alertness_, surdail _alert_[117]. + +4. A few Adjectives in _ta_ or _da_, derived from Nouns; as, Gaelta +_belonging to the Gael_; Eireanda _Irish_; Romhanta _Roman_; _Kirk._ +fìreanta _righteous_, Matt. xxiii. 35. + +III. VERBS. + +Verbs in _ich_, for the most part Transitive, and implying causation, +derived from Nouns or Adjectives; as, from geal {168} _white_, gealaich _to +whiten_; naomh _holy_, naomhaich _to sanctify_; cruinn _round_, cruinnich +_to gather together_; lamh _the hand_, laimhsich _to handle_; cuimhne +_memory_, cuimhnich _to remember_. A few are Intransitive; as, from crith +_tremor_, criothnuich _to tremble_; fann _feeble_, fannuich _to faint_. + + + +CHAPTER II. + +OF COMPOSITION. + +All compound words in Gaelic consist of two component parts, exclusive of +the derivative terminations enumerated in the preceding Chapter. Of these +component parts, the former may be conveniently named the Prepositive, the +latter the Subjunctive term. It sometimes happens, though rarely, that the +Subjunctive term also is a compound word, which must itself be decompounded +in order to find out the Root. + +In compounding words, the usual mode has been, to prefix to the term +denoting the principal idea the word denoting the accessory idea or +circumstance by which the signification of the principal word is modified. +Accordingly we find Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs modified by prefixing to +them a Noun, an Adjective, a Verb, or a Preposition. + +In forming compound words, a Rule of very general application is, that when +the Subjunctive term begins with a Consonant, it is aspirated. From this +Rule, however, are to be excepted, 1. Words beginning with _s_ followed by +a mute, which never admit the aspirate; 2. Words beginning with a Lingual +when the Prepositive term ends in _n_; 3. A few other instances in which +there is an euphonic agreement between the Consonants thus brought into +apposition, which would be violated if either of them were aspirated. + +These observations will be found exemplified in the following Compounds:-- +{169} + +I. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A NOUN PREFIXED. + +_Nouns Compounded with a Noun._ + +Beart _dress, equipage_, ceann _head_--ceann-bheart _head-dress, armour for +the head_. + +Fàinn _a ring_, cluas _the ear_--cluas-fhainn _an ear-ring_. + +Galar _a distemper_, crith _shaking_--crith-ghalar _distemper attended with +shaking, the palsy_. + +Oglach _a servant_, bean (in composition, ban) _a woman_--banoglach _a +female servant_. + +Fàidh _a prophet_, ban-fhaidh _a prophetess_. + +Tighearn _a lord_, baintighearn _a lady_. + +_Adjectives Compounded with a Noun._ + +Geal _white_, bian the _skin_--biangheal _white-skinned_. + +Lom _bare_, cas the _foot_--caslom _bare-foot_; ceann the _head_--ceannlom +_bare-headed_. + +Biorach _pointed, sharp_, cluas the _ear_--cluasbhiorach _having pointed +ears_. + +_Verbs Compounded with a Noun._ + +Luaisg _to rock_ or _toss_, tonn _a wave_--tonn-luaisg _to toss on the +waves_. + +Sleamhnuich _to slide_, cùl the _back_--cùl-sleamhnuich _to back-slide_. + +Folaich _to hide_, feall _deceit_--feall-fholaich _to lie in wait_. + +II. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH AN ADJECTIVE PREFIXED. + +_Nouns Compounded with an Adjective._ + +Uisge _water_, fior _true, genuine_--fioruisge _spring-water_. + +Airgiod _silver_, beo _alive_--beo-airgiod _quick-silver_. + +Sgolt _a crack_, crion _shrunk, decayed_--crionsgolt _a fissure in wood +caused by drought or decay_. + +Criochan _bounds, regions_, garbh _rough_--garbhchriochan _rude mountainous +regions_. {170} + +_Adjectives Compounded with an Adjective._ + +Donn _brown_, dubh _black_--dubh-dhonn _dark-brown_. + +Gorm _blue_, dubh _black_--dubh-ghorm _dark-blue_. + +Briathrach (not in use) from briathar _a word_, deas +_ready_--deas-bhriathrach _of ready speech, eloquent_. + +Seallach (not in use) from sealladh _sight_, geur _sharp_--geur-sheallach +_sharp-sighted_. + +_Verbs Compounded with an Adjective._ + +Ruith _to run_, dian _keen, eager_--dian-ruith _to run eagerly_. + +Lean _to follow_, geur _sharp, severe_--geur-lean _to persecute_. + +Buail _to strike_, trom _heavy_--trom-buail _to smite sore, discomfit_. + +Ceangail _to bind_, dlùth _closer_--dlùth-cheangail _to bind fast_. + +III. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A VERB PREFIXED. + +Art _a stone_, tarruing _to draw_--tarruing-art _load-stone_. + +Sùil _the eye_, meall _to beguile_--meall-shuil _a leering eye_. + +IV. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A PREPOSITION. + +Radh _a saying_, roimh _before_--roimh-radh _preface, prologue_. + +Solus _light_, eadar _between_--eadar-sholus _twilight_. + +Mìnich _to explain_, eadar-mhìnich _to interpret_. + +Gearr _to cut_, timchioll _about_--timchioll-ghearr _circumcise_. + +Lot _to wound_, troimh _through_--troimh-lot _to stab, pierce through_. + +Examples of words compounded with an inseparable Preposition are already +given in Part II. Chap. VII. + +Compound Nouns retain the gender of the principal Nouns in their simple +state. Thus crith-ghalar _palsy_, is masculine, because the principal Noun, +Galar _distemper_, is masculine, although the accessary Noun crith, by +which galar is qualified, be feminine. So cìs-mhaor is masculine though cìs +be a feminine Noun, Luke xviii. 11; cìs-mheasadh ought also to be +masculine, Acts v. 37. Except Nouns compounded with {171} Bean _woman_, +which are all feminine, though the simple principal Noun be masculine, +because the compound word denotes an object of the female sex; as, oglach +_a servant_, masculine, but banoglach _a maid-servant_, feminine, caraid _a +friend_, masculine, bancharaid _a female friend_, feminine. + +Compound words are declined in the same manner as if they were +uncompounded. + +In writing compound words, the component parts are sometimes separated by a +hyphen, and sometimes not. The use of the hyphen does not seem to be +regulated by any uniform practice. In the case of two vowels coming in +apposition, the insertion of a hyphen seems indispensable; because, by the +analogy of Gaelic orthography, two Vowels, belonging to different +syllables, are scarcely ever placed next to each other without some mark of +separation[118]. Thus so-aomaidh, _easily induced_, _propense_; +so-iomchair, _easily carried_; do-innsidh, _difficult to be told_; and not +soamaidh, doinnsidh, &c., without the hyphen. + +It was formerly remarked, Part I., that almost all Gaelic Polysyllables are +accented on the first syllable. When, in pronouncing compound words, the +accent is placed on the first syllable, the two terms appear to be +completely incorporated into one word. When, on the other hand, the accent +is placed, not on the first syllable of the Compound, but on the first +syllable of the Subjunctive term, the two terms seem to retain their +respective powers, and to produce their effect separately, and instead of +being incorporated into one word, to be rather collaterally connected. A +rule may then be derived from the pronunciation for the use of the hyphen +in writing Compounds, viz., to insert the hyphen between the component +parts, when the Prepositive term is not accented. Thus it is proposed to +write aineolach _ignorant_, antromaich _to exaggerate_, comhradh +_conversation_, dobheart _a bad action_, {172} soisgeul _Gospel_, banoglach +_a maidservant_, &c., without a hyphen; but to write an-fhiosrach +_unacquainted_, ban-fhiosaiche _a female fortune-teller_, co-fhreagarach +_corresponding_, so-fhaicsin _easily seen_, &c., with a hyphen[119]. By +this rule, a correspondence is maintained, not only between the writing and +the pronunciation, but likewise between the written language and the ideas +expressed by it. A complex idea, whose parts are most closely united in the +mind, is thus denoted by one undivided word; whereas an idea composed of +parts more loosely connected, is expressed by a word, whereof the component +parts are distinguished, and exhibited separately to the eye. Thus also the +Gaelic scholar would have one uniform direction to follow in reading, viz., +to place the accent always on the first syllable of an undivided word, or +member of a word. If any exception be allowed, it must be only in the case +already stated of two vowels coming in apposition, as beo-airgiod +_quicksilver_. + +Let it be observed that, according to this rule, an Adjective preceding a +Noun can never, but in the case just mentioned, be connected with it by a +hyphen. For if the accent be wholly transferred from the Noun to the +Adjective, then they are to be written as one undivided word; as, +garbhchriochan _highlands_; but if the accent be not so transferred, the +Adjective and the Noun are to be written as two separate words; as, seann +duine _an old man_, deagh chomhairle _good advice_, droch sgeul _a bad +tale_. + + + +It not unfrequently happens that two Nouns, whereof the one qualifies the +meaning of the other, and connected by the common grammatical relation of +the one governing the other in the Genitive, come through use to be +considered as denoting only one complex object. The two Nouns in this case +are sometimes written together in one word, and thus form a Compound of a +looser structure than those which have been considered. Such are +ceann-cinnidh, _the head of a tribe or {173} clan_; ceann-tighe, _the head +of a family_; ceann-feadhna, _the leader of an army_; fear-turnis, _a +traveller_; luchd-faire, _watchmen_; iobairt-pheacaidh, _a sin-offering_; +urlar-bualaidh, _a threshing-floor_; fear-bainse, _a bridegroom_; +crith-thalmhain, _an earth-quake_; crios-guailne, _a shoulder-belt_, &c. In +writing Compound Nouns of this description, the two Nouns are never written +in one undivided word, but always separated by a hyphen. It comes to be a +question, however, in many instances of one Noun governing another in the +Genitive, whether such an expression is to be considered as a compound +term, and the words to be connected by a hyphen in writing, or whether they +are to be written separately, without any such mark of composition. An +observation that was made in treating of the Government of Nouns may help +us to an answer, and furnish an easy rule in the case in question. It was +remarked that when one Noun governed another in the Genitive, the Article +was never joined to both; that for the most part, it was joined to the Noun +governed, but sometimes to the Noun governing, that in the latter case, the +two Nouns seemed to figure as one compound term, denoting one complex idea. +If this last remark hold true, it may be laid down as a rule that in every +instance of a Noun governing another in the Genitive, where the Article is +or may be prefixed to the _governing Noun_, there the two Nouns ought to be +connected by a hyphen in writing; otherwise not. Thus we can say, without +impropriety, an ceann-feadhna, _the commander_; an luchd-coimhid, _the +keepers_; and the Nouns are accordingly considered as Compounds, and +written with a hyphen. But it would be contrary to the usage of the +language to say, am mullach craige, _the top of a rock_; an t-uachdar +talmhain, _the surface of the ground_. Accordingly it would be improper to +write a hyphen between the Nouns in these and similar examples. + +The different effects of these two modes of writing, with or without the +hyphen, is very observable in such instances as the following:--Ainm +dùthcha, _the name of a country_, as Scotland, Argyle, &c.; ainm-dùthcha, +_a country name_, or {174} _patronymic_, as Scotsman, Highlander, &c.; +clann Donuill, _Donald's children_; clann-Donuill, _the Macdonalds_. + + + +Though few have exerted themselves hitherto in explaining the structure of +the Gaelic language, in respect of its inflections, construction, and +collocation, this cannot be said to be the case with regard to Etymology. +Much has been attempted, and something has been done, toward analysing +single vocables, particularly names of places. But this analysis seems to +have been too often made rather in a way of random conjecture than by a +judicious regard to the analogy of Derivation and Composition. The passion +for analysing has even induced some to assert that all true Gaelic +Primitives consist of but one syllable, that all Polysyllables are either +derived or compounded, and therefore that there is room to search for their +etymon. This seems to be carrying theory too far. It appears a fruitless +and rather chimerical attempt to propose a system of directions by which +all Polysyllables whatever may be resolved into component parts, and traced +to a root of one syllable. All I have thought it necessary to do is to +methodize and exemplify those general principals of Etymology which are +obvious and unquestioned, and which regulate the composition and derivation +of those classes of words whereof the analysis may be traced with some +probability of success. + + * * * * * + + +{175} + +EXERCISES IN READING, EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING. + + * * * * * + +_From an Address to the Soldiers of a Highland Regiment_, by D. SMITH, M.D. + +Theid an deadh shaighdear gu h-aobhach suilbhear an dàil gach tuiteamais a +thig 'n a chrannchur. Ach 's e a's nòs do 'n droch shaighdear a bhi gearan +'s a' talach air gach làimh; beadaidh ri lìnn socair, is diombach ann eiric +caoimhneis; lag-chridheach ri h-am cruachais, agus dìblidh ri h-uchd feuma. + +_In English._ + +The good soldier will advance, with spirit and cheerfulness, to any service +that falls in his way. But it is the practice of the bad soldier to be +complaining and grumbling on all occasions; saucy in time of ease, and +peevish in return for kindness; faint-hearted under hardships, and feeble +in encountering exigency. + +_Analysis._ + +_Theid._ 3. per. sing. Fut. Affirm, of the irregular Verb _Rach_, go. + +_An._ Nom. sing. of the Article _an_, the. + +_Deadh._ An indeclinable Adjective, always placed before its Noun. + +_Shaighdear._ Nom. sing. of the mas. noun _saighdear_, a soldier, in the +aspirated form, because preceded by the Adj. _deadh_. Gram. p. 145. {176} + +_Gu._ A proper Preposition, to, for. + +_Aobhach._ An Adject. of the first Declension, joyous, having an _h_ before +it, because preceded by the Prep. _gu_. Gram. p. 161. _Gu h-aobhach_, +joyfully, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. Gram. p. 109. + +_Suilbhear._ An Adject. cheerful. _Gu_ is to be supplied from the former +phrase; _gu suilbhear_, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. + +_An dàil._ An improper Preposition, to meet, to face, to encounter; made up +of the proper Prep. _ann_, in, and the Noun _dàil_, meeting. Gram. p. 121. + +_Gach._ An indeclinable Adj. Pronoun, each, every. + +_Tuiteamais._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _tuiteamas_, an occurrence, +accident, governed in the Gen. case by the improp. Prep. _an dàil_ (Gram. +p. 161), derived from the Verb _tuit_. Infinitive _tuiteam_, to fall, +befal. + +_A._ Nom. sing. Relative Pronoun, who, which. + +_Thig._ Fut. Affirm. of the irregular Verb _thig_, come. + +_'N._ Contracted for _ann_, a proper Prep., in. + +_A._ Possessive Pronoun, his. + +_Chrannchur._ Mas. Noun, a lot; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. _ann_; in +the aspirated form after the adject. Pron. _a_, 'his'--compounded of +_crann_, a lot, and _cur_, casting, the Infinitive of the Verb _cuir_, to +put, cast. + +_Ach._ Conjunction, but. Hebr. [Hebrew: AD]. + +_'S._ for _is_, Pres. Indic. of the Verb _is_, I am. _'S e a 's_ it is +[that] which is. + +_Nòs._ Noun mas., custom, habit. + +_Do._ Prep. to. + +_An._ the article, the. + +_Droch._ indeclinable Adject. bad; always placed before its Noun. + +_Shaighdear._ mas. Noun, soldier; governed in the Dative by the Prep. _do_; +in the aspir. form after the Adject. _droch_. {177} + +_A bhi._ for _do bhi_ or _do bhith_, Infinit. of the irregular Verb _bi_, +to be. + +_Gearan._ Infin. of the obsolete Verb _gearain_, to complain, _ag_ being +understood; _ag gearan_ equivalent to a present Participle, complaining. +Gram. p. 86. + +_'S._ for _agus_, conjunction, and. + +_A' talach._ for _ag talach_, complaining, repining; Infin. of the obsolete +Verb _talaich_, to complain of a thing or person. + +_Air._ Prep. on. + +_Gach._ Adject. Pron. indeclin. each, every. + +_Làimh._ dat. sing. of the fem. Noun _làmh_, a hand; governed in the Dat. +by the Prep. _air_, on. _Air gach làimh_, on every hand. + +_Beadaidh._ Adject. nice, fond of delicacies, saucy, petulant. + +_Ri._ Prep. to, at. + +_Lìnn._ Noun fem. an age, period, season. _Ri lìnn_, during the time of any +event, or currency of any period; _ri lìnn Fhearghuis_, in the time, or +reign of Fergus; _gu faigheamaid sìth r' ar lìnn_, that we may have peace +in our time. + +_Socair._ Noun fem., ease, conveniency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun +_lìnn_. + +_Is._ for _agus_, Conjunct. and. + +_Diombach_, or _diùmach_. Adject. displeased, indignant; derived from the +Noun _diom_ or _diùm_, indignation. + +_Ann._ Prep. governing the Dat. in. + +_Eiric._ Noun femin., requital, compensation; governed in the Dat. by the +Prep. _ann_. + +_Caoimhneis._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _caoimhneas_, kindness; governed +in the Gen. by the noun _eiric_, derived from the Adject. _caomh_, gentle, +kind. + +_Lag-chridheach._ Adject. faint-hearted; compounded of the Adject. _lag_, +weak, and _cridhe_, the heart. + +_Ri._ Prep. to, at. {178} + +_Am._ Noun masc., time; governed in the Dat. case by the Prep. _ri_, and +preceded by _h_. Gram. p. 161. + +_Cruachais._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _cruachas_, hardship, strait; +governed in the Gen. by the noun _am_; compounded of the Adject. _cruaidh_, +hard, and _càs_, danger, extremity. + +_Agus._ Conjunct., and. + +_Dìblidh._ Adject., feeble, silly. + +_Uchd._ Noun mas. breast, chest; hence it signifies an ascent, a steep; in +the Dat. case, preceded by _h_, after the Prep. _ri_: _ri h-uchd_, in +ascending, breasting, encountering, assailing. + +_Feuma._ Gen. sing. of the Noun mas. _feum_, necessity, exigency; governed +in the Gen. by the Noun _uchd_. + + * * * * * + +_Extract from an old Fingalian Tale or Legend._ + +Dh' imich Garbh mac Stairn agus Dual a dh' fhaicinn Fhinn agus a threun +fheara colgach, iomraiteach ann an gniomharaibh arm. Bha Fionn 's an àm sin +'n a thigheadas samhraidh am Buchanti. 'N an turus d'a ionnsuidh, ghabh iad +beachd air gach gleann agus faoin mhonadh, air gach allt agas caol +choirean. Ghabh iad sgeul de gach coisiche agus gach fear a thachair 'n an +còir. Ann an gleann nan cuach agus nan lon, chunnaic bùth taobh sruthain; +chaidh a steach, dh' iarr deoch; dh' eirich ribhinn a b' aluinne snuadh a +dh' fhàilteachadh an turuis le sìth. Thug i biadh dhoibh r'a itheadh, dibhe +ri òl; dh' iarr an sgeul le cainnt thlà. Bhuail gaol o a sùil an Garbh +borb, agus dh' innis cia as doibh. "Thainig sinn o thìr nan crann, far an +lionor sonn--mac righ Lochlainn mise--m' ainm Garbh na'm b' aill leat--esan +Dual, o thìr nam beann, a thuinich ann Albainn o thuath--a ghabhail +cairdeis gun sgàth agus aoidheachd o 'n àrd righ Fionn, sud fàth ar turuis +a Chiabh na maise--ciod am bealach am buail sinn? seol ar cos gu teach +Fhinn, bi dhuinn mar iùl, is gabh duais." "Duais {179} cha do ghabh mi +riamh, ars an nighean bu bhlàithe sùil 's bu deirge gruaidh; cha b' e sud +àbhaist Theadhaich nam beann éilde, 'g am bu lionor dàimheach 'n a thalla, +'g am bu tric tathaich o thuath--ni mise dhuibh iùl." Gu gleann-sìth +tharladh na fir; gleann an tric guth feidh is loin; gleann nan glas charn +is nan scor; gleann nan sruth ri uisg is gaoith. Thachair orra buaghar bho, +is rinn dhoibh iùl; thug dhoibh sgeul air duthaich nan creag, air fir agus +air mnaibh, air fàs shliabh agus charn, air neart feachd, air rian nan arm, +air miann sloigh, agus craobhthuinidh nam Fiann. + +_In English._ + +Garva the son of Starno and Dual, went to visit Fingal and his brave +warriors, renowned for feats of arms. Fingal was at that time in his summer +residence at Buchanti. On their journey thither, they took a view of every +valley and open hill, every brook and narrow dell. They asked information +of every passenger and person that came in their way. In the glen of +cuckoos and ouzles they observed a cottage by the side of a rivulet. They +entered; asked drink, a lady of elegant appearance arose and kindly bade +them welcome. She gave the food to eat, liquor to drink. In mild speech she +inquired their purpose. Love from her eye smote the rough Garva, and he +told whence they were. "We are come from the land of Pines, where many a +hero dwells--the son of Lochlin's king am I--my name is Garva, be pleased +to know--my comrade is Dual, from the land of hills, his residence is in +the north of Albion. To accept the hospitality and confidential friendship +of the mighty prince Fingal, this is the object of our journey, O Lady +fair[120]; say, by what pass shall we shape our course? Direct our steps to +the mansion of Fingal, be our guide, and accept a reward." "Reward I never +took," said the damsel of softest eye and rosiest cheek; "such was not the +manner of [my father] Tedaco of the hill of hinds; {180} many were the +guests in his hall, frequent his visitors from the North,--I will be your +guide." The chiefs reach Glenshee, where is heard the frequent voice of +deer and elk; glen of green mounts and cliffs; glen of many streams in time +of rain and wind. A keeper of cattle met them, and directed their course. +He gave the information concerning the country of rocks; concerning its +inhabitants male and female; the produce of moor and mount; the military +force, the fashion of the armour; the favourite pursuits of the people; and +the pedigree of the Fingalians. + + * * * * * + +_Extract from Bishop_ CARSUEL'S _Gaelic translation of the +Confession of Faith, Forms of Prayer, &c., used in the Reformed +Church of Scotland_; Printed in the year 1567. + +(_From the Epistle Dedicatory._) + +Acht ata ni cheana is mor an leathtrom agas anuireasbhuidh ata riamh +orainde gaoidhil alban & eireand, tar an gcuid eile don domhan, gan ar +gcanamhna gaoidheilge do chur agcló riamh mar ataid agcanamhna & adteangtha +féin agcló ag gach uile chinel dhaoine oile sa domhan, & ata uireasbhuidh +is mó ina gach uireasbhuidh oraind, gan an Biobla naomhtha do bheith agcló +gaoidheilge againd, marta sè agcló laidne agas bherla agas ingach teangaidh +eile osin amach, agas fós gan seanchus arsean no ar sindsear do bheith mar +an gcedna agcló againd riamh, acht ge tá cuid eigin do tseanchus ghaoidheal +alban agas eireand sgriobhtha aleabhruibh lámh, agas adtamhlorgaibh fileadh +& ollamhan, agas asleachtaibh suadh. Is mortsaothair sin re sgriobhadh do +laimh, ag fechain an neithe buailtear sa chló araibrisge agas ar +aithghiorra bhios gach én ni dhá mhed da chriochnughadh leis. Agas is mor +an doille agas andorchadas peacaidh agas aineolais agas indtleachda do +lucht deachtaidh agas sgriobhtha agas chumhdaigh na gaoidheilge, gurab mó +is mian leo agas gurab mó ghnathuidheas siad eachtradha dimhaoineacha +buaidheartha bregacha {181} saoghalta do cumadh ar thuathaibh dédhanond +agas ar mhacaibh mileadh agas arna curadhaibh agas fhind mhac cumhaill gona +fhianaibh agas ar mhóran eile nach airbhim agas nach indisim andso do +chumhdach, agas do choimhleasughagh, do chiond luadhuidheachta dimhaonigh +an tsaoghail dfhaghail doibhféin, ina briathra disle Dé agas slighthe +foirfe na firinde do sgriobhadh, agas dheachtadh, agas do chumhdach. + +_English Translation._ + +[_From the_ REPORT _of the Committee of the_ +HIGHLAND SOCIETY _of_ SCOTLAND, _appointed to inquire into the +nature and authenticity of the Poems of_ OSSIAN.] + +But there is one great disadvantage which we the Gaeil of Scotland and +Ireland labour under, beyond the rest of the world, that our Gaelic +language has never yet been printed, as the language of every other race of +men has been. And we labour under a disadvantage which is still greater +than every other disadvantage, that we have not the Holy Bible printed in +Gaelic, as it has been printed in Latin and in English, and in every other +language; and also that we have never yet had any account printed of the +antiquities of our country, or of our ancestors; for though we have some +accounts of the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland, contained in manuscripts, +and in the genealogies of bards and historiographers, yet there is great +labour in writing them over with the hand, whereas the work which is +printed, be it ever so great, is speedily finished. And great is the +blindness and sinful darkness, and ignorance and evil design of such as +teach, and write, and cultivate the Gaelic language, that, with the view of +obtaining for themselves the vain rewards of this world, they are more +desirous, and more accustomed, to compose vain, tempting, lying, worldly +histories, concerning the _Tuath de dannan_, and concerning warriors and +champions, and _Fingal_ the son of _Cumhal_, with his heroes, and +concerning many others which {182} I will not at present enumerate or +mention, in order to maintain or reprove, than to write and teach and +maintain the faithful words of God, and of the perfect way of truth[121]. + + * * * * * + +_From the Preface to a Metrical Version of the Book of Psalms +in Gaelic_, by Mr ROBERT KIRK, Minister of the Gospel +at Balquhidder; Printed in the year 1684. + +Ataid na Psalma taitneamhach, tarbhach: beag nach mion-fhlaitheas lán +dainglibh, Cill fhonnmhar le ceol naomhtha. Mur abholghort Eden, lionta do +chrannaibh brioghmhoire na beatha, & do luibhennibh iocshlainteamhail, +amhluidh an leabhar Psalmso Dhaibhioth, ata na liaghais ar uile anshocair +na nanma. Ata an saoghal & gach beó chreatuir da bfuil ann, na chlarsigh; +an duine, se is Clairseoir & duanaire, chum moladh an mor-Dhia mirbhuileach +do sheinn; & ata Daibhidh do ghná mar fhear don chuideachd bhias marso ag +caoin-chaint gu ceolmhar ma nard-Rí.... Do ghabhas mar chongnamh don +obairsi, dioghlum ughdairidh an uile cháil, ar sheannós, phriomh chreideamh +& eachdardha na nGaoidheal, sgriobhta & cló-bhuailte: achd gu ba reula iuil +& soluis dhamh, brídh na nSalm fein. Anois maseadh a Chomharbadha ro +chaomh, ata mar phlaneidi dhealroidh ag sdiurughadh na ngcorp ioch dardha +gan mhonmar, is deaghmhaise dhaoibh an tsaothairse a sgrudadh & a +ghnathughadh gu neimhfhiat, gan ghuth ar bheiginmhe & neimhnitheachd an +tsaothairigh. Griosam oraibhse a Uaisle, & a Thuatha charthanacha araon, +gun {183} bheith mur thacharain ar luaidrean a nunn & a nall go sbailpe +breigi; achd le gcroidhibh daingne, dosgartha, deagh-fhreumhaighte, +druididh re Firinn, Ceart, & Ceannsachd, mar fhuraileas na psalma: Ata clu +& tarbha a nsdriocadh don choir; call & masladh a ntuitim le heugcoir. + + Imthigh a Dhuilleachain gu dán, + Le Dán glan diagha duisg iad thall; + Cuir failte ar Fonn fial na bFionn, + Ar Gharbh chriocha, 's Indseadh gall. + +_In English._ + +The Psalms are pleasant and profitable. A church resounding with sacred +melody is almost a little Heaven full of angels. As the Garden of Eden, +replenished with trees of life of potent efficacy, and with medicinal +plants, so is this Book of the Psalms of David, which contains a remedy for +all the diseases of the soul. The world and every living creature it +contains are the Harp; man is the Harper and Poet, who sings the praise of +the great wonder-working God; and David is ever one of the company who are +thus employed in sweetly and tunefully discoursing about the Almighty +King.... I was assisted in this work by culling from authors of every kind, +who have treated of the ancient manners, the primitive religion, and the +history of the Gaels, both in manuscript and in print: but the star and +light by which I steered was the sense of the Psalms themselves. Now, then, +my very dear colleagues, who as shining luminaries guide the inferior +bodies, it becomes you to examine and to use this work candidly, without +regarding the meanness and insignificancy of the workman. I beseech you, +men of high and of low degree alike, that you be not, like weak silly +creatures, tossed to and fro by false conceits; but with firm, resolute, +well-established hearts, adhere to Truth, Justice, and Temperance, as these +Psalms exhort. There is honour and profit in complying with what is right, +loss and disgrace in declining to what is wrong. {184} + + Little Volume, move boldly on; + In pure godly strains awaken yonder people; + Salute the hospitable land of the Fingalians, + The highland regions, and the Isles of strangers[122]. + + * * * * * + +PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH. + + * * * * * + + +Notes + + * * * * * + +[1] Analysis of the Gaelic Language, by William Shaw, A.M. + +[2] A few examples of what I conceived to be deviations from grammatical +propriety are given from the Gaelic version of the Bible. As the +translation of the Prophetical Books underwent a revision, the +exceptionable passages in those Books have been changed in the second +edition from what they were as they came out of the hands of the original +translator. The criticism on those passages is, however, allowed to remain +in this edition of the Grammar, because the first edition of the Gaelic +Prophets is still in the hands of many, and because it often happens that +"we can best teach what is right by showing what is wrong."--_Lowth._ + +[3] It will immediately occur to any grammarian that there is a slight +difference between this and the common division into _mutes_ and _liquids_, +by the letter _m_ being removed from the class of liquids to that of mutes. +This is not an oversight, but an intentional arrangement; as the +_accidents_ of the letter _m_ are, in Gaelic, the same with those of the +mute, not of the liquid consonants. For a like reason, _s_ is included in +the class of liquids. + +[4] Writers, who have touched on this part of Gaelic Grammar, following the +Irish grammarians, have divided the consonants further into _mutable_ and +_immutable_. The former name has been given to consonants which, in +writing, have been occasionally combined with the letter _h_; and the +latter name to those consonants which have not, in writing, been combined +with _h_. But, in fact, both classes of consonants are alike _mutable_ in +their pronunciation; and their _mutation_ ought to have been marked in the +orthography, though it has not. This defect in Gaelic orthography has been +often observed and regretted, though it has never been corrected. Rather +than continue a distinction which has no foundation in the structure of the +language, I venture to discard the division of _mutable_ and _immutable_ +consonants, as not merely useless, but as tending to mislead the learner. + +[5] In explaining the sounds of the letters I have availed myself of the +very correct and acute remarks on this subject annexed to the Gaelic +version of the New Testament, 1767. + +[6] If it be thought that this renders the language too monotonous, it may +be observed, on the other hand, that it prevents ambiguities and +obscurities in rapid speaking, as the accent marks the initial syllable of +polysyllables. Declaimers, of either sex, have often found their advantage +in this circumstance. + +[7] That is the second sound assigned to a. + +[8] The plural of la or latha _a day_, is sometimes written laeth; but it +is doubtful how far this is a proper mode of writing it. + +[9] The effect of the vowels in qualifying the sound of the adjoining +consonants will be explained in treating of the Palatals and Linguals. + +[10] This propensity is seen in the aspirating of consonants in Gaelic +words, which have an evident affinity to words in other languages, where +the same consonants are not so aspirated. The following list will +sufficiently illustrate and confirm the truth of this remark:-- + + _Greek._ _Latin._ _Gælic._ + [Greek: Diabolos] Dia_b_olus Diabhol. + Scri_b_o* Scriobh, _write_. + Fe_b_ris* Fiabhrus, _a fever_. + Ba_c_ulum Bacholl, _a staff_. + [Greek: Deka] De_c_em Deich, _ten_. + Lori_c_a Lùireach, _a coat of mail_. + Cleri_c_us Cleireach, _a clerk_. + Mo_d_us Modh, _manner_. + Gla_d_ius Claidheamh, _a sword_. + [Greek: Kardia] } Cor_d_-is Cridhe, _the heart_. + [Greek: Kradia] } + Me_d_ium Meadhon, _middle_. + Lau_d_o Luadh, _mention_. + Le_g_o Leugh, _read_. + Gre_g_-is Greigh, _a herd_. + Re_g_-is Righ, _a king_. + Pla_g_a Plaigh, _a plague_. + Sa_g_itta Saighead, _an arrow_. + Ma_g_ister Maighistir, _master_. + Ima_g_o Iomhaigh, _an image_. + Pri_m_us Priomh, _chief_. + Re_m_us Ràmh, _an oar_. + Si_m_ilis Samhuil, _like_. + Hu_m_ilis Umhal, _humble_. + Ca_p_ra Gabhar, _a goat_. + [Greek: Mêtêr] Ma_t_er Mathair, _mother_. + Ro_t_a Roth, Rath, _a wheel_. + Mu_t_o Mùth, _change_. + +It is probable that the consonants, thus aspirated, were pronounced without +aspiration in the older dialects of the Celtic tongue; for we are told that +in the Irish manuscripts of the first class for antiquity, the consonants +are for the most part written without any mark of aspiration. See "Lhuyd's +Archæol. Brit.," p. 301, col. 1. + +The tendency to attenuate the articulations shows itself in a progressive +state, in a few vocables which are pronounced with an aspiration in some +districts, but not universally. Such are deatach or deathach _smoke_, +cuntart or cunthart _danger_, ta or tha _am_, _art_, tu or thu _thou_, +troimh or throimh _through_, tar or thar _over_, am beil or am bheil _is +there?_ dom or domh _to me_, &c. Has not this remission or suppression of +the articulations the effect of enfeebling the speech, by mollifying its +bones and relaxing its nerves? Ought not therefore the progress of this +corruption to be opposed, by retaining unaspirated articulations in those +instances where universal practice has not entirely superseded them, and +even by restoring them in some instances, where the loss of them has been +attended with manifest inconvenience? It is shameful to see how many +monosyllables, once distinguished by their articulations, have in process +of time, by dropping these articulations, come to be represented by the +solitary vowel _a_, to the no small confusion of the language and +embarrassment of the reader. The place of the absent consonant is often +supplied, indeed, in writing, by an apostrophe. This, however, is at best +but an imperfect and precarious expedient. + + * So in French, from Aprilis, _Avrilis_; habere, _avoir_; Febris, + Fièvre: [Greek: episkopos], _evéque_. + +[11] Ph is found in no Gaelic word which is not inflected, except a few +words transplanted from the Greek or the Hebrew, in which _ph_ represents +the Greek [phi], or the Hebrew [Hebrew: P]. It might perhaps be more +proper to represent [Hebrew: P] by _p_ rather than _ph_; and to represent +[phi] by _f_, as the Italians have done in _filosofia_, _filologia_, &c., +by which some ambiguities and anomalies in declension would be avoided. + +[12] The affinity between the sounds of _v_ and _u_ is observable in many +languages, particularly in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. + +[13] Agreeably to the like pronunciation, the Welsh write this word _marw_, +the Manks _marroo_. + +[14] It is still pronounced fuair in the Northern Highlands, and it is so +written in Irish. See Irish Bible, Gen. xxxv. 18, 19; John ii. 14, viii. +62, 53. + +[15] So fathast _yet_, fein _self_, are in some places pronounced as if +they began with an _h_ instead of an _f_. The latter word is, by the Manks, +written hene. + +[16] Over a considerable part of the Highlands that propensity to +aspiration, which has been already remarked, has affixed to _c_, in the end +of a word, or of an accented syllable, the sound of _chc_; as, mac _a son_, +torc _a boar_, acain _moaning_; pronounced often machc, torchc, achcain. + +There is reason to believe that this compound sound of _chc_ was not known +of old, but is a modern corruption. + +This pronunciation is not universal over the Highlands. In some parts the +_c_ retains its proper sound in all situations. + +If the articulation in question had, from the first, been compounded, it is +highly probable that it would have been represented, in writing, by a +combination of letters, such as _chc_; especially as we find that the same +sound is represented at other times, not by a single consonant, but by a +combination, as in the case of _chd_. Why should it be thought that boc _a +buck_, and bochd _poor_, were originally pronounced alike, when they are +distinguished both in writing and signification? + +The word [Hebrew: SHQ] _a sack_, has been transplanted from the Hebrew into +many languages, among the rest the Gaelic, where it has been always written +sac, although now pronounced sachc. In none of the other languages in which +the word is used (except the Welsh alone), has the final palatal been +aspirated. It would appear therefore that the sound sachc is a departure +from the original Gaelic pronunciation. The same change may have happened +in the pronunciation of other words, in which the plain _c_ is now +aspirated, though it may not have been so originally. + +[17] Though _th_ be quiescent in the middle of a polysyllable, over the +North and Central Highlands, yet it is, with more propriety, pronounced, in +the West Highlands, as an aspiration; as, athair _father_, mathanas +_pardon_, pronounced a-hair, mahanas. + +[18] I am informed that this pronunciation of _chd_ is not universal; but +that in some districts, particularly the East Highlands, the _d_ has here, +as in other places, its proper lingual sounds. In many, if not all the +instances in which _chd_ occurs, the ancient Irish wrote _ct_. This +spelling corresponds to that of some foreign words that have a manifest +affinity to Gaelic words of the same signification; which, it is therefore +presumable, were all originally pronounced, as they were written, without +an aspiration, such as, + + _Latin._ _Old French._ _Gaelic._ + + Noct-u Noct-is, &c. Nuict an nochd, _to night_. + Oct-o Huict Ochd, _eight_. + Benedict-um Benoict Beannachd, _blessing_. + Maledict-um Maudict Mallachd, _cursing_. + Ruct-us Bruchd, _evomition_. + Intellect-us Intleachd, _contrivance_. + Lact-is, -i, &c. Lachd, _milk_. + Dict-o, -are, &c. Deachd, _to dictate_. + Rego } + Rect-um } Reachd, _a law, institution_. + +From the propensity of the Gaelic to aspiration, the original _c_ was +converted into _ch_, and the words were written with _cht_, as in the Irish +acht _but_, &c., or with the slight change of _t_ into _d_, as in ochd, &c. +This is the opinion of O'Brien, when he says the word lecht is the Celtic +root of the Latin _lectio_--the aspirate _h_ is but a late +invention.--_O'Br. Ir. Dict. voc. lecht._ In process of time the true sound +of _cht_ or _chd_ was confounded with the kindred sound of _chc_, which was +commonly, though corruptly, given to final c. + +[19] It is certain that the natural sound of d aspirated is that of [the +Saxon ð] or _th_ in _thou_; as the natural sound of _t_ aspirated is that +of _th_ in _think_. This articulation, from whatever cause, has not been +admitted into the Gaelic, either Scottish or Irish, although it is used in +the kindred dialects of Cornwall and Wales. + +[20] In sean _old_, the _n_ has its _plain_ sound when the following word +begins with a Lingual. Accordingly it is often written in that situation +seann; as, seann duine _an old man_, an t-seann tiomnaidh _of the old +Testament_. + +[21] So in Latin, _canmen_ from _cano_ was pronounced, and then written +_carmen_; _genmen_ from the obsolete [Greek: genô] passed into _germen_. + +[22] Another mode, proposed by a learned correspondent, of marking the +distinction in the sound of the initial Linguals, is by writing the letter +double, thus ll, nn, rr, when its sound is the same with that which is +represented by those double letters in the end of a syllable; and when the +sound is otherwise, to write the letter single; as, llamh _hand_, llion +_fill_, mo lamh _my hand_, lion mi _I filled_. + +It is perhaps too late, however, to urge now even so slight an alteration +as this in the Orthography of the Gaelic, which ought rather to be held as +fixed beyond the reach of innovation, by the happy diffusion of the Gaelic +Scriptures over the Highlands. + +[23] _Leathan re Leathan, is Caol re Caol._ + +Of the many writers who have recorded or taken notice of this rule, I have +found none who have attempted to account for its introduction into the +Gaelic. They only tell that such a correspondence between the vowels ought +to be observed, and that it would be improper to write otherwise. Indeed, +none of them seem to have attended to the different effects of a broad and +of a small vowel on the sound of an adjacent consonant. From this +circumstance, duly considered, I have endeavoured to derive a reason for +the rule in question, the only probable one that has yet occurred to me. + +[24] As deanuibh or deanaibh _do ye_, beannuich or beannaich _bless_. + +[25] It is worthy of remark that in such words as caird-eil _friendly_, +slaint-eil _salutary_, the substitution of _e_ in place of _a_ in the +termination, both misrepresents the sound, and disguises the derivation of +the syllable. The sound of this termination as in fear-ail _manly_, ban-ail +_womanly_, is properly represented by _ail_. This syllable is an +abbreviation of amhuil _like_, which is commonly written in its full form +by the Irish, as fear-amhuil, &c. It corresponds exactly to the English +termination _like_, in _soldier-like_, _officer-like_, which is abridged to +_ly_, as _manly_, _friendly_. By writing _eil_ instead of _ail_, we almost +lose sight of amhuil altogether. + +[26] From the extracts of the oldest Irish manuscripts given by Lhuyd, +Vallancey, and others, it appears that the rule concerning the +correspondence of vowels in contiguous syllables, was by no means so +generally observed once as it is now. It was gradually extended by the more +modern Irish writers, from whom, it is probable, it has been incautiously +adopted by the Scottish writers in its present and unwarrantable latitude. +The rule we have been considering has been reprobated in strong terms by +some of the most judicious Irish philologers, particularly O'Brien, author +of an Irish Dictionary printed at Paris 1768, and Vallancey, author of an +Irish Grammar, and of various elaborate disquisitions concerning Irish +antiquities, from whom I quote the following passages: "This Rule [of +dividing one syllable into two by the insertion of an aspirated consonant] +together with that of substituting small or broad vowels in the latter +syllables, to correspond with the vowel immediately following the consonant +in the preceding syllable, has been very destructive to the original and +radical purity of the Irish language." _Vallancey's Ir. Gram. Chap. III. +letter A._ "Another [Rule] devised in like manner by our bards and rhymers, +I mean that which is called _Caol le caol, agus Leathan le leathan_, has +been woefully destructive to the original and radical purity of the Irish +language. This latter (much of a more modern invention than the former, for +our old manuscripts show no regard to it) imports and prescribes that two +vowels, thus forming, or contributing to form, two different syllables, +should both be of the same denomination or class of either broad or small +vowels, and this without any regard to the primitive elementary structure +of the word." _O'Brien's Ir. Dict. Remarks on A._ "The words _biran_ and +_biranach_ changed sometimes into _bioran_ and _bioranach_ by the abusive +rule of _Leathan le leathan_." _Id. in voc._ Fear. The opinion of Lhuyd on +this point, though not decisive, yet may properly be subjoined to those of +Vallancey and O'Brien, as his words serve at least to show that this +judicious philologer was no advocate for the Rule in question. "As for +passing any censure on the rule concerning broad and small vowels, I chose +rather to forbear making any remark at all upon them, by reason that old +men who formerly wrote arget _silver_, instead of airgiod as we now write +it, never used to change a vowel but in declining of words, &c. And I do +not know that it was ever done in any other language, unless by some +particular persons who, through mistake or ignorance, were guilty of it." +_Archæol. Brit. Preface to Ir. Dict. translated in Bp. Nicolson's Irish +Historical Library._ + +[27] Pinkerton's Inquiry into the History of Scotland. + +[28] _E.g._, troidh _a foot_, has been written troidh or troigh, either of +which corresponds to the pronunciation, as the last consonant is quiescent. +In Welsh, the articulation of the final consonant has been preserved, and +the word is accordingly written troed. This authority seems sufficient to +determine the proper orthography in Gaelic to be troidh and not troigh. For +a like reason, perhaps, it would be proper to write tràidh _shore_, rather +than tràigh, the common way of spelling the word, for we find the Irish +formerly wrote tràidh, and the Welsh traeth. Claidheamh _a sword_, since +the final articulation was wholly dropped, has been sometimes written +claidhe. The mode of writing it still with a final labial, though +quiescent, will probably be thought the more proper of the two, when it is +considered that claidheamh is the cognate, or rather the same word with the +Irish cloidheamh the Welsh cleddyf, and the French glaive. + +[29] I flatter myself that all my readers, who are acquainted with any of +the ancient or the modern languages which have a distinction of gender in +their attributives, will readily perceive that the import of the term +Gender, in the grammar of those languages, is precisely what I have stated +above. The same term has been introduced into the grammar of the English +Tongue, rather improperly, because in an acceptation different from what it +bears in the grammar of all other languages. In English there is no +distinction of gender competent to Articles, Adjectives, or Participles. +When a noun is said to be of the masculine gender, the meaning can only be +that the object denoted by it is of the male sex. Thus in the English +grammars, gender signifies a quality of the _object_ named, while in other +grammars it signifies a quality of the _name_ given to the object. The +varieties of _who_, _which_, and _he_, _she_, _it_, refer not to what is +properly called the _gender_ of the antecedent _noun_, but to the _Sex_ +real or attributed, or the _absence of Sex_, of the _object_ signified by +the antecedent. This is in effect acknowledged by writers on rhetoric, who +affirm that in English the pronouns _who_, _he_, _she_, imply an express +personification, or attribution of life, and consequently of Sex, to the +objects to which these pronouns refer. The same thing is still more +strikingly true of the variations on the termination of nouns, as _prince_, +_princess_; _lion_, _lioness_, which are all discriminative of Sex. It +seems therefore to be a mis-stated compliment which is usually paid to the +English, when it is said that "this is the only language which has adapted +the gender of its nouns to the constitution of Nature." The fact is, that +it has adapted the _Form_ of some of the most common names of living +creatures, and of a few of its pronouns, to the obvious distinction of +_male_, and _female_, and _inanimate_, while it has left its nouns without +any mark characteristic of _gender_. The same thing must necessarily happen +to any language by abolishing the distinction of masculine and feminine in +its attributives. If all languages had been constructed on this plan, it +may confidently be affirmed that the grammatical term _gender_ would never +have come into use. The compliment intended, and due to the English, might +have been more correctly expressed, by saying that "it is the only language +that has rejected the unphilosophical distinction of gender, by making its +attributives, in this respect, all indeclinable." + +[30] Uan beag bainionn, 2 Sam. xii. 3. Numb. vi. 14. So leomhann boirionn, +Ezek. xix. 1. + +[31] It must appear singularly strange that any nouns which signify females +exclusively should be of the masculine gender. The noun bainionnach, is +derived from the adjective bainionn, _female_, which is formed from bean, +the appropriate term for a _woman_. Yet this noun bainionnach, or +boirionnach, _a female_, is masculine, to all grammatical intents and +purposes. We say boirionnach còir, _a civil woman_, am boirionnach +maiseach, _the handsome woman_. + +The gender of this Noun seems to have been fixed, not by its signification, +but by its determination, for most Derivatives in _ach_ are masculines; as, +oganach _a young man_, marcach _a horseman_, Albanach _a Scotsman_, &c. So +in Latin, mancipium, scortum, though applied to persons, follow the gender +of their termination. + +[32] It was necessary to be thus explicit in stating the changes at the +beginning and those on the termination as unconnected independent +_accidents_, which ought to be viewed separately; because many who have +happened to turn their thoughts toward the declension of the Gaelic noun +have got a habit of conjoining these, and supposing that both contribute +their united aid toward the forming the _cases_ of nouns. This is blending +together things which are unconnected, and ought to be kept distinct. It +has therefore appeared necessary to take a separate view of these two +_accidents_ of nouns, and to limit the term _case_ to those changes which +are made on the termination, excluding entirely those which take place at +the beginning. + +[33] It is to be observed that these names of the cases are adopted merely +because they are already familiar, not because they all denominate +correctly the relations expressed by the cases to which they are +respectively applied. There is no Accusative or Objective case in Gaelic +different from the Nominative; neither is there any Ablative different from +the Dative. For this reason, it is not only unnecessary, but erroneous, to +reckon up six Cases in Gaelic, distinguished not by the form of the Noun, +but by the Prepositions prefixed. This is to depart altogether from the +common and proper use of the term _Case_. And if the new use of that term +is to be adopted, then the enumeration is still incomplete, for we ought to +have as many Cases as there are Prepositions in the language. Thus, besides +a Dative do Bhard, and an Ablative o Bhard, we should have an Impositive +Case air Bhard, a Concomitative le Bard, an Insertive ann am Bard, a +Precursive roimh Bhard, &c. &c. Grammarians have very correctly reckoned +only five Cases in Greek, two in English, one in French [See _Moore_, +_Murray_, _Buffier_, &c.] because the variations in the form of the Noun +extend no further. Surely nothing but an early and inveterate prepossession +in favour of the arrangements of Latin Grammar could ever have suggested +the idea of Six Cases in Gaelic or in English. + +[34] It is not improbable that anciently all feminine nouns, except a few +irregular ones, added a syllable to the nominative, as _e_ or _a_, in +forming the genitive. The translators of the S. S. have sometimes formed +the genitive of feminine polysyllables in this manner, as sionagoige from +sionagog, Mark v. 36, 38. But it appears more agreeable to the analogy of +inflection that such polysyllables should now be written without an _e_ in +the genitive. + +[35] It is probable that this noun should rather be written àdh. See +McFarlane's Paraphrases, III. 3. also Lhuyd and O'Brien, _in loco_. + +[36] Derivatives in _an_, and _ag_ should form their genitive according to +the general Rule, _ain_, _aig_; and in pronunciation they do so. When the +syllable preceding the termination ends in a small vowel, the Rule of 'Caol +re caol' has introduced an _e_ into the final syllable, which is then +written _ean_, _eag_. In this case writers have been puzzled how to form +the genitive. The terminations _eain_, _eaig_, would evidently contain too +many vowels for a short syllable. To reduce this awkward number of vowels +they have commonly thrown out the _a_, the only letter which properly +expressed the vocal sound of the syllable. Thus from caimean m. a _mote_, +they formed the gen. sing. caimein; from cuilean m. a _whelp_, g. s. +cuilein; from duileag f. a _leaf_, g. s. duileig; from caileag f. a _girl_, +g. s. caileig. Had they not yielded too far to the encroachments of the +Rule of 'Caol re caol' they would have written both the nom. and the gen. +of these and similar nouns more simply and more justly, thus: caiman, g. s. +caimain; cuilan, g. s. cuilain; duilag, g. s. duilaig; cailag, g. s. +cailaig. + +[37] In many instances, the Plural termination _a_ is oftener written with +this final _n_ than without it. When the vowel preceding the termination is +small, the termination _a_ or _an_ is very needlessly written _e_ or _ean_, +to preserve the correspondence of vowels. + +[38] We are informed by E. O'C. that this is the usual construction in the +Irish Dialect, and it appears to be the same in the Scottish. Thus, air son +mo dhà shùl, _for my two eyes_.--Judg. xvi. 28. Ir. & Scott. versions. + +[39] So in Hebrew, we find a noun in the singular number joined with +_twenty_, _thirty_, _a hundred_, _a thousand_, &c. + +[40] The Pronouns tu _thou_, se _he_, si _she_, siad _they_, are not +employed, like other nominatives, to denote the object after a transitive +verb. Hence the incorrectness of the following expression in most editions +of the Gaelic Psalms: Se chrùnas _tu_ le coron graidh, Psal. ciii. 4., +which translated literally signifies, _it is he whom thou wilt crown_, &c. +To express the true sense, viz., _it is he who will crown thee_, it ought +to have been, se chrùnas _thu_ le coron graidh. So is mise an Tighearn a +slanuicheas _thu_, _I am the Lord that healeth thee_, Exod. xv. 26; Ma ta e +ann a fhreagaireas _thu_, _If there be any that will answer thee_, Job v. +1; Co e a bhrathas thu? _Who is he that will betray thee?_ John xxi. 20., +Comp. Gen. xii. 3. and xxvii. 29. + +[41] This use of the Pronoun of the 2d person plural is probably a modern +innovation, for there is nothing like it found in the more ancient Gaelic +compositions, nor in the graver poetry even of the present age. As this +idiom seems, however, to be employed in conversation with increasing +frequency, it will probably lose by degrees its present import, and will +come to be used as the common mode of addressing any individual; in the +same manner as the corresponding Pronouns are used in English, and other +European languages. + +[42] There seems hardly a sufficient reason for changing the _d_ in this +situation into _t_, as has been often done, as t'oglach for d'oglach _thy +servant_, &c. The _d_ corresponds sufficiently to the pronunciation, and +being the constituent consonant of the pronoun, it ought not to be changed +for another. + +[43] The Irish are not so much at a loss to avoid a _hiatus_, as they often +use na for a _his_; which the translators of the Psalms have sometimes +judiciously adopted; as, + + An talamh tioram le na laimh + Do chruthaich e 's do dhealbh. Psal. xcv. 5. + +[44] In the North Highlands this Pronoun is pronounced sid. + +[45] This Pronoun occurs in such expressions as an deigh na chuala tu +_after what you have heard_; their leat na th' agad, or na bheil agad, +_bring what you have_. It seems to be contracted for an ni a _the thing +which_. + +[46] There is reason to think that ge b'e is corruptly used for cia b' e. +Of the former I find no satisfactory analysis. The latter cia b' e is +literally _which it be_, or _which it were_; which is just the French _qui +que ce soit_, _qui que ce fût_ expressed in English by one word +_whosoever_, _whichsoever_. We find cia used in this sense and connection, +Psal. cxxxv. 11. Glasg. 1753. Gach uile rioghachd mar an ceadn' _cia_ +h-iomdha bhi siad ann, _All_ _kingdoms likewise, however numerous they be_. +See also Gen. xliv. 9, Rom. ii. 1. + +[47] This pronoun is found written with an initial c in Lhuyd's "Archæol. +Brit." Tit. I. page 20. col. 2. ceach; again Tit. X. voc. Bealtine, cecha +bliadna _each year_. So also O'Brien, cach _all_, _every_, like the French +_chaque_. "Irish Dict." voc. cach. + +[48] The pronouns _cach eile_ and _cach a chéile_ are hardly known in +Perthshire. Instead of the former, they use the single word càch pronounced +long, and declined like a noun of the singular number; and instead of the +latter, a chéile, as in this example, choinnich iad a chéile; thuit cuid, +agus theich càch, _they met each other; some fell, and the rest fled_. Here +càch may be considered as a simple pronoun; but the first clause, choinnich +iad a cheile, _they met his fellow_, hardly admits of any satisfactory +analysis. The phrases, in fact, seem to be elliptical, and to be expressed +more fully, according to the practice of other districts, thus: choinnich +iad cach a chiéle; thuit, cuid, agus theich cach eile. Now, if cach be +nothing else than gach _every_, (a conjecture supported by the short +pronunciation of the _a_, as well as by the authorities adduced in the +preceding note,) the expressions may be easily analysed: choinnich iad gach +[aon] a cheile; thuit cuid, agus theich gach [aon] eile; _they met every +[one] his fellow; some fell, and every other [one] fled_, See 1 Thess. v. +11. + +[49] In the older Irish MSS. the Particle _do_ appears under a variety of +forms. In one MS. of high antiquity it is often written _dno_. This seems +to be its oldest form. The two consonants were sometimes separated by a +vowel, and the _n_ being pronounced and then written _r_, (See Part I. p. +19.) the word was written doro. (See _Astle's Hist. of the Orig. and Progr. +of Writing, page 126, Irish Specimen, No. 6._) The Consonants were +sometimes transposed, suppressing the latter Vowel, and the Particle became +nod (_O Brien's Ir. Dict. voc._ Sasat, Treas,) and rod (_id. voc._ Ascaim, +Fial.) Sometimes one of the syllables only was retained; hence no (_O'Br. +voc._ No,) ro (_id. voc._ Ro,) and do in common use. Do likewise suffered a +transposition of letters, and was written sometimes ad. (O'Br. _voc._ Do.) + +[50] This correspondence of the Termination with the Root was overlooked in +the older editions of the Gaelic Psalms; as pronnfidh, cuirfar, molfidh, +innsam, guidham, coimhdar, sinnam, gluaisfar, &c. + +[51] The disposition in the Gaelic to drop articulations has, in this +instance, been rather unfortunate; as the want of the _f_ weakens the sound +of the word, and often occasions a _hiatus_. There seems a propriety in +retaining the _f_ of the Future, after a Liquid, or an aspirated Mute; as, +cuirfidh, mairfidh, molfidh, geillfidh, pronnfidh, brisfidh, &c., for these +words lose much in sound and emphasis by being changed into caithidh, +mairidh, &c. + +[52] The incorporation of the Verb with a Personal Pronoun is a manifest +improvement, and has gradually taken place in almost all the polished +languages. There is incomparably more beauty and force in expressing the +energy of the Verb, with its _personal_ relation and concomitant +circumstances, in one word, than by a periphrasis of pronouns and +auxiliaries. The latter mode may have a slight advantage in point of +precision, but the former is greatly superior in elegance and strength. The +structure of the Latin and Greek, compared with that of the English Verb, +affords a striking illustration of this common and obvious remark. Nothing +can be worse managed than the French Verb; which, though it possesses a +competent variety of _personal_ inflections, yet loses all the benefit of +them by the perpetual enfeebling recurrence of the personal Pronouns. + +In comparing the Scottish and Irish dialects of the Gaelic, it may be +inferred that the former, having less of inflection or _incorporation_, +than the latter, differs less from the parent tongue, and is an older +branch of the Celtic, than its sister dialect. It were unfair, however, to +deny that the Irish have improved the Verb, by giving a greater variety of +inflection to its _Numbers_ and _Persons_, as well as by introducing a +simple Present Tense. The authors of our metrical version of the Gaelic +Psalms were sensible of the advantage possessed by the Irish dialect in +these respects, and did not scruple to borrow an idiom which has given +grace and dignity to many of their verses. + +[53] Such at least is the common practice in writing, in compliance with +the common mode of colloquial pronunciation. It might perhaps be better to +retain the full form of the Preposition, in grave pronunciation, and always +in writing. It is an object worthy of attention to preserve radical +articulations, especially in writing; and particularly to avoid every +unnecessary use of the monosyllable _a_, which, it must be confessed, +recurs in too many senses. + +[54] The Preposition iar has here been improperly confounded with air _on_. +I have ventured to restore it, from the Irish Grammarians. Iar is in common +use in the Irish dialect, signifying _after_. Thus, iar sin _after that_, +iar leaghadh an tshoisgeil _after reading the Gospel_, iar sleachdadh do +niomlan _after all have kneeled down_, iar seasamh suas _after standing +up_, &c. See "Irish Book of Common Prayer." Air, when applied to time, +signifies not _after_, but _at_ or _on_, air an am so, air an uair so _at +this time_, air an la sin _on that day_. There is therefore sufficient +reason to believe that, in the case in question, iar is the proper word; +and that it has been corruptly supplanted by air. + +[55] The Imperative seems to have been anciently formed by adding _tar_ to +the Root. This form is still retained in Ireland, and in some parts of +Scotland, chiefly in verbs ending in a Lingual; as, buailtear, deantar. +(See the Lord's Prayer in the older editions of the Gaelic Version of the +Assembly's Catechism; also, the "Irish N. Test." Matt. vi. 10. Luke xi. 2.) +In other verbs, the _t_ seems to have been dropped in pronunciation. It +was, however, retained by the Irish in writing, but with an aspiration to +indicate its being quiescent; thus, togthar, teilgthear, "Ir. N. T." Matt. +xxi. 21, Mark xi. 23, crochthar, Matt. xxvii. 22. So also the "Gaelic N. +T." 1767, deanthar. Matt. vi. 10, Luke xi. 2. In the later publications the +_t_ has been omitted altogether, with what propriety may be well doubted. + +[56] To preserve a due correspondence with the pronunciation, the Pass. +Part. should always terminate in _te_, for in this part of the verb, the +_t_ has always its _small_ sound. Yet in verbs whereof the characteristic +vowel is broad, it is usual to write the termination of the Pass. Part. +_ta_; as, togta _raised_, crochta _suspended_. This is done in direct +opposition to the pronunciation, merely out of regard to the Irish Rule of +_Leathan ri leathan_, which in this case, as in many others, has been +permitted to mar the genuine orthography. + +When a verb, whose characteristic vowel is broad, terminates in a Liquid, +the final consonant coalesces so closely with the _t_ of the Pass. Part. +that the _small_ sound of the latter necessarily occasions the like sound +in pronouncing the former. Accordingly the small sound of the Liquid is +properly represented in writing, by an _i_ inserted before it. Thus, òl +_drink_, Pass. Part. òilte; pronn _pound_, proinnte; crann _bar_, crainnte; +sparr _ram_, spairrte; trus _pack_, truiste. But when the verb ends in a +mute, whether plain or aspirated, there is no such coalescence between its +final consonant and the adjected _t_ of the Participle. The final consonant +if it be pronounced retains its broad sound. There is no good reason for +maintaining a correspondence of vowels in the Participle, which ought +therefore to be written, as it is pronounced, without regard to _Leathan ri +leathan_; as, tog _raise_, Pass. Part. togte; croch _hang_, crochte; sàth +_thrust_, sàthte; cnamh _chew_, cnamhte. + +The same observations apply, with equal force, to the Pret. Subj. in which +the _t_ of the termination is always pronounced with its _small_ sound, and +should therefore be followed by a small vowel in writing; as, thogteadh, +chrochteadh, not thogtadh, chrochtadh. + +[57] In all _regular_ verbs, the difference between the Affirmative and the +Negative Moods, though marked but slightly and partially in the Preterite +Tense, (only in the initial form of the 2d Conjugation,) yet is strongly +marked in the Future Tense. The Fut. Aff. terminates in a feeble vocal +sound. In the Fut. Neg. the voice rests on an articulation, or is cut short +by a forcible aspiration. Supposing these Tenses to be used by a speaker in +reply to a command or a request; by their very structure, the former +expresses the softness of compliance; and the latter, the abruptness of a +refusal. If a command or a request be expressed by such verbs as these, tog +sin, gabh sin, ith sin, the compliant answer is expressed by togaidh, +gabhaidh, ithidh; the refusal, by the cha tog, cha ghabh, cha n-ith. May +not this peculiar variety of form in the same Tense, when denoting +affirmation, and when denoting negation, be reckoned among the +characteristic marks of an original language? + +[58] This part of the verb, being declined and governed like a noun, bears +a closer resemblance to the Latin Gerund than to the Infinitive; and might +have been properly named the Gerund. But as Lhuyd and all the later Irish +Grammarians have already given it the name of Infinitive, I choose to +continue the same appellation rather than change it. + +[59] The Editor of the Gaelic Psalms printed at Glasgow, 1753, judging, as +it would seem, that cuidich was too bold a licence for cuideachaidh, +restored the gen. of the full form of the Infinitive; but in order to +reduce it to two syllables, so as to suit the verse, he threw out the +middle syllable, and wrote cuid'idh. + +[60] I have met with persons of superior knowledge of the Gaelic who +contended that such expressions as--ta mi deanamh _I am doing_, ta e +bualadh _he is striking_ (see page 83), are complete without any +Preposition understood; and that in such situations deanamh, bualadh, are +not infinitives or nouns, but real participles of the Present Tense. With +much deference to such authorities, I shall here give the reasons which +appear to me to support the contrary opinion. + +1. The form of the supposed Participle is invariably the same with that of +the Infinitive. + +2. If the words deanamh, bualadh, in the phrases adduced, were real +Participles, then in all similar instances, it would be not only +unnecessary, but ungrammatical, to introduce the preposition ag at all. But +this is far from being the case. In all verbs beginning with a vowel, the +preposition ag or its unequivocal representative _g_ is indispensable; as, +ta iad ag iarruidh, ta mi 'g iarruidh. Shall we say, then, that verbs +beginning with a consonant have a present participle, while those that +begin with a vowel have none? But even this distinction falls to the +ground, when it is considered that in many phrases which involve a verb +beginning with a consonant, the preposition ag stands forth to view, and +can on no account be suppressed; as, ta iad 'g a bhualadh _they are +striking him_, ta e 'g ar bualadh _he is striking us_. From these +particulars it may be inferred that the preposition ag must always precede +the infinitive, in order to complete the phrase which corresponds to the +English or Latin pres. participle; and that in those cases where the +preposition has been dropped, the omission has been owing to the rapidity +or carelessness of colloquial pronunciation. + +3. A still stronger argument, in support of the same conclusion, may be +derived from the regimen of the phrase in question. The infinitive of a +transitive verb, preceded by any preposition, always governs the noun, +which is the object of the verbal action, in the genitive. This is an +invariable rule of Gaelic Syntax; thus, ta sinn a' dol a dh' iarruidh na +spréidhe, _we are going to seek the cattle_; ta iad ag iomain na spréidhe, +_they are driving the cattle_; ta iad iar cuairteachadh na spréidhe, _they +have gathered the cattle_. This regimen can be accounted for on no other +principle, in Gaelic, than that the governing word is a noun, as the +infinitive is confessed to be. Now, it happens that the supposed participle +has the very same regimen, and governs the genitive as uniformly as the +same word would have done, when the presence of a preposition demonstrated +it to be a noun; so, ta mi bualadh an doruis, _I am knocking the door_; ta +thu deanamh an uilc, _you are doing mischief_. The inference is, that even +in these situations, the words--bualadh, deanamh, though accompanied with +no preposition, are still genuine nouns, and are nothing else than the +infinitives of their respective verbs, with the preposition ag understood +before each of them. + +4. The practice in other dialects of the Celtic, and the authority of +respectable grammarians, affords collateral support to the opinion here +defended. Gen. Vallancey, the most copious writer on Irish grammar, though +he gives the name of participle to a certain part of the Gaelic verb, +because it corresponds, in signification, to a part of the Latin verb which +has obtained that name, yet constantly exhibits this participle, not as a +single word, but a composite expression; made up of a preposition and that +part of the verb which is here called the infinitive. The phrase is fully +and justly exhibited, but it is wrong named; unless it be allowed to extend +the name of Participle to such phrases as _inter ambulandum_, [Greek: en +tôi peripatein].--Lhuyd, in his Cornish Grammar, informs us, with his usual +accuracy, that the Infinitive Mood, as in the other dialects of the +British, sometimes serves as a Substantive, as in the Latin; and by the +help of the participle _a_ [the Gaelic ag] before it, it supplies the room +of the participle of the present tense, &c. "Archæol. Brit." page 245, col. +3. This observation is strictly applicable to the Gaelic verb. The +infinitive, with the particle _ag_ before it, _supplies the room of the +present Participle_. The same judicious writer repeats this observation in +his "Introduction to the Irish or Ancient Scottish Language": The +Participle of the Present Tense is _supplied_ by the Participle _ag_ before +the Infinitive Mood; as, _ag radh_ saying, _ag cainnt_ talking, _ag +teagasg_ teaching, _ag dul_ going, &c. "Arch. Brit." page 303, col. 2. + +[61] It may appear a strange defect in the Gaelic, that its Verbs, +excepting the substantive verbs Bi, Is, have no _simple_ Present Tense. Yet +this is manifestly the case in the Scottish, Welsh, and Cornish dialects +(see "Arch. Brit." page 246, col. 1, and page 247, col. 1.); to which may +be added the Manks. Creidim _I believe_, guidheam _I pray_, with perhaps +one or two more Present Tenses, now used in Scotland, seem to have been +imported from Ireland, for their paucity evinces that they belong not to +our dialect. The want of the simple Present Tense is a striking point of +resemblance between the Gaelic and the Hebrew verb. + +I am indebted to a learned and ingenious correspondent for the following +important remark; that the want of the simple Present Tense in all the +British dialects of the Celtic, in common with the Hebrew, while the Irish +has assumed that Tense, furnishes a strong presumption that the Irish is a +dialect of later growth; that the British Gaelic is its parent tongue; and +consequently that Britain is the mother country of Ireland. + +[62] From observing the same thing happen repeatedly or habitually it is +naturally inferred that it will happen again. When an event is predicted it +is supposed that the speaker, if no other cause of his foreknowledge +appears, infers the future happening of the event from its having already +happened in many instances. Thus the Future Tense, which simply foretells, +conveys to the hearer an intimation that the thing foretold has already +taken place frequently and habitually. In Hebrew, the Future Tense is used +with precisely the same effect. In the law of Jehovah he _will_ meditate; +_i.e._, he _does_ meditate habitually. Psal. i, 2. See also Psal. xlii. 1, +Job ix. 11, xxiii. 8, 9, &c., _passim_. + +[63] Though this be the precise import of the Compound Tenses of the second +order, yet they are not strictly confined to the point of time stated +above; but are often used to denote past time indefinitely. In this way, +they supply the place of the Compound Tenses of the first order in those +verbs which have no passive participle. + +[64] See Moor. So tha 'n tigh 'g a thogail, _the house is in building_. + +[65] Téid the Fut. Negat. of Rach to _go_, has been generally written +d'théid; from an opinion, it would seem, that the full form of that Tense +is do théid. Yet as the participle _do_ is never found prefixed to the +Future Negative of any regular verb, it appears more agreeable to the +analogy of conjugation to write this tense in its simplest form téid. See +"Gael. New Test." 1767, and 1796, Mat. xiii. 28. xiv. 15. A different mode +of writing this tense has been adopted in the edition of the "Gael. Bible," +Edin. 1807, where we uniformly find dthéid, dthoir, dthig. + +[66] Throughout the verb tabhair, the syllables _abhair_ are often +contracted into _oir_; as, toir, torinnn, &c. Acts xviii. 10. Sometimes +written d'thoir, d'thoirinn; rather improperly. See note 65. + +[67] Tig rather than d'thig. See note 65. + +[68] A Pres. Aff. of this Verb, borrowed from the Irish, is often used in +the G. SS. Deiream _I say_, deir e _he saith_, deir iad _they say_. + +[69] Dubhairt, dubhradh, are contracted for do thubhairt, &c. Abairinn, +abaiream, abairear, are often contracted into abrainn, abram, abrar. + +[70] It may appear an odd peculiarity in the Gaelic, that in many of the +most common phrases, a proposition or question should thus be expressed +without the least trace of a Verb. It can hardly be said that the +Substantive Verb is _understood_, for then there would be no impropriety in +expressing it. But the fact is, that it would be completely contrary to the +idiom and usage of the language, to introduce a Substantive Verb in these +phrases. It will diminish our surprise at this peculiarity to observe that +in the ancient languages numerous examples occur of sentences, or clauses +of sentences, in which the Substantive Verb is omitted, without occasioning +any obscurity or ambiguity; and this in Prose as well as in Verse. Thus in +Hebrew; Gen. xlii. 11, 13, 14. We [are] all one man's sons--we [are] true +men--thy servants [are] twelve brethren--the youngest [is] with his +father--ye [are] spies--&c. + + [Greek: Ouk agathon polukoiraniê.]--_Iliad_, B. 204. + [Greek: kaka kerdea is' atêsi.]--_Hes._ [Greek: E. kai Ê. a]. + [Greek: egô de tisou tachupeithês.]--_Theoc. Idyl._ 7. + Et mî genus ab Jove summo.--_Virg. Æn._ VI. 123. + Varium et mutabile semper Femina.--_Æn._ IV. 569. + +Omnia semper suspecta atque sollicita; nullus locus amicitiæ. _Cic. de +Amic._ 15. + + mira feritas, foeda paupertas; non arma, non equi, non penates; +victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubile humus; sola in sagittis spes, +&c.--_Tacit. de. mor. Germ. Cap. ult._ In these and the like examples, the +Substantive Verb might have been expressed, if with less elegance, yet +without grammatical impropriety. What has been frequently done in other +languages, seems, in Gaelic, to have been adopted, in certain phrases, as +an invariable mode of speech. + +The omission of the Substantive Verb is not unknown in English; as, + + "In winter awful thou."--_Thomson._ + "A ministering angel thou."--_Scott._ + "A cruel sister she."--_Mallet._ + +[71] The effect of this Tense in narration seems to be very nearly, if not +precisely, the same with that of the Present of the Infinitive in Latin; as +in these passages: + + "----misere discedere quaerens, + _Ire_ modo ocius; interdum _consistere_; in aurem + _Dicere_ nescio quid puero."--_Hor. Sat. 1. 8. v. 9._ + + "At Danaum proceres, Agamemnoniæque phalanges + Ingenti _trepidare_ metu; pars _vertere_ terga, + Ceu quondam petiêre rates; pars _tollere_ vocem."--_Æneid. VI. 492._ + + "----nihil illi _tendere_ contra; + Sed _celerare_ fugam in sylvas, et _fidere_ nocti.'--_Æneid. IX. 378._ + +"Tarquinius _fateri_ amorem, _orare_, _miscere_ precibus minas, _versare_ +in omnes partes muliebrem animum."--_Liv. I. 58._ + +"Neque post id locorum Jugurthæ dies aut nox ulla quieta fuere: neque loco, +neque mortali cuiquam, aut tempori satis _credere_; cives, hostes, juxta +_metuere_; _circumspectare_ omnia, et omni strepitu _pavescere_; alio atque +alio loco, saepe contra decus regium, noctu _requiescere_; interdum somno +excitus, arreptis armis, tumultum _facere_; ita formidine quasi vecordia +_exagitari_."--_Sall. Bell. Jugur. 72._ + +[72] "An ceannard a mharbhadh" may be considered as the nominative to the +verb chaidh; and so in similar phrases; much in the same way as we find in +Latin, an Infinitive with an accusative before it, become the nominative to +a verb; as "_hominem_ hominis incommodo suum _augere_ commodum _est_ contra +naturam." _Cic. de. Offic._ III. 5. "Turpe _est eos_ qui bene nati sunt +turpiter _vivere_." + +[73] So in Hebrew, the article prefixed to the nouns _day_, _night_, +imports the present day or night. See Exod. xiv. 13. + +[74] Perhaps the proper Prep. in these phrases is _de_, not _do_--see the +Prepositions in the next Chap.--as we find the same Prep. similarly applied +in other languages; de nuit _by night_, John iii. 2; de nocte, Hor. Epis. +1. 2, 32; de tertia vigilia, Cæs. B. G. + +[75] These expressions are affirmed, not without reason, to refer to the +supposed destruction of the world by fire, or by water; events which were +considered as immeasurably remote. (See Smith's "Gal. Antiq." pp. 59. 60). +Another explanation has been given of dilinn, as being compounded of dith, +_want, failure_, and linn _an age_; qu. _absumptio sæculi_. + +[76] Perhaps am fàn, from fàn or fànadh _a descent_. (See Lhuyd's "Arch. +Brit." tit. x. _in loco_.) + +[77] _i.e._ anns an teach, anns an tigh, _in the house_. So in Hebrew, +[Hebrew: MBYT] _within_, Gen. vi. 14. + +[78] Deas, applied to the hand, signifies the _right hand_. So in Hebrew, +[Hebrew: YMYN] signifies the _right hand_ and the _South_. + +[79] Iar, as a Preposition, signifies _after_ or _behind_. In like manner +in Hebrew, [Hebrew: ATR] signifies _after_, or the _West_. + +[80] Probably co luath _equally quick, with equal pace_. + +[81] The probable analysis of seadh is, is é, _it is_, pronounced in one +syllable, 's e. When this syllable was used as a responsive, and not +followed by any other word; the voice, resting on the final sound, formed a +faint articulation. This was represented in writing by the gentle aspirate +_dh_; and so the word came to be written as we find it. In like manner ni +h-eadh is probably nothing else than a substitute for ni he, _it is not_. + +[82] This mode of incorporating the Prepositions with the personal pronouns +will remind the Orientalist of the Pronominal Affixes, common in Hebrew and +other Eastern languages. The close resemblance between the Gaelic and many +of the Asiatic tongues, in this particular, is of itself an almost +conclusive proof that the Gaelic bears a much closer affinity to the parent +stock than any other living European language. + +[83] "In corroboration of this (Mr. S.'s) hypothesis, I have frequently met +_de_ in old MSS. I have therefore adopted it in its proper place."--E. +O'C.'s "Grammar of the Irish Gaelic." Dublin, 1808. + +[84] In many places, this Prep. is pronounced hun. + +[85] Tar éis, on the track or footstep. See O'Brien's "Ir. Dict." _voc._ +éis. + +[86] On consulting O'Brien's "Ir. Dict." we find son translated _profit, +advantage_, cum _a fight, combat_, réir _will, desire_. From these +significations the common meaning of air son, do chum, do réir, may perhaps +be derived without much violence. + +[87] See Gaelic Poems published by Doctor Smith, pp. 8, 9, 178, 291. + +[88] There is in Gaelic a Noun cion or cionn, signifying _cause_; which +occurs in the expressions a chionn gu _because that_, cion-fàth _a reason_ +or _ground_. But this word is entirely different from ceann _end_ or _top_. + +[89] Some confusion has been introduced into the Grammar of the Latin +language, by imposing different grammatical names on words, according to +the connection in which they stood, while they retained their form and +their signification unchanged; as in calling _quod_ at one time a Relative +Pronoun, at another time a Conjunction; _post_ in one situation a +Preposition, in another, an Adverb. An expedient was thought requisite for +distinguishing, in such instances, the one part of speech from the other. +Accordingly an accent, or some such mark, was, in writing or printing, +placed over the last vowel of the word, when employed in what was reckoned +its secondary use; while, in its primary use, it was written without any +distinguishing mark. So the conjunction _quòd_ was distinguished from the +relative _quod_; and the adverb _post_ from the preposition _pòst_. The +distinction was erroneous; but the expedient employed to mark it was, at +least, harmless. The word was left unaltered and undisguised; and thus +succeeding grammarians had it the more in their power to prove that the +relative _quod_ and the conjunction _quòd_ are, and have ever been, in +reality, one and the same part of speech. It would have been justly thought +a bold and unwarrantable step, had the older grammarians gone so far as to +alter the letters of the word, in order to mark a distinction of their own +creation. + +[90] From this use of the preposition _air_ arises the _equivoque_ so +humorously turned against Mr James Macpherson by Maccodrum the poet, as +related in the Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland +on the authenticity of Osian's Poems, Append. p. 95. Macpherson asked +Maccodrum, "Am bheil dad agad air an Fhéinn?" literally, "Have you anything +on the Fingalians?" intending to inquire whether the latter had any poems +in his possession _on_ the subject of the Fingalian history and exploits. +The expression partakes much more of the English than of the Gaelic idiom. +Indeed, it can hardly be understood in Gaelic, in the sense that the +querist intended. Maccodrum, catching up the expression in its true Gaelic +acceptation, answered, with affected surprise, "Bheil dad agam air an +Fhéinn? Ma bha dad riamh agam orra, is fad o chaill mi na còirichean." +"Have I any claim on the Fingalians? If ever I had, it is long since I lost +my voucher." + +[91] This use of the preposition _ann_ in conjunction with a possessive +Pronoun, is nearly akin to that of the Hebrew [Hebrew: l], [for] in such +expressions as these: 'He hath made me [for] a father to Pharaoh, and [for] +lord of all his house;' _rinn e mi 'n am athair do Pharaoh, agus 'n am +thighearn os ceann a thighe uile_, Gen. xlv. 8. 'Thou hast taken the wife +of Uriah to be [for] thy wife;' _ghabh thu bean Uriah gu bi 'n a mnaoi +dhuit fein._ 2 Sam. xii. 10. + +[92] This syllable assumes various forms. Before a broad vowel or consonant +_an_, as, anshocair; before a small vowel or consonant _ain_, as, aineolach +_ignorant_, aindeoin _unwillingness_; before a labial _am_ or _aim_, as, +aimbeartach _poor_; sometimes with the _m_ aspirated, as, aimhleas +_detriment_, _ruin_, aimh-leathan _narrow_. + +[93] The conjunction ged loses the _d_ when written before an adjective or +a personal pronoun; as, ge binn do ghuth, _though your voice be sweet_; ge +h-àrd Jehovah, Psal. cxxxviii. 6. + +The translators of the Scriptures appear to have erred in supposing ge to +be the entire Conjunction, and that _d_ is the verbal particle do. This has +led them to write ge d' or ge do in situations in which do alters the sense +from what was intended, or is totally inadmissible. Ge do ghluais mi, Deut. +xxix. 19, is given as the translation of _though I walk_, i.e. _though I +shall walk_, but in reality it signifies _though I did walk_, for do +ghluais is past tense. It ought to be ged ghluais mi. So also ge do ghleidh +thu mi, Judg. xiii. 16, _though you detain me_, ought rather to be ged +ghleidh thu mi. Ge do ghlaodhas iad rium, Jer. xi. 11, _though they cry to +me_, is not agreeable to the Gaelic idiom. It ought rather to be ged +ghlaodh iad rium, as in Hosea, xi. 7. Ge do dh' fheudainnse muinghin bhi +agam, Phil. iii. 4, _though I might have confidence_. Here the verbal +particle is doubled unnecessarily, and surely not according to classical +precision. Let it be written ged dh' fheudainnse, and the phrase is +correct. Ge do 's eigin domh am bas fhulang, Mark xiv. 31, _though I must +suffer death_: ge do tha aireamh chloinn Israel, &c., Rom. ix. 27, _though +the number of the children of Israel be_, &c. The present tenses is and tha +never take the do before them. Ged is eigin, ged tha, is liable to no +objection. At other times, when the do appeared indisputably out of place, +the _d_ has been dismissed altogether, contrary to usual mode of +pronunciation; as, ge nach eil, Acts xvii. 27, 2 Cor. xii. 11, where the +common pronunciation requires ged nach eil. So, ge d' nach duin' an +t-aodach, &c. ge d' nach biodh ann ach an righ &c. (McIntosh's "Gael Prov." +pp. 35, 36), where the _d_ is retained even before nach, because such is +the constant way of pronouncing the phrase. + +These faulty expressions which, without intending to derogate from the high +regard due to such respectable authorities, I have thus freely ventured to +point out, seemed to have proceeded from mistaking the constituent letters +of the conjunction in question. It would appear that _d_ was originally a +radical letter of the word; that through time it came, like many other +consonants, to be aspirated; and by degrees became, in some situations, +quiescent. In Irish it is written giodh. This manner of writing the word is +adopted by the translator of Baxter's "Call." One of its compounds is +always written gidheadh. In these, the _d_ is preserved, though in its +aspirated state. In Scotland it is still pronounced, in most situations, +ged, without aspirating the _d_ at all. These circumstances put together +seem to prove the final _d_ is a radical constituent letter of this +Conjunction. + +I have the satisfaction to say that the very accurate Author of the Gaelic +Translation of the Scriptures has, with great candour, acknowledged the +justice of the criticism contained in the foregoing note. It is judged +expedient to retain it in this edition of the Grammar, lest the authority +of that excellent Translation might perpetuate a form of speech which is +confessed to be faulty. + +[94] To avoid, as far as may be, the too frequent use of _a_ by itself, +perhaps it would be better always to write the article full, an or am; and +to apply the above rules, about the elision of its letters, only to +regulate the pronunciation. Irish books, and our earlier Scottish +publications, have the article written almost always full, in situations +where, according to the latest mode of Orthography, it is mutilated. + +[95] The practice of suppressing the sound of an initial consonant in +certain situations, and supplying its place by another of a softer sound, +is carried to a much greater extent in the Irish dialect. It is termed +_eclipsis_ by the Irish grammarians, and is an evidence of a nice attention +to _euphonia_. + +[96] The Dat. case is always preceded by a Preposition, ris a' bhard, do 'n +bhard, aig na bardaibh; in declining a Noun with the article, any _Proper +Preposition_ may be supplied before the Dative case. + +[97] So in English, _Grandfather_, _Highlands_, _sometimes_; in Latin, +_Respublica_, _Decemviri_; in Italian, _Primavera_; in French, _Bonheur_, +_Malheur_, &c. from being an adjective and a noun, came to be considered as +a single complex term, or a compound word, and to be written accordingly. + +A close analogy may be traced between the Gaelic and the French in the +collocation of the Adjective. In both languages, the Adjective is +ordinarily placed after its Noun. If it be placed before its Noun, it is by +a kind of poetical inversion; dorchadas tiugh, _des tenebres epaisses_; by +inversion, tiugh dhorchadas, _d' epaisses tenebres_; fear mòr, _un homme +grand_; by inversion, in a metaphorical sense, mòr fhear, _un grand homme_. +A Numeral Adjective, in both languages, is placed before its Noun; as also +iomadh, _plusieurs_; except when joined to a proper name, where the +Cardinal is used for the Ordinal; Seumas a Ceithir, _Jaques Quatre_. + +[98] The same seems to be the case in the Cornish Language. See Lhuyd's +"Arch. Brit." p. 243, col. 3. + +When an Adjective precedes its Noun, it undergoes no change of termination; +as, thig an Tighearn a nuas le ard iolaich, _the Lord will descend with a +great shout_, 1 Thes. iv. 16; mar ghuth mor shluaigh, _as the voice of a +great multitude_, Rev. xix. 6. + +[99] Thus, bhur inntinn _your mind_, Acts xv. 24. + +[100] This, however, does not happen invariably. Where the _Sex_, though +specified, is overlooked as of small importance, the Personal or Possessive +Pronouns follow the _Gender_ of the Antecedent. See 2 Sam. xii. 3. + +[101] I am aware of the singularity of asserting the grammatical propriety +of such expressions as ciod e Uchdmhacachd? ciod e Urnuigh? as, the nouns +uchdmhacachd, urnuigh are known to be of the feminine Gender; and as this +assertion stands opposed to the respectable authority of the Editor of the +Assembly's Catechism in Gaelic, Edin. 1792, where we read, Ciod i urnuigh? +&c. The following defence of it is offered to the attentive reader. + +In every question the words which convey the interrogation must refer to +some higher genus or species than the words which express the subject of +the query. It is in the choice of the speaker to make that reference to any +genus or species he pleases. If I ask 'Who was Alexander?' the +Interrogative _who_ refers to the species _man_, of which _Alexander_, the +subject of the query, is understood to have been an individual. The +question is equivalent to 'What man was Alexander?' If I ask 'What is Man?' +the Interrogative _what_ refers to the genus of Existence or Being, of +which Man is considered as a subordinate genus or species. The question is +the same with 'What Being is Man?' I may also ask 'What was Alexander?' +Here the Interrogative _what_ refers to some genus or species of which +Alexander is conceived to have been an individual, though the particular +genus intended by the querist is left to be gathered from the tenor of the +preceding discourse. It would be improper, however, to say 'Who is man?' as +the Interrogative refers to no higher genus than that expressed by the word +_Man_. It is the same as if one should ask 'What man is Man?' + +In the question 'What is Prayer?' the object of the querist is to learn the +meaning of the term _Prayer_. The Interrogative _what_ refers to the genus +of Existence, as in the question 'What is Man?' not to the word _Prayer_, +which is the subject of the query. It is equivalent to 'What is [that thing +which is named] Prayer?' In those languages where a variety of gender is +prevalent, this reference of the Interrogative is more conspicuously +marked. A Latin writer would say '_Quid_ est Oratio*?' A Frenchman, 'Qu' +est-ce que la Prière?' These questions, in a complete form, would run thus; +'Quid est [id quod dicitur] Oratio?' 'Qu' est-ce que [l'on appelle] la +Prière?' On the same principle, and in the same sense, a Gaelic writer must +say, 'Ciod e urnuigh?' the Interrogative Ciod e referring not to urnuigh +but to some higher genus. The expression, when completed, is 'Ciod e [sin +de 'n goirear] urnuigh?' + +Is there then no case in which the Interrogative may follow the gender of +the subject? If the subject of the query be expressed, as it often is, by +_a general term, limited in its signification_ by a noun, adjective, +relative clause, &c; the reference of the Interrogative is often, though +not always not necessarily, made to _that term_ in its general acceptation, +and consequently be 'What is the Lord's Prayer?' Here the subject of the +query is not _Prayer_, but an individual of that species, denoted by the +term _prayer_ limited in its signification by another noun. The +Interrogative _what_ may refer, as in the former examples, to the genus of +Existence; or it may refer to the species _Prayer_, of which the subject of +the query is an individual. That is, I may be understood to ask either +'What is that _thing_ which is called the Lord's Prayer?' or 'What is that +_prayer_ which is called the Lord's Prayer?' A Latin writer would say, in +the former sense, 'Quid est Oratio Dominica+?' in the latter sense, +'Quaenam est Oratio Dominica?' The former of these expressions is +resolvable into 'Quid est [id quod dicitur] Oratio Dominica?' the latter +into 'Quaenam [oratio] est Oratio Dominica?' The same diversity of +expression would be used in French: 'Qu' est-ce que l'Oraison Dominicale?' +and 'Quelle est l'Oraison Dominicale?' The former resolvable into 'Qu' +est-ce que [l'on appelle] l'Oraison Dominicale? the latter into 'Quelle +[oraison] est l'Oraison Dominicale? So also in Gaelic, 'Ciod e Urnuigh an +Tighearna?' equivalent to 'Ciod e [sin de'n goirear] Urnuigh an Tighearna?' +or, which will occur oftener, 'Ciod i Urnuigh an Tighearna?' equivalent to +'Ciod i [an urnuigh sin de 'n goirear] Urnuigh an Tighearna?' + +* See a short Latin Catechism at the end of Mr Ruddiman's Latin Rudiments, +where many similar expressions occur; as 'Quid est fides? 'Quid est Lex? +Quid est Baptismus? Quid Sacramenta?' &c. + ++ So Ruddiman, 'Quid est Sacra Coena?' + +[102] The same arrangement obtains pretty uniformly in Hebrew, and seems +the natural and ordinary collocation of the Verb and its Noun in that +language. When the Noun in Hebrew is placed before the Verb, it will +generally be found that the Noun does not immediately connect with the Verb +as the Nominative to it, but rather stands in an absolute state; and that +it is brought forward in that state by itself to excite attention, and +denotes some kind of emphasis, or opposition to another Noun. Take the +following examples for illustration: Gen. i. 1, 2. 'In the beginning God +created [[Hebrew: BR' 'LHYM] in the natural order] the Heaven and the +Earth.' [Hebrew: WH'RTS HYTH]; not and the Earth was, &c., but 'and with +respect to the Earth, it was without form,' &c. Thus expressed in Gaelic: +'agus an talamh bha e gun dealbh,' &c. Gen. xviii. 33. 'And the Lord went +his way [[Hebrew: WYLK YHWH] in the natural order] as soon as he had left +communing with Abraham;' [Hebrew: W'BRHM SHB], not simply 'and Abraham +returned,' &c., but 'and Abraham--he too returned to his place.' In Gaelic, +'agus Abraham, phill esan g' aite fein.' See also Num. xxiv. 25.--Gen. iii. +12. 'And the man said, the woman whom thou gavest to be with me, [Hebrew: +HW' NTNH LY] _she_ it was that gave me of the tree, and I did eat.' Gen. +iii. 13. 'And the woman said, [Hebrew: HNCHSH HSHY'NY], not merely 'the +Serpent beguiled me,' but '_the Serpent_ was the cause; it beguiled me, and +I did eat.' Exod. xiv. 14. '_Jehovah_--he will fight for you; but as for +_you_, ye shall hold your peace.' This kind of emphasis is correctly +expressed in the Eng. translation of Psal. lx. 12, 'for he _it is that_ +shall tread down our enemies.' Without multiplying examples, I shall only +observe that it must be difficult for the English reader to conceive that +the Noun denoting the subject of a proposition, when placed after its Verb, +should be in the natural order; and when placed before its Verb, should be +in an inverted order of the words. To a person well aquainted with the +Gaelic, this idiom is familiar; and therefore it is the easier for him to +apprehend the effect of such an arrangement in any other language. For want +of attending to this peculiarity in the structure of the Hebrew, much of +that force and emphasis, which in other languages would be expressed by +various particles, but in Hebrew depend on the collocation alone, must pass +unobserved and unfelt. + +[103] I am happy to be put right, in my stricture on the above passage, by +E. O'C., author of a Gaelic Grammar, Dublin, 1808, who informs us that +_truaighe_ is here the Nominative, and _Iosa_ the Accusative case; and that +the meaning is not _Jesus took pity on them_, but _pity seized Jesus for +them_. + +[104] This construction resembles that of the Latin Infinitive preceded by +the Accusative of the Agent. + + ----Mene desistere victam, + Nec posse Italia Teucrorum avertere regem?--I. Ænid 28. + +[105] So in English, the Infinitive of a Transitive Verb is sometimes used +instead of the Present Participle, and followed by the Preposition _of_; +as, 'the woman was there gathering of sticks.' 1 Kings xvii. 10. + + -------- some sad drops + Wept at completing of the mortal sin.--"Parad. Lost." + +See more examples, Num. xiii, 25, 2 Sam. ii. 21, 2 Chron. xx. 25, xxxv. 14, +Ezek. xxxix. 12. + +[106] On the same principle it is that in some compound words, composed of +two Nouns whereof the former governs the latter in the Genitive, the former +Noun is seldom itself put in the Genitive case. Thus, ainm bean-na-bainse, +_the bride's name_; it would sound extremely harsh to say ainm +mna-na-bainse; clach ceann-an-teine, not clach cinn-an-teine, the stone +which supports a hearth fire. + +[107] These examples suggest, and seem to authorise a special use of this +idiom of Gaelic Syntax, which, if uniformly observed, might contribute much +to the perspicuity and precision of many common expressions. When a +compound term occurs, made up of a Noun and an Infinitive governed by that +Noun, it often happens that this term itself governs another Noun in the +Genitive. Let the two parts of the compound term be viewed separately. If +it appear that the subsequent Noun is governed by the _former_ part of the +compound word, then the latter part should remain regularly in the Genitive +Case. But if the subsequent Noun be governed by the _latter_ part of the +compound word, then, agreeably to the construction exemplified in the above +passages, that latter part, which is here supposed to be an Infinitive, +should fall back into the Nominative Case. Thus tigh-coimh_i_d an Righ, +_the King's store house_, where the Noun Righ is governed by tigh, the +former term of the compound word; but tigh comh_ea_d an ionmhais, John +viii. 20, _the house for keeping the treasure_, where ionmhais is governed +by coimhead, which is therefore put in the Nominative instead of the +Genitive. So luchd-coimh_i_d, Matt. xxviii. 4, when no other Noun is +governed; but fear-coimh_ea_d a' phriosuin, Acts, xvi. 27, 36, where the +last Noun is governed in the Genitive by coimh_ea_d, which is therefore put +in the Nominative. So also fear-coimh_i_d, Psal. cxxi. 3, but +fear-coimh_ea_d Israeil, Psal. cxxi. 4. Edin. 1799. Tigh-bearr_ai_dh nam +buachaillean, _the shearing-house belonging to the shepherds_, 2 King, x. +12, but tigh-bearr_a_dh nan caorach, _the house for shearing the sheep_. +Luchd-brath_ai_dh an Righ _the King's spies_; but luchd-brath_a_dh an Righ, +_the betrayers of the King_. Luchd-mort_ai_dh Heroid, _assassins employed +by Herod_; but luchd-mort_a_dh Eoin, _the murderers of John_. + +I am aware that this distinction has been little regarded by the +translators of the Scriptures. It appeared, however, worthy of being +suggested, on account of its evident utility in point of precision, and +because it is supported by the genius and practice of the Gaelic language. + +[108] For this reason, there seems to be an impropriety in writing chum a +losgaidh, 1 Cor. xiii. 3, instead of chum a losgadh. + +[109] The same peculiarity in the use of the Article takes place in Hebrew, +and constitutes a striking point of analogy in the structure of the two +languages. See _Buxt. Thes. Gram. Heb. Lib. II. Cap. V._ + +[110] This solecism is found in the Irish as well as in the Scottish Gaelic +translation. The Manks translation has avoided it. In the Irish version and +in the Scottish Gaelic version of 1767, a similar instance occurs in Acts, +ii. 20, _an_ la mor agus oirdheirc sin _an_ Tighearna. In the Scottish +edition of 1796, the requisite correction is made by omitting the first +Article. It is omitted likewise in the Manks N. T. On the other hand, the +Article, which had been rightly left out in the Edition of 1767, is +improperly introduced in the Edition of 1796, in 1 Cor. xi. 27, an cupan so +an Tighearna. It is proper to mention that, in the passage last quoted, the +first article _an_ had crept, by mistake, into a part of the impression +1796, but was corrected in the remaining part. + +[111] The inserted _m_ or _n_ is generally written with an apostrophe +before it, thus gu'm, gu'n. This would indicate that some vowel is here +suppressed in writing. But if no vowel ever stood in the place of this +apostrophe, which seems to be the fact, the apostrophe itself has been +needlessly and improperly introduced. + +[112] I much doubt the propriety of joining the Conjunction ged to the Fut. +Affirm.; as, ge do gheibh na h-uile dhaoine oilbheum, _though all men shall +be offended_, Matt. xxvi. 33. It should rather have been, ged fhaigh na +h-uile dhaoine, &c. The Fut. Subj. seems to be equally improper; as, ge do +ghlaodhas iad rium, _though they shall cry to me_, Jer. xi. 21, Edit. 1786. +Rather, ged ghlaodh iad rium, as in Hosea, xi. 7. So also, ged eirich +dragh, 's ged bhagair bàs, _though trouble shall arise, and though death +shall threaten_. Gael. Paraph. xlvii. 7. Edin. 1787. See page 134. Note 93. + +[113] The terminations _air_, _oir_, seem from their signification as well +as form, to be nothing else than fear _man_, in its aspirated form fhear. +From these terminations are derived the Latin terminations _or_, orator, +doctor, &c., _arius_ sicarius, essedarius, &c.; the French _eur_, vengeur, +createur, &c.; _aire_, commissaire, notaire, &c., _ter_, chevalier, +charretier, &c.; the English _er_, maker, lover, &c., _ary_, prebendary, +antiquary, &c., _eer_, volunteer, &c. + +[114] Timcheal na macraidhe _beside the young men_, Lhuyd, O'Brien. voc. +timcheal. This passage proves macraidh to be a singular Noun of the fem. +gender, not, as might be thought, the Plural of mac. So laochruidh, +madraidh, &c., may rather be considered as collective Nouns of the singular +Number than as plurals. + +[115] The same termination having the same import, is found in the French +words cavalerie, infanterie, and in the English cavalry, infantry, +yeomanry. + +[116] In the Gaelic N. Test, the _Gentile_ Nouns [Greek: Korinthios, +Galatai, Ephesioi], are rendered Corintianaich, Galatianaich, Ephesianaich. +Would it not be agreeable to the analogy of Gaelic derivation to write +Corintich, Galataich, Ephesich, subjoining the Gaelic termination alone to +the Primitive, rather than by introducing the syllable _an_, to form a +Derivative of a mixed and redundant structure, partly vernacular, partly +foreign? The word Samaritanaich, John iv. 40, is remarkably redundant, +having no fewer than three _Gentile_ Terminations. From [Greek: Samareia] +is formed, agreeably to the Greek mode of derivation, [Greek: Samareitai]. +To this the Latins added their own termination, and wrote _Samaritani_; +which the Irish lengthened out still further into Samaritanaich. The proper +Gaelic derivation would be Samaraich, like Elamaich, Medich, Persich, &c. +The Irish Galiléanach is, in the Scottish Translation 1796, properly +changed into Galiléach, Acts v. 37. + +[117] The termination _ail_ is a contraction for amhuil _like_. In Irish +this termination is generally written full, fearamhuil, geanamhuil, &c. +From the Gaelic termination _ail_, is derived the Latin termination _alis_, +fatalis, hospitalis, &c., whence the English _al_, final, conditional, &c. +See page 33. Note 25. + +[118] Two or three exceptions from this rule occur; as the Plurals _dée +gods_, mnai _women_, lai _days_. But these are so irregular in their form +as well as spelling, that they ought rather to be rejected altogether, and +their place supplied by the common Plurals diathan, mnathan, lathan or +lathachan. + +[119] As if we should write in English impious, impotent, without a hyphen; +but im-penitent, im-probable, with a hyphen. + +[120] O beautiful ringlet. + +[121] The above is the passage so often referred to in the controversy +concerning the antiquity of Ossian's Poems. It was natural enough for the +zealous Bishop to speak disparagingly of anything which appeared to him to +divert the minds of the people from those important religious truths to +which he piously wished to direct their most serious attention. But +whatever may be thought of his judgment, his testimony is decisive as to +the existence of traditional histories concerning Fingal and his people; +and proves that the rehearsal of those compositions was a common and +favourite entertainment with the people throughout the Highlands at the +time when he lived. + +[122] _i.e._, the Hebrides. + + * * * * * + + +Corrections made to printed original. + +page 17, "slat a rod": 'flat ...' in original. + +page 31, "dligheach lawful,": 'dlighecah' in original. + +page 34, "beo and ail": 'and and' over line break in original. + +page 48, "iasg m. _fish_, g. s. eisg;": 'g. s. eifg' in original. + +page 50, "n. p. and g. p. 'leabraichean'--When the nominative plural is +twofold, the genitive is so too; as 'fear' n. a man," these two line +missing in the 1892 edition are re-instated from that of 1812. + +ibid, "rather than phairiseachaibh": 'phairseachaibh' in original (1812 +edition: phairlseachaibh). + +page 53, "mathair f. a mother, g. s. mathar": 'g. s. mathair' in original. + +page 60, "300 Tri cheud fear.": '309' in original. + +page 61, "120 Am ficheadamh fear thar cheud.": '200' in original. + +page 69, "3 Do bhuail e": 'bhuall' in original. + +page 89, "The Future marks future time": 'makes future time' in original +(1812 edition: marks). + +page 90, "bha mi ag bualadh an dé": 'buailadh' in original. + +page 116, "Tar, Thar, over, across.": 'accross' in original. + +page 134, "Bheil fhios, 'l fhios": ''l fhois' in original (1812 edition: +fhios). + +page 145, "D. A', 'n Chlarsaich fhonnmhoir": 'fhonnoir' in original, there +is no explanation why the 'mh' should be dropped. + +page 146, "Perhaps a distinction ought to be made": 'ought to made' in +original. + +page 162, "commonly put in the Comparative form": 'Comparitive' in +original. + +page 176, "Aobhach": 'Aobhachh' in original. + +page 176, "Extract from Bishop Carsuel's Gaelic translation", etc: this +appears in fact to be the Gaelic version of the following English section +concerning the Poems of Ossian. + +Footnote 89: "placed over the last vowel": 'the the' on footnote break +across two pages in original. + +Footnote 93: "an adjective or a personal pronoun": 'of' for 'or' in +original (1812 edition: or) + +Footnote 102: "Gen. i. 1, 2. 'In the beginning ...'": 'Gen. i. 1, 5' in +original. + +Footnote 107: "made up of a Noun and an Infinitive": 'Infinite' in original +(1812 edition: Infinitive) + +Footnote 110: "improperly introduced in the Edition of 1796": 'properly' in +original (1812 edition: improperly) + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Elements of Gaelic Grammar, by Alexander Stewart + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR *** + +***** This file should be named 28766-8.txt or 28766-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/7/6/28766/ + +Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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vertical-align: middle } + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Elements of Gaelic Grammar, by Alexander Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Elements of Gaelic Grammar + +Author: Alexander Stewart + +Release Date: May 12, 2009 [EBook #28766] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h2>ELEMENTS</h2> + +<p class="cenhead">OF</p> + +<h2>GAELIC GRAMMAR</h2> + +<h3>IN FOUR PARTS</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">I. OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY</p> + +<p class="cenhead">II. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH</p> + +<p class="cenhead">III. OF SYNTAX</p> + +<p class="cenhead">IV. OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION</p> + +<p class="cenhead">BY</p> + +<h3>ALEXANDER STEWART</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL AT DINGWALL</span><br /> +<span class="scac">HONORARY MEMBER OF THE HIGHLAND SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND</span></p> + +<h3>Royal Celtic Society Edition.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">FOURTH EDITION REVISED.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">WITH PREFACE BY THE REV. DR M<sup>c</sup>LAUCHLAN</p> + +<h2>EDINBURGH</h2> + +<h2>JOHN GRANT, GEORGE IV. BRIDGE</h2> + +<h3>1892</h3> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page iii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageiii"></a>{iii}</span></p> + +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>For several years the Grammar of the Gaelic language by the Rev. Dr + Stewart of Moulin has been out of print. This has been a source of regret + to scholars and students of that tongue. Not but that there are other + Grammars of real value, which it would be unjust either to ignore or to + depreciate, and which have served, and are serving, an excellent purpose + in connection with Celtic Literature. But the Grammar of Dr Stewart has + peculiar features of its own which give it a permanent value. It is + distinguished by its simplicity, conciseness, and philosophical accuracy. + No Grammar of any language bears on its pages the marks of real and + profound scholarship, in so far as it goes, more than does the Grammar of + Dr Stewart. One cannot read a sentence of it without seeing how carefully + he had collected his materials, and with what judgment, caution, and + sagacity he has compared them and drawn his conclusions. His discussions + upon the Article, the Noun, the Verb, and the Preposition, are ample + evidence of this. It is no doubt true that a much fuller discussion is, + with the more abundant resources of modern scholarship, <!-- Page iv + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageiv"></a>{iv}</span>competent and + desirable, but, so far as he goes, Dr Stewart's treatment of the subject + is of a masterly character.</p> + + <p>That there are defects to be found in the work is very true. On the + subject of Syntax his disquisitions are deficient in fulness, and there + is a want of grammatical exercises throughout. It was at first thought + desirable by the publishers and their advisers to remedy these defects by + introducing fuller notices on the subject of Syntax, and a considerable + number of grammatical exercises from other sources open to them. But it + was finally deemed best in every view of it to give Stewart's work just + as he had left it, and that is done here with the exception of a list of + subscribers' names in the introduction. Messrs Maclachlan and Stewart are + doing the literary community a service in republishing this volume, and + thanks are specially due to the Royal Celtic Society of Edinburgh, a + society which has done much to foster the interests of education in the + Highlands, and which has given substantial aid towards the accomplishment + of this undertaking.</p> + + <p class="author"><span class="sc">Thos. M<sup>c</sup>Lauchlan</span>.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Edinburgh</span>, <i>1st August 1876.</i></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"></a>{v}</span></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents." title="Contents."> +<tr><td colspan="3"> <span class="sc">Introduction.</span> </td><td align="right"> <span class="scac">PAGE</span><br /> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <br />PART I.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> Of Pronunciation and Orthography, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page1">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <br />PART II.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <span class="scac">OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> I.—</td><td>Of the Article, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page37">37</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> II.—</td><td>Of Nouns, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Of Gender, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Of Declension, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page43">43</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> III.—</td><td>Of Adjectives, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page55">55</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Of Numeral Adjectives, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page59">59</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> IV.—</td><td>Of Pronouns, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page61">61</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> V.—</td><td>Of Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page65">65</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Formation of the Tenses, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page76">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Use and import of the Moods and Tenses, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page85">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Irregular Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page95">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Defective Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page99">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Reciprocating state of Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Impersonal use of Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page105">105</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Auxiliary Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> VI.—</td><td>Of Adverbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page109">109</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> VII.—</td><td>Of Prepositions, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"> </td><td>Idiomatic phrases, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page125">125</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> VIII.—</td><td>Of Conjunctions, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page134">134</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> IX.—</td><td>Of Interjections, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> +<!-- Page vi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi"></a>{vi}</span> + <br />PART III.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <span class="scac">OF SYNTAX.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> I.—</td><td>Of Concord, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page137">137</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 1. Of the agreement of the Article with a Noun, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page137">137</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 2. Of the agreement of an Adjective with a Noun, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 3. Of the agreement of a Pronoun with its Antecedent, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 4. Of the agreement of a Verb with its Nominative, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 5. Of the agreement of one Noun with another, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page152">152</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> II.—</td><td>Of Government, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 1. Of the Government of Nouns, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 2. Of the Government of Adjectives, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 3. Of the Government of Verbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 4. Of the Government of Adverbs, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 5. Of the Government of Prepositions, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> Sect. 6. Of the Government of Conjunctions, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page162">162</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <br />PART IV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> <span class="scac">OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> I.—</td><td>Of Derivation, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td> <span class="sc">Chap.</span></td><td align="right"> II.—</td><td>Of Composition, </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> Exercises in Reading, &c., </td><td align="right"> <a href="#page175">175</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii"></a>{vii}</span></p> + +<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>The utility of a Grammar of the Scottish Gaelic will be variously + appreciated. Some will be disposed to deride the vain endeavour to + restore vigour to a decaying superannuated language. Those who reckon the + extirpation of the Gaelic a necessary step toward that general extension + of the English which they deem essential to the political interest of the + Highlands, will condemn every project which seems likely to retard its + extinction. Those who consider that there are many parts of the + Highlands, where the inhabitants can, at present, receive no useful + knowledge whatever except through the channel of their native tongue, + will probably be of opinion that the Gaelic ought at least to be + tolerated. Yet these too may condemn as useless, if not ultimately + detrimental, any attempt to cultivate its powers, or to prolong its + existence. Others will entertain a different opinion. They will judge + from experience, as well as from the nature of the case, that no measure + merely of a literary kind will prevail to hinder the progress of the + English language over the Highlands; while general convenience and + emolument, not to mention private emulation and vanity, conspire to + facilitate its introduction, and prompt the natives to its acquisition. + They <!-- Page viii --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pageviii"></a>{viii}</span>will perceive at the same time, that + while the Gaelic continues to be the common speech of + multitudes,—while the knowledge of many important facts, of many + necessary arts, of morals, of religion, and of the laws of the land, can + be conveyed to them only by means of this language,—it must be of + material service to preserve it in such a state of cultivation and + purity, as that it may be fully adequate to these valuable ends; in a + word, that while it is a living language, it may answer the purpose of a + living language.</p> + + <p>To those who wish for an uniformity of speech over the whole kingdom, + it may not be impertinent to suggest one remark. The more that the human + mind is enlightened, the more desirous it becomes of farther acquisitions + in knowledge. The only channel through which the rudiments of knowledge + can be conveyed to the mind of a remote Highlander is the Gaelic + language. By learning to read and to understand what he reads, in his + native tongue, an appetite is generated for those stores of science which + are accessible to him only through the medium of the English language. + Hence an acquaintance with the English is found to be necessary for + enabling him to gratify his desire after further attainments. The study + of it becomes, of course, an object of importance; it is commenced, and + prosecuted with increasing diligence. These premises seem to warrant a + conclusion which might at first appear paradoxical, that, by cultivating + the Gaelic, you effectually, though indirectly, promote the study and + diffuse the knowledge of the English.</p> + + <p>To public teachers it is of the highest moment that the medium through + which their instructions are communicated be properly adapted to that + use, and that they be enabled to avail themselves of it in the fittest + manner. A language destitute of grammatical regularity can possess + neither <!-- Page ix --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pageix"></a>{ix}</span>perspicuity nor precision, and must + therefore be very inadequate to the purpose of conveying one's thoughts. + The Gaelic is in manifest danger of falling into this discreditable + condition, from the disuse of old idioms and distinctions, and the + admission of modern corruptions, unless means be applied to prevent its + degenerating. It is obvious that a speaker cannot express himself with + precision without a correct knowledge of grammar. When he is conscious of + his ignorance in this respect, he must deliver himself sometimes + ambiguously or erroneously, always with diffidence and hesitation, + whereas one who has an accurate knowledge of the structure and + phraseology of the language he speaks, will seldom fail to utter his + thoughts with superior confidence, energy, and effect.</p> + + <p>A competent degree of this knowledge is requisite to the hearer also, + to enable him to apprehend the full import and the precise force of the + words of the speaker. Among the readers of Gaelic, who are every day + becoming more numerous, those only who have studied it grammatically are + qualified to understand accurately what they read, and to explain it + distinctly to others. Yet it cannot be denied that comparatively few ever + arrive at a correct, or even a tolerable knowledge of grammar, without + the help of a treatise composed for the purpose. Whoever, therefore, + allows that the Gaelic must be employed in communicating to a large body + of people the knowledge of revealed Truth and the way of eternal Life, + will readily admit the extensive utility of investigating and unfolding + its grammatical principles. Impressed with this conviction, I have been + induced to offer to the public the following attempt to develop the + grammar of the Scottish Gaelic.</p> + + <p>While I have endeavoured to render this treatise useful to those who + wish to improve the knowledge of Gaelic which <!-- Page x --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pagex"></a>{x}</span>they already possess, I + have also kept in view the gratification of others, who do not understand + the Gaelic, but yet may be desirous to examine the structure and + properties of this ancient language. To serve both these purposes, I have + occasionally introduced such observations on the analogy between the + Gaelic idiom and that of some other tongues, particularly the Hebrew, as + a moderate knowledge of these enabled me to collect. The Irish dialect of + the Gaelic is the nearest cognate of the Scottish Gaelic. An intimate + acquaintance with its vocables and structure, both ancient and modern, + would have been of considerable use. This I cannot pretend to have + acquired. I have not failed, however, to consult, and to derive some + advantage from such Irish philologists as were accessible to me, + particularly O'Molloy, O'Brien, Vallancey, and Lhuyd. To these very + respectable names I have to add that of the Rev. Dr Neilson, author of + "An Introduction to the Irish Language," Dublin, 1808, and E. O'C., + author of "A Grammar of the Gaelic Language," Dublin, 1808; to the latter + of whom I am indebted for some good-humoured strictures, and some + flattering compliments, which, however unmerited, it were unhandsome not + to acknowledge. I know but one publication professedly on the subject of + Gaelic grammar written by a Scotsman<a name="footnotetag1" + href="#footnote1"><sup>[1]</sup></a>. I have consulted it also, but in + this quarter I have no obligations to acknowledge.</p> + + <p>With respect to my literary countrymen who are proficients in the + Gaelic, and who may cast an eye on this volume, less with a view to learn + than to criticise, while I profess a due deference to their judgment, and + declare my anxiety to obtain their favourable suffrage, I must take the + liberty to entreat their attention to the following considerations.</p> + +<p><!-- Page xi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexi"></a>{xi}</span></p> + + <p>The subject of Universal Grammar has been examined in modern times + with a truly philosophical spirit, and has been settled on rational and + stable principles; yet, in applying these principles to explain the + grammar of a particular language, the divisions, the arrangements, and + the rules to be given are, in a good measure, mechanical and arbitrary. + One set of rules may be equally just with another. For what is it that + grammatical rules do? They bring into view the various parts, + inflections, or, as they may be termed, the <i>phenomena</i> of a + language, and class them together in a certain order. If these + <i>phenomena</i> be all brought forward, and stated according as they + actually appear in the language, the rules may be said to be both just + and complete. Different sets of rules may exhibit the same things in a + different order, and yet may all be equally just. The superiority seems, + on a comparison, to belong to that system which follows most nearly the + order of nature, or the process of the mind in forming the several + inflections; or rather, perhaps, to that system which, from its + simplicity, or clear and comprehensive arrangement, is most fitted to + assist the memory in acquiring and retaining the parts of speech with + their several inflections.</p> + + <p>In distributing the various parts of language into their several + classes, and imposing names on them, we ought always to be guided by the + nature of that language, and to guard against adopting, with + inconsiderate servility, the distributions and technical terms of + another. This caution is the more necessary because, in our researches + into the grammar of any particular tongue, we are apt to follow + implicitly the order of the Latin grammar, on which we have been long + accustomed to fix our attention, and which we are ever ready to erect + into a model for the grammar of all languages. To force the several parts + of speech into moulds formed for the <!-- Page xii --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pagexii"></a>{xii}</span>idioms of the Latin + tongue, and to frame them so as to suit a nomenclature adapted to the + peculiarities of Latin grammar, must have the effect of disguising or + concealing the peculiarities, and confounding the true distinctions, + which belong to the language under discussion.</p> + + <p>Although, in treating of Gaelic grammar, the caution here suggested + ought never to be forgotten, yet it is needless to reject + indiscriminately all the forms and terms introduced into the grammar of + other languages. Where the same classifications which have been employed + in the grammar of the Latin, or of any other well-known tongue, will suit + the Gaelic also, it is but a convenient kind of courtesy to adopt these, + and apply to them the same names which are already familiar to us.</p> + + <p>In stating the result of my researches into Gaelic grammar, I have + endeavoured to conform to these general views. The field of investigation + was wide, and almost wholly untrodden. My task was not to fill up or + improve the plan of any former writer, but to form a plan for myself. In + the several departments of my subject that distribution was adopted + which, after various trials, appeared the most eligible. When there were + terms already in use in the grammars of other languages that suited + tolerably well the divisions which it was found requisite to make, I + chose to adopt these, rather than load the treatise with novel or + uncommon terms. If their import was not sufficiently obvious already, it + was explained, either by particular description, or by reference to the + use of these terms in other grammars. In some instances it was found + necessary to employ less common terms, but in the choice of these I + endeavoured to avoid the affectation of technical nicety. I am far from + being persuaded that I am so fortunate as to have hit on the best + possible plan. I am certain that it must <!-- Page xiii --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiii"></a>{xiii}</span>be far from complete. + To such charges a first essay must necessarily be found liable. Still + there is room to hope that the work may not prove wholly useless or + unacceptable. Imperfect as it is, I may be allowed to think I do a + service of its kind to my countrymen by frankly offering the fruits of my + labour to such as may choose to make use of them. It has been, if I + mistake not, the misfortune of Gaelic grammar that its ablest friends + have done nothing directly in its support, because they were apprehensive + that they could not do everything.</p> + + <p>I confess that my circumscribed knowledge of the varieties of dialect + used in different parts of the Highlands, may have left me unacquainted + with some genuine Gaelic idioms which ought to be noticed in a work of + this kind. The same cause may have led me to assert some things in too + general terms, not being sufficiently informed concerning the exceptions + which may be found in use in some particular districts. I respectfully + invite, and will thankfully receive, the correction of any person whose + more accurate and extensive information enables him to supply my + omissions, or to rectify my mistakes.</p> + + <p>In a few particulars I have differed from some of the highest living + authorities,—I mean those gentlemen whose superior abilities are so + conspicuous in the masterly translation of the sacred Scriptures with + which the Highlands of Scotland are now blessed.<a name="footnotetag2" + href="#footnote2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> Here I have been careful to <!-- + Page xiv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiv"></a>{xiv}</span>state + the grounds on which my judgment was formed. In doing this, I would + always be understood to advance my opinion and propose my reasons with + the view of suggesting them to the consideration of my countrymen, rather + than in the expectation of having my conclusions universally sustained + and adopted.</p> + + <p>Among my grammatical readers, it is probable that some may have formed + to themselves arrangements on the subjects different from mine. Of these + I have to request that they do not form a hasty judgment of the work from + a partial inspection of it, nor condemn it merely because it may differ + from their preconceived schemes. Let them indulge me with a patient + perusal of the whole, and a candid comparison of the several parts of the + system with each other. To a judicious critic, some faults and many + defects may appear, and several improvements will occur. On this + supposition, I have one request more to make: that he join his efforts + with mine in serving a common cause, interesting to our country, and dear + to every patriotic Highlander.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page xv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexv"></a>{xv}</span></p> + +<h3>ADVERTISEMENT</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">TO THE</p> + +<h2>SECOND EDITION.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>In preparing a Second Edition of the following treatise, the author + has endeavoured to avail himself of every assistance in his power, from + books, observation, and the communications of some literary friends, to + whom he is indebted for several judicious remarks. In comparing the + opinions of different critics, it was not to be expected that all should + be found to agree together. It sometimes happened that one approved what + another would have rejected. If the author has not adopted every hint + that was offered him, but used the privilege of exercising his own + judgment, the responsibility must rest with himself. He hopes those + gentlemen who most obligingly favoured him with their remarks will + forgive him for mentioning their names, for he is unwilling to withhold + from the public the satisfaction of knowing that he has had the best + assistance which his country could afford him in compiling and modelling + his work. He thankfully acknowledges his obligations to the Rev. Dr + Robertson, of Callander; Dr Graham, of Aberfoyle; Dr Stuart, of Luss; Dr + Macleod, of Kilmarnock; and Mr Irvine, of Little Dunkeld.</p> + + <p>From these sources of emendation, omissions have been <!-- Page xvi + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexvi"></a>{xvi}</span>supplied, + idiomatic phrases have been collected and inserted, some alterations have + been made by simplifying or compressing particular parts, and new + examples and illustrations have been introduced throughout, according as + the advantages which the author enjoyed enabled him to extend his + knowledge of the language, and served to correct, or to confirm, his + former judgments. He thought it might be acceptable to Gaelic scholars to + have a few lessons subjoined as exercises in translating and analysing. + For this purpose he has selected some specimens of original prose + composition, extracted from unpublished manuscripts, and from the oldest + Gaelic books that are known to be extant. These specimens, short as they + are, may suffice to exhibit something of the powers and elegances of the + language in its native purity, unmixed with foreign words and idioms, as + well as to show the manner in which it was written two or three centuries + ago.</p> + + <p>The present edition owes its existence to the generous patronage of + Sir John Macgregor Murray of Lanrick, Bart., to whom the author is happy + in avowing his obligations for the unsolicited and liberal encouragement + given him in the execution and publication of his work. To the same + gentleman he is indebted for the honour of being permitted here to record + the names of those patriotic sons of Caledonia who, in concert with the + honourable baronet, and at his suggestion, though residing in the remote + provinces of India, yet mindful of their country's fame, contributed a + liberal sum of money for promoting Celtic literature, more especially for + publishing the poems of Ossian in their original language. It is owing, + in a principal degree, to their munificent aid, that the anxious + expectation of the public has been at last so richly gratified by Sir + John Sinclair's elegant and elaborate edition of the poems of that tender + and lofty bard.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>{1}</span></p> + +<h2>ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<h3>PART I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY.</p> + + <p>The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, + h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e, i, o, + u; the rest consonants.</p> + + <p>In explaining the powers of the letters, and of their several + combinations, such obstacles lie in the way that complete success is not + to be expected. In order to explain, in writing, the sounds of a + particular language, the only obvious method is to represent them by the + letters commonly employed to exhibit similar sounds in some well-known + living language. But there are sounds in the Gaelic to which there are + none perfectly similar in English, nor perhaps in any modern European + tongue. Besides, the same combination of letters does not invariably + represent the same sound in one age that it did in a former, or that it + may do in the next. And this may be equally true of the letters of the + Gaelic alphabet, whose powers are to be taught; and of the letters of any + other language, by whose sounds the powers of the former are to be + explained. A diversity of pronunciation is very distinguishable also in + different districts of the Highlands of Scotland, even in uttering the + same words written in the same manner. Though the powers of the letters, + then, may be explained to a certain degree of accuracy, yet much will + still remain to be learned by the information of the ear alone. <!-- Page + 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page2"></a>{2}</span></p> + + <p>Although the chief use of the vowels be to represent the <i>vocal + sounds</i> of speech, and that of the consonants to represent its + <i>articulations</i>, yet, as in many languages, so in Gaelic, the + consonants sometimes serve to modify the sound of the vowels with which + they are combined; while, on the other hand, the vowels often qualify the + sound of the consonants by which they are preceded or followed.</p> + + <p>It may not appear obvious at first sight how a vowel should be + employed, not to represent a vocal sound, but to modify an articulation. + Yet examples are to be found in modern languages. Thus, in the English + words, George, sergeant, the <i>e</i> has no other effect than to give + <i>g</i> its soft sound; and in guest, guide, the <i>u</i> only serves to + give <i>g</i> its hard sound. So in the Italian words giorno, giusto, and + many others, the <i>i</i> only qualifies the sound of the preceding + consonant. The same use of the vowels will be seen to take place + frequently in Gaelic orthography.</p> + + <p>Besides the common division of the letters into Vowels and Consonants, + it is found convenient to adopt some further subdivisions.</p> + + <p>The Vowels are divided into <i>broad</i> and <i>small</i>: a, o, u, + are called <i>broad</i> vowels; e, i, <i>small</i> vowels.</p> + + <p>The Consonants are divided into <i>Mutes</i> and <i>Liquids</i>: + <i>Mutes</i>, b, c, d, f, g, m, p, t; <i>Liquids</i>, l, n, r, s<a + name="footnotetag3" href="#footnote3"><sup>[3]</sup></a>. They are also + divided into <i>Labials</i>, <i>Palatals</i>, and <i>Linguals</i>, so + named from the organs employed in pronouncing them: <i>Labials</i>, b, f, + m, p; <i>Palatals</i>, c, g; <i>Linguals</i>, d, l, n, r, s, t.</p> + + <p>The aspirate <i>h</i> is not included in any of these divisions<a + name="footnotetag4" href="#footnote4"><sup>[4]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"></a>{3}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS<a name="footnotetag5" href="#footnote5"><sup>[5]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>All the vowels are sometimes long, sometimes short. A long vowel is + often marked with an accent, especially when the <i>quantity</i> of the + vowel determines the meaning of the word; as, bàs <i>death</i>, sàil + <i>the heel</i>, càraid <i>a pair</i>, rìs <i>again</i>, mò <i>more</i>, + lòn <i>a marsh</i>; which are distinguished by the accent alone from bas + <i>the palm</i> of the hand, sail <i>a beam</i>, caraid <i>a friend</i>, + ris <i>to</i>, lon <i>the elk</i>.</p> + + <p>All the vowels, but especially the broad ones, have somewhat of a + nasal sound when preceded or followed by m, mh, n, nn. No vowels are + doubled in the same syllable like <i>ee</i>, <i>oo</i>, in English.</p> + + <p>In almost all polysyllables, excepting some words compounded with a + preposition, the accent falls on the first syllable<a name="footnotetag6" + href="#footnote6"><sup>[6]</sup></a>. The other syllables are short and + unaccented, and the vowels in that situation have in general the same + short obscure sound. Hence it happens that the broad vowels in these + syllables are often used indiscriminately.</p> + + <p>There are no quiescent final vowels.</p> + +<h3>A.</h3> + + <p>A has three sounds.</p> + + <p>1. The first is both long and short; long, like <i>a</i> in the + English words <i>far</i>, <i>star</i>; as, àr <i>slaughter</i>, àth <i>a + ford</i>, gràdh, <!-- Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page4"></a>{4}</span><i>love</i>, sàruich <i>oppress</i>; short, + like <i>a</i> in <i>that</i>; as, cath <i>a battle</i>, alt <i>a + joint</i>; abuich <i>ripe</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Both long and short, before <i>dh</i> and <i>gh</i>. This sound has + none like it in English. Long, as, adhbhar <i>a cause</i>, adhradh + <i>worship</i>; short, as, lagh <i>a law</i>, magh <i>a field</i>, adharc + <i>a horn</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Short and obscure, like <i>e</i> in <i>mother</i>; as, an, a + <i>the</i>, ar <i>our</i>, ma <i>if</i>, and in the plural termination a + or an.</p> + +<h3>E.</h3> + + <p><i>E</i> has three sounds.</p> + + <p>1. Both long and short: long, like <i>e</i> in <i>where, there</i>; + as, è, sè <i>he</i>, rè <i>during</i>. This <i>e</i> is generally marked + with a grave accent. Short, like <i>e</i> in <i>met</i>; as, le + <i>with</i>, leth <i>half</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Long, as, ré <i>the moon</i>, cé <i>the earth</i>, and dé + <i>yesterday</i>. This <i>e</i> is commonly marked with an acute + accent.</p> + + <p>3. Short, like <i>e</i> in <i>mother</i>; as, duine <i>a man</i>, + ceannuichte <i>bought</i>.</p> + +<h3>I.</h3> + + <p><i>I</i> has two sounds.</p> + + <p>1. Both long and short, like <i>ee</i> in <i>seem</i>: long, as, mìn + <i>smooth</i>, righ <i>a king</i>; short, as, min <i>meal</i>, crith + <i>trembling</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Short and obscure, like <i>i</i> in <i>this</i>; as, is <i>am</i>, + <i>art</i>, &c.</p> + +<h3>O.</h3> + + <p><i>O</i> has three sounds.</p> + + <p>1. Both long and short: long, somewhat like <i>o</i> in <i>more</i>; + as, mòr <i>great</i>, òr <i>gold</i>, dòchas <i>expectation</i>; short, + like <i>o</i> in <i>hot</i>; as, mo <i>my</i>, do <i>thy</i>, dochann + <i>harm</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Both long and short: long, nearly like <i>o</i> in <i>old</i>; as, + lom <i>bare</i>, toll <i>a hole</i>; short, as, lomadh <i>making + bare</i>, tolladh <i>boring</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Both long and short, like (2) a<a name="footnotetag7" + href="#footnote7"><sup>[7]</sup></a>: long, as, foghlum <i>to learn</i>; + short, as, roghuinn <i>choice</i>, logh <i>to forgive</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"></a>{5}</span></p> + +<h3>U.</h3> + + <p><i>U</i> has one sound, both long and short, like <i>oo</i> in + <i>fool</i>: long, as, ùr <i>fresh</i>, ùraich <i>to renew</i>; short, + as, ubh <i>an egg</i>, urras <i>a surety</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE DIPHTHONGS.</p> + + <p>There are thirteen Diphthongs reckoned in Gaelic; ae, ai, ao, ea, ei, + eo, eu; ia, io, iu; oi; ua, ui. Of these, ao, eu, ia, ua, are always + long; the others are sometimes long, sometimes short.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ae.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ae</i> is made up of (1) <i>a</i> long, and (1) + <i>e</i> short. This diphthong hardly occurs, except in Gael <i>a + Gaul</i> or <i>Highlander</i>, and Gaelic the <i>Gaelic</i> language<a + name="footnotetag8" href="#footnote8"><sup>[8]</sup></a>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ai.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ai</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like that of the former.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>a</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: the <i>a</i> long, the + <i>i</i> short; as, fàidh <i>a prophet</i>; the <i>a</i> short, the + <i>i</i> short; as, claidheamh <i>a sword</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (2) <i>a</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: the <i>a</i> long, the + <i>i</i> short; as, saighde <i>arrows</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> often loses + its sound, and only serves to qualify the sound of the following + consonant<a name="footnotetag9" href="#footnote9"><sup>[9]</sup></a>; + hence,</p> + + <p>3. Like (1) <i>a</i> alone: long, as, fàisg <i>squeeze</i>, fàilte + <i>salutation</i>; short, as, glaic <i>a hollow</i>, tais + <i>soft</i>.</p> + + <p>4. Like (2) <i>a</i> alone: short, as, airm <i>arms</i>, gairm <i>a + call</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ao.</span></h3> + + <p>1. The sound of <i>ao</i> is like (2) <i>a</i>, long: as, caora <i>a + sheep</i>, faobhar <i>the edge of a tool</i>, saothair <i>labour</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>{6}</span></p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ea.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ea</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like that of one of them.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (2) <i>e</i> and (1) <i>a</i>: <i>e</i> very short, + <i>a</i> long, as, beann <i>a summit</i>, <i>pinnacle</i>, feall + <i>deceit</i>; <i>a</i> short, as, meal <i>to enjoy</i>, speal <i>a + scythe</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>a</i> frequently + loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; + hence,</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>e</i>, long: as, dean <i>do</i>; short, as, fear <i>a + man</i>, bean <i>a woman</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Like (2) <i>e</i>, long: as, easlan <i>sick</i>; short, as, fead + <i>whistle</i>.</p> + + <p>After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>e</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>4. Like (1) <i>a</i>, long: as, cèard <i>an artificer</i>; short, as, + geal <i>white</i>.</p> + + <p>5. Like (3) <i>a</i>, short: as, itheadh <i>eating</i>, coireach + <i>faulty</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ei.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ei</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like that of <i>e</i> alone.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>e</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: <i>e</i> long, <i>i</i> + short, as, sgeimh <i>beauty</i>; <i>e</i> short, as, meidh <i>a + balance</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (2) <i>e</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: <i>e</i> long, <i>i</i> + short, as, feidh <i>deer</i>; <i>e</i> short, as, greigh <i>a herd</i>, + <i>stud</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>3. Like (1) <i>e</i> alone: long, as, mèise <i>of a plate</i>.</p> + + <p>4. Like (2) <i>e</i> alone: long, as, éigin <i>necessity</i>; short, + as, eich <i>horses</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Eo.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>eo</i> is either made up of the sounds of both vowels, + or like that of <i>o</i> alone. <!-- Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page7"></a>{7}</span></p> + + <p>1. Made up of (2) <i>e</i> and (1) <i>o</i>: <i>e</i> very short, + <i>o</i> long, as, beo <i>alive</i>, eolas <i>knowledge</i>; <i>o</i> + short, as, beothail <i>lively</i>.</p> + + <p>After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>e</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>o</i>: long, as, leomhann <i>a lion</i>; short, as, + deoch <i>drink</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Eu.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>eu</i> is like (2) <i>e</i> alone: long, as, teum + <i>to bite</i>, gleus <i>trim, entertainment</i>.</p> + + <p>One of the most marked variations of dialect occurs in the + pronunciation of the diphthong <i>eu</i>, which, instead of being + pronounced like long <i>e</i>, is over all the North Highlands commonly + pronounced like <i>ia</i>; as, nial, ian, fiar, for neul, eun, feur.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ia.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ia</i> is made up of the sounds of both the + vowels.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>i</i> and (1) <i>a</i>: both of equal length, as, + fial <i>liberal</i>, iar <i>west</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (1) <i>i</i> and (2) <i>a</i>: of equal length, as, + fiadh <i>a deer</i>, ciall <i>common sense</i>.</p> + + <p>In cia <i>which?</i> iad <i>they</i>, <i>ia</i> is often found like + (1) <i>è</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Io.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>io</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like one of them alone.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>i</i> and (3) <i>o</i>: <i>i</i> long, <i>o</i> + short, as, diol <i>to pay</i>, fior <i>true</i>; <i>i</i> short, as, + iolach <i>a shout</i>, ionnsuidh <i>an attack</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>o</i> sometimes + loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; + hence,</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>i</i>: long, as, iodhol <i>an idol</i>; short, as, + crios <i>a girdle</i>, biorach <i>pointed</i>.</p> + + <p>After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> <!-- Page 8 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"></a>{8}</span>sometimes loses + its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>3. Like <i>u</i> in <i>fun</i>, short and obscure: as, cionta + <i>guilt</i>, tiondadh <i>to turn</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Iu.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>iu</i> is either made up of the sound of both the + vowels, or like <i>u</i> alone.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>i</i> and (1) <i>u</i>: <i>i</i> short, <i>u</i> + long, as, fiù <i>worthy</i>; <i>u</i> short, as, iuchair <i>a + key</i>.</p> + + <p>After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>u</i>: long, as, diù <i>worst part, refuse</i>; short, + as, tiugh <i>thick</i>, giuthas <i>fir</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Oi.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>oi</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like that of <i>o</i> alone.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>o</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: <i>o</i> long, <i>i</i> + short, as, òigh <i>a virgin</i>; <i>o</i> short, as, troidh <i>a + foot</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (3) <i>o</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: <i>o</i> long, <i>i</i> + short, as, oidhche <i>night</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>3. Like (1) <i>o</i> long: as, mòid <i>more</i>; short, as, toic + <i>wealth</i>.</p> + + <p>4. Like (2) <i>o</i> long: as, fòid <i>a turf</i>; short, as, fois + <i>rest</i>.</p> + + <p>5. Like (3) <i>o</i> short; as, coileach <i>a cock</i>, doire <i>a + wood</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ua.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ua</i> is made up of the sounds of both the + vowels.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>u</i> and (1) <i>a</i>, equally long; as, cuan + <i>the sea</i>, fuar <i>cold</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (1) <i>u</i> and (2) <i>a</i>; as, tuadh <i>a + hatchet</i>, sluagh <i>people</i>. <!-- Page 9 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>{9}</span></p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Ui.</span></h3> + + <p>The sound of <i>ui</i> is either made up of the sounds of both the + vowels, or like that of <i>u</i> alone.</p> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>u</i> and (1) <i>i</i>: <i>u</i> long, <i>i</i> + short, as, suigheag <i>a rasp-berry</i>; <i>u</i> short, as, buidheann + <i>a company</i>.</p> + + <p>Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the <i>i</i> loses its + sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>u</i> long: as, dùil <i>expectation</i>, cùig + <i>five</i>; short, as, fuil <i>blood</i>, muir <i>the sea</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE TRIPHTHONGS.</p> + + <p>There are five Triphthongs, in each of which <i>i</i> is the last + letter: aoi, eoi, iai, iui, uai. In these the two first vowels have the + same sounds and powers as when they form a diphthong. The final <i>i</i> + is sounded short; but before a Palatal or a Lingual, not quiescent, it + loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Aoi.</span></h3> + + <p>1. Made up of <i>ao</i> and (1) <i>i</i>; as, caoidh + <i>lamentation</i>, aoibhneas <i>joy</i>, laoigh <i>calves</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Like <i>ao</i>; as, caoineadh <i>wailing</i>, maoile + <i>baldness</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Eoi.</span></h3> + + <p>1. Made up of (2) <i>eo</i> and (1) <i>i</i>; as, geoigh + <i>geese</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Like (1) <i>eo</i>; as, meoir <i>fingers</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Like (2) <i>eo</i>; as, deoir <i>tears</i>, treoir + <i>ability</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Iai.</span></h3> + + <p>1. Like (1) <i>ia</i>; as, fiaire <i>more awry</i>.</p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Iui.</span></h3> + + <p>1. Like (2) <i>iu</i>; as, ciùil <i>of music</i>, fliuiche <i>more + wet</i>. <!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page10"></a>{10}</span></p> + +<h3><span class="sc">Uai.</span></h3> + + <p>1. Made up of (1) <i>ua</i> and (1) <i>i</i>; as, luaithe + <i>quicker</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Made up of (2) <i>ua</i> and (1) <i>i</i>; as, cruaidh <i>hard</i>, + fuaim <i>sound</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Like (1) <i>ua</i>; as, uair <i>time, an hour</i>, cluaise <i>of an + ear</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE POWERS OF THE CONSONANTS.</p> + + <p>The simple powers of the consonants differ not much from their powers + in English. Those called <i>mediae</i> by the writers on Greek grammar, + viz., <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, approach nearer in force to the + corresponding <i>tenues</i> <i>p</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>c</i>, than they do in + English.</p> + + <p>In accented syllables, where, if the vocal sound be short, the voice + necessarily rests on the subsequent articulation, the consonants, though + written single, are pronounced with the same degree of force as when + written double in English; as, bradan <i>a salmon</i>, cos <i>a foot</i>; + pronounced braddan, coss. No consonants are written double except + <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>.</p> + + <p>A propensity to aspiration is a conspicuous feature in the Gaelic + tongue<a name="footnotetag10" href="#footnote10"><sup>[10]</sup></a>. The + aspirating of a consonant has been <!-- Page 11 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>{11}</span>usually marked, in the + Irish dialect, by a dot over the letter aspirated; in the Scottish + dialect by writing <i>h</i> after it. All the consonants have their + sounds changed by being aspirated, and the effect is different on + different consonants. In some cases the articulation is changed, but + still formed by the same organ. In others the articulation is formed by a + different organ. In others the <i>h</i> alone retains its power. And + sometimes both the <i>h</i> and the consonant to which it is subjoined + become entirely quiescent.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 12 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>{12}</span></p> + + <p>In treating of the consonants separately, it will be convenient to + depart a little from the alphabetical order of the letters, and to + consider first the <i>Labials</i>, next the <i>Palatals</i>, and lastly + the <i>Linguals</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">LABIALS.</p> + +<h3>P.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. Like <i>p</i> in English; as, poll <i>a pool</i>, pill + <i>return</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Aspirated. Like <i>ph</i> or <i>f</i> in English; as, a' phuill + <i>of the pool</i>, phill <i>returned</i><a name="footnotetag11" + href="#footnote11"><sup>[11]</sup></a>.</p> + +<h3>B.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. Like <i>b</i> in English; as, baile <i>a town</i>, beo + <i>alive</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Aspirated. Like <i>v</i> in English, as, bhuail <i>struck</i>. In + the end of a syllable the articulation is sometimes feeble, and often + passes into the vocal sound of <i>u</i><a name="footnotetag12" + href="#footnote12"><sup>[12]</sup></a>; as in marbh<a + name="footnotetag13" href="#footnote13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> <i>dead</i>, + garbh <i>rough</i>, dabhach <i>a vat</i>.</p> + +<h3>M.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. Like <i>m</i> in English; as, mac <i>a son</i>, cam + <i>crooked</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Aspirated. Somewhat like <i>v</i> in English, but more feeble and + nasal; as, mhathair <i>O mother</i>, lamh <i>the hand</i>. The sound + <i>mh</i> has the same relation to that of <i>bh</i>, as the sound of + <i>m</i> has to that of <i>b</i>. Sometimes, like <i>bh</i>, it becomes a + vocal sound like a nasal <i>u</i>; as, in damh <i>an ox</i>, samhradh + <i>summer</i>: and sometimes the articulation becomes so feeble as not to + be perceived; as, comhradh <i>speech</i>, domhainn <i>deep</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 13 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page13"></a>{13}</span></p> + +<h3>F.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. Like <i>f</i> in English, as, faigh <i>to get</i>, fòid <i>a + turf</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Aspirated. Quiescent; as, fheara <i>O men</i>. In fhuair + <i>found</i>, the aspiration is retained, and the word is pronounced as + if written <i>huair</i>. It is probable that it was originally written + and pronounced fuair<a name="footnotetag14" + href="#footnote14"><sup>[14]</sup></a>; that huair is but a provincial + pronunciation<a name="footnotetag15" + href="#footnote15"><sup>[15]</sup></a>; and that to adapt the spelling in + some shape to this pronunciation, the word came to be written fhuair.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">PALATALS AND LINGUALS.</p> + + <p>In treating of the Diphthongs (ai, ea, ei, &c.) notice has been + often taken of the powers of certain vowels in modifying the sound of the + adjoining consonants. This refers to a twofold mode of pronouncing the + Palatal and Lingual consonants, whether <i>plain</i> or <i>aspirated</i>. + The difference between these two modes of pronunciation is, in some + consonants, abundantly striking; in others it is minute, but sufficiently + discernible to an ear accustomed to the Gaelic. The one of these modes of + articulation belongs to Palatals and Linguals, chiefly when connected + with a <i>broad vowel</i>; the other belongs to them when connected with + a <i>small vowel</i>. Hence, the former may be called the <i>broad</i> + sound, the latter the <i>small</i> sound of a <i>Palatal</i> or a + <i>Lingual</i>.</p> + + <p>These sounds are not distinguished in writing, but may be known, for + the most part, by the relative situation of the letters.</p> + +<h3>C.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: like <i>c</i> in <i>come</i>, <i>curb</i>; as, + cùl <i>the back</i>, cridhe <i>the heart</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"></a>{14}</span></p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>c</i> in <i>care</i>, <i>cure</i>; as, taic + <i>support</i>, circe <i>of a hen</i><a name="footnotetag16" + href="#footnote16"><sup>[16]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>3. Aspirated. <i>Broad</i>: like the Greek <span + class="grk">χ</span>, as pronounced in Scotland, in <span + title="chôra" class="grk">χωρα</span>; as, croch + <i>to hang</i>, chaidh <i>went</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Small</i>: like <span class="grk">χ</span> in <span + title="chiôn" class="grk">χιων</span>; as, chi <i>shall + see</i>, eich <i>horses</i>.</p> + +<h3>G.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: like <i>g</i> in <i>go</i>, <i>rogue</i>; as, + gabh <i>to take</i>, glor <i>speech</i>, bog <i>soft</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>g</i> in <i>give</i>, <i>fatigue</i>; as, gin + <i>to produce</i>, thig <i>shall come</i>, tilg <i>to throw</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Aspirated. <i>Broad</i>: has no sound like it in English; ghabh + <i>took</i>, ghleidh <i>kept</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Small</i>: nearly like <i>y</i> in <i>young</i>; as, ghin + <i>produced</i>.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Gh</i> in the end of a syllable is often quiescent; as, righ + <i>a king</i>, tiugh <i>thick</i>, fuigheall <i>remainder</i>.</p> + +<h3>T.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: nearly like <i>t</i> in <i>tone</i>, + <i>bottom</i>; as, tog <i>to raise</i>, trom <i>heavy</i>, brat <i>a + covering</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page15"></a>{15}</span></p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>ch</i> in <i>cheek</i>, <i>choose</i>; as, + tinn <i>sick</i>, caillte <i>lost</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Aspirated. Like <i>h</i> in <i>house</i>; as, thig <i>shall + come</i>, throisg <i>fasted</i>, maith <i>good</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Quiescent</i>: in the middle of a polysyllable, in the end of a + long syllable, and in certain tenses of a few irregular verbs when + preceded by <i>d'</i>; as, snitheach<a name="footnotetag17" + href="#footnote17"><sup>[17]</sup></a> <i>watery</i>, sìth <i>peace</i>, + an d' thug e? <i>did he give?</i> also in the pronoun thusa + <i>thou</i>.</p> + +<h3>D.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: nearly like <i>d</i> in <i>done</i>; as, dol + <i>going</i>, dlù <i>near</i>, <i>close</i>, ciod <i>what</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>j</i> in <i>June</i>, <i>jewel</i>; as, diù + <i>refuse</i>, maide <i>a stick</i>, airde <i>height</i>.</p> + + <p><i>D</i>, after <i>ch</i>, is commonly sounded like <i>c</i>; as, + bochd <i>poor</i>, pronounced as if written bochc<a name="footnotetag18" + href="#footnote18"><sup>[18]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>{16}</span></p> + + <p>3. Aspirated<a name="footnotetag19" + href="#footnote19"><sup>[19]</sup></a>. <i>Broad</i>: like broad + <i>gh</i>, as, dhruid <i>did shut</i>, gradh <i>love</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Small</i>: like small <i>gh</i>; as, dhearc <i>looked</i>.</p> + + <p>5. Quiescent; as, fàidh <i>a prophet</i>, cridhe <i>a heart</i>, radh + <i>saying</i>, bualadh <i>striking</i>.</p> + + <p>RULE.—<i>The consonants c, g, t, d, have their </i><span + class="scac">SMALL</span><i> sound, when, in the same syllable, they are + preceded, or immediately followed, by a </i><span class="scac">SMALL + VOWEL</span><i>; in all other situations they have their </i><span + class="scac">BROAD</span><i> sound.</i></p> + +<h3>S.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: like <i>s</i> in <i>sun</i>, <i>this</i>; as, + speal <i>a scythe</i>, cas <i>a foot</i>, sùil <i>an eye</i>, scian <i>a + knife</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>sh</i> in <i>show</i>, <i>rash</i>; as, bris + <i>to break</i>, sèimh <i>quiet</i>, sniomh <i>to twine</i>, stéidh + <i>foundation</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Aspirated: like <i>h</i> in <i>him</i>; as, shuidh <i>sat</i>, + shrann <i>snorted</i>. Before <i>l</i> and <i>n</i>, it is almost, if not + altogether, quiescent; as, shlanuich <i>healed</i>, shniomh + <i>twisted</i>. <i>S</i> followed by a <i>mute</i> consonant is never + aspirated.</p> + + <p>RULE.—<i>S has its </i><span class="scac">SMALL</span><i> sound, + when, in the same syllable, it is preceded or followed by a </i><span + class="scac">SMALL VOWEL</span><i>, with or without an intervening + Lingual. In all other situations it has its </i><span + class="scac">BROAD</span><i> sound.</i> <span class="sc">Except.</span> + <i>S</i> is <i>broad</i> in is <i>am</i>. It is <i>small</i> in so + <i>this</i>, sud <i>yon</i>. It is customary to give <i>s</i> its + <i>broad</i> sound in the beginning of a word, when the former word ends + with <i>r</i>, in which case the <i>r</i> also has its broad sound; as, + chuir sinn <i>we put</i>, air son <i>on account</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>{17}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of L, N, R.</span></p> + + <p>A distinction between a consonant when <i>plain</i>, and the same + consonant when <i>aspirated</i>, has been easily traced thus far. This + distinction readily discovers itself, not only in the pronunciation and + orthography, but also (as will be seen in its proper place) throughout + the system of inflection. It takes place uniformly in those consonants + which have been already considered. With respect to the remaining + linguals, <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, a corresponding distinction will + be found to take place in their pronunciation, and likewise in the + changes they suffer by inflection. This close correspondence between the + changes incident to <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, and the changes which + the other consonants undergo, seems to be a sufficient reason for still + using the same discriminative terms in treating of their powers, though + these terms may not appear to be so strictly applicable to these three + consonants as to the rest. The powers of <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, + shall accordingly be explained under the divisions <i>plain</i> and + <i>aspirated</i>, <i>broad</i> and <i>small</i>.</p> + +<h3>L.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: has no sound like it in English; lom + <i>bare</i>, labhair <i>speak</i>, mall <i>slow</i>, alt <i>a joint</i>, + ald <i>a brook</i>, <span class="correction" title="Original reads `flat'." + >slat</span> <i>a rod</i>, dlù <i>near</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>ll</i> in <i>million</i>; as, linn <i>an + age</i>, lion <i>fill</i>, pill <i>to return</i>, slighe <i>a + way</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Aspirated. <i>Broad</i>: like <i>l</i> in <i>loom</i>, <i>fool</i>; + as, labhair <i>spoke</i>, lom feminine of lom <i>bare</i>, mol <i>to + praise</i>, dhlù feminine of dlù <i>near</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Small:</i> nearly like <i>l</i> in <i>limb</i>, <i>fill</i>; as, + a linn <i>his age</i>, lion <i>filled</i>, mil <i>honey</i>, dligheach + <i>due, lawful</i>.</p> + +<h3>N.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. <i>Broad</i>: has no sound like it in English; nuadh + <i>new</i>, naisg <i>bind</i>, lann <i>a blade</i>, carn <i>a heap of + stones</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Small</i>: like <i>n</i> in the second syllable of + <i>opinion</i>; as, nigh <i>wash</i>, binn <i>melodious</i>, cuirn + <i>heaps of stones</i>. <!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page18"></a>{18}</span></p> + + <p>3. Aspirated. <i>Broad:</i> like <i>n</i> in <i>no</i>, <i>on</i>; as, + nuadh feminine of nuadh <i>new</i>, naisg <i>bound</i>, shnamh + <i>swam</i>, sean <i>old</i><a name="footnotetag20" + href="#footnote20"><sup>[20]</sup></a>, chon <i>of dogs</i>, dàn <i>a + poem</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Small</i>: like <i>n</i> in <i>keen</i>, <i>near</i>; as, nigh + <i>washed</i>, shniomh <i>twisted</i>, coin <i>dogs</i>, dàin + <i>poems</i>.</p> + + <p>In an when followed by a Palatal, the <i>n</i> is pronounced like + <i>ng</i> in English; as, an gille <i>the lad</i>, an comhnuidh + <i>always</i>.</p> + + <p><i>N</i>, after a mute, is in a few instances pronounced like + <i>r</i><a name="footnotetag21" href="#footnote21"><sup>[21]</sup></a>; + as in mnathan <i>women</i>, cnatan <i>a cold</i>, an t-snàth <i>of the + yarn</i>; pronounced mrathan, cratan, &c.</p> + +<h3>R.</h3> + + <p>1. Plain. Nearly like <i>r</i> in <i>roar</i>; as, ruadh + <i>reddish</i>, righ <i>a king</i>, ruith <i>run</i>, torr <i>a heap</i>, + ceartas <i>justice</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Aspirated. <i>Broad</i>: nearly like <i>r</i> in <i>rear</i>; as, + car <i>a turn</i>, ruith <i>ran</i>, mòr <i>great</i>.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Small</i>: has no sound like it in English; a righ <i>O + king</i>, seirbhe <i>satiety</i>, mòir gen. of mòr <i>great</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>plain</i>, <i>aspirated</i>, <i>broad</i>, and <i>small</i> + sounds of these Linguals are not distinguished in writing; but they may, + for the most part, be known from the relative position of the + letters.</p> + + <p>RULE.—<span class="scac">L, N, R</span>, <i>have their </i><span + class="scac">PLAIN</span><i> sound when, in the same syllable, they are + immediately preceded by a plain Liquid, or immediately followed by a + plain Lingual; also in the beginning of certain cases and tenses; in all + other situations, they have their </i><span + class="scac">ASPIRATED</span><i> sound. They have their </i><span + class="scac">SMALL</span><i> sound when, in the same syllable, they are + preceded or followed by a small vowel, with or without an intervening + Liquid; in other situations, they have their </i><span + class="scac">BROAD</span><i> sound.</i></p> + +<p><!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page19"></a>{19}</span></p> + +<h3>H.</h3> + + <p>H is never used as an independent radical letter. When prefixed to a + word beginning with a vowel, it is pronounced like h in <i>how</i>; as, + na h-òighean <i>the virgins</i>, na h-oidhche <i>of the night</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p>The following scheme exhibits a succinct view of the letters, both + singly and in their several combinations. The first column contains the + letters whose sound is to be exhibited; the prefixed figures marking the + number of different sounds denoted by the same letter. The second column + explains the sounds by examples or by references. The third column + contains Gaelic words, with their translation, in which the several + sounds are exemplified.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Vowels.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Vowels." title="Vowels."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 1 a </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="spacsingle"> far star </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> àr <i>slaughter</i>, àth <i>a ford</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="spacsingle"> that </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ar <i>to plow</i>, abuich <i>ripe</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 2 a </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> adhradh <i>worship</i>, adhbhar <i>reason</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> adharc <i>a horn</i>, adhart <i>a bolster</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> 3 a </td><td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> similar </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> ma <i>if</i>, an <i>the</i>, a <i>his, her</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 1 e </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="spacsingle"> there </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> è sè <i>he</i>, gnè <i>sort, kind</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="spacsingle"> met </td><td class="qspcsingle"> le <i>with</i>, leth <i>half</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> 2 e </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> an dé <i>yesterday</i>, cé <i>the earth</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> 3 e </td><td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> mother </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> duine <i>a man</i>, briste <i>broken</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 1 i </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> see </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mìn <i>smooth</i>, righ <i>a king</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> min <i>meal</i>, crith <i>a shaking</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> 2 i </td><td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> this </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> is <i>am, art, is</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 1 o </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="spacsingle"> more </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> mòr <i>great</i>, lòn <i>food</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="spacsingle"> hot </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mo <i>my</i>, do <i>thy</i>, lon <i>the ouzle</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 2 o </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> old </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> lom <i>bare</i>, toll <i>a hole</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"> lomadh <i>making bare</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> 3 o </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> (2) a </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> roghnuich <i>to choose</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"> roghuinn <i>choice</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> +<!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page20"></a>{20}</span> + 1 u </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> long </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fool </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ùr <i>fresh</i>, sùgh <i>juice</i>.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="qspcsingle"> short </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ubh <i>an egg</i>, tur <i>quite</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Diphthongs.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Diphthongs." title="Diphthongs."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ae </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> laeth <i>days</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fàidh <i>a prophet</i>, claidheamh <i>a sword</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> saidhbhir, <i>rich</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 ai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fàisg <i>squeeze</i>, tais <i>soft</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 ai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> airm <i>arms</i>, gairm <i>to call</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ao </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> faobhar <i>edge</i> of an instrument.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ea </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> beann <i>a pinnacle</i>, meal <i>enjoy</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ea </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> dean <i>to do, make</i>, bean <i>a woman</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 ea </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> easlan <i>sick</i>, fead <i>whistle</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 ea </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> ceard <i>an artificer</i>, geal <i>white</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 5 ea </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (3) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> coireach <i>faulty</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ei </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> sgèimh <i>beauty</i>, meidh <i>a balance</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ei </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> feidh <i>deer</i>, greigh <i>a herd</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 ei </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> mèise <i>of a plate</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 ei </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> éigin <i>necessity</i>, eich <i>horses</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 eo </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> beo <i>alive</i>, beothail <i>lively</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 eo </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> leomhann <i>a lion</i>, deoch <i>a drink</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 eu </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) e </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> teum <i>to bite</i>, gleus <i>trim</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ia </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fial <i>liberal</i>, fiar <i>oblique</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ia </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fiadh <i>a deer</i>, biadh <i>food</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 io </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (3) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> diol <i>to pay</i>, iolach <i>a spout</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 io </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> iodhol <i>an idol</i>, crios <i>a girdle</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 io </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fun </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> cionta <i>guilt</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 iu </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fiù <i>worth</i>, iuchair <i>a key</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 iu </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> diù <i>refuse</i>, tiugh <i>thick</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 oi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> òigh <i>a virgin</i>, troidh <i>a foot</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 oi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (3) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> oidhche <i>night</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 oi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> mòid <i>more</i>, toic <i>wealth</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 oi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fòid <i>a turf</i>, fois <i>rest</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 5 oi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (3) o </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> coileach <i>a cock</i>, goirid <i>short</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 ua </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> cuan <i>the sea</i>, fuath <i>hatred</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ua </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) a </td><td class="hspcsingle"> tuadh <i>a hatchet</i>, sluagh <i>people</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>{21}</span> + 1 ui </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> sùigheah <i>a raspberry</i>, buidheann <i>a company</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ui </td><td class="hspcsingle"> u </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> dùil <i>expectation</i>, fuil <i>blood</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Triphthongs.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Triphthongs." title="Triphthongs."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 aoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) ao </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> caoidh <i>lamentation</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 aoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) ao </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> caoin <i>mild</i>, saoil <i>to think</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 eoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) eo </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> geoigh <i>geese</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 eoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) eo </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> meoir <i>fingers</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 eoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) eo </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> deoir <i>tears</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 iai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) ia </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fiaire <i>more oblique</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 iui </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) iu </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> ciùil <i>of music</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 uai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) ua </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> luaithe <i>quicker</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 uai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (2) ua </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) i </td><td class="hspcsingle"> cruaidh <i>hard</i>, fuaim <i>sound</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 uai </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (1) ua </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> gluais <i>to move</i>, uair <i>time</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Consonants</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Consonants." title="Consonants."> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <i>Labials.</i><br /> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 p </td><td class="hspcsingle"> part </td><td class="hspcsingle"> poll <i>a pool</i>, streap <i>to climb</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 ph </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Philip </td><td class="hspcsingle"> phill <i>returned</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 b </td><td class="hspcsingle"> boil </td><td class="hspcsingle"> baile <i>a town</i>, breab <i>to kick</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 bh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> vile </td><td class="hspcsingle"> bhuail <i>struck</i>, gabh <i>to take</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 m </td><td class="hspcsingle"> my </td><td class="hspcsingle"> mòr <i>great</i>, anam <i>life, soul</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 mh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> mhothuich <i>perceived</i>, damh <i>an ox</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 f </td><td class="hspcsingle"> feel </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fill <i>to fold</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 fh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>quiescent</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fheara <i>O men</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br /><i>Palatals.</i><br /> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 c </td><td class="hspcsingle"> cock </td><td class="hspcsingle"> can <i>to say, sing</i>, creid <i>to believe</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 c </td><td class="hspcsingle"> kick </td><td class="hspcsingle"> ceann <i>end, head</i>, reic <i>to sell</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 ch </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <span title="chôra" class="grk">χωρα</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> chaidh <i>went</i>, rach <i>go</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 ch </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <span title="cheimôn" class="grk">χειμων</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> chi <i>shall see</i>, crìche <i>of a boundary</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 g </td><td class="hspcsingle"> go </td><td class="hspcsingle"> gabh <i>to take</i>, rag <i>stiff</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page22"></a>{22}</span> + 2 g </td><td class="hspcsingle"> give </td><td class="hspcsingle"> geinne <i>a wedge</i>, ruig <i>to reach</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 gh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> ghabh <i>took</i>, ghleidh <i>kept</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 gh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> you </td><td class="hspcsingle"> gheibh <i>will get</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 5 </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>quiescent</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> righ <i>a king</i>, sluagh <i>people</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br /><i>Linguals.</i><br /> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 t </td><td class="hspcsingle"> tone </td><td class="hspcsingle"> tog <i>to raise</i>, slat <i>a rod</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 t </td><td class="hspcsingle"> chin </td><td class="hspcsingle"> tinn <i>sick</i>, àite <i>a place</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 th </td><td class="hspcsingle"> have </td><td class="hspcsingle"> thainig <i>came</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 th </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>quiescent</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> maith <i>good</i>, fàth <i>occasion</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 d </td><td class="hspcsingle"> done </td><td class="hspcsingle"> dol <i>going</i>, dragh <i>trouble</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 d </td><td class="hspcsingle"> join </td><td class="hspcsingle"> diom <i>resentment</i>, maide <i>a stick</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 dh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (3) gh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> dhall <i>blind</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 dh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> (4) gh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> dhearc <i>looked</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 5 dh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>quiescent</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> radh <i>saying</i>, bualadh <i>threshing</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 s </td><td class="hspcsingle"> so </td><td class="hspcsingle"> sannt <i>desire</i>, sloc <i>a pit</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 s </td><td class="hspcsingle"> show </td><td class="hspcsingle"> sèimh <i>gentle</i>, so <i>this</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 sh </td><td class="hspcsingle"> how </td><td class="hspcsingle"> shuidh <i>sat</i>, shaoil <i>thought</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 l </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> lom <i>bare</i>, slat <i>a rod</i>, moll <i>chaff</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 l </td><td class="hspcsingle"> million </td><td class="hspcsingle"> lìnn <i>an age</i>, caillte <i>lost</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 l </td><td class="hspcsingle"> look </td><td class="hspcsingle"> blàth <i>blossom</i>, shlanuich <i>healed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 l </td><td class="hspcsingle"> believe </td><td class="hspcsingle"> leum <i>leaped</i>, shleamhnuich <i>slipped</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 n </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> crann <i>a tree</i>, naomh <i>holy</i>, naisg <i>bind</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 n </td><td class="hspcsingle"> opinion </td><td class="hspcsingle"> seinn <i>to sing</i>, nigh <i>wash</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 n </td><td class="hspcsingle"> no </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fan <i>to stay</i>, naisg <i>bound</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 4 n </td><td class="hspcsingle"> near </td><td class="hspcsingle"> coin <i>dogs</i>, nigh <i>washed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1 r </td><td class="hspcsingle"> roar </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fearr <i>better</i>, righ <i>a king</i>, ruith <i>run</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2 r </td><td class="hspcsingle"> rear </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fear <i>a man</i>, ruith <i>ran</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3 r </td><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> fir <i>men</i>, a righ <i>O king</i>, treoir <i>strength</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + + <p>There is no doubt that the Gaelic has been for many ages a written + language. It is equally certain that its orthography, since it was first + committed to writing, has undergone <!-- Page 23 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>{23}</span>considerable changes. In + this respect it has shared the common fate of all written languages.</p> + + <p>In the first exhibition of the sounds of a living language, by + alphabetical characters, it is probable that the principle which + regulated the system of orthography was, that every elementary sound + should be represented by a corresponding character, either simple or + compounded, and that the same sound should be represented by the same + character. If different sounds were represented by the same letter; if + the same sound were represented by different letters; if more letters + were employed then were necessary to exhibit the sound; or if any sound + were not represented by a corresponding character; then the + <i>written</i> language would not be an adequate representation of the + <i>spoken</i>. It is hardly to be supposed that, in the first rude + attempts at alphabetical writing, the principle above laid down could be + strictly and uniformly followed. And though it had, yet, in the course of + a few generations, many causes would occur to bring about considerable + departures from it. A gradual refinement of ear, and increasing attention + to <i>euphonia</i>; contractions and elisions brought into vogue by the + carelessness or the rapidity of colloquial speech, or by the practice of + popular speakers; above all, the mixture of the speech of different + nations would introduce numberless varieties into the pronunciation. + Still, those who wrote the language might choose to adhere to the + original orthography for the sake of retaining the radical parts, and + preserving the etymon of vocables undisguised, and for maintaining an + uniformity in the mechanism of the inflections. Hence the pronunciation + and the orthography would disagree in many instances, till at length it + would be found expedient to alter the orthography, and to adapt it to + such changes in the speech or spoken language as long use had + established, in order to maintain what was most necessary of all, a due + correspondence between the mode of speaking and the mode of writing the + same language.</p> + + <p>It will probably be found on inquiry that in all languages when the + <i>speech</i> has undergone material and striking changes, <!-- Page 24 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"></a>{24}</span>the <i>written + language</i> also has varied in a considerable degree in conformity to + these changes, but that it has not scrupulously kept pace with the spoken + language in every smaller variation. The written language of the Greeks + suffered many changes between the time that the old Pelasgic was spoken + and the days of Demosthenes. The various modes of pronunciation used in + the different districts of Greece are marked by a diversity in the + orthography of the written language. The writing of the Latin underwent + considerable alterations between the era of the <i>Decemviri</i> and the + Augustan age, corresponding, no doubt, to the changes which had taken + place during that interval in speaking the Latin. English and French + books printed within the last century exhibit a mode of orthography very + different from what is found in books printed two or three hundred years + ago. These instances show the tendency which the written language has to + follow the lead of the spoken language, and to maintain a certain degree + of conformity to those modes of pronunciation which are from time to time + adopted by those who speak it.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, numberless examples might be adduced from any + living language to prove that the written language does not adapt itself, + on all occasions and with strict uniformity, to the sounds of speech. + Words are written differently which are pronounced alike. The same + combinations of letters, in different situations, represent different + sounds. Letters are retained in writing, serving to point out the + derivations of words, after they have been entirely dropped in + speaking.</p> + + <p>From such facts as these, it appears a just conclusion that <i>written + language</i> generally follows the <i>spoken language</i> through its + various revolutions, but still at a certain distance,—not dropping + so far behind as to lose sight of its precursor, nor following so close + as to be led through all its fantastic deviations.</p> + + <p>Here a question occurs of importance in settling the orthography of + any particular tongue: How near ought the <i>written language</i> to + correspond to the <i>spoken</i>, and where may a disagreement between + them be allowed with <!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page25"></a>{25}</span>propriety? The following observations may + serve to throw some light on the subject of this question, though by no + means sufficient to furnish a complete answer.</p> + + <p>It is obvious that in speech the <i>articulations</i> (which are + represented by consonants in writing) are the least liable to variation. + <i>Vowel sounds</i> are continually varying. In this variety chiefly + consists that diversity of tone and dialect which is found in the speech + of different districts of the same country, where the same words are + spoken. The changes, too, which are introduced by time fall with greater + effect on the vowel sounds than on the articulations. This circumstance + will strike an observer who steps into any deliberative assembly, where + the speakers are of different ages. St Jerome makes a remark on the + reading of Hebrew, which is applicable, in some measure, to the + pronunciation of all languages: "Nec refert utrum <i>Salem</i> aut + <i>Salim</i> nominetur; cum vocalibus in medio literis perraro utantur + Hebraei; et pro voluntate lectorum, ac <i>varietate regionum</i>, eadem + verba <i>diversis sonis</i> atque accentibus proferantur." It may be + observed that the superior stability of the articulations above the vowel + sounds is the natural consequence of the position of the organs of speech + in uttering them. The different modifications of the vowel sounds are + effected by minute changes in the conformation of the organs; those of + the articulations are made by more distinct and operose inflections of + the organs.</p> + + <p>It seems, then, a warrantable conclusion that, of the elementary + constituents of speech, viz., articulations and vowel sounds, the + <i>articulations</i> are, in their own nature, ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and + PREDOMINANT; the <i>vowel sounds</i>, comparatively considered, are + ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE.</p> + + <p>Further, all the vowel sounds that usually occur in speech seem to be + uttered with equal ease, in whatever situation they occur, as the same + organs are employed for all. In forming the common articulations of + speech, as different organs are employed, a degree of difficulty is + sometimes felt in making a transition from one articulation to another. + <!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page26"></a>{26}</span>Thus a difficulty will occasionally occur in + pronouncing certain words, where the general analogy of inflection or of + collocation has brought together articulations which do not easily + coalesce. Hence a necessity arises of departing in such a case from the + general analogy, and altering or displacing some of those discrepant + articulations, for the sake of ease and convenience in pronunciation, and + to relieve the ear from an offensive discordant sound. Departures are + made from the general rules of speech in the case of the vowel sounds + also, of which the Greek tongue abounds with examples. These departures, + however, seem to have been made from a desire to indulge the ear in + certain national predilections or aversions which it had conceived with + regard to particular sounds. In examining the anomalies of speech, or + those peculiarities which have been reckoned anomalous, it will be found + that such of them as affect the articulations have, for the most part, + been adopted for the purpose of ease and convenience in pronunciation; + while those which affect the vowel sounds have proceeded from the + peculiar taste of the speakers. Thus the former spring from a cause + urgent and constant in its nature, and uniform in its operation; the + latter, from a cause local and temporary in its nature, and variable in + its operation.</p> + + <p>If this theory be just, it ought to follow that, in all polished + tongues, an agreement will be found among those irregularities which + affect the articulations, that is not so observable in those which affect + the vowel sounds. There is reason to believe that, if a full comparison + were made between different languages, this would accordingly be found to + be the case. Let it be observed, then, that in speech a deference has + been usually paid to the articulations which has not been paid to the + vowel sounds, inasmuch as the latter have been changed from the state in + which the structure of each tongue had at first placed them, frequently + and from peculiar taste or humour; the former more rarely, and for the + most part from necessity. If this observation be found to be well + supported, we shall have the sanction of general practice in favour of + the conclusion that was formerly <!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page27"></a>{27}</span>drawn from the nature of articulate sounds, + viz., that the articulations are ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and PREDOMINANT; + the vowel sounds ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE.</p> + + <p>If it appear, then, that the vowel sounds in speech are perpetually + varying in the mouths of different speakers, from causes which either + elude our search, or, when discovered, are seen to be of small + importance, may we not judge that it would be equally vain and improper + to attempt to make <i>Writing</i> follow all these minute variations; and + that, however it may happen that the same vowel sound may be represented + in many instances by different letters, and different vowel sounds by the + same letters, yet this disagreement between <i>Speech</i> and + <i>Writing</i> must be connived at, for the sake of preserving some + degree of uniformity, where alone it can be preserved, in the <i>written + language</i>? If it appear, again, that the variations from the + established analogy which are made on the articulations are less + frequent, and proceed from causes obvious and cogent, ought not these + variations to be exhibited in writing, for preserving that general + correspondence between the written and the spoken language which ought to + be preserved, as far as the limited powers of letters will permit, and + without which the words I speak and those I write do not belong to the + same language?</p> + + <p>One exception from this principle seems allowable in the case of + quiescent consonants. It may be inferred, from the practice of all living + languages, that consonants whereof the corresponding articulations have + been suppressed in speaking may yet be retained with propriety in + writing, when they are requisite to point out the derivation of vocables, + or the radical part of declinable words. But this exception ought to be + allowed only to a moderate extent, for the reasons already assigned; to + which it may be added, that the far greater part of the suppressed + articulations can be easily discovered and retraced to their roots, + without any index in the <i>written</i> any more than in the + <i>spoken</i> language to point them out. <!-- Page 28 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>{28}</span></p> + + <p>These observations being premised, I shall proceed to explain the + present state of Gaelic Orthography, and shall endeavour to assist the + reader in forming a judgment of its merit, and how far it may admit of + improvement.</p> + + <p>I. It may be laid down as one settled principle in orthography, that + each letter or combination of letters in the written language ought + always to denote one and the same sound. From the explanation that has + been given of the powers of the letters, it may be seen how far this + principle has been regarded in the Gaelic. Though almost every one of the + letters represents more than one sound, yet there is an evident affinity + between the several sounds of the same letter. And it may be readily + allowed that less confusion and inconvenience follow from exhibiting a + few kindred sounds by the same letter, than would have taken place had + the characters been multiplied to such a degree as that a separate one + could have been appropriated to each minute variety of sound.</p> + + <p>It is obvious to remark, as a departure from this principle, that in + the case of the consonants <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, the distinction + between their <i>plain</i> and their <i>aspirated</i> state is not marked + in writing, but that in both states the consonant is written in one way. + In the middle and end of words, as has been shown, this distinction may + be known from the relative situation of the letters. In the beginning of + certain cases and tenses of declinable words, it may often be known from + their <i>grammatical</i> connection, but is not marked by any + <i>graphical</i> index whatever. The proper reading is to be determined + by the sense of the passage, instead of the sense being understood by the + proper reading. It is not easy to discover how those who first committed + the Gaelic to writing neglected to mark such a material distinction. + Inconveniencies and ambiguities not unfrequently arise from this cause, + which have been long felt and regretted. Is there room to hope that it is + not yet too late to recommend a method of remedying this defect? The + method I would suggest is the most simple and obvious of any. It is to + annex to the initial <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, and <i>r</i>, in their aspirated + state, the letter <i>h</i>, just as has been <!-- Page 29 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page29"></a>{29}</span>done to all the other + consonants. The analogy of orthography would thus be maintained, the + system of inflection would be more justly exhibited, and carried on by an + uniform process in <i>Writing</i> as it is in <i>Speech</i>, and errors + in reading and ambiguities in syntax would be avoided<a + name="footnotetag22" href="#footnote22"><sup>[22]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>II. Another principle of authority in regulating orthography is, that + each sound ought always to be represented by one and the same letter, or + combination of letters. The deviations from this rule in Gaelic are + extremely few. The sound of <i>ao</i> is represented sometimes by + <i>a</i> alone, sometimes by <i>o</i> alone. The sound of <i>gh</i> is + represented also by <i>dh</i>; and final <i>c</i> often, though + corruptly, represents the same sound with <i>chd</i>.</p> + + <p>III. A third principle in orthography is, that no more letters ought + to be employed than are necessary to represent the sound. There are + probably few polished languages in which departures from this rule are + not found in abundance. Reasons have been already mentioned which render + it expedient to retain letters in writing many words, after the + corresponding sounds have been dropped in pronouncing the same words. + Quiescent letters, both vowels and consonants, are not unfrequent in + Gaelic. Though these quiescent letters have no sound themselves, they are + not always without effect in pronunciation, as they often determine the + sound of other letters. Most, if not all, the quiescent vowels seem to + have been introduced for this purpose. They ascertain the <i>broad</i> or + the <i>small</i> sound of the adjoining <!-- Page 30 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>{30}</span>consonants. This has been + made sufficiently clear in treating of the vowels and diphthongs + separately. A consonant, as has been shown, has its <i>broad</i> sound, + both when preceded and when followed by a broad vowel; and in like manner + has its <i>small</i> sound, both when preceded and when followed by a + small vowel. If a consonant were preceded by a vowel of one quality, and + followed by one of a different quality, the reader, it has been thought, + might be doubtful whether that consonant ought to be pronounced with its + broad or with its small sound. Hence this rule has long obtained in + Gaelic orthography, that in polysyllables the last vowel of one syllable + and the first vowel of the subsequent syllable must be both of the same + quality<a name="footnotetag23" href="#footnote23"><sup>[23]</sup></a>. To + the extensive application and the rigid observance of this rule it is + owing that so many diphthongs appear where one vowel is sufficient to + express the vocal sound, and that the homogeneous vowels, when used in + their quiescent capacity, are often exchanged for each other, or written + indiscriminately<a name="footnotetag24" + href="#footnote24"><sup>[24]</sup></a>. From the former of these + circumstances, most of the words in the language appear loaded with + superfluous vowels; from the latter, the orthography of many words + appears, in some respects, arbitrary and unsettled. Even a partial + correction of these blemishes must be desirable. It may therefore be + worth while to examine this long established canon of Gaelic orthography, + with a view to discover whether it has not been extended farther than is + necessary, and whether it ought not in many cases to be set aside.</p> + + <p>We have seen that the Labials <i>b</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>p</i>, + whether aspirated or not, have no distinction of broad and small + sound.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>{31}</span></p> + + <p>It cannot, then, be necessary to employ vowels, either prefixed or + postfixed, to indicate the sound of these. Thus, abuich <i>ripe</i>, + gabhaidh <i>will take</i>, chromainn <i>I would bow</i>, ciomaich + <i>captives</i>, have been written with a broad vowel in the second + syllable, corresponding to the broad vowel in the first syllable; yet the + letters abich, gabhidh, chrominn, ciomich, fully exhibit the sound. The + prepositive syllable im, when followed by a small vowel, is written im, + as in imlich <i>to lick</i>, imcheist <i>perplexity</i>. But when the + first vowel of the following syllable is broad, it has been the practice + to insert an <i>o</i> before the <i>m</i>, as in iomlan <i>complete</i>, + iomghaoth <i>a whirlwind</i>, iomluasg <i>agitation</i>. Yet the inserted + <i>o</i> serves no purpose, either in respect of derivation, of + inflection, or of pronunciation. The unnecessary application of the rule + in question appears most unequivocally in words derived from other + languages. From the Latin words <i>imago</i>, <i>templum</i>, + <i>liber</i>, are formed in Gaelic iomhaigh, teampull, leabhar. Nothing + but a servile regard to the rule under consideration could have suggested + the insertion of a broad vowel in the first syllable of these words, + where it serves neither to guide the pronunciation, nor to point out the + derivation.</p> + + <p>Another case, in which the observation of this rule seems to be wholly + unnecessary, is when two syllables of a word are separated by a quiescent + consonant. Thus in gleidheadh <i>keeping</i>, itheadh <i>eating</i>, + buidheann <i>a company</i>, <span class="correction" title="Original reads `dlighecah'." + >dligheach</span> <i>lawful</i>, the aspirated consonants in the middle + are altogether quiescent. The vocal sound of the second syllable is + sufficiently expressed by the last vowel. No good reason, then, appears + for writing a small vowel in the second syllable.</p> + + <p>Thus far it is evident that the rule respecting the correspondence of + vowels is wholly impertinent in the case of syllables divided by Labials, + or by quiescent consonants. If we examine further into the application of + this rule, we shall find more cases in which it may be safely set + aside.</p> + + <p>Many of the inflections of nouns and verbs are formed by adding one or + more syllables to the root. The final <!-- Page 32 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>{32}</span>consonant of the root + must always be considered as belonging to the radical part, not to the + adjected termination. The sound of that consonant, whether broad or + small, falls to be determined by the quality of the vowel which precedes + it in the same syllable, not by the quality of that which follows it in + the next syllable. It seems, therefore, unnecessary to employ any more + vowels in the adjected syllable than what are sufficient to represent its + own vocal sound. The rule under consideration has, notwithstanding, been + extended to the orthography of the oblique cases and tenses, and a + supernumerary vowel has been thrown into the termination, whenever that + was requisite to preserve the supposed necessary correspondence with the + foregoing syllable. Thus, in forming the nominative and dative plural of + many nouns, the syllables <i>an</i> and <i>ibh</i> are added to the + singular, which letters fully express the true sound of these + terminations. If the last vowel of the nominative singular is broad, + <i>an</i> alone is added for the nominative plural; as, lamh-an + <i>hands</i>, cluas-an <i>ears</i>. But if the last vowel be small, an + <i>e</i> is thrown into the termination; as, sùil-ean <i>eyes</i>, + sròin-ean <i>noses</i>. Now if it be observed that, in the two last + examples, the small sound of the <i>l</i> and <i>n</i> in the root is + determined by the preceding small vowel <i>i</i>, with which they are + necessarily connected in one syllable, and that the letters <i>an</i> + fully represent the sound of the termination, it must be evident that the + <i>e</i> in the final syllable is altogether superfluous. So in forming + the dative plural: if the last vowel of the root be small, <i>ibh</i> is + added; as, sùil-ibh, sroin-ibh. But if the last vowel of the root is + broad, the termination is written <i>aibh</i>; as, lamh-aibh, cluas-aibh, + where the <i>a</i>, for the reason already assigned, is totally + useless.</p> + + <p>These observations apply with equal justness to the tenses of verbs, + as will be seen by comparing the following examples: creid-idh <i>will + believe</i>, stad-aidh <i>will stop</i>; chreid-inn <i>I would + believe</i>, stad-<i>a</i>inn <i>I would stop</i>; creid-<i>e</i>am + <i>let me believe</i>, stad-am <i>let me stop</i>; creid-ibh <i>believe + ye</i>, stad-<i>a</i>ibh <i>stop ye</i>.</p> + + <p>The same observations may be further applied to derivative words, + formed by adding to their primitives the syllables <!-- Page 33 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page33"></a>{33}</span><i>ach</i>, <i>achd</i>, + <i>ag</i>, <i>an</i>, <i>ail</i>, <i>as</i>; in all which <i>e</i> has + been unnecessarily introduced, when the last vowel of the preceding + syllable was small; as, sannt-ach <i>covetous</i>, toil-<i>e</i>ach + <i>willing</i>; naomh-achd <i>holiness</i>, doimhn-<i>e</i>achd + <i>depth</i>; sruth-an <i>a rivulet</i>, cuil-<i>e</i>an <i>a whelp</i>; + cauch-ag <i>a little cup</i>, cail-<i>e</i>ag <i>a girl</i>; fear-ail + <i>manly</i>, caird-<i>e</i>il <i>friendly</i><a name="footnotetag25" + href="#footnote25"><sup>[25]</sup></a>; ceart-as <i>justice</i>, + caird-<i>e</i>as <i>friendship</i>.</p> + + <p>The foregoing observations appear sufficient to establish this general + conclusion, that in all cases in which a vowel serves neither to exhibit + the vocal sound, nor to modify the articulations of <i>the syllable to + which it belongs</i>, it may be reckoned nothing better than an useless + incumbrance. There seems, therefore, much room for simplifying the + present system of Gaelic Orthography, by the rejection of a considerable + number of quiescent vowels<a name="footnotetag26" + href="#footnote26"><sup>[26]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>{34}</span></p> + + <p>Almost the only quiescent consonants which occur in Gaelic are + <i>d</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>, in their aspirated + state. When these occur in the inflections of declinable words, serving + to indicate the Root, or in derivatives, serving to point out the + primitive word, the omission of them might, on the whole, be unadvisable. + Even when such letters appear in their absolute form, though they have + been laid aside in pronunciation, yet it would be rash to discard them in + writing, as they often serve to show the affinity of the words in which + they are found to others in different languages, or in different dialects + of the Celtic. The aspirated form of the consonant in writing + sufficiently shows that, in speaking, its articulation is either + attenuated or wholly suppressed.</p> + + <p>The writers of Gaelic seem to have carefully avoided bringing into + apposition two vowels which belong to different syllables. For this + purpose they have sometimes introduced a quiescent consonant into the + middle of compound or of inflected words; as, gneidheil, or rather + gnethail <i>kindly</i>, made up of gnè and ail; beothail <i>lively</i>, + made up of beo <span class="correction" title="Original reads `and and' over line break." + >and</span> ail; diathan <i>gods</i>, from the singular dia; lathaibh + <i>days</i>, from the singular là, &c. It may at least bear a + question, whether it would not be better to allow the vowels to denote + the sound of the word by their own powers, without the intervention of + quiescent consonants, as has been done in <!-- Page 35 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>{35}</span>mnaibh <i>women</i>, + déibh <i>gods</i>, rather than insert consonants which have nothing to do + with either the radical or the superadded articulations of the word.</p> + + <p>From the want of an established standard in orthography, the writers + of Gaelic, in spelling words wherein quiescent consonants occurred, must + have been often doubtful which of two or three consonants was the proper + one, and may therefore have differed in their manner of spelling the same + word. Accordingly we find, in many instances, the same words written by + different writers, and even at different times by the same writer, with + different quiescent consonants. This variation affects not indeed the + pronunciation, or does it in a very slight degree. Hence, however, some + who judge of the language only from its appearance in writing, have taken + occasion to vilify it, as unfixed and nonsensical<a name="footnotetag27" + href="#footnote27"><sup>[27]</sup></a>. A proper attention to the + affinity which the Scottish Gaelic bears to some other languages, + particularly to other dialects of the Celtic, might contribute to fix the + orthography in some cases where it appears doubtful, or has become + variable<a name="footnotetag28" + href="#footnote28"><sup>[28]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>IV. The last principle to be mentioned, which ought to regulate + orthography, is that every sound ought to be represented by a + corresponding character. From this rule there is hardly a single + deviation in Gaelic, as there is no sound in the spoken language which is + not, in some measure, <!-- Page 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page36"></a>{36}</span>exhibited in the written language. The fault + of the Gaelic orthography is sometimes a redundancy, but never a + deficiency of letters.</p> + + <p>A few observations on the mode of writing some particular words, or + particular parts of speech, remain to be brought forward in the sequel of + this work, which it would be premature to introduce here.</p> + + <p>The Scottish writers of Gaelic in general followed the Irish + orthography, till after the middle of the last century. However that + system may suit the dialect of Ireland, it certainly is not adapted to + the Gaelic of this country. In the Gaelic translation of the New + Testament, printed in 1767, not only were most of the Irish idioms and + inflections which had been admitted into the Scottish Gaelic writings + rejected, and the language adapted to the dialect of the Scottish + Highlands, but the orthography also was adapted to the language. In later + publications, the manner of writing the language was gradually + assimilated to that pattern. The Gaelic version of the sacred Scriptures + lately published has exhibited a model, both of style and orthography, + still more agreeable to the purest Scottish idiom, and has a just title + to be acknowledged as the standard in both. Little seems to be now + wanting to confer on the orthography of the Scottish Gaelic such a degree + of uniformity as may redeem its credit and ensure its stability. This, it + is to be hoped, may be attained by a judicious regard to the separate, + and especially the relative powers of the letters, to the most common and + approved modes of pronunciation, to the affinity of the Scottish Gaelic + with other branches of the Celtic tongue, to the analogy of inflection + and derivation, and, above all, to the authority of some generally + received standard, to which pre-eminence the late Gaelic version of the + Scriptures has the only indisputable claim.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>{37}</span></p> + +<h3>PART II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.</p> + + <p>The parts of speech in Gaelic may be conveniently divided and arranged + as follows:—Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, + Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. Of these, the first five are + declinable; the other four are indeclinable.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE ARTICLE.</p> + + <p>The Gaelic article an corresponds to the English definite article + <i>the</i>. There is in Gaelic no indefinite article corresponding to the + English <i>a</i> or <i>an</i>. The inflections of the article are but + few. They depend on the gender, the number, and the case, of the noun to + which it is prefixed. Hence the article is declined by gender, number, + and case, as follows:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The article." title="The article."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td colspan="2" align="center"> Singular. </td><td colspan="2" align="center"> Plural.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc. & Fem.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> an, am </td><td class="spacsingle"> an, a' </td><td class="spacsingle"> na</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> an, a' </td><td class="spacsingle"> na </td><td class="spacsingle"> nan, nam</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> an, a', n' </td><td class="spacsingle"> an, a', n' </td><td class="spacsingle"> na</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In the singular, final <i>n</i> of the article is sometimes cut off, + and its absence marked by an apostrophe. The same happens to the initial + <i>a</i> of the dative singular.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF NOUNS.</p> + + <p>A Noun is the Name of any person, object, or thing whatsoever, that we + have occasion to mention. In treating of <!-- Page 38 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page38"></a>{38}</span>this Part of Speech, we + have to consider the <i>Gender</i> and the <i>Declension</i> of + Nouns.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of Gender.</span></p> + + <p>In imposing names on sensible objects, the great and obvious + distinction of Sex in the animal world suggested the expediency of + inventing names, not only for the particular species of animals, but also + for distinguishing their Sex. Such are <i>vir</i>, <i>femina</i>; + <i>bull</i>, <i>cow</i>; <i>coileach</i>, <i>cearc</i>, &c. To mark + at once identity of species, and diversity of Sex, the same word, with a + slight change on its form, was applied to both sexes: as <i>equus</i>, + <i>equa</i>; <i>lion</i>, <i>lioness</i>; <i>oglach</i>, + <i>banoglach</i>. In most languages, distinction of Sex has been marked, + not only thus by the form of the noun, but further by the form of the + adjective connected with the noun. Most adjectives were furnished with + two forms, the one of which indicated its connection with the name of a + male, the other its connection with the name of a female. The one was + called by grammarians the <i>masculine gender</i>, the other the + <i>feminine gender</i> of the adjective. Adjectives possessing thus a + two-fold form, must necessarily have appeared under one or other of these + forms, with whatever noun they happened to be conjoined. Even nouns + significant of inanimate objects came thus to possess one mark of nouns + discriminative of Sex, as they happened to be accompanied by an adjective + of the masculine or by one of the feminine gender. If any noun was + observed to be usually coupled with an adjective of the masculine gender, + it was termed by grammarians a <i>masculine noun</i>; if it was found + usually coupled with an adjective of the feminine gender, it was termed a + <i>feminine noun</i>. Thus a distinction of nouns into masculine and + feminine came to be noted, and this also was called gender.</p> + + <p>It is observable, then, that gender, in grammar, is taken in two + different acceptations. When applied to an adjective, <!-- Page 39 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>{39}</span>it signifies a + certain <i>form</i>, by which <i>bonus</i> is distinguished from + <i>bona</i>. When applied to a noun, it signifies a certain + <i>relation</i> of the word to the attributives connected with it, by + which <i>amor</i> is distinguished from <i>cupido</i>. As Sex is a + natural characteristic pertaining to living objects, so gender is a + grammatical characteristic pertaining to nouns, the names of objects + whether animate or inanimate. The gender of nouns is not, properly + speaking, indicated; it is constituted by that of the attributives + conjoined with them. If there were no distinction of gender in + adjectives, participles, &c. there could be none in nouns. When we + say that <i>amor</i> is a noun of the masculine gender, and <i>cupido</i> + a noun of the feminine gender, we do not mean to intimate any distinction + between the things signified by these nouns; we mean nothing more than to + state a grammatical fact, viz., that an adjective connected with + <i>amor</i> is always of the same form as when joined to a noun denoting + a male, and that an adjective connected with <i>cupido</i> is always of + the same form as when joined to a noun denoting a female<a + name="footnotetag29" href="#footnote29"><sup>[29]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>{40}</span></p> + + <p>When an adjective was to be connected with a noun that denoted an + object devoid of Sex, it is not always easy to guess what views might + have determined the speaker to use the adjective in one gender rather + than in the other. Perhaps Sex was attributed to the object signified by + the noun. Perhaps its properties were conceived to bear some resemblance + to the qualities characteristic of Sex in living creatures. In many + instances, the form of the noun seems to have decided the point. It must + be confessed that in this mental process, the judgment has been often + swayed by trivial circumstances, and guided by fanciful analogies. At + least it cannot be denied that in the Gaelic, where all nouns whatever + are ranked under the class of masculines or of feminines, the gender of + each has been fixed by a procedure whereof the grounds cannot now be + fully investigated or ascertained. Neither the natural nor artificial + qualities or uses of the things named, nor the form of the names given + them, furnish any invariable rule by which the gender of nouns may be + known. It ought to be remembered, however, that the Gaelic is far from + being singular in this respect. The oldest language with which we are + acquainted, as well as some of the most polished modern tongues, stand in + the same predicament.</p> + + <p>The following observations may serve to give some idea of the analogy + of gender in Gaelic nouns; though they do not furnish a complete set of + rules sufficient to ascertain the gender of every noun:—</p> + +<p><!-- Page 41 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>{41}</span></p> + + <p><span class="sc">Masculines.</span> Nouns signifying males are + masculines; as, fear <i>a man</i>, righ <i>a king</i>, sagart <i>a + priest</i>, tarbh <i>a bull</i>, cu <i>a dog</i>.</p> + + <p>Many nouns, signifying the young of animals of either Sex, are + masculine, even when the individual objects they denote are mentioned as + being of the female Sex; as, laogh <i>a calf</i>, isean <i>a gosling</i>, + uan <i>a lamb</i>, &c.<a name="footnotetag30" + href="#footnote30"><sup>[30]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>Diminutives in <i>an</i>; as, rothan <i>a little wheel</i>, dealgan + <i>a little pin</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Derivatives in <i>as</i>, which are, for the most part, abstract + nouns; as, cairdeas <i>friendship</i>, naimhdeas <i>enmity</i>, ciuineas + <i>calmness</i>, breitheamhnas <i>judgment</i>, ceartas <i>justice</i>, + maitheas <i>goodness</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Derivatives in <i>air</i>, <i>ach</i>, <i>iche</i>, which are, for the + most part, agents; as, cealgair <i>a deceiver</i>, sealgair <i>a + huntsman</i>, dorsair <i>a door-keeper</i>, marcach <i>a rider</i>, + maraiche <i>a sailor</i>, coisiche <i>a foot traveller</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Names of such kinds of trees as are natives of Scotland; as, darach + <i>oak</i>, giuthas <i>fir</i>, uimhseann <i>ash</i>.</p> + + <p>Most polysyllables whereof the last vowel is broad, are masculine.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Feminines.</span> Nouns signifying females are + feminine; as, bean <i>a woman</i>, mathair <i>a mother</i>, bo <i>a + cow</i>, &c. Except bainionnach or boirionnach <i>a female</i>, mart + <i>a cow</i>, capull <i>a horse</i> or <i>mare</i>, but commonly <i>a + mare</i>, which are masculine, and caileann or cailinn <i>a damsel</i>, + masculine or feminine.<a name="footnotetag31" + href="#footnote31"><sup>[31]</sup></a> Mark, vi. 28.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page42"></a>{42}</span></p> + + <p>Some nouns denoting a species are feminine, even when the individual + spoken of is characterised as a male; as, gabhar fhirionn, <i>a + he-goat</i>. Psal. l. 9.</p> + + <p>Names of countries; as, Albainn <i>Scotland</i>, Eirinn + <i>Ireland</i>.</p> + + <p>Names of musical instruments; as, clarsach <i>a harp</i>, piob, <i>a + pipe</i>.</p> + + <p>Names of the heavenly bodies; as, Grian <i>sun</i>, Gealach + <i>moon</i>.</p> + + <p>Names of diseases; as, teasach <i>a fever</i>, a' ghriuthach <i>the + measles</i>, a' bhreac <i>the small-pox</i>, a' bhuidheach <i>the + jaundice</i>, a' bhuinneach, <i>a diarrhœa</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Collective names of trees or shrubs are feminine; as, giuthasach <i>a + fir wood</i>, iugharach <i>a yew copse</i>, seileach <i>a willow + copse</i>, droighneach <i>a thorny brake</i>.</p> + + <p>Diminutives in <i>ag</i> or <i>og</i>; as, caileag <i>a girl</i>, + cuachag <i>a little cup</i>.</p> + + <p>Derivatives in <i>achd</i>; as, iomlanachd <i>fulness</i>, + doillearachd <i>duskiness</i>, doimhneachd <i>depth</i>, rioghachd + <i>kingdom</i>, sinnsireachd <i>ancestry</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Abstract nouns formed from the genitive of adjectives; as, doille + <i>blindness</i>, gile <i>whiteness</i>, leisge <i>laziness</i>, buidhre + <i>deafness</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Many monosyllables in <i>ua</i> followed by one or more consonants are + feminine; as, bruach <i>a bank</i>, cruach <i>a heap</i>, cuach <i>a + cup</i>, cluas <i>an ear</i>, gruag <i>the hair of the head</i>, sguab + <i>a sheaf</i>, tuadh <i>a hatchet</i>, tuath <i>peasantry</i>.</p> + + <p>Almost all polysyllables, whereof the last vowel is small, except + those in <i>air</i> and <i>iche</i>, already noticed, are feminine.</p> + + <p>A few nouns are of either gender; Salm <i>a Psalm</i>, creidimh + <i>belief</i>, are used as masculine nouns in some places, and feminine + in others. Cruinne <i>the globe</i>, talamb <i>the earth, land</i>, are + masculine in the nominative; as, an cruinne-cé <i>the globe of the + earth</i>. Psal. lxxxix. 11., xc. 2.—D. Buchan. 1767. p. 12. 15; an + talamh tioram <i>the dry land</i>. Psal. xcv. <!-- Page 43 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page43"></a>{43}</span>5. The same nouns are + generally feminine in the genitive; as, gu crìch na cruinne <i>to the + extremity of the world</i>. Psal. xix. 4.; aghaidh na talmhainn <i>the + face of the earth</i>. Gen. i. 29. Acts xvii. 24.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of Declension.</span></p> + + <p>Nouns undergo certain changes significant of Number and of + Relation.</p> + + <p>The forms significant of Number are two: the <i>Singular</i>, which + denotes one; and the <i>Plural</i>, which denotes any number greater than + one.</p> + + <p>The changes expressive of Relation are made on nouns in two ways: 1. + On the beginning of the noun; 2. On its termination. The relations + denoted by changes on the termination are different from those denoted by + changes on the beginning; they have no necessary connection together; the + one may take place in absence of the other. It seems proper, therefore, + to class the changes on the termination by themselves in one division, + and give it a name, and to class the changes on the beginning also by + themselves in another division, and give it a different name. As the + changes on the termination denote, in general, the same relations which + are denoted by the Greek and Latin cases, that seems a sufficient reason + for adopting the term case into the Gaelic Grammar, and applying it, as + in the Greek and Latin, to signify "the changes made on the + <i>termination</i> of nouns or adjectives to mark relation".<a + name="footnotetag32" href="#footnote32"><sup>[32]</sup></a> According to + this description of them, there are four cases in Gaelic. These may be + <!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page44"></a>{44}</span>named, like the corresponding cases in + Latin, the <i>Nominative</i>, the <i>Genitive</i>, the <i>Dative</i>, and + the <i>Vocative</i>.<a name="footnotetag33" + href="#footnote33"><sup>[33]</sup></a> The Nominative is used when any + person or thing is mentioned as the <i>subject</i> of a proposition or + question, or as the <i>object</i> of an action or affection. The Genitive + corresponds to an English noun preceded by <i>of</i>. The Dative is used + only after a preposition. The Vocative is employed when a person or thing + is addressed.</p> + + <p>The changes on the beginning of nouns are made by aspirating an + initial consonant; that is, writing <i>h</i> after it. This may be called + the <i>Aspirated</i> form of the noun. The aspirated form extends to all + the cases and numbers. A noun, whereof the initial form is not changed by + aspiration, is in the <i>Primary</i> form.</p> + + <p>The <i>accidents</i> of nouns may be briefly stated thus. A noun is + declined by Number, Case, and Initial form. The Numbers are two: + <i>Singular</i> and <i>Plural</i>. The Cases are four: <i>Nominative</i>, + <i>Genitive</i>, <i>Dative</i>, and <i>Vocative</i>. The Initial form is + twofold: the <i>Primary form</i>, and the <i>Aspirated form</i> peculiar + to nouns beginning with a consonant.</p> + + <p>In declining nouns, the formation of the cases is observed to depend + more on the last vowel of the nominative than on <!-- Page 45 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>{45}</span>the final letter. Hence + the last vowel of the nominative, or in general of any declinable word, + may be called the <i>characteristic</i> vowel. The division of the vowels + into <i>broad</i> and <i>small</i> suggests the distribution of nouns + into two Declensions, distinguished by the quality of the characteristic + vowel. The first Declension comprehends those nouns whereof the + <i>characteristic</i> vowel is <i>broad</i>; the second Declension + comprehends those nouns whereof the <i>characteristic</i> vowel is + <i>small</i>.</p> + + <p>The following examples are given of the inflection of nouns of the</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">FIRST DECLENSION.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Nouns of the First Declension." title="Nouns of the First Declension."> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> Bard, mas. <i>a Poet</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bard </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Baird</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Baird </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bard</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bard </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bardaibh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bhaird </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bharda</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br />Cluas, fem. <i>an Ear</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluas </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluasan</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluaise </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluas</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluais </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cluasaibh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chluas </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chluasa</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Formation of the Cases of Nouns of the First Declension.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Singular Number.</i></p> + + <p><i>General Rule for forming the Genitive.</i>—The Genitive is + formed from the Nominative, by inserting <i>i</i> after the + characteristic vowel, as, bàs mas. <i>death</i>, Gen. sing. bàis; fuaran + m. a <i>fountain</i>, g. s. fuarain; clarsach f. <i>a harp</i>, g. s. + clarsaich. Feminine monosyllables likewise add a short <i>e</i> to the + Nominative; as, cluas f. <i>an ear</i>, g. s. cluaise; làmh <i>a + hand</i>, g. s. làimhe<a name="footnotetag34" + href="#footnote34"><sup>[34]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page46"></a>{46}</span></p> + + <p><i>Particular Rules for the Genitive.</i>—1. If the nominative + ends in a vowel, the genitive is like the nominative; as, trà m. <i>a + time</i> or <i>season</i>, g. s. trà; so also beatha f. <i>life</i>, cro + m. <i>a sheepfold</i>, cliu m. <i>fame</i>, duine <i>a man</i>, Donncha + <i>Duncan</i>, a man's name, and many others. Except bo f. <i>a cow</i>, + g. s. boin; cu m. <i>a dog</i>, g. s. coin; bru f. <i>the belly</i>, g. + s. broinn or bronn.</p> + + <p>2. Nouns ending in <i>chd</i> or <i>rr</i> have the genitive like the + nominative; as, uchd m. <i>the breast</i>, sliochd m. <i>offspring</i>, + feachd m. <i>a host</i>, reachd m. <i>statute</i>, cleachd m. + <i>habit</i>, beachd m. <i>vision</i>, smachd m. <i>authority</i>, fuachd + m. <i>cold</i>, sprochd m. <i>gloom</i>, beannachd m. <i>a blessing</i>, + naomhachd f. <i>holiness</i>, earr m. <i>the tail</i>, torr m. <i>a + heap</i>. Except slochd g. s. sluichd m. <i>a pit</i>, unless this word + should rather be written sloc, like boc, cnoc, soc.</p> + + <p>3. Monosyllables ending in <i>gh</i> or <i>th</i> add <i>a</i> for the + genitive; as, lagh m. <i>law</i>, g. s. lagha; roth m. <i>a wheel</i>, g. + s. rotha; sruth m. <i>a stream</i>, g. s. srutha. Except àgh m. + <i>felicity</i>, <i>grace</i>, or <i>charm</i>, g. s. aigh<a + name="footnotetag35" href="#footnote35"><sup>[35]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>4. Monosyllables characterised by <i>io</i> either drop the <i>o</i> + or add <i>a</i> for the genitive; as, siol m. <i>seed</i>, g. s. sìl; + lion m. <i>a net</i>, g. s. lìn; crioch f. <i>a boundary</i>, g. s. + crìch; cioch f. <i>the pap</i>, g. s. cìche; fion m. <i>wine</i>, g. s. + fiona; crios m. <i>a girdle</i>, g. s. criosa; fiodh m. <i>timber</i>, g. + s. fiodha. Except Criost or Criosd m. <i>Christ</i>, which has the gen. + like the nominative.</p> + + <p>5. Many monosyllables, whose characteristic vowel is <i>a</i> or + <i>o</i>, change it into <i>u</i> and insert <i>i</i> after it; as, gob + m. <i>the bill of a bird</i>, g. s. guib; crodh m. <i>kine</i>, g. s. + cruidh; bolg or balg m. <i>a bag</i>, g. s. builg; clog or clag m. <i>a + bell</i>, g. s. cluig; lorg f. <i>a staff</i>, g. s. luirge; long f. <i>a + ship</i>, g. s. luinge; alt m. <i>a <!-- Page 47 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page47"></a>{47}</span>joint</i>, g. s. uilt; + alld m. <i>a rivulet</i>, g. s. uilld; car m. <i>a turn</i>, g. s. cuir; + carn m. <i>a heap of stones</i>, g. s. cuirn. So also ceol m. + <i>music</i>, g. s. ciuil; seol m. <i>a sail</i>, g. s. siuil. Except + nouns in <i>on</i> and a few feminines, which follow the general rule; + as, bròn m. <i>sorrow</i>, g. s. bròin; lòn m. <i>food</i>, g. s. lòin; + cloch or clach f. <i>a stone</i>, g. s. cloiche; cos or cas f. <i>the + foot</i>, g. s. coise; bròg f. <i>a shoe</i>, g. s. bròige. So also clann + f. <i>children</i>, g. s. cloinne; crann m. <i>a tree</i>, g. s. croinn. + Mac m. <i>a son</i>, has its g. s. mic.</p> + + <p>6. Polysyllables characterised by <i>ea</i> change <i>ea</i> into + <i>i</i>; as, fitheach m. <i>a raven</i>, g. s. fithich; cailleach f. + <i>an old woman</i>, g. s. caillich<a name="footnotetag36" + href="#footnote36"><sup>[36]</sup></a>. These two suffer a syncope, and + add <i>e</i>; buidheann f. <i>a company</i>, g. s. buidhne; sitheann f. + <i>venison</i>, g. s. sithne.</p> + + <p>Of monosyllables characterised by <i>ea</i>, some throw away <i>a</i> + and insert <i>i</i>; as, each m. <i>a horse</i>, g. s. eich; beann f. + <i>a peak</i>, g. s. beinne; fearg f. <i>anger</i>, g. s. feirge. Some + change <i>ea</i> into <i>i</i>; as, breac m. <i>a trout</i>, g. s. bric; + fear m. <i>a man</i>, g. s. fir; ceann m. <i>a head</i>, <i>end</i>, g. + s. cinn; preas m. <i>a bush</i>, g. s. pris; breac f. <i>the + small-pox</i>, g. s. brice; cearc f. <i>a hen</i>, g. s. circe; leac f. + <i>a flag</i>, g. s. lice. Gleann m. <i>a valley</i>, adds <i>e</i>, g. + s. glinne. Some add <i>a</i> to the nominative; as, speal m. <i>a + scythe</i>, g. s. speala. Dream f. <i>people</i>, <i>race</i>, gean m. + <i>humour</i>, have their genitive like the nominative. Feall f. + <i>deceit</i>, g. s. foill or feill. Geagh m. <i>a goose</i>, makes g. s. + geoigh.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>{48}</span></p> + + <p>7. Nouns in <i>eu</i> followed by a liquid, change <i>u</i> into + <i>o</i> and insert <i>i</i> after it; as, neul m. <i>a cloud</i>, g. s. + neoil, eun m. <i>a bird</i>, g. s. eoin; feur m. <i>grass</i>, g. s. + feoir; meur m. <i>a finger</i>, g. s. meoir; leus m. <i>a torch</i>, g. + s. leois. Beul m. <i>the mouth</i>, g. s. beil or beoil; sgeul. m. <i>a + tale</i>, g. s. sgeil or sgeoil. Other nouns characterised by <i>eu</i> + add <i>a</i> for the gen., as, treud m. <i>a flock</i>, g. s. treuda; + feum m. <i>use</i>, <i>need</i>, g. s. feuma; beum m. <i>a stroke</i>, g. + s. beuma. Meud m. <i>bulk</i>, beuc m. <i>a roar</i>, freumh f. <i>a + fibre</i>, <i>root</i>, hardly admit of <i>a</i>, but have their gen. + rather like the nom.</p> + + <p>8. Monosyllables characterised by <i>ia</i> change <i>ia</i> into + <i>ei</i>; as, sliabh m. <i>a moor</i>, g. s. sleibh; fiadh m. <i>a + deer</i>, g. s. feidh; biadh m. <i>food</i>, g. s. beidh or bidh; iasg m. + <i>fish</i>, g. s. <span class="correction" title="Original reads `eifg'." + >eisg</span>; grian f. <i>the sun</i>, g. s. greine; sgiath f. <i>a + wing</i>, g. s. sgeithe. Except Dia m. <i>God</i>, g. s. De; sgian f. + <i>a knife</i>, g. s. sgine.</p> + + <p>Piuthar f. <i>a sister</i>, has g. s. peathar; leanabh m. <i>a + child</i>, g. s. leinibh; ceathramh m. <i>a fourth part</i>, g. s. + ceithrimh, leabaidh or leaba f. <i>a bed</i>, g. s. leapa; talamh m. + <i>earth</i>, g. s. talmhainn.</p> + + <p>The <i>Dative</i> singular of masculine nouns is like the nominative; + of feminine nouns, is like the genitive; as, tobar m. <i>a well</i>, d. + s. tobar; clarsach f. <i>a harp</i>, g. s. and d. s. clarsaich; misneach + f. <i>courage</i>, g. s. and d. s. misnich.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><i>Particular Rules for the Dative of Feminine Nouns.</i>—1. If + <i>e</i> was added to the nominative in forming the genitive, it is + thrown away in the dative; as, slat f. <i>a rod</i>, g. s. + slaite—d. s. slait; grian f. <i>the sun</i>, g. s. greine, d. s. + grein.</p> + + <p>2. If the nominative suffered a syncope in forming the genitive, or if + the last vowel of the genitive is broad, the dative is like the + nominative; as, buidheann f. <i>a company</i>, g. s. buidhne, d. s. + buidheann; piuthar f. <i>a sister</i>, g. s. peathar, d. s. piuthar.</p> + + <p>The <i>Vocative</i> of masc. nouns is like the genitive; of feminine + nouns is like the nominative; as, bàs m. <i>death</i>, g. s. bàis, v. s. + bhais; cu m. <i>a dog</i>, g. s. coin, v. s. choin; grian f. <i>the + sun</i>, v. s. ghaoth. <!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page49"></a>{49}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Plural Number.</i></p> + + <p><i>Nominative.</i> Masculine nouns which insert <i>i</i> in the gen. + sing. have their nom. plur. like the gen. sing.; as, oglach m. <i>a + servant</i>, g. s. oglaich, n. p. oglaich; fear m. <i>a man</i>, g. s. + and n. p. fir. Many of these form their nom. plur. also by adding a short + <i>a</i> to the nominative singular. Other masculine nouns, and all + feminine nouns, have their nom. plural in <i>a</i>, to which <i>n</i> is + added, <i>euphoniæ causa</i>, before an initial vowel<a + name="footnotetag37" href="#footnote37"><sup>[37]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><i>Particular Rules</i> for forming the Nom. Plur. in <i>a</i> or + <i>an</i>.</p> + + <p>1. By adding <i>a</i> to the nom. singular; as, dubhar m. <i>a + shadow</i>, n. p. dubhara; rioghachd f. <i>a kingdom</i>, n. p. + rioghachdan. Under this Rule, some nouns suffer a syncope; as, dorus m. + <i>a door</i>, n. p. dorsa for dorusa.</p> + + <p>2. Nouns ending in <i>l</i> or <i>nn</i>, often insert <i>t</i> before + <i>a</i>; as, reul m. <i>a star</i>, n. p. reulta; beann f. <i>a + pinnacle</i>, n. p. beannta. So lòn m. <i>a marsh</i>, n. p. + lòintean.</p> + + <p>3. Some nouns in <i>ar</i> drop the <i>a</i>, and add to the nom. + sing. the syllable <i>aich</i>; and then the final <i>a</i> becomes + <i>e</i>, to correspond to the preceding small vowel; as, leabhar m. <i>a + book</i>, n. p. leabhraiche; tobar m. <i>a well</i>, n. p. tobraiche; + lann. f. <i>an enclosure</i>, inserts <i>d</i>, n. p. lanndaiche. Piuthar + f. <i>a sister</i>, from the g. s. peathar, has n. p. peathraiche; so + leaba f. <i>a bed</i>, g. s. leapa, n. p. leapaiche. Bata m. <i>a + staff</i>, n. p. batacha; la or latha <i>a day</i>, n. p. lathachan or + laithean.</p> + + <p>4. Some polysyllables in <i>ach</i> add <i>e</i> or <i>ean</i> to the + genitive singular; as, mullach m. <i>summit</i>, g. s. mullaich, n. p. + mullaichean; otrach m. <i>a dunghill</i>, n. p. otraichean; clarsach f. + <i>a harp</i>, n. p. clarsaichean; deudach f. <i>the jaw</i>, n. p. + deudaichean. So sliabh m. <i>a moor</i>, g. s. sleibh, with <i>t</i> <!-- + Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page50"></a>{50}</span>inserted, n. p. sleibhte. Sabhul m. <i>a + barn</i>, g. s. sabhuil, n. p. saibhlean, contracted for sabhuilean.</p> + + <p>The following Nouns form their Nominative Plural irregularly: Dia m. + <i>God</i>, n. p. dée or diathan; scian f. <i>a knife</i>, n. p. sceana + or scinichean; sluagh m. <i>people</i>, n. p. sloigh; bo. f. <i>a + cow</i>, n. p. ba.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><i>Genitive.</i> 1. Monosyllables, and nouns which form their + nominative plural like the genitive singular, have the genitive plural + like the nominative singular; as, geug f. <i>a branch</i>, g. p. geug; + coimhearsnach m. <i>a neighbour</i>, g. s. and n. p. coimhearsnach.</p> + + <p>2. Polysyllables which have their nominative plural in <i>a</i> or + <i>an</i>, form the genitive like the nominative; leabhar m. <i>a + book</i>, <span class="correction" title="Missing in original, taken from 1812 edition." + >n. p. and g. p. 'leabraichean'—When the nominative plural is + twofold, the genitive is so too; as 'fear' n. <i>a man</i>,</span> n. p. + fir, or sometimes feara, g. p. fear or feara.</p> + + <p>Cu m. <i>a dog</i> has its g. p. con; caora f. <i>a sheep</i>, g. p. + caorach; sluagh m. <i>people</i>, g. p. sluagh or slogh.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p><i>Dative.</i> The dative plural is formed either from the nominative + singular or from the nominative plural. If the nominative plural ends in + a consonant, the dative plural is formed by adding <i>ibh</i> to the + nominative singular; as, crann m. <i>a tree</i>, n. p. croinn, d. p. + crannaibh; mac m. <i>a son</i>, n. p. mic, d. p. macaibh. If the + nominative plural ends in a vowel, the final vowel is changed into + <i>ibh</i>; as, tobar <i>a well</i>, n. p. tobraiche, d. p. + tobraichibh.</p> + + <p>2. Monosyllables ending in an aspirated consonant, which have their + nominative plural like the genitive singular, form their dative plural + like the nominative plural; as, damh <i>an ox</i>, g. s. and n. p. daimh, + d. p. daimh, not damhaibh; fiadh m. <i>a deer</i>, g. s. and n. p. and d. + p. feidh. So sluagh m. <i>people</i>, <i>host</i>, g. s. sluaigh, n. p. + and d. p. sloigh. Nouns ending in <i>ch</i>, of three or more syllables, + form their dative plural like the nominative plural, rather than in + <i>ibh</i>; as, coimhearsnach m. <i>a neighbour</i>, d. p. coimhearsnaich + rather than coimhearsnachaibh; phairiseach m. <i>a Pharisee</i>, d. p. + phairisich rather than <span class="correction" title="Original reads `phairseachaibh'." + >phairiseachaibh</span>. <!-- Page 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page51"></a>{51}</span></p> + + <p><i>Vocative.</i> The vocative plural is like the nominative plural, + terminating in <i>a</i>, but seldom in <i>an</i>; as, fear m. <i>a + man</i>, n. p. fir or feara, v. p. <i>fheara</i>; oglach m. <i>a + servant</i>, n. p. <i>oglaich</i>, v. p. <i>oglacha</i>. Except perhaps + monosyllables which never form their nominative plural in <i>a</i>, nor + their dative plural in <i>ibh</i>; as, damh m. <i>an ox</i>, n. p. daimh, + v. p. dhaimh; a shloigh, Rom. xv. 11.</p> + + <p>The irregular noun Bean f. <i>a woman</i>, is declined thus:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The irregular noun Bean." title="The irregular noun Bean."> +<tr><td colspan="2"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bean </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mnai, mnathan</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mna </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Ban</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mnaoi </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mnathaibh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bhean. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mhnathan.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">SECOND DECLENSION.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Nouns of the Second Declension." title="Nouns of the Second Declension."> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> Cealgair, mas. <i>a deceiver</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgair </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgaire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgair </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgair</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgair </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Cealgairibh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chealgair. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chealgaire.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br />Clais, fem. <i>a gully</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Clais </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Claisean</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Claise </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Clais</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Clais </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Claisibh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chlais. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Chlaise.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Formation of the cases of nouns of the second Declension.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Singular Number.</i></p> + + <p><i>General Rule for the Genitive.</i> The genitive of polysyllables is + like the nominative; of monosyllables is made by adding <i>e</i> to the + nominative; as, caraid m. <i>a friend</i>, g. s. caraid; aimsir f. + <i>time</i>, g. s. aimsir; tigh m. <i>a house</i>, g. s. tighe; ainm m. + <i>a name,</i> g. s. ainme; im m. <i>butter</i>, g. s. ime; craig f. <i>a + rock</i>, g. s. craige. <!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page52"></a>{52}</span></p> + + <p><i>Particular Rules for the Genitive.</i> 1. Feminine nouns in + <i>ail</i> and <i>air</i> drop the <i>i</i> and add <i>ach</i>; if the + nominative be a polysyllable, <i>ai</i> is thrown away; as, sail f. <i>a + beam</i>, g. s. salach; dail f. <i>a plain</i>, g. s. dalach; lair f. + <i>a mare</i>, g. s. làrach; cathair f. <i>a seat</i>, g. s. cathrach; + nathair f. <i>a serpent</i>, g. s. nathrach; lasair f. <i>a flame</i>, g. + s. lasrach. To these add còir f. <i>right</i>, g. s. còrach or còire.</p> + + <p>2. Monosyllables characterised by <i>oi</i> drop <i>i</i> and add + <i>a</i>; as, feoil f. <i>flesh</i>, g. s. feola; tòin f. <i>bottom</i>, + g. s. tòna; sròin f. <i>the nose</i>, g. s. sròine or sròna.</p> + + <p>3. Monosyllables characterised by <i>ui</i> change <i>ui</i> into + <i>a</i> or <i>o</i>, and add <i>a</i>; as, muir f. <i>the sea</i>, g. s. + mara; fuil f. <i>blood</i>, g. s. fola or fala; druim f. <i>a ridge</i>, + g. s. droma. Except sùil f. <i>the eye</i>, g. s. sùla; cuid f. <i>a + part</i>, g. s. codach or cuid.</p> + + <p>4. A few feminine polysyllables in <i>eir</i> form their genitive like + monosyllables; as, inneir f. <i>dung</i>, g. s. inneire; suipeir f. + <i>supper</i>, g. s. suipeire.</p> + + <p>5. The following dissyllables seem to have formed their genitive like + monosyllables, and then suffered a contraction. Sometimes the + characteristic vowel is retained, and sometimes it is thrown away, the + final <i>e</i> of the genitive being converted into <i>a</i>, when + requisite to suit an antecedent broad vowel.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Dissyllables with genitive -e, contracted." title="Dissyllables with genitive -e, contracted."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Amhainn, f. <i>a river</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. aimhne, <i>contracted for</i> </td><td class="nspac"> amhainne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Aghainn, Aghann f. <i>a pan</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. aighne, </td><td class="nspac"> aghainne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Banais f. <i>a wedding</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. bainse, </td><td class="nspac"> banaise</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Coluinn f. <i>the body</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. colna, colla </td><td class="nspac"> coluinne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Duthaich f. <i>a country</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. duthcha, </td><td class="nspac"> duthaiche</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Fiacail f. <i>a tooth</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. fiacla, </td><td class="nspac"> fiacaile</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Gamhuinn m. <i>a steer</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. gamhna, </td><td class="nspac"> gamhuinne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Gualainn f. <i>the shoulder</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. guaille, </td><td class="nspac"> gualainne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Madainn f. <i>morning</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. maidne, </td><td class="nspac"> madainne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Obair f. <i>work</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. oibre, </td><td class="nspac"> obaire</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Uilinn f. <i>the elbow</i>, </td><td class="nspac"> g. s. uillne, </td><td class="nspac"> uilinne</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>{53}</span></p> + + <p>6. The following nouns form their genitive by dropping the + characteristic small vowel; athair m. <i>a father</i>, g. s. athar; + mathair f. <i>a mother</i>, g. s. <span class="correction" + title="Original reads `mathair'.">mathar</span>; brathair m. <i>a + brother</i>, g. s. brathar; namhaid m. <i>an enemy</i>, g. s. namhad. + Cnaimh m. <i>a bone</i>, g. s. cnamha; uaimh f. <i>a cave</i>, g. s. + uamha. Mil f. <i>honey</i>, has g. s. meala.</p> + + <p>7. A few monosyllables ending in a vowel have their genitive like the + nominative; as, ni m. <i>a thing</i>, ti m. <i>a person</i>, ré m. <i>the + moon</i>; to which add righ m. <i>a king</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Dative.</i> The dative singular is like the nominative; as, duine + m. <i>a man</i>, d. s. duine; madainn f. <i>morning</i>, d. s. + madainn.</p> + + <p><i>Vocative.</i> The vocative singular is like the nominative, as, + caraid m. <i>friend</i>, v. s. charaid; mathair f. <i>mother</i>, v. s. + mhathair.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Plural Number.</i></p> + + <p><i>Nominative.—General Rule.</i> The nominative plural is formed + by adding to the nominative singular <i>a</i> or <i>an</i>, written + <i>e</i> or <i>ean</i> to correspond to a preceding small vowel; as, + piobair m. <i>a piper</i>, n. p. piobairean; aimsir f. <i>time</i>, + <i>season</i>, n. p. aimsirean. Some nouns suffer a contraction in the + nominative plural; as, caraid m. <i>a friend</i>, n. p. càirdean; + naimhaid m. <i>an enemy</i>, n. p. naimhdean; fiacail f. <i>a tooth</i>, + n. p. fiaclan.</p> + + <p><i>Particular Rules.</i> 1. Some nouns, whose last consonant is + <i>l</i> or <i>n</i>, insert <i>t</i> in the nominative plural; as, tuil + f. <i>a flood</i>, n. p. tuilte; smuain f. <i>thought</i>, n. p. + smuaintean; coille f. <i>a wood</i>, n. p. coilltean; àithne f. <i>a + command</i>, n. p. àithnte. The <i>t</i> is aspirated in dail f. <i>a + plain</i>, n. p. dailthean; sail f. <i>a beam</i>, n. p. sailthean.</p> + + <p>2. Some nouns in <i>air</i>, chiefly such as form their genitive + singular in <i>ach</i>, retain the same syllable in the nominative + plural, and insert <i>i</i> after <i>a</i>; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Nouns in -air with plural -aich-." title="Nouns in -air with plural -aich-."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Cathair, f. <i>a seat</i>, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> g. s. cathrach, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> n. p. cathraichean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Lasair, f. <i>a flame</i>, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> g. s. lasrach, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> n. p. lasraichean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Nathair, f. <i>a serpent</i>, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> g. s. nathrach, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> n. p. nathraichean.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page54"></a>{54}</span></p> + + <p>So also cuid f. <i>a part</i>, from the g. s. codach, has the n. p. + codaichean; athair m. <i>a father</i>, n. p. aithrichean; mathair f. <i>a + mother</i>, n. p. maithrichean. To which add amhainn f. <i>a river</i>, + n. p. aimhnichean; uisge m. <i>water</i>, n. p. uisgeachan; cridhe m. + <i>the heart</i>, n. p. cridheachan.</p> + + <p>The following nouns form their nominative plural irregularly; duine m. + <i>a man</i>, n. p. daoine; righ m. <i>a king</i>, n. p. righre; ni m. + <i>a thing</i>, n. p. nithe; cliamhuinn m. <i>a son-in-law</i>, or + <i>brother-in-law</i>, n. p. cleamhna.</p> + + <p><i>Genitive.</i> The genitive plural of monosyllables and masculine + polysyllables is twofold, like the nominative singular, and like the + nominative plural; as, righ m. <i>a king</i>, g. p. righ or righre. The + genitive plural of feminine polysyllables is like the nominative plural + only; as, amhainn f. <i>a river</i>, g. p. aimhnichean. Suil f. <i>the + eye</i>, has its g. p. sùl.</p> + + <p><i>Dative.</i> The dative plural is formed from the nominative plural + by changing the final vowel into <i>ibh</i>; as, coluinn f. <i>the + body</i>, n. p. coluinne, d. p. coluinnibh; cridhe m. <i>the heart</i>, + n. p. cridheacha, d. p. cridheachaibh.</p> + + <p><i>Vocative.</i> The vocative plural is like the nominative plural; + as, duine m. <i>a man</i>, n. p. daoine, v. p. dhaoine.</p> + + <p>Final <i>a</i> or <i>e</i> in all the singular cases of polysyllables + is occasionally cut off, especially in verse; as, leab <i>bed</i>, teang + <i>tongue</i>, coill <i>wood</i>, cridh <i>heart</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Of the Initial form of Nouns.</i></p> + + <p>In nouns beginning with a consonant, all the cases admit of the + <i>aspirated form</i>. In the vocative singular and plural the aspirated + form alone is used, except in nouns beginning with a lingual, which are + generally in the primary form, when preceded by a lingual; as, a sheann + duine <i>old man</i>. Nouns beginning with <i>s</i> followed by a mute + consonant have no aspirated form, because <i>s</i> in that situation does + not admit of the aspirate. In nouns beginning with <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, + <i>r</i>, a distinction is uniformly observed in pronouncing the initial + consonant, corresponding precisely to the distinction of primary and <!-- + Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page55"></a>{55}</span>aspirated forms in nouns beginning with + other consonants. This distinction has already been fully stated in + treating of pronunciation.</p> + + <p>The general use of the singular and plural numbers has been already + mentioned. A remarkable exception occurs in the Gaelic. When the numerals + fichead <i>twenty</i>, ceud <i>a hundred</i>, mile <i>a thousand</i>, are + prefixed to a noun, the noun is not put in the plural, but in the + singular number, and admits no variation of case. The termination of a + noun preceded by da <i>two</i>, is the same with that of the dative + singular, except when the noun is governed in the genitive case, and then + it is put in the genitive plural<a name="footnotetag38" + href="#footnote38"><sup>[38]</sup></a>; when preceded by fichead, ceud, + &c., the termination is that of the nominative singular; thus da + laimh <i>two hands</i>, da chluais <i>two ears</i>, dà fhear <i>two + men</i>, fichead làmh <i>twenty hands</i>, ceud fear <i>a hundred + men</i>, mìle caora <i>a thousand sheep</i>, deich mìle bliadhna <i>ten + thousand years</i><a name="footnotetag39" + href="#footnote39"><sup>[39]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF ADJECTIVES.</p> + + <p>An adjective is a word used along with a noun, to express some quality + of the person or thing signified by the noun.</p> + + <p>Adjectives undergo changes which mark their relation to other words. + These changes are made, like those on nouns, partly on the beginning, and + partly on the termination, and may be fitly denominated by the same + names. The changes on the beginning are made by aspirating an initial + consonant. The numbers and cases, like those of nouns, are distinguished + by changes on the termination. The gender is marked partly by the initial + form, partly by the termination.</p> + + <p>Adjectives whereof the characteristic vowel is broad, follow, <!-- + Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"></a>{56}</span>in most + of their inflections, the form of nouns of the first declension, and may + be termed Adjectives of the first declension. Those adjectives whereof + the characteristic vowel is small, may be called Adjectives of the second + declension.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Example of Adjectives of the First Declension.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Nouns in -air with plural -aich-." title="Nouns in -air with plural -aich-."> +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"> Mòr, <i>great</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> Singular. </td> <td class="spacsingle"> Plural</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"> <i>Mas.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Com. Gend.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mhor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mora.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Moire, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mora.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mora.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Mhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mhor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mora.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Formation of the Cases of Adjectives of the First Declension.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Singular.</i></p> + + <p><i>Nominative.</i> The feminine gender is, in termination, like the + masculine.</p> + + <p>The other cases, both mas. and fem., are formed from the nominative, + according to the rules already given for forming the cases of nouns of + the first declension. Take the following examples in + adjectives:—</p> + + <p><i>Genitive.</i>—<i>General rule.</i> Marbh <i>dead</i>, g. s. + m. mhairbh, f. mairbhe; dubh <i>black</i>, g. s. m. dhuibh, f. duibhe; + fadalach <i>tedious</i>, g. s. m. fhadalaich, f. fadalaich.</p> + + <p><i>Particular rules.</i> 1. Sona <i>happy</i>, g. s. m. shona, f. + sona; aosda <i>aged</i>, g. s. m. and f. aosda; beo <i>alive</i>, g. s. + m. bheo, f. beo.</p> + + <p>2. Bochd <i>poor</i>, g. s. m. bhochd, f. bochd; gearr <i>short</i>, + g. s. m. ghearr, f. gearr.</p> + + <p>3. Breagh <i>fine</i>, g. s. m. bhreagha, f. breagha.</p> + + <p>4. Crion <i>little</i>, <i>diminutive</i>, g. s. m. chrìn, f. + crìne.</p> + + <p>5. Donn <i>brown</i>, g. s. m. dhuinn, f. duinne; gorm <i>blue</i>, g. + s. m. ghuirm, f. guirme; lom <i>bare</i>, g. s. m. luim, f. luime. <!-- + Page 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"></a>{57}</span>But dall + <i>blind</i>, g. s. m. dhoill, f. doille; mall <i>slow</i>, g. s. m. + mhoill, f. moille; like the nouns crann, clann.</p> + + <p>6. Cinnteach <i>certain</i>, g. s. m. chinntich, f. cinntich; maiseach + <i>beautiful</i>, g. s. m. mhaisich, f. maisich. Tearc <i>rare</i>, g. s. + m, theirc, f. teirce; dearg <i>red</i>, g. s. m. dheirg, f. deirge; deas + <i>ready</i>, g. s. m. dheis, f. deise. Breac <i>speckled</i>, g. s. m, + bhric, f. brice; geal <i>white</i>, g. s. m. ghil, f. gile.</p> + + <p>7. Geur <i>sharp</i>, g. s. m. ghéir, f. géire; like the nouns breug, + geug.</p> + + <p>8. Liath <i>hoary</i>, g. s. m. leith, f. léithe; dian <i>keen</i>, g. + s. m. dhéin, f. déine.</p> + + <p>Irregulars. Odhar <i>pale</i>, g. s. m. and f. uidhir; bodhar + <i>deaf</i>, g. s. m. bhuidhir, f. buidhir.</p> + + <p><i>Dative.</i>—<i>General rule.</i> Uasal <i>noble</i>, d. s. m. + uasal f. uasail; bodhar <i>deaf</i>, d. s. m. bodhar, f. bhuidhir.</p> + + <p><i>Particular rule.</i> 1. Trom <i>heavy</i>, d. s. m. trom, f. + thruim.</p> + + <p><i>Vocative.</i> Beag <i>small</i>, v. s. m. bhig, f. bheag.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Plural.</i></p> + + <p>In Monosyllables the plural, through all its cases, is formed by + adding <i>a</i> to the nom. sing.; in Polysyllables, it is like the nom. + sing.; as, crom <i>crooked</i>, pl. croma; tuirseach <i>melancholy</i>, + pl. tuirseach.</p> + + <p>A few Dissyllables form their Plural like Monosyllables, and suffer a + contraction; as, reamhar <i>fat</i>, pl. reamhra, contracted for + reamhara. Gen. xli. 20.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Adjectives of the Second Declension.</i></p> + + <p>All the Cases of Adjectives of the Second Declension are formed + according to the general rules for nouns of the second declension; that + is, Monosyllables add <i>e</i> for the gen. sing. fem. and for the plural + cases; Polysyllables are like the nom. sing. throughout.</p> + + <p>In the Second Declension, as in the First, Dissyllables sometimes + suffer a contraction in the plural; as, milis <i>sweet</i>, pl. milse + contracted for milise. <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page58"></a>{58}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Of the Initial Form of Adjectives.</i></p> + + <p>Adjectives admit the <i>aspirated form</i> through all the Numbers and + Cases. In Adjectives beginning with a Labial or a Palatal, the aspirated + form alone is used in the gen. and voc. sing. masc. the nom. dat. and + voc. sing. feminine.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Comparison of Adjectives.</i></p> + + <p>There are in Gaelic two forms of Comparison, which may be called the + <i>First</i> and the <i>Second Comparative</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>First Comparative</i> is formed from the gen. sing. mas. by + adding <i>e</i>; as, geal <i>white</i>, g. s. m. gil, comp. gile, ghile; + ciontach <i>guilty</i>, g. s. m. ciontaich, comp. ciontaiche. Some + Adjectives suffer a contraction in the Comparative; as, bodhar + <i>deaf</i>, comp. buidhre for buidhire; boidheach <i>pretty</i>, comp. + boidhche for boidhiche.</p> + + <p>If the last letter of the gen. be <i>a</i>, it is changed into + <i>e</i>, and <i>i</i> inserted before the last consonant; as, fada + <i>long</i>, g. s. m. fada, comp. faide; tana <i>thin</i>, g. s. m. tana, + comp. taine.</p> + + <p><i>The Second Comparative</i> is formed from the first, by changing + final <i>e</i> into <i>id</i>; as, trom <i>heavy</i>, 1. comp. truime, 2. + comp. truimid; tiugh <i>thick</i>, 1. comp. tiuighe, 2. comp. tiuighid. + Many Adjectives, especially Polysyllables, do not admit of the Second + Comparative.</p> + + <p>Both these forms of Comparison have an <i>aspirated</i> as well as a + <i>primary form</i>, but are otherwise indeclinable.</p> + + <p>The following Adjectives are compared irregularly.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Irregular Comparatives." title="Irregular Comparatives."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Positive.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Math, maith, <i>good</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> fearr, </td><td class="spacsingle"> feaird.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Olc, <i>bad, evil</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> miosa, </td><td class="spacsingle"> misd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Mòr, <i>great</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> mò, </td><td class="spacsingle"> mòid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Beag, <i>small</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> lugha, </td><td class="spacsingle"> lughaid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Goirid, gearr, <i>short</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> giorra, </td><td class="spacsingle"> giorraid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Duilich, <i>difficult</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> dorra.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Teath, <i>hot</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> teoithe, </td><td class="spacsingle"> teoithid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Leathan, <i>broad</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> leatha, lèithne.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 59 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>{59}</span> + Fogus, <i>near</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> foisge.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Càirdeach, <i>akin</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> càra.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Furas, <i>easy</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> fhusa,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Toigh, <i>dear</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> docha.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ionmhuinn, <i>beloved</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> annsa, ionnsa.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>To these may be added the nouns—</p> + + <p>Moran <i>a great number</i> or <i>quantity</i>, and Tuilleadh + <i>more</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Superlative</i>, which is but a particular mode of expressing + comparison, is the same in form with the First Comparative.</p> + + <p>An eminent degree of any quality is expressed by putting one of the + particles ro, glé, before the Positive; as, ro ghlic <i>very wise</i>, + glé gheal <i>very white</i>. The same effect is produced by prefixing + fior <i>true</i>, sàr <i>exceeding</i>, &c., which words are, in that + case, used adverbially; as, fior mhaiseach <i>truly beautiful</i>, sàr + mhaith <i>exceedingly good</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Cardinal Numbers.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Cardinal Numbers." title="Cardinal Numbers."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon, a h-aon, <i>one</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 40</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 2</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà, a dhà </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 50</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich is dà fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 3</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 60</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 4</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceithir. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 100</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 5</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Cuig. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 200</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà cheud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 6</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sè, sia. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 300</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri ceud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 7</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Seachd. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 400</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceithir cheud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 8</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ochd. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 500</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Cuig ceud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 9</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Naoi. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 10</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 2,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà mhìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 11</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon deug. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 3,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 12</td><td class="qspcsingle"> A dhà dheug. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 10,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 13</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri deug. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 20,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fichead mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 20</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 100,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 21</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon thar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 200,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà cheud mìle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 22</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dha 'ar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1,000,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich ceud mìle,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 23</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri 'ar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mìle de mhìltibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 30</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich 'ar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> &c. &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 31</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon deug thar fhichead.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 60 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>{60}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun." title="Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> </td><td align="center"> Of the mas. gender. </td><td align="center"> Of the fem. gender.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon fhear, <i>one man</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon chlach, <i>one stone</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 2</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà chloich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 3</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fir. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri clachan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 10</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich fir. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich clachan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 11</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon fhear deug. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon chlach dheug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 12</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhear dheug. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà chloich dheug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 13</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fir dheug. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri clachan deug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 20</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fichead fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fichead clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 21</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon fhear thar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon chlach thar fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 22</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhear thar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà chloich thar fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 23</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fir fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri clacha fichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 30</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich fir fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich clacha fichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 31</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon fhear deug 'ar fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aon chlach dheug thar fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 40</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhichead fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhichead clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 41</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fear is dà fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Clach is dà fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 42</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà fhear is dà fhichead. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dà chloich is da fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 50</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich is dà fhichead fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich is da fhichead clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 60</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fichead fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fichead clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 70</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fichead fear agus deich. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri fichead clach agus deich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 100</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 101</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud fear agus a h-aon. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceud clach agus a h-aon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> <span class="correction" title="Original reads `309'.">300</span> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri cheud fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tri cheud clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mìle fear. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mìle clach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 10,000</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich mìle fear, &c. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Deich mìle clach, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Ordinal Numbers.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Ordinal Numbers." title="Ordinal Numbers."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An ceud fhear, <i>the first man</i>; a' cheud chlach, <i>the first stone</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 2 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An dara fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 3 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An treas fear, an tri-amh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 4 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An ceathramh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 5 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An cuigeamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 6 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An seathamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 7 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An seachdamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> +<!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page61"></a>{61}</span> + 8 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An t-ochdamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 9 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An naothamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 10 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An deicheamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 11 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An t-aon fear deug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 12 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An dara fear deug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 20 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Am ficheadamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 21 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An t-aon fhear fichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 22 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An dara fear fichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 31 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An t-aon fhear deug thar fhichead.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 40 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An dà fhicheadamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 60 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An tri ficheadamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 100 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An ceudamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 101 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An t-aon fhear thar cheud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> <span class="correction" title="Original reads `200'.">120</span> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Am ficheadamh fear thar cheud.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 200 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> An da cheudamh fear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" align="right"> 1000 </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Am mìleamh fear, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The following numeral Nouns are applied only to persons:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Numeral Nouns applied to persons." title="Numeral Nouns applied to persons."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2. Dithis, <i>two persons</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 7. Seachdnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3. Triuir. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 8. Ochdnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 4. Ceathrar. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 9. Naoinar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 5. Cuignear. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 10. Deichnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 6. Sèanar.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF PRONOUNS.</p> + + <p>The <i>Pronouns</i> are, for the most part, words used instead of + nouns. They may be arranged under the following divisions: Personal, + Possessive, Relative, Demonstrative, Interrogative, Indefinite, + Compound.</p> + + <p>The <i>Personal Pronouns</i> are those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons. + They have a Singular and a Plural Number, a Simple and an Emphatic Form. + They are declined thus:— <!-- Page 62 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page62"></a>{62}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Personal Pronouns." title="Personal Pronouns."> +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"><i>Singular.</i></td><td colspan="4" align="center"><i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"><i>Simple Form.</i></td><td colspan="2"><i>Emphat. F.</i></td><td colspan="2"><i>Simple F.</i></td><td colspan="4"><i>Emphat.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mi, mhi, <i>I</i>, <i>me</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mise, mhise. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinn, <i>we</i>, <i>us</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinne.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> 2.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Th, thu, <i>thou</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Tusa, thusa. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Sibh, <i>ye</i>, <i>you</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Sibhse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Thu, <i>thee</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="4"> 3.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="4"><a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:9ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle"> E, se, <i>he</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Esan.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> E, <i>him</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I, si, <i>she</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Ise. </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iad, siad, <i>they</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> Iadsan<a name="footnotetag40" href="#footnote40"><sup>[40]</sup></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I, <i>her</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iad, <i>them,</i> </td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The Pronoun 'sibh' <i>you</i>, of the plural number is used almost + universally in addressing a single person of superior rank or of greater + age; while 'tu' <i>thou</i>, of the singular number is used in addressing + an inferior or an equal. But the degree of seniority or of superiority, + which is understood to entitle a person to this token of respect, varies + in different parts of the Highlands<a name="footnotetag41" + href="#footnote41"><sup>[41]</sup></a>. The Supreme Being is always + addressed by the pronoun 'tu' <i>thou</i>, of the singular number.</p> + + <p>The <i>Possessive Pronouns</i> correspond to the Personal Pronouns, + and, like them, may be called those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons + singular, and 1st, 2d, and 3d persons plural. They have an Emphatic Form, + which is made by connecting the syllable <i>sa</i> with the possessive + pronoun of the 1st, 2d, <!-- Page 63 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page63"></a>{63}</span>and 3d persons singular, and 2d person + plural; <i>ne</i> with that of the 1st person plural, and <i>san</i> with + that of the 3d person plural. These syllables are placed immediately + after the nouns to which the possessive pronouns are prefixed, and + connected by a hyphen.</p> + + <p>These Pronouns are as follow:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Possessive Pronouns." title="Possessive Pronouns."> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Simple.</i></td><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Emphatic.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Simple.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Emphatic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"><i>Singular.</i></td><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mo, <i>my</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mo mhac-sa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Ar, <i>our</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ar mac-ne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Do, <i>thy</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> do ——sa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Bhur, 'ur, <i>your</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> bhur ——sa</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> 3.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"><a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> A, <i>his</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a mhac-sa, san</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> 3. An, am, <i>their</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> an, am ——sa, san</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> A, <i>her</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a mac-sa, san </td></tr> +</table> + + <p>If the noun be followed by an adjective, the emphatic syllable is + affixed to the adjective; as, do làmh gheal-sa <i>thy white hand</i>.</p> + + <p>The possessive pronouns mo, do, when followed by a vowel, commonly + lose the <i>o</i>, whose absence is marked by an apostrophe; as, m' aimn + <i>my name</i>; d' athair<a name="footnotetag42" + href="#footnote42"><sup>[42]</sup></a> <i>thy father</i>. The same + pronouns when preceded by the preposition ann <i>in</i>, suffer a + transposition of their letters, and are written am, ad, one broad vowel + being substituted for another, as, ann ad chridhe <i>in thy heart</i>, 1 + Sam. xiv. 7, ann am aire <i>in my thoughts</i>.</p> + + <p>The possessive pronoun a <i>his</i>, is often suppressed altogether + after a vowel; as, na sanntaich bean do choimhearsnaich, no oglach, no + bhanoglach, no dhamh, no asal, <i>covet not thy neighbour's wife, or his + man-servant, or his maid-servant</i>, &c., Exod. xx. 17. In these and + similar instances, as the tense is but imperfectly expressed (especially + when the noun begins with a vowel), and cannot be gathered with certainty + from any other part of the sentence, perhaps it might <!-- Page 64 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>{64}</span>be an + improvement to retain the pronoun, even at the expense of cutting off the + final vowel of the preceding word; as, n' a oglach, n' a bhanoglaich, + &c. In many cases, however, this appears hardly practicable; as, cha + bheo athair <i>his father is not alive</i>, which could not with any + propriety be written cha bheo a athair<a name="footnotetag43" + href="#footnote43"><sup>[43]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The word fein corresponding to the English words <i>self</i>, + <i>own</i>, is subjoined occasionally both to the personal and possessive + pronouns: thus mi fein <i>myself</i>, mise fein <i>I myself</i>, thu fein + <i>thyself</i>, thusa fein <i>thou thyself</i>, or <i>thy own self</i>, + mo shluagh fein <i>my own people</i>.</p> + + <p>The other Pronouns are as follow:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Relative, Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns." title="Relative, Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td align="center"><i>Relative.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Demonstrative.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Interrogative.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> A, <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> So, <i>this</i>, <i>these</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Co? <i>who?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.&D.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> An. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sin, <i>that</i>, <i>those</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cia? <i>which?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nach, <i>who not</i>, <i>which not</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sud<a name="footnotetag44" href="#footnote44"><sup>[44]</sup></a>, ud, <i>yon</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ciod, creud? <i>what?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na, <i>that which</i>, <i>what</i><a name="footnotetag45" href="#footnote45"><sup>[45]</sup></a>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Indefinite and Compound Pronouns." title="Indefinite and Compound Pronouns."> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Indefinite.</i></td><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Compound.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Eigin, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>some</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> E so, <i>this one</i>, m. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> E sud, <i>yon one</i>, m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ge b'e, Cia b'e </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>whoever</i><a name="footnotetag46" href="#footnote46"><sup>[46]</sup></a>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> I so, <i>this one</i>, f. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> I sud, <i>yon one</i>, f.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>{65}</span> +Eile, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>other</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iad so, <i>these</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iad sud, <i>yon</i>, pl.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gach, Cach, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>each</i>, <i>every</i><a name="footnotetag47" href="#footnote47"><sup>[47]</sup></a>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> E sin, <i>that one</i>, m. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Cach eile, <i>the rest</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Cach, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>others, the rest</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iad sin, <i>those</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Cach a chéile, <i>each other</i><a name="footnotetag48" href="#footnote48"><sup>[48]</sup></a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Cuid, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>some</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF VERBS.</p> + + <p>A word that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer anything, is called a + <i>Verb</i>.</p> + + <p>The Verb in Gaelic, as in other languages, is declined by Voices, + Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons.</p> + + <p>The <i>Voices</i> are two: Active and Passive.</p> + + <p>The <i>Moods</i> are five: the Affirmative or Indicative, the Negative + or Interrogative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. + Many, but not all, Transitive Verbs have a Passive Participle.</p> + + <p>The <i>Tenses</i> are three: the Present, the Preterite, and the + Future.</p> + + <p>The <i>Numbers</i> are two: Singular and Plural.</p> + + <p>The <i>Persons</i> are three: First, Second, and Third. The <!-- Page + 66 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>{66}</span>distinction + of number and person takes place only in a few tenses.</p> + + <p>The inflections of Verbs, like those of nouns, are made by changes at + the beginning, and on the termination.</p> + + <p>The changes on the termination are made according to one model, and by + the same rules. But for the sake of stating some diversity in the + <i>initial</i> changes, it may be convenient to arrange the verbs in two + <i>conjugations</i>, whereof the first comprehends those verbs which + begin with a consonant, the second, those verbs which begin with a vowel. + Verbs beginning with <i>f</i>, followed by a vowel, are ranged under the + second conjugation, along with verbs beginning with a vowel.</p> + + <p>The verb Bi <i>be</i>, which is used as an auxiliary to other verbs, + is declined as follows:—</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Bi, <i>be</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative</i> or <i>Indicative Mood</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bi, Affirmative or Indicative Mood." title="Bi, Affirmative or Indicative Mood."> +<tr><td align="center"> Present. </td><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1. Ta mi, <i>I am</i>, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha mi, <i>I was</i>,</td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh mi, <i>I will be</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2. Ta thu, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha thu, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh tu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3. Ta e; </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha e; </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh se;</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 1. Ta sinn, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha sinn, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 2. Ta sibh, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha sibh, </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> 3. Ta iad. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bha iad. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> Bithidh siad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative</i> or <i>Interrogative Mood</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bi, Negative or Interrogative Mood." title="Bi, Negative or Interrogative Mood."> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align="center"> Present. </td><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> ni<br />cha<br />nach<br />mur,<br />&c.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:16ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Bheil mi, <i>I am not,</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh mi, <i>I was not,</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi mi, <i>I shall not be</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Bheil thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi thu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Bheil e; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh e; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi se;</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Bheil sinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh sinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Bheil sibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh sibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Bheil iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Robh iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bi siad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page67"></a>{67}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bi, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods." title="Bi, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods."> +<tr><td align="center"> Preterite or Imperfect. </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhithinn, <i>I would be</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Ma bhitheas mi, <i>If I shall be</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhitheadh tu, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhitheas tu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhitheadh e; </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhitheas e;</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhitheadheamaid, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhitheas sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhitheadh sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhitheadh sibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhitheas sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhitheadh iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhitheas iad.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <br /><i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bith, <i>being</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bitheam, <i>let me be</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> do bhith, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <i>to be</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bi, bi thusa, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a bhith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bitheadh e; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> gu bhith, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <i>to be</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> gu bith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bitheamaid, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> iar bhith, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <i>after being</i>, <i>been</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bithibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> iar bith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bitheadh iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> o bhith, <i>from being</i>, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Compound Tenses.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bi, Compound Tenses, Affirmative and Negative Moods." title="Bi, Compound Tenses, Affirmative and Negative Moods."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td align="center"> Present.</td><td align="center"> Preterite.</td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="5"> +<!-- Page 68 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>{68}</span> + <br /><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi iar bith, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi iar bith, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bithidh mi iar bith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I have been</i>, &c. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I had been</i>, &c. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I shall have been</i>, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="5"> <br /><i>Negative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> ni,<br />&c. </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bheil mi iar bith, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Robh mi iar bith, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bi mi air bith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>I have not been.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I had not been.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I shall not have been.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bi, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive Mood." title="Bi, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive Mood."> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"> <br /><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> Preterite or Pluperfect. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhithinn iar bith, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi iar bith,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I should have been, &c.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>If I shall have been, &c.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The present affirmative ta is often written tha. This is one of many + instances where there appears reason to complain of the propensity + remarked in Part I. in those who speak the Gaelic, to attenuate its + articulations by aspiration. Another corrupt way of writing ta which has + become common, is ata. This has probably taken its rise from uniting the + relative to the verb; as, an uair <i>ata</i> mi; instead of an uair <i>a + ta</i>, &c., mar <i>a ta</i>, &c. Or perhaps it may have + proceeded from a too compliant regard to a provincial pronunciation.</p> + + <p>The pret. neg. robh appears to be made up of the verbal participle ro, + the same with do, and bha, throwing away the last vowel; ro bha, + robh.</p> + + <p>The verb and pronoun of the 1st per. sing. and 3d per. plur. are + frequently incorporated into one word, and written taim <i>I am</i>, taid + <i>they are</i>.</p> + + <p>The pres. neg. loses the initial <i>bh</i> after the participle cha + <i>not</i>, mur <i>if not</i>, nach <i>that not</i>; <i>n</i> is + inserted, <i>euphoniae causa</i>, betwixt the participle cha and the + verb; as, cha n 'eil, mur 'eil, nach 'eil. This Tense is often pronounced + beil after the participle am; as, am beil e? <i>is it?</i></p> + + <p>In the North Highlands, the pret. neg. often takes the common verbal + participle do before it; as, cha do robh mi, or cha d'robh mi, <i>I was + not</i>.</p> + + <p>Initial <i>b</i> of the fut. neg. is aspirated after the participle + cha <i>not</i>; as, cha bhi.</p> + + <p>Initial <i>bh</i> of the pret. subj. loses the aspiration after the + <!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page69"></a>{69}</span>participles ni <i>not</i>, mur <i>if + not</i>, nach <i>that not</i>, gu <i>that</i>, nam <i>if</i>; as, mur + bithinn, nam bitheadh tu.</p> + + <p>The subjunct. and imper. often suffer a contraction, by changing + <i>ithea</i> into <i>io</i>; as, biodh, biom, bios, &c.</p> + + <p>Some of the compound tenses of Bi are rarely if ever used. They are + here given complete, because they correspond to the analogy of other + verbs; and show how accurately the various modifications of time may be + expressed by the substantive verb itself.</p> + + <p>Example of a verb of the First Conjugation. Buail <i>to + strike</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Simple Tenses.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative</i> or <i>Indicative Moods</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Affirmative or Indicative Mood." title="Buail, Affirmative or Indicative Mood."> +<tr><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Do bhuail mi, <i>I struck</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh mi, <i>I will strike</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuail mi,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhuail thu, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh tu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhuail e; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh se;</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhuail sinn, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhuail sibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhuail iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh siad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative</i> or <i>Interrogative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Negative or Interrogative Mood." title="Buail, Negative or Interrogative Mood."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> ni<br />cha<br />nach<br />mur,<br />&c.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:16ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Do bhuail mi, <i>I struck not</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail mi, <i>I will not strike</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Do bhuail thu, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail thu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Do <span class="correction" title="Original reads `bhuall'.">bhuail</span> e; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail e;</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Do bhuail sinn, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Do bhuail sibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Do bhuail iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail iad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page70"></a>{70}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods." title="Buail, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods."> +<tr><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhuailinn, <i>I would strike</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Ma bhuaileas mi, <i>If I shall strike</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhuaileadh tu, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhuaileas tu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhuaileadh e; </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhuaileas e;</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Bhuaileamaid, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhuaileas sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuaileadh sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhuaileas sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Bhuaileadh iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bhuaileas iad.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i> </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> <br /><i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Bualadh, <i>striking</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Buaileam, <i>let me strike</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> ag bualadh, <i>a-striking</i>, <i>striking</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Buail, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> iar bualadh, <i>struck</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Buaileadh e; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> do bhualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <i>to strike</i>, </td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1 Buaileamaid, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> ri bualadh, <i>at striking</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2 Buailibh, </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> le bualadh, <i>with striking</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3 Buaileadh iad. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> o bhualadh, <i>from striking</i>, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">Compound Tenses.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood." title="Buail, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ta mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bha mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bithidh mi ag bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I am striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I was striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I will be striking</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> +<!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page71"></a>{71}</span> + </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ta mi iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bha mi iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bithidh mi iar bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I have struck</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I had struck</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I will have struck</i>, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood." title="Buail, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood."> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="9"> ni<br />cha<br />nach<br />mur,<br />&c.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="9"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:20ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> +</td><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> Bheil mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Robh mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bi mi ag bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> <i>I am not striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I was not striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I will not be striking</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> Bheil mi iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Robh mi iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bi mi iar bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle" align="center"> <i>I have not struck</i>,&c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I had not struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I will not have struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods." title="Buail, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi ag bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I would be striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>If I shall be striking</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi iar bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I would have struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>If I shall have struck</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page72"></a>{72}</span> + </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Imperative Mood.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bitheam ag bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Do bhith ag bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Let me be striking,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>To be striking,</i> &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iar bith ag bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Been striking,</i> &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bitheam iar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Do bhith iar bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Let me have struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>To have been striking,</i> &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Simple Tenses.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Affirmative Mood." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, <i>I was struck.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear mi, <i>I shall be struck.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuaileadh mi,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Bhuaileadh thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear thu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Bhuaileadh e; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear e;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Bhuaileadh sinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuaileadh iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear iad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Affirmative Mood." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> ni<br />cha<br />nach<br />mur,<br />&c.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:16ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> +</td><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, <i>I was not struck</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear mi, <i>I shall not be struck</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Do bhuaileadh thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear thu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Do bhuaileadh e; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear e;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Do bhuaileadh sinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 Do bhuaileadh sibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 Do bhuaileadh iad, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailear iad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page73"></a>{73}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Subjunctive & Imperative Moods." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Subjunctive & Imperative Moods."> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Bhuailteadh mi, <i>I would be struck,</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhuailear mi, <i>If I shall be struck.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Bhuailteadh thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuailear thu,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Bhuailteadh e; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuailear e;</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Bhuailteadh sinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuailear sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Bhuailteadh sibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuailear sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Bhuailteadh iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuailear iad.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"> <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Buailtear mi, <i>Let me be struck,</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Buailtear sinn,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Buailtear thu, </td><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Buailtear sibh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Buailtear e. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Buailtear iad.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"> <br /><i>Participle.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"> Buailte, <i>struck.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">Compound Tenses</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ta mi buailte, <i>I am struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha mi buailte, <i>I was struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh mi buailte, <i>I shall be struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> +<!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page74"></a>{74}</span> + </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Ta mi iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha mi iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh mi iar mo bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have been struck,</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I had been struck,</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I shall have been struck.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Ta thu iar do bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha thu iar do bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh tu iar do bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Ta se iar a bhualadh; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha se iar a bhualadh; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh se iar a bhualadh;</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Ta sinn iar ar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha sinn iar ar bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh sinn iar ar bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Ta sibh iar 'ur bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha sibh iar 'ur bualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh sibh iar 'ur bualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Ta siad iar am bualadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha siad iar am bualadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh siad iar am bualadh.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ni bheil mi buailte, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni'n robh mi buailte, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni'm bi mi buailte,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I am not struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I was not struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I shall not be struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>{75}</span> +Ni 'm bheil mi iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni'n robh mi iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni'm bi mi iar mo bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have not been struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I had not been struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I shall not have been struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods." title="Buail, Passive Voice, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn buailte, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi buailte,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I would be struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>If I shall be struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi iar mo bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I would have been struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i> If I shall have been struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Imperative Mood.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bitheam buailte, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Do bhith buailte,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Let me be struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>To be struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bitheam iar mo bhualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Do bhith iar mo bhualadh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Let me have been struck,</i> &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>To have been struck,</i> &c.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Examples of Verbs of the Second Conjugation.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Orduich, <i>to appoint.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Simple Tenses</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Orduich, Simple Tenses." title="Orduich, Simple Tenses."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Affirmat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduich, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Orduichidh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> D'orduich, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Orduich,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduichinn. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduicheas.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <i>Imperat.</i> Orduicheam. <i>Infinit.</i> Orduchadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br /><span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Affirmat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduicheadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Orduichear,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> D'orduicheadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Orduichear,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduichteadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'orduicheas.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <i>Imperat.</i> Orduichear. <i>Particip.</i> Orduichte.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page76"></a>{76}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">Folaich, <i>to hide.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Folaich, Simple Tenses." title="Folaich, Simple Tenses."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Affirmat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaich, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Folaichidh,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> D'fholaich, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Folaich,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaichinn. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaicheas.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <i>Imperat.</i> Folaicheam. <i>Infinit.</i> Folachadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <br /><span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Affirmat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaicheadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Folaichear,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> D'fholaicheadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Folaichear,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaichteadh . </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dh'fholaichear.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"> <i>Imperat.</i> Folaichtear. <i>Particip.</i> Folaichte.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The Compound tenses may be easily learned from those of the Verb Buail + in the first Conjugation, being formed exactly in the same manner.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Formation of the Tenses.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Of the Initial Form.</i></p> + + <p>An Initial Consonant is aspirated in the Preterite Tense, through all + the Moods and Voices, except in the Preterite Subjunctive after the + Particles ni, mur, nach, gu, an, am. An initial Consonant is occasionally + aspirated in the Future Tense, and in the Infinitive and Participle, + indicating their connection with the preceding word.</p> + + <p>In the first Conjugation, do is prefixed to the Pret. Aff. and Neg. + Active and Passive. However, it often is, and always may be, omitted + before the Pret. Aff. It is sometimes omitted in the Pret. Neg. in verse, + and in common conversation. In the second Conjugation, the same Particle + do is prefixed to the Preterite through all the Moods and Voices, and to + the Fut. Subj. excepting only the Subjunctive Tenses after ni, mur, nach, + gu, an, am. In this <!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page77"></a>{77}</span>Conjugation, do always loses the <i>o</i> to + avoid a <i>hiatus</i>, and the <i>d</i> is aspirated in the Affirm. and + Subjunct. Moods<a name="footnotetag49" + href="#footnote49"><sup>[49]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Of the Termination.</i></p> + + <p>In all regular Verbs, the Terminations adjected to the Root are, + strictly speaking, the same in Verbs characterised by a small vowel. But + where the first vowel of the Termination does not correspond in quality + to the last vowel of the Root, it has become the constant practice to + insert in the Termination a vowel of the requisite quality, in order to + produce this correspondence. Thus a variety has been introduced into the + Terminations even of regular Verbs, prejudicial to the uniformity of + inflection, and of no use to ascertain either the sense or the + pronunciation<a name="footnotetag50" + href="#footnote50"><sup>[50]</sup></a>. In the foregoing examples of + regular Verbs, the common mode of Orthography has been followed, but in + the following rules the simple Terminations only are specified.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Simple Tenses.</p> + + <p>The Theme or Root of the Verb is always found in the second Per. sing. + of the imperative.</p> + + <p>The <i>Preterite</i> Affirm. and Negat. is like the Root, and has no + distinction of Number or Person. In most of the editions of the Gaelic + Psalms, some inflections of the <!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page78"></a>{78}</span>Preterite have been admitted, with good + effect, from the Irish Verb; such as, bhuaileas <i>I struck</i>, bhuailis + <i>thou didst strike</i>, bhuaileamar <i>we struck</i>, bhuaileadar + <i>they struck</i>. The Pret. Subj. is formed by adding to the Root + <i>inn</i> for the first pers. sing., and <i>adh</i> for the other + persons. The first pers. plur. also terminates in <i>amaid</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Future</i> Affirm. adds <i>idh</i> to the Root; in the Negat. + it is like the Root; and in the Subjunct. it adds <i>as</i>. A poetic + Future Tense terminating in <i>ann</i> or <i>onn</i>, is frequent in the + Gaelic Psalms; as, gairionn <i>will call</i>, seasfann <i>will stand</i>, + do bheirionn, <i>will give</i>, &c. The Future has no distinction of + Number or Person. The Termination of the Future Affirm. and Negat. in + many Verbs was formerly <i>fidh</i>, like the Irish; of which many + examples occur in the earlier editions of the Gaelic Psalms. In later + Gaelic publications, the <i>f</i> has been uniformly set aside<a + name="footnotetag51" href="#footnote51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>. The + Termination of the first pers. and third pers. plur. is often + incorporated with the corresponding Pronoun; as, seinnam cliu <i>I will + sing praise</i>, Psal. lxi. 8., Ni fuigham bàs, ach mairfam beo, <i>I + shall not die, but shall remain alive</i>, Ps. cxviii. 17., Ithfid, + geillfid, innsid, <i>they will eat</i>, <i>they will submit</i>, <i>they + will tell</i>, Ps. xxii, 26, 29, 31. <a name="footnotetag52" + href="#footnote52"><sup>[52]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page79"></a>{79}</span></p> + + <p>In the <i>Imperative</i> Mood, the second pers. sing. is the Root of + the Verb. The other persons are distinguished by these Terminations; 1st + pers. sing. <i>am</i>, 3d pers. sing. <i>adh</i>, 1st pers. plur. + <i>amaid</i>, 2d pers. plur. <i>ibh</i>, 3d pers. plur. <i>adh</i>.</p> + + <p>The Terminations peculiar to the 1st pers. sing. and plur. of the + Pret. Subj. and of the Imperat. supply the place of the Personal + Pronouns; as does also the Termination of the 2d pers. plur. of the + Imperative.</p> + + <p>The <i>Infinitive</i> is variously formed.</p> + + <p><i>General Rule.</i> The Infinitive is formed by adding <i>adh</i> to + the Root; as, aom <i>bow, incline</i>, Infin. aomadh; ith <i>eat</i>, + Infin. itheadh.</p> + + <p>1. Some Verbs suffer a syncope in the penult syllable, and are + commonly used in their contracted form; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives with syncope." title="Infinitives with syncope."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Caomhain, <i>spare</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Caomhnadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Coisin, <i>win</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Coisneadh, Cosnadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Diobair, <i>deprive</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Diobradh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fògair, <i>remove</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fògradh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Foghain, <i>suffice</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Foghnadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fosgail, <i>open</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fosgladh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Innis, <i>tell</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Innseadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Iobair, <i>sacrifice</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iobradh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Mosgail, <i>awake</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mosgladh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Seachain, <i>avoid</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Seachnadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tionsgain, <i>begin</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tionsgnadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Togair, <i>desire</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Togradh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Observe that Verbs which thus suffer a syncope in forming <!-- Page 80 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page80"></a>{80}</span>the Infinitive, + suffer a like syncope in the Preterite Subjunctive, and in the Imperative + Mood; as, innis <i>tell</i>, Infin. innseadh, Pret. Subj. innsinn, + innseadh, innseamaid, Imperat. innseam, innseamaid, innsibh.</p> + + <p>2. A considerable number of Verbs have their Infinitive like the Root; + as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives as root." title="Infinitives as root."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Caoidh, <i>lament</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ol, <i>drink</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Dearmad, <i>neglect</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ruith, <i>run</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fàs, <i>grow</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Snamh, <i>swim</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Gairm, <i>call</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sniomh, <i>twine</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Meas, <i>estimate</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>3. Polysyllables in <i>ch</i>, whose characteristic Vowel is small, + either throw it away, or convert it into a broad Vowel and add + <i>adh</i>; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives of polysyllables in broad Vowel and -adh." title="Infinitives of polysyllables in broad Vowel and -adh."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ceannaich, <i>buy</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ceannachadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Smuainich, <i>think</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Smuaineachadh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Most Monosyllables in <i>sg</i>, and a few others, follow the same + Rule; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives of monosyllables in broad Vowel and -adh." title="Infinitives of monosyllables in broad Vowel and -adh."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Coisg, <i>check</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cosgadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Naisg, <i>bind</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nasgadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fàisg, <i>wring</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fàsgadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Paisg, <i>wrap</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Pasgadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Loisg, <i>burn</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Losgadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Blais, <i>taste</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Blasadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Luaisg, <i>rock</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Luasgadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buail, <i>strike</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bualadh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>4. Many Verbs, whose characteristic Vowel is small, either throw it + away, or convert it into a broad Vowel, without adding <i>adh</i>; + as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives where characteristic Vowel is small." title="Infinitives where characteristic Vowel is small."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Amhairc, <i>look</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Amharc. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iomain, <i>drive</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ioman.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Amais, <i>reach</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Amas. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leighis, <i>cure</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leigheas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Caill, <i>lose</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Call. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sguir, <i>cease</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sgur.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ceangail, <i>bind</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ceangal. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Siubhail, <i>travel</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Siubhal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cuir, <i>put</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cur. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tachrais, <i>wind</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tachras.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Coimhid, <i>keep</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Coimhead. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tiondaidh, <i>turn</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tiondadh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fulaing, <i>suffer</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fulang. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Toirmisg, <i>forbid</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Toirmeasg.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fuirich, <i>stay</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fuireach. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Toinail, <i>gather</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Toinal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Guil, <i>weep</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gul. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tionsgail, <i>contrive</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tionsgal.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>{81}</span></p> + + <p>5. The following Verbs in <i>air</i> add <i>t</i> to the + Root:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives, verbs in -air add t to the Root." title="Infinitives, verbs in -air add t to the Root."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Agair, <i>claim</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Agairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Bagair, <i>threaten</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Bagairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Casgair, <i>slaughter</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Casgairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Freagair, <i>answer</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Freagairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Iomair, <i>use</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Iomairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Labhair, <i>speak</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Labhairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Lomair, <i>shear</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Lomairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Saltair, <i>trample</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Saltairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tabhair, <i>give</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tabhairt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tachair, <i>meet</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tachairt.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>6. These Monosyllables add <i>sinn</i> to the Root:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives, monosyllables adding sinn to the Root." title="Infinitives, monosyllables adding sinn to the Root."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Beir, <i>bear</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Beirsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Creid, <i>believe</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Creidsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Faic, <i>see</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Faicsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Goir, <i>crow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Goirsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Mair, <i>continue</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Mairsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Saoil, <i>think</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Saoilsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tréig, <i>forsake</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tréigsinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tuig, <i>understand</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tuigsinn, or Tuigeil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Ruig, <i>reach</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Ruigsinn, or Ruigheachd. </td></tr> +</table> + + <p>7. These Monosyllables add <i>tuinn</i> or <i>tinn</i> to the + Root:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives, monosyllables adding tuinn or tinn to the Root." title="Infinitives, monosyllables adding tuinn or tinn to the Root."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Bean, <i>touch</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Beantuinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Buin, <i>take away</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Buntuinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Can, <i>say, sing</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Cantuinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Cinn, <i>grow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Cinntinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Cluinn, <i>hear</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Cluinntinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Fan, <i>stay</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Fantuinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Gin, <i>produce</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Giontuinn, or Gionmhuin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Lean, <i>follow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Leantuinn, or Leanmhuin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Meal, <i>enjoy</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Mealtuinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Pill, <i>return</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Pilltinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Seall, <i>look</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Sealltuinn.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>{82}</span></p> + + <p>8. The following Monosyllables add <i>ail</i> to the Root:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives, monosyllables adding ail to the Root." title="Infinitives, monosyllables adding ail to the Root."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cum, <i>hold</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cumail. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leag, <i>cast down</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leagail.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Gabh, <i>take</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gabhail. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tog, <i>raise</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Togail.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fàg, <i>leave</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fàgail. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tuig, <i>understand</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tuigeil.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>9. These Monosyllables add <i>amh</i> to the Root:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives, monosyllables adding amh to the Root." title="Infinitives, monosyllables adding amh to the Root."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Imper.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Infin.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Caith, <i>spend</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Caitheamh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Dean, <i>do, make</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Deanamh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Feith, <i>wait</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Feitheamh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Seas, <i>stand</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Seasamh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>10. The following Verbs form the Infinitive irregularly:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Irregular Infinitives." title="Irregular Infinitives."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Beuc, <i>roar</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Beucaich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Bùir, <i>bellow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Bùirich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Geum, <i>low</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Geumnaich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Glaodh, <i>cry</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Glaodhaich.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Caisd, <i>listen</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Caisdeachd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Eisd, <i>hearken</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Eisdeachd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Marcaich, <i>ride</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Marcachd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Thig, <i>come</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Teachd, tighinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Faigh, <i>find</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Faghail, faotainn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Eirich, <i>rise</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Eirigh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Iarr, <i>request</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Iarraidh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Taisg, <i>lay up</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tasgaidh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Coidil, <i>sleep</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Codal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Fuaigh, <i>sew</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Fuaghal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Gluais, <i>move</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Gluasad, gluasachd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tuit, <i>fall</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Tuiteam.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Teirig, <i>wear out</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Teireachduinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Teasairg, <i>deliver</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Teasairgin.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Compound Tenses.</i></p> + + <p>The <i>compound Tenses of the first order</i> are made up of the + several simple Tenses of the auxiliary verb Bi <i>be</i>, and the + Infinitive preceded by the Preposition ag <i>at</i>. Between two + Consonants, ag commonly loses the <i>g</i>, and is written <i>a'</i>; as, + <!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"></a>{83}</span>ta + iad a' deanamh <i>they are doing</i>. Between two Vowels, the <i>a</i> is + dropped, and the <i>g</i> is retained; as, ta mi 'g iarruidh <i>I am + asking</i>. When preceded by a Consonant, and followed by a Vowel, the + Preposition is written entire, as, ta iad ag iarruidh <i>they are + asking</i>. When preceded by a Vowel, and followed by a Consonant, it is + often suppressed altogether; as, ta mi deanamh <i>I am doing</i><a + name="footnotetag53" href="#footnote53"><sup>[53]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The <i>compound Tenses of the second order</i> are made up of the + simple Tenses of Bi and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition iar + <i>after</i><a name="footnotetag54" + href="#footnote54"><sup>[54]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Simple Tenses.</i></p> + + <p>The <i>Preterite</i> Affirm. and Negat. is formed from the same Tense + in the Active, by adding <i>adh</i>. The Preter. Subj. adds + <i>teadh</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Future</i> is formed from the Fut. Act. by changing the + Terminations in the Affirm. and Subj. into <i>ar</i>, (more properly + <i>far</i>, as of old) and adding the same syllable in the Negative.</p> + + <p>The <i>Imperative</i> is formed from the Imperat. Act. by adding to + the second pers. sing. <i>tar</i>, <i>thar</i>, or <i>ar</i>.<a + name="footnotetag55" href="#footnote55"><sup>[55]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page84"></a>{84}</span></p> + + <p>The <i>Participle</i> is formed by adding <i>te</i> to the Root<a + name="footnotetag56" href="#footnote56"><sup>[56]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>There is no distinction of Number or Person in the Tenses of the + Passive Voice.</p> + + <p>Verbs which suffer a syncope in the Infinitive, suffer a like syncope + in the Pret. Aff. and Neg. throughout the Future Tense, and in the + Imperative.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Compound Tense.</i></p> + + <p>The <i>compound Tenses of the first order</i> are made up of the + simple Tenses of the auxiliary Bi and the Passive Participle.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 85 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>{85}</span></p> + + <p>The <i>compound Tenses of the second order</i> are made up of the + simple Tenses of <i>Bi</i> and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition + <i>iar</i> and the Possessive Pronoun corresponding in Person to the + Pronoun, or to the Noun, which is the Nominative to the verb.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Use and Import of the Moods and Tenses.</i></p> + + <p>The <i>Affirmative</i> or <i>Indicative</i> Mood expresses + affirmation, and is used in affirmative propositions only, as, Do bhuail + mi <i>I struck</i>, bha mi ag bualadh <i>I was striking</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Negative</i> or <i>Interrogative</i> Mood is used in negative + propositions and interrogative clauses, after the Particles ni + <i>not</i>, cha <i>not</i>, nach <i>which not</i>, <i>that not</i>, + <i>not?</i> mur <i>if not</i>; also, gu, gur, <i>that</i>, an, am, + whether used relatively or interrogatively; as, cha d'fholaich mi <i>I + did not hide</i>, mur buail sinn <i>if we shall not strike</i>, nach robh + iad <i>that they were not</i>, gu robh iad <i>that they were</i>; am + buail mi? <i>shall I strike?</i> It is used in the Future Tense after ged + <i>although</i>; as, ged bhuail e mi, <i>though he strike me</i><a + name="footnotetag57" href="#footnote57"><sup>[57]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Subjunctive</i> Mood is used in the Preterite, either with or + without conjunctions; as, bhuailinn <i>I would strike</i>, na'm, mur, + nach, &c., buailinn <i>if, unless, &c., I should strike</i>. In + the Future it is used only after the conjunctions ma <i>if</i>, o, o'n + <i>since</i>, and the Relative <i>a</i> expressed or understood; as, ma + bhuaileas mi <i>if I shall strike</i>, am fear a bhuaileas mi <i>the man + <!-- Page 86 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>{86}</span>who + will strike me</i>, or <i>the man whom I shall strike</i>; an uair a + bhuaileas mi, tra bhuaileas mi <i>the time [in] which I shall strike, i. + e., when I shall strike</i>; c'uin [cia ùine] a bhuaileas mi? <i>what + [is] the time [in] which I shall strike? i. e., when shall I + strike?</i></p> + + <p>The <i>Imperative</i> Mood expresses desire, whether purpose, command, + or request; as, buaileam <i>let me strike</i>, buailibh <i>strike + ye</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Infinitive</i><a name="footnotetag58" + href="#footnote58"><sup>[58]</sup></a> is, in all respects, a noun, + denoting the action or energy of the verb, and commonly preceded by a + Preposition which marks the time of the action; as, ag bualadh <i>at + striking</i>, am bualadh <i>the striking, the threshing</i>. It assumes a + regular genitive case, bualadh g. s. bualaidh; as, urlar-bualaidh <i>a + threshing floor</i>. The Infinitive sometimes loses the termination, and + is regularly declined in its abridged form; thus, cruinnich + <i>assemble</i>, inf. cruinneach-adh per. apocop. cruinneach g. s. + cruinnich; hence, àite-cruinnich <i>a place of meeting</i>, Acts xix. 29, + 31, so, fear-criochnaich, Heb. xii. 2, fear-cuidich, Psalm xxx. 10, liv. + 4, ionad-foluich, Psalm xxxii. 7, cxix. 114, litir-dhealaich, Matt. v. + 31<a name="footnotetag59" href="#footnote59"><sup>[59]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>There is no part of the Active Voice that can, strictly speaking, be + denominated a Participle. The Infinitive preceded by the Preposition ag + <i>at</i>, corresponds in meaning to the present Participle; and preceded + by iar <i>after</i>, it corresponds to the participle of the past time; + as, ag bualadh <i>at striking</i>, or <i>striking</i>; iar bualadh + <i>after striking</i>, or <i>struck</i><a name="footnotetag60" + href="#footnote60"><sup>[60]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 87 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>{87}</span></p> + + <p>Many words, expressing state or action, take the Preposition <i>ag</i> + before them, and may be considered as Infinitives of Verbs, whereof the + other parts are not in use; as, ag atharrais <i>mimicking</i>, ag + gàireachdaich <i>laughing</i>, a' fanoid, a' magadh <i>mocking</i>, + <i>jeering</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"></a>{88}</span></p> + + <p>The <i>Participle</i> passive is an adjective, denoting the completion + of the action or energy expressed by the verb; as, arbhar buailte + <i>threshed corn</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Simple Tenses</i> which belong to all verbs are the Preterite + or Future, besides which the verb Bi to <i>be</i>, and the defective verb + Is I <i>am</i>, have a Present Tense<a name="footnotetag61" + href="#footnote61"><sup>[61]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Present</i> expresses present existence, state, or energy.</p> + + <p>The <i>Preterite Affirmative</i> and <i>Negative</i> expresses past + time indefinitely. The <i>Preterite Subjunctive</i> corresponds to the + English Tenses formed by the auxiliaries <i>would</i>, <i>could</i>, + &c. In general it denotes that the action or energy of the verb takes + place eventually or conditionally. The Pret. Aff. or <!-- Page 89 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page89"></a>{89}</span>Neg. is used + sometimes in this sense, like the English, when the Pret. Subj. occurred + in the preceding clause of a sentence, as, na'm biodh tus' an so, cha d' + fhuair mo bhrathair bàs, <i>if thou hadst been here, my brother had not + [would not have] died</i>; mur bitheamaid air deanamh moille bha sinn a + nis air pilltinn air ar n-ais, <i>if we had not lingered, we had [should + have] now returned</i>, Gen. xliii. 10.</p> + + <p>The <i>Future</i> <span class="correction" title="Original reads `makes'." + >marks</span> future time indefinitely. This Tense is used in a peculiar + sense in Gaelic, to signify that an action or event takes place + uniformly, habitually, according to ordinary practice, or the course of + nature. Thus; Blessed is he that <i>considereth</i> the poor, expressed + according to the Gaelic idiom, would be, Blessed is he that <i>will + consider</i>, &c. A wise son <i>maketh</i> a glad father, in Gaelic + would run, A wise son <i>will make</i>, &c. Your patient, I am told, + is in a bad way; he neither <i>enjoys</i> rest, nor <i>takes</i> + medicine. Nay, his situation is worse than you know of; yesterday, he + became delirious, and is now almost unmanageable; he <i>tosses</i> his + arms, and <i>endeavours</i> to beat every one within his reach. In + Gaelic, <i>will enjoy—will take—will toss—will + endeavour</i>. In like manner, a great many Gaelic Proverbs express a + general truth by means of the Future tense; <i>e.g.</i>, bithidh dùil ri + fear feachd, ach cha bhi dùil ri fear lic, <i>There </i>is<i> hope that a + man may return from war, but there </i>is<i> no hope that a man may + return from the grave</i>; literally, there <i>will be</i> + hope—there <i>will be</i> no hope. Teirgidh gach ni r' a + chaitheamh, <i>every thing</i> wears <i>out in the using</i>; + literally,—<i>will wear</i> out<a name="footnotetag62" + href="#footnote62"><sup>[62]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The <i>Compound Tenses</i> mark different modifications of time, <!-- + Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page90"></a>{90}</span>which + will be easily understood by analysing their component parts.</p> + + <p>In the <i>Active Voice</i>, the compound tenses of the first order + denote that the action is going on, but not completed at the time + specified by the auxiliary verb, or its adjuncts; as, ta mi ag bualadh, + <i>I am at striking</i>, i.e., <i>I am striking</i>; bha mi ag <span + class="correction" title="Original reads `buaiadh'.">bualadh</span> an + dé, <i>I was striking yesterday</i>.</p> + + <p>Those of the second order denote that the action is newly completed + and past, at the time marked by the auxiliary verb; ta mi iar bualadh, + <i>I am after striking</i>, i.e., <i>I have struck</i>, <i>Je viens de + frapper</i>; Bha mi iar bualadh, <i>I was striking</i>, i.e., <i>I had + struck</i>.</p> + + <p>In the <i>Passive Voice</i>, the compound tenses of the first order + denote that the action is <i>finished</i> at the time marked by the + auxiliary verb; ta mi buailte, <i>I am struck</i>.</p> + + <p>Those of the second order denote that the action is <i>newly + finished</i> at the time marked by the auxiliary<a name="footnotetag63" + href="#footnote63"><sup>[63]</sup></a>; ta mi iar mo bhualadh, <i>I am + after my striking</i>, or, <i>I am after the striking of me</i>, which + has always a passive signification; that is, it is always understood, + from this form of expression, that <i>striking</i> is the action of some + agent different from the person struck. It is equivalent to <i>I have + been struck</i>, <i>Je viens d'etre frappé</i>.</p> + + <p>A set of Compound Tenses, of a structure similar to these last, having + the preposition ag, in place of iar, is sometimes used, and in a passive + sense, denoting that the action is <i>going on</i> at the time marked by + the auxiliary; as, tha 'n tigh 'g a thogail, <i>the house is at its + building</i>, i.e., <i>a-building</i>; sea bliadhna agus da fhichead bha + 'n teampull 'g a thogail, <i>forty and six years was this temple in + building</i>. John ii. 20, 1 Kings vi. 7. Bha an crodh 'g an leigeadh, + <i>the cows were a-milking</i>; bidh deudaichean 'g an rusgadh. "Gillies' + Collect." p. 82. So <!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page91"></a>{91}</span>in English, the book is a-printing; the + deed's a-doing now, "Douglas," Act 1.</p> + + <p>The following scheme shows the different modifications of time, as + expressed by the several Tenses of the Gaelic Verb, brought together into + one view, and compared with the corresponding Tenses of the Greek Verb in + Moor's Greek Grammar.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Comparison of Gaelic and Greek tenses." title="Comparison of Gaelic and Greek tenses."> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> ACTIVE VOICE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <i>Indicative or Affirmative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Present Tense.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tuptô" class="grk">τυπτω</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I strike, or am striking.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Imperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi ag bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etupton" class="grk">ἐτυπτον</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I was striking.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailidh mi </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="tupsô" class="grk">τυψω</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I will strike, or be striking.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bithidh mi ag bualadh </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Aorist or Preterite.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuail mi, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etupsa" class="grk">ἐτυψα</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Perfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi iar bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tetupha" class="grk">τετυφα</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I have struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi iar bualadh,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etetuphein" class="grk">ἐτετυφειν</span>,</td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I had struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Interrogative or Negative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Am bheil mi ag bualadh? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Am I striking?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Imperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> An robh mi ag bualadh? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Was I striking?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Am buail mi? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Shall I strike?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> +<!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>{92}</span> +Aorist or Preterite.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> An do bhuail mi? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Did I strike?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Perfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Am bheil mi iar bualadh? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Have I struck?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> An robh mi iar bualadh? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Had I struck?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Imperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuailinn, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="etupton an" class="grk">ἐτυπτον ἀν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I would strike.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhithinn ag bualadh,</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Ma bhuaileas mi, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> If I shall strike.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhithinn iar bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etupsa an" class="grk">ἐτυψα ἀν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I would have struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Buaileam, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Let me strike.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Buail, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tupte" class="grk">τυπτε</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Strike.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Am bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="to tuptein" class="grk">το τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> The striking.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> A' bhualaidh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tou tuptein" class="grk">του τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Of the striking.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ag bualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="en tôi tuptein" class="grk">ἐν τῳ τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> A-striking.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <i>Indicative or Affirmative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi 'g am bhualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tuptomai" class="grk">τυπτομαι</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I am in striking<a name="footnotetag64" href="#footnote64"><sup>[64]</sup></a>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Imperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi 'g am bhualadh, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etuptomên" class="grk">ἐτυπτομην</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I was in striking.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> +<!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"></a>{93}</span> +Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailear mi, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="tuphthêsomai" class="grk">τυφθησομαι</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I shall be struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bithidh mi buailte,</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Aorist or Preterite.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuaileadh mi, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etuphthên" class="grk">ἐτυφθην</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I was struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Perfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi buailte, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="tetummenos eimi" class="grk">τετυμμενος εἰμι</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I have been struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ta mi iar mo bhualadh</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi buailte, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="tetummenos ên" class="grk">τετυμμενος ἠν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I had been struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bha mi iar mo bhualadh</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Interrogative or Negative Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Am buailear mi? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Shall I be struck?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Aorist or Preterite.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> An do bhuaileadh mi? </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Was I struck?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Perfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Am bheil mi buailte? </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2" align="right"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> Have I been struck?</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Am bheil mi iar mo bhualadh?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> An robh mi buailte? </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2" align="right"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> Had I been struck?</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> An robh mi iar mo bhualadh?</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Imperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhuailteadh mi, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="etuptomên an" class="grk">ἐτυπτομην αν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> I should be struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Ma bhuailtear mi, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> If I shall be struck.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> +<!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page94"></a>{94}</span> +Pluperfect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhithinn buailte, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2" colspan="2"> <span title="etuphthên an" class="grk">ἐτυφθην αν</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle" rowspan="2"> I should have been struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bhithinn iar mo bhualadh,</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="4"> Buailtear mi, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Let me be struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailtear thu, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tuptou" class="grk">τυπτου</span>, </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Be thou struck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"> <br />Participle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Buailte, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="tetummenos" class="grk">τετυμμενος</span> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Struck.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>It will afford satisfaction to the grammatical reader, to see how + correctly the various modifications of time, as distinguished and + arranged by Mr Harris, are expressed in the Gaelic verb, by the + auxiliaries, bi <i>be</i>, and dol <i>going</i>. See <i>Hermes B. I. c. + 7.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Comparison of Gaelic and Greek tenses." title="Comparison of Gaelic and Greek tenses."> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Aorist of the Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Tuptô" class="grk">Τυπτω</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I strike, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ——</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Aorist of the Past.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Etupsa" class="grk">Ετυψα</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I struck, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuail mi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Aorist of the Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Tupsô" class="grk">Τυψω</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I shall strike, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh mi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Inceptive Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Mellô tuptein" class="grk">Μελλω τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I am going to strike, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ta mi dol a bhualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Middle or extended Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Tunchanô tuptôn" class="grk">Τυγχανω τυπτων</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I am striking, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ta mi ag bualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Completive Present.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Tetupha" class="grk">Τετυφα</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I have struck, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ta mi iar bualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> ———</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Inceptive Past.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Emellon tuptein" class="grk">Εμελλον τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I was going to strike, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha mi dol a bhualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> +<!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page95"></a>{95}</span> +Middle or extended Past.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Etupton" class="grk">Ετυπτον</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I was striking, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha mi ag bualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Completive Past.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Etetuphein" class="grk">Ετετυφειν</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I had struck, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bha mi iar bualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> ———</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Inceptive future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Mellêsô tuptein" class="grk">Μελλησω τυπτειν</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I shall be going to strike, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh mi dol a bhualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Middle or extended Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Esomai tuptôn" class="grk">Εσομαι τυπτων</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I shall be striking, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh mi ag bualadh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Completive Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Esomai tetuphôs" class="grk">Εσομαι τετυφως</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> I shall have struck, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bithidh mi iar bualadh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation." title="Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation."> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Beir, <i>bear.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do rug, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beiridh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' rug, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Bheirinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheireas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Beiream. <i>Infin.</i> Beirsinn, breith.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do rugadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' rugadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Bheirteadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Beirthear.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> +<!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page96"></a>{96}</span> +Cluinn, <i>hear.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span> </td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do chuala, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cluinnidh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Cuala, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cluinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Chluinnin, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chluinneas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Cluinneam. <i>Infin.</i> Cluinntinn.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do Chualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cluinnear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Cualadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cluinnear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Chluinnteadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chluinnear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Cluinntear.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Dean, <i>do</i> or <i>make.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do rinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' rinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dean.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Dheanainn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ni.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Deanam. <i>Infin.</i> Deanamh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do rinneadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nithear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' rinneadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Deanar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Dheantadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nithear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Deantar. <i>Particip.</i> Deanta.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Rach, <i>go.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do chaidh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Théid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Deachaidh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Téid<a name="footnotetag65" href="#footnote65"><sup>[65]</sup></a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Rachainn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Théid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Racham. <i>Infin.</i> Dol.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> +<!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page97"></a>{97}</span> +Ruig, <i>reach.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do rainig, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ruigidh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' rainig, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ruig.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Ruiginn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ruigeas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Ruigeam. <i>Infin.</i> Ruigsinn, ruigheachd.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Tabhair,<a name="footnotetag66" href="#footnote66"><sup>[66]</sup></a> <i>give.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do thug, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' thug, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tabhair.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Bheirinn, tabhairinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Tabhaiream, thugam. <i>Infin.</i> Tabhairt.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do thugadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' thugadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tabhairear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Bheirteadh, tugtadh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bheirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Thugthar.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Thig, <i>come.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do thainig, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Thig.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' thainig, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tig<a name="footnotetag67" href="#footnote67"><sup>[67]</sup></a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Thiginn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Thig.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Thigeam. <i>Infin.</i> Tighinn, teachd.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 98 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page98"></a>{98}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation." title="Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation."> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Abair,<a name="footnotetag68" href="#footnote68"><sup>[68]</sup></a> <i>say.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Thubhairt, dubhairt, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Their.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Dubhairt, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Abair.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Theirinn, abairinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Their.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Abaiream. <i>Infin.</i> Radh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Dubhradh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Theirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Dubhradh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Abairear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Theirteadh, abairteadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Theirear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Abairear<a name="footnotetag69" href="#footnote69"><sup>[69]</sup></a>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Faic, <i>see.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do chunnaic, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Faca, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Faic.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Chithinn, faicinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Faiceam. <i>Infin.</i> Faicsinn.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Do chunnacadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chithear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Facadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Faicear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Chiteadh, faicteadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chithear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Faicthear. <i>Infin.</i> Faicsinn.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> +<!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page99"></a>{99}</span> +Faigh, <i>get.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="tspacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Preterite. </td><td align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Fhuair, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gheibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D'fhuair, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Faigh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Gheibhinn, faighinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gheibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Faigheam. <i>Infin.</i> Faghail, faotainn.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="padding-top: 1.5ex"> <span class="scac">PASSIVE VOICE.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Affirm.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Fhuaradh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gheibhear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Negat.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> D' fhuaradh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Faighear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Subjunct.</i> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> Gheibhteadh, faighteadh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gheibhear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dspacsingle" colspan="3"> <i>Imperat.</i> Faightear.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The verbs Tabhair, Abair, Faic, Faigh, have a double Preterite + Subjunctive. The latter form of it, which is derived regularly from the + Root, is used after the same particles which are prefixed to the Negative + Mood, <i>viz.</i> ni, cha, nach, mur, gu, an, am.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of Defective Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>The following defective verbs are in common use.</p> + + <p>Arsa <i>said</i>, <i>quoth</i>, indeclinable; used only in the Pret. + Aff. through all the persons; arsa Donull, <i>quoth Donald</i>.</p> + + <p>Tiucainn <i>come along</i>, tiucainnibh <i>come ye along</i>, used + only in the 2d pers. sing. and plur. of the Imperative.</p> + + <p>Theab mi <i>I was near to, I had almost</i>; used through all the + persons of the Pret. Aff. and Neg.; as, theab iad bhith caillte <i>they + had nearly perished</i>.</p> + + <p>Is mi <i>I am</i>, used in the Pres. and Pret. Tenses, which are + declined as follows:— <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page100"></a>{100}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Is mi, Affirmative Mood." title="Is mi, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td align="center"> Present. </td><td align="center"> Preterite.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Is mi, <i>I am, it is I.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu mhi, <i>I was, it was I.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Is tu. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu tu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Is e. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' e.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Is sinn. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Is sibh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Is iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' iad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Is mi, Negative Mood." title="Is mi, Negative Mood."> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> ni,<br />cha,<br />nach,<br />&c. </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="7"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:16ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> +</td><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 mi, <i>I am not</i>, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu mhi, <i>I was not</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 tu. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu tu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 e. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' e.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 sinn. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 2 sibh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> 3 iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' iad.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Is mi, Subjunctive Mood." title="Is mi, Subjunctive Mood."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Ma 's mi, <i>If I be, it be I.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nam bu mhi, <i>If I were, it were I.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 's tu. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu tu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 's e. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' e.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 's sinn. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 's sibh. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bu sibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 's iad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> B' iad.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The only varieties of form which this Verb admits of, are the two + syllables <i>is</i> and <i>bu</i>. Each of these syllables <!-- Page 101 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page101"></a>{101}</span>commonly loses + the vowel when it comes in apposition with another vowel.</p> + + <p>It is remarkable, that in the Pres. Neg. the Verb disappears + altogether, and the preceding Particle, ni, cha, nach, gur, &c., and + the subsequent Pronoun, or Noun, are always understood to convey a + proposition, or a question, as unequivocally as though a Verb had been + expressed; as, cha tu <i>thou art not</i>, nach e? <i>is he not? is it + not he?</i> am mise e? <i>is it I?</i> cha luchd-brathaidh sinn <i>we are + not spies</i>, Gen. xlii. 31. Am mò thusa na Abraham? <i>Art thou greater + than Abraham?</i> gur còir urnuigh a dheanamh <i>that it is proper to + pray</i>, Luke xviii. 1<a name="footnotetag70" + href="#footnote70"><sup>[70]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page102"></a>{102}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Reciprocating State of Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>Any transitive Verb may be so combined with a Pronoun, either Personal + or Possessive, that it shall denote the agent to be also the object of + the action. This may be called the <i>reciprocating state</i> of the + Verb. It is declined as follows:—</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Buail thu fein, <i>strike thyself</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ACTIVE VOICE.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Simple Tenses.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Affirmative Mood." title="Reciprocating State, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td align="center"> Preterite. </td><td align="center"> Future.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh mi mi fein,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuail mi mi fein, </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I will strike myself.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I struck myself.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Do bhuail thu thu fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh tu thu fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Do bhuail se e fein; </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh se e fein.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Do bhuail sinn sinn fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh sinn sinn fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Do bhuail sibh sibh fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh sibh sibh fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Do bhuail siad iad fein. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailidh siad iad fein.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Negative Mood." title="Reciprocating State, Negative Mood."> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> cha,<br />&c. </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> +</td><td class="qlsrsingle"> 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bhuail mi mi fein,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I struck not myself.</i> </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I shall not strike myself.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Subjunctive and Imperative Moods." title="Reciprocating State, Subjunctive and Imperative Moods."> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"> <br /><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Bhuailinn mi fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Bhuaileas mi mi fein,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I would strike myself.</i></td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I shall strike myself.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"> +<!-- Page 103 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>{103}</span> + <br /><i>Imperative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1 Buaileam mi fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buaileamaid sinn fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>Let me strike myself.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2 Buail thu fein. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buailibh sibh fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3 Buaileadh e e fein. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Buaileadh iad iad fein.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Infinitive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Subjunctive and Imperative Moods." title="Reciprocating State, Subjunctive and Imperative Moods."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g am bhualadh fein, <i>striking myself</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g ad bhualadh fein, <i>striking thyself</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g a bhualadh fein, <i>striking himself</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g ar bualadh fein, <i>striking ourselves</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g 'ur bualadh fein, <i>striking yourselves</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 'g am bualadh fein, <i>striking themselves</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> iar mo bhualadh fein, <i>after striking myself</i>, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> gu mo bhualadh fein, <i>to strike myself</i>, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">Compound Tenses.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Affirmative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood." title="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Affirmative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bha mi 'g am bhualadh fein, </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bidh mi 'g am bhualadh fein,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I am striking myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I was striking myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I will be striking myself.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> +<!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page104"></a>{104}</span> +Ta mi iar mo, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bha mi iar mo, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Bidh mi iar mo, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I have struck myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I had struck myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I shall have struck</i>, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Negative Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood." title="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Negative Mood."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni bheil mi 'g am, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni robh mi 'g am, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni'm bi mi 'g am bhualadh fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I am not striking myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I was not striking myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I shall not be striking myself.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Present. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni bheil mi iar mo, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni robh mi iar mo, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Ni'm bi mi iar mo, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I have not struck myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I had not struck myself.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>I shall not have struck myself.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods." title="Reciprocating State, Compound Tenses, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive Moods."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Preterite. </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> Future.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>1. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn 'g am, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi 'g am,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I would be striking</i>, &c. </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>If I shall be striking</i>, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2.Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>2. Comp.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bhithinn iar mo, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma bhitheas mi iar mo, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>I would have struck</i>, &c. </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>If I shall have struck</i>, &c.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> +<!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>{105}</span> +<i>Imperative Mood.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Infinitive Mood.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> 1. <i>Comp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Do bhith 'g am bhualadh fein,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>To be striking myself.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bitheam 'g am bhualadh fein, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iar bith 'g am bhualadh fein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>Let me be striking myself.</i> </td><td class="dlsrsingle"> <i>To have been striking myself.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>From the foregoing example it appears that the Verb, in its + reciprocating state, retains its original form throughout its several + Moods, Tenses, and Persons. In the <i>simple Tenses</i>, the Personal + Pronoun immediately following the Verb is the Nominative to the Verb. The + same pronoun repeated is to be understood as in the objective state. The + word fein, corresponding to the English <i>self</i>, accompanies the last + Pronoun.</p> + + <p>In the <i>compound Tenses</i>, the auxiliary Verb, as usual, is placed + first; then follows the Personal Pronoun as its Nominative, then the + Prep. <i>ag</i> abridged to <i>'g</i> in the compound Tenses of the first + order, iar in those of the second order; after which follows the + Possessive Pronoun, corresponding in Person to that which is the + Nominative to the Verb; and lastly the Infinitive, which is the noun to + the Possessive Pronoun. Mo and do are here changed, by Metathesis and the + substitution of one broad vowel for another, into am and ad. Ta mi 'g am + bhualadh fein, rendered literally, is, <i>I am at my own striking, i.e., + I am at the striking of myself</i>, equivalent to, <i>I am striking + myself</i>. The reciprocal fein is sometimes omitted in the compound + Tenses, but is generally retained in the 3d Persons, to prevent their + being mistaken for the same persons when used without reciprocation: ta e + 'g a bhualadh, <i>he is striking him</i>, ta e 'g a bhualadh fein, <i>he + is striking himself</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Impersonal Use of Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>Intransitive Verbs, though they do not regularly admit of a Passive + Voice, yet are used <i>impersonally</i> in the 3d Pers. Sing. of the + Passive Tenses. This impersonal use of the Passive of intransitive Verbs + is founded on the same principle with the Latin Impersonals + <i>concurritur</i>, <i>pugnatum est</i>, <!-- Page 106 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>{106}</span>&c., which are + equivalent to <i>concursus fit</i>, <i>pugna facta est</i>. So in Gælic, + gluaisfear leam, <i>I will move</i>, Psal. cxvi. 9; gluaisfear leo, + <i>they will move</i>, Psal. cxix. 3; ghuileadh leinn, <i>we did + weep</i>, flebatur a nobis, Psal. cxxxvii. 1, Edit. Edinb. 1787; cha + bhithear saor o pheacadh, <i>there wanteth not sin</i>, Prov. x. 19.</p> + + <p>To the class of Impersonals ought to be referred a certain part of the + Verb which has not yet been mentioned. It resembles in form the Fut. + Negat. Passive; buailear, faicear, faighear, &c. In signification, it + is Active, Present, and Affirmative. In the course of a narrative, when + the speaker wishes to enliven his style by representing the occurrences + narrated as present, and passing actually in view, instead of the + Preterite Tenses, he adopts the Part of the Verb now described, employing + it in an impersonal acceptation, without a Nominative to it expressed. + One or two examples will serve to exhibit the use and effect of this + anomalous Tense:—Shuidh an òg bhean air sgeir, is a sùil air an + lear. Chunnaic i long a' teachd air barraibh nan tonn. Dh' aithnich i + aogas a leannain, is chlisg a cridhe 'n a com. Gun mhoille gun tamh, + <i>buailear</i> dh' fhios na traighe; agus <i>faighear</i> an laoch, 's a + dhaoine m' a thimchioll. In English thus: The young woman sat on a rock, + and her eye on the sea. She spied a ship coming on the tops of the waves. + She perceived the likeness of her lover, and her heart bounded in her + breast. Without delay or stop, she <i>hastens</i> to the shore; and + <i>finds</i> the hero, with his men around him. Again: Mar sin chuir sinn + an oidhche tharuinn. 'S a' mhadainn dh' imich sinn air ar turus. O bha + sinn 'n ar coigrich anns an tir, <i>gabhar</i> suas gu mullach an + t-sleibh, <i>direar</i> an tulach gu grad, agus <i>seallar</i> mu 'n + cuairt air gach taobh. <i>Faicear</i> thall fa 'r comhair sruth cas ag + ruith le gleann cumhann, &c. Thus we passed the night. In the morning + we pursued our journey. As we were strangers in the land, we + <i>strike</i> up to the top of the moor, <i>ascend</i> the hill with + speed, and <i>look</i> around us on every side. We <i>see</i> over + against us a rapid stream, rushing down a narrow valley, &c. <!-- + Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page107"></a>{107}</span></p> + + <p>The scrupulous chastenesss of style maintained in the Gaelic version + of the Sacred Scriptures, has totally excluded this form of expression. + It is, however, universally known and acknowledged, as an established + idiom of the Gaelic, very common in the mouths of those who speak it, and + in animated narration almost indispensable<a name="footnotetag71" + href="#footnote71"><sup>[71]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of Auxiliary Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>It has been already shown how bi <i>be</i>, is used as an Auxiliary in + the declension of all verbs. There are two other verbs which are + occasionally employed in a similar capacity; the one with an Active the + other with a Passive effect. These are dean to <i>do</i> or <i>make</i>, + and rach to <i>go</i>.</p> + + <p>The simple tenses of dean combined with the Infinitive of any verb, + correspond to the English auxiliary <i>do</i>, <i>did</i>. It sometimes + adds to the emphasis, but not to the sense. The following are examples of + this Auxiliary combined with the Infinitive of an <i>Intransitive</i> + verb:—Rinn e seasamh <i>he made standing</i>, i.e., <i>he did + stand;</i> dean suidhe <i>make sitting</i>, i.e., <i>sit down</i>; + dheanainn gul agus caoidh <i>I would make weeping <!-- Page 108 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page108"></a>{108}</span>and lamentation</i>, + i.e., <i>I would weep and lament.</i> The same arrangement takes place + when the Auxiliary is combined with the Infinitive of a <i>Transitive</i> + verb, accompanied by a possessive pronoun; as, rinn e mo bhualadh <i>he + made my striking</i>, i.e., <i>he made [or caused] the striking of + me</i>, or, <i>he did strike me</i>; cha dean mi do mholadh, <i>I will + not make your praising</i>, i.e., <i>I will not praise you</i>; dean do + gharadh, <i>make your warming</i>, dean do gharadh fein, <i>make your own + warming</i>, i.e., <i>warm yourself.</i></p> + + <p>The Simple Tenses of rach, combined with the Infinitive of a + transitive verb, correspond to the Passive Voice of the verb; as, chaidh + mo bhualadh <i>my striking went</i>, i.e., <i>came to pass</i>, or + <i>happened</i>, equivalent to <i>I was struck</i>; rachadh do mharbhadh + <i>your killing would happen</i>, i.e., <i>you would be killed.</i></p> + + <p>In phrases where either of the auxiliaries dean or rach is combined + with a transitive verb, as above, the possessive pronoun may be exchanged + for the corresponding personal pronoun in the emphatic form, followed by + the preposition <i>do</i> before the Infinitive. The preposition in this + case is attenuated into <i>a</i>, which, before a verb of the second + conjugation is dropped altogether. Thus, rinn e mo bhualadh <i>he struck + me</i>, rinn e mis' a bhualadh <i>he struck</i> <span + class="scac">ME</span>, chaidh mo bhualadh <i>I was struck</i>, chaidh + mis' a bhualadh <i>I myself was struck</i>. In like manner, a noun, or a + demonstrative pronoun, may occupy the place of this personal pronoun; as, + chaidh an ceannard a mharbhadh<a name="footnotetag72" + href="#footnote72"><sup>[72]</sup></a>, agus na daoine chur san ruaig, + <i>the leader was killed, and the men put to flight</i>; theid am + buachaill a bhualadh, agus an treud a sgapadh, <i>the shepherd will be + smitten, and the sheep scattered</i>; is math a chaidh sin innseadh + dhuit, <i>that was well told you</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 109 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page109"></a>{109}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF ADVERBS.</p> + + <p>An Adverb, considered as a separate part of speech, is a single + indeclinable word, significant of time, place, or any other circumstance + or modification of an action or attribute. The number of simple Adverbs + in Gaelic is but small. Adverbial phrases, made up of two or more words, + are sufficiently numerous. Any adjective may be converted into an + adverbial expression, by prefixing to it the preposition gu <i>to</i>; + as, fìrinneach <i>true</i>, gu fìrinneach <i>[corresponding] to [what is] + true</i>, <span title="kata to alêthes" class="grk" + >κατα το + αληθες</span>, i.e., <i>truly</i>. + Adverbs of this form need not be enumerated. It may be useful, however, + to give a list of other adverbs and adverbial phrases, most commonly in + use; subjoining, where it can be done, a literal translation of their + component parts, and also the English expression which corresponds most + nearly to the sense of the Gaelic phrase.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Adverbs of Time.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A cheana; already, truly.</p> + <p>A chianamh; a little while ago.</p> + <p>A chlisge; quickly, in a trice.</p> + <p>A choidhche, Choidh; for ever.</p> + <p>A nis, Nise; now.</p> + <p>A rìs, Rithist; again.</p> + <p>Ainmic, Ainmeach; seldom.</p> + <p>Air ball; <i>on [the] spot</i>, immediately.</p> + <p>Air dheireadh; hindmost.</p> + <p>Air thoiseach; foremost.</p> + <p>Air tùs; in the beginning, at first.</p> + <p>Air uairibh; <i>at times</i>, sometimes.</p> +<!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page110"></a>{110}</span> + <p>Am bliadhna; this year.</p> + <p>Am feadh; whilst.</p> + <p>Am feasd; for ever.</p> + <p>Am màireach; to-morrow.</p> + <p>An ceart uair; <i>the very hour</i>, presently.</p> + <p>An comhnuidh; <i>in continuation</i>, continually.</p> + <p>An dé; yesterday.</p> + <p>An deigh laimh; <i>behind hand</i>, afterwards.</p> + <p>An diugh; <i>the [present] day</i>, to-day<a name="footnotetag73" href="#footnote73"><sup>[73]</sup></a>.</p> + <p>An ear-thrath, An iar-thraith; <i>the after time</i>, the day after to-morrow.</p> + <p>An nochd; <i>the [present] night</i>, to-night.</p> + <p>An raoir, An reidhr; yesternight.</p> + <p>An sin; <i>in that [time]</i>, then.</p> + <p>An trath; <i>the time</i>, when.</p> + <p>An tràth so, An tràs'; <i>this time</i>, at present.</p> + <p>An uair; <i>the time</i>, when.</p> + <p>An uiridh; last year.</p> + <p>Aon uair; <i>one time</i>, once.</p> + <p>Cia fhada; how long.</p> + <p>Cia minic, Cia tric; how often.</p> + <p>C'uine; <i>what time</i>, when.</p> + <p>Do la, A la; by day<a name="footnotetag74" href="#footnote74"><sup>[74]</sup></a>.</p> + <p>Dh' oidhche; by night<a href="#footnote74"><sup>[74]</sup></a>.</p> + <p>Do ghnàth; <i>[according] to custom</i>, always.</p> + <p>Fa dheoidh; <i>at the end</i>, at last.</p> + <p>Fathast, Fòs; yet, still.</p> +<!-- Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page111"></a>{111}</span> + <p>Gu bràth<a name="footnotetag75" href="#footnote75"><sup>[75]</sup></a>, Gu la bhràth; <i>to the general conflagration</i>, for ever.</p> + <p>Gu dìlinn<a href="#footnote75"><sup>[75]</sup></a>; <i>to the expiration of time</i>, or <i>till the deluge</i>, for ever.</p> + <p>Gu minic; often.</p> + <p>Gu siorruidh; <i>to ever-flowing</i>, for ever.</p> + <p>Gu suthainn; for ever.</p> + <p>Gu tric; often.</p> + <p>Idir; at all.</p> + <p>Mar tha; <i>as it is</i>, already.</p> + <p>Mu dheireadh; at last.</p> + <p>O cheann tamuill; a while ago.</p> + <p>O chian; <i>from far</i>, of old, long ago.</p> + <p>Rè seal, Rè tamuill; for a time.</p> + <p>Riamh; ever, said of past time only.</p> + <p>Roimh làimh; before hand.</p> + <p>Uair eigin; some time.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Adverbs of Place.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A bhos, Bhos; on this side, here below.</p> + <p>A leth taobh; to one side, aside.</p> + <p>A mach, A muigh; without, out.</p> + <p>A mhàn<a name="footnotetag76" href="#footnote76"><sup>[76]</sup></a>; downwards, down.</p> + <p>An aird; <i>to the height</i>, upwards, up.</p> + <p>A nall, Nall; to this side.</p> + <p>A nuas; <i>from above</i>, down hither.</p> + <p>A null, Null, nunn; to the other side.</p> +<!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page112"></a>{112}</span> + <p>A thaobh; aside.</p> + <p>Air aghaidh, Air adhart; <i>on [the] face</i>, forward.</p> + <p>Air ais; backwards.</p> + <p>Air dheireadh; hindmost.</p> + <p>Air thoiseach; foremost.</p> + <p>Am fad, An céin; afar.</p> + <p>An gar; close to.</p> + <p>An laimh; in hand, in custody.</p> + <p>An sin; <i>in that [place]</i>, there.</p> + <p>An so; <i>in this [place]</i>, here.</p> + <p>An sud; <i>in yon [place]</i>, yonder.</p> + <p>An taice; close adjoining, in contact.</p> + <p>Asteach, Astigh;<a name="footnotetag77" href="#footnote77"><sup>[77]</sup></a> within, in.</p> + <p>C' àite; <i>what place</i>, where.</p> + <p>Cia an taobh; <i>what side</i>, whither.</p> + <p>C' ionadh; <i>what place</i>, whither.</p> + <p>Fad as; afar off.</p> + <p>Fad air astar; far away.</p> + <p>Far; where,—relatively.</p> + <p>Fogus, Am fogus; near.</p> + <p>H-uig' agus uaith; to and fro.</p> + <p>Iolar, Ioras; below there, below yonder.</p> + <p>Le leathad; <i>by a descent</i>, downwards.</p> + <p>Leis; <i>along with it</i>, down a stream, declivity, &c.</p> + <p>Mu 'n cuairt; <i>by the circuit</i>, around.</p> + <p>Ri bruthach; <i>to an ascent</i>, upwards.</p> + <p>Ris; in an exposed state, bare, uncovered.</p> + <p>Seachad; past, aside.</p> + <p>Sios, a sios; downwards.</p> + <p>Suas, a suas; upwards.</p> +<!-- Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>{113}</span> + <p>Shios; below there, below yonder.</p> + <p>Shuas; above there, above yonder.</p> + <p>Tarsuing; across.</p> + <p>Thairis; over.</p> + <p>Thall; on the other side.</p> + <p>Uthard; above there, above yonder.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Deas<a name="footnotetag78" href="#footnote78"><sup>[78]</sup></a>; south.</p> + <p>Gu deas; southward.</p> + <p>A deas; from the south.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Iar<a name="footnotetag79" href="#footnote79"><sup>[79]</sup></a>, Siar; west.</p> + <p>Gus an aird an iar; westward.</p> + <p>O'n iar; from the west.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Tuath; north.</p> + <p>Gu tuath; northward.</p> + <p>A tuath; from the north.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ear, Oir, Soir; east.</p> + <p>Gus an aird an ear; eastward.</p> + <p>O'n ear; from the east.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Adverbs of Manner.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Air achd; in a manner.</p> + <p>Air a' chuthach, Air boile; distracted, mad.</p> + <p>Air chall; lost.</p> + <p>Air chòir; aright.</p> + <p>Air chor; in a manner.</p> + <p>Air chor eigin; in some manner, somehow.</p> + <p>Air chuairt; sojourning.</p> + <p>Air chuimhne; in remembrance.</p> + <p>Air éigin; with difficulty, scarcely.</p> + <p>Air fogradh; in exile, in a fugitive state.</p> +<!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page114"></a>{114}</span> + <p>Air ghleus; in trim.</p> + <p>Air iomadan; adrift.</p> + <p>Air iomroll; astray.</p> + <p>Air iunndrain; amissing.</p> + <p>Air lagh; trimmed for action, as a bow bent, a firelock cocked, &c.</p> + <p>Air leth; apart, separately.</p> + <p>Air seacharan; astray.</p> + <p>Air sgeul; found, not lost.</p> + <p>Amhàin; only.</p> + <p>Amhuil, Amhludh; like as.</p> + <p>Am bidheantas; customarily, habitually.</p> + <p>Am feabhas; convalescent, improving.</p> + <p>An coinnimh a chinn; headlong.</p> + <p>An coinnimh a chùil; backwards.</p> + <p>An deidh, An geall; desirous, enamoured.</p> + <p>An nasgaidh; for nothing, gratis.</p> + <p>An tòir; in pursuit.</p> + <p>Araon; together.</p> + <p>As an aghaidh; <i>out of the face</i>, to the face, outright.</p> + <p>As a chéile; loosened, disjointed.</p> + <p>Car air char; rolling, tumbling over and over.</p> + <p>Cia mar; <i>as how</i>, how.</p> + <p>C' arson; <i>on account of what</i>, why, wherefore.</p> + <p>C' ionnas; <i>what manner</i>, how.</p> + <p>Cha, cho; not.</p> + <p>Comhla<a name="footnotetag80" href="#footnote80"><sup>[80]</sup></a>, mar chomhla, Cuideachd; together, in company.</p> + <p>C'uime, for what, why.</p> + <p>Do dheoin, a dheoin; spontaneously, intentionally.</p> + <p>Dh' aindeoin; against one's will.</p> + <p>Do dhìth, a dhìth; a-wanting.</p> + <p>Do rìreadh; really, actually, indeed.</p> +<!-- Page 115 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>{115}</span> + <p>Fa leth; severally, individually.</p> + <p>Gle; very.</p> + <p>Gu beachd; <i>to observation</i>, evidently, clearly.</p> + <p>Gu buileach; <i>to effect</i>, thoroughly, wholly.</p> + <p>Gu dearbh; <i>to conviction</i>, truly, certainly.</p> + <p>Gu deimhin; <i>to assurance</i>, assuredly, verily.</p> + <p>Gu leir; altogether.</p> + <p>Gu leor; <i>to sufficiency</i>, enough.</p> + <p>Gun amharus; <i>without doubt</i>, doubtless.</p> + <p>Gun chàird; <i>without rest</i>, incessantly, without hesitation.</p> + <p>Leth mar leth; half and half.</p> + <p>Le chéile; <i>with each other</i>, together.</p> + <p>Maraon; <i>as one</i>, together, in concert.</p> + <p>Mar an ceudna; in like manner, likewise.</p> + <p>Mar sin; <i>as that</i>, in that manner.</p> + <p>Mar so; <i>as this</i>, thus.</p> + <p>Mar sud; <i>as yon</i>, in yon manner.</p> + <p>Mu seach; in return, alternately.</p> + <p>Na, Nar; let not,—used optatively, or imperatively.</p> + <p>Nach; that not, who not, not?</p> + <p>Ni; not.</p> + <p>Ni h-eadh<a name="footnotetag81" href="#footnote81"><sup>[81]</sup></a>; it is not so.</p> + <p>Os àird; openly.</p> + <p>Os barr; <i>on top</i>, besides.</p> + <p>Os iosal; secretly, covertly.</p> + <p>Ro; very.</p> + <p>Roimh a cheile; prematurely, too hastily.</p> + <p>Seadh<a href="#footnote81"><sup>[81]</sup></a>; it is so.</p> + <p>Thar a chéile, Troimh a chéile; in disorder, in confusion, stirred about.</p> + <p>Theagamh; perhaps.</p> + <p>Uidh air 'n uidh; <i>stage by stage</i>, gradually.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page116"></a>{116}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF PREPOSITIONS.</p> + + <p>The Prepositions, strictly so called, are single words, most of them + monosyllables, employed to mark relation. Relation is also expressed by + combinations of words which often correspond to simple prepositions in + other languages. These combinations are, not improperly, ranked among the + prepositions. The following lists contain first the Prepositions properly + so called, which are all simple; secondly, improper Prepositions, which, + with one or two exceptions, seem all to be made up of a simple + Preposition and a Noun.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Proper Prepositions.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Proper Prepositions." title="Proper Prepositions."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Aig, Ag, <i>at</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fuidh, Fo, <i>under</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> Os, <i>above</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Air, <i>on</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gu, Gus, <i>to</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> Re, Ri, Ris, <i>to</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ann, <i>in</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gun, <i>without</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> Roimh, <i>before</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> As, A, <i>out of</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iar, <i>after</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> Tar, Thar, <i>over, <span class="correction" title="Original reads `accross'.">across</span></i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> De, <i>of</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Le, Leis, <i>with, by</i>. </td><td class="slqrsingle"> Tre, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:7ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <i>through</i>. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Do, <i>to</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mar, <i>like to</i>. </td><td class="slqrsingle"> Troimh, </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Eadar, <i>between</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mu, <i>about</i>. </td><td class="slqrsingle"> Throimh, </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fa, <i>upon</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> O, Ua, <i>from</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> Seach, <i>past, in comparison with</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The Preposition ann is often written double, ann an eolas, <i>in + knowledge</i>; ann an gliocas, <i>in wisdom</i>. The final <i>n</i> or + <i>nn</i> is changed into <i>m</i> before a labial; as, am measg, + <i>among</i>; ann am meadhon, <i>in midst</i>. Before the Article or the + Relative, this Preposition is written anns; as, anns an toiseach, <i>in + the beginning</i>, an cor anns am bheil e, <i>the condition in which he + is</i>; and in this situation the letters <i>ann</i> are often dropped, + and the <i>s</i> alone retained, 's an toiseach, <i>in the + beginning</i>.</p> + + <p>De, so far as I know, is found in no Scottish publications. The + reasons which have induced me to assign it a place among the prepositions + will be mentioned in treating of the combinations of the Proper + Prepositions with the Personal Pronouns.</p> + + <p>The Preposition <i>do</i>, like the verbal particle, and the + Possessive Pronoun of the same sound, loses the <i>o</i> before a vowel, + and the consonant is aspirated; thus, dh' Albainn, <i>to <!-- Page 117 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page117"></a>{117}</span>Scotland</i>. + It is also preceded sometimes by the vowel <i>a</i> when it follows a + final consonant; as, dol a dh' Eirin, <i>going to Ireland</i>. This + <i>a</i> seems to be nothing else than the vowel of <i>do</i> transposed; + just as the letters of the pronouns mo, do, are in certain situations + transposed, and become am, ad. In this situation, perhaps it would be + advisible to join the <i>a</i>, in writing, to the <i>dh</i> thus, dol + adh Eirin. This would rid us of one superfluous <i>a</i> appearing as a + separate inexplicable word. The same remarks apply to the prep. + <i>de</i>; <i>e.g.</i>, armailt mhòr de dhaoinibh agus <i>a dh'</i> + eachaibh, <i>a great army of men and of horses</i>, lan do [de] reubainn + agus a dh' aingidheachd, <i>full of ravining and wickedness</i>, Luke xi. + 39. Do, as has been already observed, often loses the <i>d</i> + altogether, and is written <i>a</i>; as, dol a Dhuneidin, <i>going to + Edinburgh</i>. When the preposition is thus robbed of its articulation, + and only a feeble obscure vowel sound is left, another corruption very + naturally follows, and this vowel, as well as the consonant, is + discarded, not only in speaking, but even in writing; as, chaidh e + Dhuneidin, <i>he went to Edinburgh</i>; chaidh e thìr eile, <i>he went to + another land</i>; where the nouns appear in their aspirated form, without + any word to govern them.</p> + + <p>Fa has been improperly confounded with fuidh or fo. That fa signifies + <i>upon</i>, is manifest from such phrases as fa 'n bhord, <i>upon the + board</i>, said of a dead body stretched upon a board; leigeader fa làr, + <i>dropped on the ground</i>, Carswell: fa 'n adhbhar ud, <i>on that + account</i>, equivalent to air an adhbhar ud, see Psal. cvi. 42, and xlv. + 2, metr. version.</p> + + <p>The reason for admitting iar <i>after</i>, has been already given in + treating of the Compound Tenses of Verbs in Chap. V.</p> + + <p>The manner of combining these prepositions with nouns will be shown in + treating of Syntax. The manner of combining them with the personal + pronouns must be explained in this place, because in that connection they + appear in a form somewhat different from their radical form. A Proper + Preposition is joined to a Personal Pronoun by incorporating both into + one word, commonly with some change on the Preposition, or on the + Pronoun, or on both.</p> + + <p>The following are the Prepositions which admit of this kind of + combination, incorporated with the several Personal Pronouns: <!-- Page + 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page118"></a>{118}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Prepositions incorporated with Personal Pronouns." title="Prepositions incorporated with Personal Pronouns."> +<tr><td align="center"> Prep. </td><td align="center" colspan="4"> Singular. </td><td align="center" colspan="3"> Plural.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>1st Pers.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>2d Pers.</i> </td><td class="nspac"></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>3d Pers.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>1st Pers.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>2d Pers.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>3d Pers.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Aig, Ag; </td><td class="spacsingle"> agam, </td><td class="spacsingle"> agad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. aige, <i>at him;</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> againn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> agaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> aca,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at me</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at thee</i>. </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. aice, <i>at her</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at us</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at you</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>at them</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Air; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> orm, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> ort, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. air. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> oirnn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> oirbh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> orra.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. oirre. uirre. orra. </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Ann; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> annam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> annad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. ann. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> annainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> annaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> annta.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. innte.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> As; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> asam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> asad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. as. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> asainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> asaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> asda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. aisde.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> De; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhiom, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhiot, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. dheth. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhinn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhiu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. dh'i.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Do; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhomh, dhom, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhuit, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. dha. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhuinn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhuibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> dhoibh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. dh'i.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Eadar; </td><td class="spacsingle"> ... </td><td class="spacsingle"> ... </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> ... </td><td class="spacsingle"> eadarainn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> eadaraibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> eatorra.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Fo, Fuidh; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fodham, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fodhad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. fodha. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fodhainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fodhaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> fodhpa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. fuidhpe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Gu; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> h-ugam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> h-ugad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. h-uige. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> h-ugainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> h-ugaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> h-uca.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. h-uice.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Le; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> leam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> leat, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. leis. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> leinn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> leibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> leo.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. leatha.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Mu; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> umam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> umad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. uime. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> umainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> umaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> umpa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. uimpe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> O, Ua; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> uam, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> uait, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. uaith. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> uainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> uaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> uapa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. uaipe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Re, Ri; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> rium, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> riut, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. ris. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> ruinn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> ribh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> riu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. rithe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Roimh; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> romham, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> romhad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. roimhe. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> romhainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> romhaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> rompa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. roimpe.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Thar; </td><td class="spacsingle"> tharam, </td><td class="spacsingle"> tharad, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. thairte. </td><td class="spacsingle"> tharuinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> tharuibh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> tharta.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> Troimh; </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> tromham, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> tromhad, </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="2"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qlsrsingle"> m. troimhe. </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> tromhainn, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> tromhaibh, </td><td class="spacsingle" rowspan="2"> trompa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qlsrsingle"> f. troimpe.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page120"></a>{120}</span></p> + + <p>In most of these compound terms, the fragments of the Pronouns which + enter into their composition, especially those of the first and second + Persons, are very conspicuous<a name="footnotetag82" + href="#footnote82"><sup>[82]</sup></a>. These fragments take after them + occasionally the emphatic syllables <i>sa</i>, <i>san</i>, <i>ne</i>, in + the same manner as the Personal Pronouns themselves do; as, agamsa <i>at + ME</i>, aigesan <i>at HIM</i>, uainne <i>from US</i>.</p> + + <p>The two prepositions <i>de</i> and <i>do</i> have long been confounded + together, both being written <i>do</i>. It can hardly be supposed that + the composite words dhiom, dhiot, &c. would have been distinguished + from dhomh, dhuit, &c., by orthography, pronunciation, and + signification, if the Prepositions, as well as the Pronouns, which enter + into the composition of these words, had been originally the same. In + dhiom, &c., the initial Consonant is always followed by a small + vowel. In dhomh, &c., with one exception, it is followed by a broad + vowel. Hence it is presumable that the Preposition which is the root of + dhiom, &c., must have had a small vowel after <i>d</i>, whereas the + root of dhomh, &c., has a broad vowel after <i>d</i>. <i>De</i> is a + preposition preserved in Latin (a language which has many marks of + affinity with the Gaelic), in the same sense which must have belonged to + the root of dhiom, &c., in Gaelic. The preposition in question itself + occurs in Irish, in the name given to a Colony which is supposed to have + settled in Ireland, <span class="scac">A.M.</span> 2540, called Tuath de + Danann. (See Lh. "Arch. Brit." tit. x. <i>voc.</i> Tuath; also Miss + Brooke's "Reliques of Irish Poetry," p. 102.) These facts afford more + than a presumption that the true root of the Composite dhiom, &c., is + <i>de</i>, and that it signifies <i>of</i>. It has therefore appeared + proper to separate it from <i>do</i>, and to assign to each its + appropriate meaning<a name="footnotetag83" + href="#footnote83"><sup>[83]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page121"></a>{121}</span></p> + + <p>Dhiom, dhiot, &c., and dhomh, dhuit, &c., are written with a + <i>plain d</i> after a Lingual; diom, domh, &c.</p> + + <p>Eadar is not incorporated with the pronouns of the singular number, + but written separately; eadar mis agus thusa, <i>between me and + thee</i>.</p> + + <p>In combining <i>gu</i> and <i>mu</i> with the pronouns, the letters of + the Prepositions suffer a transposition, and are written <i>ug</i>, + <i>um</i>. The former of these was long written with <i>ch</i> prefixed, + thus chugam, &c. The translators of the Scriptures, observing that + <i>ch</i> neither corresponded to the pronunciation, nor made part of the + radical Preposition, exchanged it for <i>th</i>, and wrote thugam. The + <i>th</i>, being no more than a simple aspiration, corresponds indeed to + the common mode of pronouncing the word. Yet it may well be questioned + whether the <i>t</i>, even though aspirated, ought to have a place, if + <i>g</i> be the only radical consonant belonging to the Preposition. The + component parts of the word might be exhibited with less disguise, and + the common pronunciation (whether correct or not), also represented, by + retaining the <i>h</i> alone, and connecting it with the Preposition by a + hyphen, as when written before a Noun, thus h-ugam, h-ugaibh, &c.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4">Improper Prepositions.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Air cheann; <i>at [the] end</i>, against a certain time.</p> + <p>Air feadh, Air fad; throughout, during.</p> + <p>Air muin; <i>on the back</i>, mounted on.</p> + <p>Air sgàth; for the sake, on pretence.</p> + <p>Air son; on account.</p> + <p>Air tòir; in pursuit.</p> + <p>Air beulaobh; <i>on the fore side</i>, before.</p> + <p>Air culaobh; <i>on the back side</i>, behind.</p> + <p>Am fochair; <i>in presence</i>.</p> + <p>Am measg; <i>in the mixture</i>, amidst, among.</p> +<!-- Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page122"></a>{122}</span> + <p>An aghaidh; <i>in the face</i>, against, in opposition.</p> + <p>An ceann; <i>in the end</i>, at the expiration.</p> + <p>An comhail, An coinnimh; <i>in meeting</i>, to meet.</p> + <p>An cois, A chois; <i>at the foot</i>, near to, hard by.</p> + <p>An dàil; <i>in the rencounter</i>, to meet.</p> + <p>An diaigh, An deigh, An deaghaidh, An déis; probably for an deireadh; in the end, after.</p> + <p>An eiric; in return, in requital.</p> + <p>Am fianuis, An lathair; in presence.</p> + <p>An lorg; <i>in the track</i>, in consequence.</p> + <p>As eugais, As easbhuidh; <i>in want</i>, without.</p> + <p>As leth; in behalf, for the sake.</p> + <p>A los; in order to, with the intention of.</p> + <p>Car; during.</p> + <p>Do bhrigh, a bhrigh; <i>by virtue</i>, because.</p> + <p>Do chòir, a chòir; <i>to the presence</i>, near, implying motion.</p> + <p>Do chum, a chum<a name="footnotetag84" href="#footnote84"><sup>[84]</sup></a>; to, towards, in order to.</p> + <p>Do dhìth, a dhìth, Dh' easbhuidh; for want.</p> + <p>Dh' fhios; <i>to the knowledge</i>, to.</p> + <p>Dh' ionnsuidh; <i>to the approach</i>, or <i>onset</i>, toward.</p> + <p>Do réir, a réir; according to.</p> + <p>Do thaobh, a thaobh; <i>on the side</i>, with respect, concerning.</p> + <p>Fa chùis; by reason, because.</p> + <p>Fa chomhair; opposite.</p> + <p>Mu choinnimh; opposite, over against.</p> + <p>Mu thimchoill, timchioll; <i>by the circuit</i>, around.</p> + <p>O bharr, bharr; <i>from the top</i>, off.</p> + <p>Os ceann; <i>on the top</i>, above, atop.</p> +<!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page123"></a>{123}</span> + <p>Ré; <i>duration</i>, during.</p> + <p>Taréis; <i>after</i><a name="footnotetag85" href="#footnote85"><sup>[85]</sup></a>.</p> + <p>Trid; through, by means.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>It is evident, from inspection, that almost all these improper + Prepositions are compounded; and comprehend, as one of their component + parts, a Noun, which is preceded by a simple or Proper Preposition; like + the English, <i>on account, with respect</i>, &c. The words ceann, + aghaidh, lorg, barr, taobh, &c., are known to be real Nouns, because + they are employed in that capacity in other connections, as well as in + the phrases here enumerated. The case is not so clear with regard to son, + cum, or cun, reir, which occur only in the above phrases; but it is + probable that these are nouns likewise, and that, when combined with + simple Prepositions, they constitute phrases of precisely the same + structure with the rest of the foregoing list<a name="footnotetag86" + href="#footnote86"><sup>[86]</sup></a>. Comhair is probably comh-aire + <i>mutual attention</i>. Dàil and còir, in the sense of proximity, are + found in their compounds comh-dhail and fochair [fa chòir.] Tòir, in like + manner, in its derivative tòireachd, <i>the act of pursuing</i>. Dh' + fhios, <i>to the knowledge</i>, must have been originally applied to + persons only. So it is used in many Gaelic songs: beir mo shoiridh le + dùrachd dh' fhios na cailinn, &c., <i>bear my good wishes with + cordiality to the knowledge of the maid</i>, &c., i.e., <i>present my + affectionate regards</i>, &c. This appropriate meaning and use of the + phrase came by degrees to be overlooked; and it was employed, + promiscuously with do chum and dh' ionnsuidh, to signify <i>unto</i> in a + more general sense. If this analysis of the expression be just, then + ghios<a name="footnotetag87" href="#footnote87"><sup>[87]</sup></a> must + be deemed only a different, and a corrupt manner of writing dh' + fhios.</p> + + <p>In the improper preposition os ceann, the noun has almost <!-- Page + 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>{124}</span>always + been written cionn. Yet in all other situations, the same noun is + uniformly written ceann. Whence has arisen this diversity in the + orthography of a simple monosyllable? And is it maintained upon just + grounds? It must have proceeded either from a persuasion that there are + two distinct nouns signifying <i>top</i>, one of which is to be written + ceann, and the other cionn<a name="footnotetag88" + href="#footnote88"><sup>[88]</sup></a>; or from an opinion that, granting + the two words to be the same individual noun, yet it is proper to + distinguish its meaning when used in the capacity of a preposition, from + its meaning in other situations, by spelling it in different ways. I know + of no good argument in support of the former of these two opinions; nor + has it probably been ever maintained. The latter opinion, which seems to + be the real one, is founded on a principle subversive of the analogy and + stability of written language, namely, that the various significations of + the same word are to be distinguished in writing, by changing its + letters, the constituent elements of the word. The variation in question, + instead of serving to point out the meaning of a word or phrase in one + place, from its known meaning in another connection, tends directly to + disguise it; and to mislead the reader into a belief that the words, + which are thus presented to him under different forms, are themselves + radically and essentially different. If the same word has been employed + to denote several things somewhat different from each other, that does by + no means appear a sufficient reason why the writers of the language + should make as many words of one<a name="footnotetag89" + href="#footnote89"><sup>[89]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 125 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page125"></a>{125}</span></p> + + <p>The use of the <i>proper Prepositions</i> has been already shown in + the composition of adverbial phrases, and of the <i>improper + Prepositions</i>. The following examples show the further use of them in + connection with Nouns and Verbs, and in some idiomatic expressions which + do not always admit of being literally rendered in English.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Ag, aig.</p> + + <p><i>At</i>: aig an dorus, <i>at the door</i>; aig an tigh, <i>at the + house, at home</i>.</p> + + <p><i>By reason of</i>: aig ro mheud aighir 's a shòlais, <i>by reason of + his great joy and satisfaction</i>, Smith's <i>Seann dàna</i>, p. 9; ag + meud a mhiann <i>through intense desire</i>, Psal. lxxxiv. 2, metr. + vers.; ag lionmhoireachd, Psal. xl. 5.</p> + + <p>Signifying possession: tha tuill aig na sionnaich, <i>the foxes have + holes</i>; bha aig duine araidh dithis mhac, <i>a certain man had two + sons</i>; cha n'eil fhios agam, <i>I have not the knowledge of it, I do + not know it</i>.</p> + + <p>Chaidh agam air, <i>I have prevailed over him</i>, Psal. xiii. 4, + metr. vers.</p> + + <p>Joined to the Infinitive of Verbs: ag imeachd, <i>a-walking, + walking</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Air.</p> + + <p>On, upon: air an làr, <i>on the ground</i>; air an là sin, <i>on that + day</i>; air an adhbhar sin, <i>on that account, for that reason</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page126"></a>{126}</span></p> + + <p>Denoting claim of debt: ioc dhomh na bheil agam ort, <i>pay me what + thou owest me</i>, Matt. xviii. 28; cia meud ata aig mo thighearn ortsa? + <i>how much owest thou unto my lord?</i> Luke xvi. 57.<a + name="footnotetag90" href="#footnote90"><sup>[90]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Denoting an oath: air m' fhocal, <i>upon my word</i>; air làimh d' + athar 's do sheanathar, <i>by the hand of your father and + grandfather</i>.</p> + + <p>Tha eagal, mulad, sgìos, ocras, &c., air, <i>he is afraid, sad, + fatigued, hungry</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Thig mo bheul air do cheartas, is air do chliù, <i>my mouth shall + speak of thy justice and thy praise</i>, Psal. xxxv. 28. metr.; thig mo + bheul air gliocas, <i>my mouth shall speak of wisdom</i>, Psal. xlix. 3, + metr. v.; sin cùis air am bheil mi nis a' teachd, <i>that is the matter + of which I am now to treat</i>.</p> + + <p>Tog ort, <i>rouse thyself, bestir thyself</i>, Psal lxxiv. 22, metr. + v.</p> + + <p>Chaidh agam air, <i>I prevailed over him</i>, Psal. xiii. 4.; metr.; + 'S ann ormsa chaidh, <i>it was I that was worsted</i>.</p> + + <p>Thug e am monadh air, <i>he betook himself to the mountain</i>.</p> + + <p><i>In respect of</i>: cha 'n fhaca mi an samhuil air olcas, <i>I never + saw their like for badness</i>, Gen. xli. 19; air a lughad, <i>however + small it be</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Joined with, accompanied by</i>: mòran iarruinn air bheag faobhar, + <i>much iron with little edge</i>, M<sup>c</sup>Intyre's Songs. Oidhche + bha mi 'n a theach, air mhòran bìdh 's air bheagan eudaich, <i>I was a + night in his house, with plenty of <!-- Page 127 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>{127}</span>food, but scanty + clothing</i>; air leth laimh, <i>having but one hand</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting measure or dimension: dà throidh air àirde, <i>two feet in + height</i>.</p> + + <p>Olc air mhath leat e, <i>whether you take it well or ill</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Ann, ann an, anns.</p> + + <p><i>In.:</i> Anns an tigh, <i>in the house</i>; anns an oidhche, <i>in + the night</i>; ann an dòchas, <i>in hope</i>; anns a' bharail sin, <i>of + that opinion</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting existence: ta abhainn ann, <i>there is a river</i>, Psal. + xlvi. 4, metr.; nach bithinn ann ni 's mò, <i>that I should not be any + more</i>; b' fhearr a bhi marbh na ann, <i>it were better to be dead than + to be alive</i>; ciod a th' ann? <i>what is it?</i> is mise th' ann, + <i>it is I</i>; mar gu b' ann, <i>as it were</i>; tha e 'n a dhuine + ionraic, <i>he is a just man</i>; tha i 'n a bantraich, <i>she is a + widow</i><a name="footnotetag91" + href="#footnote91"><sup>[91]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>Marking emphasis: is ann air eigin a thàr e as, <i>it was with + difficulty he got off</i>; an àite seasamh is ann a theich iad, + <i>instead of standing (keeping their ground) they fled</i>; nach + freagair thu? fhreagair mi ann, <i>will you not answer? I have + answered</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">As.</p> + + <p><i>Out of:</i> as an dúthaich, <i>out of the country</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting extinction: tha an solus, no an teine, air dol as, <i>the + light, or the fire, is gone out</i>.</p> + + <p>As an alt, <i>out of joint</i>; as a' ghualainn, as a' chruachainn, as + an uilinn, &c., <i>dislocated in the shoulder, hip, + elbow-joint</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"></a>{128}</span></p> + + <p>Chaidh e as, <i>he escaped</i>.</p> + + <p>Cuir as da, <i>destroy him</i>, or <i>it</i>.</p> + + <p>Chaidh as da, <i>he is perished, undone</i>.</p> + + <p>Thug e na buinn as, <i>he scampered off</i>.</p> + + <p>Dubh as, <i>blot out</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">De.</p> + + <p><i>Of:</i> Armailt mhòr de dhaoinibh agus a dh' eachaibh, <i>a great + army of men and horses</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Off:</i> Bha na geugan air an sgathadh dheth, <i>the branches were + lopped off</i>; thug iad an ceann deth, <i>they beheaded him</i>.</p> + + <p>Dh' aon rùn, <i>with one consent, with one purpose</i>; dh' aon + bharail, <i>with one mind, judgment</i>.</p> + + <p>A là agus a dh' oidhche, <i>i.e.</i>, de là agus de oidhche, <i>by day + and by night</i>. Lat. <i>de nocte</i>, Hor.</p> + + <p>Saidhbhreas mór d'a mheud, <i>riches however great</i>. Psal. cxix. + 14, metr.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Do.</p> + + <p><i>To:</i> Tabhair dhomh, <i>give to me, give me</i>; thug sinn a bos + mìn do Dhearg, <i>we gave her soft hand to Dargo</i>.</p> + + <p>Dh' eirich sud dha gu h-obann, <i>that befell him suddenly</i>. Mar + sin duinne gu latha, <i>so it fared with us till day, so we passed the + night</i>; ma 's olc dhomh, cha n-fhearr dhoibh, <i>if it goes ill with + me, they fare no better</i>.</p> + + <p>Latha dhomhsa siubhal bheann, <i>one day as I travelled the hills</i>; + latha dhuinn air machair Alba, <i>one day when we were in the lowlands of + Scotland; on Scotia's plains</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Eadar.</p> + + <p><i>Between:</i> eadar an dorus agus an ursainn, <i>between the door + and the post</i>.</p> + + <p>Dh' eirich eadar mi agus mo choimhearsnach, <i>a quarrel arose betwixt + me and my neighbour</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"></a>{129}</span></p> + + <p>Eadar mhòr agus bheag, <i>both great and small</i>, Psal. xlix. 2, + metr.; Rev. xix. 5, eadar bhochd agus nochd, <i>both the poor and the + naked</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Fa.</p> + + <p><i>Upon:</i> Fa 'n bhòrd, <i>upon the board</i>; leigeadar fa làr, + <i>was dropped on the ground, omitted, neglected</i>. Carswel. Fa 'n + adhbhar ud, <i>on that account</i>; creud fa 'n abradh iad? <i>wherefore + should they say?</i></p> + + <p>Fa sheachd, <i>seven times</i>, Psal. vii. 6, metr.; fa cheud, <i>a + hundred times</i>, Psal. lxii. 9, metr.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Fuidh, fo.</p> + + <p><i>Under:</i> Fuidh 'n bhòrd, <i>under the board</i>; fuidh bhlàth + <i>in blossom</i>; tha an t-arbhar fo dhéis, <i>the corn is in the + ear</i>; fuidh smuairean, <i>under concern</i>; fo ghruaim, + <i>gloomy</i>; fo mhi-ghean, <i>in bad humour</i>; fuidh mhi-chliu, + <i>under bad report</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting intention or purpose: air bhi fuidhe, <i>it being his + purpose</i>, Acts xx. 7; tha tighinn fodham, <i>it is my intention or + inclination</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Gu, Gus.</p> + + <p><i>To:</i> O thigh gu tigh, <i>from house to house</i>; gu crìch mo + shaoghail fein, <i>to the end of my life</i>; gus an crion gu luaithre a' + chlach, <i>until the stone shall crumble to dust</i>. Sm. Seann dàna.</p> + + <p>A' bhliadhna gus an àm so, <i>this time twelvemonth, a year ago</i>; a + sheachduin gus an dé, <i>yesterday se'ennight</i>.</p> + + <p>Mile gu leth, <i>a mile and a half</i>; bliadhna gu leth, <i>a year + and a half</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Gun.</p> + + <p><i>Without:</i> Gun amharus, <i>without doubt</i>; gun bhrogan, + <i>without shoes</i>; gun fhios, <i>without knowledge, unwittingly</i>; + gun fhios nach faic thu e, <i>in case you may see him</i>, <!-- Page 130 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>{130}</span><i>if perhaps + you may see him</i>; gun fhios am faic thu e, <i>if perhaps you may not + see him</i>. Gun chomas aig air, <i>without his being able to prevent it, + or avoid it</i>; <i>involuntarily</i>. Gniomh gun chomain, <i>an + unmerited, or unprovoked deed</i>. Dh' àithn e dha gun sin a dheanamh, + <i>he ordered him not to do that</i>. Fhuair iad rabhadh gun iad a + philltinn, <i>they were warned not to return</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Iar.</p> + + <p><i>After</i>: Iar sin, <i>after that</i>; iar leughadh an t-Soisgeil, + <i>after the reading of the Gospel</i>; iar tuiteam sios da aig a + chosaibh, <i>having fallen down at his feet</i>; bha mi iar mo mhealladh, + <i>I was received</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Le, leis.</p> + + <p><i>With</i>: Chaidh mi leis a' chuideachd mhòir, <i>I went with the + multitude</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting the instrument: mharbh e Eoin leis a' chlaidheamh, <i>he + killed John with the sword</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting the agent: thomhaiseadh le Diarmid an torc, <i>the boar was + measured by Diarmid</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting possession: is le Donull an leabhar, <i>the book is + Donald's</i>; cha leis e, <i>it is not his</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting opinion or feeling: is fada leam an là gu h-oidhche, <i>I + think the day long, or tedious, till night come</i>; is cruaidh leam do + chor, <i>I think your case a hard one</i>; is dòcha leam, <i>I think it + probable</i>; is doilich leam, <i>I am sorry</i>; is aithreach leis, + <i>he repents</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Along</i>: leis an t-sruth <i>along the stream</i>; leis an + leathad, <i>down the declivity</i>.</p> + + <p>Leig leam, <i>let me alone</i>; leig leis, <i>let him alone</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Mu.</p> + + <p><i>About</i>: ag iadhadh mu a cheann, <i>winding about his head</i>; + labhair e mu Iudas, <i>he spoke about Judas</i>; nuair smachduichear + duine leat mu 'lochd, <i>when thou <!-- Page 131 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page131"></a>{131}</span>correctest a man for + his sin</i>, Psal. xxxix. 11, metr.; sud am fàth mu'n goir a' chorr, + <i>that is the reason of the heron's cry</i>. Seann dàna. Sud fàth mu 'n + guidheann ort na naoimh, <i>for this reason will the saints make + supplication to Thee</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">O.</p> + + <p><i>From</i>: O bhaile gu baile, <i>from town to town</i>; o mhadainn + gu feasgar, <i>from morning to evening</i>; o 'n là thainig mi dhachaidh, + <i>from the day that I came home</i>; o 'n là, is often abridged into la; + as, la thainig mi dhachaidh, <i>since I came home</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Since</i>, <i>because</i>: thugamaid uil' oirnn a' bhanais, o + fhuair sinn cuireadh dhol ann, <i>let us all to the wedding, since we + have been bidden to it</i>.</p> + + <p>Denoting want in opposition to possession, denoted by <i>aig</i>: na + tha uainn 's a b' fheairrd sinn againn, <i>what we want and should be the + better for having</i>.</p> + + <p>Implying desire: ciod tha uait? <i>what would you have?</i> Tha + claidheamh uam, <i>I want a sword</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Os.</p> + + <p><i>Above</i>: Mar togam os m' uil' aoibhneas àrd cathair Ierusaleim, + <i>if I prefer not Jerusalem above my chief joy</i>, Psal. cxxxvii. 6, + metr.; os mo cheann, <i>above me</i>, <i>over me</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Ri, ris.</p> + + <p><i>To</i>: cosmhuil ri mac righ, <i>like to the son of a king</i>; + chuir iad teine ris an tigh, <i>they set fire to the house</i>.</p> + + <p>Maille ri, <i>together with</i>.</p> + + <p>Laimh ris a' bhalla, <i>nigh to the wall</i>.</p> + + <p>Ri là gaoithe, <i>on a day of wind</i>; ri fad mo ré 's mo là, + <i>during all the days of my life</i>; ri lìnn Righ Uilliam, <i>in the + reign of King William</i>.</p> + + <p>Na bi rium, <i>don't molest me</i>.</p> + + <p>Feuch ris, <i>try it</i>.</p> + + <p>Cuir ris, <i>ply your work</i>, <i>exert yourself</i>; cuirear na <!-- + Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>{132}</span>nithe + so ribh, <i>these things shall be added unto you</i>, Matt. vi. 33. Tha + an Spiorad ag cur ruinn na saorsa, <i>the Spirit applieth to us the + redemption</i>, Assemb. Sh. Catech.</p> + + <p><i>Exposed</i>: tha an craicionn ris, <i>the skin is exposed, or + bare</i>; leig ris, <i>expose or make manifest</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Roimh.</p> + + <p><i>Before</i>: roimh 'n charbad, <i>before the chariot</i>; roimh 'n + chamhair, <i>before the dawn</i>; roimh na h-uile nithibh, <i>before, in + preference to, all things</i>; chuir mi romham, <i>I set before me, + purposed, intended</i>.</p> + + <p>Imich romhad, <i>go forward</i>; dh' fhalbh e roimhe, <i>he went his + way</i>, <i>he went off</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Seach.</p> + + <p><i>Past</i>: chaidh e seach an dorus, <i>he passed by the + door</i>.</p> + + <p><i>In comparison with</i>: is trom a' chlach seach a' chlòineag, + <i>the stone is heavy compared with the down</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Tar, thar.</p> + + <p><i>Over</i>, <i>across</i>: chaidh e thar an amhainn, thar a' mhonadh, + <i>he went over the river, over the mountain</i>; tha sin thar m' eolas, + thar mo bheachd, &c., <i>that is beyond my knowledge, beyond my + comprehension</i>, &c.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Tre, troimh, throimh.</p> + + <p><i>Through</i>: tre uisge is tre theine, <i>through water and through + fire</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of Inseparable Prepositions.</span></p> + + <p>The following initial syllables, used only in composition, are + prefixed to nouns, adjectives, or verbs, to modify or alter their + signification:— <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page133"></a>{133}</span></p> + + <p>An<a name="footnotetag92" href="#footnote92"><sup>[92]</sup></a>, Di, + Ao, ea, eu, eas, Mi, Neo:—Privative syllables signifying + <i>not</i>, or serving to change the signification of the words to which + they are prefixed into its contrary; as, socair <i>ease</i>, anshocair + <i>distress</i>, <i>uneasiness</i>; ciontach <i>guilty</i>, dichiontach + <i>innocent</i>; treabh <i>to cultivate</i>, dithreabh <i>an uncultivated + place</i>, <i>a desert</i>; dionach <i>tight</i>, <i>close</i>, aodionach + <i>leaky</i>; còir <i>justice</i>, eucoir <i>injustice</i>; slàn + <i>whole</i>, <i>in health</i>, easlan <i>sick</i>; caraid <i>a + friend</i>, eascaraid <i>an enemy</i>; buidheachas <i>gratitude</i>, + mibhuidheachas <i>ingratitude</i>; claon <i>awry</i>, neochlaon + <i>unbiassed</i>, <i>impartial</i>; duine <i>a man</i>, neodhuine <i>a + worthless unnatural creature</i>.</p> + + <p>An, ain, intensitive, denoting an immoderate degree, or faulty excess; + as, tighearnas <i>dominion</i>, aintighearnas <i>tyranny</i>; tromaich + <i>to make heavy</i>, antromaich <i>to make very heavy</i>, <i>to + aggravate</i>; teas <i>heat</i>, ainteas <i>excessive heat</i>; miann + <i>desire</i>, ainmhiann <i>inordinate desire</i>, <i>lust</i>.</p> + + <p>Ais, ath, <i>again</i>, <i>back</i>; as, eirigh <i>rising</i>, + aiseirigh <i>resurrection</i>; beachd <i>view</i>, ath-bheachd + <i>retrospect</i>; fàs <i>growth</i>, ath-fhàs <i>after-growth</i>.</p> + + <p>Bith, <i>continually</i>; as, bithdheanamh <i>doing continually</i>, + <i>busy</i>; am bithdheantas <i>incessantly</i>.</p> + + <p>Co, com, comh, con, <i>together</i>, <i>equally</i>, <i>mutually</i>; + as, gleacadh <i>fighting</i>, co-ghleacadh <i>fighting together</i>; lion + <i>to fill</i>, colion <i>to fulfil</i>, <i>accomplish</i>; ith <i>to + eat</i>, comith <i>eating together</i>; radh <i>saying</i>, comhradh + <i>conversation, speech</i>; trom <i>weight</i>, cothrom <i>equal + weight</i>, <i>equity</i>; aois <i>age</i>, comhaois <i>a + contemporary</i>.</p> + + <p>Im, <i>about</i>, <i>round</i>, <i>entire</i>; as, làn <i>full</i>, + iomlan <i>quite complete</i>; gaoth <i>wind</i>, iomghaoth <i>a + whirlwind</i>; slainte <i>health</i>, iom-shlainte <i>perfect + health</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 134 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>{134}</span></p> + + <p>In, or ion, <i>worthy</i>: as, ion-mholta <i>worthy to be praised</i>: + ion-roghnuidh <i>worthy to be chosen</i>, Psal. xxv. 12, metr. vers.</p> + + <p>So, <i>easily</i>, <i>gently</i>: as, faicsin <i>seeing</i>, + so-fhaicsin <i>easily seen</i>; sion <i>weather</i>, soinion [so-shion] + <i>calm weather</i>; sgeul <i>a tale</i>, soisgeul <i>a good tale</i>, + <i>gospel</i>.</p> + + <p>Do, <i>with difficulty</i>, <i>evil</i>; as, tuigsin + <i>understanding</i>, do-thuigsin <i>difficult to be understood</i>; + doinion <i>stormy weather</i>; beart <i>deed, exploit</i>. do-bheart + <i>evil deed</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF CONJUNCTIONS.</p> + + <p>Under this class of words, it is proper to enumerate not only those + single Particles which are usually denominated Conjunctions; but also the + most common phrases which are used as Conjunctions to connect either + words or sentences.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ach; but.</p> + <p>Agus, is; and.</p> + <p>A chionn gu; because that.</p> + <p>A chum as gu; in order that.</p> + <p>A chum as nach; that not.</p> + <p>Air chor as gu; so that.</p> + <p>Air eagal gu, D' eagal gu; <i>for fear that</i>, lest.</p> + <p>Air son gu, Du bhrigh gu; by reason that</p> + <p>Bheil fhios, 'l <span class="correction" title="Original reads `fhois'.">fhios</span>? <i>is there knowledge?</i> is it known? an expression of curiosity, or desire to know.</p> + <p>Co; as.</p> + <p>Ged, giodh; although<a name="footnotetag93" href="#footnote93"><sup>[93]</sup></a>.</p> +<!-- Page 135 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>{135}</span> + <p>Ged tha, ge ta; <i>though it be</i>, notwithstanding.</p> + <p>Gidheadh; yet, nevertheless.</p> + <p>Gu, gur; that.</p> + <p>Gun fhios; <i>without knowledge</i>, it being uncertain whether or not, in case not.</p> + <p>Ionnas gu; insomuch that, so that.</p> +<!-- Page 136 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>{136}</span> + <p>Ma; if.</p> + <p>Mar; as, like as.</p> + <p>Mar sud agus; so also.</p> + <p>Ma seadh, Ma ta; <i>if so</i>, <i>if it be so</i>, <i>then</i>.</p> + <p>Mur; if not.</p> + <p>Mur bhiodh gu; were it not that.</p> + <p>Mus an, mu 'n; before that, lest.</p> + <p>Na; than.</p> + <p>Nach; that not.</p> + <p>Na'n, na'm; if.</p> + <p>No; or.</p> + <p>O; since, because.</p> + <p>Oir; for.</p> + <p>Os barr; moreover.</p> + <p>Sol, suil; before that.</p> + <p>Tuille eile; further.</p> + <p>Uime sin; therefore.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF INTERJECTIONS.</p> + + <p>The syllables or sounds, employed as expressions of various emotions + or sensations, are numerous in Gaelic, but for the most part provincial, + and arbitrary. Only one or two single vocables, and a few phrases, + require to be noticed under this division.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Och! Ochan! alas!</p> + <p>Ochan nan och! <i>alas</i> and <i>well-a-day!</i></p> + <p>Fire faire! what a pother!</p> + <p>Mo thruaighe! <i>my misery!</i> Mo chreachadh! <i>my despoiling!</i> woe's me!</p> + <p>Mo nàire! <i>my shame</i>, for shame! fy!</p> + <p>H-ugad, <i>at you</i>, take care of yourself, <i>gardez-vous</i>.</p> + <p>Feuch! behold! lo!</p> + </div> + </div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>{137}</span></p> + +<h3>PART III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF SYNTAX.</p> + + <p>Syntax treats of the connection of words with each other in a + sentence; and teaches the proper method of expressing their connection by + the <i>Collection</i> and the <i>Form</i> of the words. Gaelic Syntax may + be conveniently enough explained under the common divisions of Concord + and Government.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF CONCORD.</p> + + <p>Under Concord is to be considered the agreement of the Article with + its Noun;—of an Adjective with its Noun;—of a Pronoun with + its Antecedent;—of a Verb with its Nominative;—and of one + Noun with another.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section I.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Agreement of the Article with a Noun.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Collocation.</i></p> + + <p>The article is always placed before its Noun, and next to it, unless + when an Adjective intervenes.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Form.</i></p> + + <p>The article agrees with its Noun in Gender, Number, and Case. Final + <i>n</i> is changed into <i>m</i> before a plain Labial; as, am baile + <i>the town</i>, am fear <i>the man</i>. It is usually cut off before an + aspirated Palatal, or Labial, excepting <i>fh</i>; as, a' chaora <i>the + sheep</i>, a' mhuc <i>the sow</i>, a' choin <i>of the dog</i>. In the + Dat. Sing. initial <i>a</i> is cut off after a Preposition ending in a + Vowel; as, do 'n chloich <i>to the stone</i><a name="footnotetag94" + href="#footnote94"><sup>[94]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 138 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>{138}</span></p> + + <p>A Noun, when immediately preceded by the Article, suffers some changes + in Initial Form:—1. With regard to Nouns beginning with a + Consonant, the <i>aspirated</i> form is assumed by a mas. Noun in the + gen. and dat. singular; by a fem. noun in the nom. and dat. singular. If + the Noun begins with <i>s</i> followed by a vowel or by a Liquid, instead + of having the <i>s</i> aspirated, <i>t</i> is inserted between the + Article and the Noun, in the foresaid cases; and the <i>s</i> becomes + entirely quiescent<a name="footnotetag95" + href="#footnote95"><sup>[95]</sup></a>. 2. With regard to Nouns beginning + with a Vowel, <i>t</i> or <i>h</i> is inserted between the Article and + the Noun in certain Cases, viz. <i>t</i> in the Nom. sing. of mas. Nouns, + <i>h</i> in the gen. sing. of fem. Nouns, and <i>h</i> in the nom. and + dat. plur. of Nouns of either gender. Throughout the other sing. and + plur. Cases, all Nouns retain their Primary form.</p> + + <p>The following examples show all the varieties that take place in + declining a Noun with the Article.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Nouns beginning with a Labial or a Palatal.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declensions of nouns with article." title="Declensions of nouns with article."> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Bard, mas. <i>a Poet</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> am Bard,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Baird,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> a' Bhaird,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nam Bard,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> a', 'n Bhard<a name="footnotetag96" href="#footnote96"><sup>[96]</sup></a>.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Bardaibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Cluas, fem. <i>an Ear</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> a' Chluas,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Cluasan,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> na Cluaise,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Cluas,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> a', 'n Chluais.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Cluasaibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> +<!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139"></a>{139}</span> +<i>Nouns beginning with f.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Fleasgach, m. <i>a Bachelor.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> am Fleasgach,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Fleasgaich,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> an Fhleasgaich,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nam Fleasgach,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Fhleasgach.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Fleasgaich.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Fòid, f. a <i>Turf.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an Fhòid,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Foidean,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> na Fòide,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nam Fòid,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Fhòid.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Foidibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Nouns beginning with a Lingual.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Dorus, m. <i>a Door.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an Dorus,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Dorsan,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> an Doruis,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Dorsa,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Dorus,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Dorsaibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Teasach, f. <i>a Fever.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an Teasach,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Teasaichean,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> na Teasaich,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Teasach,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Teasaich.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Teasaichibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Nouns beginning with s.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Sloc, mas. <i>a Pit.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an Sloc,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Sluic,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> an t-Sluic,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Sloc,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n t-Sloc.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Slocaibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> +<!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page140"></a>{140}</span> +Sùil, fem. <i>an Eye.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an t-Sùil,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Suilean,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> na Sùla</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Sùl,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n t-Sùil.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na Suilibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Nouns beginning with a Vowel.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Iasg, m. <i>a Fish.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an t-Iasg,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na h-Iasga,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> an Eisg,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Iasg,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Iasg.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na h-Iasgaibh.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Adharc, f. <i>a Horn.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> an Adharc,</td><td class="spacsingle"> na h-Adhaircean,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> na h-Adhairc,</td><td class="spacsingle"> nan Adharc,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> an, 'n Adhairc.</td><td class="spacsingle"> na h-Adhaircibh.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The initial Form of Adjectives immediately preceded by the Article, + follows the same rules with the initial Form of Nouns.</p> + + <p>Besides the common use of the Article as a Definitive to ascertain + individual objects, it is used in Gaelic—</p> + + <p>1. Before a Noun followed by the Pronouns <i>so</i>, <i>sin</i>, or + <i>ud</i>; as, am fear so, <i>this man</i>; an tigh ud, <i>yon + house</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Before a Noun preceded by the Verb <i>is</i> and an Adjective; as, + is maith an sealgair e, <i>he is a good huntsman</i>; bu luath an + coisiche e, <i>he was a swift footman</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Before some names of countries; as, righ na Spainne, <i>the king of + Spain</i>; chaidh e do 'n Fhrainc, <i>he went to France</i>; but righ + Bhreatain, <i>the king of Britain</i>; chaidh e dh' Eirin, <i>he went to + Ireland</i>, without the Article. <!-- Page 141 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>{141}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section II.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Agreement of an Adjective with a Noun.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Collocation.</i></p> + + <p>When an Adjective and the Noun which it qualifies are in the same + clause or member of a sentence, the Adjective is usually placed after its + Noun; as, ceann liath, <i>a hoary head</i>; duine ro ghlic, <i>a very + wise man</i>. If they be in different clauses, or if the one be in the + subject, and the other in the predicate of a proposition, this rule does + not apply; as, is glic an duine sin, <i>that is a wise man</i>; cha + truagh leam do chor, <i>I do not think your case unfortunate</i>.</p> + + <p>1. Numerals, whether Cardinal or Ordinal, to which add, iomadh + <i>many</i>, gach <i>every</i>, are placed before their Nouns; as, tri + lathan, <i>three days</i>; an treas latha, <i>the third day</i>; iomadh + duine, <i>many a man</i>; gach eun g' a nead, <i>every bird to its + nest</i>.—Except such instances as the following : Righ Tearlach a + h-Aon, <i>King Charles the First</i>; Righ Seumas a Cuig, <i>King James + the Fifth</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The possessive pronouns mo, do, &c., are always placed before + their nouns; as, mo lamh, <i>my hand</i>. The interrogatives co, cia, + &c., are placed before their nouns, with the article intervening; as, + cia am fear? <i>which man?</i></p> + + <p>3. Some adjectives of one syllable are usually placed before their + Nouns; as, deadh dhuine, <i>a good man</i>; droch ghniomh, <i>a bad + action</i>; seann sluagh, <i>old people</i>. Such Adjectives, placed + before their Nouns, often combine with them, so as to represent one + complex idea, rather than two distinct ones; and the adjective and noun, + in that situation, may rather be considered as one complex term, than as + two distinct words, and written accordingly; as, oigfhear, <i>a young + man</i>; ogbhean, <i>a young woman</i>; garbhchriochan, <i>rude + regions</i><a name="footnotetag97" + href="#footnote97"><sup>[97]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page142"></a>{142}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Form.</i></p> + + <p>Though a Gaelic Adjective possesses a variety of Forms, yet its Form + is not always determined by the Noun whose signification it modifies. The + Form of the Adjective depends on its Noun, when it immediately follows + the Noun, or only with the intervention of an intensitive Particle, ro, + gle, &c., and when both the Noun and the Adjective are in the + Subject, or both in the Predicate, or in the same clause or member of a + sentence. In all other situations, the form of the Adjective does in no + respect depend on the Noun; or, in other words, the Adjective does not + agree with the Noun<a name="footnotetag98" + href="#footnote98"><sup>[98]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>To illustrate this rule, let the following examples be attentively + considered:—Is beag orm a' ghaoth fhuar, <i>I dislike the cold + wind</i>; is beag orm fuaim na gaoithe fuaire, <i>I dislike the sound of + the cold wind</i>; is beag orm seasamh anns a' ghaoith fhuair, <i>I + dislike standing in the cold wind</i>. In these examples, the Adjective + and the Noun are both in the same clause or member of a sentence, and + therefore they must agree together. In the following examples the + Adjective and the Noun do not necessarily agree together:—Is fuar + a' ghaoth á tuath, <i>cold is the wind from the north</i>; is tric leis + a' ghaoith á tuath bhi fuar, <i>it is usual for the wind from the north + to be cold</i>. In these examples, the Noun is in the Subject, and the + Adjective in the Predicate of the proposition.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"></a>{143}</span></p> + + <p>The grammatical distinction observable in the following examples is + agreeable to the strictest philosophical propriety:—Rinn mis an + scian gheur, <i>I made the sharp knife</i>: here the Adjective agrees + with the Noun, for it modifies the Noun, distinguishing that knife from + others. Rinn mis an scian geur, <i>I made the knife sharp</i>: here the + Adjective does not agree with the Noun, for it modifies not the Noun but + the Verb. It does not characterize the <i>object</i> on which the + operation is performed, hut it combines with the Verb in specifying the + <i>nature of the operation</i> performed. The expression is equivalent to + gheuraich mi an scian, <i>I sharpened the knife</i>. So also, mhothaich + mi a' ghaoth fhuar, <i>I felt the cold wind</i>; but mhothaich mi a' + ghaoth fuar, <i>I felt the wind cold</i>. In the former of these examples + the Adjective modifies the Noun, and agrees with it; in the latter it + does not agree with the Noun, for its use is to modify the Verb, or to + specify the nature of the sensation felt. In like manner, dh' fhàg iad an + obair criochnaichte, <i>they left the work finished</i>; fhuaradh an òigh + sìnte, marbh, <i>the maid was found stretched out dead</i>. And so in + other similar instances.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p>1. When an Adjective and Noun are so situated and related, that an + agreement takes place between them, then the Adjective agrees with its + noun in Gender, Number, and Case. A Noun preceded by the Numeral da + <i>two</i>, though it be in the Singular Number, [see conclusion of Part + II. Chap I.] takes an Adjective in the Plural; as, da iasg bheaga, <i>two + small fishes</i>, John, vi. 9. The Initial Form of the Adjective depends + partly on the Gender of the Noun, partly on its Termination, and partly + on its being preceded by the Article.</p> + + <p>The following examples of an Adjective declined along with its Noun, + exhibit the varieties in the Initial Form, as well as in the Termination + of the Adjective:—</p> + +<p><!-- Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page144"></a>{144}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declensions of nouns with adjectives." title="Declensions of nouns with adjectives."> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <span class="scac">MONOSYLLABLES.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Fear mòr, mas. <i>a Great Man</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Without the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" align="center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> Fear mòr, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fir mhòra,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Fir mhòir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fheara mòra,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> Fear mòr, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fearaibh mòra,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>V.</i> Fhir mhòir. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fheara mòra.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>With the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> Am Fear mòr, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Fir mhòra,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> An Fhir mhòir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nam Fear mòra,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> An Fhear mhòr. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Fearaibh mòra.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Slat gheal, fem. <i>a white rod</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Without the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> Slat gheal, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Slatan geala,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Slaite gile, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Shlatan geala,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> Slait ghil, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Slataibh geala,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>V.</i> Shlat gheal. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Shlata geala.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>With the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> An t-Slat gheal, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Slatan geala,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Na Slaite gile, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nan Slata geala,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> An t-Slait ghil. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Slataibh geala.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <span class="scac">POLYSYLLABLES.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Oglach dileas, m. <i>a Faithful Servant</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Without the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> Oglach dileas, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Oglaich dhileas,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Oglaich dhilis, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Oglach dileas,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> Oglach dileas, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Oglachaibh dileas,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>V.</i> Oglaich dhilis. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Oglacha dileas.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> +<!-- Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page145"></a>{145}</span> +<i>With the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> An t-Oglach dileas, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na h-Oglaich dhileas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> An Oglaich dhilis, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nan Oglach dileas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> An Oglach dhileas, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na h-Oglachaibh dileas.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> Clarsach fhonnmhor, f. <i>a Tuneful Harp.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>Without the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> Clarsach fhonnmhor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Clarsaichean fonnmhor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Clarsaich fonnmhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chlarsach fonnmhor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> Clarsaich fhonnmhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Clarsaichibh fonnmhor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>V.</i> Chlarsach fhonnmhor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Chlarsaiche fonnmhor.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="spacsingle" style="padding-top: 1.5ex" align="center"> <i>With the Article.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> A' Chlarsach fhonnmhor, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Clarsaichean fonnmhor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> Na Clarsaich fonnmhoir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nan Clarsach fonnmhor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> A', 'n Chlarsaich <span class="correction" title="Original reads `fhonnoir'.">fhonnmhoir</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Na Clarsaichibh fonnmhor.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>An Adjective, beginning with a Lingual, and preceded by a Noun + terminating in a Lingual, retains its primary Form in all the Singular + cases; for the sake, it would seem, of preserving the agreeable sound + arising from the coalescence of the two Linguals; as, nighean donn <i>a + brown maid</i>, instead of nighean dhonn; a' choin duibh <i>of the black + dog</i>, instead of a' choin dhuibh; air a' chois deis <i>on his right + foot</i>, instead of air a chois dheis.</p> + + <p>II. A Noun preceded by an Adjective assumes the aspirated Form; as, + ard bheann <i>a high hill</i>, cruaidh dheuchainn <i>a hard + trial</i>.</p> + + <p>1. A Noun preceded by a Numeral is in the primary Form; as, tri meoir + <i>three fingers</i>; to which add iomadh <i>many</i>, gach <i>every</i>; + as, iomadh fear <i>many a man</i>; gach craobh <i>every + tree</i>.—Except aon <i>one</i>, da <i>two</i>; ceud <i>first</i>; + as, aon fhear <i>one man</i>, da chraoibh <i>two trees</i>.</p> + + <p>2. A Noun preceded by any of the following Possessive Pronouns, a + <i>her</i>, ar <i>our</i>, bhur <i>your</i>, an <i>their</i>, is in the + primary <!-- Page 146 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page146"></a>{146}</span>Form; as, a mathair <i>her mother</i>, ar + brathair <i>our brother</i>. When the Possessive Pronoun a <i>her</i>, + precedes a Noun or an Adjective beginning with a vowel, <i>h</i> is + inserted between them; as, a h-athair, <i>her father</i>, a h-aon mhac + <i>her only son</i>. The Possessive Pronouns ar <i>our</i>, bhur + <i>your</i>, usually take <i>n</i> between them and the following Noun or + Adjective beginning with a vowel; as, ar n-athair <i>our father</i>, bhur + n-aran <i>your bread</i>. Perhaps a distinction ought to <span + class="correction" title="Omitted in original.">be</span> made, by + inserting <i>n</i> only after ar, and not after bhur<a + name="footnotetag99" href="#footnote99"><sup>[99]</sup></a>. This would + serve often to distinguish the one word from the other in speaking, where + they are ready to be confounded by bhur being pronounced ur.</p> + + <p>3. A Noun beginning with a Lingual, preceded by an Adjective ending in + <i>n</i>, is in the primary Form; as, aon duine <i>one man</i>, seann + sluagh <i>old people</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section III.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Agreement of a Pronoun with its Antecedent.</span></p> + + <p>The Personal and Possessive Pronouns follow the <i>Number</i> of their + Antecedents, <i>i.e.</i> of the Nouns which they represent. Those of the + 3d Pers. Sing. follow also the Gender of their antecedent; as, sheas + a'bhean aig <i>a</i> chosaibh, agus thoisich <i>i air am</i> fliuchadh + leis <i>a</i> deuraibh, agus thiormaich <i>i iad</i> le gruaig <i>a</i> + cinn, <i>the woman stood at his feet, and she began to wet them with her + tears, and she wiped them with the hair of her head</i>, Luke vii. 38. + They follow, however, not the Gender of the Antecedent, but the sex of + the creature signified by the Antecedent, in those words in which Sex and + Gender disagree, as, an gobhlan-gaoithe mar an ceudn' do sholair nead + dh'i fein <i>the swallow too hath provided a nest for herself</i>, Psal. + lxxxiv. 3. Gobhlan-gaoithe <i>a swallow</i>, is a mas. Noun, as appears + by the mas. Article: but as it is the dam that is spoken of, the + reference is made by the Personal Pronoun of the fem. gender. Ta gliocas + air a fireanachadh leis a cloinn <i>Wisdom <!-- Page 147 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page147"></a>{147}</span>is justified by her + children</i>, Matt. xi. 19. Gliocas is a mas. noun; but as Wisdom is here + personified as a female, the regimen of the Possessive Pronoun is adapted + to that idea<a name="footnotetag100" + href="#footnote100"><sup>[100]</sup></a>. See also Prov. ix. 1-3. In this + sentence Och nach b' i mhaduinn e, Deut. xxviii. 67, the former pronoun + <i>i</i> is correctly put in the fem. gender, as referring to the fem. + noun <i>maduinn</i>; while the latter pron. <i>e</i> is put in the mas. + gend. because referring to no expressed antecedent.</p> + + <p>If the Antecedent be a sentence, or clause of a sentence, the Pronoun + is of the 3d Pers. Sing. masculine; as, dh' ith na bà caola suas na bà + reamhra, agus cha n-aithnichteadh orra <i>e</i>, <i>the lean cattle ate + up the fat cattle, and could not be known by them</i>.</p> + + <p>If the Antecedent be a collective Noun, the Pronoun is of the 3d Pers. + Plur. as, thoir àithne do 'n t-sluagh, d' eagal gu m bris <i>iad</i> + asteach <i>charge the people lest they break in</i>, Exod. xix. 21.</p> + + <p>An Interrogative combined with a Personal Pronoun, asks a question + without the intervention of the Substantive verb; as, co mise? <i>who + [am] I?</i> co iad na daoine sin? <i>who [are] those men?</i> cia i a' + cheud àithne? <i>which [is] the first commandment?</i> In interrogations + of this form, the noun is sometimes preceded by the Personal Pronoun, and + sometimes not; as, co e am fear? <i>who [is] the man?</i> co am fear? + <i>what man?</i> Co am fear? is evidently an incomplete sentence, like + <i>what man?</i> in English. The ellipsis may be supplied thus; co e am + fear a ta thu ciallachadh? <i>who is the man whom you mean?</i> This + example may be abridged into another common interrogation, in which the + Interrogative is immediately followed by the Relative; as, co a ta thu + ciallachadh? <i>who [is he] whom you mean?</i> ciod a ta thu faicinn? + <i>what [is it] that you see?</i></p> + + <p>In an interrogative sentence including a Personal Pronoun and a Noun, + as, co e am fear sin? if the Noun be restricted in <!-- Page 148 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page148"></a>{148}</span>its signification by + some other words connected with it, such as the Article, an Adjective, + another Noun in the Genitive, or a relative clause, then the Pronoun + usually follows the Gender of the Noun, or the Sex of the object + signified by the Noun, if the Gender does not correspond to it; as, co + <i>e</i> am fear a theid a suas? <i>who is the man that shall ascend?</i> + co <i>i</i> am boirionnach sin? <i>who is that woman?</i> cia <i>i</i> a' + cheud àithne? <i>which is the first commandment?</i> If the Noun be not + <i>so restricted</i>, the Pronoun is of the masculine gender; as, ciod e + uchdmhacachd? <i>what is adoption?</i> ciod e urnuigh? <i>what is + prayer?</i><a name="footnotetag101" + href="#footnote101"><sup>[101]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 149 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page149"></a>{149}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section</span> IV.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Agreement of a Verb with its Nominative.</span></p> + + <p>As the Verb has no variation of <i>form</i> corresponding to the + Person or Number of its Nominative, the connection between a Verb and its + Nominative can be marked only by its <i>collocation</i>. Little variety + therefore is allowed in this respect. The Nominative, whether Noun or + Pronoun, is ordinarily placed after the Verb; as, ta mi <i>I am</i>, + rugadh duine-cloinne <i>a man-child is born</i><a name="footnotetag102" + href="#footnote102"><sup>[102]</sup></a>. The Article or an Adjective, is + frequently <!-- Page 150 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page150"></a>{150}</span>placed between the Verb and its + Nominative; as, thainig an uair, <i>the hour is come</i>; aithrisear + iomadh droch sgeul, <i>many an evil tale will be told</i>. Sometimes, but + more rarely, circumstances are expressed beween the Verb and its + Nominative; as, rugadh dhuinne, an diugh, ann am baile Dhaibhi, an + Slanuighear, <i>there is born to us, this day, in David's town, the + Saviour</i>.</p> + + <p>The word denoting the object of the verbal action, can never, even in + poetry, be placed between the Verb and its Nominative, without altering + the sense. Hence the arrangement in the following passages is + incorrect:—Ghabh domblas agus fiongeur iad, <i>they took gall and + vinegar</i>. "Buch. Gael. Poems," Edin. 1767. p. 14. The collocation + should have been ghabh iad domblas, &c. Do chual e 'n cruinne-cé, + <i>the world heard it</i>, id. p. 15, ought to have been, do chual an + cruinne-cé e. So also, do ghabh truaighe, Iosa dhoibh, <i>Jesus took pity + <!-- Page 151 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page151"></a>{151}</span>on them</i>. Matt. xx. 34, Irish vers. It + ought to have been, do ghabh Iosa truaighe, &c.<a + name="footnotetag103" href="#footnote103"><sup>[103]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The Relatives a <i>who</i>, nach <i>who not</i>, are always put before + the verb; as, am fear a thuit, <i>the man who fell</i>; am fear nach dean + beud, <i>the man who will not commit a fault</i>.</p> + + <p>In poetry, or poetical style, where inversion is allowed, the + Nominative is sometimes placed before the Verb; as doimhneachd na + talmhain ta 'n a laimh, <i>in his hand is the depth of the earth</i>. + Psal. xcv. 4.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Oigh cha tig le clàr 'n an comhdhail,</p> + <p><i>No virgin with harp will come to meet them.</i></p> + <p class="i4">Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 285.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Gach doire, gach coire, 's gach eas,</p> + <p>Bheir a' m' chuimhne cneas mo Ghraidh.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>Each grove, each dell, and each water-fall, will bring to my + remembrance the form of my love.</i> Id. p. 30.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>An la sin cha tigh gu bràth,</p> + <p>A bheir dearrsa mo ghraidh gu tuath.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>That day shall never come, which shall bring the sun-beam of my + love to the North.</i> Fingal II. 192.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Am focail geilleam do Mhorlamh;</p> + <p>Mo lann do neach beo cha gheill.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>In words I yield to Morla; my sword to no living man shall + yield.</i> Fing. II. 203. This inversion is never admitted into plain + discourse or unimpassioned narrative.</p> + + <p>In those Persons of the Verb in which the terminations supply the + place of the Personal Pronouns, no Nominative is expressed along with the + Verb. In all the other Persons of the Verb, a Noun or a Pronoun is + commonly expressed as its Nominative. In sentences of a poetical + structure, the Nominative is sometimes, though rarely, omitted; as, am + fear nach <!-- Page 152 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page152"></a>{152}</span>gabh 'nuair gheibh, cha 'n fhaigh 'nuair + 's aill, <i>the man who will not take when [he] can get, will not get + when [he] wishes</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A Gharna, cuim a sheas? a Ghuill, cuim a thuit?</p> + <p><i>Garno, why stoodst? Gaul, why didst fall?</i></p> + <p class="i4">Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 153.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The Infinitive often takes before it the Nominative of the Agent; in + which case the Preposition <i>do</i> is either expressed or understood + before the Infinitive; as, feuch, cia meud a mhaith, braithre do bhi 'n + an comhnuidh ann sith! <i>behold how great a good it is, that brethren + dwell in peace!</i> Psal. cxxxiii, 1. Is e mi dh' fhantuinn 's an fheoil, + a 's feumaile dhuibhse, <i>my abiding in the flesh is more needful for + you</i>, Phil. i. 24, Cha n'eil e iomchuidh sinne dh' fhagail focail Dé, + agus a fhrithealadh do bhordaibh, <i>it is not meet that we should leave + the word of God, and serve tables</i>, Acts vi. 2. The Preposition + <i>do</i>, being softened as usual into <i>a</i>, readily disappears + after a Vowel; as, air son mi bhi a rìs a lathàir maille ribh, <i>by my + being again present with you</i>, Phil. i. 26<a name="footnotetag104" + href="#footnote104"><sup>[104]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section V.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Agreement of one Noun with Another.</span></p> + + <p>When in the same sentence two or more Nouns, applied as names to the + same object, stand in the same grammatical relation to other words, it + should naturally be expected that their Form, in so far as it depends on + that relation, should be the same; in other words, that Nouns denoting + the same object, and related alike to the governing word, should agree in + Case. This accordingly happens in Greek and Latin. In Gaelic, where a + variety of form gives room for the application of the same rule, it has + been followed in some instances; as, Doncha mac Chailain mhic Dhonuil, + <i>Duncan the son of <!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page153"></a>{153}</span>Colin the son of Donald</i>; where the + words Chailain and mhic denoting the same person, and being alike related + to the preceding Noun mac are on that account both in the same Case. It + must be acknowledged, however, that this rule, obvious and natural as it + is, has not been uniformly observed by the speakers of Gaelic. For + example; instead of mac Ioseiph an t-saoir, <i>the son of Joseph the + carpenter</i>, many would more readily say, mac Ioseiph an saor; instead + of thuit e le laimh Oscair an laoich chruadalaich, <i>he fell by the hand + of Oscar the bold hero</i>, it would rather be said, thuit e le laimh + Oscair an laoch cruadalach. The latter of these two modes of expression + may perhaps be defended on the ground of its being elliptical; and the + ellipsis may be supplied thus: mac Ioseiph [is e sin] an saor; laimh + Oscair [neach is e] an laoch cruadalach. Still it must be allowed, in + favour of the rule in question, that the observance of it serves to mark + the relation of the Nouns to each other, which would otherwise remain, in + many instances, doubtful. Thus in one of the foregoing examples, if we + should reject the rule, and write mac Ioseiph an saor; it would be + impossible to know, from the form of the words, whether Joseph or his son + were the carpenter.</p> + + <p>The translators of the Scriptures into Gaelic, induced probably by the + reasonableness and utility of the rule under consideration, by the + example of the most polished Tongues, and by the usage of the Gaelic + itself in some phrases, have uniformly adhered to this rule when the + leading Noun was in the Genitive; as, do mhacaibh Bharsillai a' + Ghileadaich, 1 Kings ii. 7; righ-chathair Dhaibhi athar, 1 Kings ii. 12; + do thaobh Bheniamin am brathar, Judg. xxi. 6; ag gabhail nan clar + chloiche, eadhon chlar a' cho-cheangail, Deut. ix. 9. The rule seems to + have been disregarded when the leading Noun was in the Dative. See 1 + Kings i. 25, Ruth iv. 5, Acts xiii. 33. <!-- Page 154 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page154"></a>{154}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF GOVERNMENT.</p> + + <p>Under this head is to be explained the Government of Nouns, of + Adjectives, of Verbs, of Prepositions, and of Conjunctions.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section I.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Nouns.</span></p> + + <p>One Noun governs another in the Genitive. The Noun governed is always + placed after that which governs it; as, ceann tighe, <i>the head of a + house or family</i>; solus na gréine, <i>light of the sun</i>; bainne + ghabhar <i>milk of goats</i>.</p> + + <p>The Infinitives of Transitive Verbs, being themselves Nouns, (See Part + II. Chap. V. p. 86.) govern in like manner the Genitive of their object; + as, ag cur sìl, <i>sowing seed</i>; a dh' fhaicinn an t-sluaigh, <i>to + see the people</i>; iar leughadh an t-soisgeil, <i>after reading the + gospel</i><a name="footnotetag105" + href="#footnote105"><sup>[105]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>Although no good reason appears why this rule, which is common to the + Gaelic with many other languages, should ever be set aside, yet it has + been set aside in speaking, and sometimes in writing Gaelic.</p> + + <p>1. When the Noun governed does in its turn govern another Noun in the + Genitive, the former is often put in the Nominative instead of the + Genitive case. The following instances of this anomaly occur in the + Gaelic Scriptures:—Guth briathran an t-sluaigh, instead of, + bhriathran, <i>the voice of the words of the people</i>, Deut. v. 28; do + mheas craobhan a' gharaidh, instead of, chraobhan, <i>of the fruit of the + trees of the garden</i>, <!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page155"></a>{155}</span>Gen. iii. 2; ag itheadh tighean bhantrach, + for thighean, <i>devouring widows' houses</i>, Matt. xxiii. 14; ag + nochdadh obair an lagha, for oibre, <i>showing the work of the law</i>, + Rom. ii. 15; ag cuimhneachadh gun sgur obair bhur creidimh, agus saothair + bhur graidh, for oibre, saoithreach, <i>remembering without ceasing your + work of faith, and labour of love</i>, 1 Thess. i. 3; trid fuil is fearta + Chriost, <i>through the blood and merits of Christ</i>, Gael. Paraph. + 1787, p. 381, for trid fola Chriost, as in Eph. ii. 13; ag àiteach sliabh + Shioin, for sleibh, <i>inhabiting the hill of Zion</i>, Psal. ix. 11. + metr; air son obair Chriosd, Phil. ii. 30, 1767, according to the usage + of the language, but changed to oibre, in Edit. 1796, to suit the + Grammatical Rule<a name="footnotetag106" + href="#footnote106"><sup>[106]</sup></a>. For the most part, however, the + general rule, even in these circumstances, is followed; as, guth fola do + bhrathar, <i>the voice of thy brother's blood</i>, Gen. iv. 10; amhainn + duthcha cloinne a shluaigh <i>the river of the land of the children of + his people</i>, Numb. xxii. 5; a' nigheadh chos sheirbhiseach mo + thighearna, <i>to wash the feet of the servants of my lord</i>, 1 Sam. + xxv. 41.</p> + + <p>2. Such expressions as the following seem to be exceptions to the + rule:—Dithis mac, 2 Sam. xv. 27, 36; ceathrar mac, 1 Chron. xxi. + 20; leanabaibh mac, Matt. ii. 16. In the following similar instances, the + rule is observed:—Dithis mhac, Gen. xli. 50; dithis fhear, 2 Sam. + xii. 1; ceathrar fhear, Acts xxi. 23; ceathrar mhaighdiona, Acts xxi. + 9.</p> + + <p>The same anomaly takes place in the regimen of the infinitive, as in + that of other Nouns. Though an Infinitive be in that grammatical relation + to a preceding Noun which would require its being put in the Genitive, + yet when itself also governs another noun in the Genitive, it often + retains the form of the Nominative. The Infinitives naomhachadh, + gnathachadh, briseadh, admit of a regular Genitive, naomhachaidh, + gnathachaidh, brisidh. In the following examples, <!-- Page 156 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page156"></a>{156}</span>these Infinitives, + because they govern a subsequent Noun in the Genitive, are themselves in + the Nominative, though their relation to the preceding word naturally + requires their being put in the Genitive Case. Tha an treas àithne a' + toirmeasg mi-naomhach<i>adh</i> no mi-ghnathach<i>adh</i> ni sam bith, + &c., <i>the third commandment forbids the profaning or the abusing of + any thing</i>, &c. Assem. Cat. Gael. Edin. 1792, Answer to Q. 55. Ged + fheud luchdbris<i>eadh</i> na h-aithne so dol as, &c., id. Q. 56., + <i>though the transgressors of this commandment may escape</i>, &c. + Cuis crath<i>adh</i> cinn is cas<i>adh</i> béil, Psal. xxii. 7, as it is + in the older edition of the Gaelic Psalms. An deigh leugh<i>adh</i> an + lagha, <i>after the reading of the Law</i>, Acts. xiii. 15; luchd + cum<i>adh</i> uilc, Rom. i. 30<a name="footnotetag107" + href="#footnote107"><sup>[107]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The Infinitive is not put in the Genitive, when preceded <!-- Page 157 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page157"></a>{157}</span>by a + Possessive Pronoun, because it is in the same limited state as if it + governed a Noun in the Genitive Case; as, a chum am marbh<i>a</i>dh 's na + beanntaibh, <i>to kill them in the mountains</i>, Exod. xxxii., not + marbh<i>ai</i>dh, which is the Case regularly governed by chum. Co tha 'g + iarraidh do mharbh<i>a</i>dh? John vii. 20, not do mharbh<i>ai</i>dh. + Thug iad leo e chum a cheus<i>adh</i>. Matt. xxvii. 31. Chum an + cruinneach<i>adh</i> gu cath. Rev. xx. 8<a name="footnotetag108" + href="#footnote108"><sup>[108]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>This coincidence in the Regimen of the Infinitive in two similar + situations, viz., when limited by a Possessive Pronoun, and when limited + by a subsequent Noun, furnishes no slight argument in support of the + construction defended above, of putting the Infin. in the Nom. case when + itself governs a Noun in the Genitive; for we find the Infin. is + invariably put in the Nom. when limited in its signification by a + Possess. Pronoun.</p> + + <p>When one Noun governs another in the Genitive, the Article is never + joined to both, even though each be limited in its signification, as, mac + an righ, <i>the son of the king</i>, not am mac an righ; taobh deas a' + bhaile, <i>the south side of the town</i>, not an taobh deas a' bhaile<a + name="footnotetag109" href="#footnote109"><sup>[109]</sup></a>. For the + most part, the Article is thus joined to the latter Noun. Sometimes it is + joined to the former Noun; as, an ceann tighe, <i>the head of the + family</i>; an ceann iuil, <i>the pilot</i>; but in such instances the + two Nouns figure as one complex term, like <i>paterfamilias</i>, rather + than as two terms. The following examples, in which the Article is joined + to both Nouns, seem to be totally repugnant to the Gaelic idiom: + cuimhneachadh <i>nan</i> cùig aran <i>nan</i> cùig mìle, Matt. xvi. 9; + <i>nan</i> seachd aran <i>nan</i> ceithir mìle, Matt. xvi. 10<a + name="footnotetag110" href="#footnote110"><sup>[110]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page158"></a>{158}</span></p> + + <p>A Possessive Pronoun joined to the Noun governed excludes, in like + manner, the Article from the Noun governing; as, barr-iall a bhròige, + <i>the latchet of his shoe</i>, not am barr-iall a bhròige; obair bhur + lamh, <i>the work of your hands</i>, not an obair bhur lamh.</p> + + <p>The Noun governed is sometimes in the Primary, sometimes in the + Aspirated Form.</p> + + <p>Proper Names of the Masculine Gender are in the Aspirated Form; as, + bràthair Dhonuill, <i>Donald's brother</i>; uaigh Choluim, <i>Columba's + grave</i>. Except when a final and an initial Lingual meet; as, clann + Donuill, <i>Donald's descendants</i>; beinn Deirg <i>Dargo's + hill</i>.</p> + + <p>When both Nouns are Appellatives, and no word intervenes between them, + the initial Form of the latter Noun follows, for the most part, that of + an Adjective agreeing with the former Noun. See p. <a + href="#page144">144</a>.</p> + + <p>Thus, d' a ghàradh <i>f</i>iona, g' a ghàradh <i>f</i>iona, without + the Article, Matt, xx. 1, 2, like do dhuine <i>m</i>aith; but do 'n + ghàradh <i>fh</i>iona, with the Article <i>v.</i> 4, 7, like do 'n duine + <i>mh</i>aith. So we should say do 'n ard fhear-<i>ch</i>iuil, rather + than do 'n ard fhear-<i>c</i>iuil, as in the title of many of the + Psalms.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Except.</span>—If the latter Noun denote an + individual of a species, that is, if it take the Article <i>a</i> before + it in English, it is put in the <i>primary form</i>, although the former + Noun be feminine; as, sùil caraid, <i>the eye of a friend</i>, not sùil + <i>ch</i>araid, like sùil <i>mh</i>or, duais <i>f</i>àidh, <i>a prophet's + reward</i>, Matt. x. 4, not duais <i>fh</i>àidh, like duais <i>mh</i>òr. + Chum maitheanais <i>p</i>eacaidh, Acts, ii. 38, signifies <i>for the + remission of a sin</i>; rather chum maitheanais <i>ph</i>eacaidh <i>for + the remission of sin</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 159 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page159"></a>{159}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section II.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Adjectives.</span></p> + + <p>Adjectives of fulness govern the Genitive; as, làn uamhainn <i>full of + dread</i>, Acts, ix. 6, buidheach beidh, <i>satisfied with meat</i>.</p> + + <p>The first Comparative takes the Particle na <i>than</i>, before the + following Noun; as, ni 's gile na an sneachdadh, <i>whiter than the + snow</i>, b' fhaide gach mios na bliadhna, <i>each month seemed longer + than a year</i>. Smith's "Ant. Poems," p. 9.</p> + + <p>The second Comparative is construed thus: is feairrd mi so, <i>I am + the better for this</i>; bu mhisd e am buille sin, <i>he was the worse + for that blow</i>; cha truimid a' choluinn a ciall, <i>the body is not + the heavier for its understanding</i>.</p> + + <p>Superlatives are followed by the Preposition de or dhe <i>of</i>; as, + am fear a 's àirde dhe 'n triuir, <i>the man who is tallest of the + three</i>, <i>the tallest man of the three</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section III.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>A Transitive Verb governs its object in the Nominative or Objective + Case; as, mharbh iad an righ, <i>they killed the king</i>; na buail mi, + <i>do not strike me</i>. The object is commonly placed after the Verb, + but never between the Verb and its Nominative. [See Part III. Chap. I., + Sect. IV.] Sometimes the object is placed, by way of emphasis, before the + Verb; as, mise chuir e rìs ann am àite, agus esan chroch e, <i>me he put + again in my place, and him he hanged</i>, Gen. xli. 13. An t-each agus a + mharcach thilg e 's an fhairge, <i>the horse and his rider hath he cast + into the sea</i>, Exod. xv. 1.</p> + + <p>Many Transitive Verbs require a Preposition before their object; as, + iarr air Donull, <i>desire Donald</i>; labhair ri Donull, <i>speak to + Donald</i>; leig le Donull, <i>let Donald alone</i>; beannuich do + Dhonull, <i>salute Donald</i>; fiosraich de Dhonull, <i>enquire of + Donald</i>. <!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page160"></a>{160}</span></p> + + <p>Bu <i>was</i>, requires the following initial Consonant to be + aspirated; as, bu mhaith dhuit, <i>it was good for you</i>; bu chruaidh + an gnothuch, <i>it was a hard case</i>; except initial <i>d</i>, and + <i>t</i> which are not aspirated; as, bu dual duit, <i>it was natural for + you</i>; bu trom an eallach, <i>the burden was heavy</i>; bu ghearr a lo, + 's bu dubh a sgeul, <i>short was her course, and sad was her story</i>. + Smith's "Ant. Poems."</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section IV.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Adverbs.</span></p> + + <p>The collocation of Adverbs is for the most part arbitrary.</p> + + <p>The Adverbs ro, gle, <i>very</i>, are placed before the Adjectives + they modify, and require the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; + as, ro bheag, <i>very little</i>; gle gheal, <i>very white</i>.</p> + + <p>The Negative cha or cho <i>not</i>, when followed by a word beginning + with a Labial or Palatal, requires the initial Consonant to be aspirated; + as, cha mhòr e, <i>it is not great</i>; cha bhuail mi, <i>I will not + strike</i>; cha chuala mi, <i>I did not hear</i>; but an initial Lingual + remains unaspirated; as, cha dean mi, <i>I will not do</i>; cha tog e, + <i>he will not raise</i>; cha soirbhich iad, <i>they will not + prosper</i>. <i>N</i> is inserted between cha and an initial Vowel or an + aspirated <i>f</i>; as, cha n-e, <i>it is not</i>; cha n-éigin, <i>it is + not necessary</i>; cha n-fhaca mi, <i>I saw not</i>.</p> + + <p>The Negative ni requires <i>h</i> before an initial Vowel; as, ni + h-iad, <i>they are not</i>; ni h-eudar, <i>it may not</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section V.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Prepositions.</span></p> + + <p>The Proper Prepositions aig, air, &c., govern the Dative; as, aig + mo chois, <i>at my foot</i>; air mo laimh, <i>on my hand</i>. They are + always placed before the word they govern. The following Prepositions + require the Noun governed to be put in the Aspirated Form, viz., de, do, + fuidh, fo, fa, gun, mar, mu, o, tre. Air sometimes governs the Noun in + the Aspirated Form; as, air bharraibh sgiath na gaoithe, <i>on the + extremities of the <!-- Page 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page161"></a>{161}</span>wings of the wind</i>, Psal. xviii. 10. + Gun governs either the Nominative or Dative; as, gun chrioch, <i>without + end</i>, Heb. vii. 16; gun chéill, <i>without understanding</i>, Psal. + xxxii. 9; gun chloinn, Gen. xv. 2. Mar, and gus or gu, when prefixed to a + Noun without the Article, usually govern the Dative case; as, mar nighin, + <i>as a daughter</i>, 2 Sam. xii. 13; mar amhainn mhòir, <i>like a great + river</i>, Psal. cv. 41; gu crìch mo shaoghail fein, <i>to the end of my + life-time</i>, Psal. cxix. 33, xlviii. 10. But if the Article be joined + to the Noun, it is governed in the Nominative; as, mar a' ghrian, <i>like + the sun</i>, Psal. lxxxix. 36, 37; gus an sruth, <i>to the stream</i>, + Deut. iii. 16; gus a' chrioch, <i>to the end</i>, Heb. iii. 6, 14. Eadar + governs the Nom.; as, eadar a' chraobh agus a' chlach, <i>between the + tree and the stone</i>. Eadar, when signifying <i>between</i>, requires + the Primary Form; as, eadar maighstir agus muinntireach, <i>between a + master and a servant</i>; when it signifies <i>both</i>, it requires the + Aspirated Form; as, eadar shean agus òg, <i>both old and young</i>; eadar + fheara agus mhnai, <i>both men and women</i>, Acts viii. 12.</p> + + <p>The Prepositions as, gus, leis, ris, are used before the Monosyllables + an, am, a'. The corresponding Prepositions a, gu, le, ri, often take an + <i>h</i> before an initial Vowel; as, a h-Eirin, <i>out of Ireland</i>; + gu h-ealamh, <i>readily</i>; le h-eagal, <i>with fear</i>.</p> + + <p>The Improper Prepositions govern the following Noun in the Genitive; + as, air feadh na tìre, <i>throughout the land</i>; an aghaidh an + t-sluaigh, <i>against the people</i>; ré na h-ùine, <i>during the + time</i>. It is manifest that this Genitive is governed by the Noun + feadh, aghaidh, ré, &c., which is always included in the Preposition. + See Part II. Chap. VII.</p> + + <p>Prepositions are often prefixed to a Clause of a sentence; and then + they have no regimen; as, gus am bord a ghiulan, <i>to carry the + table</i>, Exod. xxv. 27; luath chum fuil a dhortadh, <i>swift to shed + blood</i>, Rom. iii. 15. Edit. 1767; an déigh an obair a chriochnachadh, + <i>after finishing the work</i>. <!-- Page 162 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page162"></a>{162}</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Section</span> VI.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Of the Government of Conjunctions.</span></p> + + <p>The Conjunctions agus <i>and</i>, no <i>or</i>, couple the same Cases + of Nouns; as, air feadh chreagan agus choilltean, <i>through rocks and + woods</i>; ag reubadh nam bruach 's nan crann, <i>tearing the banks and + the trees</i>. When two or more Nouns, coupled by a Conjunction, are + governed in the Dative by a Preposition, it is usual to repeat the + Preposition before each Noun; as, air fad agus air leud, <i>in length and + in breadth</i>; 'n an cridhe, 'n an cainnt, agus 'n am beus, <i>in their + heart, in their speech, and in their behaviour</i>.</p> + + <p>Co <i>as</i>, prefixed to an Adjective, commonly requires the initial + consonant of the Adj. to be aspirated; as, co mhaith, <i>as good</i>, co + ghrinn, <i>as fine</i>. But sometimes we find co mòr, <i>as great</i>, co + buan, <i>as durable</i>, &c., without the aspirate. Sometimes the + aspirate is transferred from the Adj. to the Conjunct. as, cho beag, + <i>as little</i>, for co bheag. In the North Highlands, an adjective + preceded by co is commonly put in the <span class="correction" + title="Original reads `Comparitive'.">Comparative</span> form; as, co + miosa, <i>as bad</i>; co treise, <i>as strong</i>.</p> + + <p>The Conjunctions mur <i>if not</i>, gu, gur <i>that</i>, are always + joined to the Negative Mood; as, mur 'eil mi, <i>if I be not</i>; gu robh + e, <i>that he was</i>. <i>M</i> or <i>n</i> is often inserted, + <i>euphoniæ causa</i>, between gu and an initial Consonant; viz., + <i>m</i> before a Labial, <i>n</i> before a Palatal or Lingual; as, gu-m + faca tu, <i>that you saw</i>; gu-n dubhairt iad, <i>that they said</i><a + name="footnotetag111" href="#footnote111"><sup>[111]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>The Conjunctions ma <i>if</i>, o, o'n <i>because, since</i>, are + joined to the Pres. and Pret. Affirmative, and Fut. Subjunctive; as, ma + ta e, <i>if he be</i>; o'n tha e, <i>since he is</i>; ma bhuail e, <i>if + he struck</i>; o'n bhuail e, <i>because he struck</i>; ma bhuaileas tu, + <i>if you strike</i>; o bhitheas sinn, <i>since we shall be</i>.</p> + + <p>Na'm, na'n <i>if</i>, is joined only to the Pret. Subjunctive. <!-- + Page 163 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page163"></a>{163}</span>The + initial Consonant of the Verb loses its aspiration after this + Conjunction; as, na'm bithinn, <i>if I were</i>; nan tuiteadh a' chraobh, + <i>if the tree should fall</i>.</p> + + <p>Ged <i>although</i>, is used before the Present and Preterite + Affirmative, the Fut. Negative, and the Pret. Subjunctive; as, ged tha e, + <i>though he be</i>; ged bha mi, <i>though I was</i>; ge do bhuail thu + mi, <i>though you struck me</i>; ged bhuail thu mi, <i>though you strike + me</i>; ged bheireadh e dhomh, <i>though he should give me</i><a + name="footnotetag112" href="#footnote112"><sup>[112]</sup></a>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page164"></a>{164}</span></p> + +<h3>PART IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF DERIVATION.</p> + + <p>The Parts of Speech which are formed by derivation from other words + are Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. These are chiefly derived from Nouns + and Adjectives, and a few from Verbs.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">I. <span class="sc">Nouns.</span></p> + + <p>Derivative Nouns may be classed as follows, according to the varieties + of their termination.</p> + + <p>1. Abstract Nouns in <i>as</i>, formed from Adjectives or Nouns; as, + from ceart <i>just</i>, ceartas <i>justice</i>; from diomhan <i>idle, + vain</i>, diomhanas <i>idleness, vanity</i>; from caraid <i>a friend</i>, + cairdeas contracted for caraideas <i>friendship</i>; from namhaid <i>an + enemy</i>, naimhdeas contracted for namhaideas <i>enmity</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Abstract Nouns in <i>achd</i>, formed from Adjectives, and + sometimes, though more rarely, from Verbs and Nouns; as, from naomh + <i>holy</i>, naomhachd <i>holiness</i>; from domhain <i>deep</i>, + doimhneachd contracted for domhaineachd <i>depth</i>; from righ <i>a + king</i>, rioghachd <i>a kingdom</i>; coimhid <i>to keep</i>, + coimheadachd <i>keeping</i>; clachair <i>a mason</i>, clachaireachd + <i>mason-work</i>; gobhain <i>a smith</i>, goibhneachd contracted for + gobhaineachd <i>iron-work</i>, or rather <i>the trade or occupation of a + smith</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Abstract Nouns formed from the genitive of Adjectives, by adding + <i>e</i>; as, from dall gen. doill <i>blind</i>, doille <i>blindness</i>; + from geal gen. gil <i>white</i>, gile <i>whiteness</i>; from leasg gen. + leisg <i>lazy</i>, leisge <i>laziness</i>; tearc gen. teirc <i>rare</i>, + teirce <i>rarity</i>; trom gen. truim <i>heavy</i>, truime + <i>heaviness</i>; truagh gen. truaigh <i>unhappy</i>, truaighe + <i>misery</i>; uasal gen. <!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page165"></a>{165}</span>uasail <i>noble</i>, uasaile contr. uaisle + or by metath. uailse <i>nobility</i>.</p> + + <p>4. Abstract Nouns in <i>ad</i>, formed from the Comparative of + Adjectives, and used in speaking of the degree of a quality; as, gilead + <i>whiteness</i>, boidhchead <i>beauty</i>, doimhnead <i>depth</i>, + lughad <i>smallness</i>, tainead <i>thinness</i>; these are construed + with the Prepositions <i>de</i>, <i>air</i>; as, cha n-fhaca mi a samhuil + air bhoidhchead, <i>I have not seen her match for beauty</i>; air a + lughad or d' a lughad, <i>however small it be</i>.</p> + + <p>5. Nouns in <i>air</i> or <i>oir</i>, <i>ach</i>, <i>iche</i>, + derived, most of them, from nouns, and signifying persons or agents, as, + pìobair <i>a player on the pipe</i>, from pìob <i>a pipe</i>; clàrsair + <i>a player on the harp</i>, from clàrsach <i>a harp</i>; cealgair or + cealgoir <i>a deceiver</i>, from cealg <i>deceit</i>; sealgair or + sealgoir <i>a huntsman</i>, from sealg <i>hunting</i>; marcach <i>a + rider</i>, from marc <i>a horse</i>; athach <i>a man of terror, a + gigantic figure</i>, from atha <i>fear</i>; oibriche <i>a workman</i>, + from obair <i>work</i>; sgeulaiche <i>a reciter of tales</i>, from sgeul + <i>a tale</i>; ceannaiche <i>a merchant</i>, from ceannaich <i>to + buy</i><a name="footnotetag113" + href="#footnote113"><sup>[113]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>6. Diminutives in <i>an</i>, and in <i>ag</i> or <i>og</i>, formed + from Nouns or Adjectives; as, lochan <i>a small lake</i>, from loch <i>a + lake</i>; from braid <i>theft</i>, bradag <i>a thievish girl</i>; from + ciar <i>dark-coloured</i>, ciarag <i>a little dark-coloured creature</i>. + These Diminutives are often formed from the Genitive of their Primitives; + as, from feur gen. feoir <i>grass</i>, feoirnean <i>a pile of grass</i>; + moll gen. muill <i>chaff</i>, muillean <i>a particle of chaff</i>; folt + gen. fuilt <i>hair</i>, fuiltean <i>a single hair</i>; clag gen. cluig + <i>a bell</i>, cluigean <i>a little bell</i>; gual gen. guail + <i>coal</i>, guailnean <i>a cinder</i>; smùr gen. smùir <i>dust</i>, + smùirnean <i>a particle of dust, a mote</i>; clòimh <i>plumage</i>, + clòimhneag <i>a small feather, a flake of snow</i>.</p> + + <p>Some Nouns are formed in <i>an</i>, which are not Diminutives; as, + from lùb <i>to bend</i>, lùban <i>a bow</i>; from buail <i>to beat, + thresh</i>, <!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page166"></a>{166}</span>buailtean <i>a beater</i>, or + <i>thresher</i>, applied to that part of the flail which threshes out the + grain.</p> + + <p>7. Collective Nouns in <i>ridh</i> or <i>ri</i>, derived from Nouns or + Adjectives; as, from òg <i>young</i>, òigridh <i>youth</i>, in the + collective sense of the word; from mac <i>a son</i>, macruidh <i>sons, + young men</i>, Psal. cxlviii. 12;<a name="footnotetag114" + href="#footnote114"><sup>[114]</sup></a> from laoch <i>a hero</i>, + laochruidh <i>a band of heroes</i>, Psal. xxix. 1. Macfarlan's Paraph. + vi. 15, from ceol <i>music</i>, ceolraidh <i>the muses</i>. A. + Macdonald's Songs, p. 7, from cos the <i>foot</i>, coisridh <i>infantry, + a party on foot</i>. M<sup>c</sup>Intyre's Songs, Edin. 1768, p. 110, + from gas <i>a lad</i>, gasradh <i>a band of domestic attendants</i>. + O'Brien's Ir. Dict. voc. gas; eachradh, eachruith <i>cavalry</i>, Fingal. + IV. 299, Carthon, 59.—This termination is probably the Noun ruith + <i>a troop</i>. See Lhuyd et O'Brien, in voc.<a name="footnotetag115" + href="#footnote115"><sup>[115]</sup></a></p> + + <p>8. Nouns in <i>ach</i>, chiefly Patronymics, formed from Proper Names, + thus; from Donull <i>Donald</i>, is formed Donullach <i>a man of the name + of Macdonald</i>; from Griogar <i>Gregor</i>, Griogarach <i>a + Macgregor</i>; so Leodach <i>a Macleod</i>, Granntach <i>a Grant</i>, + &c., from Albainn <i>Scotland</i>, Albannach <i>a Scotsman</i>; from + Eirin <i>Ireland</i>, Eirineach <i>an Irishman</i>. These Nouns form + their Plural regularly, Donullaich, Leodaich, Albannaich, Eirinich. So + the following <i>Gentile</i> Nouns, which occur in the Gaelic Scriptures, + are regularly formed from their respective Primitives, Partuich + <i>Parthians</i>, Medich <i>Medes</i>, Elamuich <i>Elamites</i>, Acts ii. + 9. Macedonaich <i>Macedonians</i>, 2 Cor. ix. 2, 4. See also Gen. xv. 19, + 20, 21; Exod. xxiii. 23, 28.<a name="footnotetag116" + href="#footnote116"><sup>[116]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 167 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page167"></a>{167}</span></p> + + <p>9. Collective Nouns in <i>ach</i>; as, duille <i>a leaf</i>, duilleach + <i>foliage</i>; giuthas <i>fir</i>, giuthasach <i>a fir wood</i>; iughar + <i>yew</i>, iugharach <i>a yew copse</i>; fiadh <i>a deer</i>, fiadhach + <i>deer, a herd of deer</i>; crion <i>diminutive, shrunk</i>, crionach + <i>decayed wood</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">II. <span class="sc">Adjectives.</span></p> + + <p>1. Adjectives in <i>ach</i>, formed generally from Nouns; as, from + fìrinn <i>truth</i>, fìrinneach <i>true, faithful</i>; from sunnt + <i>glee</i>, sunntach <i>cheerful</i>; cràdh <i>pain</i>, cràiteach + <i>painful</i>; togradh <i>desire</i>, togarrach <i>willing, + desirous</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Adjectives in <i>mhor</i> or <i>or</i>, derived from Nouns; as, + from àdh <i>felicity</i>, adhmhor <i>happy, blessed</i>; from feoil + <i>flesh</i>, feolmhor <i>carnal</i>; from neart <i>strength</i>, + neartmhor <i>strong</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Adjectives in <i>ail</i> derived from Nouns; as, from fear + <i>man</i>, fearail <i>manful</i>; from caraid <i>a friend</i>, cairdail + contr. for caraidail <i>friendly</i>; from namhaid <i>an enemy</i>, + naimhdail contr. for namhaidail <i>hostile</i>; from sùrd + <i>alertness</i>, surdail <i>alert</i><a name="footnotetag117" + href="#footnote117"><sup>[117]</sup></a>.</p> + + <p>4. A few Adjectives in <i>ta</i> or <i>da</i>, derived from Nouns; as, + Gaelta <i>belonging to the Gael</i>; Eireanda <i>Irish</i>; Romhanta + <i>Roman</i>; <i>Kirk.</i> fìreanta <i>righteous</i>, Matt. xxiii. + 35.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">III. <span class="sc">Verbs.</span></p> + + <p>Verbs in <i>ich</i>, for the most part Transitive, and implying + causation, derived from Nouns or Adjectives; as, from geal <!-- Page 168 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page168"></a>{168}</span><i>white</i>, + gealaich <i>to whiten</i>; naomh <i>holy</i>, naomhaich <i>to + sanctify</i>; cruinn <i>round</i>, cruinnich <i>to gather together</i>; + lamh <i>the hand</i>, laimhsich <i>to handle</i>; cuimhne <i>memory</i>, + cuimhnich <i>to remember</i>. A few are Intransitive; as, from crith + <i>tremor</i>, criothnuich <i>to tremble</i>; fann <i>feeble</i>, + fannuich <i>to faint</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF COMPOSITION.</p> + + <p>All compound words in Gaelic consist of two component parts, exclusive + of the derivative terminations enumerated in the preceding Chapter. Of + these component parts, the former may be conveniently named the + Prepositive, the latter the Subjunctive term. It sometimes happens, + though rarely, that the Subjunctive term also is a compound word, which + must itself be decompounded in order to find out the Root.</p> + + <p>In compounding words, the usual mode has been, to prefix to the term + denoting the principal idea the word denoting the accessory idea or + circumstance by which the signification of the principal word is + modified. Accordingly we find Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs modified by + prefixing to them a Noun, an Adjective, a Verb, or a Preposition.</p> + + <p>In forming compound words, a Rule of very general application is, that + when the Subjunctive term begins with a Consonant, it is aspirated. From + this Rule, however, are to be excepted, 1. Words beginning with <i>s</i> + followed by a mute, which never admit the aspirate; 2. Words beginning + with a Lingual when the Prepositive term ends in <i>n</i>; 3. A few other + instances in which there is an euphonic agreement between the Consonants + thus brought into apposition, which would be violated if either of them + were aspirated.</p> + + <p>These observations will be found exemplified in the following + Compounds:— <!-- Page 169 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page169"></a>{169}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">I. <span class="sc">Words Compounded with a Noun prefixed.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Nouns Compounded with a Noun.</i></p> + + <p>Beart <i>dress, equipage</i>, ceann <i>head</i>—ceann-bheart + <i>head-dress, armour for the head</i>.</p> + + <p>Fàinn <i>a ring</i>, cluas <i>the ear</i>—cluas-fhainn <i>an + ear-ring</i>.</p> + + <p>Galar <i>a distemper</i>, crith <i>shaking</i>—crith-ghalar + <i>distemper attended with shaking, the palsy</i>.</p> + + <p>Oglach <i>a servant</i>, bean (in composition, ban) <i>a + woman</i>—banoglach <i>a female servant</i>.</p> + + <p>Fàidh <i>a prophet</i>, ban-fhaidh <i>a prophetess</i>.</p> + + <p>Tighearn <i>a lord</i>, baintighearn <i>a lady</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Adjectives Compounded with a Noun.</i></p> + + <p>Geal <i>white</i>, bian the <i>skin</i>—biangheal + <i>white-skinned</i>.</p> + + <p>Lom <i>bare</i>, cas the <i>foot</i>—caslom <i>bare-foot</i>; + ceann the <i>head</i>—ceannlom <i>bare-headed</i>.</p> + + <p>Biorach <i>pointed, sharp</i>, cluas the + <i>ear</i>—cluasbhiorach <i>having pointed ears</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Verbs Compounded with a Noun.</i></p> + + <p>Luaisg <i>to rock</i> or <i>toss</i>, tonn <i>a + wave</i>—tonn-luaisg <i>to toss on the waves</i>.</p> + + <p>Sleamhnuich <i>to slide</i>, cùl the <i>back</i>—cùl-sleamhnuich + <i>to back-slide</i>.</p> + + <p>Folaich <i>to hide</i>, feall <i>deceit</i>—feall-fholaich <i>to + lie in wait</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">II. <span class="sc">Words Compounded with an Adjective Prefixed.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Nouns Compounded with an Adjective.</i></p> + + <p>Uisge <i>water</i>, fior <i>true, genuine</i>—fioruisge + <i>spring-water</i>.</p> + + <p>Airgiod <i>silver</i>, beo <i>alive</i>—beo-airgiod + <i>quick-silver</i>.</p> + + <p>Sgolt <i>a crack</i>, crion <i>shrunk, decayed</i>—crionsgolt + <i>a fissure in wood caused by drought or decay</i>.</p> + + <p>Criochan <i>bounds, regions</i>, garbh + <i>rough</i>—garbhchriochan <i>rude mountainous regions</i>. <!-- + Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page170"></a>{170}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Adjectives Compounded with an Adjective.</i></p> + + <p>Donn <i>brown</i>, dubh <i>black</i>—dubh-dhonn + <i>dark-brown</i>.</p> + + <p>Gorm <i>blue</i>, dubh <i>black</i>—dubh-ghorm + <i>dark-blue</i>.</p> + + <p>Briathrach (not in use) from briathar <i>a word</i>, deas + <i>ready</i>—deas-bhriathrach <i>of ready speech, eloquent</i>.</p> + + <p>Seallach (not in use) from sealladh <i>sight</i>, geur + <i>sharp</i>—geur-sheallach <i>sharp-sighted</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Verbs Compounded with an Adjective.</i></p> + + <p>Ruith <i>to run</i>, dian <i>keen, eager</i>—dian-ruith <i>to + run eagerly</i>.</p> + + <p>Lean <i>to follow</i>, geur <i>sharp, severe</i>—geur-lean <i>to + persecute</i>.</p> + + <p>Buail <i>to strike</i>, trom <i>heavy</i>—trom-buail <i>to smite + sore, discomfit</i>.</p> + + <p>Ceangail <i>to bind</i>, dlùth <i>closer</i>—dlùth-cheangail + <i>to bind fast</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">III. <span class="sc">Words Compounded with a Verb prefixed.</span></p> + + <p>Art <i>a stone</i>, tarruing <i>to draw</i>—tarruing-art + <i>load-stone</i>.</p> + + <p>Sùil <i>the eye</i>, meall <i>to beguile</i>—meall-shuil <i>a + leering eye</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">IV. <span class="sc">Words Compounded with a Preposition.</span></p> + + <p>Radh <i>a saying</i>, roimh <i>before</i>—roimh-radh <i>preface, + prologue</i>.</p> + + <p>Solus <i>light</i>, eadar <i>between</i>—eadar-sholus + <i>twilight</i>.</p> + + <p>Mìnich <i>to explain</i>, eadar-mhìnich <i>to interpret</i>.</p> + + <p>Gearr <i>to cut</i>, timchioll <i>about</i>—timchioll-ghearr + <i>circumcise</i>.</p> + + <p>Lot <i>to wound</i>, troimh <i>through</i>—troimh-lot <i>to + stab, pierce through</i>.</p> + + <p>Examples of words compounded with an inseparable Preposition are + already given in Part II. Chap. VII.</p> + + <p>Compound Nouns retain the gender of the principal Nouns in their + simple state. Thus crith-ghalar <i>palsy</i>, is masculine, because the + principal Noun, Galar <i>distemper</i>, is masculine, although the + accessary Noun crith, by which galar is qualified, be feminine. So + cìs-mhaor is masculine though cìs be a feminine Noun, Luke xviii. 11; + cìs-mheasadh ought also to be masculine, Acts v. 37. Except Nouns + compounded with <!-- Page 171 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page171"></a>{171}</span>Bean <i>woman</i>, which are all feminine, + though the simple principal Noun be masculine, because the compound word + denotes an object of the female sex; as, oglach <i>a servant</i>, + masculine, but banoglach <i>a maid-servant</i>, feminine, caraid <i>a + friend</i>, masculine, bancharaid <i>a female friend</i>, feminine.</p> + + <p>Compound words are declined in the same manner as if they were + uncompounded.</p> + + <p>In writing compound words, the component parts are sometimes separated + by a hyphen, and sometimes not. The use of the hyphen does not seem to be + regulated by any uniform practice. In the case of two vowels coming in + apposition, the insertion of a hyphen seems indispensable; because, by + the analogy of Gaelic orthography, two Vowels, belonging to different + syllables, are scarcely ever placed next to each other without some mark + of separation<a name="footnotetag118" + href="#footnote118"><sup>[118]</sup></a>. Thus so-aomaidh, <i>easily + induced</i>, <i>propense</i>; so-iomchair, <i>easily carried</i>; + do-innsidh, <i>difficult to be told</i>; and not soamaidh, doinnsidh, + &c., without the hyphen.</p> + + <p>It was formerly remarked, Part I., that almost all Gaelic + Polysyllables are accented on the first syllable. When, in pronouncing + compound words, the accent is placed on the first syllable, the two terms + appear to be completely incorporated into one word. When, on the other + hand, the accent is placed, not on the first syllable of the Compound, + but on the first syllable of the Subjunctive term, the two terms seem to + retain their respective powers, and to produce their effect separately, + and instead of being incorporated into one word, to be rather + collaterally connected. A rule may then be derived from the pronunciation + for the use of the hyphen in writing Compounds, viz., to insert the + hyphen between the component parts, when the Prepositive term is not + accented. Thus it is proposed to write aineolach <i>ignorant</i>, + antromaich <i>to exaggerate</i>, comhradh <i>conversation</i>, dobheart + <i>a bad action</i>, <!-- Page 172 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page172"></a>{172}</span>soisgeul <i>Gospel</i>, banoglach <i>a + maidservant</i>, &c., without a hyphen; but to write an-fhiosrach + <i>unacquainted</i>, ban-fhiosaiche <i>a female fortune-teller</i>, + co-fhreagarach <i>corresponding</i>, so-fhaicsin <i>easily seen</i>, + &c., with a hyphen<a name="footnotetag119" + href="#footnote119"><sup>[119]</sup></a>. By this rule, a correspondence + is maintained, not only between the writing and the pronunciation, but + likewise between the written language and the ideas expressed by it. A + complex idea, whose parts are most closely united in the mind, is thus + denoted by one undivided word; whereas an idea composed of parts more + loosely connected, is expressed by a word, whereof the component parts + are distinguished, and exhibited separately to the eye. Thus also the + Gaelic scholar would have one uniform direction to follow in reading, + viz., to place the accent always on the first syllable of an undivided + word, or member of a word. If any exception be allowed, it must be only + in the case already stated of two vowels coming in apposition, as + beo-airgiod <i>quicksilver</i>.</p> + + <p>Let it be observed that, according to this rule, an Adjective + preceding a Noun can never, but in the case just mentioned, be connected + with it by a hyphen. For if the accent be wholly transferred from the + Noun to the Adjective, then they are to be written as one undivided word; + as, garbhchriochan <i>highlands</i>; but if the accent be not so + transferred, the Adjective and the Noun are to be written as two separate + words; as, seann duine <i>an old man</i>, deagh chomhairle <i>good + advice</i>, droch sgeul <i>a bad tale</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p>It not unfrequently happens that two Nouns, whereof the one qualifies + the meaning of the other, and connected by the common grammatical + relation of the one governing the other in the Genitive, come through use + to be considered as denoting only one complex object. The two Nouns in + this case are sometimes written together in one word, and thus form a + Compound of a looser structure than those which have been considered. + Such are ceann-cinnidh, <i>the head of a tribe or <!-- Page 173 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page173"></a>{173}</span>clan</i>; ceann-tighe, + <i>the head of a family</i>; ceann-feadhna, <i>the leader of an army</i>; + fear-turnis, <i>a traveller</i>; luchd-faire, <i>watchmen</i>; + iobairt-pheacaidh, <i>a sin-offering</i>; urlar-bualaidh, <i>a + threshing-floor</i>; fear-bainse, <i>a bridegroom</i>; crith-thalmhain, + <i>an earth-quake</i>; crios-guailne, <i>a shoulder-belt</i>, &c. In + writing Compound Nouns of this description, the two Nouns are never + written in one undivided word, but always separated by a hyphen. It comes + to be a question, however, in many instances of one Noun governing + another in the Genitive, whether such an expression is to be considered + as a compound term, and the words to be connected by a hyphen in writing, + or whether they are to be written separately, without any such mark of + composition. An observation that was made in treating of the Government + of Nouns may help us to an answer, and furnish an easy rule in the case + in question. It was remarked that when one Noun governed another in the + Genitive, the Article was never joined to both; that for the most part, + it was joined to the Noun governed, but sometimes to the Noun governing, + that in the latter case, the two Nouns seemed to figure as one compound + term, denoting one complex idea. If this last remark hold true, it may be + laid down as a rule that in every instance of a Noun governing another in + the Genitive, where the Article is or may be prefixed to the <i>governing + Noun</i>, there the two Nouns ought to be connected by a hyphen in + writing; otherwise not. Thus we can say, without impropriety, an + ceann-feadhna, <i>the commander</i>; an luchd-coimhid, <i>the + keepers</i>; and the Nouns are accordingly considered as Compounds, and + written with a hyphen. But it would be contrary to the usage of the + language to say, am mullach craige, <i>the top of a rock</i>; an + t-uachdar talmhain, <i>the surface of the ground</i>. Accordingly it + would be improper to write a hyphen between the Nouns in these and + similar examples.</p> + + <p>The different effects of these two modes of writing, with or without + the hyphen, is very observable in such instances as the + following:—Ainm dùthcha, <i>the name of a country</i>, as Scotland, + Argyle, &c.; ainm-dùthcha, <i>a country name</i>, or <!-- Page 174 + --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page174"></a>{174}</span><i>patronymic</i>, as Scotsman, + Highlander, &c.; clann Donuill, <i>Donald's children</i>; + clann-Donuill, <i>the Macdonalds</i>.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p>Though few have exerted themselves hitherto in explaining the + structure of the Gaelic language, in respect of its inflections, + construction, and collocation, this cannot be said to be the case with + regard to Etymology. Much has been attempted, and something has been + done, toward analysing single vocables, particularly names of places. But + this analysis seems to have been too often made rather in a way of random + conjecture than by a judicious regard to the analogy of Derivation and + Composition. The passion for analysing has even induced some to assert + that all true Gaelic Primitives consist of but one syllable, that all + Polysyllables are either derived or compounded, and therefore that there + is room to search for their etymon. This seems to be carrying theory too + far. It appears a fruitless and rather chimerical attempt to propose a + system of directions by which all Polysyllables whatever may be resolved + into component parts, and traced to a root of one syllable. All I have + thought it necessary to do is to methodize and exemplify those general + principals of Etymology which are obvious and unquestioned, and which + regulate the composition and derivation of those classes of words whereof + the analysis may be traced with some probability of success.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page175"></a>{175}</span></p> + +<h3>EXERCISES IN READING, EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING.</h3> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From an Address to the Soldiers of a Highland Regiment</i>, by +<span class="sc">D. Smith</span>, M.D.</p> + + <p>Theid an deadh shaighdear gu h-aobhach suilbhear an dàil gach + tuiteamais a thig 'n a chrannchur. Ach 's e a's nòs do 'n droch + shaighdear a bhi gearan 's a' talach air gach làimh; beadaidh ri lìnn + socair, is diombach ann eiric caoimhneis; lag-chridheach ri h-am + cruachais, agus dìblidh ri h-uchd feuma.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>In English.</i></p> + + <p>The good soldier will advance, with spirit and cheerfulness, to any + service that falls in his way. But it is the practice of the bad soldier + to be complaining and grumbling on all occasions; saucy in time of ease, + and peevish in return for kindness; faint-hearted under hardships, and + feeble in encountering exigency.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Analysis.</i></p> + + <p><i>Theid.</i> 3. per. sing. Fut. Affirm, of the irregular Verb + <i>Rach</i>, go.</p> + + <p><i>An.</i> Nom. sing. of the Article <i>an</i>, the.</p> + + <p><i>Deadh.</i> An indeclinable Adjective, always placed before its + Noun.</p> + + <p><i>Shaighdear.</i> Nom. sing. of the mas. noun <i>saighdear</i>, a + soldier, in the aspirated form, because preceded by the Adj. + <i>deadh</i>. Gram. p. <a href="#page145">145</a>. <!-- Page 176 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page176"></a>{176}</span></p> + + <p><i>Gu.</i> A proper Preposition, to, for.</p> + + <p><span class="correction" title="Original reads `Aobhachh'." + ><i>Aobhach.</i></span> An Adject. of the first Declension, joyous, + having an <i>h</i> before it, because preceded by the Prep. <i>gu</i>. + Gram. p. <a href="#page161">161</a>. <i>Gu h-aobhach</i>, joyfully, + cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. Gram. p. <a href="#page109">109</a>.</p> + + <p><i>Suilbhear.</i> An Adject. cheerful. <i>Gu</i> is to be supplied + from the former phrase; <i>gu suilbhear</i>, cheerfully, an adverbial + phrase.</p> + + <p><i>An dàil.</i> An improper Preposition, to meet, to face, to + encounter; made up of the proper Prep. <i>ann</i>, in, and the Noun + <i>dàil</i>, meeting. Gram. p. <a href="#page121">121</a>.</p> + + <p><i>Gach.</i> An indeclinable Adj. Pronoun, each, every.</p> + + <p><i>Tuiteamais.</i> Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun <i>tuiteamas</i>, an + occurrence, accident, governed in the Gen. case by the improp. Prep. + <i>an dàil</i> (Gram. p. <a href="#page161">161</a>), derived from the + Verb <i>tuit</i>. Infinitive <i>tuiteam</i>, to fall, befal.</p> + + <p><i>A.</i> Nom. sing. Relative Pronoun, who, which.</p> + + <p><i>Thig.</i> Fut. Affirm. of the irregular Verb <i>thig</i>, come.</p> + + <p><i>'N.</i> Contracted for <i>ann</i>, a proper Prep., in.</p> + + <p><i>A.</i> Possessive Pronoun, his.</p> + + <p><i>Chrannchur.</i> Mas. Noun, a lot; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. + <i>ann</i>; in the aspirated form after the adject. Pron. <i>a</i>, + 'his'—compounded of <i>crann</i>, a lot, and <i>cur</i>, casting, + the Infinitive of the Verb <i>cuir</i>, to put, cast.</p> + + <p><i>Ach.</i> Conjunction, but. Hebr. <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="AD" ><bdo dir="rtl">אד</bdo></span>.</p> + + <p><i>'S.</i> for <i>is</i>, Pres. Indic. of the Verb <i>is</i>, I am. + <i>'S e a 's</i> it is [that] which is.</p> + + <p><i>Nòs.</i> Noun mas., custom, habit.</p> + + <p><i>Do.</i> Prep. to.</p> + + <p><i>An.</i> the article, the.</p> + + <p><i>Droch.</i> indeclinable Adject. bad; always placed before its + Noun.</p> + + <p><i>Shaighdear.</i> mas. Noun, soldier; governed in the Dative by the + Prep. <i>do</i>; in the aspir. form after the Adject. <i>droch</i>. <!-- + Page 177 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page177"></a>{177}</span></p> + + <p><i>A bhi.</i> for <i>do bhi</i> or <i>do bhith</i>, Infinit. of the + irregular Verb <i>bi</i>, to be.</p> + + <p><i>Gearan.</i> Infin. of the obsolete Verb <i>gearain</i>, to + complain, <i>ag</i> being understood; <i>ag gearan</i> equivalent to a + present Participle, complaining. Gram. p. <a href="#page86">86</a>.</p> + + <p><i>'S.</i> for <i>agus</i>, conjunction, and.</p> + + <p><i>A' talach.</i> for <i>ag talach</i>, complaining, repining; Infin. + of the obsolete Verb <i>talaich</i>, to complain of a thing or + person.</p> + + <p><i>Air.</i> Prep. on.</p> + + <p><i>Gach.</i> Adject. Pron. indeclin. each, every.</p> + + <p><i>Làimh.</i> dat. sing. of the fem. Noun <i>làmh</i>, a hand; + governed in the Dat. by the Prep. <i>air</i>, on. <i>Air gach làimh</i>, + on every hand.</p> + + <p><i>Beadaidh.</i> Adject. nice, fond of delicacies, saucy, + petulant.</p> + + <p><i>Ri.</i> Prep. to, at.</p> + + <p><i>Lìnn.</i> Noun fem. an age, period, season. <i>Ri lìnn</i>, during + the time of any event, or currency of any period; <i>ri lìnn + Fhearghuis</i>, in the time, or reign of Fergus; <i>gu faigheamaid sìth + r' ar lìnn</i>, that we may have peace in our time.</p> + + <p><i>Socair.</i> Noun fem., ease, conveniency; governed in the Gen. by + the Noun <i>lìnn</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Is.</i> for <i>agus</i>, Conjunct. and.</p> + + <p><i>Diombach</i>, or <i>diùmach</i>. Adject. displeased, indignant; + derived from the Noun <i>diom</i> or <i>diùm</i>, indignation.</p> + + <p><i>Ann.</i> Prep. governing the Dat. in.</p> + + <p><i>Eiric.</i> Noun femin., requital, compensation; governed in the + Dat. by the Prep. <i>ann</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Caoimhneis.</i> Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun <i>caoimhneas</i>, + kindness; governed in the Gen. by the noun <i>eiric</i>, derived from the + Adject. <i>caomh</i>, gentle, kind.</p> + + <p><i>Lag-chridheach.</i> Adject. faint-hearted; compounded of the + Adject. <i>lag</i>, weak, and <i>cridhe</i>, the heart.</p> + + <p><i>Ri.</i> Prep. to, at. <!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page178"></a>{178}</span></p> + + <p><i>Am.</i> Noun masc., time; governed in the Dat. case by the Prep. + <i>ri</i>, and preceded by <i>h</i>. Gram. p. <a + href="#page161">161</a>.</p> + + <p><i>Cruachais.</i> Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun <i>cruachas</i>, + hardship, strait; governed in the Gen. by the noun <i>am</i>; compounded + of the Adject. <i>cruaidh</i>, hard, and <i>càs</i>, danger, + extremity.</p> + + <p><i>Agus.</i> Conjunct., and.</p> + + <p><i>Dìblidh.</i> Adject., feeble, silly.</p> + + <p><i>Uchd.</i> Noun mas. breast, chest; hence it signifies an ascent, a + steep; in the Dat. case, preceded by <i>h</i>, after the Prep. <i>ri</i>: + <i>ri h-uchd</i>, in ascending, breasting, encountering, assailing.</p> + + <p><i>Feuma.</i> Gen. sing. of the Noun mas. <i>feum</i>, necessity, + exigency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun <i>uchd</i>.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Extract from an old Fingalian Tale or Legend.</i></p> + + <p>Dh' imich Garbh mac Stairn agus Dual a dh' fhaicinn Fhinn agus a + threun fheara colgach, iomraiteach ann an gniomharaibh arm. Bha Fionn 's + an àm sin 'n a thigheadas samhraidh am Buchanti. 'N an turus d'a + ionnsuidh, ghabh iad beachd air gach gleann agus faoin mhonadh, air gach + allt agas caol choirean. Ghabh iad sgeul de gach coisiche agus gach fear + a thachair 'n an còir. Ann an gleann nan cuach agus nan lon, chunnaic + bùth taobh sruthain; chaidh a steach, dh' iarr deoch; dh' eirich ribhinn + a b' aluinne snuadh a dh' fhàilteachadh an turuis le sìth. Thug i biadh + dhoibh r'a itheadh, dibhe ri òl; dh' iarr an sgeul le cainnt thlà. Bhuail + gaol o a sùil an Garbh borb, agus dh' innis cia as doibh. "Thainig sinn o + thìr nan crann, far an lionor sonn—mac righ Lochlainn mise—m' + ainm Garbh na'm b' aill leat—esan Dual, o thìr nam beann, a + thuinich ann Albainn o thuath—a ghabhail cairdeis gun sgàth agus + aoidheachd o 'n àrd righ Fionn, sud fàth ar turuis a Chiabh na + maise—ciod am bealach am buail sinn? seol ar cos gu teach Fhinn, bi + dhuinn mar iùl, is gabh duais." "Duais <!-- Page 179 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page179"></a>{179}</span>cha do ghabh mi riamh, + ars an nighean bu bhlàithe sùil 's bu deirge gruaidh; cha b' e sud + àbhaist Theadhaich nam beann éilde, 'g am bu lionor dàimheach 'n a + thalla, 'g am bu tric tathaich o thuath—ni mise dhuibh iùl." Gu + gleann-sìth tharladh na fir; gleann an tric guth feidh is loin; gleann + nan glas charn is nan scor; gleann nan sruth ri uisg is gaoith. Thachair + orra buaghar bho, is rinn dhoibh iùl; thug dhoibh sgeul air duthaich nan + creag, air fir agus air mnaibh, air fàs shliabh agus charn, air neart + feachd, air rian nan arm, air miann sloigh, agus craobhthuinidh nam + Fiann.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>In English.</i></p> + + <p>Garva the son of Starno and Dual, went to visit Fingal and his brave + warriors, renowned for feats of arms. Fingal was at that time in his + summer residence at Buchanti. On their journey thither, they took a view + of every valley and open hill, every brook and narrow dell. They asked + information of every passenger and person that came in their way. In the + glen of cuckoos and ouzles they observed a cottage by the side of a + rivulet. They entered; asked drink, a lady of elegant appearance arose + and kindly bade them welcome. She gave the food to eat, liquor to drink. + In mild speech she inquired their purpose. Love from her eye smote the + rough Garva, and he told whence they were. "We are come from the land of + Pines, where many a hero dwells—the son of Lochlin's king am + I—my name is Garva, be pleased to know—my comrade is Dual, + from the land of hills, his residence is in the north of Albion. To + accept the hospitality and confidential friendship of the mighty prince + Fingal, this is the object of our journey, O Lady fair<a + name="footnotetag120" href="#footnote120"><sup>[120]</sup></a>; say, by + what pass shall we shape our course? Direct our steps to the mansion of + Fingal, be our guide, and accept a reward." "Reward I never took," said + the damsel of softest eye and rosiest cheek; "such was not the manner of + [my father] Tedaco of the hill of hinds; <!-- Page 180 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page180"></a>{180}</span>many were the guests in + his hall, frequent his visitors from the North,—I will be your + guide." The chiefs reach Glenshee, where is heard the frequent voice of + deer and elk; glen of green mounts and cliffs; glen of many streams in + time of rain and wind. A keeper of cattle met them, and directed their + course. He gave the information concerning the country of rocks; + concerning its inhabitants male and female; the produce of moor and + mount; the military force, the fashion of the armour; the favourite + pursuits of the people; and the pedigree of the Fingalians.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Extract from Bishop</i> <span class="sc">Carsuel's</span> <i>Gaelic translation of the<br /> +Confession of Faith, Forms of Prayer, &c., used in the Reformed<br /> +Church of Scotland</i>; Printed in the year 1567.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">(<i><span class="correction" title="In fact, the passage which follows appears to correspond to the English below it, concerning the Poems of Ossian.">From the Epistle Dedicatory.</span></i>)</p> + + <p>Acht ata ni cheana is mor an leathtrom agas anuireasbhuidh ata riamh + orainde gaoidhil alban & eireand, tar an gcuid eile don domhan, gan + ar gcanamhna gaoidheilge do chur agcló riamh mar ataid agcanamhna & + adteangtha féin agcló ag gach uile chinel dhaoine oile sa domhan, & + ata uireasbhuidh is mó ina gach uireasbhuidh oraind, gan an Biobla + naomhtha do bheith agcló gaoidheilge againd, marta sè agcló laidne agas + bherla agas ingach teangaidh eile osin amach, agas fós gan seanchus + arsean no ar sindsear do bheith mar an gcedna agcló againd riamh, acht ge + tá cuid eigin do tseanchus ghaoidheal alban agas eireand sgriobhtha + aleabhruibh lámh, agas adtamhlorgaibh fileadh & ollamhan, agas + asleachtaibh suadh. Is mortsaothair sin re sgriobhadh do laimh, ag + fechain an neithe buailtear sa chló araibrisge agas ar aithghiorra bhios + gach én ni dhá mhed da chriochnughadh leis. Agas is mor an doille agas + andorchadas peacaidh agas aineolais agas indtleachda do lucht deachtaidh + agas sgriobhtha agas chumhdaigh na gaoidheilge, gurab mó is mian leo agas + gurab mó ghnathuidheas siad eachtradha dimhaoineacha buaidheartha + bregacha <!-- Page 181 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page181"></a>{181}</span>saoghalta do cumadh ar thuathaibh + dédhanond agas ar mhacaibh mileadh agas arna curadhaibh agas fhind mhac + cumhaill gona fhianaibh agas ar mhóran eile nach airbhim agas nach + indisim andso do chumhdach, agas do choimhleasughagh, do chiond + luadhuidheachta dimhaonigh an tsaoghail dfhaghail doibhféin, ina briathra + disle Dé agas slighthe foirfe na firinde do sgriobhadh, agas dheachtadh, + agas do chumhdach.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>English Translation.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead">[<i>From the</i> <span class="sc">Report</span> <i>of the Committee of the</i><br /> +<span class="sc">Highland Society</span> <i>of</i> <span class="sc">Scotland</span>, <i>appointed to inquire into the<br /> +nature and authenticity of the Poems of</i> <span class="sc">Ossian</span>.]</p> + + <p>But there is one great disadvantage which we the Gaeil of Scotland and + Ireland labour under, beyond the rest of the world, that our Gaelic + language has never yet been printed, as the language of every other race + of men has been. And we labour under a disadvantage which is still + greater than every other disadvantage, that we have not the Holy Bible + printed in Gaelic, as it has been printed in Latin and in English, and in + every other language; and also that we have never yet had any account + printed of the antiquities of our country, or of our ancestors; for + though we have some accounts of the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland, + contained in manuscripts, and in the genealogies of bards and + historiographers, yet there is great labour in writing them over with the + hand, whereas the work which is printed, be it ever so great, is speedily + finished. And great is the blindness and sinful darkness, and ignorance + and evil design of such as teach, and write, and cultivate the Gaelic + language, that, with the view of obtaining for themselves the vain + rewards of this world, they are more desirous, and more accustomed, to + compose vain, tempting, lying, worldly histories, concerning the <i>Tuath + de dannan</i>, and concerning warriors and champions, and <i>Fingal</i> + the son of <i>Cumhal</i>, with his heroes, and concerning many others + which <!-- Page 182 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page182"></a>{182}</span>I will not at present enumerate or + mention, in order to maintain or reprove, than to write and teach and + maintain the faithful words of God, and of the perfect way of truth<a + name="footnotetag121" href="#footnote121"><sup>[121]</sup></a>.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From the Preface to a Metrical Version of the Book of Psalms<br /> +in Gaelic</i>, by Mr <span class="sc">Robert Kirk</span>, Minister of the Gospel<br /> +at Balquhidder; Printed in the year 1684.</p> + + <p>Ataid na Psalma taitneamhach, tarbhach: beag nach mion-fhlaitheas lán + dainglibh, Cill fhonnmhar le ceol naomhtha. Mur abholghort Eden, lionta + do chrannaibh brioghmhoire na beatha, & do luibhennibh + iocshlainteamhail, amhluidh an leabhar Psalmso Dhaibhioth, ata na + liaghais ar uile anshocair na nanma. Ata an saoghal & gach beó + chreatuir da bfuil ann, na chlarsigh; an duine, se is Clairseoir & + duanaire, chum moladh an mor-Dhia mirbhuileach do sheinn; & ata + Daibhidh do ghná mar fhear don chuideachd bhias marso ag caoin-chaint gu + ceolmhar ma nard-Rí.... Do ghabhas mar chongnamh don obairsi, dioghlum + ughdairidh an uile cháil, ar sheannós, phriomh chreideamh & + eachdardha na nGaoidheal, sgriobhta & cló-bhuailte: achd gu ba reula + iuil & soluis dhamh, brídh na nSalm fein. Anois maseadh a + Chomharbadha ro chaomh, ata mar phlaneidi dhealroidh ag sdiurughadh na + ngcorp ioch dardha gan mhonmar, is deaghmhaise dhaoibh an tsaothairse a + sgrudadh & a ghnathughadh gu neimhfhiat, gan ghuth ar bheiginmhe + & neimhnitheachd an tsaothairigh. Griosam oraibhse a Uaisle, & a + Thuatha charthanacha araon, gun <!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page183"></a>{183}</span>bheith mur thacharain ar luaidrean a nunn + & a nall go sbailpe breigi; achd le gcroidhibh daingne, dosgartha, + deagh-fhreumhaighte, druididh re Firinn, Ceart, & Ceannsachd, mar + fhuraileas na psalma: Ata clu & tarbha a nsdriocadh don choir; call + & masladh a ntuitim le heugcoir.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Imthigh a Dhuilleachain gu dán,</p> + <p class="i2">Le Dán glan diagha duisg iad thall;</p> + <p>Cuir failte ar Fonn fial na bFionn,</p> + <p class="i2">Ar Gharbh chriocha, 's Indseadh gall.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>In English.</i></p> + + <p>The Psalms are pleasant and profitable. A church resounding with + sacred melody is almost a little Heaven full of angels. As the Garden of + Eden, replenished with trees of life of potent efficacy, and with + medicinal plants, so is this Book of the Psalms of David, which contains + a remedy for all the diseases of the soul. The world and every living + creature it contains are the Harp; man is the Harper and Poet, who sings + the praise of the great wonder-working God; and David is ever one of the + company who are thus employed in sweetly and tunefully discoursing about + the Almighty King.... I was assisted in this work by culling from authors + of every kind, who have treated of the ancient manners, the primitive + religion, and the history of the Gaels, both in manuscript and in print: + but the star and light by which I steered was the sense of the Psalms + themselves. Now, then, my very dear colleagues, who as shining luminaries + guide the inferior bodies, it becomes you to examine and to use this work + candidly, without regarding the meanness and insignificancy of the + workman. I beseech you, men of high and of low degree alike, that you be + not, like weak silly creatures, tossed to and fro by false conceits; but + with firm, resolute, well-established hearts, adhere to Truth, Justice, + and Temperance, as these Psalms exhort. There is honour and profit in + complying with what is right, loss and disgrace in declining to what is + wrong. <!-- Page 184 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page184"></a>{184}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Little Volume, move boldly on;</p> + <p>In pure godly strains awaken yonder people;</p> + <p>Salute the hospitable land of the Fingalians,</p> + <p>The highland regions, and the Isles of strangers<a name="footnotetag122" href="#footnote122"><sup>[122]</sup></a>.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead">PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h2>Notes</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="footnote1" href="#footnotetag1">[1]</a> Analysis of the + Gaelic Language, by William Shaw, A.M.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote2" href="#footnotetag2">[2]</a> A few examples of + what I conceived to be deviations from grammatical propriety are given + from the Gaelic version of the Bible. As the translation of the + Prophetical Books underwent a revision, the exceptionable passages in + those Books have been changed in the second edition from what they were + as they came out of the hands of the original translator. The criticism + on those passages is, however, allowed to remain in this edition of the + Grammar, because the first edition of the Gaelic Prophets is still in the + hands of many, and because it often happens that "we can best teach what + is right by showing what is wrong."—<i>Lowth.</i></p> + + <p><a name="footnote3" href="#footnotetag3">[3]</a> It will immediately + occur to any grammarian that there is a slight difference between this + and the common division into <i>mutes</i> and <i>liquids</i>, by the + letter <i>m</i> being removed from the class of liquids to that of mutes. + This is not an oversight, but an intentional arrangement; as the + <i>accidents</i> of the letter <i>m</i> are, in Gaelic, the same with + those of the mute, not of the liquid consonants. For a like reason, + <i>s</i> is included in the class of liquids.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote4" href="#footnotetag4">[4]</a> Writers, who have + touched on this part of Gaelic Grammar, following the Irish grammarians, + have divided the consonants further into <i>mutable</i> and + <i>immutable</i>. The former name has been given to consonants which, in + writing, have been occasionally combined with the letter <i>h</i>; and + the latter name to those consonants which have not, in writing, been + combined with <i>h</i>. But, in fact, both classes of consonants are + alike <i>mutable</i> in their pronunciation; and their <i>mutation</i> + ought to have been marked in the orthography, though it has not. This + defect in Gaelic orthography has been often observed and regretted, + though it has never been corrected. Rather than continue a distinction + which has no foundation in the structure of the language, I venture to + discard the division of <i>mutable</i> and <i>immutable</i> consonants, + as not merely useless, but as tending to mislead the learner.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote5" href="#footnotetag5">[5]</a> In explaining the + sounds of the letters I have availed myself of the very correct and acute + remarks on this subject annexed to the Gaelic version of the New + Testament, 1767.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote6" href="#footnotetag6">[6]</a> If it be thought that + this renders the language too monotonous, it may be observed, on the + other hand, that it prevents ambiguities and obscurities in rapid + speaking, as the accent marks the initial syllable of polysyllables. + Declaimers, of either sex, have often found their advantage in this + circumstance.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote7" href="#footnotetag7">[7]</a> That is the second + sound assigned to <i>a</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote8" href="#footnotetag8">[8]</a> The plural of la or + latha <i>a day</i>, is sometimes written laeth; but it is doubtful how + far this is a proper mode of writing it.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote9" href="#footnotetag9">[9]</a> The effect of the + vowels in qualifying the sound of the adjoining consonants will be + explained in treating of the Palatals and Linguals.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote10" href="#footnotetag10">[10]</a> This propensity is + seen in the aspirating of consonants in Gaelic words, which have an + evident affinity to words in other languages, where the same consonants + are not so aspirated. The following list will sufficiently illustrate and + confirm the truth of this remark:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Aspiration." title="Aspiration."> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <i>Greek.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Latin.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Gælic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="Diabolos" class="grk">Διαβολος</span> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dia<i>b</i>olus </td><td class="spacsingle"> Diabhol.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scri<i>b</i>o* </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scriobh, <i>write</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fe<i>b</i>ris* </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fiabhrus, <i>a fever</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ba<i>c</i>ulum </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bacholl, <i>a staff</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="Deka" class="grk">Δεκα</span> </td><td class="spacsingle"> De<i>c</i>em </td><td class="spacsingle"> Deich, <i>ten</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lori<i>c</i>a </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lùireach, <i>a coat of mail</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cleri<i>c</i>us </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cleireach, <i>a clerk</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mo<i>d</i>us </td><td class="spacsingle"> Modh, <i>manner</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gla<i>d</i>ius </td><td class="spacsingle"> Claidheamh, <i>a sword</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Kardia" class="grk">Καρδια</span><br/> + <span title="Kradia" class="grk">Κραδια</span> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cor<i>d</i>-is </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cridhe, <i>the heart</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Me<i>d</i>ium </td><td class="spacsingle"> Meadhon, <i>middle</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lau<i>d</i>o </td><td class="spacsingle"> Luadh, <i>mention</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Le<i>g</i>o </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leugh, <i>read</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gre<i>g</i>-is </td><td class="spacsingle"> Greigh, <i>a herd</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Re<i>g</i>-is </td><td class="spacsingle"> Righ, <i>a king</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Pla<i>g</i>a </td><td class="spacsingle"> Plaigh, <i>a plague</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sa<i>g</i>itta </td><td class="spacsingle"> Saighead, <i>an arrow</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma<i>g</i>ister </td><td class="spacsingle"> Maighistir, <i>master</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ima<i>g</i>o </td><td class="spacsingle"> Iomhaigh, <i>an image</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Pri<i>m</i>us </td><td class="spacsingle"> Priomh, <i>chief</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Re<i>m</i>us </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ràmh, <i>an oar</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Si<i>m</i>ilis </td><td class="spacsingle"> Samhuil, <i>like</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hu<i>m</i>ilis </td><td class="spacsingle"> Umhal, <i>humble</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ca<i>p</i>ra </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gabhar, <i>a goat</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <span title="Mêtêr" class="grk">Μητηρ</span> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ma<i>t</i>er </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mathair, <i>mother</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ro<i>t</i>a </td><td class="spacsingle"> Roth, Rath, <i>a wheel</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mu<i>t</i>o </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mùth, <i>change</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>It is probable that the consonants, thus aspirated, were pronounced + without aspiration in the older dialects of the Celtic tongue; for we are + told that in the Irish manuscripts of the first class for antiquity, the + consonants are for the most part written without any mark of aspiration. + See "Lhuyd's Archæol. Brit.," p. 301, col. 1.</p> + + <p>The tendency to attenuate the articulations shows itself in a + progressive state, in a few vocables which are pronounced with an + aspiration in some districts, but not universally. Such are deatach or + deathach <i>smoke</i>, cuntart or cunthart <i>danger</i>, ta or tha + <i>am</i>, <i>art</i>, tu or thu <i>thou</i>, troimh or throimh + <i>through</i>, tar or thar <i>over</i>, am beil or am bheil <i>is + there?</i> dom or domh <i>to me</i>, &c. Has not this remission or + suppression of the articulations the effect of enfeebling the speech, by + mollifying its bones and relaxing its nerves? Ought not therefore the + progress of this corruption to be opposed, by retaining unaspirated + articulations in those instances where universal practice has not + entirely superseded them, and even by restoring them in some instances, + where the loss of them has been attended with manifest inconvenience? It + is shameful to see how many monosyllables, once distinguished by their + articulations, have in process of time, by dropping these articulations, + come to be represented by the solitary vowel <i>a</i>, to the no small + confusion of the language and embarrassment of the reader. The place of + the absent consonant is often supplied, indeed, in writing, by an + apostrophe. This, however, is at best but an imperfect and precarious + expedient.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>* So in French, from Aprilis, <i>Avrilis</i>; habere, <i>avoir</i>; + Febris, Fièvre: <span title="episkopos" class="grk" + >επισκοπος</span>, + <i>evéque</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="footnote11" href="#footnotetag11">[11]</a> Ph is found in no + Gaelic word which is not inflected, except a few words transplanted from + the Greek or the Hebrew, in which <i>ph</i> represents the Greek <span + class="grk">φ</span>, or the Hebrew <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="P" ><bdo dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>. It might perhaps be + more proper to represent <span lang="he" class="heb" title="P" ><bdo + dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span> by <i>p</i> rather than <i>ph</i>; and to + represent <span class="grk">φ</span> by <i>f</i>, as the Italians + have done in <i>filosofia</i>, <i>filologia</i>, &c., by which some + ambiguities and anomalies in declension would be avoided.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote12" href="#footnotetag12">[12]</a> The affinity + between the sounds of <i>v</i> and <i>u</i> is observable in many + languages, particularly in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote13" href="#footnotetag13">[13]</a> Agreeably to the + like pronunciation, the Welsh write this word <i>marw</i>, the Manks + <i>marroo</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote14" href="#footnotetag14">[14]</a> It is still + pronounced fuair in the Northern Highlands, and it is so written in + Irish. See Irish Bible, Gen. xxxv. 18, 19; John ii. 14, viii. 62, 53.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote15" href="#footnotetag15">[15]</a> So fathast + <i>yet</i>, fein <i>self</i>, are in some places pronounced as if they + began with an <i>h</i> instead of an <i>f</i>. The latter word is, by the + Manks, written hene.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote16" href="#footnotetag16">[16]</a> Over a + considerable part of the Highlands that propensity to aspiration, which + has been already remarked, has affixed to <i>c</i>, in the end of a word, + or of an accented syllable, the sound of <i>chc</i>; as, mac <i>a + son</i>, torc <i>a boar</i>, acain <i>moaning</i>; pronounced often + machc, torchc, achcain.</p> + + <p>There is reason to believe that this compound sound of <i>chc</i> was + not known of old, but is a modern corruption.</p> + + <p>This pronunciation is not universal over the Highlands. In some parts + the <i>c</i> retains its proper sound in all situations.</p> + + <p>If the articulation in question had, from the first, been compounded, + it is highly probable that it would have been represented, in writing, by + a combination of letters, such as <i>chc</i>; especially as we find that + the same sound is represented at other times, not by a single consonant, + but by a combination, as in the case of <i>chd</i>. Why should it be + thought that boc <i>a buck</i>, and bochd <i>poor</i>, were originally + pronounced alike, when they are distinguished both in writing and + signification?</p> + + <p>The word <span lang="he" class="heb" title="SHQ" ><bdo + dir="rtl">שק</bdo></span> <i>a sack</i>, has been + transplanted from the Hebrew into many languages, among the rest the + Gaelic, where it has been always written sac, although now pronounced + sachc. In none of the other languages in which the word is used (except + the Welsh alone), has the final palatal been aspirated. It would appear + therefore that the sound sachc is a departure from the original Gaelic + pronunciation. The same change may have happened in the pronunciation of + other words, in which the plain <i>c</i> is now aspirated, though it may + not have been so originally.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote17" href="#footnotetag17">[17]</a> Though <i>th</i> + be quiescent in the middle of a polysyllable, over the North and Central + Highlands, yet it is, with more propriety, pronounced, in the West + Highlands, as an aspiration; as, athair <i>father</i>, mathanas + <i>pardon</i>, pronounced a-hair, mahanas.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote18" href="#footnotetag18">[18]</a> I am informed that + this pronunciation of <i>chd</i> is not universal; but that in some + districts, particularly the East Highlands, the <i>d</i> has here, as in + other places, its proper lingual sounds. In many, if not all the + instances in which <i>chd</i> occurs, the ancient Irish wrote <i>ct</i>. + This spelling corresponds to that of some foreign words that have a + manifest affinity to Gaelic words of the same signification; which, it is + therefore presumable, were all originally pronounced, as they were + written, without an aspiration, such as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Relations of words in -chd." title="Relations of words in -chd."> +<tr><td align="center"> <i>Latin.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Old French.</i> </td><td align="center"> <i>Gaelic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Noct-u Noct-is, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Nuict </td><td class="spacsingle"> an nochd, <i>to night</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Oct-o </td><td class="spacsingle"> Huict </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ochd, <i>eight</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Benedict-um </td><td class="spacsingle"> Benoict </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beannachd, <i>blessing</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Maledict-um </td><td class="spacsingle"> Maudict </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mallachd, <i>cursing</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Ruct-us </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bruchd, <i>evomition</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Intellect-us </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Intleachd, <i>contrivance</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Lact-is, -i, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lachd, <i>milk</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> Dict-o, -are, &c. </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Deachd, <i>to dictate</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Rego<br /> +Rect-um </td><td class="spacsingle"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:4ex; width:0.7em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Reachd, <i>a law, institution</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>From the propensity of the Gaelic to aspiration, the original <i>c</i> + was converted into <i>ch</i>, and the words were written with <i>cht</i>, + as in the Irish acht <i>but</i>, &c., or with the slight change of + <i>t</i> into <i>d</i>, as in ochd, &c. This is the opinion of + O'Brien, when he says the word lecht is the Celtic root of the Latin + <i>lectio</i>—the aspirate <i>h</i> is but a late + invention.—<i>O'Br. Ir. Dict. voc. lecht.</i> In process of time + the true sound of <i>cht</i> or <i>chd</i> was confounded with the + kindred sound of <i>chc</i>, which was commonly, though corruptly, given + to final <i>c</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote19" href="#footnotetag19">[19]</a> It is certain that + the natural sound of d aspirated is that of [the Saxon ð] or <i>th</i> in + <i>thou</i>; as the natural sound of <i>t</i> aspirated is that of + <i>th</i> in <i>think</i>. This articulation, from whatever cause, has + not been admitted into the Gaelic, either Scottish or Irish, although it + is used in the kindred dialects of Cornwall and Wales.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote20" href="#footnotetag20">[20]</a> In sean + <i>old</i>, the <i>n</i> has its <i>plain</i> sound when the following + word begins with a Lingual. Accordingly it is often written in that + situation seann; as, seann duine <i>an old man</i>, an t-seann tiomnaidh + <i>of the old Testament</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote21" href="#footnotetag21">[21]</a> So in Latin, + <i>canmen</i> from <i>cano</i> was pronounced, and then written + <i>carmen</i>; <i>genmen</i> from the obsolete <span title="genô" class="grk" + >γενω</span> passed into <i>germen</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote22" href="#footnotetag22">[22]</a> Another mode, + proposed by a learned correspondent, of marking the distinction in the + sound of the initial Linguals, is by writing the letter double, thus ll, + nn, rr, when its sound is the same with that which is represented by + those double letters in the end of a syllable; and when the sound is + otherwise, to write the letter single; as, llamh <i>hand</i>, llion + <i>fill</i>, mo lamh <i>my hand</i>, lion mi <i>I filled</i>.</p> + + <p>It is perhaps too late, however, to urge now even so slight an + alteration as this in the Orthography of the Gaelic, which ought rather + to be held as fixed beyond the reach of innovation, by the happy + diffusion of the Gaelic Scriptures over the Highlands.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote23" href="#footnotetag23">[23]</a> <i>Leathan re + Leathan, is Caol re Caol.</i></p> + + <p>Of the many writers who have recorded or taken notice of this rule, I + have found none who have attempted to account for its introduction into + the Gaelic. They only tell that such a correspondence between the vowels + ought to be observed, and that it would be improper to write otherwise. + Indeed, none of them seem to have attended to the different effects of a + broad and of a small vowel on the sound of an adjacent consonant. From + this circumstance, duly considered, I have endeavoured to derive a reason + for the rule in question, the only probable one that has yet occurred to + me.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote24" href="#footnotetag24">[24]</a> As deanuibh or + deanaibh <i>do ye</i>, beannuich or beannaich <i>bless</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote25" href="#footnotetag25">[25]</a> It is worthy of + remark that in such words as caird-eil <i>friendly</i>, slaint-eil + <i>salutary</i>, the substitution of <i>e</i> in place of <i>a</i> in the + termination, both misrepresents the sound, and disguises the derivation + of the syllable. The sound of this termination as in fear-ail + <i>manly</i>, ban-ail <i>womanly</i>, is properly represented by + <i>ail</i>. This syllable is an abbreviation of amhuil <i>like</i>, which + is commonly written in its full form by the Irish, as fear-amhuil, + &c. It corresponds exactly to the English termination <i>like</i>, in + <i>soldier-like</i>, <i>officer-like</i>, which is abridged to <i>ly</i>, + as <i>manly</i>, <i>friendly</i>. By writing <i>eil</i> instead of + <i>ail</i>, we almost lose sight of amhuil altogether.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote26" href="#footnotetag26">[26]</a> From the extracts + of the oldest Irish manuscripts given by Lhuyd, Vallancey, and others, it + appears that the rule concerning the correspondence of vowels in + contiguous syllables, was by no means so generally observed once as it is + now. It was gradually extended by the more modern Irish writers, from + whom, it is probable, it has been incautiously adopted by the Scottish + writers in its present and unwarrantable latitude. The rule we have been + considering has been reprobated in strong terms by some of the most + judicious Irish philologers, particularly O'Brien, author of an Irish + Dictionary printed at Paris 1768, and Vallancey, author of an Irish + Grammar, and of various elaborate disquisitions concerning Irish + antiquities, from whom I quote the following passages: "This Rule [of + dividing one syllable into two by the insertion of an aspirated + consonant] together with that of substituting small or broad vowels in + the latter syllables, to correspond with the vowel immediately following + the consonant in the preceding syllable, has been very destructive to the + original and radical purity of the Irish language." <i>Vallancey's Ir. + Gram. Chap. III. letter A.</i> "Another [Rule] devised in like manner by + our bards and rhymers, I mean that which is called <i>Caol le caol, agus + Leathan le leathan</i>, has been woefully destructive to the original and + radical purity of the Irish language. This latter (much of a more modern + invention than the former, for our old manuscripts show no regard to it) + imports and prescribes that two vowels, thus forming, or contributing to + form, two different syllables, should both be of the same denomination or + class of either broad or small vowels, and this without any regard to the + primitive elementary structure of the word." <i>O'Brien's Ir. Dict. + Remarks on A.</i> "The words <i>biran</i> and <i>biranach</i> changed + sometimes into <i>bioran</i> and <i>bioranach</i> by the abusive rule of + <i>Leathan le leathan</i>." <i>Id. in voc.</i> Fear. The opinion of Lhuyd + on this point, though not decisive, yet may properly be subjoined to + those of Vallancey and O'Brien, as his words serve at least to show that + this judicious philologer was no advocate for the Rule in question. "As + for passing any censure on the rule concerning broad and small vowels, I + chose rather to forbear making any remark at all upon them, by reason + that old men who formerly wrote arget <i>silver</i>, instead of airgiod + as we now write it, never used to change a vowel but in declining of + words, &c. And I do not know that it was ever done in any other + language, unless by some particular persons who, through mistake or + ignorance, were guilty of it." <i>Archæol. Brit. Preface to Ir. Dict. + translated in Bp. Nicolson's Irish Historical Library.</i></p> + + <p><a name="footnote27" href="#footnotetag27">[27]</a> Pinkerton's + Inquiry into the History of Scotland.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote28" href="#footnotetag28">[28]</a> <i>E.g.</i>, + troidh <i>a foot</i>, has been written troidh or troigh, either of which + corresponds to the pronunciation, as the last consonant is quiescent. In + Welsh, the articulation of the final consonant has been preserved, and + the word is accordingly written troed. This authority seems sufficient to + determine the proper orthography in Gaelic to be troidh and not troigh. + For a like reason, perhaps, it would be proper to write tràidh + <i>shore</i>, rather than tràigh, the common way of spelling the word, + for we find the Irish formerly wrote tràidh, and the Welsh traeth. + Claidheamh <i>a sword</i>, since the final articulation was wholly + dropped, has been sometimes written claidhe. The mode of writing it still + with a final labial, though quiescent, will probably be thought the more + proper of the two, when it is considered that claidheamh is the cognate, + or rather the same word with the Irish cloidheamh the Welsh cleddyf, and + the French glaive.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote29" href="#footnotetag29">[29]</a> I flatter myself + that all my readers, who are acquainted with any of the ancient or the + modern languages which have a distinction of gender in their + attributives, will readily perceive that the import of the term Gender, + in the grammar of those languages, is precisely what I have stated above. + The same term has been introduced into the grammar of the English Tongue, + rather improperly, because in an acceptation different from what it bears + in the grammar of all other languages. In English there is no distinction + of gender competent to Articles, Adjectives, or Participles. When a noun + is said to be of the masculine gender, the meaning can only be that the + object denoted by it is of the male sex. Thus in the English grammars, + gender signifies a quality of the <i>object</i> named, while in other + grammars it signifies a quality of the <i>name</i> given to the object. + The varieties of <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, and <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, + <i>it</i>, refer not to what is properly called the <i>gender</i> of the + antecedent <i>noun</i>, but to the <i>Sex</i> real or attributed, or the + <i>absence of Sex</i>, of the <i>object</i> signified by the antecedent. + This is in effect acknowledged by writers on rhetoric, who affirm that in + English the pronouns <i>who</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, imply an express + personification, or attribution of life, and consequently of Sex, to the + objects to which these pronouns refer. The same thing is still more + strikingly true of the variations on the termination of nouns, as + <i>prince</i>, <i>princess</i>; <i>lion</i>, <i>lioness</i>, which are + all discriminative of Sex. It seems therefore to be a mis-stated + compliment which is usually paid to the English, when it is said that + "this is the only language which has adapted the gender of its nouns to + the constitution of Nature." The fact is, that it has adapted the + <i>Form</i> of some of the most common names of living creatures, and of + a few of its pronouns, to the obvious distinction of <i>male</i>, and + <i>female</i>, and <i>inanimate</i>, while it has left its nouns without + any mark characteristic of <i>gender</i>. The same thing must necessarily + happen to any language by abolishing the distinction of masculine and + feminine in its attributives. If all languages had been constructed on + this plan, it may confidently be affirmed that the grammatical term + <i>gender</i> would never have come into use. The compliment intended, + and due to the English, might have been more correctly expressed, by + saying that "it is the only language that has rejected the + unphilosophical distinction of gender, by making its attributives, in + this respect, all indeclinable."</p> + + <p><a name="footnote30" href="#footnotetag30">[30]</a> Uan beag bainionn, + 2 Sam. xii. 3. Numb. vi. 14. So leomhann boirionn, Ezek. xix. 1.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote31" href="#footnotetag31">[31]</a> It must appear + singularly strange that any nouns which signify females exclusively + should be of the masculine gender. The noun bainionnach, is derived from + the adjective bainionn, <i>female</i>, which is formed from bean, the + appropriate term for a <i>woman</i>. Yet this noun bainionnach, or + boirionnach, <i>a female</i>, is masculine, to all grammatical intents + and purposes. We say boirionnach còir, <i>a civil woman</i>, am + boirionnach maiseach, <i>the handsome woman</i>.</p> + + <p>The gender of this Noun seems to have been fixed, not by its + signification, but by its determination, for most Derivatives in + <i>ach</i> are masculines; as, oganach <i>a young man</i>, marcach <i>a + horseman</i>, Albanach <i>a Scotsman</i>, &c. So in Latin, mancipium, + scortum, though applied to persons, follow the gender of their + termination.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote32" href="#footnotetag32">[32]</a> It was necessary + to be thus explicit in stating the changes at the beginning and those on + the termination as unconnected independent <i>accidents</i>, which ought + to be viewed separately; because many who have happened to turn their + thoughts toward the declension of the Gaelic noun have got a habit of + conjoining these, and supposing that both contribute their united aid + toward the forming the <i>cases</i> of nouns. This is blending together + things which are unconnected, and ought to be kept distinct. It has + therefore appeared necessary to take a separate view of these two + <i>accidents</i> of nouns, and to limit the term <i>case</i> to those + changes which are made on the termination, excluding entirely those which + take place at the beginning.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote33" href="#footnotetag33">[33]</a> It is to be + observed that these names of the cases are adopted merely because they + are already familiar, not because they all denominate correctly the + relations expressed by the cases to which they are respectively applied. + There is no Accusative or Objective case in Gaelic different from the + Nominative; neither is there any Ablative different from the Dative. For + this reason, it is not only unnecessary, but erroneous, to reckon up six + Cases in Gaelic, distinguished not by the form of the Noun, but by the + Prepositions prefixed. This is to depart altogether from the common and + proper use of the term <i>Case</i>. And if the new use of that term is to + be adopted, then the enumeration is still incomplete, for we ought to + have as many Cases as there are Prepositions in the language. Thus, + besides a Dative do Bhard, and an Ablative o Bhard, we should have an + Impositive Case air Bhard, a Concomitative le Bard, an Insertive ann am + Bard, a Precursive roimh Bhard, &c. &c. Grammarians have very + correctly reckoned only five Cases in Greek, two in English, one in + French [See <i>Moore</i>, <i>Murray</i>, <i>Buffier</i>, &c.] because + the variations in the form of the Noun extend no further. Surely nothing + but an early and inveterate prepossession in favour of the arrangements + of Latin Grammar could ever have suggested the idea of Six Cases in + Gaelic or in English.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote34" href="#footnotetag34">[34]</a> It is not + improbable that anciently all feminine nouns, except a few irregular + ones, added a syllable to the nominative, as <i>e</i> or <i>a</i>, in + forming the genitive. The translators of the S. S. have sometimes formed + the genitive of feminine polysyllables in this manner, as sionagoige from + sionagog, Mark v. 36, 38. But it appears more agreeable to the analogy of + inflection that such polysyllables should now be written without an + <i>e</i> in the genitive.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote35" href="#footnotetag35">[35]</a> It is probable + that this noun should rather be written àdh. See M<sup>c</sup>Farlane's + Paraphrases, III. 3. also Lhuyd and O'Brien, <i>in loco</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote36" href="#footnotetag36">[36]</a> Derivatives in + <i>an</i>, and <i>ag</i> should form their genitive according to the + general Rule, <i>ain</i>, <i>aig</i>; and in pronunciation they do so. + When the syllable preceding the termination ends in a small vowel, the + Rule of 'Caol re caol' has introduced an <i>e</i> into the final + syllable, which is then written <i>ean</i>, <i>eag</i>. In this case + writers have been puzzled how to form the genitive. The terminations + <i>eain</i>, <i>eaig</i>, would evidently contain too many vowels for a + short syllable. To reduce this awkward number of vowels they have + commonly thrown out the <i>a</i>, the only letter which properly + expressed the vocal sound of the syllable. Thus from caimean m. a + <i>mote</i>, they formed the gen. sing. caimein; from cuilean m. a + <i>whelp</i>, g. s. cuilein; from duileag f. a <i>leaf</i>, g. s. + duileig; from caileag f. a <i>girl</i>, g. s. caileig. Had they not + yielded too far to the encroachments of the Rule of 'Caol re caol' they + would have written both the nom. and the gen. of these and similar nouns + more simply and more justly, thus: caiman, g. s. caimain; cuilan, g. s. + cuilain; duilag, g. s. duilaig; cailag, g. s. cailaig.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote37" href="#footnotetag37">[37]</a> In many instances, + the Plural termination <i>a</i> is oftener written with this final + <i>n</i> than without it. When the vowel preceding the termination is + small, the termination <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> is very needlessly written + <i>e</i> or <i>ean</i>, to preserve the correspondence of vowels.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote38" href="#footnotetag38">[38]</a> We are informed by + E. O'C. that this is the usual construction in the Irish Dialect, and it + appears to be the same in the Scottish. Thus, air son mo dhà shùl, <i>for + my two eyes</i>.—Judg. xvi. 28. Ir. & Scott. versions.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote39" href="#footnotetag39">[39]</a> So in Hebrew, we + find a noun in the singular number joined with <i>twenty</i>, + <i>thirty</i>, <i>a hundred</i>, <i>a thousand</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote40" href="#footnotetag40">[40]</a> The Pronouns tu + <i>thou</i>, se <i>he</i>, si <i>she</i>, siad <i>they</i>, are not + employed, like other nominatives, to denote the object after a transitive + verb. Hence the incorrectness of the following expression in most + editions of the Gaelic Psalms: Se chrùnas <i>tu</i> le coron graidh, + Psal. ciii. 4., which translated literally signifies, <i>it is he whom + thou wilt crown</i>, &c. To express the true sense, viz., <i>it is he + who will crown thee</i>, it ought to have been, se chrùnas <i>thu</i> le + coron graidh. So is mise an Tighearn a slanuicheas <i>thu</i>, <i>I am + the Lord that healeth thee</i>, Exod. xv. 26; Ma ta e ann a fhreagaireas + <i>thu</i>, <i>If there be any that will answer thee</i>, Job v. 1; Co e + a bhrathas thu? <i>Who is he that will betray thee?</i> John xxi. 20., + Comp. Gen. xii. 3. and xxvii. 29.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote41" href="#footnotetag41">[41]</a> This use of the + Pronoun of the 2d person plural is probably a modern innovation, for + there is nothing like it found in the more ancient Gaelic compositions, + nor in the graver poetry even of the present age. As this idiom seems, + however, to be employed in conversation with increasing frequency, it + will probably lose by degrees its present import, and will come to be + used as the common mode of addressing any individual; in the same manner + as the corresponding Pronouns are used in English, and other European + languages.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote42" href="#footnotetag42">[42]</a> There seems hardly + a sufficient reason for changing the <i>d</i> in this situation into + <i>t</i>, as has been often done, as t'oglach for d'oglach <i>thy + servant</i>, &c. The <i>d</i> corresponds sufficiently to the + pronunciation, and being the constituent consonant of the pronoun, it + ought not to be changed for another.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote43" href="#footnotetag43">[43]</a> The Irish are not + so much at a loss to avoid a <i>hiatus</i>, as they often use na for a + <i>his</i>; which the translators of the Psalms have sometimes + judiciously adopted; as,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>An talamh tioram le na laimh</p> + <p class="i2">Do chruthaich e 's do dhealbh. Psal. xcv. 5.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="footnote44" href="#footnotetag44">[44]</a> In the North + Highlands this Pronoun is pronounced sid.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote45" href="#footnotetag45">[45]</a> This Pronoun + occurs in such expressions as an deigh na chuala tu <i>after what you + have heard</i>; their leat na th' agad, or na bheil agad, <i>bring what + you have</i>. It seems to be contracted for an ni a <i>the thing + which</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote46" href="#footnotetag46">[46]</a> There is reason to + think that ge b'e is corruptly used for cia b' e. Of the former I find no + satisfactory analysis. The latter cia b' e is literally <i>which it + be</i>, or <i>which it were</i>; which is just the French <i>qui que ce + soit</i>, <i>qui que ce fût</i> expressed in English by one word + <i>whosoever</i>, <i>whichsoever</i>. We find cia used in this sense and + connection, Psal. cxxxv. 11. Glasg. 1753. Gach uile rioghachd mar an + ceadn' <i>cia</i> h-iomdha bhi siad ann, <i>All</i> <i>kingdoms likewise, + however numerous they be</i>. See also Gen. xliv. 9, Rom. ii. 1.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote47" href="#footnotetag47">[47]</a> This pronoun is + found written with an initial c in Lhuyd's "Archæol. Brit." Tit. I. page + 20. col. 2. ceach; again Tit. X. voc. Bealtine, cecha bliadna <i>each + year</i>. So also O'Brien, cach <i>all</i>, <i>every</i>, like the French + <i>chaque</i>. "Irish Dict." voc. cach.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote48" href="#footnotetag48">[48]</a> The pronouns + <i>cach eile</i> and <i>cach a chéile</i> are hardly known in Perthshire. + Instead of the former, they use the single word càch pronounced long, and + declined like a noun of the singular number; and instead of the latter, a + chéile, as in this example, choinnich iad a chéile; thuit cuid, agus + theich càch, <i>they met each other; some fell, and the rest fled</i>. + Here càch may be considered as a simple pronoun; but the first clause, + choinnich iad a cheile, <i>they met his fellow</i>, hardly admits of any + satisfactory analysis. The phrases, in fact, seem to be elliptical, and + to be expressed more fully, according to the practice of other districts, + thus: choinnich iad cach a chiéle; thuit, cuid, agus theich cach eile. + Now, if cach be nothing else than gach <i>every</i>, (a conjecture + supported by the short pronunciation of the <i>a</i>, as well as by the + authorities adduced in the preceding note,) the expressions may be easily + analysed: choinnich iad gach [aon] a cheile; thuit cuid, agus theich gach + [aon] eile; <i>they met every [one] his fellow; some fell, and every + other [one] fled</i>, See 1 Thess. v. 11.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote49" href="#footnotetag49">[49]</a> In the older Irish + MSS. the Particle <i>do</i> appears under a variety of forms. In one MS. + of high antiquity it is often written <i>dno</i>. This seems to be its + oldest form. The two consonants were sometimes separated by a vowel, and + the <i>n</i> being pronounced and then written <i>r</i>, (See Part I. p. + 19.) the word was written doro. (See <i>Astle's Hist. of the Orig. and + Progr. of Writing, page 126, Irish Specimen, No. 6.</i>) The Consonants + were sometimes transposed, suppressing the latter Vowel, and the Particle + became nod (<i>O Brien's Ir. Dict. voc.</i> Sasat, Treas,) and rod + (<i>id. voc.</i> Ascaim, Fial.) Sometimes one of the syllables only was + retained; hence no (<i>O'Br. voc.</i> No,) ro (<i>id. voc.</i> Ro,) and + do in common use. Do likewise suffered a transposition of letters, and + was written sometimes ad. (O'Br. <i>voc.</i> Do.)</p> + + <p><a name="footnote50" href="#footnotetag50">[50]</a> This + correspondence of the Termination with the Root was overlooked in the + older editions of the Gaelic Psalms; as pronnfidh, cuirfar, molfidh, + innsam, guidham, coimhdar, sinnam, gluaisfar, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote51" href="#footnotetag51">[51]</a> The disposition in + the Gaelic to drop articulations has, in this instance, been rather + unfortunate; as the want of the <i>f</i> weakens the sound of the word, + and often occasions a <i>hiatus</i>. There seems a propriety in retaining + the <i>f</i> of the Future, after a Liquid, or an aspirated Mute; as, + cuirfidh, mairfidh, molfidh, geillfidh, pronnfidh, brisfidh, &c., for + these words lose much in sound and emphasis by being changed into + caithidh, mairidh, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote52" href="#footnotetag52">[52]</a> The incorporation + of the Verb with a Personal Pronoun is a manifest improvement, and has + gradually taken place in almost all the polished languages. There is + incomparably more beauty and force in expressing the energy of the Verb, + with its <i>personal</i> relation and concomitant circumstances, in one + word, than by a periphrasis of pronouns and auxiliaries. The latter mode + may have a slight advantage in point of precision, but the former is + greatly superior in elegance and strength. The structure of the Latin and + Greek, compared with that of the English Verb, affords a striking + illustration of this common and obvious remark. Nothing can be worse + managed than the French Verb; which, though it possesses a competent + variety of <i>personal</i> inflections, yet loses all the benefit of them + by the perpetual enfeebling recurrence of the personal Pronouns.</p> + + <p>In comparing the Scottish and Irish dialects of the Gaelic, it may be + inferred that the former, having less of inflection or + <i>incorporation</i>, than the latter, differs less from the parent + tongue, and is an older branch of the Celtic, than its sister dialect. It + were unfair, however, to deny that the Irish have improved the Verb, by + giving a greater variety of inflection to its <i>Numbers</i> and + <i>Persons</i>, as well as by introducing a simple Present Tense. The + authors of our metrical version of the Gaelic Psalms were sensible of the + advantage possessed by the Irish dialect in these respects, and did not + scruple to borrow an idiom which has given grace and dignity to many of + their verses.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote53" href="#footnotetag53">[53]</a> Such at least is + the common practice in writing, in compliance with the common mode of + colloquial pronunciation. It might perhaps be better to retain the full + form of the Preposition, in grave pronunciation, and always in writing. + It is an object worthy of attention to preserve radical articulations, + especially in writing; and particularly to avoid every unnecessary use of + the monosyllable <i>a</i>, which, it must be confessed, recurs in too + many senses.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote54" href="#footnotetag54">[54]</a> The Preposition + iar has here been improperly confounded with air <i>on</i>. I have + ventured to restore it, from the Irish Grammarians. Iar is in common use + in the Irish dialect, signifying <i>after</i>. Thus, iar sin <i>after + that</i>, iar leaghadh an tshoisgeil <i>after reading the Gospel</i>, iar + sleachdadh do niomlan <i>after all have kneeled down</i>, iar seasamh + suas <i>after standing up</i>, &c. See "Irish Book of Common Prayer." + Air, when applied to time, signifies not <i>after</i>, but <i>at</i> or + <i>on</i>, air an am so, air an uair so <i>at this time</i>, air an la + sin <i>on that day</i>. There is therefore sufficient reason to believe + that, in the case in question, iar is the proper word; and that it has + been corruptly supplanted by air.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote55" href="#footnotetag55">[55]</a> The Imperative + seems to have been anciently formed by adding <i>tar</i> to the Root. + This form is still retained in Ireland, and in some parts of Scotland, + chiefly in verbs ending in a Lingual; as, buailtear, deantar. (See the + Lord's Prayer in the older editions of the Gaelic Version of the + Assembly's Catechism; also, the "Irish N. Test." Matt. vi. 10. Luke xi. + 2.) In other verbs, the <i>t</i> seems to have been dropped in + pronunciation. It was, however, retained by the Irish in writing, but + with an aspiration to indicate its being quiescent; thus, togthar, + teilgthear, "Ir. N. T." Matt. xxi. 21, Mark xi. 23, crochthar, Matt. + xxvii. 22. So also the "Gaelic N. T." 1767, deanthar. Matt. vi. 10, Luke + xi. 2. In the later publications the <i>t</i> has been omitted + altogether, with what propriety may be well doubted.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote56" href="#footnotetag56">[56]</a> To preserve a due + correspondence with the pronunciation, the Pass. Part. should always + terminate in <i>te</i>, for in this part of the verb, the <i>t</i> has + always its <i>small</i> sound. Yet in verbs whereof the characteristic + vowel is broad, it is usual to write the termination of the Pass. Part. + <i>ta</i>; as, togta <i>raised</i>, crochta <i>suspended</i>. This is + done in direct opposition to the pronunciation, merely out of regard to + the Irish Rule of <i>Leathan ri leathan</i>, which in this case, as in + many others, has been permitted to mar the genuine orthography.</p> + + <p>When a verb, whose characteristic vowel is broad, terminates in a + Liquid, the final consonant coalesces so closely with the <i>t</i> of the + Pass. Part. that the <i>small</i> sound of the latter necessarily + occasions the like sound in pronouncing the former. Accordingly the small + sound of the Liquid is properly represented in writing, by an <i>i</i> + inserted before it. Thus, òl <i>drink</i>, Pass. Part. òilte; pronn + <i>pound</i>, proinnte; crann <i>bar</i>, crainnte; sparr <i>ram</i>, + spairrte; trus <i>pack</i>, truiste. But when the verb ends in a mute, + whether plain or aspirated, there is no such coalescence between its + final consonant and the adjected <i>t</i> of the Participle. The final + consonant if it be pronounced retains its broad sound. There is no good + reason for maintaining a correspondence of vowels in the Participle, + which ought therefore to be written, as it is pronounced, without regard + to <i>Leathan ri leathan</i>; as, tog <i>raise</i>, Pass. Part. togte; + croch <i>hang</i>, crochte; sàth <i>thrust</i>, sàthte; cnamh + <i>chew</i>, cnamhte.</p> + + <p>The same observations apply, with equal force, to the Pret. Subj. in + which the <i>t</i> of the termination is always pronounced with its + <i>small</i> sound, and should therefore be followed by a small vowel in + writing; as, thogteadh, chrochteadh, not thogtadh, chrochtadh.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote57" href="#footnotetag57">[57]</a> In all + <i>regular</i> verbs, the difference between the Affirmative and the + Negative Moods, though marked but slightly and partially in the Preterite + Tense, (only in the initial form of the 2d Conjugation,) yet is strongly + marked in the Future Tense. The Fut. Aff. terminates in a feeble vocal + sound. In the Fut. Neg. the voice rests on an articulation, or is cut + short by a forcible aspiration. Supposing these Tenses to be used by a + speaker in reply to a command or a request; by their very structure, the + former expresses the softness of compliance; and the latter, the + abruptness of a refusal. If a command or a request be expressed by such + verbs as these, tog sin, gabh sin, ith sin, the compliant answer is + expressed by togaidh, gabhaidh, ithidh; the refusal, by the cha tog, cha + ghabh, cha n-ith. May not this peculiar variety of form in the same + Tense, when denoting affirmation, and when denoting negation, be reckoned + among the characteristic marks of an original language?</p> + + <p><a name="footnote58" href="#footnotetag58">[58]</a> This part of the + verb, being declined and governed like a noun, bears a closer resemblance + to the Latin Gerund than to the Infinitive; and might have been properly + named the Gerund. But as Lhuyd and all the later Irish Grammarians have + already given it the name of Infinitive, I choose to continue the same + appellation rather than change it.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote59" href="#footnotetag59">[59]</a> The Editor of the + Gaelic Psalms printed at Glasgow, 1753, judging, as it would seem, that + cuidich was too bold a licence for cuideachaidh, restored the gen. of the + full form of the Infinitive; but in order to reduce it to two syllables, + so as to suit the verse, he threw out the middle syllable, and wrote + cuid'idh.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote60" href="#footnotetag60">[60]</a> I have met with + persons of superior knowledge of the Gaelic who contended that such + expressions as—ta mi deanamh <i>I am doing</i>, ta e bualadh <i>he + is striking</i> (see page 83), are complete without any Preposition + understood; and that in such situations deanamh, bualadh, are not + infinitives or nouns, but real participles of the Present Tense. With + much deference to such authorities, I shall here give the reasons which + appear to me to support the contrary opinion.</p> + + <p>1. The form of the supposed Participle is invariably the same with + that of the Infinitive.</p> + + <p>2. If the words deanamh, bualadh, in the phrases adduced, were real + Participles, then in all similar instances, it would be not only + unnecessary, but ungrammatical, to introduce the preposition ag at all. + But this is far from being the case. In all verbs beginning with a vowel, + the preposition ag or its unequivocal representative <i>g</i> is + indispensable; as, ta iad ag iarruidh, ta mi 'g iarruidh. Shall we say, + then, that verbs beginning with a consonant have a present participle, + while those that begin with a vowel have none? But even this distinction + falls to the ground, when it is considered that in many phrases which + involve a verb beginning with a consonant, the preposition ag stands + forth to view, and can on no account be suppressed; as, ta iad 'g a + bhualadh <i>they are striking him</i>, ta e 'g ar bualadh <i>he is + striking us</i>. From these particulars it may be inferred that the + preposition ag must always precede the infinitive, in order to complete + the phrase which corresponds to the English or Latin pres. participle; + and that in those cases where the preposition has been dropped, the + omission has been owing to the rapidity or carelessness of colloquial + pronunciation.</p> + + <p>3. A still stronger argument, in support of the same conclusion, may + be derived from the regimen of the phrase in question. The infinitive of + a transitive verb, preceded by any preposition, always governs the noun, + which is the object of the verbal action, in the genitive. This is an + invariable rule of Gaelic Syntax; thus, ta sinn a' dol a dh' iarruidh na + spréidhe, <i>we are going to seek the cattle</i>; ta iad ag iomain na + spréidhe, <i>they are driving the cattle</i>; ta iad iar cuairteachadh na + spréidhe, <i>they have gathered the cattle</i>. This regimen can be + accounted for on no other principle, in Gaelic, than that the governing + word is a noun, as the infinitive is confessed to be. Now, it happens + that the supposed participle has the very same regimen, and governs the + genitive as uniformly as the same word would have done, when the presence + of a preposition demonstrated it to be a noun; so, ta mi bualadh an + doruis, <i>I am knocking the door</i>; ta thu deanamh an uilc, <i>you are + doing mischief</i>. The inference is, that even in these situations, the + words—bualadh, deanamh, though accompanied with no preposition, are + still genuine nouns, and are nothing else than the infinitives of their + respective verbs, with the preposition ag understood before each of + them.</p> + + <p>4. The practice in other dialects of the Celtic, and the authority of + respectable grammarians, affords collateral support to the opinion here + defended. Gen. Vallancey, the most copious writer on Irish grammar, + though he gives the name of participle to a certain part of the Gaelic + verb, because it corresponds, in signification, to a part of the Latin + verb which has obtained that name, yet constantly exhibits this + participle, not as a single word, but a composite expression; made up of + a preposition and that part of the verb which is here called the + infinitive. The phrase is fully and justly exhibited, but it is wrong + named; unless it be allowed to extend the name of Participle to such + phrases as <i>inter ambulandum</i>, <span title="en tôi peripatein" class="grk" + >εν τῳ + περιπατειν</span>.—Lhuyd, + in his Cornish Grammar, informs us, with his usual accuracy, that the + Infinitive Mood, as in the other dialects of the British, sometimes + serves as a Substantive, as in the Latin; and by the help of the + participle <i>a</i> [the Gaelic ag] before it, it supplies the room of + the participle of the present tense, &c. "Archæol. Brit." page 245, + col. 3. This observation is strictly applicable to the Gaelic verb. The + infinitive, with the particle <i>ag</i> before it, <i>supplies the room + of the present Participle</i>. The same judicious writer repeats this + observation in his "Introduction to the Irish or Ancient Scottish + Language": The Participle of the Present Tense is <i>supplied</i> by the + Participle <i>ag</i> before the Infinitive Mood; as, <i>ag radh</i> + saying, <i>ag cainnt</i> talking, <i>ag teagasg</i> teaching, <i>ag + dul</i> going, &c. "Arch. Brit." page 303, col. 2.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote61" href="#footnotetag61">[61]</a> It may appear a + strange defect in the Gaelic, that its Verbs, excepting the substantive + verbs Bi, Is, have no <i>simple</i> Present Tense. Yet this is manifestly + the case in the Scottish, Welsh, and Cornish dialects (see "Arch. Brit." + page 246, col. 1, and page 247, col. 1.); to which may be added the + Manks. Creidim <i>I believe</i>, guidheam <i>I pray</i>, with perhaps one + or two more Present Tenses, now used in Scotland, seem to have been + imported from Ireland, for their paucity evinces that they belong not to + our dialect. The want of the simple Present Tense is a striking point of + resemblance between the Gaelic and the Hebrew verb.</p> + + <p>I am indebted to a learned and ingenious correspondent for the + following important remark; that the want of the simple Present Tense in + all the British dialects of the Celtic, in common with the Hebrew, while + the Irish has assumed that Tense, furnishes a strong presumption that the + Irish is a dialect of later growth; that the British Gaelic is its parent + tongue; and consequently that Britain is the mother country of + Ireland.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote62" href="#footnotetag62">[62]</a> From observing the + same thing happen repeatedly or habitually it is naturally inferred that + it will happen again. When an event is predicted it is supposed that the + speaker, if no other cause of his foreknowledge appears, infers the + future happening of the event from its having already happened in many + instances. Thus the Future Tense, which simply foretells, conveys to the + hearer an intimation that the thing foretold has already taken place + frequently and habitually. In Hebrew, the Future Tense is used with + precisely the same effect. In the law of Jehovah he <i>will</i> meditate; + <i>i.e.</i>, he <i>does</i> meditate habitually. Psal. i, 2. See also + Psal. xlii. 1, Job ix. 11, xxiii. 8, 9, &c., <i>passim</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote63" href="#footnotetag63">[63]</a> Though this be the + precise import of the Compound Tenses of the second order, yet they are + not strictly confined to the point of time stated above; but are often + used to denote past time indefinitely. In this way, they supply the place + of the Compound Tenses of the first order in those verbs which have no + passive participle.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote64" href="#footnotetag64">[64]</a> See Moor. So tha + 'n tigh 'g a thogail, <i>the house is in building</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote65" href="#footnotetag65">[65]</a> Téid the Fut. + Negat. of Rach to <i>go</i>, has been generally written d'théid; from an + opinion, it would seem, that the full form of that Tense is do théid. Yet + as the participle <i>do</i> is never found prefixed to the Future + Negative of any regular verb, it appears more agreeable to the analogy of + conjugation to write this tense in its simplest form téid. See "Gael. New + Test." 1767, and 1796, Mat. xiii. 28. xiv. 15. A different mode of + writing this tense has been adopted in the edition of the "Gael. Bible," + Edin. 1807, where we uniformly find dthéid, dthoir, dthig.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote66" href="#footnotetag66">[66]</a> Throughout the + verb tabhair, the syllables <i>abhair</i> are often contracted into + <i>oir</i>; as, toir, torinnn, &c. Acts xviii. 10. Sometimes written + d'thoir, d'thoirinn; rather improperly. See note 65.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote67" href="#footnotetag67">[67]</a> Tig rather than + d'thig. See note 65.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote68" href="#footnotetag68">[68]</a> A Pres. Aff. of + this Verb, borrowed from the Irish, is often used in the G. SS. Deiream + <i>I say</i>, deir e <i>he saith</i>, deir iad <i>they say</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote69" href="#footnotetag69">[69]</a> Dubhairt, + dubhradh, are contracted for do thubhairt, &c. Abairinn, abaiream, + abairear, are often contracted into abrainn, abram, abrar.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote70" href="#footnotetag70">[70]</a> It may appear an + odd peculiarity in the Gaelic, that in many of the most common phrases, a + proposition or question should thus be expressed without the least trace + of a Verb. It can hardly be said that the Substantive Verb is + <i>understood</i>, for then there would be no impropriety in expressing + it. But the fact is, that it would be completely contrary to the idiom + and usage of the language, to introduce a Substantive Verb in these + phrases. It will diminish our surprise at this peculiarity to observe + that in the ancient languages numerous examples occur of sentences, or + clauses of sentences, in which the Substantive Verb is omitted, without + occasioning any obscurity or ambiguity; and this in Prose as well as in + Verse. Thus in Hebrew; Gen. xlii. 11, 13, 14. We [are] all one man's + sons—we [are] true men—thy servants [are] twelve + brethren—the youngest [is] with his father—ye [are] + spies—&c.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Ouk agathon polukoiraniê." class="grk">Οὐκ ἀγαθον πολυκοιρανιη.</span>—<i>Iliad</i>, B. 204.</p> + <p class="i6"><span title="kaka kerdea is' atêsi." class="grk">κακα κερδεα ἰσ' ἀτησι.</span>—<i>Hes.</i> <span title="E. kai Ê. a" class="grk">Ε. και Η. ά</span>.</p> + <p class="i6"><span title="egô de tisou tachupeithês." class="grk">ἐγω δε τισου ταχυπειθης.</span>—<i>Theoc. Idyl.</i> 7.</p> + <p class="i4">Et mî genus ab Jove summo.—<i>Virg. Æn.</i> VI. 123.</p> + <p class="i4">Varium et mutabile semper Femina.—<i>Æn.</i> IV. 569.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Omnia semper suspecta atque sollicita; nullus locus amicitiæ. <i>Cic. + de Amic.</i> 15.</p> + + <p>&nbsp; mira feritas, foeda paupertas; non arma, non equi, non + penates; victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubile humus; sola in sagittis + spes, &c.—<i>Tacit. de. mor. Germ. Cap. ult.</i> In these and + the like examples, the Substantive Verb might have been expressed, if + with less elegance, yet without grammatical impropriety. What has been + frequently done in other languages, seems, in Gaelic, to have been + adopted, in certain phrases, as an invariable mode of speech.</p> + + <p>The omission of the Substantive Verb is not unknown in English; + as,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"In winter awful thou."—<i>Thomson.</i></p> + <p class="hg3">"A ministering angel thou."—<i>Scott.</i></p> + <p class="hg3">"A cruel sister she."—<i>Mallet.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="footnote71" href="#footnotetag71">[71]</a> The effect of this + Tense in narration seems to be very nearly, if not precisely, the same + with that of the Present of the Infinitive in Latin; as in these + passages:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16hg3">"——misere discedere quaerens,</p> + <p><i>Ire</i> modo ocius; interdum <i>consistere</i>; in aurem</p> + <p><i>Dicere</i> nescio quid puero."—<i>Hor. Sat. 1. 8. v. 9.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"At Danaum proceres, Agamemnoniæque phalanges</p> + <p>Ingenti <i>trepidare</i> metu; pars <i>vertere</i> terga,</p> + <p>Ceu quondam petiêre rates; pars <i>tollere</i> vocem."—<i>Æneid. VI. 492.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4hg3">"——nihil illi <i>tendere</i> contra;</p> + <p>Sed <i>celerare</i> fugam in sylvas, et <i>fidere</i> nocti.'—<i>Æneid. IX. 378.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>"Tarquinius <i>fateri</i> amorem, <i>orare</i>, <i>miscere</i> + precibus minas, <i>versare</i> in omnes partes muliebrem + animum."—<i>Liv. I. 58.</i></p> + + <p>"Neque post id locorum Jugurthæ dies aut nox ulla quieta fuere: neque + loco, neque mortali cuiquam, aut tempori satis <i>credere</i>; cives, + hostes, juxta <i>metuere</i>; <i>circumspectare</i> omnia, et omni + strepitu <i>pavescere</i>; alio atque alio loco, saepe contra decus + regium, noctu <i>requiescere</i>; interdum somno excitus, arreptis armis, + tumultum <i>facere</i>; ita formidine quasi vecordia + <i>exagitari</i>."—<i>Sall. Bell. Jugur. 72.</i></p> + + <p><a name="footnote72" href="#footnotetag72">[72]</a> "An ceannard a + mharbhadh" may be considered as the nominative to the verb chaidh; and so + in similar phrases; much in the same way as we find in Latin, an + Infinitive with an accusative before it, become the nominative to a verb; + as "<i>hominem</i> hominis incommodo suum <i>augere</i> commodum + <i>est</i> contra naturam." <i>Cic. de. Offic.</i> III. 5. "Turpe <i>est + eos</i> qui bene nati sunt turpiter <i>vivere</i>."</p> + + <p><a name="footnote73" href="#footnotetag73">[73]</a> So in Hebrew, the + article prefixed to the nouns <i>day</i>, <i>night</i>, imports the + present day or night. See Exod. xiv. 13.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote74" href="#footnotetag74">[74]</a> Perhaps the proper + Prep. in these phrases is <i>de</i>, not <i>do</i>—see the + Prepositions in the next Chap.—as we find the same Prep. similarly + applied in other languages; de nuit <i>by night</i>, John iii. 2; de + nocte, Hor. Epis. 1. 2, 32; de tertia vigilia, Cæs. B. G.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote75" href="#footnotetag75">[75]</a> These expressions + are affirmed, not without reason, to refer to the supposed destruction of + the world by fire, or by water; events which were considered as + immeasurably remote. (See Smith's "Gal. Antiq." pp. 59. 60). Another + explanation has been given of dilinn, as being compounded of dith, + <i>want, failure</i>, and linn <i>an age</i>; qu. <i>absumptio + sæculi</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote76" href="#footnotetag76">[76]</a> Perhaps am fàn, + from fàn or fànadh <i>a descent</i>. (See Lhuyd's "Arch. Brit." tit. x. + <i>in loco</i>.)</p> + + <p><a name="footnote77" href="#footnotetag77">[77]</a> <i>i.e.</i> anns + an teach, anns an tigh, <i>in the house</i>. So in Hebrew, <span + lang="he" class="heb" title="MBYT" ><bdo + dir="rtl">מבית</bdo></span> <i>within</i>, Gen. + vi. 14.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote78" href="#footnotetag78">[78]</a> Deas, applied to + the hand, signifies the <i>right hand</i>. So in Hebrew, <span lang="he" + class="heb" title="YMYN" ><bdo + dir="rtl">ימין</bdo></span> signifies the + <i>right hand</i> and the <i>South</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote79" href="#footnotetag79">[79]</a> Iar, as a + Preposition, signifies <i>after</i> or <i>behind</i>. In like manner in + Hebrew, <span lang="he" class="heb" title="ATR" ><bdo + dir="rtl">אתר</bdo></span> signifies <i>after</i>, or + the <i>West</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote80" href="#footnotetag80">[80]</a> Probably co luath + <i>equally quick, with equal pace</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote81" href="#footnotetag81">[81]</a> The probable + analysis of seadh is, is é, <i>it is</i>, pronounced in one syllable, 's + e. When this syllable was used as a responsive, and not followed by any + other word; the voice, resting on the final sound, formed a faint + articulation. This was represented in writing by the gentle aspirate + <i>dh</i>; and so the word came to be written as we find it. In like + manner ni h-eadh is probably nothing else than a substitute for ni he, + <i>it is not</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote82" href="#footnotetag82">[82]</a> This mode of + incorporating the Prepositions with the personal pronouns will remind the + Orientalist of the Pronominal Affixes, common in Hebrew and other Eastern + languages. The close resemblance between the Gaelic and many of the + Asiatic tongues, in this particular, is of itself an almost conclusive + proof that the Gaelic bears a much closer affinity to the parent stock + than any other living European language.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote83" href="#footnotetag83">[83]</a> "In corroboration + of this (Mr. S.'s) hypothesis, I have frequently met <i>de</i> in old + MSS. I have therefore adopted it in its proper place."—E. O'C.'s + "Grammar of the Irish Gaelic." Dublin, 1808.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote84" href="#footnotetag84">[84]</a> In many places, + this Prep. is pronounced hun.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote85" href="#footnotetag85">[85]</a> Tar éis, on the + track or footstep. See O'Brien's "Ir. Dict." <i>voc.</i> éis.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote86" href="#footnotetag86">[86]</a> On consulting + O'Brien's "Ir. Dict." we find son translated <i>profit, advantage</i>, + cum <i>a fight, combat</i>, réir <i>will, desire</i>. From these + significations the common meaning of air son, do chum, do réir, may + perhaps be derived without much violence.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote87" href="#footnotetag87">[87]</a> See Gaelic Poems + published by Doctor Smith, pp. 8, 9, 178, 291.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote88" href="#footnotetag88">[88]</a> There is in Gaelic + a Noun cion or cionn, signifying <i>cause</i>; which occurs in the + expressions a chionn gu <i>because that</i>, cion-fàth <i>a reason</i> or + <i>ground</i>. But this word is entirely different from ceann <i>end</i> + or <i>top</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote89" href="#footnotetag89">[89]</a> Some confusion has + been introduced into the Grammar of the Latin language, by imposing + different grammatical names on words, according to the connection in + which they stood, while they retained their form and their signification + unchanged; as in calling <i>quod</i> at one time a Relative Pronoun, at + another time a Conjunction; <i>post</i> in one situation a Preposition, + in another, an Adverb. An expedient was thought requisite for + distinguishing, in such instances, the one part of speech from the other. + Accordingly an accent, or some such mark, was, in writing or printing, + placed over <span class="correction" title="Original reads `the the' (on footnote break across two pages)." + >the</span> last vowel of the word, when employed in what was reckoned + its secondary use; while, in its primary use, it was written without any + distinguishing mark. So the conjunction <i>quòd</i> was distinguished + from the relative <i>quod</i>; and the adverb <i>post</i> from the + preposition <i>pòst</i>. The distinction was erroneous; but the expedient + employed to mark it was, at least, harmless. The word was left unaltered + and undisguised; and thus succeeding grammarians had it the more in their + power to prove that the relative <i>quod</i> and the conjunction + <i>quòd</i> are, and have ever been, in reality, one and the same part of + speech. It would have been justly thought a bold and unwarrantable step, + had the older grammarians gone so far as to alter the letters of the + word, in order to mark a distinction of their own creation.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote90" href="#footnotetag90">[90]</a> From this use of + the preposition <i>air</i> arises the <i>equivoque</i> so humorously + turned against Mr James Macpherson by Maccodrum the poet, as related in + the Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland on the + authenticity of Osian's Poems, Append. p. 95. Macpherson asked Maccodrum, + "Am bheil dad agad air an Fhéinn?" literally, "Have you anything on the + Fingalians?" intending to inquire whether the latter had any poems in his + possession <i>on</i> the subject of the Fingalian history and exploits. + The expression partakes much more of the English than of the Gaelic + idiom. Indeed, it can hardly be understood in Gaelic, in the sense that + the querist intended. Maccodrum, catching up the expression in its true + Gaelic acceptation, answered, with affected surprise, "Bheil dad agam air + an Fhéinn? Ma bha dad riamh agam orra, is fad o chaill mi na còirichean." + "Have I any claim on the Fingalians? If ever I had, it is long since I + lost my voucher."</p> + + <p><a name="footnote91" href="#footnotetag91">[91]</a> This use of the + preposition <i>ann</i> in conjunction with a possessive Pronoun, is + nearly akin to that of the Hebrew <span lang="he" class="heb" title="l" + ><bdo dir="rtl">ל</bdo></span>, [for] in such expressions as these: + 'He hath made me [for] a father to Pharaoh, and [for] lord of all his + house;' <i>rinn e mi 'n am athair do Pharaoh, agus 'n am thighearn os + ceann a thighe uile</i>, Gen. xlv. 8. 'Thou hast taken the wife of Uriah + to be [for] thy wife;' <i>ghabh thu bean Uriah gu bi 'n a mnaoi dhuit + fein.</i> 2 Sam. xii. 10.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote92" href="#footnotetag92">[92]</a> This syllable + assumes various forms. Before a broad vowel or consonant <i>an</i>, as, + anshocair; before a small vowel or consonant <i>ain</i>, as, aineolach + <i>ignorant</i>, aindeoin <i>unwillingness</i>; before a labial <i>am</i> + or <i>aim</i>, as, aimbeartach <i>poor</i>; sometimes with the <i>m</i> + aspirated, as, aimhleas <i>detriment</i>, <i>ruin</i>, aimh-leathan + <i>narrow</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote93" href="#footnotetag93">[93]</a> The conjunction + ged loses the <i>d</i> when written before an adjective <span + class="correction" title="Original reads `of'.">or</span> a personal + pronoun; as, ge binn do ghuth, <i>though your voice be sweet</i>; ge + h-àrd Jehovah, Psal. cxxxviii. 6.</p> + + <p>The translators of the Scriptures appear to have erred in supposing ge + to be the entire Conjunction, and that <i>d</i> is the verbal particle + do. This has led them to write ge d' or ge do in situations in which do + alters the sense from what was intended, or is totally inadmissible. Ge + do ghluais mi, Deut. xxix. 19, is given as the translation of <i>though I + walk</i>, i.e. <i>though I shall walk</i>, but in reality it signifies + <i>though I did walk</i>, for do ghluais is past tense. It ought to be + ged ghluais mi. So also ge do ghleidh thu mi, Judg. xiii. 16, <i>though + you detain me</i>, ought rather to be ged ghleidh thu mi. Ge do ghlaodhas + iad rium, Jer. xi. 11, <i>though they cry to me</i>, is not agreeable to + the Gaelic idiom. It ought rather to be ged ghlaodh iad rium, as in + Hosea, xi. 7. Ge do dh' fheudainnse muinghin bhi agam, Phil. iii. 4, + <i>though I might have confidence</i>. Here the verbal particle is + doubled unnecessarily, and surely not according to classical precision. + Let it be written ged dh' fheudainnse, and the phrase is correct. Ge do + 's eigin domh am bas fhulang, Mark xiv. 31, <i>though I must suffer + death</i>: ge do tha aireamh chloinn Israel, &c., Rom. ix. 27, + <i>though the number of the children of Israel be</i>, &c. The + present tenses is and tha never take the do before them. Ged is eigin, + ged tha, is liable to no objection. At other times, when the do appeared + indisputably out of place, the <i>d</i> has been dismissed altogether, + contrary to usual mode of pronunciation; as, ge nach eil, Acts xvii. 27, + 2 Cor. xii. 11, where the common pronunciation requires ged nach eil. So, + ge d' nach duin' an t-aodach, &c. ge d' nach biodh ann ach an righ + &c. (M<sup>c</sup>Intosh's "Gael Prov." pp. 35, 36), where the + <i>d</i> is retained even before nach, because such is the constant way + of pronouncing the phrase.</p> + + <p>These faulty expressions which, without intending to derogate from the + high regard due to such respectable authorities, I have thus freely + ventured to point out, seemed to have proceeded from mistaking the + constituent letters of the conjunction in question. It would appear that + <i>d</i> was originally a radical letter of the word; that through time + it came, like many other consonants, to be aspirated; and by degrees + became, in some situations, quiescent. In Irish it is written giodh. This + manner of writing the word is adopted by the translator of Baxter's + "Call." One of its compounds is always written gidheadh. In these, the + <i>d</i> is preserved, though in its aspirated state. In Scotland it is + still pronounced, in most situations, ged, without aspirating the + <i>d</i> at all. These circumstances put together seem to prove the final + <i>d</i> is a radical constituent letter of this Conjunction.</p> + + <p>I have the satisfaction to say that the very accurate Author of the + Gaelic Translation of the Scriptures has, with great candour, + acknowledged the justice of the criticism contained in the foregoing + note. It is judged expedient to retain it in this edition of the Grammar, + lest the authority of that excellent Translation might perpetuate a form + of speech which is confessed to be faulty.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote94" href="#footnotetag94">[94]</a> To avoid, as far + as may be, the too frequent use of <i>a</i> by itself, perhaps it would + be better always to write the article full, an or am; and to apply the + above rules, about the elision of its letters, only to regulate the + pronunciation. Irish books, and our earlier Scottish publications, have + the article written almost always full, in situations where, according to + the latest mode of Orthography, it is mutilated.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote95" href="#footnotetag95">[95]</a> The practice of + suppressing the sound of an initial consonant in certain situations, and + supplying its place by another of a softer sound, is carried to a much + greater extent in the Irish dialect. It is termed <i>eclipsis</i> by the + Irish grammarians, and is an evidence of a nice attention to + <i>euphonia</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote96" href="#footnotetag96">[96]</a> The Dat. case is + always preceded by a Preposition, ris a' bhard, do 'n bhard, aig na + bardaibh; in declining a Noun with the article, any <i>Proper + Preposition</i> may be supplied before the Dative case.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote97" href="#footnotetag97">[97]</a> So in English, + <i>Grandfather</i>, <i>Highlands</i>, <i>sometimes</i>; in Latin, + <i>Respublica</i>, <i>Decemviri</i>; in Italian, <i>Primavera</i>; in + French, <i>Bonheur</i>, <i>Malheur</i>, &c. from being an adjective + and a noun, came to be considered as a single complex term, or a compound + word, and to be written accordingly.</p> + + <p>A close analogy may be traced between the Gaelic and the French in the + collocation of the Adjective. In both languages, the Adjective is + ordinarily placed after its Noun. If it be placed before its Noun, it is + by a kind of poetical inversion; dorchadas tiugh, <i>des tenebres + epaisses</i>; by inversion, tiugh dhorchadas, <i>d' epaisses + tenebres</i>; fear mòr, <i>un homme grand</i>; by inversion, in a + metaphorical sense, mòr fhear, <i>un grand homme</i>. A Numeral + Adjective, in both languages, is placed before its Noun; as also iomadh, + <i>plusieurs</i>; except when joined to a proper name, where the Cardinal + is used for the Ordinal; Seumas a Ceithir, <i>Jaques Quatre</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote98" href="#footnotetag98">[98]</a> The same seems to + be the case in the Cornish Language. See Lhuyd's "Arch. Brit." p. 243, + col. 3.</p> + + <p>When an Adjective precedes its Noun, it undergoes no change of + termination; as, thig an Tighearn a nuas le ard iolaich, <i>the Lord will + descend with a great shout</i>, 1 Thes. iv. 16; mar ghuth mor shluaigh, + <i>as the voice of a great multitude</i>, Rev. xix. 6.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote99" href="#footnotetag99">[99]</a> Thus, bhur inntinn + <i>your mind</i>, Acts xv. 24.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote100" href="#footnotetag100">[100]</a> This, however, + does not happen invariably. Where the <i>Sex</i>, though specified, is + overlooked as of small importance, the Personal or Possessive Pronouns + follow the <i>Gender</i> of the Antecedent. See 2 Sam. xii. 3.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote101" href="#footnotetag101">[101]</a> I am aware of + the singularity of asserting the grammatical propriety of such + expressions as ciod e Uchdmhacachd? ciod e Urnuigh? as, the nouns + uchdmhacachd, urnuigh are known to be of the feminine Gender; and as this + assertion stands opposed to the respectable authority of the Editor of + the Assembly's Catechism in Gaelic, Edin. 1792, where we read, Ciod i + urnuigh? &c. The following defence of it is offered to the attentive + reader.</p> + + <p>In every question the words which convey the interrogation must refer + to some higher genus or species than the words which express the subject + of the query. It is in the choice of the speaker to make that reference + to any genus or species he pleases. If I ask 'Who was Alexander?' the + Interrogative <i>who</i> refers to the species <i>man</i>, of which + <i>Alexander</i>, the subject of the query, is understood to have been an + individual. The question is equivalent to 'What man was Alexander?' If I + ask 'What is Man?' the Interrogative <i>what</i> refers to the genus of + Existence or Being, of which Man is considered as a subordinate genus or + species. The question is the same with 'What Being is Man?' I may also + ask 'What was Alexander?' Here the Interrogative <i>what</i> refers to + some genus or species of which Alexander is conceived to have been an + individual, though the particular genus intended by the querist is left + to be gathered from the tenor of the preceding discourse. It would be + improper, however, to say 'Who is man?' as the Interrogative refers to no + higher genus than that expressed by the word <i>Man</i>. It is the same + as if one should ask 'What man is Man?'</p> + + <p>In the question 'What is Prayer?' the object of the querist is to + learn the meaning of the term <i>Prayer</i>. The Interrogative + <i>what</i> refers to the genus of Existence, as in the question 'What is + Man?' not to the word <i>Prayer</i>, which is the subject of the query. + It is equivalent to 'What is [that thing which is named] Prayer?' In + those languages where a variety of gender is prevalent, this reference of + the Interrogative is more conspicuously marked. A Latin writer would say + '<i>Quid</i> est Oratio*?' A Frenchman, 'Qu' est-ce que la Prière?' These + questions, in a complete form, would run thus; 'Quid est [id quod + dicitur] Oratio?' 'Qu' est-ce que [l'on appelle] la Prière?' On the same + principle, and in the same sense, a Gaelic writer must say, 'Ciod e + urnuigh?' the Interrogative Ciod e referring not to urnuigh but to some + higher genus. The expression, when completed, is 'Ciod e [sin de 'n + goirear] urnuigh?'</p> + + <p>Is there then no case in which the Interrogative may follow the gender + of the subject? If the subject of the query be expressed, as it often is, + by <i>a general term, limited in its signification</i> by a noun, + adjective, relative clause, &c; the reference of the Interrogative is + often, though not always not necessarily, made to <i>that term</i> in its + general acceptation, and consequently be 'What is the Lord's Prayer?' + Here the subject of the query is not <i>Prayer</i>, but an individual of + that species, denoted by the term <i>prayer</i> limited in its + signification by another noun. The Interrogative <i>what</i> may refer, + as in the former examples, to the genus of Existence; or it may refer to + the species <i>Prayer</i>, of which the subject of the query is an + individual. That is, I may be understood to ask either 'What is that + <i>thing</i> which is called the Lord's Prayer?' or 'What is that + <i>prayer</i> which is called the Lord's Prayer?' A Latin writer would + say, in the former sense, 'Quid est Oratio Dominica†?' in the + latter sense, 'Quaenam est Oratio Dominica?' The former of these + expressions is resolvable into 'Quid est [id quod dicitur] Oratio + Dominica?' the latter into 'Quaenam [oratio] est Oratio Dominica?' The + same diversity of expression would be used in French: 'Qu' est-ce que + l'Oraison Dominicale?' and 'Quelle est l'Oraison Dominicale?' The former + resolvable into 'Qu' est-ce que [l'on appelle] l'Oraison Dominicale? the + latter into 'Quelle [oraison] est l'Oraison Dominicale? So also in + Gaelic, 'Ciod e Urnuigh an Tighearna?' equivalent to 'Ciod e [sin de'n + goirear] Urnuigh an Tighearna?' or, which will occur oftener, 'Ciod i + Urnuigh an Tighearna?' equivalent to 'Ciod i [an urnuigh sin de 'n + goirear] Urnuigh an Tighearna?'</p> + + <p>* See a short Latin Catechism at the end of Mr Ruddiman's Latin + Rudiments, where many similar expressions occur; as 'Quid est fides? + 'Quid est Lex? Quid est Baptismus? Quid Sacramenta?' &c.</p> + + <p>† So Ruddiman, 'Quid est Sacra Coena?'</p> + + <p><a name="footnote102" href="#footnotetag102">[102]</a> The same + arrangement obtains pretty uniformly in Hebrew, and seems the natural and + ordinary collocation of the Verb and its Noun in that language. When the + Noun in Hebrew is placed before the Verb, it will generally be found that + the Noun does not immediately connect with the Verb as the Nominative to + it, but rather stands in an absolute state; and that it is brought + forward in that state by itself to excite attention, and denotes some + kind of emphasis, or opposition to another Noun. Take the following + examples for illustration: Gen. i. 1, <span class="correction" + title="Original reads `5'.">2</span>. 'In the beginning God created + [<span lang="he" class="heb" title="BR' 'LHYM" ><bdo + dir="rtl">ברא + אלהים</bdo></span> in the natural order] + the Heaven and the Earth.' <span lang="he" class="heb" title="WH'RTS HYTH" + ><bdo dir="rtl">והארץ + היתה</bdo></span>; not and the Earth was, + &c., but 'and with respect to the Earth, it was without form,' + &c. Thus expressed in Gaelic: 'agus an talamh bha e gun dealbh,' + &c. Gen. xviii. 33. 'And the Lord went his way [<span lang="he" + class="heb" title="WYLK YHWH" ><bdo + dir="rtl">וילך + יהוה</bdo></span> in the natural order] as soon + as he had left communing with Abraham;' <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="W'BRHM SHB" ><bdo + dir="rtl">ואברהם + שב</bdo></span>, not simply 'and Abraham returned,' &c., + but 'and Abraham—he too returned to his place.' In Gaelic, 'agus + Abraham, phill esan g' aite fein.' See also Num. xxiv. 25.—Gen. + iii. 12. 'And the man said, the woman whom thou gavest to be with me, + <span lang="he" class="heb" title="HW' NTNH LY" ><bdo + dir="rtl">הוא נתנה + לי</bdo></span> <i>she</i> it was that gave me of the tree, + and I did eat.' Gen. iii. 13. 'And the woman said, <span lang="he" + class="heb" title="HNCHSH HSHY'NY" ><bdo + dir="rtl">הנחש + השיאני</bdo></span>, not merely 'the + Serpent beguiled me,' but '<i>the Serpent</i> was the cause; it beguiled + me, and I did eat.' Exod. xiv. 14. '<i>Jehovah</i>—he will fight + for you; but as for <i>you</i>, ye shall hold your peace.' This kind of + emphasis is correctly expressed in the Eng. translation of Psal. lx. 12, + 'for he <i>it is that</i> shall tread down our enemies.' Without + multiplying examples, I shall only observe that it must be difficult for + the English reader to conceive that the Noun denoting the subject of a + proposition, when placed after its Verb, should be in the natural order; + and when placed before its Verb, should be in an inverted order of the + words. To a person well aquainted with the Gaelic, this idiom is + familiar; and therefore it is the easier for him to apprehend the effect + of such an arrangement in any other language. For want of attending to + this peculiarity in the structure of the Hebrew, much of that force and + emphasis, which in other languages would be expressed by various + particles, but in Hebrew depend on the collocation alone, must pass + unobserved and unfelt.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote103" href="#footnotetag103">[103]</a> I am happy to + be put right, in my stricture on the above passage, by E. O'C., author of + a Gaelic Grammar, Dublin, 1808, who informs us that <i>truaighe</i> is + here the Nominative, and <i>Iosa</i> the Accusative case; and that the + meaning is not <i>Jesus took pity on them</i>, but <i>pity seized Jesus + for them</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote104" href="#footnotetag104">[104]</a> This + construction resembles that of the Latin Infinitive preceded by the + Accusative of the Agent.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i6">——Mene desistere victam,</p> + <p>Nec posse Italia Teucrorum avertere regem?—I. Ænid 28.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="footnote105" href="#footnotetag105">[105]</a> So in English, + the Infinitive of a Transitive Verb is sometimes used instead of the + Present Participle, and followed by the Preposition <i>of</i>; as, 'the + woman was there gathering of sticks.' 1 Kings xvii. 10.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>———— some sad drops</p> + <p>Wept at completing of the mortal sin.—"Parad. Lost."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>See more examples, Num. xiii, 25, 2 Sam. ii. 21, 2 Chron. xx. 25, + xxxv. 14, Ezek. xxxix. 12.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote106" href="#footnotetag106">[106]</a> On the same + principle it is that in some compound words, composed of two Nouns + whereof the former governs the latter in the Genitive, the former Noun is + seldom itself put in the Genitive case. Thus, ainm bean-na-bainse, <i>the + bride's name</i>; it would sound extremely harsh to say ainm + mna-na-bainse; clach ceann-an-teine, not clach cinn-an-teine, the stone + which supports a hearth fire.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote107" href="#footnotetag107">[107]</a> These examples + suggest, and seem to authorise a special use of this idiom of Gaelic + Syntax, which, if uniformly observed, might contribute much to the + perspicuity and precision of many common expressions. When a compound + term occurs, made up of a Noun and an <span class="correction" + title="Original reads `Infinite'.">Infinitive</span> governed by that + Noun, it often happens that this term itself governs another Noun in the + Genitive. Let the two parts of the compound term be viewed separately. If + it appear that the subsequent Noun is governed by the <i>former</i> part + of the compound word, then the latter part should remain regularly in the + Genitive Case. But if the subsequent Noun be governed by the + <i>latter</i> part of the compound word, then, agreeably to the + construction exemplified in the above passages, that latter part, which + is here supposed to be an Infinitive, should fall back into the + Nominative Case. Thus tigh-coimh<i>i</i>d an Righ, <i>the King's store + house</i>, where the Noun Righ is governed by tigh, the former term of + the compound word; but tigh comh<i>ea</i>d an ionmhais, John viii. 20, + <i>the house for keeping the treasure</i>, where ionmhais is governed by + coimhead, which is therefore put in the Nominative instead of the + Genitive. So luchd-coimh<i>i</i>d, Matt. xxviii. 4, when no other Noun is + governed; but fear-coimh<i>ea</i>d a' phriosuin, Acts, xvi. 27, 36, where + the last Noun is governed in the Genitive by coimh<i>ea</i>d, which is + therefore put in the Nominative. So also fear-coimh<i>i</i>d, Psal. cxxi. + 3, but fear-coimh<i>ea</i>d Israeil, Psal. cxxi. 4. Edin. 1799. + Tigh-bearr<i>ai</i>dh nam buachaillean, <i>the shearing-house belonging + to the shepherds</i>, 2 King, x. 12, but tigh-bearr<i>a</i>dh nan + caorach, <i>the house for shearing the sheep</i>. Luchd-brath<i>ai</i>dh + an Righ <i>the King's spies</i>; but luchd-brath<i>a</i>dh an Righ, + <i>the betrayers of the King</i>. Luchd-mort<i>ai</i>dh Heroid, + <i>assassins employed by Herod</i>; but luchd-mort<i>a</i>dh Eoin, <i>the + murderers of John</i>.</p> + + <p>I am aware that this distinction has been little regarded by the + translators of the Scriptures. It appeared, however, worthy of being + suggested, on account of its evident utility in point of precision, and + because it is supported by the genius and practice of the Gaelic + language.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote108" href="#footnotetag108">[108]</a> For this + reason, there seems to be an impropriety in writing chum a losgaidh, 1 + Cor. xiii. 3, instead of chum a losgadh.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote109" href="#footnotetag109">[109]</a> The same + peculiarity in the use of the Article takes place in Hebrew, and + constitutes a striking point of analogy in the structure of the two + languages. See <i>Buxt. Thes. Gram. Heb. Lib. II. Cap. V.</i></p> + + <p><a name="footnote110" href="#footnotetag110">[110]</a> This solecism + is found in the Irish as well as in the Scottish Gaelic translation. The + Manks translation has avoided it. In the Irish version and in the + Scottish Gaelic version of 1767, a similar instance occurs in Acts, ii. + 20, <i>an</i> la mor agus oirdheirc sin <i>an</i> Tighearna. In the + Scottish edition of 1796, the requisite correction is made by omitting + the first Article. It is omitted likewise in the Manks N. T. On the other + hand, the Article, which had been rightly left out in the Edition of + 1767, is <span class="correction" title="Original reads `properly'." + >improperly</span> introduced in the Edition of 1796, in 1 Cor. xi. 27, + an cupan so an Tighearna. It is proper to mention that, in the passage + last quoted, the first article <i>an</i> had crept, by mistake, into a + part of the impression 1796, but was corrected in the remaining part.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote111" href="#footnotetag111">[111]</a> The inserted + <i>m</i> or <i>n</i> is generally written with an apostrophe before it, + thus gu'm, gu'n. This would indicate that some vowel is here suppressed + in writing. But if no vowel ever stood in the place of this apostrophe, + which seems to be the fact, the apostrophe itself has been needlessly and + improperly introduced.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote112" href="#footnotetag112">[112]</a> I much doubt + the propriety of joining the Conjunction ged to the Fut. Affirm.; as, ge + do gheibh na h-uile dhaoine oilbheum, <i>though all men shall be + offended</i>, Matt. xxvi. 33. It should rather have been, ged fhaigh na + h-uile dhaoine, &c. The Fut. Subj. seems to be equally improper; as, + ge do ghlaodhas iad rium, <i>though they shall cry to me</i>, Jer. xi. + 21, Edit. 1786. Rather, ged ghlaodh iad rium, as in Hosea, xi. 7. So + also, ged eirich dragh, 's ged bhagair bàs, <i>though trouble shall + arise, and though death shall threaten</i>. Gael. Paraph. xlvii. 7. Edin. + 1787. See page <a href="#page134">134</a>. Note <a + href="#footnote93">93</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote113" href="#footnotetag113">[113]</a> The + terminations <i>air</i>, <i>oir</i>, seem from their signification as + well as form, to be nothing else than fear <i>man</i>, in its aspirated + form fhear. From these terminations are derived the Latin terminations + <i>or</i>, orator, doctor, &c., <i>arius</i> sicarius, essedarius, + &c.; the French <i>eur</i>, vengeur, createur, &c.; <i>aire</i>, + commissaire, notaire, &c., <i>ter</i>, chevalier, charretier, + &c.; the English <i>er</i>, maker, lover, &c., <i>ary</i>, + prebendary, antiquary, &c., <i>eer</i>, volunteer, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote114" href="#footnotetag114">[114]</a> Timcheal na + macraidhe <i>beside the young men</i>, Lhuyd, O'Brien. voc. timcheal. + This passage proves macraidh to be a singular Noun of the fem. gender, + not, as might be thought, the Plural of mac. So laochruidh, madraidh, + &c., may rather be considered as collective Nouns of the singular + Number than as plurals.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote115" href="#footnotetag115">[115]</a> The same + termination having the same import, is found in the French words + cavalerie, infanterie, and in the English cavalry, infantry, + yeomanry.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote116" href="#footnotetag116">[116]</a> In the Gaelic + N. Test, the <i>Gentile</i> Nouns <span title="Korinthios, Galatai, Ephesioi" class="grk" + >Κορινθιος, + Γαλαται, + Εφεσιοι</span>, are rendered + Corintianaich, Galatianaich, Ephesianaich. Would it not be agreeable to + the analogy of Gaelic derivation to write Corintich, Galataich, Ephesich, + subjoining the Gaelic termination alone to the Primitive, rather than by + introducing the syllable <i>an</i>, to form a Derivative of a mixed and + redundant structure, partly vernacular, partly foreign? The word + Samaritanaich, John iv. 40, is remarkably redundant, having no fewer than + three <i>Gentile</i> Terminations. From <span title="Samareia" class="grk" + >Σαμαρεια</span> is formed, + agreeably to the Greek mode of derivation, <span title="Samareitai" class="grk" + >Σαμαρειται</span>. + To this the Latins added their own termination, and wrote + <i>Samaritani</i>; which the Irish lengthened out still further into + Samaritanaich. The proper Gaelic derivation would be Samaraich, like + Elamaich, Medich, Persich, &c. The Irish Galiléanach is, in the + Scottish Translation 1796, properly changed into Galiléach, Acts v. + 37.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote117" href="#footnotetag117">[117]</a> The termination + <i>ail</i> is a contraction for amhuil <i>like</i>. In Irish this + termination is generally written full, fearamhuil, geanamhuil, &c. + From the Gaelic termination <i>ail</i>, is derived the Latin termination + <i>alis</i>, fatalis, hospitalis, &c., whence the English <i>al</i>, + final, conditional, &c. See page <a href="#page33">33</a>. Note <a + href="#footnote25">25</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote118" href="#footnotetag118">[118]</a> Two or three + exceptions from this rule occur; as the Plurals <i>dée gods</i>, mnai + <i>women</i>, lai <i>days</i>. But these are so irregular in their form + as well as spelling, that they ought rather to be rejected altogether, + and their place supplied by the common Plurals diathan, mnathan, lathan + or lathachan.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote119" href="#footnotetag119">[119]</a> As if we should + write in English impious, impotent, without a hyphen; but im-penitent, + im-probable, with a hyphen.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote120" href="#footnotetag120">[120]</a> O beautiful + ringlet.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote121" href="#footnotetag121">[121]</a> The above is + the passage so often referred to in the controversy concerning the + antiquity of Ossian's Poems. It was natural enough for the zealous Bishop + to speak disparagingly of anything which appeared to him to divert the + minds of the people from those important religious truths to which he + piously wished to direct their most serious attention. But whatever may + be thought of his judgment, his testimony is decisive as to the existence + of traditional histories concerning Fingal and his people; and proves + that the rehearsal of those compositions was a common and favourite + entertainment with the people throughout the Highlands at the time when + he lived.</p> + + <p><a name="footnote122" href="#footnotetag122">[122]</a> <i>i.e.</i>, + the Hebrides.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Elements of Gaelic Grammar, by Alexander Stewart + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR *** + +***** This file should be named 28766-h.htm or 28766-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/7/6/28766/ + +Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Elements of Gaelic Grammar + +Author: Alexander Stewart + +Release Date: May 12, 2009 [EBook #28766] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. + + * * * * * + + +['e] signifies "e acute"; [`e] "e grave"; and so forth. + + * * * * * + + +ELEMENTS + +OF + +GAELIC GRAMMAR + +IN FOUR PARTS + +I. OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY + +II. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH + +III. OF SYNTAX + +IV. OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION + +BY + +ALEXANDER STEWART + +MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL AT DINGWALL +HONORARY MEMBER OF THE HIGHLAND SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND + +Royal Celtic Society Edition. + +FOURTH EDITION REVISED. + +WITH PREFACE BY THE REV. DR McLAUCHLAN + +EDINBURGH + +JOHN GRANT, GEORGE IV. BRIDGE + +1892 + + * * * * * + + +{iii} + +PREFACE. + + * * * * * + +For several years the Grammar of the Gaelic language by the Rev. Dr Stewart +of Moulin has been out of print. This has been a source of regret to +scholars and students of that tongue. Not but that there are other Grammars +of real value, which it would be unjust either to ignore or to depreciate, +and which have served, and are serving, an excellent purpose in connection +with Celtic Literature. But the Grammar of Dr Stewart has peculiar features +of its own which give it a permanent value. It is distinguished by its +simplicity, conciseness, and philosophical accuracy. No Grammar of any +language bears on its pages the marks of real and profound scholarship, in +so far as it goes, more than does the Grammar of Dr Stewart. One cannot +read a sentence of it without seeing how carefully he had collected his +materials, and with what judgment, caution, and sagacity he has compared +them and drawn his conclusions. His discussions upon the Article, the Noun, +the Verb, and the Preposition, are ample evidence of this. It is no doubt +true that a much fuller discussion is, with the more abundant resources of +modern scholarship, {iv} competent and desirable, but, so far as he goes, +Dr Stewart's treatment of the subject is of a masterly character. + +That there are defects to be found in the work is very true. On the subject +of Syntax his disquisitions are deficient in fulness, and there is a want +of grammatical exercises throughout. It was at first thought desirable by +the publishers and their advisers to remedy these defects by introducing +fuller notices on the subject of Syntax, and a considerable number of +grammatical exercises from other sources open to them. But it was finally +deemed best in every view of it to give Stewart's work just as he had left +it, and that is done here with the exception of a list of subscribers' +names in the introduction. Messrs Maclachlan and Stewart are doing the +literary community a service in republishing this volume, and thanks are +specially due to the Royal Celtic Society of Edinburgh, a society which has +done much to foster the interests of education in the Highlands, and which +has given substantial aid towards the accomplishment of this undertaking. + +THOS. MCLAUCHLAN. + +EDINBURGH, _1st August 1876._ + + * * * * * + + +{v} + +CONTENTS. + + * * * * * + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION. + + PART I. + + Of Pronunciation and Orthography, 1 + + PART II. + + OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. + + CHAP. I.--Of the Article, 37 + + CHAP. II.--Of Nouns, 37 + Of Gender, 38 + Of Declension, 43 + + CHAP. III.--Of Adjectives, 55 + Of Numeral Adjectives, 59 + + CHAP. IV.--Of Pronouns, 61 + + CHAP. V.--Of Verbs, 65 + Formation of the Tenses, 76 + Use and import of the Moods and Tenses, 85 + Irregular Verbs, 95 + Defective Verbs, 99 + Reciprocating state of Verbs, 102 + Impersonal use of Verbs, 105 + Auxiliary Verbs, 107 + + CHAP. VI.--Of Adverbs, 109 + + CHAP. VII.--Of Prepositions, 116 + Idiomatic phrases, 125 + + CHAP. VIII.--Of Conjunctions, 134 + + CHAP. IX.--Of Interjections, 136 + + {vi} + PART III. + + OF SYNTAX. + + CHAP. I.--Of Concord, 137 + + Sect. 1. Of the agreement of the Article with a Noun, 137 + Sect. 2. Of the agreement of an Adjective with a Noun, 141 + Sect. 3. Of the agreement of a Pronoun with its Antecedent, 146 + Sect. 4. Of the agreement of a Verb with its Nominative, 149 + Sect. 5. Of the agreement of one Noun with another, 152 + + CHAP. II.--Of Government, 154 + + Sect. 1. Of the Government of Nouns, 154 + Sect. 2. Of the Government of Adjectives, 159 + Sect. 3. Of the Government of Verbs, 159 + Sect. 4. Of the Government of Adverbs, 160 + Sect. 5. Of the Government of Prepositions, 160 + Sect. 6. Of the Government of Conjunctions, 162 + + PART IV. + + OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. + + CHAP. I.--Of Derivation, 164 + + CHAP. II.--Of Composition, 168 + + Exercises in Reading, &c., 175 + + * * * * * + + +{vii} + +INTRODUCTION. + + * * * * * + +The utility of a Grammar of the Scottish Gaelic will be variously +appreciated. Some will be disposed to deride the vain endeavour to restore +vigour to a decaying superannuated language. Those who reckon the +extirpation of the Gaelic a necessary step toward that general extension of +the English which they deem essential to the political interest of the +Highlands, will condemn every project which seems likely to retard its +extinction. Those who consider that there are many parts of the Highlands, +where the inhabitants can, at present, receive no useful knowledge whatever +except through the channel of their native tongue, will probably be of +opinion that the Gaelic ought at least to be tolerated. Yet these too may +condemn as useless, if not ultimately detrimental, any attempt to cultivate +its powers, or to prolong its existence. Others will entertain a different +opinion. They will judge from experience, as well as from the nature of the +case, that no measure merely of a literary kind will prevail to hinder the +progress of the English language over the Highlands; while general +convenience and emolument, not to mention private emulation and vanity, +conspire to facilitate its introduction, and prompt the natives to its +acquisition. They {viii} will perceive at the same time, that while the +Gaelic continues to be the common speech of multitudes,--while the +knowledge of many important facts, of many necessary arts, of morals, of +religion, and of the laws of the land, can be conveyed to them only by +means of this language,--it must be of material service to preserve it in +such a state of cultivation and purity, as that it may be fully adequate to +these valuable ends; in a word, that while it is a living language, it may +answer the purpose of a living language. + +To those who wish for an uniformity of speech over the whole kingdom, it +may not be impertinent to suggest one remark. The more that the human mind +is enlightened, the more desirous it becomes of farther acquisitions in +knowledge. The only channel through which the rudiments of knowledge can be +conveyed to the mind of a remote Highlander is the Gaelic language. By +learning to read and to understand what he reads, in his native tongue, an +appetite is generated for those stores of science which are accessible to +him only through the medium of the English language. Hence an acquaintance +with the English is found to be necessary for enabling him to gratify his +desire after further attainments. The study of it becomes, of course, an +object of importance; it is commenced, and prosecuted with increasing +diligence. These premises seem to warrant a conclusion which might at first +appear paradoxical, that, by cultivating the Gaelic, you effectually, +though indirectly, promote the study and diffuse the knowledge of the +English. + +To public teachers it is of the highest moment that the medium through +which their instructions are communicated be properly adapted to that use, +and that they be enabled to avail themselves of it in the fittest manner. A +language destitute of grammatical regularity can possess neither {ix} +perspicuity nor precision, and must therefore be very inadequate to the +purpose of conveying one's thoughts. The Gaelic is in manifest danger of +falling into this discreditable condition, from the disuse of old idioms +and distinctions, and the admission of modern corruptions, unless means be +applied to prevent its degenerating. It is obvious that a speaker cannot +express himself with precision without a correct knowledge of grammar. When +he is conscious of his ignorance in this respect, he must deliver himself +sometimes ambiguously or erroneously, always with diffidence and +hesitation, whereas one who has an accurate knowledge of the structure and +phraseology of the language he speaks, will seldom fail to utter his +thoughts with superior confidence, energy, and effect. + +A competent degree of this knowledge is requisite to the hearer also, to +enable him to apprehend the full import and the precise force of the words +of the speaker. Among the readers of Gaelic, who are every day becoming +more numerous, those only who have studied it grammatically are qualified +to understand accurately what they read, and to explain it distinctly to +others. Yet it cannot be denied that comparatively few ever arrive at a +correct, or even a tolerable knowledge of grammar, without the help of a +treatise composed for the purpose. Whoever, therefore, allows that the +Gaelic must be employed in communicating to a large body of people the +knowledge of revealed Truth and the way of eternal Life, will readily admit +the extensive utility of investigating and unfolding its grammatical +principles. Impressed with this conviction, I have been induced to offer to +the public the following attempt to develop the grammar of the Scottish +Gaelic. + +While I have endeavoured to render this treatise useful to those who wish +to improve the knowledge of Gaelic which {x} they already possess, I have +also kept in view the gratification of others, who do not understand the +Gaelic, but yet may be desirous to examine the structure and properties of +this ancient language. To serve both these purposes, I have occasionally +introduced such observations on the analogy between the Gaelic idiom and +that of some other tongues, particularly the Hebrew, as a moderate +knowledge of these enabled me to collect. The Irish dialect of the Gaelic +is the nearest cognate of the Scottish Gaelic. An intimate acquaintance +with its vocables and structure, both ancient and modern, would have been +of considerable use. This I cannot pretend to have acquired. I have not +failed, however, to consult, and to derive some advantage from such Irish +philologists as were accessible to me, particularly O'Molloy, O'Brien, +Vallancey, and Lhuyd. To these very respectable names I have to add that of +the Rev. Dr Neilson, author of "An Introduction to the Irish Language," +Dublin, 1808, and E. O'C., author of "A Grammar of the Gaelic Language," +Dublin, 1808; to the latter of whom I am indebted for some good-humoured +strictures, and some flattering compliments, which, however unmerited, it +were unhandsome not to acknowledge. I know but one publication professedly +on the subject of Gaelic grammar written by a Scotsman[1]. I have consulted +it also, but in this quarter I have no obligations to acknowledge. + +With respect to my literary countrymen who are proficients in the Gaelic, +and who may cast an eye on this volume, less with a view to learn than to +criticise, while I profess a due deference to their judgment, and declare +my anxiety to obtain their favourable suffrage, I must take the liberty to +entreat their attention to the following considerations. + +{xi} + +The subject of Universal Grammar has been examined in modern times with a +truly philosophical spirit, and has been settled on rational and stable +principles; yet, in applying these principles to explain the grammar of a +particular language, the divisions, the arrangements, and the rules to be +given are, in a good measure, mechanical and arbitrary. One set of rules +may be equally just with another. For what is it that grammatical rules do? +They bring into view the various parts, inflections, or, as they may be +termed, the _phenomena_ of a language, and class them together in a certain +order. If these _phenomena_ be all brought forward, and stated according as +they actually appear in the language, the rules may be said to be both just +and complete. Different sets of rules may exhibit the same things in a +different order, and yet may all be equally just. The superiority seems, on +a comparison, to belong to that system which follows most nearly the order +of nature, or the process of the mind in forming the several inflections; +or rather, perhaps, to that system which, from its simplicity, or clear and +comprehensive arrangement, is most fitted to assist the memory in acquiring +and retaining the parts of speech with their several inflections. + +In distributing the various parts of language into their several classes, +and imposing names on them, we ought always to be guided by the nature of +that language, and to guard against adopting, with inconsiderate servility, +the distributions and technical terms of another. This caution is the more +necessary because, in our researches into the grammar of any particular +tongue, we are apt to follow implicitly the order of the Latin grammar, on +which we have been long accustomed to fix our attention, and which we are +ever ready to erect into a model for the grammar of all languages. To force +the several parts of speech into moulds formed for the {xii} idioms of the +Latin tongue, and to frame them so as to suit a nomenclature adapted to the +peculiarities of Latin grammar, must have the effect of disguising or +concealing the peculiarities, and confounding the true distinctions, which +belong to the language under discussion. + +Although, in treating of Gaelic grammar, the caution here suggested ought +never to be forgotten, yet it is needless to reject indiscriminately all +the forms and terms introduced into the grammar of other languages. Where +the same classifications which have been employed in the grammar of the +Latin, or of any other well-known tongue, will suit the Gaelic also, it is +but a convenient kind of courtesy to adopt these, and apply to them the +same names which are already familiar to us. + +In stating the result of my researches into Gaelic grammar, I have +endeavoured to conform to these general views. The field of investigation +was wide, and almost wholly untrodden. My task was not to fill up or +improve the plan of any former writer, but to form a plan for myself. In +the several departments of my subject that distribution was adopted which, +after various trials, appeared the most eligible. When there were terms +already in use in the grammars of other languages that suited tolerably +well the divisions which it was found requisite to make, I chose to adopt +these, rather than load the treatise with novel or uncommon terms. If their +import was not sufficiently obvious already, it was explained, either by +particular description, or by reference to the use of these terms in other +grammars. In some instances it was found necessary to employ less common +terms, but in the choice of these I endeavoured to avoid the affectation of +technical nicety. I am far from being persuaded that I am so fortunate as +to have hit on the best possible plan. I am certain that it must {xiii} be +far from complete. To such charges a first essay must necessarily be found +liable. Still there is room to hope that the work may not prove wholly +useless or unacceptable. Imperfect as it is, I may be allowed to think I do +a service of its kind to my countrymen by frankly offering the fruits of my +labour to such as may choose to make use of them. It has been, if I mistake +not, the misfortune of Gaelic grammar that its ablest friends have done +nothing directly in its support, because they were apprehensive that they +could not do everything. + +I confess that my circumscribed knowledge of the varieties of dialect used +in different parts of the Highlands, may have left me unacquainted with +some genuine Gaelic idioms which ought to be noticed in a work of this +kind. The same cause may have led me to assert some things in too general +terms, not being sufficiently informed concerning the exceptions which may +be found in use in some particular districts. I respectfully invite, and +will thankfully receive, the correction of any person whose more accurate +and extensive information enables him to supply my omissions, or to rectify +my mistakes. + +In a few particulars I have differed from some of the highest living +authorities,--I mean those gentlemen whose superior abilities are so +conspicuous in the masterly translation of the sacred Scriptures with which +the Highlands of Scotland are now blessed.[2] Here I have been careful to +{xiv} state the grounds on which my judgment was formed. In doing this, I +would always be understood to advance my opinion and propose my reasons +with the view of suggesting them to the consideration of my countrymen, +rather than in the expectation of having my conclusions universally +sustained and adopted. + +Among my grammatical readers, it is probable that some may have formed to +themselves arrangements on the subjects different from mine. Of these I +have to request that they do not form a hasty judgment of the work from a +partial inspection of it, nor condemn it merely because it may differ from +their preconceived schemes. Let them indulge me with a patient perusal of +the whole, and a candid comparison of the several parts of the system with +each other. To a judicious critic, some faults and many defects may appear, +and several improvements will occur. On this supposition, I have one +request more to make: that he join his efforts with mine in serving a +common cause, interesting to our country, and dear to every patriotic +Highlander. + + * * * * * + + +{xv} + +ADVERTISEMENT + +TO THE + +SECOND EDITION. + + * * * * * + +In preparing a Second Edition of the following treatise, the author has +endeavoured to avail himself of every assistance in his power, from books, +observation, and the communications of some literary friends, to whom he is +indebted for several judicious remarks. In comparing the opinions of +different critics, it was not to be expected that all should be found to +agree together. It sometimes happened that one approved what another would +have rejected. If the author has not adopted every hint that was offered +him, but used the privilege of exercising his own judgment, the +responsibility must rest with himself. He hopes those gentlemen who most +obligingly favoured him with their remarks will forgive him for mentioning +their names, for he is unwilling to withhold from the public the +satisfaction of knowing that he has had the best assistance which his +country could afford him in compiling and modelling his work. He thankfully +acknowledges his obligations to the Rev. Dr Robertson, of Callander; Dr +Graham, of Aberfoyle; Dr Stuart, of Luss; Dr Macleod, of Kilmarnock; and Mr +Irvine, of Little Dunkeld. + +From these sources of emendation, omissions have been {xvi} supplied, +idiomatic phrases have been collected and inserted, some alterations have +been made by simplifying or compressing particular parts, and new examples +and illustrations have been introduced throughout, according as the +advantages which the author enjoyed enabled him to extend his knowledge of +the language, and served to correct, or to confirm, his former judgments. +He thought it might be acceptable to Gaelic scholars to have a few lessons +subjoined as exercises in translating and analysing. For this purpose he +has selected some specimens of original prose composition, extracted from +unpublished manuscripts, and from the oldest Gaelic books that are known to +be extant. These specimens, short as they are, may suffice to exhibit +something of the powers and elegances of the language in its native purity, +unmixed with foreign words and idioms, as well as to show the manner in +which it was written two or three centuries ago. + +The present edition owes its existence to the generous patronage of Sir +John Macgregor Murray of Lanrick, Bart., to whom the author is happy in +avowing his obligations for the unsolicited and liberal encouragement given +him in the execution and publication of his work. To the same gentleman he +is indebted for the honour of being permitted here to record the names of +those patriotic sons of Caledonia who, in concert with the honourable +baronet, and at his suggestion, though residing in the remote provinces of +India, yet mindful of their country's fame, contributed a liberal sum of +money for promoting Celtic literature, more especially for publishing the +poems of Ossian in their original language. It is owing, in a principal +degree, to their munificent aid, that the anxious expectation of the public +has been at last so richly gratified by Sir John Sinclair's elegant and +elaborate edition of the poems of that tender and lofty bard. + + * * * * * + + +{1} + +ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR. + + * * * * * + +PART I. + +OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY. + +The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, +i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e, i, o, u; the +rest consonants. + +In explaining the powers of the letters, and of their several combinations, +such obstacles lie in the way that complete success is not to be expected. +In order to explain, in writing, the sounds of a particular language, the +only obvious method is to represent them by the letters commonly employed +to exhibit similar sounds in some well-known living language. But there are +sounds in the Gaelic to which there are none perfectly similar in English, +nor perhaps in any modern European tongue. Besides, the same combination of +letters does not invariably represent the same sound in one age that it did +in a former, or that it may do in the next. And this may be equally true of +the letters of the Gaelic alphabet, whose powers are to be taught; and of +the letters of any other language, by whose sounds the powers of the former +are to be explained. A diversity of pronunciation is very distinguishable +also in different districts of the Highlands of Scotland, even in uttering +the same words written in the same manner. Though the powers of the +letters, then, may be explained to a certain degree of accuracy, yet much +will still remain to be learned by the information of the ear alone. {2} + +Although the chief use of the vowels be to represent the _vocal sounds_ of +speech, and that of the consonants to represent its _articulations_, yet, +as in many languages, so in Gaelic, the consonants sometimes serve to +modify the sound of the vowels with which they are combined; while, on the +other hand, the vowels often qualify the sound of the consonants by which +they are preceded or followed. + +It may not appear obvious at first sight how a vowel should be employed, +not to represent a vocal sound, but to modify an articulation. Yet examples +are to be found in modern languages. Thus, in the English words, George, +sergeant, the _e_ has no other effect than to give _g_ its soft sound; and +in guest, guide, the _u_ only serves to give _g_ its hard sound. So in the +Italian words giorno, giusto, and many others, the _i_ only qualifies the +sound of the preceding consonant. The same use of the vowels will be seen +to take place frequently in Gaelic orthography. + +Besides the common division of the letters into Vowels and Consonants, it +is found convenient to adopt some further subdivisions. + +The Vowels are divided into _broad_ and _small_: a, o, u, are called +_broad_ vowels; e, i, _small_ vowels. + +The Consonants are divided into _Mutes_ and _Liquids_: _Mutes_, b, c, d, f, +g, m, p, t; _Liquids_, l, n, r, s[3]. They are also divided into _Labials_, +_Palatals_, and _Linguals_, so named from the organs employed in +pronouncing them: _Labials_, b, f, m, p; _Palatals_, c, g; _Linguals_, d, +l, n, r, s, t. + +The aspirate _h_ is not included in any of these divisions[4]. + +{3} + + + +OF THE SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS[5]. + +All the vowels are sometimes long, sometimes short. A long vowel is often +marked with an accent, especially when the _quantity_ of the vowel +determines the meaning of the word; as, b[`a]s _death_, s[`a]il _the heel_, +c[`a]raid _a pair_, r[`i]s _again_, m[`o] _more_, l[`o]n _a marsh_; which +are distinguished by the accent alone from bas _the palm_ of the hand, sail +_a beam_, caraid _a friend_, ris _to_, lon _the elk_. + +All the vowels, but especially the broad ones, have somewhat of a nasal +sound when preceded or followed by m, mh, n, nn. No vowels are doubled in +the same syllable like _ee_, _oo_, in English. + +In almost all polysyllables, excepting some words compounded with a +preposition, the accent falls on the first syllable[6]. The other syllables +are short and unaccented, and the vowels in that situation have in general +the same short obscure sound. Hence it happens that the broad vowels in +these syllables are often used indiscriminately. + +There are no quiescent final vowels. + +A. + +A has three sounds. + +1. The first is both long and short; long, like _a_ in the English words +_far_, _star_; as, [`a]r _slaughter_, [`a]th _a ford_, gr[`a]dh, {4} +_love_, s[`a]ruich _oppress_; short, like _a_ in _that_; as, cath _a +battle_, alt _a joint_; abuich _ripe_. + +2. Both long and short, before _dh_ and _gh_. This sound has none like it +in English. Long, as, adhbhar _a cause_, adhradh _worship_; short, as, lagh +_a law_, magh _a field_, adharc _a horn_. + +3. Short and obscure, like _e_ in _mother_; as, an, a _the_, ar _our_, ma +_if_, and in the plural termination a or an. + +E. + +_E_ has three sounds. + +1. Both long and short: long, like _e_ in _where, there_; as, [`e], s[`e] +_he_, r[`e] _during_. This _e_ is generally marked with a grave accent. +Short, like _e_ in _met_; as, le _with_, leth _half_. + +2. Long, as, r['e] _the moon_, c['e] _the earth_, and d['e] _yesterday_. +This _e_ is commonly marked with an acute accent. + +3. Short, like _e_ in _mother_; as, duine _a man_, ceannuichte _bought_. + +I. + +_I_ has two sounds. + +1. Both long and short, like _ee_ in _seem_: long, as, m[`i]n _smooth_, +righ _a king_; short, as, min _meal_, crith _trembling_. + +2. Short and obscure, like _i_ in _this_; as, is _am_, _art_, &c. + +O. + +_O_ has three sounds. + +1. Both long and short: long, somewhat like _o_ in _more_; as, m[`o]r +_great_, [`o]r _gold_, d[`o]chas _expectation_; short, like _o_ in _hot_; +as, mo _my_, do _thy_, dochann _harm_. + +2. Both long and short: long, nearly like _o_ in _old_; as, lom _bare_, +toll _a hole_; short, as, lomadh _making bare_, tolladh _boring_. + +3. Both long and short, like (2) a[7]: long, as, foghlum _to learn_; short, +as, roghuinn _choice_, logh _to forgive_. + +{5} + +U. + +_U_ has one sound, both long and short, like _oo_ in _fool_: long, as, +[`u]r _fresh_, [`u]raich _to renew_; short, as, ubh _an egg_, urras _a +surety_. + + + +OF THE DIPHTHONGS. + +There are thirteen Diphthongs reckoned in Gaelic; ae, ai, ao, ea, ei, eo, +eu; ia, io, iu; oi; ua, ui. Of these, ao, eu, ia, ua, are always long; the +others are sometimes long, sometimes short. + +AE. + +The sound of _ae_ is made up of (1) _a_ long, and (1) _e_ short. This +diphthong hardly occurs, except in Gael _a Gaul_ or _Highlander_, and +Gaelic the _Gaelic_ language[8]. + +AI. + +The sound of _ai_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of the former. + +1. Made up of (1) _a_ and (1) _i_: the _a_ long, the _i_ short; as, +f[`a]idh _a prophet_; the _a_ short, the _i_ short; as, claidheamh _a +sword_. + +2. Made up of (2) _a_ and (1) _i_: the _a_ long, the _i_ short; as, saighde +_arrows_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ often loses its +sound, and only serves to qualify the sound of the following consonant[9]; +hence, + +3. Like (1) _a_ alone: long, as, f[`a]isg _squeeze_, f[`a]ilte +_salutation_; short, as, glaic _a hollow_, tais _soft_. + +4. Like (2) _a_ alone: short, as, airm _arms_, gairm _a call_. + +AO. + +1. The sound of _ao_ is like (2) _a_, long: as, caora _a sheep_, faobhar +_the edge of a tool_, saothair _labour_. + +{6} + +EA. + +The sound of _ea_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of one of them. + +1. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _a_: _e_ very short, _a_ long, as, beann _a +summit_, _pinnacle_, feall _deceit_; _a_ short, as, meal _to enjoy_, speal +_a scythe_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _a_ frequently loses its +sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _e_, long: as, dean _do_; short, as, fear _a man_, bean _a +woman_. + +3. Like (2) _e_, long: as, easlan _sick_; short, as, fead _whistle_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _e_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +4. Like (1) _a_, long: as, c[`e]ard _an artificer_; short, as, geal +_white_. + +5. Like (3) _a_, short: as, itheadh _eating_, coireach _faulty_. + +EI. + +The sound of _ei_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of _e_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _e_ and (1) _i_: _e_ long, _i_ short, as, sgeimh +_beauty_; _e_ short, as, meidh _a balance_. + +2. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _i_: _e_ long, _i_ short, as, feidh _deer_; +_e_ short, as, greigh _a herd_, _stud_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +3. Like (1) _e_ alone: long, as, m[`e]ise _of a plate_. + +4. Like (2) _e_ alone: long, as, ['e]igin _necessity_; short, as, eich +_horses_. + +EO. + +The sound of _eo_ is either made up of the sounds of both vowels, or like +that of _o_ alone. {7} + +1. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _o_: _e_ very short, _o_ long, as, beo +_alive_, eolas _knowledge_; _o_ short, as, beothail _lively_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _e_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _o_: long, as, leomhann _a lion_; short, as, deoch _drink_. + +EU. + +The sound of _eu_ is like (2) _e_ alone: long, as, teum _to bite_, gleus +_trim, entertainment_. + +One of the most marked variations of dialect occurs in the pronunciation of +the diphthong _eu_, which, instead of being pronounced like long _e_, is +over all the North Highlands commonly pronounced like _ia_; as, nial, ian, +fiar, for neul, eun, feur. + +IA. + +The sound of _ia_ is made up of the sounds of both the vowels. + +1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (1) _a_: both of equal length, as, fial +_liberal_, iar _west_. + +2. Made up of (1) _i_ and (2) _a_: of equal length, as, fiadh _a deer_, +ciall _common sense_. + +In cia _which?_ iad _they_, _ia_ is often found like (1) _[`e]_. + +IO. + +The sound of _io_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like one of them alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (3) _o_: _i_ long, _o_ short, as, diol _to pay_, +fior _true_; _i_ short, as, iolach _a shout_, ionnsuidh _an attack_. + +Before a Lingual or Palatal, not quiescent, the _o_ sometimes loses its +sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _i_: long, as, iodhol _an idol_; short, as, crios _a girdle_, +biorach _pointed_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ {8} sometimes loses +its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +3. Like _u_ in _fun_, short and obscure: as, cionta _guilt_, tiondadh _to +turn_. + +IU. + +The sound of _iu_ is either made up of the sound of both the vowels, or +like _u_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (1) _u_: _i_ short, _u_ long, as, fi[`u] +_worthy_; _u_ short, as, iuchair _a key_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _u_: long, as, di[`u] _worst part, refuse_; short, as, tiugh +_thick_, giuthas _fir_. + +OI. + +The sound of _oi_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of _o_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _o_ and (1) _i_: _o_ long, _i_ short, as, [`o]igh _a +virgin_; _o_ short, as, troidh _a foot_. + +2. Made up of (3) _o_ and (1) _i_: _o_ long, _i_ short, as, oidhche +_night_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +3. Like (1) _o_ long: as, m[`o]id _more_; short, as, toic _wealth_. + +4. Like (2) _o_ long: as, f[`o]id _a turf_; short, as, fois _rest_. + +5. Like (3) _o_ short; as, coileach _a cock_, doire _a wood_. + +UA. + +The sound of _ua_ is made up of the sounds of both the vowels. + +1. Made up of (1) _u_ and (1) _a_, equally long; as, cuan _the sea_, fuar +_cold_. + +2. Made up of (1) _u_ and (2) _a_; as, tuadh _a hatchet_, sluagh _people_. +{9} + +UI. + +The sound of _ui_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of _u_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _u_ and (1) _i_: _u_ long, _i_ short, as, suigheag _a +rasp-berry_; _u_ short, as, buidheann _a company_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _u_ long: as, d[`u]il _expectation_, c[`u]ig _five_; short, as, +fuil _blood_, muir _the sea_. + + + +OF THE TRIPHTHONGS. + +There are five Triphthongs, in each of which _i_ is the last letter: aoi, +eoi, iai, iui, uai. In these the two first vowels have the same sounds and +powers as when they form a diphthong. The final _i_ is sounded short; but +before a Palatal or a Lingual, not quiescent, it loses its sound, and only +qualifies that of the following consonant. + +AOI. + +1. Made up of _ao_ and (1) _i_; as, caoidh _lamentation_, aoibhneas _joy_, +laoigh _calves_. + +2. Like _ao_; as, caoineadh _wailing_, maoile _baldness_. + +EOI. + +1. Made up of (2) _eo_ and (1) _i_; as, geoigh _geese_. + +2. Like (1) _eo_; as, meoir _fingers_. + +3. Like (2) _eo_; as, deoir _tears_, treoir _ability_. + +IAI. + +1. Like (1) _ia_; as, fiaire _more awry_. + +IUI. + +1. Like (2) _iu_; as, ci[`u]il _of music_, fliuiche _more wet_. {10} + +UAI. + +1. Made up of (1) _ua_ and (1) _i_; as, luaithe _quicker_. + +2. Made up of (2) _ua_ and (1) _i_; as, cruaidh _hard_, fuaim _sound_. + +3. Like (1) _ua_; as, uair _time, an hour_, cluaise _of an ear_. + + + +OF THE POWERS OF THE CONSONANTS. + +The simple powers of the consonants differ not much from their powers in +English. Those called _mediae_ by the writers on Greek grammar, viz., _b_, +_d_, _g_, approach nearer in force to the corresponding _tenues_ _p_, _t_, +_c_, than they do in English. + +In accented syllables, where, if the vocal sound be short, the voice +necessarily rests on the subsequent articulation, the consonants, though +written single, are pronounced with the same degree of force as when +written double in English; as, bradan _a salmon_, cos _a foot_; pronounced +braddan, coss. No consonants are written double except _l_, _n_, _r_. + +A propensity to aspiration is a conspicuous feature in the Gaelic +tongue[10]. The aspirating of a consonant has been {11} usually marked, in +the Irish dialect, by a dot over the letter aspirated; in the Scottish +dialect by writing _h_ after it. All the consonants have their sounds +changed by being aspirated, and the effect is different on different +consonants. In some cases the articulation is changed, but still formed by +the same organ. In others the articulation is formed by a different organ. +In others the _h_ alone retains its power. And sometimes both the _h_ and +the consonant to which it is subjoined become entirely quiescent. + +{12} + +In treating of the consonants separately, it will be convenient to depart a +little from the alphabetical order of the letters, and to consider first +the _Labials_, next the _Palatals_, and lastly the _Linguals_. + + + +LABIALS. + +P. + +1. Plain. Like _p_ in English; as, poll _a pool_, pill _return_. + +2. Aspirated. Like _ph_ or _f_ in English; as, a' phuill _of the pool_, +phill _returned_[11]. + +B. + +1. Plain. Like _b_ in English; as, baile _a town_, beo _alive_. + +2. Aspirated. Like _v_ in English, as, bhuail _struck_. In the end of a +syllable the articulation is sometimes feeble, and often passes into the +vocal sound of _u_[12]; as in marbh[13] _dead_, garbh _rough_, dabhach _a +vat_. + +M. + +1. Plain. Like _m_ in English; as, mac _a son_, cam _crooked_. + +2. Aspirated. Somewhat like _v_ in English, but more feeble and nasal; as, +mhathair _O mother_, lamh _the hand_. The sound _mh_ has the same relation +to that of _bh_, as the sound of _m_ has to that of b. Sometimes, like +_bh_, it becomes a vocal sound like a nasal _u_; as, in damh _an ox_, +samhradh _summer_: and sometimes the articulation becomes so feeble as not +to be perceived; as, comhradh _speech_, domhainn _deep_. + +{13} + +F. + +1. Plain. Like _f_ in English, as, faigh _to get_, f[`o]id _a turf_. + +2. Aspirated. Quiescent; as, fheara _O men_. In fhuair _found_, the +aspiration is retained, and the word is pronounced as if written _huair_. +It is probable that it was originally written and pronounced fuair[14]; +that huair is but a provincial pronunciation[15]; and that to adapt the +spelling in some shape to this pronunciation, the word came to be written +fhuair. + + + +PALATALS AND LINGUALS. + +In treating of the Diphthongs (ai, ea, ei, &c.) notice has been often taken +of the powers of certain vowels in modifying the sound of the adjoining +consonants. This refers to a twofold mode of pronouncing the Palatal and +Lingual consonants, whether _plain_ or _aspirated_. The difference between +these two modes of pronunciation is, in some consonants, abundantly +striking; in others it is minute, but sufficiently discernible to an ear +accustomed to the Gaelic. The one of these modes of articulation belongs to +Palatals and Linguals, chiefly when connected with a _broad vowel_; the +other belongs to them when connected with a _small vowel_. Hence, the +former may be called the _broad_ sound, the latter the _small_ sound of a +_Palatal_ or a _Lingual_. + +These sounds are not distinguished in writing, but may be known, for the +most part, by the relative situation of the letters. + +C. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: like _c_ in _come_, _curb_; as, c[`u]l _the back_, +cridhe _the heart_. + +{14} + +2. _Small_: like _c_ in _care_, _cure_; as, taic _support_, circe _of a +hen_[16]. + +3. Aspirated. _Broad_: like the Greek [chi], as pronounced in Scotland, in +[Greek: chora]; as, croch _to hang_, chaidh _went_. + +4. _Small_: like [chi] in [Greek: chion]; as, chi _shall see_, eich +_horses_. + +G. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: like _g_ in _go_, _rogue_; as, gabh _to take_, glor +_speech_, bog _soft_. + +2. _Small_: like _g_ in _give_, _fatigue_; as, gin _to produce_, thig +_shall come_, tilg _to throw_. + +3. Aspirated. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; ghabh _took_, +ghleidh _kept_. + +4. _Small_: nearly like _y_ in _young_; as, ghin _produced_. + +5. _Gh_ in the end of a syllable is often quiescent; as, righ _a king_, +tiugh _thick_, fuigheall _remainder_. + +T. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: nearly like _t_ in _tone_, _bottom_; as, tog _to raise_, +trom _heavy_, brat _a covering_. + +{15} + +2. _Small_: like _ch_ in _cheek_, _choose_; as, tinn _sick_, caillte +_lost_. + +3. Aspirated. Like _h_ in _house_; as, thig _shall come_, throisg _fasted_, +maith _good_. + +4. _Quiescent_: in the middle of a polysyllable, in the end of a long +syllable, and in certain tenses of a few irregular verbs when preceded by +_d'_; as, snitheach[17] _watery_, s[`i]th _peace_, an d' thug e? _did he +give?_ also in the pronoun thusa _thou_. + +D. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: nearly like _d_ in _done_; as, dol _going_, dl[`u] +_near_, _close_, ciod _what_. + +2. _Small_: like _j_ in _June_, _jewel_; as, di[`u] _refuse_, maide _a +stick_, airde _height_. + +_D_, after _ch_, is commonly sounded like _c_; as, bochd _poor_, pronounced +as if written bochc[18]. + +{16} + +3. Aspirated[19]. _Broad_: like broad _gh_, as, dhruid _did shut_, gradh +_love_. + +4. _Small_: like small _gh_; as, dhearc _looked_. + +5. Quiescent; as, f[`a]idh _a prophet_, cridhe _a heart_, radh _saying_, +bualadh _striking_. + +RULE.--_The consonants c, g, t, d, have their _SMALL_ sound, when, in the +same syllable, they are preceded, or immediately followed, by a _SMALL +VOWEL_; in all other situations they have their _BROAD_ sound._ + +S. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: like _s_ in _sun_, _this_; as, speal _a scythe_, cas _a +foot_, s[`u]il _an eye_, scian _a knife_. + +2. _Small_: like _sh_ in _show_, _rash_; as, bris _to break_, s[`e]imh +_quiet_, sniomh _to twine_, st['e]idh _foundation_. + +3. Aspirated: like _h_ in _him_; as, shuidh _sat_, shrann _snorted_. Before +_l_ and _n_, it is almost, if not altogether, quiescent; as, shlanuich +_healed_, shniomh _twisted_. _S_ followed by a _mute_ consonant is never +aspirated. + +RULE.--_S has its _SMALL_ sound, when, in the same syllable, it is preceded +or followed by a _SMALL VOWEL_, with or without an intervening Lingual. In +all other situations it has its _BROAD_ sound._ EXCEPT. _S_ is _broad_ in +is _am_. It is _small_ in so _this_, sud _yon_. It is customary to give _s_ +its _broad_ sound in the beginning of a word, when the former word ends +with _r_, in which case the _r_ also has its broad sound; as, chuir sinn +_we put_, air son _on account_. + +{17} + + + +OF L, N, R. + +A distinction between a consonant when _plain_, and the same consonant when +_aspirated_, has been easily traced thus far. This distinction readily +discovers itself, not only in the pronunciation and orthography, but also +(as will be seen in its proper place) throughout the system of inflection. +It takes place uniformly in those consonants which have been already +considered. With respect to the remaining linguals, _l_, _n_, _r_, a +corresponding distinction will be found to take place in their +pronunciation, and likewise in the changes they suffer by inflection. This +close correspondence between the changes incident to _l_, _n_, _r_, and the +changes which the other consonants undergo, seems to be a sufficient reason +for still using the same discriminative terms in treating of their powers, +though these terms may not appear to be so strictly applicable to these +three consonants as to the rest. The powers of _l_, _n_, _r_, shall +accordingly be explained under the divisions _plain_ and _aspirated_, +_broad_ and _small_. + +L. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; lom _bare_, labhair +_speak_, mall _slow_, alt _a joint_, ald _a brook_, slat _a rod_, dl[`u] +_near_. + +2. _Small_: like _ll_ in _million_; as, linn _an age_, lion _fill_, pill +_to return_, slighe _a way_. + +3. Aspirated. _Broad_: like _l_ in _loom_, _fool_; as, labhair _spoke_, lom +feminine of lom _bare_, mol _to praise_, dhl[`u] feminine of dl[`u] _near_. + +4. _Small:_ nearly like _l_ in _limb_, _fill_; as, a linn _his age_, lion +_filled_, mil _honey_, dligheach _due, lawful_. + +N. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; nuadh _new_, naisg +_bind_, lann _a blade_, carn _a heap of stones_. + +2. _Small_: like _n_ in the second syllable of _opinion_; as, nigh _wash_, +binn _melodious_, cuirn _heaps of stones_. {18} + +3. Aspirated. _Broad:_ like _n_ in _no_, _on_; as, nuadh feminine of nuadh +_new_, naisg _bound_, shnamh _swam_, sean _old_[20], chon _of dogs_, d[`a]n +_a poem_. + +4. _Small_: like _n_ in _keen_, _near_; as, nigh _washed_, shniomh +_twisted_, coin _dogs_, d[`a]in _poems_. + +In an when followed by a Palatal, the _n_ is pronounced like _ng_ in +English; as, an gille _the lad_, an comhnuidh _always_. + +_N_, after a mute, is in a few instances pronounced like _r_[21]; as in +mnathan _women_, cnatan _a cold_, an t-sn[`a]th _of the yarn_; pronounced +mrathan, cratan, &c. + +R. + +1. Plain. Nearly like _r_ in _roar_; as, ruadh _reddish_, righ _a king_, +ruith _run_, torr _a heap_, ceartas _justice_. + +2. Aspirated. _Broad_: nearly like _r_ in _rear_; as, car _a turn_, ruith +_ran_, m[`o]r _great_. + +3. _Small_: has no sound like it in English; a righ _O king_, seirbhe +_satiety_, m[`o]ir gen. of m[`o]r _great_. + +The _plain_, _aspirated_, _broad_, and _small_ sounds of these Linguals are +not distinguished in writing; but they may, for the most part, be known +from the relative position of the letters. + +RULE.--L, N, R, _have their _PLAIN_ sound when, in the same syllable, they +are immediately preceded by a plain Liquid, or immediately followed by a +plain Lingual; also in the beginning of certain cases and tenses; in all +other situations, they have their _ASPIRATED_ sound. They have their +_SMALL_ sound when, in the same syllable, they are preceded or followed by +a small vowel, with or without an intervening Liquid; in other situations, +they have their _BROAD_ sound._ + +{19} + +H. + +H is never used as an independent radical letter. When prefixed to a word +beginning with a vowel, it is pronounced like h in _how_; as, na +h-[`o]ighean _the virgins_, na h-oidhche _of the night_. + + + +The following scheme exhibits a succinct view of the letters, both singly +and in their several combinations. The first column contains the letters +whose sound is to be exhibited; the prefixed figures marking the number of +different sounds denoted by the same letter. The second column explains the +sounds by examples or by references. The third column contains Gaelic +words, with their translation, in which the several sounds are exemplified. + +VOWELS. + + 1 a {long far star [`a]r _slaughter_, [`a]th _a ford_. + {short that ar _to plow_, abu[^i]ch _ripe_. + + 2 a {long adhradh _worship_, adhbhar _reason_. + {short adharc _a horn_, adhart _a bolster_. + + 3 a short similar ma _if_, an _the_, a _his, her_. + + 1 e {long there [`e] s[`e] _he_, gn[`e] _sort, kind_. + {short met le _with_, leth _half_. + + 2 e long an d['e] _yesterday_, c['e] _the earth_. + + 3 e short mother duine _a man_, briste _broken_. + + 1 i see {m[`i]n _smooth_, righ _a king_. + {min _meal_, crith _a shaking_. + + 2 i short this is _am, art, is_. + + 1 o {long more m[`o]r _great_, l[`o]n _food_. + {short hot mo _my_, do _thy_, lon _the ouzle_. + + 2 o {long } old lom _bare_, toll _a hole_. + {short} lomadh _making bare_. + + 3 o {long } (2) a roghnuich _to choose_. + {short} roghuinn _choice_. + {20} + + 1 u {long } fool {[`u]r _fresh_, s[`u]gh _juice_. + {short} {ubh _an egg_, tur _quite_. + +DIPHTHONGS. + + 1 ae (1) a (2) e laeth _days_. + 1 ai (1) a (1) i f[`a]idh _a prophet_, claidheamh _a sword_. + 2 ai (2) a (1) i saidhbhir, _rich_. + 3 ai (1) a f[`a]isg _squeeze_, tais _soft_. + 4 ai (2) a airm _arms_, gairm _to call_. + 1 ao (2) a faobhar _edge_ of an instrument. + 1 ea (2) e (1) a beann _a pinnacle_, meal _enjoy_. + 2 ea (1) e dean _to do, make_, bean _a woman_. + 3 ea (2) e easlan _sick_, fead _whistle_. + 4 ea (1) a ceard _an artificer_, geal _white_. + 5 ea (3) a coireach _faulty_. + 1 ei (1) e (1) i sg[`e]imh _beauty_, meidh _a balance_. + 2 ei (2) e (1) i feidh _deer_, greigh _a herd_. + 3 ei (1) e m[`e]ise _of a plate_. + 4 ei (2) e ['e]igin _necessity_, eich _horses_. + 1 eo (2) e (1) o beo _alive_, beothail _lively_. + 2 eo (1) o leomhann _a lion_, deoch _a drink_. + 1 eu (2) e teum _to bite_, gleus _trim_. + 1 ia (1) i (1) a fial _liberal_, fiar _oblique_. + 2 ia (1) i (2) a fiadh _a deer_, biadh _food_. + 1 io (1) i (3) o diol _to pay_, iolach _a spout_. + 2 io (1) i iodhol _an idol_, crios _a girdle_. + 3 io fun cionta _guilt_. + 1 iu (1) i u fi[`u] _worth_, iuchair _a key_. + 2 iu u di[`u] _refuse_, tiugh _thick_. + 1 oi (1) o (1) i [`o]igh _a virgin_, troidh _a foot_. + 2 oi (3) o (1) i oidhche _night_. + 3 oi (1) o m[`o]id _more_, toic _wealth_. + 4 oi (2) o f[`o]id _a turf_, fois _rest_. + 5 oi (3) o coileach _a cock_, goirid _short_. + 1 ua u (1) a cuan _the sea_, fuath _hatred_. + 2 ua u (2) a tuadh _a hatchet_, sluagh _people_. + {21} + 1 ui u (1) i s[`u]igheah _a raspberry_, buidheann _a company_. + 2 ui u d[`u]il _expectation_, fuil _blood_. + +TRIPHTHONGS. + + 1 aoi (1) ao (1) i caoidh _lamentation_. + 2 aoi (1) ao caoin _mild_, saoil _to think_. + 1 eoi (2) eo (1) i geoigh _geese_. + 2 eoi (1) eo meoir _fingers_. + 3 eoi (2) eo deoir _tears_. + 1 iai (1) ia fiaire _more oblique_. + 1 iui (2) iu ci[`u]il _of music_. + 1 uai (1) ua (1) i luaithe _quicker_. + 2 uai (2) ua (1) i cruaidh _hard_, fuaim _sound_. + 3 uai (1) ua gluais _to move_, uair _time_. + +CONSONANTS + +_Labials._ + + 1 p part poll _a pool_, streap _to climb_. + 2 ph Philip phill _returned_. + 1 b boil baile _a town_, breab _to kick_. + 2 bh vile bhuail _struck_, gabh _to take_. + 1 m my m[`o]r _great_, anam _life, soul_. + 2 mh mhothuich _perceived_, damh _an ox_. + 1 f feel fill _to fold_. + 2 fh _quiescent_ fheara _O men_. + + _Palatals._ + + 1 c cock can _to say, sing_, creid _to believe_. + 2 c kick ceann _end, head_, reic _to sell_. + 3 ch [Greek: chora] chaidh _went_, rach _go_. + 4 ch [Greek: cheimon] chi _shall see_, cr[`i]che _of a boundary_. + 1 g go gabh _to take_, rag _stiff_. + {22} + 2 g give geinne _a wedge_, ruig _to reach_. + 3 gh ghabh _took_, ghleidh _kept_. + 4 gh you gheibh _will get_. + 5 _quiescent_ righ _a king_, sluagh _people_. + +_Linguals._ + + 1 t tone tog _to raise_, slat _a rod_. + 2 t chin tinn _sick_, [`a]ite _a place_. + 3 th have thainig _came_. + 4 th _quiescent_ maith _good_, f[`a]th _occasion_. + 1 d done dol _going_, dragh _trouble_. + 2 d join diom _resentment_, maide _a stick_. + 3 dh (3) gh dhall _blind_. + 4 dh (4) gh dhearc _looked_. + 5 dh _quiescent_ radh _saying_, bualadh _threshing_. + 1 s so sannt _desire_, sloc _a pit_. + 2 s show s[`e]imh _gentle_, so _this_. + 3 sh how shuidh _sat_, shaoil _thought_. + 1 l lom _bare_, slat _a rod_, moll _chaff_. + 2 l million l[`i]nn _an age_, caillte _lost_. + 3 l look bl[`a]th _blossom_, shlanuich _healed_. + 4 l believe leum _leaped_, shleamhnuich _slipped_. + 1 n crann _a tree_, naomh _holy_, naisg _bind_. + 2 n opinion seinn _to sing_, nigh _wash_. + 3 n no fan _to stay_, naisg _bound_. + 4 n near coin _dogs_, nigh _washed_. + 1 r roar fearr _better_, righ _a king_, ruith _run_. + 2 r rear fear _a man_, ruith _ran_. + 3 r fir _men_, a righ _O king_, treoir _strength_. + + + +There is no doubt that the Gaelic has been for many ages a written +language. It is equally certain that its orthography, since it was first +committed to writing, has undergone {23} considerable changes. In this +respect it has shared the common fate of all written languages. + +In the first exhibition of the sounds of a living language, by alphabetical +characters, it is probable that the principle which regulated the system of +orthography was, that every elementary sound should be represented by a +corresponding character, either simple or compounded, and that the same +sound should be represented by the same character. If different sounds were +represented by the same letter; if the same sound were represented by +different letters; if more letters were employed then were necessary to +exhibit the sound; or if any sound were not represented by a corresponding +character; then the _written_ language would not be an adequate +representation of the _spoken_. It is hardly to be supposed that, in the +first rude attempts at alphabetical writing, the principle above laid down +could be strictly and uniformly followed. And though it had, yet, in the +course of a few generations, many causes would occur to bring about +considerable departures from it. A gradual refinement of ear, and +increasing attention to _euphonia_; contractions and elisions brought into +vogue by the carelessness or the rapidity of colloquial speech, or by the +practice of popular speakers; above all, the mixture of the speech of +different nations would introduce numberless varieties into the +pronunciation. Still, those who wrote the language might choose to adhere +to the original orthography for the sake of retaining the radical parts, +and preserving the etymon of vocables undisguised, and for maintaining an +uniformity in the mechanism of the inflections. Hence the pronunciation and +the orthography would disagree in many instances, till at length it would +be found expedient to alter the orthography, and to adapt it to such +changes in the speech or spoken language as long use had established, in +order to maintain what was most necessary of all, a due correspondence +between the mode of speaking and the mode of writing the same language. + +It will probably be found on inquiry that in all languages when the +_speech_ has undergone material and striking changes, {24} the _written +language_ also has varied in a considerable degree in conformity to these +changes, but that it has not scrupulously kept pace with the spoken +language in every smaller variation. The written language of the Greeks +suffered many changes between the time that the old Pelasgic was spoken and +the days of Demosthenes. The various modes of pronunciation used in the +different districts of Greece are marked by a diversity in the orthography +of the written language. The writing of the Latin underwent considerable +alterations between the era of the _Decemviri_ and the Augustan age, +corresponding, no doubt, to the changes which had taken place during that +interval in speaking the Latin. English and French books printed within the +last century exhibit a mode of orthography very different from what is +found in books printed two or three hundred years ago. These instances show +the tendency which the written language has to follow the lead of the +spoken language, and to maintain a certain degree of conformity to those +modes of pronunciation which are from time to time adopted by those who +speak it. + +On the other hand, numberless examples might be adduced from any living +language to prove that the written language does not adapt itself, on all +occasions and with strict uniformity, to the sounds of speech. Words are +written differently which are pronounced alike. The same combinations of +letters, in different situations, represent different sounds. Letters are +retained in writing, serving to point out the derivations of words, after +they have been entirely dropped in speaking. + +From such facts as these, it appears a just conclusion that _written +language_ generally follows the _spoken language_ through its various +revolutions, but still at a certain distance,--not dropping so far behind +as to lose sight of its precursor, nor following so close as to be led +through all its fantastic deviations. + +Here a question occurs of importance in settling the orthography of any +particular tongue: How near ought the _written language_ to correspond to +the _spoken_, and where may a disagreement between them be allowed with +{25} propriety? The following observations may serve to throw some light on +the subject of this question, though by no means sufficient to furnish a +complete answer. + +It is obvious that in speech the _articulations_ (which are represented by +consonants in writing) are the least liable to variation. _Vowel sounds_ +are continually varying. In this variety chiefly consists that diversity of +tone and dialect which is found in the speech of different districts of the +same country, where the same words are spoken. The changes, too, which are +introduced by time fall with greater effect on the vowel sounds than on the +articulations. This circumstance will strike an observer who steps into any +deliberative assembly, where the speakers are of different ages. St Jerome +makes a remark on the reading of Hebrew, which is applicable, in some +measure, to the pronunciation of all languages: "Nec refert utrum _Salem_ +aut _Salim_ nominetur; cum vocalibus in medio literis perraro utantur +Hebraei; et pro voluntate lectorum, ac _varietate regionum_, eadem verba +_diversis sonis_ atque accentibus proferantur." It may be observed that the +superior stability of the articulations above the vowel sounds is the +natural consequence of the position of the organs of speech in uttering +them. The different modifications of the vowel sounds are effected by +minute changes in the conformation of the organs; those of the +articulations are made by more distinct and operose inflections of the +organs. + +It seems, then, a warrantable conclusion that, of the elementary +constituents of speech, viz., articulations and vowel sounds, the +_articulations_ are, in their own nature, ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and +PREDOMINANT; the _vowel sounds_, comparatively considered, are ADJUNCTIVE, +FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE. + +Further, all the vowel sounds that usually occur in speech seem to be +uttered with equal ease, in whatever situation they occur, as the same +organs are employed for all. In forming the common articulations of speech, +as different organs are employed, a degree of difficulty is sometimes felt +in making a transition from one articulation to another. {26} Thus a +difficulty will occasionally occur in pronouncing certain words, where the +general analogy of inflection or of collocation has brought together +articulations which do not easily coalesce. Hence a necessity arises of +departing in such a case from the general analogy, and altering or +displacing some of those discrepant articulations, for the sake of ease and +convenience in pronunciation, and to relieve the ear from an offensive +discordant sound. Departures are made from the general rules of speech in +the case of the vowel sounds also, of which the Greek tongue abounds with +examples. These departures, however, seem to have been made from a desire +to indulge the ear in certain national predilections or aversions which it +had conceived with regard to particular sounds. In examining the anomalies +of speech, or those peculiarities which have been reckoned anomalous, it +will be found that such of them as affect the articulations have, for the +most part, been adopted for the purpose of ease and convenience in +pronunciation; while those which affect the vowel sounds have proceeded +from the peculiar taste of the speakers. Thus the former spring from a +cause urgent and constant in its nature, and uniform in its operation; the +latter, from a cause local and temporary in its nature, and variable in its +operation. + +If this theory be just, it ought to follow that, in all polished tongues, +an agreement will be found among those irregularities which affect the +articulations, that is not so observable in those which affect the vowel +sounds. There is reason to believe that, if a full comparison were made +between different languages, this would accordingly be found to be the +case. Let it be observed, then, that in speech a deference has been usually +paid to the articulations which has not been paid to the vowel sounds, +inasmuch as the latter have been changed from the state in which the +structure of each tongue had at first placed them, frequently and from +peculiar taste or humour; the former more rarely, and for the most part +from necessity. If this observation be found to be well supported, we shall +have the sanction of general practice in favour of the conclusion that was +formerly {27} drawn from the nature of articulate sounds, viz., that the +articulations are ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and PREDOMINANT; the vowel sounds +ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE. + +If it appear, then, that the vowel sounds in speech are perpetually varying +in the mouths of different speakers, from causes which either elude our +search, or, when discovered, are seen to be of small importance, may we not +judge that it would be equally vain and improper to attempt to make +_Writing_ follow all these minute variations; and that, however it may +happen that the same vowel sound may be represented in many instances by +different letters, and different vowel sounds by the same letters, yet this +disagreement between _Speech_ and _Writing_ must be connived at, for the +sake of preserving some degree of uniformity, where alone it can be +preserved, in the _written language_? If it appear, again, that the +variations from the established analogy which are made on the articulations +are less frequent, and proceed from causes obvious and cogent, ought not +these variations to be exhibited in writing, for preserving that general +correspondence between the written and the spoken language which ought to +be preserved, as far as the limited powers of letters will permit, and +without which the words I speak and those I write do not belong to the same +language? + +One exception from this principle seems allowable in the case of quiescent +consonants. It may be inferred, from the practice of all living languages, +that consonants whereof the corresponding articulations have been +suppressed in speaking may yet be retained with propriety in writing, when +they are requisite to point out the derivation of vocables, or the radical +part of declinable words. But this exception ought to be allowed only to a +moderate extent, for the reasons already assigned; to which it may be +added, that the far greater part of the suppressed articulations can be +easily discovered and retraced to their roots, without any index in the +_written_ any more than in the _spoken_ language to point them out. {28} + +These observations being premised, I shall proceed to explain the present +state of Gaelic Orthography, and shall endeavour to assist the reader in +forming a judgment of its merit, and how far it may admit of improvement. + +I. It may be laid down as one settled principle in orthography, that each +letter or combination of letters in the written language ought always to +denote one and the same sound. From the explanation that has been given of +the powers of the letters, it may be seen how far this principle has been +regarded in the Gaelic. Though almost every one of the letters represents +more than one sound, yet there is an evident affinity between the several +sounds of the same letter. And it may be readily allowed that less +confusion and inconvenience follow from exhibiting a few kindred sounds by +the same letter, than would have taken place had the characters been +multiplied to such a degree as that a separate one could have been +appropriated to each minute variety of sound. + +It is obvious to remark, as a departure from this principle, that in the +case of the consonants _l_, _n_, _r_, the distinction between their _plain_ +and their _aspirated_ state is not marked in writing, but that in both +states the consonant is written in one way. In the middle and end of words, +as has been shown, this distinction may be known from the relative +situation of the letters. In the beginning of certain cases and tenses of +declinable words, it may often be known from their _grammatical_ +connection, but is not marked by any _graphical_ index whatever. The proper +reading is to be determined by the sense of the passage, instead of the +sense being understood by the proper reading. It is not easy to discover +how those who first committed the Gaelic to writing neglected to mark such +a material distinction. Inconveniencies and ambiguities not unfrequently +arise from this cause, which have been long felt and regretted. Is there +room to hope that it is not yet too late to recommend a method of remedying +this defect? The method I would suggest is the most simple and obvious of +any. It is to annex to the initial _l_, _n_, and _r_, in their aspirated +state, the letter _h_, just as has been {29} done to all the other +consonants. The analogy of orthography would thus be maintained, the system +of inflection would be more justly exhibited, and carried on by an uniform +process in _Writing_ as it is in _Speech_, and errors in reading and +ambiguities in syntax would be avoided[22]. + +II. Another principle of authority in regulating orthography is, that each +sound ought always to be represented by one and the same letter, or +combination of letters. The deviations from this rule in Gaelic are +extremely few. The sound of _ao_ is represented sometimes by _a_ alone, +sometimes by _o_ alone. The sound of _gh_ is represented also by _dh_; and +final _c_ often, though corruptly, represents the same sound with _chd_. + +III. A third principle in orthography is, that no more letters ought to be +employed than are necessary to represent the sound. There are probably few +polished languages in which departures from this rule are not found in +abundance. Reasons have been already mentioned which render it expedient to +retain letters in writing many words, after the corresponding sounds have +been dropped in pronouncing the same words. Quiescent letters, both vowels +and consonants, are not unfrequent in Gaelic. Though these quiescent +letters have no sound themselves, they are not always without effect in +pronunciation, as they often determine the sound of other letters. Most, if +not all, the quiescent vowels seem to have been introduced for this +purpose. They ascertain the _broad_ or the _small_ sound of the adjoining +{30} consonants. This has been made sufficiently clear in treating of the +vowels and diphthongs separately. A consonant, as has been shown, has its +_broad_ sound, both when preceded and when followed by a broad vowel; and +in like manner has its _small_ sound, both when preceded and when followed +by a small vowel. If a consonant were preceded by a vowel of one quality, +and followed by one of a different quality, the reader, it has been +thought, might be doubtful whether that consonant ought to be pronounced +with its broad or with its small sound. Hence this rule has long obtained +in Gaelic orthography, that in polysyllables the last vowel of one syllable +and the first vowel of the subsequent syllable must be both of the same +quality[23]. To the extensive application and the rigid observance of this +rule it is owing that so many diphthongs appear where one vowel is +sufficient to express the vocal sound, and that the homogeneous vowels, +when used in their quiescent capacity, are often exchanged for each other, +or written indiscriminately[24]. From the former of these circumstances, +most of the words in the language appear loaded with superfluous vowels; +from the latter, the orthography of many words appears, in some respects, +arbitrary and unsettled. Even a partial correction of these blemishes must +be desirable. It may therefore be worth while to examine this long +established canon of Gaelic orthography, with a view to discover whether it +has not been extended farther than is necessary, and whether it ought not +in many cases to be set aside. + +We have seen that the Labials _b_, _m_, _f_, _p_, whether aspirated or not, +have no distinction of broad and small sound. + +{31} It cannot, then, be necessary to employ vowels, either prefixed or +postfixed, to indicate the sound of these. Thus, abuich _ripe_, gabhaidh +_will take_, chromainn _I would bow_, ciomaich _captives_, have been +written with a broad vowel in the second syllable, corresponding to the +broad vowel in the first syllable; yet the letters abich, gabhidh, +chrominn, ciomich, fully exhibit the sound. The prepositive syllable im, +when followed by a small vowel, is written im, as in imlich _to lick_, +imcheist _perplexity_. But when the first vowel of the following syllable +is broad, it has been the practice to insert an _o_ before the _m_, as in +iomlan _complete_, iomghaoth _a whirlwind_, iomluasg _agitation_. Yet the +inserted _o_ serves no purpose, either in respect of derivation, of +inflection, or of pronunciation. The unnecessary application of the rule in +question appears most unequivocally in words derived from other languages. +From the Latin words _imago_, _templum_, _liber_, are formed in Gaelic +iomhaigh, teampull, leabhar. Nothing but a servile regard to the rule under +consideration could have suggested the insertion of a broad vowel in the +first syllable of these words, where it serves neither to guide the +pronunciation, nor to point out the derivation. + +Another case, in which the observation of this rule seems to be wholly +unnecessary, is when two syllables of a word are separated by a quiescent +consonant. Thus in gleidheadh _keeping_, itheadh _eating_, buidheann _a +company_, dligheach _lawful_, the aspirated consonants in the middle are +altogether quiescent. The vocal sound of the second syllable is +sufficiently expressed by the last vowel. No good reason, then, appears for +writing a small vowel in the second syllable. + +Thus far it is evident that the rule respecting the correspondence of +vowels is wholly impertinent in the case of syllables divided by Labials, +or by quiescent consonants. If we examine further into the application of +this rule, we shall find more cases in which it may be safely set aside. + +Many of the inflections of nouns and verbs are formed by adding one or more +syllables to the root. The final {32} consonant of the root must always be +considered as belonging to the radical part, not to the adjected +termination. The sound of that consonant, whether broad or small, falls to +be determined by the quality of the vowel which precedes it in the same +syllable, not by the quality of that which follows it in the next syllable. +It seems, therefore, unnecessary to employ any more vowels in the adjected +syllable than what are sufficient to represent its own vocal sound. The +rule under consideration has, notwithstanding, been extended to the +orthography of the oblique cases and tenses, and a supernumerary vowel has +been thrown into the termination, whenever that was requisite to preserve +the supposed necessary correspondence with the foregoing syllable. Thus, in +forming the nominative and dative plural of many nouns, the syllables _an_ +and _ibh_ are added to the singular, which letters fully express the true +sound of these terminations. If the last vowel of the nominative singular +is broad, _an_ alone is added for the nominative plural; as, lamh-an +_hands_, cluas-an _ears_. But if the last vowel be small, an _e_ is thrown +into the termination; as, s[`u]il-ean _eyes_, sr[`o]in-ean _noses_. Now if +it be observed that, in the two last examples, the small sound of the _l_ +and _n_ in the root is determined by the preceding small vowel _i_, with +which they are necessarily connected in one syllable, and that the letters +_an_ fully represent the sound of the termination, it must be evident that +the _e_ in the final syllable is altogether superfluous. So in forming the +dative plural: if the last vowel of the root be small, _ibh_ is added; as, +s[`u]il-ibh, sroin-ibh. But if the last vowel of the root is broad, the +termination is written _aibh_; as, lamh-aibh, cluas-aibh, where the _a_, +for the reason already assigned, is totally useless. + +These observations apply with equal justness to the tenses of verbs, as +will be seen by comparing the following examples: creid-idh _will believe_, +stad-aidh _will stop_; chreid-inn _I would believe_, stad-_a_inn _I would +stop_; creid-_e_am _let me believe_, stad-am _let me stop_; creid-ibh +_believe ye_, stad-_a_ibh _stop ye_. + +The same observations may be further applied to derivative words, formed by +adding to their primitives the syllables {33} _ach_, _achd_, _ag_, _an_, +_ail_, _as_; in all which _e_ has been unnecessarily introduced, when the +last vowel of the preceding syllable was small; as, sannt-ach _covetous_, +toil-_e_ach _willing_; naomh-achd _holiness_, doimhn-_e_achd _depth_; +sruth-an _a rivulet_, cuil-_e_an _a whelp_; cauch-ag _a little cup_, +cail-_e_ag _a girl_; fear-ail _manly_, caird-_e_il _friendly_[25]; ceart-as +_justice_, caird-_e_as _friendship_. + +The foregoing observations appear sufficient to establish this general +conclusion, that in all cases in which a vowel serves neither to exhibit +the vocal sound, nor to modify the articulations of _the syllable to which +it belongs_, it may be reckoned nothing better than an useless incumbrance. +There seems, therefore, much room for simplifying the present system of +Gaelic Orthography, by the rejection of a considerable number of quiescent +vowels[26]. + +{34} + +Almost the only quiescent consonants which occur in Gaelic are _d_, _f_, +_g_, _s_, _t_, in their aspirated state. When these occur in the +inflections of declinable words, serving to indicate the Root, or in +derivatives, serving to point out the primitive word, the omission of them +might, on the whole, be unadvisable. Even when such letters appear in their +absolute form, though they have been laid aside in pronunciation, yet it +would be rash to discard them in writing, as they often serve to show the +affinity of the words in which they are found to others in different +languages, or in different dialects of the Celtic. The aspirated form of +the consonant in writing sufficiently shows that, in speaking, its +articulation is either attenuated or wholly suppressed. + +The writers of Gaelic seem to have carefully avoided bringing into +apposition two vowels which belong to different syllables. For this purpose +they have sometimes introduced a quiescent consonant into the middle of +compound or of inflected words; as, gneidheil, or rather gnethail _kindly_, +made up of gn[`e] and ail; beothail _lively_, made up of beo and ail; +diathan _gods_, from the singular dia; lathaibh _days_, from the singular +l[`a], &c. It may at least bear a question, whether it would not be better +to allow the vowels to denote the sound of the word by their own powers, +without the intervention of quiescent consonants, as has been done in {35} +mnaibh _women_, d['e]ibh _gods_, rather than insert consonants which have +nothing to do with either the radical or the superadded articulations of +the word. + +From the want of an established standard in orthography, the writers of +Gaelic, in spelling words wherein quiescent consonants occurred, must have +been often doubtful which of two or three consonants was the proper one, +and may therefore have differed in their manner of spelling the same word. +Accordingly we find, in many instances, the same words written by different +writers, and even at different times by the same writer, with different +quiescent consonants. This variation affects not indeed the pronunciation, +or does it in a very slight degree. Hence, however, some who judge of the +language only from its appearance in writing, have taken occasion to vilify +it, as unfixed and nonsensical[27]. A proper attention to the affinity +which the Scottish Gaelic bears to some other languages, particularly to +other dialects of the Celtic, might contribute to fix the orthography in +some cases where it appears doubtful, or has become variable[28]. + +IV. The last principle to be mentioned, which ought to regulate +orthography, is that every sound ought to be represented by a corresponding +character. From this rule there is hardly a single deviation in Gaelic, as +there is no sound in the spoken language which is not, in some measure, +{36} exhibited in the written language. The fault of the Gaelic orthography +is sometimes a redundancy, but never a deficiency of letters. + +A few observations on the mode of writing some particular words, or +particular parts of speech, remain to be brought forward in the sequel of +this work, which it would be premature to introduce here. + +The Scottish writers of Gaelic in general followed the Irish orthography, +till after the middle of the last century. However that system may suit the +dialect of Ireland, it certainly is not adapted to the Gaelic of this +country. In the Gaelic translation of the New Testament, printed in 1767, +not only were most of the Irish idioms and inflections which had been +admitted into the Scottish Gaelic writings rejected, and the language +adapted to the dialect of the Scottish Highlands, but the orthography also +was adapted to the language. In later publications, the manner of writing +the language was gradually assimilated to that pattern. The Gaelic version +of the sacred Scriptures lately published has exhibited a model, both of +style and orthography, still more agreeable to the purest Scottish idiom, +and has a just title to be acknowledged as the standard in both. Little +seems to be now wanting to confer on the orthography of the Scottish Gaelic +such a degree of uniformity as may redeem its credit and ensure its +stability. This, it is to be hoped, may be attained by a judicious regard +to the separate, and especially the relative powers of the letters, to the +most common and approved modes of pronunciation, to the affinity of the +Scottish Gaelic with other branches of the Celtic tongue, to the analogy of +inflection and derivation, and, above all, to the authority of some +generally received standard, to which pre-eminence the late Gaelic version +of the Scriptures has the only indisputable claim. + + * * * * * + + +{37} + +PART II. + +OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. + +The parts of speech in Gaelic may be conveniently divided and arranged as +follows:--Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, +Conjunction, Interjection. Of these, the first five are declinable; the +other four are indeclinable. + + + +CHAPTER I. + +OF THE ARTICLE. + +The Gaelic article an corresponds to the English definite article _the_. +There is in Gaelic no indefinite article corresponding to the English _a_ +or _an_. The inflections of the article are but few. They depend on the +gender, the number, and the case, of the noun to which it is prefixed. +Hence the article is declined by gender, number, and case, as follows: + + Singular. Plural. + _Masc._ _Fem._ _Masc. & Fem._ + _Nom._ an, am an, a' na + _Gen._ an, a' na nan, nam + _Dat._ an, a', n' an, a', n' na + +In the singular, final _n_ of the article is sometimes cut off, and its +absence marked by an apostrophe. The same happens to the initial _a_ of the +dative singular. + + + +CHAPTER II. + +OF NOUNS. + +A Noun is the Name of any person, object, or thing whatsoever, that we have +occasion to mention. In treating of {38} this Part of Speech, we have to +consider the _Gender_ and the _Declension_ of Nouns. + +OF GENDER. + +In imposing names on sensible objects, the great and obvious distinction of +Sex in the animal world suggested the expediency of inventing names, not +only for the particular species of animals, but also for distinguishing +their Sex. Such are _vir_, _femina_; _bull_, _cow_; _coileach_, _cearc_, +&c. To mark at once identity of species, and diversity of Sex, the same +word, with a slight change on its form, was applied to both sexes: as +_equus_, _equa_; _lion_, _lioness_; _oglach_, _banoglach_. In most +languages, distinction of Sex has been marked, not only thus by the form of +the noun, but further by the form of the adjective connected with the noun. +Most adjectives were furnished with two forms, the one of which indicated +its connection with the name of a male, the other its connection with the +name of a female. The one was called by grammarians the _masculine gender_, +the other the _feminine gender_ of the adjective. Adjectives possessing +thus a two-fold form, must necessarily have appeared under one or other of +these forms, with whatever noun they happened to be conjoined. Even nouns +significant of inanimate objects came thus to possess one mark of nouns +discriminative of Sex, as they happened to be accompanied by an adjective +of the masculine or by one of the feminine gender. If any noun was observed +to be usually coupled with an adjective of the masculine gender, it was +termed by grammarians a _masculine noun_; if it was found usually coupled +with an adjective of the feminine gender, it was termed a _feminine noun_. +Thus a distinction of nouns into masculine and feminine came to be noted, +and this also was called gender. + +It is observable, then, that gender, in grammar, is taken in two different +acceptations. When applied to an adjective, {39} it signifies a certain +_form_, by which _bonus_ is distinguished from _bona_. When applied to a +noun, it signifies a certain _relation_ of the word to the attributives +connected with it, by which _amor_ is distinguished from _cupido_. As Sex +is a natural characteristic pertaining to living objects, so gender is a +grammatical characteristic pertaining to nouns, the names of objects +whether animate or inanimate. The gender of nouns is not, properly +speaking, indicated; it is constituted by that of the attributives +conjoined with them. If there were no distinction of gender in adjectives, +participles, &c. there could be none in nouns. When we say that _amor_ is a +noun of the masculine gender, and _cupido_ a noun of the feminine gender, +we do not mean to intimate any distinction between the things signified by +these nouns; we mean nothing more than to state a grammatical fact, viz., +that an adjective connected with _amor_ is always of the same form as when +joined to a noun denoting a male, and that an adjective connected with +_cupido_ is always of the same form as when joined to a noun denoting a +female[29]. + +{40} + +When an adjective was to be connected with a noun that denoted an object +devoid of Sex, it is not always easy to guess what views might have +determined the speaker to use the adjective in one gender rather than in +the other. Perhaps Sex was attributed to the object signified by the noun. +Perhaps its properties were conceived to bear some resemblance to the +qualities characteristic of Sex in living creatures. In many instances, the +form of the noun seems to have decided the point. It must be confessed that +in this mental process, the judgment has been often swayed by trivial +circumstances, and guided by fanciful analogies. At least it cannot be +denied that in the Gaelic, where all nouns whatever are ranked under the +class of masculines or of feminines, the gender of each has been fixed by a +procedure whereof the grounds cannot now be fully investigated or +ascertained. Neither the natural nor artificial qualities or uses of the +things named, nor the form of the names given them, furnish any invariable +rule by which the gender of nouns may be known. It ought to be remembered, +however, that the Gaelic is far from being singular in this respect. The +oldest language with which we are acquainted, as well as some of the most +polished modern tongues, stand in the same predicament. + +The following observations may serve to give some idea of the analogy of +gender in Gaelic nouns; though they do not furnish a complete set of rules +sufficient to ascertain the gender of every noun:-- + +{41} + +MASCULINES. Nouns signifying males are masculines; as, fear _a man_, righ +_a king_, sagart _a priest_, tarbh _a bull_, cu _a dog_. + +Many nouns, signifying the young of animals of either Sex, are masculine, +even when the individual objects they denote are mentioned as being of the +female Sex; as, laogh _a calf_, isean _a gosling_, uan _a lamb_, &c.[30]. + +Diminutives in _an_; as, rothan _a little wheel_, dealgan _a little pin_, +&c. + +Derivatives in _as_, which are, for the most part, abstract nouns; as, +cairdeas _friendship_, naimhdeas _enmity_, ciuineas _calmness_, +breitheamhnas _judgment_, ceartas _justice_, maitheas _goodness_, &c. + +Derivatives in _air_, _ach_, _iche_, which are, for the most part, agents; +as, cealgair _a deceiver_, sealgair _a huntsman_, dorsair _a door-keeper_, +marcach _a rider_, maraiche _a sailor_, coisiche _a foot traveller_, &c. + +Names of such kinds of trees as are natives of Scotland; as, darach _oak_, +giuthas _fir_, uimhseann _ash_. + +Most polysyllables whereof the last vowel is broad, are masculine. + +FEMININES. Nouns signifying females are feminine; as, bean _a woman_, +mathair _a mother_, bo _a cow_, &c. Except bainionnach or boirionnach _a +female_, mart _a cow_, capull _a horse_ or _mare_, but commonly _a mare_, +which are masculine, and caileann or cailinn _a damsel_, masculine or +feminine.[31] Mark, vi. 28. + +{42} + +Some nouns denoting a species are feminine, even when the individual spoken +of is characterised as a male; as, gabhar fhirionn, _a he-goat_. Psal. l. +9. + +Names of countries; as, Albainn _Scotland_, Eirinn _Ireland_. + +Names of musical instruments; as, clarsach _a harp_, piob, _a pipe_. + +Names of the heavenly bodies; as, Grian _sun_, Gealach _moon_. + +Names of diseases; as, teasach _a fever_, a' ghriuthach _the measles_, a' +bhreac _the small-pox_, a' bhuidheach _the jaundice_, a' bhuinneach, _a +diarrhoea_, &c. + +Collective names of trees or shrubs are feminine; as, giuthasach _a fir +wood_, iugharach _a yew copse_, seileach _a willow copse_, droighneach _a +thorny brake_. + +Diminutives in _ag_ or _og_; as, caileag _a girl_, cuachag _a little cup_. + +Derivatives in _achd_; as, iomlanachd _fulness_, doillearachd _duskiness_, +doimhneachd _depth_, rioghachd _kingdom_, sinnsireachd _ancestry_, &c. + +Abstract nouns formed from the genitive of adjectives; as, doille +_blindness_, gile _whiteness_, leisge _laziness_, buidhre _deafness_, &c. + +Many monosyllables in _ua_ followed by one or more consonants are feminine; +as, bruach _a bank_, cruach _a heap_, cuach _a cup_, cluas _an ear_, gruag +_the hair of the head_, sguab _a sheaf_, tuadh _a hatchet_, tuath +_peasantry_. + +Almost all polysyllables, whereof the last vowel is small, except those in +_air_ and _iche_, already noticed, are feminine. + +A few nouns are of either gender; Salm _a Psalm_, creidimh _belief_, are +used as masculine nouns in some places, and feminine in others. Cruinne +_the globe_, talamb _the earth, land_, are masculine in the nominative; as, +an cruinne-c['e] _the globe of the earth_. Psal. lxxxix. 11., xc. 2.--D. +Buchan. 1767. p. 12. 15; an talamh tioram _the dry land_. Psal. xcv. {43} +5. The same nouns are generally feminine in the genitive; as, gu cr[`i]ch +na cruinne _to the extremity of the world_. Psal. xix. 4.; aghaidh na +talmhainn _the face of the earth_. Gen. i. 29. Acts xvii. 24. + +OF DECLENSION. + +Nouns undergo certain changes significant of Number and of Relation. + +The forms significant of Number are two: the _Singular_, which denotes one; +and the _Plural_, which denotes any number greater than one. + +The changes expressive of Relation are made on nouns in two ways: 1. On the +beginning of the noun; 2. On its termination. The relations denoted by +changes on the termination are different from those denoted by changes on +the beginning; they have no necessary connection together; the one may take +place in absence of the other. It seems proper, therefore, to class the +changes on the termination by themselves in one division, and give it a +name, and to class the changes on the beginning also by themselves in +another division, and give it a different name. As the changes on the +termination denote, in general, the same relations which are denoted by the +Greek and Latin cases, that seems a sufficient reason for adopting the term +case into the Gaelic Grammar, and applying it, as in the Greek and Latin, +to signify "the changes made on the _termination_ of nouns or adjectives to +mark relation".[32] According to this description of them, there are four +cases in Gaelic. These may be {44} named, like the corresponding cases in +Latin, the _Nominative_, the _Genitive_, the _Dative_, and the +_Vocative_.[33] The Nominative is used when any person or thing is +mentioned as the _subject_ of a proposition or question, or as the _object_ +of an action or affection. The Genitive corresponds to an English noun +preceded by _of_. The Dative is used only after a preposition. The Vocative +is employed when a person or thing is addressed. + +The changes on the beginning of nouns are made by aspirating an initial +consonant; that is, writing _h_ after it. This may be called the +_Aspirated_ form of the noun. The aspirated form extends to all the cases +and numbers. A noun, whereof the initial form is not changed by aspiration, +is in the _Primary_ form. + +The _accidents_ of nouns may be briefly stated thus. A noun is declined by +Number, Case, and Initial form. The Numbers are two: _Singular_ and +_Plural_. The Cases are four: _Nominative_, _Genitive_, _Dative_, and +_Vocative_. The Initial form is twofold: the _Primary form_, and the +_Aspirated form_ peculiar to nouns beginning with a consonant. + +In declining nouns, the formation of the cases is observed to depend more +on the last vowel of the nominative than on {45} the final letter. Hence +the last vowel of the nominative, or in general of any declinable word, may +be called the _characteristic_ vowel. The division of the vowels into +_broad_ and _small_ suggests the distribution of nouns into two +Declensions, distinguished by the quality of the characteristic vowel. The +first Declension comprehends those nouns whereof the _characteristic_ vowel +is _broad_; the second Declension comprehends those nouns whereof the +_characteristic_ vowel is _small_. + +The following examples are given of the inflection of nouns of the + + FIRST DECLENSION. + + Bard, mas. _a Poet_. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Bard Baird + _Gen._ Baird Bard + _Dat._ Bard Bardaibh + _Voc._ Bhaird Bharda + + Cluas, fem. _an Ear_. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Cluas Cluasan + _Gen._ Cluaise Cluas + _Dat._ Cluais Cluasaibh + _Voc._ Chluas Chluasa + +_Formation of the Cases of Nouns of the First Declension._ + +_Singular Number._ + +_General Rule for forming the Genitive._--The Genitive is formed from the +Nominative, by inserting _i_ after the characteristic vowel, as, b[`a]s +mas. _death_, Gen. sing. b[`a]is; fuaran m. a _fountain_, g. s. fuarain; +clarsach f. _a harp_, g. s. clarsaich. Feminine monosyllables likewise add +a short _e_ to the Nominative; as, cluas f. _an ear_, g. s. cluaise; +l[`a]mh _a hand_, g. s. l[`a]imhe[34]. + +{46} + +_Particular Rules for the Genitive._--1. If the nominative ends in a vowel, +the genitive is like the nominative; as, tr[`a] m. _a time_ or _season_, g. +s. tr[`a]; so also beatha f. _life_, cro m. _a sheepfold_, cliu m. _fame_, +duine _a man_, Donncha _Duncan_, a man's name, and many others. Except bo +f. _a cow_, g. s. boin; cu m. _a dog_, g. s. coin; bru f. _the belly_, g. +s. broinn or bronn. + +2. Nouns ending in _chd_ or _rr_ have the genitive like the nominative; as, +uchd m. _the breast_, sliochd m. _offspring_, feachd m. _a host_, reachd m. +_statute_, cleachd m. _habit_, beachd m. _vision_, smachd m. _authority_, +fuachd m. _cold_, sprochd m. _gloom_, beannachd m. _a blessing_, naomhachd +f. _holiness_, earr m. _the tail_, torr m. _a heap_. Except slochd g. s. +sluichd m. _a pit_, unless this word should rather be written sloc, like +boc, cnoc, soc. + +3. Monosyllables ending in _gh_ or _th_ add _a_ for the genitive; as, lagh +m. _law_, g. s. lagha; roth m. _a wheel_, g. s. rotha; sruth m. _a stream_, +g. s. srutha. Except [`a]gh m. _felicity_, _grace_, or _charm_, g. s. +aigh[35]. + +4. Monosyllables characterised by _io_ either drop the _o_ or add _a_ for +the genitive; as, siol m. _seed_, g. s. s[`i]l; lion m. _a net_, g. s. +l[`i]n; crioch f. _a boundary_, g. s. cr[`i]ch; cioch f. _the pap_, g. s. +c[`i]che; fion m. _wine_, g. s. fiona; crios m. _a girdle_, g. s. criosa; +fiodh m. _timber_, g. s. fiodha. Except Criost or Criosd m. _Christ_, which +has the gen. like the nominative. + +5. Many monosyllables, whose characteristic vowel is _a_ or _o_, change it +into _u_ and insert _i_ after it; as, gob m. _the bill of a bird_, g. s. +guib; crodh m. _kine_, g. s. cruidh; bolg or balg m. _a bag_, g. s. builg; +clog or clag m. _a bell_, g. s. cluig; lorg f. _a staff_, g. s. luirge; +long f. _a ship_, g. s. luinge; alt m. _a {47} joint_, g. s. uilt; alld m. +_a rivulet_, g. s. uilld; car m. _a turn_, g. s. cuir; carn m. _a heap of +stones_, g. s. cuirn. So also ceol m. _music_, g. s. ciuil; seol m. _a +sail_, g. s. siuil. Except nouns in _on_ and a few feminines, which follow +the general rule; as, br[`o]n m. _sorrow_, g. s. br[`o]in; l[`o]n m. +_food_, g. s. l[`o]in; cloch or clach f. _a stone_, g. s. cloiche; cos or +cas f. _the foot_, g. s. coise; br[`o]g f. _a shoe_, g. s. br[`o]ige. So +also clann f. _children_, g. s. cloinne; crann m. _a tree_, g. s. croinn. +Mac m. _a son_, has its g. s. mic. + +6. Polysyllables characterised by _ea_ change _ea_ into _i_; as, fitheach +m. _a raven_, g. s. fithich; cailleach f. _an old woman_, g. s. +caillich[36]. These two suffer a syncope, and add _e_; buidheann f. _a +company_, g. s. buidhne; sitheann f. _venison_, g. s. sithne. + +Of monosyllables characterised by _ea_, some throw away _a_ and insert _i_; +as, each m. _a horse_, g. s. eich; beann f. _a peak_, g. s. beinne; fearg +f. _anger_, g. s. feirge. Some change _ea_ into _i_; as, breac m. _a +trout_, g. s. bric; fear m. _a man_, g. s. fir; ceann m. _a head_, _end_, +g. s. cinn; preas m. _a bush_, g. s. pris; breac f. _the small-pox_, g. s. +brice; cearc f. _a hen_, g. s. circe; leac f. _a flag_, g. s. lice. Gleann +m. _a valley_, adds _e_, g. s. glinne. Some add _a_ to the nominative; as, +speal m. _a scythe_, g. s. speala. Dream f. _people_, _race_, gean m. +_humour_, have their genitive like the nominative. Feall f. _deceit_, g. s. +foill or feill. Geagh m. _a goose_, makes g. s. geoigh. + +{48} + +7. Nouns in _eu_ followed by a liquid, change _u_ into _o_ and insert _i_ +after it; as, neul m. _a cloud_, g. s. neoil, eun m. _a bird_, g. s. eoin; +feur m. _grass_, g. s. feoir; meur m. _a finger_, g. s. meoir; leus m. _a +torch_, g. s. leois. Beul m. _the mouth_, g. s. beil or beoil; sgeul. m. _a +tale_, g. s. sgeil or sgeoil. Other nouns characterised by _eu_ add _a_ for +the gen., as, treud m. _a flock_, g. s. treuda; feum m. _use_, _need_, g. +s. feuma; beum m. _a stroke_, g. s. beuma. Meud m. _bulk_, beuc m. _a +roar_, freumh f. _a fibre_, _root_, hardly admit of _a_, but have their +gen. rather like the nom. + +8. Monosyllables characterised by _ia_ change _ia_ into _ei_; as, sliabh m. +_a moor_, g. s. sleibh; fiadh m. _a deer_, g. s. feidh; biadh m. _food_, g. +s. beidh or bidh; iasg m. _fish_, g. s. eisg; grian f. _the sun_, g. s. +greine; sgiath f. _a wing_, g. s. sgeithe. Except Dia m. _God_, g. s. De; +sgian f. _a knife_, g. s. sgine. + +Piuthar f. _a sister_, has g. s. peathar; leanabh m. _a child_, g. s. +leinibh; ceathramh m. _a fourth part_, g. s. ceithrimh, leabaidh or leaba +f. _a bed_, g. s. leapa; talamh m. _earth_, g. s. talmhainn. + +The _Dative_ singular of masculine nouns is like the nominative; of +feminine nouns, is like the genitive; as, tobar m. _a well_, d. s. tobar; +clarsach f. _a harp_, g. s. and d. s. clarsaich; misneach f. _courage_, g. +s. and d. s. misnich. + + + +_Particular Rules for the Dative of Feminine Nouns._--1. If _e_ was added +to the nominative in forming the genitive, it is thrown away in the dative; +as, slat f. _a rod_, g. s. slaite--d. s. slait; grian f. _the sun_, g. s. +greine, d. s. grein. + +2. If the nominative suffered a syncope in forming the genitive, or if the +last vowel of the genitive is broad, the dative is like the nominative; as, +buidheann f. _a company_, g. s. buidhne, d. s. buidheann; piuthar f. _a +sister_, g. s. peathar, d. s. piuthar. + +The _Vocative_ of masc. nouns is like the genitive; of feminine nouns is +like the nominative; as, b[`a]s m. _death_, g. s. b[`a]is, v. s. bhais; cu +m. _a dog_, g. s. coin, v. s. choin; grian f. _the sun_, v. s. ghaoth. {49} + +_Plural Number._ + +_Nominative._ Masculine nouns which insert _i_ in the gen. sing. have their +nom. plur. like the gen. sing.; as, oglach m. _a servant_, g. s. oglaich, +n. p. oglaich; fear m. _a man_, g. s. and n. p. fir. Many of these form +their nom. plur. also by adding a short _a_ to the nominative singular. +Other masculine nouns, and all feminine nouns, have their nom. plural in +_a_, to which _n_ is added, _euphoniae causa_, before an initial vowel[37]. + + + +_Particular Rules_ for forming the Nom. Plur. in _a_ or _an_. + +1. By adding _a_ to the nom. singular; as, dubhar m. _a shadow_, n. p. +dubhara; rioghachd f. _a kingdom_, n. p. rioghachdan. Under this Rule, some +nouns suffer a syncope; as, dorus m. _a door_, n. p. dorsa for dorusa. + +2. Nouns ending in _l_ or _nn_, often insert _t_ before _a_; as, reul m. _a +star_, n. p. reulta; beann f. _a pinnacle_, n. p. beannta. So l[`o]n m. _a +marsh_, n. p. l[`o]intean. + +3. Some nouns in _ar_ drop the _a_, and add to the nom. sing. the syllable +_aich_; and then the final _a_ becomes _e_, to correspond to the preceding +small vowel; as, leabhar m. _a book_, n. p. leabhraiche; tobar m. _a well_, +n. p. tobraiche; lann. f. _an enclosure_, inserts _d_, n. p. lanndaiche. +Piuthar f. _a sister_, from the g. s. peathar, has n. p. peathraiche; so +leaba f. _a bed_, g. s. leapa, n. p. leapaiche. Bata m. _a staff_, n. p. +batacha; la or latha _a day_, n. p. lathachan or laithean. + +4. Some polysyllables in _ach_ add _e_ or _ean_ to the genitive singular; +as, mullach m. _summit_, g. s. mullaich, n. p. mullaichean; otrach m. _a +dunghill_, n. p. otraichean; clarsach f. _a harp_, n. p. clarsaichean; +deudach f. _the jaw_, n. p. deudaichean. So sliabh m. _a moor_, g. s. +sleibh, with _t_ {50} inserted, n. p. sleibhte. Sabhul m. _a barn_, g. s. +sabhuil, n. p. saibhlean, contracted for sabhuilean. + +The following Nouns form their Nominative Plural irregularly: Dia m. _God_, +n. p. d['e]e or diathan; scian f. _a knife_, n. p. sceana or scinichean; +sluagh m. _people_, n. p. sloigh; bo. f. _a cow_, n. p. ba. + + + +_Genitive._ 1. Monosyllables, and nouns which form their nominative plural +like the genitive singular, have the genitive plural like the nominative +singular; as, geug f. _a branch_, g. p. geug; coimhearsnach m. _a +neighbour_, g. s. and n. p. coimhearsnach. + +2. Polysyllables which have their nominative plural in _a_ or _an_, form +the genitive like the nominative; leabhar m. _a book_, n. p. and g. p. +'leabraichean'--When the nominative plural is twofold, the genitive is so +too; as 'fear' n. _a man_, n. p. fir, or sometimes feara, g. p. fear or +feara. + +Cu m. _a dog_ has its g. p. con; caora f. _a sheep_, g. p. caorach; sluagh +m. _people_, g. p. sluagh or slogh. + + + +_Dative._ The dative plural is formed either from the nominative singular +or from the nominative plural. If the nominative plural ends in a +consonant, the dative plural is formed by adding _ibh_ to the nominative +singular; as, crann m. _a tree_, n. p. croinn, d. p. crannaibh; mac m. _a +son_, n. p. mic, d. p. macaibh. If the nominative plural ends in a vowel, +the final vowel is changed into _ibh_; as, tobar _a well_, n. p. tobraiche, +d. p. tobraichibh. + +2. Monosyllables ending in an aspirated consonant, which have their +nominative plural like the genitive singular, form their dative plural like +the nominative plural; as, damh _an ox_, g. s. and n. p. daimh, d. p. +daimh, not damhaibh; fiadh m. _a deer_, g. s. and n. p. and d. p. feidh. So +sluagh m. _people_, _host_, g. s. sluaigh, n. p. and d. p. sloigh. Nouns +ending in _ch_, of three or more syllables, form their dative plural like +the nominative plural, rather than in _ibh_; as, coimhearsnach m. _a +neighbour_, d. p. coimhearsnaich rather than coimhearsnachaibh; phairiseach +m. _a Pharisee_, d. p. phairisich rather than phairiseachaibh. {51} + +_Vocative._ The vocative plural is like the nominative plural, terminating +in _a_, but seldom in _an_; as, fear m. _a man_, n. p. fir or feara, v. p. +_fheara_; oglach m. _a servant_, n. p. _oglaich_, v. p. _oglacha_. Except +perhaps monosyllables which never form their nominative plural in _a_, nor +their dative plural in _ibh_; as, damh m. _an ox_, n. p. daimh, v. p. +dhaimh; a shloigh, Rom. xv. 11. + +The irregular noun Bean f. _a woman_, is declined thus: + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Bean Mnai, mnathan + _Gen._ Mna Ban + _Dat._ Mnaoi Mnathaibh + _Voc._ Bhean. Mhnathan. + + + + SECOND DECLENSION. + + Cealgair, mas. _a deceiver_. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Cealgair Cealgaire + _Gen._ Cealgair Cealgair + _Dat._ Cealgair Cealgairibh + _Voc._ Chealgair. Chealgaire. + + Clais, fem. _a gully_. + + _Nom._ Clais Claisean + _Gen._ Claise Clais + _Dat._ Clais Claisibh + _Voc._ Chlais. Chlaise. + +_Formation of the cases of nouns of the second Declension._ + +_Singular Number._ + +_General Rule for the Genitive._ The genitive of polysyllables is like the +nominative; of monosyllables is made by adding _e_ to the nominative; as, +caraid m. _a friend_, g. s. caraid; aimsir f. _time_, g. s. aimsir; tigh m. +_a house_, g. s. tighe; ainm m. _a name,_ g. s. ainme; im m. _butter_, g. +s. ime; craig f. _a rock_, g. s. craige. {52} + +_Particular Rules for the Genitive._ 1. Feminine nouns in _ail_ and _air_ +drop the _i_ and add _ach_; if the nominative be a polysyllable, _ai_ is +thrown away; as, sail f. _a beam_, g. s. salach; dail f. _a plain_, g. s. +dalach; lair f. _a mare_, g. s. l[`a]rach; cathair f. _a seat_, g. s. +cathrach; nathair f. _a serpent_, g. s. nathrach; lasair f. _a flame_, g. +s. lasrach. To these add c[`o]ir f. _right_, g. s. c[`o]rach or c[`o]ire. + +2. Monosyllables characterised by _oi_ drop _i_ and add _a_; as, feoil f. +_flesh_, g. s. feola; t[`o]in f. _bottom_, g. s. t[`o]na; sr[`o]in f. _the +nose_, g. s. sr[`o]ine or sr[`o]na. + +3. Monosyllables characterised by _ui_ change _ui_ into _a_ or _o_, and add +_a_; as, muir f. _the sea_, g. s. mara; fuil f. _blood_, g. s. fola or +fala; druim f. _a ridge_, g. s. droma. Except s[`u]il f. _the eye_, g. s. +s[`u]la; cuid f. _a part_, g. s. codach or cuid. + +4. A few feminine polysyllables in _eir_ form their genitive like +monosyllables; as, inneir f. _dung_, g. s. inneire; suipeir f. _supper_, g. +s. suipeire. + +5. The following dissyllables seem to have formed their genitive like +monosyllables, and then suffered a contraction. Sometimes the +characteristic vowel is retained, and sometimes it is thrown away, the +final _e_ of the genitive being converted into _a_, when requisite to suit +an antecedent broad vowel. + + Amhainn, f. _a river_, g. s. aimhne, _contracted for_ amhainne + Aghainn } + Aghann } f. _a pan_, g. s. aighne, aghainne + Banais f. _a wedding_, g. s. bainse, banaise + Coluinn f. _the body_, g. s. colna, colla coluinne + Duthaich f. _a country_, g. s. duthcha, duthaiche + Fiacail f. _a tooth_, g. s. fiacla, fiacaile + Gamhuinn m. _a steer_, g. s. gamhna, gamhuinne + Gualainn f. _the shoulder_, g. s. guaille, gualainne + Madainn f. _morning_, g. s. maidne, madainne + Obair f. _work_, g. s. oibre, obaire + Uilinn f. _the elbow_, g. s. uillne, uilinne + +{53} + +6. The following nouns form their genitive by dropping the characteristic +small vowel; athair m. _a father_, g. s. athar; mathair f. _a mother_, g. +s. mathar; brathair m. _a brother_, g. s. brathar; namhaid m. _an enemy_, +g. s. namhad. Cnaimh m. _a bone_, g. s. cnamha; uaimh f. _a cave_, g. s. +uamha. Mil f. _honey_, has g. s. meala. + +7. A few monosyllables ending in a vowel have their genitive like the +nominative; as, ni m. _a thing_, ti m. _a person_, r['e] m. _the moon_; to +which add righ m. _a king_. + +_Dative._ The dative singular is like the nominative; as, duine m. _a man_, +d. s. duine; madainn f. _morning_, d. s. madainn. + +_Vocative._ The vocative singular is like the nominative, as, caraid m. +_friend_, v. s. charaid; mathair f. _mother_, v. s. mhathair. + +_Plural Number._ + +_Nominative.--General Rule._ The nominative plural is formed by adding to +the nominative singular _a_ or _an_, written _e_ or _ean_ to correspond to +a preceding small vowel; as, piobair m. _a piper_, n. p. piobairean; aimsir +f. _time_, _season_, n. p. aimsirean. Some nouns suffer a contraction in +the nominative plural; as, caraid m. _a friend_, n. p. c[`a]irdean; +naimhaid m. _an enemy_, n. p. naimhdean; fiacail f. _a tooth_, n. p. +fiaclan. + +_Particular Rules._ 1. Some nouns, whose last consonant is _l_ or _n_, +insert _t_ in the nominative plural; as, tuil f. _a flood_, n. p. tuilte; +smuain f. _thought_, n. p. smuaintean; coille f. _a wood_, n. p. coilltean; +[`a]ithne f. _a command_, n. p. [`a]ithnte. The _t_ is aspirated in dail f. +_a plain_, n. p. dailthean; sail f. _a beam_, n. p. sailthean. + +2. Some nouns in _air_, chiefly such as form their genitive singular in +_ach_, retain the same syllable in the nominative plural, and insert _i_ +after _a_; as, + + Cathair, f. _a seat_, g. s. cathrach, n. p. cathraichean. + Lasair, f. _a flame_, g. s. lasrach, n. p. lasraichean. + Nathair, f. _a serpent_, g. s. nathrach, n. p. nathraichean. + +{54} So also cuid f. _a part_, from the g. s. codach, has the n. p. +codaichean; athair m. _a father_, n. p. aithrichean; mathair f. _a mother_, +n. p. maithrichean. To which add amhainn f. _a river_, n. p. aimhnichean; +uisge m. _water_, n. p. uisgeachan; cridhe m. _the heart_, n. p. +cridheachan. + +The following nouns form their nominative plural irregularly; duine m. _a +man_, n. p. daoine; righ m. _a king_, n. p. righre; ni m. _a thing_, n. p. +nithe; cliamhuinn m. _a son-in-law_, or _brother-in-law_, n. p. cleamhna. + +_Genitive._ The genitive plural of monosyllables and masculine +polysyllables is twofold, like the nominative singular, and like the +nominative plural; as, righ m. _a king_, g. p. righ or righre. The genitive +plural of feminine polysyllables is like the nominative plural only; as, +amhainn f. _a river_, g. p. aimhnichean. Suil f. _the eye_, has its g. p. +s[`u]l. + +_Dative._ The dative plural is formed from the nominative plural by +changing the final vowel into _ibh_; as, coluinn f. _the body_, n. p. +coluinne, d. p. coluinnibh; cridhe m. _the heart_, n. p. cridheacha, d. p. +cridheachaibh. + +_Vocative._ The vocative plural is like the nominative plural; as, duine m. +_a man_, n. p. daoine, v. p. dhaoine. + +Final _a_ or _e_ in all the singular cases of polysyllables is occasionally +cut off, especially in verse; as, leab _bed_, teang _tongue_, coill _wood_, +cridh _heart_. + +_Of the Initial form of Nouns._ + +In nouns beginning with a consonant, all the cases admit of the _aspirated +form_. In the vocative singular and plural the aspirated form alone is +used, except in nouns beginning with a lingual, which are generally in the +primary form, when preceded by a lingual; as, a sheann duine _old man_. +Nouns beginning with _s_ followed by a mute consonant have no aspirated +form, because _s_ in that situation does not admit of the aspirate. In +nouns beginning with _l_, _n_, _r_, a distinction is uniformly observed in +pronouncing the initial consonant, corresponding precisely to the +distinction of primary and {55} aspirated forms in nouns beginning with +other consonants. This distinction has already been fully stated in +treating of pronunciation. + +The general use of the singular and plural numbers has been already +mentioned. A remarkable exception occurs in the Gaelic. When the numerals +fichead _twenty_, ceud _a hundred_, mile _a thousand_, are prefixed to a +noun, the noun is not put in the plural, but in the singular number, and +admits no variation of case. The termination of a noun preceded by da +_two_, is the same with that of the dative singular, except when the noun +is governed in the genitive case, and then it is put in the genitive +plural[38]; when preceded by fichead, ceud, &c., the termination is that of +the nominative singular; thus da laimh _two hands_, da chluais _two ears_, +d[`a] fhear _two men_, fichead l[`a]mh _twenty hands_, ceud fear _a hundred +men_, m[`i]le caora _a thousand sheep_, deich m[`i]le bliadhna _ten +thousand years_[39]. + + + +CHAPTER III. + +OF ADJECTIVES. + +An adjective is a word used along with a noun, to express some quality of +the person or thing signified by the noun. + +Adjectives undergo changes which mark their relation to other words. These +changes are made, like those on nouns, partly on the beginning, and partly +on the termination, and may be fitly denominated by the same names. The +changes on the beginning are made by aspirating an initial consonant. The +numbers and cases, like those of nouns, are distinguished by changes on the +termination. The gender is marked partly by the initial form, partly by the +termination. + +Adjectives whereof the characteristic vowel is broad, follow, {56} in most +of their inflections, the form of nouns of the first declension, and may be +termed Adjectives of the first declension. Those adjectives whereof the +characteristic vowel is small, may be called Adjectives of the second +declension. + +_Example of Adjectives of the First Declension._ + +M[`o]r, _great_. + + Singular. Plural + _Mas._ _Fem._ _Com. Gend._ + _Nom._ Mor, Mhor, Mora. + _Gen._ Mhoir, Moire, Mora. + _Dat._ Mor, Mhoir, Mora. + _Voc._ Mhoir, Mhor, Mora. + +_Formation of the Cases of Adjectives of the First Declension._ + +_Singular._ + +_Nominative._ The feminine gender is, in termination, like the masculine. + +The other cases, both mas. and fem., are formed from the nominative, +according to the rules already given for forming the cases of nouns of the +first declension. Take the following examples in adjectives:-- + +_Genitive._--_General rule._ Marbh _dead_, g. s. m. mhairbh, f. mairbhe; +dubh _black_, g. s. m. dhuibh, f. duibhe; fadalach _tedious_, g. s. m. +fhadalaich, f. fadalaich. + +_Particular rules._ 1. Sona _happy_, g. s. m. shona, f. sona; aosda _aged_, +g. s. m. and f. aosda; beo _alive_, g. s. m. bheo, f. beo. + +2. Bochd _poor_, g. s. m. bhochd, f. bochd; gearr _short_, g. s. m. ghearr, +f. gearr. + +3. Breagh _fine_, g. s. m. bhreagha, f. breagha. + +4. Crion _little_, _diminutive_, g. s. m. chr[`i]n, f. cr[`i]ne. + +5. Donn _brown_, g. s. m. dhuinn, f. duinne; gorm _blue_, g. s. m. ghuirm, +f. guirme; lom _bare_, g. s. m. luim, f. luime. {57} But dall _blind_, g. +s. m. dhoill, f. doille; mall _slow_, g. s. m. mhoill, f. moille; like the +nouns crann, clann. + +6. Cinnteach _certain_, g. s. m. chinntich, f. cinntich; maiseach +_beautiful_, g. s. m. mhaisich, f. maisich. Tearc _rare_, g. s. m, theirc, +f. teirce; dearg _red_, g. s. m. dheirg, f. deirge; deas _ready_, g. s. m. +dheis, f. deise. Breac _speckled_, g. s. m, bhric, f. brice; geal _white_, +g. s. m. ghil, f. gile. + +7. Geur _sharp_, g. s. m. gh['e]ir, f. g['e]ire; like the nouns breug, +geug. + +8. Liath _hoary_, g. s. m. leith, f. l['e]ithe; dian _keen_, g. s. m. +dh['e]in, f. d['e]ine. + +Irregulars. Odhar _pale_, g. s. m. and f. uidhir; bodhar _deaf_, g. s. m. +bhuidhir, f. buidhir. + +_Dative._--_General rule._ Uasal _noble_, d. s. m. uasal f. uasail; bodhar +_deaf_, d. s. m. bodhar, f. bhuidhir. + +_Particular rule._ 1. Trom _heavy_, d. s. m. trom, f. thruim. + +_Vocative._ Beag _small_, v. s. m. bhig, f. bheag. + +_Plural._ + +In Monosyllables the plural, through all its cases, is formed by adding _a_ +to the nom. sing.; in Polysyllables, it is like the nom. sing.; as, crom +_crooked_, pl. croma; tuirseach _melancholy_, pl. tuirseach. + +A few Dissyllables form their Plural like Monosyllables, and suffer a +contraction; as, reamhar _fat_, pl. reamhra, contracted for reamhara. Gen. +xli. 20. + +_Adjectives of the Second Declension._ + +All the Cases of Adjectives of the Second Declension are formed according +to the general rules for nouns of the second declension; that is, +Monosyllables add _e_ for the gen. sing. fem. and for the plural cases; +Polysyllables are like the nom. sing. throughout. + +In the Second Declension, as in the First, Dissyllables sometimes suffer a +contraction in the plural; as, milis _sweet_, pl. milse contracted for +milise. {58} + +_Of the Initial Form of Adjectives._ + +Adjectives admit the _aspirated form_ through all the Numbers and Cases. In +Adjectives beginning with a Labial or a Palatal, the aspirated form alone +is used in the gen. and voc. sing. masc. the nom. dat. and voc. sing. +feminine. + +_Comparison of Adjectives._ + +There are in Gaelic two forms of Comparison, which may be called the +_First_ and the _Second Comparative_. + +The _First Comparative_ is formed from the gen. sing. mas. by adding _e_; +as, geal _white_, g. s. m. gil, comp. gile, ghile; ciontach _guilty_, g. s. +m. ciontaich, comp. ciontaiche. Some Adjectives suffer a contraction in the +Comparative; as, bodhar _deaf_, comp. buidhre for buidhire; boidheach +_pretty_, comp. boidhche for boidhiche. + +If the last letter of the gen. be _a_, it is changed into _e_, and _i_ +inserted before the last consonant; as, fada _long_, g. s. m. fada, comp. +faide; tana _thin_, g. s. m. tana, comp. taine. + +_The Second Comparative_ is formed from the first, by changing final _e_ +into _id_; as, trom _heavy_, 1. comp. truime, 2. comp. truimid; tiugh +_thick_, 1. comp. tiuighe, 2. comp. tiuighid. Many Adjectives, especially +Polysyllables, do not admit of the Second Comparative. + +Both these forms of Comparison have an _aspirated_ as well as a _primary +form_, but are otherwise indeclinable. + +The following Adjectives are compared irregularly. + + _Positive._ _1. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Math, maith, _good_, fearr, feaird. + Olc, _bad, evil_, miosa, misd. + M[`o]r, _great_, m[`o], m[`o]id. + Beag, _small_, lugha, lughaid. + Goirid, gearr, _short_, giorra, giorraid. + Duilich, _difficult_, dorra. + Teath, _hot_, teoithe, teoithid. + Leathan, _broad_, leatha, l[`e]ithne. + Fogus, _near_, foisge. + {59} + C[`a]irdeach, _akin_, c[`a]ra. + Furas, _easy_, fhusa, + Toigh, _dear_, docha. + Ionmhuinn, _beloved_, annsa, ionnsa. + +To these may be added the nouns-- + +Moran _a great number_ or _quantity_, and Tuilleadh _more_. + +The _Superlative_, which is but a particular mode of expressing comparison, +is the same in form with the First Comparative. + +An eminent degree of any quality is expressed by putting one of the +particles ro, gl['e], before the Positive; as, ro ghlic _very wise_, gl['e] +gheal _very white_. The same effect is produced by prefixing fior _true_, +s[`a]r _exceeding_, &c., which words are, in that case, used adverbially; +as, fior mhaiseach _truly beautiful_, s[`a]r mhaith _exceedingly good_. + +_Cardinal Numbers._ + + 1 Aon, a h-aon, _one_. 40 D[`a] fhichead. + 2 D[`a], a dh[`a] 50 Deich is d[`a] fhichead. + 3 Tri. 60 Tri fichead. + 4 Ceithir. 100 Ceud. + 5 Cuig. 200 D[`a] cheud. + 6 S[`e], sia. 300 Tri ceud. + 7 Seachd. 400 Ceithir cheud. + 8 Ochd. 500 Cuig ceud. + 9 Naoi. 1,000 M[`i]le. + 10 Deich. 2,000 D[`a] mh[`i]le. + 11 Aon deug. 3,000 Tri m[`i]le. + 12 A dh[`a] dheug. 10,000 Deich m[`i]le. + 13 Tri deug. 20,000 Fichead m[`i]le. + 20 Fichead. 100,000 Ceud m[`i]le. + 21 Aon thar fhichead. 200,000 D[`a] cheud m[`i]le. + 22 Dha 'ar fhichead. 1,000,000 Deich ceud m[`i]le, + 23 Tri 'ar fhichead. M[`i]le de mh[`i]ltibh. + 30 Deich 'ar fhichead. &c. &c. + 31 Aon deug thar fhichead. + +{60} + +_Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun._ + + Of the mas. gender. Of the fem. gender. + + 1 Aon fhear, _one man_. Aon chlach, _one stone_. + 2 D[`a] fhear. D[`a] chloich. + 3 Tri fir. Tri clachan. + 10 Deich fir. Deich clachan. + 11 Aon fhear deug. Aon chlach dheug. + 12 D[`a] fhear dheug. D[`a] chloich dheug. + 13 Tri fir dheug. Tri clachan deug. + 20 Fichead fear. Fichead clach. + 21 Aon fhear thar fhichead. Aon chlach thar fhichead. + 22 D[`a] fhear thar fhichead. D[`a] chloich thar fhichead. + 23 Tri fir fhichead. Tri clacha fichead. + 30 Deich fir fhichead. Deich clacha fichead. + 31 Aon fhear deug 'ar fhichead. Aon chlach dheug thar fhichead. + 40 D[`a] fhichead fear. D[`a] fhichead clach. + 41 Fear is d[`a] fhichead. Clach is d[`a] fhichead. + 42 D[`a] fhear is d[`a] fhichead. D[`a] chloich is da fhichead. + 50 Deich is d[`a] fhichead fear. Deich is da fhichead clach. + 60 Tri fichead fear. Tri fichead clach. + 70 Tri fichead fear agus deich. Tri fichead clach agus deich. + 100 Ceud fear. Ceud clach. + 101 Ceud fear agus a h-aon. Ceud clach agus a h-aon. + 300 Tri cheud fear. Tri cheud clach. + 1,000 M[`i]le fear. M[`i]le clach. + 10,000 Deich m[`i]le fear, &c. Deich m[`i]le clach, &c. + +_Ordinal Numbers._ + + 1 An ceud fhear, _the first man_; a' cheud chlach, _the first stone_. + 2 An dara fear. + 3 An treas fear, an tri-amh fear. + 4 An ceathramh fear. + 5 An cuigeamh fear. + 6 An seathamh fear. + 7 An seachdamh fear. + 8 An t-ochdamh fear. + {61} + 9 An naothamh fear. + 10 An deicheamh fear. + 11 An t-aon fear deug. + 12 An dara fear deug. + 20 Am ficheadamh fear. + 21 An t-aon fhear fichead. + 22 An dara fear fichead. + 31 An t-aon fhear deug thar fhichead. + 40 An d[`a] fhicheadamh fear. + 60 An tri ficheadamh fear. + 100 An ceudamh fear. + 101 An t-aon fhear thar cheud. + 120 Am ficheadamh fear thar cheud. + 200 An da cheudamh fear. + 1000 Am m[`i]leamh fear, &c. + +The following numeral Nouns are applied only to persons:-- + + 2. Dithis, _two persons_. 7. Seachdnar. + 3. Triuir. 8. Ochdnar. + 4. Ceathrar. 9. Naoinar. + 5. Cuignear. 10. Deichnar. + 6. S[`e]anar. + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +OF PRONOUNS. + +The _Pronouns_ are, for the most part, words used instead of nouns. They +may be arranged under the following divisions: Personal, Possessive, +Relative, Demonstrative, Interrogative, Indefinite, Compound. + +The _Personal Pronouns_ are those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons. They have +a Singular and a Plural Number, a Simple and an Emphatic Form. They are +declined thus:-- {62} + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Simple Form._ _Emphat. F._ _Simple F._ _Emphat._ + 1. Mi, mhi, _I_, _me_, Mise, mhise. Sinn, _we_, _us_, Sinne. + 2. {Th, thu, _thou_, } Tusa, thusa. Sibh, _ye_, _you_, Sibhse. + {Thu, _thee_, } + 3. {E, se, _he_, } Esan. + {E, _him_, } + {I, si, _she_, } Ise. {Iad, siad, _they_} + {I, _her_, } {Iad, _them,_ } Iadsan[40] + +The Pronoun 'sibh' _you_, of the plural number is used almost universally +in addressing a single person of superior rank or of greater age; while +'tu' _thou_, of the singular number is used in addressing an inferior or an +equal. But the degree of seniority or of superiority, which is understood +to entitle a person to this token of respect, varies in different parts of +the Highlands[41]. The Supreme Being is always addressed by the pronoun +'tu' _thou_, of the singular number. + +The _Possessive Pronouns_ correspond to the Personal Pronouns, and, like +them, may be called those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons singular, and 1st, +2d, and 3d persons plural. They have an Emphatic Form, which is made by +connecting the syllable _sa_ with the possessive pronoun of the 1st, 2d, +{63} and 3d persons singular, and 2d person plural; _ne_ with that of the +1st person plural, and _san_ with that of the 3d person plural. These +syllables are placed immediately after the nouns to which the possessive +pronouns are prefixed, and connected by a hyphen. + +These Pronouns are as follow:-- + + _Simple._ _Emphatic._ _Simple._ _Emphatic._ + _Singular._ _Plural._ + 1. Mo, _my_, mo mhac-sa 1. Ar, _our_, ar mac-ne + 2. Do, _thy_, do ----sa 2. Bhur, 'ur, _your_, bhur ----sa + 3. {A, _his_, a mhac-sa, san} 3. An, am, _their_, an, am ----sa, san + {A, _her_, a mac-sa, san } + +If the noun be followed by an adjective, the emphatic syllable is affixed +to the adjective; as, do l[`a]mh gheal-sa _thy white hand_. + +The possessive pronouns mo, do, when followed by a vowel, commonly lose the +_o_, whose absence is marked by an apostrophe; as, m' aimn _my name_; d' +athair[42] _thy father_. The same pronouns when preceded by the preposition +ann _in_, suffer a transposition of their letters, and are written am, ad, +one broad vowel being substituted for another, as, ann ad chridhe _in thy +heart_, 1 Sam. xiv. 7, ann am aire _in my thoughts_. + +The possessive pronoun a _his_, is often suppressed altogether after a +vowel; as, na sanntaich bean do choimhearsnaich, no oglach, no bhanoglach, +no dhamh, no asal, _covet not thy neighbour's wife, or his man-servant, or +his maid-servant_, &c., Exod. xx. 17. In these and similar instances, as +the tense is but imperfectly expressed (especially when the noun begins +with a vowel), and cannot be gathered with certainty from any other part of +the sentence, perhaps it might {64} be an improvement to retain the +pronoun, even at the expense of cutting off the final vowel of the +preceding word; as, n' a oglach, n' a bhanoglaich, &c. In many cases, +however, this appears hardly practicable; as, cha bheo athair _his father +is not alive_, which could not with any propriety be written cha bheo a +athair[43]. + +The word fein corresponding to the English words _self_, _own_, is +subjoined occasionally both to the personal and possessive pronouns: thus +mi fein _myself_, mise fein _I myself_, thu fein _thyself_, thusa fein +_thou thyself_, or _thy own self_, mo shluagh fein _my own people_. + +The other Pronouns are as follow:-- + + _Relative._ _Demonstrative._ _Interrogative._ + _N._ A, _who_, _which_, So, _this_, _these_. Co? _who?_ + _that_. + _G.&D._ An. Sin, _that_, _those_. Cia? _which?_ + Nach, _who not_, Sud[44], ud, _yon_. Ciod, creud? _what?_ + _which not_, + Na, _that which_, + _what_[45]. + + _Indefinite._ _Compound._ + Eigin, _some_. E so, _this one_, m. E sud, _yon one_, m. + Ge b'e } _whoever_[46]. I so, _this one_, f. I sud, _yon one_, f. + Cia b'e } + {65} + Eile, _other_. Iad so, _these_. Iad sud, _yon_, pl. + Gach, } _each_, } E sin, _that one_, m. Cach eile, _the rest_. + Cach, } _every_[47]. } + Cach, _others, the rest_. Iad sin, _those_. Cach a ch['e]ile, + Cuid, _some_. _each other_[48]. + + + +CHAPTER V. + +OF VERBS. + +A word that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer anything, is called a +_Verb_. + +The Verb in Gaelic, as in other languages, is declined by Voices, Moods, +Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. + +The _Voices_ are two: Active and Passive. + +The _Moods_ are five: the Affirmative or Indicative, the Negative or +Interrogative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. Many, +but not all, Transitive Verbs have a Passive Participle. + +The _Tenses_ are three: the Present, the Preterite, and the Future. + +The _Numbers_ are two: Singular and Plural. + +The _Persons_ are three: First, Second, and Third. The {66} distinction of +number and person takes place only in a few tenses. + +The inflections of Verbs, like those of nouns, are made by changes at the +beginning, and on the termination. + +The changes on the termination are made according to one model, and by the +same rules. But for the sake of stating some diversity in the _initial_ +changes, it may be convenient to arrange the verbs in two _conjugations_, +whereof the first comprehends those verbs which begin with a consonant, the +second, those verbs which begin with a vowel. Verbs beginning with _f_, +followed by a vowel, are ranged under the second conjugation, along with +verbs beginning with a vowel. + +The verb Bi _be_, which is used as an auxiliary to other verbs, is declined +as follows:-- + +Bi, _be_. + + _Affirmative_ or _Indicative Mood_. + + Present. Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1. Ta mi, _I am_, Bha mi, _I was_, Bithidh mi, _I will be_, + 2. Ta thu, Bha thu, Bithidh tu, + 3. Ta e; Bha e; Bithidh se; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1. Ta sinn, Bha sinn, Bithidh sinn, + 2. Ta sibh, Bha sibh, Bithidh sibh, + 3. Ta iad. Bha iad. Bithidh siad. + + _Negative_ or _Interrogative Mood_. + + Present. Preterite. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 Bheil mi, _I am not,_ Robh mi, _I was not,_ + ni { 2 Bheil thu, Robh thu, + cha { 3 Bheil e; Robh e; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 Bheil sinn, Robh sinn, + { 2 Bheil sibh, Robh sibh, + { 3 Bheil iad. Robh iad. + +{67} + + Future. + _Sing._ + { Bi mi, _I shall not be_, + ni { Bi thu, + cha { Bi se; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ + &c. { Bi sinn, + { Bi sibh, + { Bi siad. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite or Imperfect. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhithinn, _I would be_, Ma bhitheas mi, _If I shall be_, + 2 Bhitheadh tu, Bhitheas tu, + 3 Bhitheadh e; Bhitheas e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhitheadheamaid, Bhitheas sinn, + Bhitheadh sinn, + 2 Bhitheadh sibh, Bhitheas sibh, + 3 Bhitheadh iad. Bhitheas iad. + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _Sing._ + 1 Bitheam, _let me be_, Bith, _being_, + 2 Bi, bi thusa, do bhith, } _to be_, + 3 Bitheadh e; a bhith, } + gu bhith, } _to be_, + _Plur._ gu bith, } + 1 Bitheamaid, iar bhith,} _after being_, _been_, + 2 Bithibh, iar bith, } + 3 Bitheadh iad. o bhith, _from being_, &c. + +_Compound Tenses._ + + Present. Preterite. Future. + _Affirmative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ _Sing._ + Ta mi iar bith, Bha mi iar bith, Bithidh mi iar bith, + _I have been_, &c. _I had been_, &c. _I shall have been_, &c. + {68} + + _Negative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ _Sing._ + ni, {Bheil mi iar bith, Robh mi iar bith, Bi mi air bith, + &c. {_I have not been._ _I had not been._ _I shall not have been._ + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite or Pluperfect. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhithinn iar bith, Ma bhitheas mi iar bith, + _I should have been, &c._ _If I shall have been, &c._ + +The present affirmative ta is often written tha. This is one of many +instances where there appears reason to complain of the propensity remarked +in Part I. in those who speak the Gaelic, to attenuate its articulations by +aspiration. Another corrupt way of writing ta which has become common, is +ata. This has probably taken its rise from uniting the relative to the +verb; as, an uair _ata_ mi; instead of an uair _a ta_, &c., mar _a ta_, &c. +Or perhaps it may have proceeded from a too compliant regard to a +provincial pronunciation. + +The pret. neg. robh appears to be made up of the verbal participle ro, the +same with do, and bha, throwing away the last vowel; ro bha, robh. + +The verb and pronoun of the 1st per. sing. and 3d per. plur. are frequently +incorporated into one word, and written taim _I am_, taid _they are_. + +The pres. neg. loses the initial _bh_ after the participle cha _not_, mur +_if not_, nach _that not_; _n_ is inserted, _euphoniae causa_, betwixt the +participle cha and the verb; as, cha n 'eil, mur 'eil, nach 'eil. This +Tense is often pronounced beil after the participle am; as, am beil e? _is +it?_ + +In the North Highlands, the pret. neg. often takes the common verbal +participle do before it; as, cha do robh mi, or cha d'robh mi, _I was not_. + +Initial _b_ of the fut. neg. is aspirated after the participle cha _not_; +as, cha bhi. + +Initial _bh_ of the pret. subj. loses the aspiration after the {69} +participles ni _not_, mur _if not_, nach _that not_, gu _that_, nam _if_; +as, mur bithinn, nam bitheadh tu. + +The subjunct. and imper. often suffer a contraction, by changing _ithea_ +into _io_; as, biodh, biom, bios, &c. + +Some of the compound tenses of Bi are rarely if ever used. They are here +given complete, because they correspond to the analogy of other verbs; and +show how accurately the various modifications of time may be expressed by +the substantive verb itself. + +Example of a verb of the First Conjugation. Buail _to strike_. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Simple Tenses. + + _Affirmative_ or _Indicative Moods_. + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Do bhuail mi, _I struck_, Buailidh mi, _I will strike_, + Bhuail mi, + 2 Bhuail thu, Buailidh tu, + 3 Bhuail e; Buailidh se; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuail sinn, Buailidh sinn, + 2 Bhuail sibh, Buailidh sibh, + 3 Bhuail iad. Buailidh siad. + + _Negative_ or _Interrogative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 Do bhuail mi, _I struck not_ Buail mi, _I will not strike_, + ni { 2 Do bhuail thu, Buail thu, + cha { 3 Do bhuail e; Buail e; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 Do bhuail sinn, Buail sinn, + { 2 Do bhuail sibh, Buail sibh, + { 3 Do bhuail iad. Buail iad. + +{70} + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhuailinn, _I would strike_, Ma bhuaileas mi, _If I shall strike_, + 2 Bhuaileadh tu, Bhuaileas tu, + 3 Bhuaileadh e; Bhuaileas e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuaileamaid, Bhuaileas sinn, + Bhuaileadh sinn, + 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, Bhuaileas sinn, + 3 Bhuaileadh iad. Bhuaileas iad. + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _Sing._ + 1 Buaileam, _let me strike_, Bualadh, _striking_, + 2 Buail, ag bualadh, _a-striking_, _striking_, + 3 Buaileadh e; iar bualadh, _struck_, + do bhualadh, } + _Plur._ a bhualadh, } _to strike_, + 1 Buaileamaid, ri bualadh, _at striking_, + 2 Buailibh, le bualadh, _with striking_, + 3 Buaileadh iad. o bhualadh, _from striking_, &c. + +Compound Tenses. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ta mi ag bualadh, Bha mi ag bualadh, Bithidh mi ag bualadh, + _I am striking_, &c. _I was striking_, &c. _I will be striking_, &c. + + {71} + Present. Preterite. Future. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ta mi iar bualadh, Bha mi iar bualadh, Bithidh mi iar bualadh, + _I have struck_, &c. _I had struck_, &c. _I will have struck_, &c. + + _Negative Mood_ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + { Bheil mi ag bualadh, Robh mi ag bualadh, + { _I am not striking_, &c. _I was not striking_, &c. + { + { Future. + { _1. Comp._ + { Bi mi ag bualadh, + ni { _I will not be striking_, &c. + cha { + nach { Present. Preterite, + mur, { _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + &c. { Bheil mi iar bualadh, Robh mi iar bualadh, + { _I have not struck_,&c. _I had not struck,_ &c. + { + { Future. + { _2. Comp._ + { Bi mi iar bualadh, + { _I will not have struck,_ &c. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bhithinn ag bualadh, Ma bhitheas mi ag bualadh, + _I would be striking_, &c. _If I shall be striking_, &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bhithinn iar bualadh, Ma bhitheas mi iar bualadh, + _I would have struck,_ &c. _If I shall have struck_, &c. + {72} + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bitheam ag bualadh, Do bhith ag bualadh, + _Let me be striking,_ &c. _To be striking,_ &c. + Iar bith ag bualadh, + _Been striking,_ &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bitheam iar bualadh, Do bhith iar bualadh, + _Let me have struck,_ &c. _To have been striking,_ &c. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Simple Tenses. + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, _I was struck._ Buailear mi, _I shall be struck._ + Bhuaileadh mi, + 2 Bhuaileadh thu, Buailear thu, + 3 Bhuaileadh e; Buailear e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuaileadh sinn, Buailear sinn, + 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, Buailear sibh, + Bhuaileadh iad. Buailear iad. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, Buailear mi, + { _I was not struck_, _I shall not be struck_, + ni { 2 Do bhuaileadh thu, Buailear thu, + cha { 3 Do bhuaileadh e; Buailear e; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 Do bhuaileadh sinn, Buailear sinn, + { 2 Do bhuaileadh sibh, Buailear sibh, + { 3 Do bhuaileadh iad, Buailear iad. + +{73} + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhuailteadh mi, _ Ma bhuailear mi, + _I would be struck,_ _If I shall be struck._ + 2 Bhuailteadh thu, Bhuailear thu, + 3 Bhuailteadh e; Bhuailear e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuailteadh sinn, Bhuailear sinn, + 2 Bhuailteadh sibh, Bhuailear sibh, + 3 Bhuailteadh iad. Bhuailear iad. + + _Imperative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + 1 Buailtear mi, _Let me be struck,_ 1 Buailtear sinn, + 2 Buailtear thu, 2 Buailtear sibh, + 3 Buailtear e. 3 Buailtear iad. + + _Participle._ + Buailte, _struck._ + + Compound Tenses + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ta mi buailte, _I am struck,_ &c. Bha mi buailte, _I was struck,_ &c. + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Bithidh mi buailte, _I shall be struck,_ &c. + +{74} + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Ta mi iar mo bhualadh, Bha mi iar mo bhualadh, + _I have been struck,_ _I had been struck,_ + 2 Ta thu iar do bhualadh, Bha thu iar do bhualadh, + 3 Ta se iar a bhualadh; Bha se iar a bhualadh; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Ta sinn iar ar bualadh, Bha sinn iar ar bualadh, + 2 Ta sibh iar 'ur bualadh, Bha sibh iar 'ur bualadh, + 3 Ta siad iar am bualadh. Bha siad iar am bualadh. + + Future. + _2. Comp._ + _Sing._ + 1 Bithidh mi iar mo bhualadh, _I shall have been struck._ + 2 Bithidh tu iar do bhualadh, + 3 Bithidh se iar a bhualadh; + + _Plur._ + 1 Bithidh sinn iar ar bualadh, + 2 Bithidh sibh iar 'ur bualadh, + 3 Bithidh siad iar am bualadh. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ni bheil mi buailte, Ni'n robh mi buailte, + _I am not struck,_ &c. _I was not struck,_ &c. + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi buailte, _I shall not be struck,_ &c. + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ni 'm bheil mi iar mo bhualadh, Ni'n robh mi iar mo bhualadh, + _I have not been struck,_ &c. _I had not been struck,_ &c. + {75} + + Future. + _2. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi iar mo bhualadh, _I shall not have been struck,_ &c. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bhithinn buailte, Ma bhitheas mi buailte, + _I would be struck,_ &c. _If I shall be struck,_ &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bhithinn iar mo bhualadh, Ma bhitheas mi iar mo bhualadh, + _I would have been struck,_ &c. _If I shall have been struck,_ &c. + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bitheam buailte, Do bhith buailte, + _Let me be struck,_ &c. _To be struck,_ &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bitheam iar mo bhualadh, Do bhith iar mo bhualadh, + _Let me have been struck,_ &c. _To have been struck,_ &c. + + + +_Examples of Verbs of the Second Conjugation._ + +Orduich, _to appoint._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Simple Tenses + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirmat._ Dh'orduich, Orduichidh, + _Negat._ D'orduich, Orduich, + _Subjunct._ Dh'orduichinn. Dh'orduicheas. + _Imperat._ Orduicheam. _Infinit._ Orduchadh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirmat._ Dh'orduicheadh, Orduichear, + _Negat._ D'orduicheadh, Orduichear, + _Subjunct._ Dh'orduichteadh. Dh'orduicheas. + _Imperat._ Orduichear. _Particip._ Orduichte. + +{76} + +Folaich, _to hide._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirmat._ Dh'fholaich, Folaichidh, + _Negat._ D'fholaich, Folaich, + _Subjunct._ Dh'fholaichinn. Dh'fholaicheas. + _Imperat._ Folaicheam. _Infinit._ Folachadh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirmat._ Dh'fholaicheadh, Folaichear, + _Negat._ D'fholaicheadh, Folaichear, + _Subjunct._ Dh'fholaichteadh. Dh'fholaichear. + _Imperat._ Folaichtear. _Particip._ Folaichte. + +The Compound tenses may be easily learned from those of the Verb Buail in +the first Conjugation, being formed exactly in the same manner. + + + +FORMATION OF THE TENSES. + +_Of the Initial Form._ + +An Initial Consonant is aspirated in the Preterite Tense, through all the +Moods and Voices, except in the Preterite Subjunctive after the Particles +ni, mur, nach, gu, an, am. An initial Consonant is occasionally aspirated +in the Future Tense, and in the Infinitive and Participle, indicating their +connection with the preceding word. + +In the first Conjugation, do is prefixed to the Pret. Aff. and Neg. Active +and Passive. However, it often is, and always may be, omitted before the +Pret. Aff. It is sometimes omitted in the Pret. Neg. in verse, and in +common conversation. In the second Conjugation, the same Particle do is +prefixed to the Preterite through all the Moods and Voices, and to the Fut. +Subj. excepting only the Subjunctive Tenses after ni, mur, nach, gu, an, +am. In this {77} Conjugation, do always loses the _o_ to avoid a _hiatus_, +and the _d_ is aspirated in the Affirm. and Subjunct. Moods[49]. + +_Of the Termination._ + +In all regular Verbs, the Terminations adjected to the Root are, strictly +speaking, the same in Verbs characterised by a small vowel. But where the +first vowel of the Termination does not correspond in quality to the last +vowel of the Root, it has become the constant practice to insert in the +Termination a vowel of the requisite quality, in order to produce this +correspondence. Thus a variety has been introduced into the Terminations +even of regular Verbs, prejudicial to the uniformity of inflection, and of +no use to ascertain either the sense or the pronunciation[50]. In the +foregoing examples of regular Verbs, the common mode of Orthography has +been followed, but in the following rules the simple Terminations only are +specified. + +ACTIVE VOICE. + +Simple Tenses. + +The Theme or Root of the Verb is always found in the second Per. sing. of +the imperative. + +The _Preterite_ Affirm. and Negat. is like the Root, and has no distinction +of Number or Person. In most of the editions of the Gaelic Psalms, some +inflections of the {78} Preterite have been admitted, with good effect, +from the Irish Verb; such as, bhuaileas _I struck_, bhuailis _thou didst +strike_, bhuaileamar _we struck_, bhuaileadar _they struck_. The Pret. +Subj. is formed by adding to the Root _inn_ for the first pers. sing., and +_adh_ for the other persons. The first pers. plur. also terminates in +_amaid_. + +The _Future_ Affirm. adds _idh_ to the Root; in the Negat. it is like the +Root; and in the Subjunct. it adds _as_. A poetic Future Tense terminating +in _ann_ or _onn_, is frequent in the Gaelic Psalms; as, gairionn _will +call_, seasfann _will stand_, do bheirionn, _will give_, &c. The Future has +no distinction of Number or Person. The Termination of the Future Affirm. +and Negat. in many Verbs was formerly _fidh_, like the Irish; of which many +examples occur in the earlier editions of the Gaelic Psalms. In later +Gaelic publications, the _f_ has been uniformly set aside[51]. The +Termination of the first pers. and third pers. plur. is often incorporated +with the corresponding Pronoun; as, seinnam cliu _I will sing praise_, +Psal. lxi. 8., Ni fuigham b[`a]s, ach mairfam beo, _I shall not die, but +shall remain alive_, Ps. cxviii. 17., Ithfid, geillfid, innsid, _they will +eat_, _they will submit_, _they will tell_, Ps. xxii, 26, 29, 31. [52]. + +{79} + +In the _Imperative_ Mood, the second pers. sing. is the Root of the Verb. +The other persons are distinguished by these Terminations; 1st pers. sing. +_am_, 3d pers. sing. _adh_, 1st pers. plur. _amaid_, 2d pers. plur. _ibh_, +3d pers. plur. _adh_. + +The Terminations peculiar to the 1st pers. sing. and plur. of the Pret. +Subj. and of the Imperat. supply the place of the Personal Pronouns; as +does also the Termination of the 2d pers. plur. of the Imperative. + +The _Infinitive_ is variously formed. + +_General Rule._ The Infinitive is formed by adding _adh_ to the Root; as, +aom _bow, incline_, Infin. aomadh; ith _eat_, Infin. itheadh. + +1. Some Verbs suffer a syncope in the penult syllable, and are commonly +used in their contracted form; as, + + _Imper._ _Infin._ + Caomhain, _spare_, Caomhnadh. + Coisin, _win_, Coisneadh, Cosnadh. + Diobair, _deprive_, Diobradh. + F[`o]gair, _remove_, F[`o]gradh. + Foghain, _suffice_, Foghnadh. + Fosgail, _open_, Fosgladh. + Innis, _tell_, Innseadh. + Iobair, _sacrifice_, Iobradh. + Mosgail, _awake_, Mosgladh. + Seachain, _avoid_, Seachnadh. + Tionsgain, _begin_, Tionsgnadh. + Togair, _desire_, Togradh. + +Observe that Verbs which thus suffer a syncope in forming {80} the +Infinitive, suffer a like syncope in the Preterite Subjunctive, and in the +Imperative Mood; as, innis _tell_, Infin. innseadh, Pret. Subj. innsinn, +innseadh, innseamaid, Imperat. innseam, innseamaid, innsibh. + +2. A considerable number of Verbs have their Infinitive like the Root; as, + + Caoidh, _lament_. Ol, _drink_. + Dearmad, _neglect_. Ruith, _run_. + F[`a]s, _grow_. Snamh, _swim_. + Gairm, _call_. Sniomh, _twine_. + Meas, _estimate_. + +3. Polysyllables in _ch_, whose characteristic Vowel is small, either throw +it away, or convert it into a broad Vowel and add _adh_; as, + + Ceannaich, _buy_, Ceannachadh. + Smuainich, _think_, Smuaineachadh. + +Most Monosyllables in _sg_, and a few others, follow the same Rule; as, + + _Imper._ _Infin._ _Imper._ _Infin._ + Coisg, _check_, Cosgadh. Naisg, _bind_, Nasgadh. + F[`a]isg, _wring_, F[`a]sgadh. Paisg, _wrap_, Pasgadh. + Loisg, _burn_, Losgadh. Blais, _taste_, Blasadh. + Luaisg, _rock_, Luasgadh. Buail, _strike_, Bualadh. + +4. Many Verbs, whose characteristic Vowel is small, either throw it away, +or convert it into a broad Vowel, without adding _adh_; as, + + _Imper._ _Infin._ _Imper._ _Infin._ + Amhairc, _look_, Amharc. Iomain, _drive_, Ioman. + Amais, _reach_, Amas. Leighis, _cure_, Leigheas. + Caill, _lose_, Call. Sguir, _cease_, Sgur. + Ceangail, _bind_, Ceangal. Siubhail, _travel_, Siubhal. + Cuir, _put_, Cur. Tachrais, _wind_, Tachras. + Coimhid, _keep_, Coimhead. Tiondaidh, _turn_, Tiondadh. + Fulaing, _suffer_, Fulang. Toirmisg, _forbid_, Toirmeasg. + Fuirich, _stay_, Fuireach. Toinail, _gather_, Toinal. + Guil, _weep_, Gul. Tionsgail, _contrive_, Tionsgal. + +{81} + +5. The following Verbs in _air_ add _t_ to the Root:-- + + _Imper._ _Infin._ + Agair, _claim_, Agairt. + Bagair, _threaten_, Bagairt. + Casgair, _slaughter_, Casgairt. + Freagair, _answer_, Freagairt. + Iomair, _use_, Iomairt. + Labhair, _speak_, Labhairt. + Lomair, _shear_, Lomairt. + Saltair, _trample_, Saltairt. + Tabhair, _give_, Tabhairt. + Tachair, _meet_, Tachairt. + +6. These Monosyllables add _sinn_ to the Root:-- + + Beir, _bear_, Beirsinn. + Creid, _believe_, Creidsinn. + Faic, _see_, Faicsinn. + Goir, _crow_, Goirsinn. + Mair, _continue_, Mairsinn. + Saoil, _think_, Saoilsinn. + Tr['e]ig, _forsake_, Tr['e]igsinn. + Tuig, _understand_, Tuigsinn, or Tuigeil. + Ruig, _reach_, Ruigsinn, or Ruigheachd. + +7. These Monosyllables add _tuinn_ or _tinn_ to the Root:-- + + Bean, _touch_, Beantuinn. + Buin, _take away_, Buntuinn. + Can, _say, sing_, Cantuinn. + Cinn, _grow_, Cinntinn. + Cluinn, _hear_, Cluinntinn. + Fan, _stay_, Fantuinn. + Gin, _produce_, Giontuinn, or Gionmhuin. + Lean, _follow_, Leantuinn, or Leanmhuin. + Meal, _enjoy_, Mealtuinn. + Pill, _return_, Pilltinn. + Seall, _look_, Sealltuinn. + +{82} + +8. The following Monosyllables add _ail_ to the Root:-- + + _Imper._ _Infin._ _Imper._ _Infin._ + Cum, _hold_, Cumail. Leag, _cast down_, Leagail. + Gabh, _take_, Gabhail. Tog, _raise_, Togail. + F[`a]g, _leave_, F[`a]gail. Tuig, _understand_, Tuigeil. + +9. These Monosyllables add _amh_ to the Root:-- + + _Imper._ _Infin._ + Caith, _spend_, Caitheamh. + Dean, _do, make_, Deanamh. + Feith, _wait_, Feitheamh. + Seas, _stand_, Seasamh. + +10. The following Verbs form the Infinitive irregularly:-- + + Beuc, _roar_, Beucaich. + B[`u]ir, _bellow_, B[`u]irich. + Geum, _low_, Geumnaich. + Glaodh, _cry_, Glaodhaich. + Caisd, _listen_, Caisdeachd. + Eisd, _hearken_, Eisdeachd. + Marcaich, _ride_, Marcachd. + Thig, _come_, Teachd, tighinn. + Faigh, _find_, Faghail, faotainn. + Eirich, _rise_, Eirigh. + Iarr, _request_, Iarraidh. + Taisg, _lay up_, Tasgaidh. + Coidil, _sleep_, Codal. + Fuaigh, _sew_, Fuaghal. + Gluais, _move_, Gluasad, gluasachd. + Tuit, _fall_, Tuiteam. + Teirig, _wear out_, Teireachduinn. + Teasairg, _deliver_, Teasairgin. + +_Compound Tenses._ + +The _compound Tenses of the first order_ are made up of the several simple +Tenses of the auxiliary verb Bi _be_, and the Infinitive preceded by the +Preposition ag _at_. Between two Consonants, ag commonly loses the _g_, and +is written _a'_; as, {83} ta iad a' deanamh _they are doing_. Between two +Vowels, the _a_ is dropped, and the _g_ is retained; as, ta mi 'g iarruidh +_I am asking_. When preceded by a Consonant, and followed by a Vowel, the +Preposition is written entire, as, ta iad ag iarruidh _they are asking_. +When preceded by a Vowel, and followed by a Consonant, it is often +suppressed altogether; as, ta mi deanamh _I am doing_[53]. + +The _compound Tenses of the second order_ are made up of the simple Tenses +of Bi and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition iar _after_[54]. + +PASSIVE VOICE. + +_Simple Tenses._ + +The _Preterite_ Affirm. and Negat. is formed from the same Tense in the +Active, by adding _adh_. The Preter. Subj. adds _teadh_. + +The _Future_ is formed from the Fut. Act. by changing the Terminations in +the Affirm. and Subj. into _ar_, (more properly _far_, as of old) and +adding the same syllable in the Negative. + +The _Imperative_ is formed from the Imperat. Act. by adding to the second +pers. sing. _tar_, _thar_, or _ar_.[55] + +{84} + +The _Participle_ is formed by adding _te_ to the Root[56]. + +There is no distinction of Number or Person in the Tenses of the Passive +Voice. + +Verbs which suffer a syncope in the Infinitive, suffer a like syncope in +the Pret. Aff. and Neg. throughout the Future Tense, and in the Imperative. + +_Compound Tense._ + +The _compound Tenses of the first order_ are made up of the simple Tenses +of the auxiliary Bi and the Passive Participle. + +{85} + +The _compound Tenses of the second order_ are made up of the simple Tenses +of _Bi_ and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition _iar_ and the +Possessive Pronoun corresponding in Person to the Pronoun, or to the Noun, +which is the Nominative to the verb. + +_Use and Import of the Moods and Tenses._ + +The _Affirmative_ or _Indicative_ Mood expresses affirmation, and is used +in affirmative propositions only, as, Do bhuail mi _I struck_, bha mi ag +bualadh _I was striking_. + +The _Negative_ or _Interrogative_ Mood is used in negative propositions and +interrogative clauses, after the Particles ni _not_, cha _not_, nach _which +not_, _that not_, _not?_ mur _if not_; also, gu, gur, _that_, an, am, +whether used relatively or interrogatively; as, cha d'fholaich mi _I did +not hide_, mur buail sinn _if we shall not strike_, nach robh iad _that +they were not_, gu robh iad _that they were_; am buail mi? _shall I +strike?_ It is used in the Future Tense after ged _although_; as, ged +bhuail e mi, _though he strike me_[57]. + +The _Subjunctive_ Mood is used in the Preterite, either with or without +conjunctions; as, bhuailinn _I would strike_, na'm, mur, nach, &c., +buailinn _if, unless, &c., I should strike_. In the Future it is used only +after the conjunctions ma _if_, o, o'n _since_, and the Relative _a_ +expressed or understood; as, ma bhuaileas mi _if I shall strike_, am fear a +bhuaileas mi _the man {86} who will strike me_, or _the man whom I shall +strike_; an uair a bhuaileas mi, tra bhuaileas mi _the time [in] which I +shall strike, i. e., when I shall strike_; c'uin [cia [`u]ine] a bhuaileas +mi? _what [is] the time [in] which I shall strike? i. e., when shall I +strike?_ + +The _Imperative_ Mood expresses desire, whether purpose, command, or +request; as, buaileam _let me strike_, buailibh _strike ye_. + +The _Infinitive_[58] is, in all respects, a noun, denoting the action or +energy of the verb, and commonly preceded by a Preposition which marks the +time of the action; as, ag bualadh _at striking_, am bualadh _the striking, +the threshing_. It assumes a regular genitive case, bualadh g. s. bualaidh; +as, urlar-bualaidh _a threshing floor_. The Infinitive sometimes loses the +termination, and is regularly declined in its abridged form; thus, +cruinnich _assemble_, inf. cruinneach-adh per. apocop. cruinneach g. s. +cruinnich; hence, [`a]ite-cruinnich _a place of meeting_, Acts xix. 29, 31, +so, fear-criochnaich, Heb. xii. 2, fear-cuidich, Psalm xxx. 10, liv. 4, +ionad-foluich, Psalm xxxii. 7, cxix. 114, litir-dhealaich, Matt. v. 31[59]. + +There is no part of the Active Voice that can, strictly speaking, be +denominated a Participle. The Infinitive preceded by the Preposition ag +_at_, corresponds in meaning to the present Participle; and preceded by iar +_after_, it corresponds to the participle of the past time; as, ag bualadh +_at striking_, or _striking_; iar bualadh _after striking_, or +_struck_[60]. + +{87} + +Many words, expressing state or action, take the Preposition _ag_ before +them, and may be considered as Infinitives of Verbs, whereof the other +parts are not in use; as, ag atharrais _mimicking_, ag g[`a]ireachdaich +_laughing_, a' fanoid, a' magadh _mocking_, _jeering_. + +{88} + +The _Participle_ passive is an adjective, denoting the completion of the +action or energy expressed by the verb; as, arbhar buailte _threshed corn_. + +The _Simple Tenses_ which belong to all verbs are the Preterite or Future, +besides which the verb Bi to _be_, and the defective verb Is I _am_, have a +Present Tense[61]. + +The _Present_ expresses present existence, state, or energy. + +The _Preterite Affirmative_ and _Negative_ expresses past time +indefinitely. The _Preterite Subjunctive_ corresponds to the English Tenses +formed by the auxiliaries _would_, _could_, &c. In general it denotes that +the action or energy of the verb takes place eventually or conditionally. +The Pret. Aff. or {89} Neg. is used sometimes in this sense, like the +English, when the Pret. Subj. occurred in the preceding clause of a +sentence, as, na'm biodh tus' an so, cha d' fhuair mo bhrathair b[`a]s, _if +thou hadst been here, my brother had not [would not have] died_; mur +bitheamaid air deanamh moille bha sinn a nis air pilltinn air ar n-ais, _if +we had not lingered, we had [should have] now returned_, Gen. xliii. 10. + +The _Future_ marks future time indefinitely. This Tense is used in a +peculiar sense in Gaelic, to signify that an action or event takes place +uniformly, habitually, according to ordinary practice, or the course of +nature. Thus; Blessed is he that _considereth_ the poor, expressed +according to the Gaelic idiom, would be, Blessed is he that _will +consider_, &c. A wise son _maketh_ a glad father, in Gaelic would run, A +wise son _will make_, &c. Your patient, I am told, is in a bad way; he +neither _enjoys_ rest, nor _takes_ medicine. Nay, his situation is worse +than you know of; yesterday, he became delirious, and is now almost +unmanageable; he _tosses_ his arms, and _endeavours_ to beat every one +within his reach. In Gaelic, _will enjoy--will take--will toss--will +endeavour_. In like manner, a great many Gaelic Proverbs express a general +truth by means of the Future tense; _e.g._, bithidh d[`u]il ri fear feachd, +ach cha bhi d[`u]il ri fear lic, _There _is_ hope that a man may return +from war, but there _is_ no hope that a man may return from the grave_; +literally, there _will be_ hope--there _will be_ no hope. Teirgidh gach ni +r' a chaitheamh, _every thing_ wears _out in the using_; literally,--_will +wear_ out[62]. + +The _Compound Tenses_ mark different modifications of time, {90} which will +be easily understood by analysing their component parts. + +In the _Active Voice_, the compound tenses of the first order denote that +the action is going on, but not completed at the time specified by the +auxiliary verb, or its adjuncts; as, ta mi ag bualadh, _I am at striking_, +i.e., _I am striking_; bha mi ag bualadh an d['e], _I was striking +yesterday_. + +Those of the second order denote that the action is newly completed and +past, at the time marked by the auxiliary verb; ta mi iar bualadh, _I am +after striking_, i.e., _I have struck_, _Je viens de frapper_; Bha mi iar +bualadh, _I was striking_, i.e., _I had struck_. + +In the _Passive Voice_, the compound tenses of the first order denote that +the action is _finished_ at the time marked by the auxiliary verb; ta mi +buailte, _I am struck_. + +Those of the second order denote that the action is _newly finished_ at the +time marked by the auxiliary[63]; ta mi iar mo bhualadh, _I am after my +striking_, or, _I am after the striking of me_, which has always a passive +signification; that is, it is always understood, from this form of +expression, that _striking_ is the action of some agent different from the +person struck. It is equivalent to _I have been struck_, _Je viens d'etre +frapp['e]_. + +A set of Compound Tenses, of a structure similar to these last, having the +preposition ag, in place of iar, is sometimes used, and in a passive sense, +denoting that the action is _going on_ at the time marked by the auxiliary; +as, tha 'n tigh 'g a thogail, _the house is at its building_, i.e., +_a-building_; sea bliadhna agus da fhichead bha 'n teampull 'g a thogail, +_forty and six years was this temple in building_. John ii. 20, 1 Kings vi. +7. Bha an crodh 'g an leigeadh, _the cows were a-milking_; bidh deudaichean +'g an rusgadh. "Gillies' Collect." p. 82. So {91} in English, the book is +a-printing; the deed's a-doing now, "Douglas," Act 1. + +The following scheme shows the different modifications of time, as +expressed by the several Tenses of the Gaelic Verb, brought together into +one view, and compared with the corresponding Tenses of the Greek Verb in +Moor's Greek Grammar. + + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + _Indicative or Affirmative Mood._ + + Present Tense. + Ta mi ag bualadh, [Greek: tupto], I strike, + or am striking. + + Imperfect. + Bha mi ag bualadh, [Greek: etupton], I was striking. + + Future. + + Buailidh mi } [Greek: tupso], I will strike, + Bithidh mi ag bualadh } or be striking. + + Aorist or Preterite. + Bhuail mi, [Greek: etupsa], I struck. + + Perfect. + Ta mi iar bualadh, [Greek: tetupha], I have struck. + + Pluperfect. + Bha mi iar bualadh, [Greek: etetuphein], I had struck. + + _Interrogative or Negative Mood._ + + Present. + Am bheil mi ag bualadh? Am I striking? + + Imperfect. + An robh mi ag bualadh? Was I striking? + + Future. + Am buail mi? Shall I strike? + + {92} + + Aorist or Preterite. + An do bhuail mi? Did I strike? + + Perfect. + Am bheil mi iar bualadh? Have I struck? + + Pluperfect. + An robh mi iar bualadh? Had I struck? + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Imperfect. + Bhuailinn, } [Greek: etupton an], I would strike. + Bhithinn ag bualadh, } + + Future. + Ma bhuaileas mi, If I shall strike. + + Pluperfect. + Bhithinn iar bualadh, [Greek: etupsa an], I would have struck. + + _Imperative Mood._ + Buaileam, Let me strike. + Buail, [Greek: tupte], Strike. + + _Infinitive Mood._ + Am bualadh, [Greek: to tuptein], The striking. + A' bhualaidh, [Greek: tou tuptein], Of the striking. + Ag bualadh, [Greek: en toi tuptein], A-striking. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Indicative or Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. + Ta mi 'g am bhualadh, [Greek: tuptomai], I am in striking[64]. + + Imperfect. + Bha mi 'g am bhualadh, [Greek: etuptomen], I was in striking. + + {93} + Future. + Buailear mi, } [Greek: tuphthesomai], I shall be struck. + Bithidh mi buailte, } + + Aorist or Preterite. + Bhuaileadh mi, [Greek: etuphthen], I was struck. + + Perfect. + Ta mi buailte, } [Greek: tetummenos eimi], I have been struck. + Ta mi iar mo bhualadh } + Pluperfect. + Bha mi buailte, } [Greek: tetummenos en], I had been struck. + Bha mi iar mo bhualadh} + + _Interrogative or Negative Mood._ + + Future. + Am buailear mi? Shall I be struck? + + Aorist or Preterite. + An do bhuaileadh mi? Was I struck? + + Perfect. + Am bheil mi buailte? } Have I been struck? + Am bheil mi iar mo bhualadh? } + + Pluperfect. + An robh mi buailte? } Had I been struck? + An robh mi iar mo bhualadh? } + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Imperfect. + Bhuailteadh mi, [Greek: etuptomen an], I should be struck. + + Future. + Ma bhuailtear mi, If I shall be struck. + {94} + + Pluperfect. + Bhithinn buailte, } + Bhithinn iar mo } [Greek: etuphthen an], I should have been + bhualadh, } struck. + + _Imperative Mood._ + Buailtear mi, Let me be struck. + Buailtear thu, [Greek: tuptou], Be thou struck. + &c. + + Participle. + Buailte, [Greek: tetummenos] Struck. + +It will afford satisfaction to the grammatical reader, to see how correctly +the various modifications of time, as distinguished and arranged by Mr +Harris, are expressed in the Gaelic verb, by the auxiliaries, bi _be_, and +dol _going_. See _Hermes B. I. c. 7._ + + + Aorist of the Present. + [Greek: Tupto], I strike, ---- + + Aorist of the Past. + [Greek: Etupsa], I struck, Bhuail mi. + + Aorist of the Future. + [Greek: Tupso], I shall strike, Buailidh mi. + + Inceptive Present. + [Greek: Mello tuptein], I am going to strike, Ta mi dol a bhualadh. + + Middle or extended Present. + [Greek: Tunchano tupton], I am striking, Ta mi ag bualadh. + + Completive Present. + [Greek: Tetupha], I have struck, Ta mi iar bualadh. + + ------ + + Inceptive Past. + [Greek: Emellon tuptein], I was going to strike, Bha mi dol a bhualadh. + {95} + + Middle or extended Past. + [Greek: Etupton], I was striking, Bha mi ag bualadh. + + Completive Past. + [Greek: Etetuphein], I had struck, Bha mi iar bualadh. + + ------ + + Inceptive future. + [Greek: Melleso tuptein], I shall be going to Bithidh mi dol a + strike, bhualadh. + + Middle or extended Future. + [Greek: Esomai tupton], I shall be striking, Bithidh mi ag bualadh. + + Completive Future. + [Greek: Esomai tetuphos], I shall have struck, Bithidh mi iar bualadh. + + + +IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. + + Beir, _bear._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do rug, Beiridh. + _Negat._ D' rug, Beir. + _Subjunct._ Bheirinn, Bheireas. + _Imperat._ Beiream. _Infin._ Beirsinn, breith. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do rugadh, Beirear. + _Negat._ D' rugadh, Beirear. + _Subjunct._ Bheirteadh, Bheirear. + _Imperat._ Beirthear. + + {96} + + Cluinn, _hear._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do chuala, Cluinnidh. + _Negat._ Cuala, Cluinn. + _Subjunct._ Chluinnin, Chluinneas. + _Imperat._ Cluinneam. _Infin._ Cluinntinn. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do Chualadh, Cluinnear. + _Negat._ Cualadh, Cluinnear. + _Subjunct._ Chluinnteadh, Chluinnear. + _Imperat._ Cluinntear. + + Dean, _do_ or _make._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do rinn, Ni. + _Negat._ D' rinn, Dean. + _Subjunct._ Dheanainn, Ni. + _Imperat._ Deanam. _Infin._ Deanamh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do rinneadh, Nithear. + _Negat._ D' rinneadh, Deanar. + _Subjunct._ Dheantadh, Nithear. + _Imperat._ Deantar. _Particip._ Deanta. + + Rach, _go._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do chaidh, Th['e]id. + _Negat._ Deachaidh, T['e]id[65]. + _Subjunct._ Rachainn, Th['e]id. + _Imperat._ Racham. _Infin._ Dol. + + {97} + Ruig, _reach._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do rainig, Ruigidh. + _Negat._ D' rainig, Ruig. + _Subjunct._ Ruiginn, Ruigeas. + _Imperat._ Ruigeam. _Infin._ Ruigsinn, ruigheachd. + + Tabhair,[66] _give._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do thug, Bheir. + _Negat._ D' thug, Tabhair. + _Subjunct._ Bheirinn, tabhairinn, Bheir. + _Imperat._ Tabhaiream, thugam. _Infin._ Tabhairt. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do thugadh, Bheirear. + _Negat._ D' thugadh, Tabhairear. + _Subjunct._ Bheirteadh, tugtadh. Bheirear. + _Imperat._ Thugthar. + + Thig, _come._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do thainig, Thig. + _Negat._ D' thainig, Tig[67]. + _Subjunct._ Thiginn, Thig. + _Imperat._ Thigeam. _Infin._ Tighinn, teachd. + +{98} + + + +IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. + + Abair,[68] _say._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Thubhairt, dubhairt, Their. + _Negat._ Dubhairt, Abair. + _Subjunct._ Theirinn, abairinn, Their. + _Imperat._ Abaiream. _Infin._ Radh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Dubhradh, Theirear. + _Negat._ Dubhradh, Abairear. + _Subjunct._ Theirteadh, abairteadh, Theirear. + _Imperat._ Abairear[69]. + + Faic, _see._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do chunnaic, Chi. + _Negat._ Faca, Faic. + _Subjunct._ Chithinn, faicinn, Chi. + _Imperat._ Faiceam. _Infin._ Faicsinn. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do chunnacadh, Chithear. + _Negat._ Facadh, Faicear. + _Subjunct._ Chiteadh, faicteadh, Chithear. + _Imperat._ Faicthear. _Infin._ Faicsinn. + + {99} + Faigh, _get._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Fhuair, Gheibh. + _Negat._ D'fhuair, Faigh. + _Subjunct._ Gheibhinn, faighinn, Gheibh. + _Imperat._ Faigheam. _Infin._ Faghail, faotainn. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Fhuaradh, Gheibhear. + _Negat._ D' fhuaradh, Faighear. + _Subjunct._ Gheibhteadh, faighteadh, Gheibhear. + _Imperat._ Faightear. + +The verbs Tabhair, Abair, Faic, Faigh, have a double Preterite Subjunctive. +The latter form of it, which is derived regularly from the Root, is used +after the same particles which are prefixed to the Negative Mood, _viz._ +ni, cha, nach, mur, gu, an, am. + + * * * * * + +OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. + +The following defective verbs are in common use. + +Arsa _said_, _quoth_, indeclinable; used only in the Pret. Aff. through all +the persons; arsa Donull, _quoth Donald_. + +Tiucainn _come along_, tiucainnibh _come ye along_, used only in the 2d +pers. sing. and plur. of the Imperative. + +Theab mi _I was near to, I had almost_; used through all the persons of the +Pret. Aff. and Neg.; as, theab iad bhith caillte _they had nearly +perished_. + +Is mi _I am_, used in the Pres. and Pret. Tenses, which are declined as +follows:-- {100} + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Is mi, _I am, it is I._ Bu mhi, _I was, it was I._ + 2 Is tu. Bu tu. + 3 Is e. B' e. + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Is sinn. Bu sinn. + 2 Is sibh. Bu sibh. + 3 Is iad. B' iad. + + _Negative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 mi, _I am not_, &c. Bu mhi, _I was not_, &c. + { 2 tu. Bu tu. + ni, { 3 e. B' e. + cha, { + nach,{ _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 sinn. Bu sinn. + { 2 sibh. Bu sibh. + { 3 iad. B' iad. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Ma 's mi, _If I be, it be I._ Nam bu mhi, _If I were, it were I._ + 2 's tu. Bu tu. + 3 's e. B' e. + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 's sinn. Bu sinn. + 2 's sibh. Bu sibh. + 3 's iad. B' iad. + +The only varieties of form which this Verb admits of, are the two syllables +_is_ and _bu_. Each of these syllables {101} commonly loses the vowel when +it comes in apposition with another vowel. + +It is remarkable, that in the Pres. Neg. the Verb disappears altogether, +and the preceding Particle, ni, cha, nach, gur, &c., and the subsequent +Pronoun, or Noun, are always understood to convey a proposition, or a +question, as unequivocally as though a Verb had been expressed; as, cha tu +_thou art not_, nach e? _is he not? is it not he?_ am mise e? _is it I?_ +cha luchd-brathaidh sinn _we are not spies_, Gen. xlii. 31. Am m[`o] thusa +na Abraham? _Art thou greater than Abraham?_ gur c[`o]ir urnuigh a dheanamh +_that it is proper to pray_, Luke xviii. 1[70]. + +{102} + +OF THE RECIPROCATING STATE OF VERBS. + +Any transitive Verb may be so combined with a Pronoun, either Personal or +Possessive, that it shall denote the agent to be also the object of the +action. This may be called the _reciprocating state_ of the Verb. It is +declined as follows:-- + +Buail thu fein, _strike thyself_. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Simple Tenses. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, Buailidh mi mi fein, + Bhuail mi mi fein, _I will strike myself._ + _I struck myself._ + 2 Do bhuail thu thu fein, Buailidh tu thu fein. + 3 Do bhuail se e fein; Buailidh se e fein. + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Do bhuail sinn sinn fein, Buailidh sinn sinn fein. + 2 Do bhuail sibh sibh fein, Buailidh sibh sibh fein. + 3 Do bhuail siad iad fein. Buailidh siad iad fein. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + cha,{ 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, Bhuail mi mi fein, + &c. { _I struck not myself._ _I shall not strike myself._ + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhuailinn mi fein, 1 Bhuaileas mi mi fein, + _I would strike myself._ _I shall strike myself._ + + {103} + _Imperative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + 1 Buaileam mi fein, Buaileamaid sinn fein. + _Let me strike myself._ + 2 Buail thu fein. Buailibh sibh fein. + 3 Buaileadh e e fein. Buaileadh iad iad fein. + +_Infinitive Mood._ + + 'g am bhualadh fein, _striking myself_. + 'g ad bhualadh fein, _striking thyself_. + 'g a bhualadh fein, _striking himself_. + 'g ar bualadh fein, _striking ourselves_. + 'g 'ur bualadh fein, _striking yourselves_. + 'g am bualadh fein, _striking themselves_. + iar mo bhualadh fein, _after striking myself_, &c. + gu mo bhualadh fein, _to strike myself_, &c. + + Compound Tenses. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, Bha mi 'g am bhualadh fein, + _I am striking myself._ _I was striking myself._ + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Bidh mi 'g am bhualadh fein, + _I will be striking myself._ + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ta mi iar mo, &c. Bha mi iar mo, &c. + _I have struck myself._ _I had struck myself._ + + {104} + Future. + _2. Comp._ + Bidh mi iar mo, &c. + _I shall have struck_, &c. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ni bheil mi 'g am, &c. Ni robh mi 'g am, &c. + _I am not striking myself._ _I was not striking myself._ + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi 'g am bhualadh fein. + _I shall not be striking myself._ + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ni bheil mi iar mo, &c. Ni robh mi iar mo, &c. + _I have not struck myself._ _I had not struck myself._ + + Future. + _2. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi iar mo, &c. + _I shall not have struck myself._ + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bhithinn 'g am, &c. Ma bhitheas mi 'g am, + _I would be striking_, &c. _If I shall be striking_, &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bhithinn iar mo, &c. Ma bhitheas mi iar mo, &c. + _I would have struck_, &c. _If I shall have struck_, &c. + + {105} + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + + _1. Comp._ Do bhith 'g am bhualadh fein, + _To be striking myself._ + + Bitheam 'g am bhualadh fein, Iar bith 'g am bhualadh fein. + _Let me be striking myself._ _To have been striking myself._ + +From the foregoing example it appears that the Verb, in its reciprocating +state, retains its original form throughout its several Moods, Tenses, and +Persons. In the _simple Tenses_, the Personal Pronoun immediately following +the Verb is the Nominative to the Verb. The same pronoun repeated is to be +understood as in the objective state. The word fein, corresponding to the +English _self_, accompanies the last Pronoun. + +In the _compound Tenses_, the auxiliary Verb, as usual, is placed first; +then follows the Personal Pronoun as its Nominative, then the Prep. _ag_ +abridged to _'g_ in the compound Tenses of the first order, iar in those of +the second order; after which follows the Possessive Pronoun, corresponding +in Person to that which is the Nominative to the Verb; and lastly the +Infinitive, which is the noun to the Possessive Pronoun. Mo and do are here +changed, by Metathesis and the substitution of one broad vowel for another, +into am and ad. Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, rendered literally, is, _I am at +my own striking, i.e., I am at the striking of myself_, equivalent to, _I +am striking myself_. The reciprocal fein is sometimes omitted in the +compound Tenses, but is generally retained in the 3d Persons, to prevent +their being mistaken for the same persons when used without reciprocation: +ta e 'g a bhualadh, _he is striking him_, ta e 'g a bhualadh fein, _he is +striking himself_. + +OF THE IMPERSONAL USE OF VERBS. + +Intransitive Verbs, though they do not regularly admit of a Passive Voice, +yet are used _impersonally_ in the 3d Pers. Sing. of the Passive Tenses. +This impersonal use of the Passive of intransitive Verbs is founded on the +same principle with the Latin Impersonals _concurritur_, _pugnatum est_, +{106} &c., which are equivalent to _concursus fit_, _pugna facta est_. So +in Gaelic, gluaisfear leam, _I will move_, Psal. cxvi. 9; gluaisfear leo, +_they will move_, Psal. cxix. 3; ghuileadh leinn, _we did weep_, flebatur a +nobis, Psal. cxxxvii. 1, Edit. Edinb. 1787; cha bhithear saor o pheacadh, +_there wanteth not sin_, Prov. x. 19. + +To the class of Impersonals ought to be referred a certain part of the Verb +which has not yet been mentioned. It resembles in form the Fut. Negat. +Passive; buailear, faicear, faighear, &c. In signification, it is Active, +Present, and Affirmative. In the course of a narrative, when the speaker +wishes to enliven his style by representing the occurrences narrated as +present, and passing actually in view, instead of the Preterite Tenses, he +adopts the Part of the Verb now described, employing it in an impersonal +acceptation, without a Nominative to it expressed. One or two examples will +serve to exhibit the use and effect of this anomalous Tense:--Shuidh an +[`o]g bhean air sgeir, is a s[`u]il air an lear. Chunnaic i long a' teachd +air barraibh nan tonn. Dh' aithnich i aogas a leannain, is chlisg a cridhe +'n a com. Gun mhoille gun tamh, _buailear_ dh' fhios na traighe; agus +_faighear_ an laoch, 's a dhaoine m' a thimchioll. In English thus: The +young woman sat on a rock, and her eye on the sea. She spied a ship coming +on the tops of the waves. She perceived the likeness of her lover, and her +heart bounded in her breast. Without delay or stop, she _hastens_ to the +shore; and _finds_ the hero, with his men around him. Again: Mar sin chuir +sinn an oidhche tharuinn. 'S a' mhadainn dh' imich sinn air ar turus. O bha +sinn 'n ar coigrich anns an tir, _gabhar_ suas gu mullach an t-sleibh, +_direar_ an tulach gu grad, agus _seallar_ mu 'n cuairt air gach taobh. +_Faicear_ thall fa 'r comhair sruth cas ag ruith le gleann cumhann, &c. +Thus we passed the night. In the morning we pursued our journey. As we were +strangers in the land, we _strike_ up to the top of the moor, _ascend_ the +hill with speed, and _look_ around us on every side. We _see_ over against +us a rapid stream, rushing down a narrow valley, &c. {107} + +The scrupulous chastenesss of style maintained in the Gaelic version of the +Sacred Scriptures, has totally excluded this form of expression. It is, +however, universally known and acknowledged, as an established idiom of the +Gaelic, very common in the mouths of those who speak it, and in animated +narration almost indispensable[71]. + +OF AUXILIARY VERBS. + +It has been already shown how bi _be_, is used as an Auxiliary in the +declension of all verbs. There are two other verbs which are occasionally +employed in a similar capacity; the one with an Active the other with a +Passive effect. These are dean to _do_ or _make_, and rach to _go_. + +The simple tenses of dean combined with the Infinitive of any verb, +correspond to the English auxiliary _do_, _did_. It sometimes adds to the +emphasis, but not to the sense. The following are examples of this +Auxiliary combined with the Infinitive of an _Intransitive_ verb:--Rinn e +seasamh _he made standing_, i.e., _he did stand;_ dean suidhe _make +sitting_, i.e., _sit down_; dheanainn gul agus caoidh _I would make weeping +{108} and lamentation_, i.e., _I would weep and lament._ The same +arrangement takes place when the Auxiliary is combined with the Infinitive +of a _Transitive_ verb, accompanied by a possessive pronoun; as, rinn e mo +bhualadh _he made my striking_, i.e., _he made [or caused] the striking of +me_, or, _he did strike me_; cha dean mi do mholadh, _I will not make your +praising_, i.e., _I will not praise you_; dean do gharadh, _make your +warming_, dean do gharadh fein, _make your own warming_, i.e., _warm +yourself._ + +The Simple Tenses of rach, combined with the Infinitive of a transitive +verb, correspond to the Passive Voice of the verb; as, chaidh mo bhualadh +_my striking went_, i.e., _came to pass_, or _happened_, equivalent to _I +was struck_; rachadh do mharbhadh _your killing would happen_, i.e., _you +would be killed._ + +In phrases where either of the auxiliaries dean or rach is combined with a +transitive verb, as above, the possessive pronoun may be exchanged for the +corresponding personal pronoun in the emphatic form, followed by the +preposition _do_ before the Infinitive. The preposition in this case is +attenuated into _a_, which, before a verb of the second conjugation is +dropped altogether. Thus, rinn e mo bhualadh _he struck me_, rinn e mis' a +bhualadh _he struck_ ME, chaidh mo bhualadh _I was struck_, chaidh mis' a +bhualadh _I myself was struck_. In like manner, a noun, or a demonstrative +pronoun, may occupy the place of this personal pronoun; as, chaidh an +ceannard a mharbhadh[72], agus na daoine chur san ruaig, _the leader was +killed, and the men put to flight_; theid am buachaill a bhualadh, agus an +treud a sgapadh, _the shepherd will be smitten, and the sheep scattered_; +is math a chaidh sin innseadh dhuit, _that was well told you_. + +{109} + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +OF ADVERBS. + +An Adverb, considered as a separate part of speech, is a single +indeclinable word, significant of time, place, or any other circumstance or +modification of an action or attribute. The number of simple Adverbs in +Gaelic is but small. Adverbial phrases, made up of two or more words, are +sufficiently numerous. Any adjective may be converted into an adverbial +expression, by prefixing to it the preposition gu _to_; as, f[`i]rinneach +_true_, gu f[`i]rinneach _[corresponding] to [what is] true_, [Greek: kata +to alethes], i.e., _truly_. Adverbs of this form need not be enumerated. It +may be useful, however, to give a list of other adverbs and adverbial +phrases, most commonly in use; subjoining, where it can be done, a literal +translation of their component parts, and also the English expression which +corresponds most nearly to the sense of the Gaelic phrase. + + _Adverbs of Time._ + + A cheana; already, truly. + A chianamh; a little while ago. + A chlisge; quickly, in a trice. + A choidhche, } + Choidh; } for ever. + A nis, } + Nise; } now. + A r[`i]s, } + Rithist; } again. + Ainmic, } + Ainmeach; } seldom. + Air ball; _on [the] spot_, immediately. + Air dheireadh; hindmost. + Air thoiseach; foremost. + Air t[`u]s; in the beginning, at first. + Air uairibh; _at times_, sometimes. + {110} + Am bliadhna; this year. + Am feadh; whilst. + Am feasd; for ever. + Am m[`a]ireach; to-morrow. + An ceart uair; _the very hour_, presently. + An comhnuidh; _in continuation_, continually. + An d['e]; yesterday. + An deigh laimh; _behind hand_, afterwards. + An diugh; _the [present] day_, to-day[73]. + An ear-thrath, } + An iar-thraith; } _the after time_, the day after to-morrow. + An nochd; _the [present] night_, to-night. + An raoir, } + An reidhr; } yesternight. + An sin; _in that [time]_, then. + An trath; _the time_, when. + An tr[`a]th so, } + An tr[`a]s'; } _this time_, at present. + An uair; _the time_, when. + An uiridh; last year. + Aon uair; _one time_, once. + Cia fhada; how long. + Cia minic, } + Cia tric; } how often. + C'uine; _what time_, when. + Do la, } + A la; } by day[74]. + Dh' oidhche; by night[74]. + Do ghn[`a]th; _[according] to custom_, always. + Fa dheoidh; _at the end_, at last. + Fathast, } + F[`o]s; } yet, still. + {111} + Gu br[`a]th[75], } + Gu la bhr[`a]th; } _to the general conflagration_, for ever. + Gu d[`i]linn[75]; _to the expiration of time_, or _till the deluge_, for + ever. + Gu minic; often. + Gu siorruidh; _to ever-flowing_, for ever. + Gu suthainn; for ever. + Gu tric; often. + Idir; at all. + Mar tha; _as it is_, already. + Mu dheireadh; at last. + O cheann tamuill; a while ago. + O chian; _from far_, of old, long ago. + R[`e] seal, } + R[`e] tamuill; } for a time. + Riamh; ever, said of past time only. + Roimh l[`a]imh; before hand. + Uair eigin; some time. + + _Adverbs of Place._ + + A bhos, } + Bhos; } on this side, here below. + A leth taobh; to one side, aside. + A mach, } + A muigh; } without, out. + A mh[`a]n[76]; downwards, down. + An aird; _to the height_, upwards, up. + A nall, } + Nall; } to this side. + A nuas; _from above_, down hither. + A null, } + Null, nunn; } to the other side. + {112} + A thaobh; aside. + Air aghaidh, } + Air adhart; } _on [the] face_, forward. + Air ais; backwards. + Air dheireadh; hindmost. + Air thoiseach; foremost. + Am fad, } + An c['e]in; } afar. + An gar; close to. + An laimh; in hand, in custody. + An sin; _in that [place]_, there. + An so; _in this [place]_, here. + An sud; _in yon [place]_, yonder. + An taice; close adjoining, in contact. + Asteach, } + Astigh; }[77] within, in. + C' [`a]ite; _what place_, where. + Cia an taobh; _what side_, whither. + C' ionadh; _what place_, whither. + Fad as; afar off. + Fad air astar; far away. + Far; where,--relatively. + Fogus, } + Am fogus; } near. + H-uig' agus uaith; to and fro. + Iolar, } + Ioras; } below there, below yonder. + Le leathad; _by a descent_, downwards. + Leis; _along with it_, down a stream, declivity, &c. + Mu 'n cuairt; _by the circuit_, around. + Ri bruthach; _to an ascent_, upwards. + Ris; in an exposed state, bare, uncovered. + Seachad; past, aside. + Sios, a sios; downwards. + Suas, a suas; upwards. + {113} + Shios; below there, below yonder. + Shuas; above there, above yonder. + Tarsuing; across. + Thairis; over. + Thall; on the other side. + Uthard; above there, above yonder. + + Deas[78]; south. + Gu deas; southward. + A deas; from the south. + + Iar[79], } + Siar; } west. + Gus an aird an iar; westward. + O'n iar; from the west. + + Tuath; north. + Gu tuath; northward. + A tuath; from the north. + + Ear, Oir, Soir; east. + Gus an aird an ear; eastward. + O'n ear; from the east. + + _Adverbs of Manner._ + + Air achd; in a manner. + Air a' chuthach, } + Air boile; } distracted, mad. + Air chall; lost. + Air ch[`o]ir; aright. + Air chor; in a manner. + Air chor eigin; in some manner, somehow. + Air chuairt; sojourning. + Air chuimhne; in remembrance. + Air ['e]igin; with difficulty, scarcely. + Air fogradh; in exile, in a fugitive state. + {114} + Air ghleus; in trim. + Air iomadan; adrift. + Air iomroll; astray. + Air iunndrain; amissing. + Air lagh; trimmed for action, as a bow bent, a firelock cocked, &c. + Air leth; apart, separately. + Air seacharan; astray. + Air sgeul; found, not lost. + Amh[`a]in; only. + Amhuil, } + Amhludh; } like as. + Am bidheantas; customarily, habitually. + Am feabhas; convalescent, improving. + An coinnimh a chinn; headlong. + An coinnimh a ch[`u]il; backwards. + An deidh, } + An geall; } desirous, enamoured. + An nasgaidh; for nothing, gratis. + An t[`o]ir; in pursuit. + Araon; together. + As an aghaidh; _out of the face_, to the face, outright. + As a ch['e]ile; loosened, disjointed. + Car air char; rolling, tumbling over and over. + Cia mar; _as how_, how. + C' arson; _on account of what_, why, wherefore. + C' ionnas; _what manner_, how. + Cha, cho; not. + Comhla[80], mar chomhla, } + Cuideachd; } together, in company. + C'uime, for what, why. + Do dheoin, a dheoin; spontaneously, intentionally. + Dh' aindeoin; against one's will. + Do dh[`i]th, a dh[`i]th; a-wanting. + Do r[`i]readh; really, actually, indeed. + {115} + Fa leth; severally, individually. + Gle; very. + Gu beachd; _to observation_, evidently, clearly. + Gu buileach; _to effect_, thoroughly, wholly. + Gu dearbh; _to conviction_, truly, certainly. + Gu deimhin; _to assurance_, assuredly, verily. + Gu leir; altogether. + Gu leor; _to sufficiency_, enough. + Gun amharus; _without doubt_, doubtless. + Gun ch[`a]ird; _without rest_, incessantly, without hesitation. + Leth mar leth; half and half. + Le ch['e]ile; _with each other_, together. + Maraon; _as one_, together, in concert. + Mar an ceudna; in like manner, likewise. + Mar sin; _as that_, in that manner. + Mar so; _as this_, thus. + Mar sud; _as yon_, in yon manner. + Mu seach; in return, alternately. + Na, Nar; let not,--used optatively, or imperatively. + Nach; that not, who not, not? + Ni; not. + Ni h-eadh[81]; it is not so. + Os [`a]ird; openly. + Os barr; _on top_, besides. + Os iosal; secretly, covertly. + Ro; very. + Roimh a cheile; prematurely, too hastily. + Seadh[81]; it is so. + Thar a ch['e]ile, } + Troimh a ch['e]ile; } in disorder, in confusion, stirred about. + Theagamh; perhaps. + Uidh air 'n uidh; _stage by stage_, gradually. + +{116} + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +OF PREPOSITIONS. + +The Prepositions, strictly so called, are single words, most of them +monosyllables, employed to mark relation. Relation is also expressed by +combinations of words which often correspond to simple prepositions in +other languages. These combinations are, not improperly, ranked among the +prepositions. The following lists contain first the Prepositions properly +so called, which are all simple; secondly, improper Prepositions, which, +with one or two exceptions, seem all to be made up of a simple Preposition +and a Noun. + +Proper Prepositions. + + Aig, Ag, _at_. + Air, _on_. + Ann, _in_. + As, A, _out of_. + De, _of_. + Do, _to_ + Eadar, _between_. + Fa, _upon_. + Fuidh, Fo, _under_. + Gu, Gus, _to_. + Gun, _without_. + Iar, _after_. + Le, Leis, _with, by_. + Mar, _like to_. + Mu, _about_. + O, Ua, _from_. + Os, _above_. + Re, Ri, Ris, _to_. + Roimh, _before_. + Tar, Thar, _over, across_. + Tre, } + Troimh, } _through_. + Throimh, } + Seach, _past, in comparison with_. + +The Preposition ann is often written double, ann an eolas, _in knowledge_; +ann an gliocas, _in wisdom_. The final _n_ or _nn_ is changed into _m_ +before a labial; as, am measg, _among_; ann am meadhon, _in midst_. Before +the Article or the Relative, this Preposition is written anns; as, anns an +toiseach, _in the beginning_, an cor anns am bheil e, _the condition in +which he is_; and in this situation the letters _ann_ are often dropped, +and the _s_ alone retained, 's an toiseach, _in the beginning_. + +De, so far as I know, is found in no Scottish publications. The reasons +which have induced me to assign it a place among the prepositions will be +mentioned in treating of the combinations of the Proper Prepositions with +the Personal Pronouns. + +The Preposition _do_, like the verbal particle, and the Possessive Pronoun +of the same sound, loses the _o_ before a vowel, and the consonant is +aspirated; thus, dh' Albainn, _to {117} Scotland_. It is also preceded +sometimes by the vowel _a_ when it follows a final consonant; as, dol a dh' +Eirin, _going to Ireland_. This _a_ seems to be nothing else than the vowel +of _do_ transposed; just as the letters of the pronouns mo, do, are in +certain situations transposed, and become am, ad. In this situation, +perhaps it would be advisible to join the _a_, in writing, to the _dh_ +thus, dol adh Eirin. This would rid us of one superfluous _a_ appearing as +a separate inexplicable word. The same remarks apply to the prep. _de_; +_e.g._, armailt mh[`o]r de dhaoinibh agus _a dh'_ eachaibh, _a great army +of men and of horses_, lan do [de] reubainn agus a dh' aingidheachd, _full +of ravining and wickedness_, Luke xi. 39. Do, as has been already observed, +often loses the _d_ altogether, and is written _a_; as, dol a Dhuneidin, +_going to Edinburgh_. When the preposition is thus robbed of its +articulation, and only a feeble obscure vowel sound is left, another +corruption very naturally follows, and this vowel, as well as the +consonant, is discarded, not only in speaking, but even in writing; as, +chaidh e Dhuneidin, _he went to Edinburgh_; chaidh e th[`i]r eile, _he went +to another land_; where the nouns appear in their aspirated form, without +any word to govern them. + +Fa has been improperly confounded with fuidh or fo. That fa signifies +_upon_, is manifest from such phrases as fa 'n bhord, _upon the board_, +said of a dead body stretched upon a board; leigeader fa l[`a]r, _dropped +on the ground_, Carswell: fa 'n adhbhar ud, _on that account_, equivalent +to air an adhbhar ud, see Psal. cvi. 42, and xlv. 2, metr. version. + +The reason for admitting iar _after_, has been already given in treating of +the Compound Tenses of Verbs in Chap. V. + +The manner of combining these prepositions with nouns will be shown in +treating of Syntax. The manner of combining them with the personal pronouns +must be explained in this place, because in that connection they appear in +a form somewhat different from their radical form. A Proper Preposition is +joined to a Personal Pronoun by incorporating both into one word, commonly +with some change on the Preposition, or on the Pronoun, or on both. + +The following are the Prepositions which admit of this kind of combination, +incorporated with the several Personal Pronouns: {118} + + Prep. Singular. + + _1st Pers._ _2d Pers._ _3d Pers._ + + { m. aige, + Aig, } agam, agad, { _at him;_ + Ag; } _at_. _at me_, _at thee_. { f. aice, + { _at her_. + + { m. air. + { f. oirre. + Air; orm, ort, { uirre. + { orra. + + { m. ann. + Ann; annam, annad, { f. innte. + + { m. as. + As; asam, asad, { f. aisde. + + { m. dheth. + De; dhiom, dhiot, { f. dh'i. + + { dhomh, } { m. dha. + Do; { dhom, } dhuit, { f. dh'i. + + Eadar; ... ... ... + + { m. fodha. + Fo, Fuidh; fodham, fodhad, { f. fuidhpe. + + { m. h-uige. + Gu; h-ugam, h-ugad, { f. h-uice. + + { m. leis. + Le; leam, leat, { f. leatha. + + { m. uime. + Mu; umam, umad, { f. uimpe. + + { m. uaith. + O, Ua; uam, uait, { f. uaipe. + + { m. ris. + Re, Ri; rium, riut, { f. rithe. + + { m. roimhe. + Roimh; romham, romhad, { f. roimpe. + + Thar; tharam, tharad, f. thairte. + + { m. troimhe. + Troimh; tromham, tromhad, { f. troimpe. + + {119} + Plural. + _1st Pers._ _2d Pers._ _3d Pers._ + + Aig, } againn, agaibh, aca, + Ag; } _at_. _at us_. _at you_. _at them_. + + Air; oirnn, oirbh, orra. + + Ann; annainn, annaibh, annta. + + As; asainn, asaibh, asda. + + De; dhinn, dhibh, dhiu. + + Do; dhuinn, dhuibh, dhoibh. + + Eadar; eadarainn, eadaraibh, eatorra. + + Fo, Fuidh; fodhainn, fodhaibh, fodhpa. + + Gu; h-ugainn, h-ugaibh, h-uca. + + Le; leinn, leibh, leo. + + Mu; umainn, umaibh, umpa. + + O, Ua; uainn, uaibh, uapa. + + Re, Ri; ruinn, ribh, riu. + + Roimh; romhainn, romhaibh, rompa. + + Thar; tharuinn, tharuibh, tharta. + + Troimh; tromhainn, tromhaibh, trompa. + +{120} + +In most of these compound terms, the fragments of the Pronouns which enter +into their composition, especially those of the first and second Persons, +are very conspicuous[82]. These fragments take after them occasionally the +emphatic syllables _sa_, _san_, _ne_, in the same manner as the Personal +Pronouns themselves do; as, agamsa _at ME_, aigesan _at HIM_, uainne _from +US_. + +The two prepositions _de_ and _do_ have long been confounded together, both +being written _do_. It can hardly be supposed that the composite words +dhiom, dhiot, &c. would have been distinguished from dhomh, dhuit, &c., by +orthography, pronunciation, and signification, if the Prepositions, as well +as the Pronouns, which enter into the composition of these words, had been +originally the same. In dhiom, &c., the initial Consonant is always +followed by a small vowel. In dhomh, &c., with one exception, it is +followed by a broad vowel. Hence it is presumable that the Preposition +which is the root of dhiom, &c., must have had a small vowel after _d_, +whereas the root of dhomh, &c., has a broad vowel after d. _De_ is a +preposition preserved in Latin (a language which has many marks of affinity +with the Gaelic), in the same sense which must have belonged to the root of +dhiom, &c., in Gaelic. The preposition in question itself occurs in Irish, +in the name given to a Colony which is supposed to have settled in Ireland, +A.M. 2540, called Tuath de Danann. (See Lh. "Arch. Brit." tit. x. _voc._ +Tuath; also Miss Brooke's "Reliques of Irish Poetry," p. 102.) These facts +afford more than a presumption that the true root of the Composite dhiom, +&c., is _de_, and that it signifies _of_. It has therefore appeared proper +to separate it from _do_, and to assign to each its appropriate +meaning[83]. + +{121} + +Dhiom, dhiot, &c., and dhomh, dhuit, &c., are written with a _plain d_ +after a Lingual; diom, domh, &c. + +Eadar is not incorporated with the pronouns of the singular number, but +written separately; eadar mis agus thusa, _between me and thee_. + +In combining _gu_ and _mu_ with the pronouns, the letters of the +Prepositions suffer a transposition, and are written _ug_, _um_. The former +of these was long written with _ch_ prefixed, thus chugam, &c. The +translators of the Scriptures, observing that _ch_ neither corresponded to +the pronunciation, nor made part of the radical Preposition, exchanged it +for _th_, and wrote thugam. The _th_, being no more than a simple +aspiration, corresponds indeed to the common mode of pronouncing the word. +Yet it may well be questioned whether the _t_, even though aspirated, ought +to have a place, if _g_ be the only radical consonant belonging to the +Preposition. The component parts of the word might be exhibited with less +disguise, and the common pronunciation (whether correct or not), also +represented, by retaining the _h_ alone, and connecting it with the +Preposition by a hyphen, as when written before a Noun, thus h-ugam, +h-ugaibh, &c. + + Improper Prepositions. + + Air cheann; _at [the] end_, against a certain time. + Air feadh, } + Air fad; } throughout, during. + Air muin; _on the back_, mounted on. + Air sg[`a]th; for the sake, on pretence. + Air son; on account. + Air t[`o]ir; in pursuit. + Air beulaobh; _on the fore side_, before. + Air culaobh; _on the back side_, behind. + Am fochair; _in presence_. + Am measg; _in the mixture_, amidst, among. + {122} + An aghaidh; _in the face_, against, in opposition. + An ceann; _in the end_, at the expiration. + An comhail, } + An coinnimh; } _in meeting_, to meet. + An cois, } + A chois; } _at the foot_, near to, hard by. + An d[`a]il; _in the rencounter_, to meet. + An diaigh, } + An deigh, } probably for } + An deaghaidh, } an deireadh; } in the end, after. + An d['e]is; } + An eiric; in return, in requital. + Am fianuis, } + An lathair; } in presence. + An lorg; _in the track_, in consequence. + As eugais, } + As easbhuidh; } _in want_, without. + As leth; in behalf, for the sake. + A los; in order to, with the intention of. + Car; during. + Do bhrigh, a bhrigh; _by virtue_, because. + Do ch[`o]ir, a ch[`o]ir; _to the presence_, near, implying motion. + Do chum, a chum[84]; to, towards, in order to. + Do dh[`i]th, a dh[`i]th, } + Dh' easbhuidh; } for want. + Dh' fhios; _to the knowledge_, to. + Dh' ionnsuidh; _to the approach_, or _onset_, toward. + Do r['e]ir, a r['e]ir; according to. + Do thaobh, a thaobh; _on the side_, with respect, concerning. + Fa ch[`u]is; by reason, because. + Fa chomhair; opposite. + Mu choinnimh; opposite, over against. + Mu thimchoill, timchioll; _by the circuit_, around. + O bharr, bharr; _from the top_, off. + Os ceann; _on the top_, above, atop. + {123} + R['e]; _duration_, during. + Tar['e]is; _after_[85]. + Trid; through, by means. + +It is evident, from inspection, that almost all these improper Prepositions +are compounded; and comprehend, as one of their component parts, a Noun, +which is preceded by a simple or Proper Preposition; like the English, _on +account, with respect_, &c. The words ceann, aghaidh, lorg, barr, taobh, +&c., are known to be real Nouns, because they are employed in that capacity +in other connections, as well as in the phrases here enumerated. The case +is not so clear with regard to son, cum, or cun, reir, which occur only in +the above phrases; but it is probable that these are nouns likewise, and +that, when combined with simple Prepositions, they constitute phrases of +precisely the same structure with the rest of the foregoing list[86]. +Comhair is probably comh-aire _mutual attention_. D[`a]il and c[`o]ir, in +the sense of proximity, are found in their compounds comh-dhail and fochair +[fa ch[`o]ir.] T[`o]ir, in like manner, in its derivative t[`o]ireachd, +_the act of pursuing_. Dh' fhios, _to the knowledge_, must have been +originally applied to persons only. So it is used in many Gaelic songs: +beir mo shoiridh le d[`u]rachd dh' fhios na cailinn, &c., _bear my good +wishes with cordiality to the knowledge of the maid_, &c., i.e., _present +my affectionate regards_, &c. This appropriate meaning and use of the +phrase came by degrees to be overlooked; and it was employed, promiscuously +with do chum and dh' ionnsuidh, to signify _unto_ in a more general sense. +If this analysis of the expression be just, then ghios[87] must be deemed +only a different, and a corrupt manner of writing dh' fhios. + +In the improper preposition os ceann, the noun has almost {124} always been +written cionn. Yet in all other situations, the same noun is uniformly +written ceann. Whence has arisen this diversity in the orthography of a +simple monosyllable? And is it maintained upon just grounds? It must have +proceeded either from a persuasion that there are two distinct nouns +signifying _top_, one of which is to be written ceann, and the other +cionn[88]; or from an opinion that, granting the two words to be the same +individual noun, yet it is proper to distinguish its meaning when used in +the capacity of a preposition, from its meaning in other situations, by +spelling it in different ways. I know of no good argument in support of the +former of these two opinions; nor has it probably been ever maintained. The +latter opinion, which seems to be the real one, is founded on a principle +subversive of the analogy and stability of written language, namely, that +the various significations of the same word are to be distinguished in +writing, by changing its letters, the constituent elements of the word. The +variation in question, instead of serving to point out the meaning of a +word or phrase in one place, from its known meaning in another connection, +tends directly to disguise it; and to mislead the reader into a belief that +the words, which are thus presented to him under different forms, are +themselves radically and essentially different. If the same word has been +employed to denote several things somewhat different from each other, that +does by no means appear a sufficient reason why the writers of the language +should make as many words of one[89]. + +{125} + +The use of the _proper Prepositions_ has been already shown in the +composition of adverbial phrases, and of the _improper Prepositions_. The +following examples show the further use of them in connection with Nouns +and Verbs, and in some idiomatic expressions which do not always admit of +being literally rendered in English. + +Ag, aig. + +_At_: aig an dorus, _at the door_; aig an tigh, _at the house, at home_. + +_By reason of_: aig ro mheud aighir 's a sh[`o]lais, _by reason of his +great joy and satisfaction_, Smith's _Seann d[`a]na_, p. 9; ag meud a +mhiann _through intense desire_, Psal. lxxxiv. 2, metr. vers.; ag +lionmhoireachd, Psal. xl. 5. + +Signifying possession: tha tuill aig na sionnaich, _the foxes have holes_; +bha aig duine araidh dithis mhac, _a certain man had two sons_; cha n'eil +fhios agam, _I have not the knowledge of it, I do not know it_. + +Chaidh agam air, _I have prevailed over him_, Psal. xiii. 4, metr. vers. + +Joined to the Infinitive of Verbs: ag imeachd, _a-walking, walking_. + +Air. + +On, upon: air an l[`a]r, _on the ground_; air an l[`a] sin, _on that day_; +air an adhbhar sin, _on that account, for that reason_. + +{126} + +Denoting claim of debt: ioc dhomh na bheil agam ort, _pay me what thou +owest me_, Matt. xviii. 28; cia meud ata aig mo thighearn ortsa? _how much +owest thou unto my lord?_ Luke xvi. 57.[90] + +Denoting an oath: air m' fhocal, _upon my word_; air l[`a]imh d' athar 's +do sheanathar, _by the hand of your father and grandfather_. + +Tha eagal, mulad, sg[`i]os, ocras, &c., air, _he is afraid, sad, fatigued, +hungry_, &c. + +Thig mo bheul air do cheartas, is air do chli[`u], _my mouth shall speak of +thy justice and thy praise_, Psal. xxxv. 28. metr.; thig mo bheul air +gliocas, _my mouth shall speak of wisdom_, Psal. xlix. 3, metr. v.; sin +c[`u]is air am bheil mi nis a' teachd, _that is the matter of which I am +now to treat_. + +Tog ort, _rouse thyself, bestir thyself_, Psal lxxiv. 22, metr. v. + +Chaidh agam air, _I prevailed over him_, Psal. xiii. 4.; metr.; 'S ann +ormsa chaidh, _it was I that was worsted_. + +Thug e am monadh air, _he betook himself to the mountain_. + +_In respect of_: cha 'n fhaca mi an samhuil air olcas, _I never saw their +like for badness_, Gen. xli. 19; air a lughad, _however small it be_. + +_Joined with, accompanied by_: m[`o]ran iarruinn air bheag faobhar, _much +iron with little edge_, McIntyre's Songs. Oidhche bha mi 'n a theach, air +mh[`o]ran b[`i]dh 's air bheagan eudaich, _I was a night in his house, with +plenty of {127} food, but scanty clothing_; air leth laimh, _having but one +hand_. + +Denoting measure or dimension: d[`a] throidh air [`a]irde, _two feet in +height_. + +Olc air mhath leat e, _whether you take it well or ill_. + +Ann, ann an, anns. + +_In.:_ Anns an tigh, _in the house_; anns an oidhche, _in the night_; ann +an d[`o]chas, _in hope_; anns a' bharail sin, _of that opinion_. + +Denoting existence: ta abhainn ann, _there is a river_, Psal. xlvi. 4, +metr.; nach bithinn ann ni 's m[`o], _that I should not be any more_; b' +fhearr a bhi marbh na ann, _it were better to be dead than to be alive_; +ciod a th' ann? _what is it?_ is mise th' ann, _it is I_; mar gu b' ann, +_as it were_; tha e 'n a dhuine ionraic, _he is a just man_; tha i 'n a +bantraich, _she is a widow_[91]. + +Marking emphasis: is ann air eigin a th[`a]r e as, _it was with difficulty +he got off_; an [`a]ite seasamh is ann a theich iad, _instead of standing +(keeping their ground) they fled_; nach freagair thu? fhreagair mi ann, +_will you not answer? I have answered_. + +As. + +_Out of:_ as an d['u]thaich, _out of the country_. + +Denoting extinction: tha an solus, no an teine, air dol as, _the light, or +the fire, is gone out_. + +As an alt, _out of joint_; as a' ghualainn, as a' chruachainn, as an +uilinn, &c., _dislocated in the shoulder, hip, elbow-joint_. + +{128} + +Chaidh e as, _he escaped_. + +Cuir as da, _destroy him_, or _it_. + +Chaidh as da, _he is perished, undone_. + +Thug e na buinn as, _he scampered off_. + +Dubh as, _blot out_. + +De. + +_Of:_ Armailt mh[`o]r de dhaoinibh agus a dh' eachaibh, _a great army of +men and horses_. + +_Off:_ Bha na geugan air an sgathadh dheth, _the branches were lopped off_; +thug iad an ceann deth, _they beheaded him_. + +Dh' aon r[`u]n, _with one consent, with one purpose_; dh' aon bharail, +_with one mind, judgment_. + +A l[`a] agus a dh' oidhche, _i.e._, de l[`a] agus de oidhche, _by day and +by night_. Lat. _de nocte_, Hor. + +Saidhbhreas m['o]r d'a mheud, _riches however great_. Psal. cxix. 14, metr. + +Do. + +_To:_ Tabhair dhomh, _give to me, give me_; thug sinn a bos m[`i]n do +Dhearg, _we gave her soft hand to Dargo_. + +Dh' eirich sud dha gu h-obann, _that befell him suddenly_. Mar sin duinne +gu latha, _so it fared with us till day, so we passed the night_; ma 's olc +dhomh, cha n-fhearr dhoibh, _if it goes ill with me, they fare no better_. + +Latha dhomhsa siubhal bheann, _one day as I travelled the hills_; latha +dhuinn air machair Alba, _one day when we were in the lowlands of Scotland; +on Scotia's plains_. + +Eadar. + +_Between:_ eadar an dorus agus an ursainn, _between the door and the post_. + +Dh' eirich eadar mi agus mo choimhearsnach, _a quarrel arose betwixt me and +my neighbour_. + +{129} Eadar mh[`o]r agus bheag, _both great and small_, Psal. xlix. 2, +metr.; Rev. xix. 5, eadar bhochd agus nochd, _both the poor and the naked_. + +Fa. + +_Upon:_ Fa 'n bh[`o]rd, _upon the board_; leigeadar fa l[`a]r, _was dropped +on the ground, omitted, neglected_. Carswel. Fa 'n adhbhar ud, _on that +account_; creud fa 'n abradh iad? _wherefore should they say?_ + +Fa sheachd, _seven times_, Psal. vii. 6, metr.; fa cheud, _a hundred +times_, Psal. lxii. 9, metr. + +Fuidh, fo. + +_Under:_ Fuidh 'n bh[`o]rd, _under the board_; fuidh bhl[`a]th _in +blossom_; tha an t-arbhar fo dh['e]is, _the corn is in the ear_; fuidh +smuairean, _under concern_; fo ghruaim, _gloomy_; fo mhi-ghean, _in bad +humour_; fuidh mhi-chliu, _under bad report_. + +Denoting intention or purpose: air bhi fuidhe, _it being his purpose_, Acts +xx. 7; tha tighinn fodham, _it is my intention or inclination_. + +Gu, Gus. + +_To:_ O thigh gu tigh, _from house to house_; gu cr[`i]ch mo shaoghail +fein, _to the end of my life_; gus an crion gu luaithre a' chlach, _until +the stone shall crumble to dust_. Sm. Seann d[`a]na. + +A' bhliadhna gus an [`a]m so, _this time twelvemonth, a year ago_; a +sheachduin gus an d['e], _yesterday se'ennight_. + +Mile gu leth, _a mile and a half_; bliadhna gu leth, _a year and a half_. + +Gun. + +_Without:_ Gun amharus, _without doubt_; gun bhrogan, _without shoes_; gun +fhios, _without knowledge, unwittingly_; gun fhios nach faic thu e, _in +case you may see him_, {130} _if perhaps you may see him_; gun fhios am +faic thu e, _if perhaps you may not see him_. Gun chomas aig air, _without +his being able to prevent it, or avoid it_; _involuntarily_. Gniomh gun +chomain, _an unmerited, or unprovoked deed_. Dh' [`a]ithn e dha gun sin a +dheanamh, _he ordered him not to do that_. Fhuair iad rabhadh gun iad a +philltinn, _they were warned not to return_. + +Iar. + +_After_: Iar sin, _after that_; iar leughadh an t-Soisgeil, _after the +reading of the Gospel_; iar tuiteam sios da aig a chosaibh, _having fallen +down at his feet_; bha mi iar mo mhealladh, _I was received_. + +Le, leis. + +_With_: Chaidh mi leis a' chuideachd mh[`o]ir, _I went with the multitude_. + +Denoting the instrument: mharbh e Eoin leis a' chlaidheamh, _he killed John +with the sword_. + +Denoting the agent: thomhaiseadh le Diarmid an torc, _the boar was measured +by Diarmid_. + +Denoting possession: is le Donull an leabhar, _the book is Donald's_; cha +leis e, _it is not his_. + +Denoting opinion or feeling: is fada leam an l[`a] gu h-oidhche, _I think +the day long, or tedious, till night come_; is cruaidh leam do chor, _I +think your case a hard one_; is d[`o]cha leam, _I think it probable_; is +doilich leam, _I am sorry_; is aithreach leis, _he repents_. + +_Along_: leis an t-sruth _along the stream_; leis an leathad, _down the +declivity_. + +Leig leam, _let me alone_; leig leis, _let him alone_. + +Mu. + +_About_: ag iadhadh mu a cheann, _winding about his head_; labhair e mu +Iudas, _he spoke about Judas_; nuair smachduichear duine leat mu 'lochd, +_when thou {131} correctest a man for his sin_, Psal. xxxix. 11, metr.; sud +am f[`a]th mu'n goir a' chorr, _that is the reason of the heron's cry_. +Seann d[`a]na. Sud f[`a]th mu 'n guidheann ort na naoimh, _for this reason +will the saints make supplication to Thee_. + +O. + +_From_: O bhaile gu baile, _from town to town_; o mhadainn gu feasgar, +_from morning to evening_; o 'n l[`a] thainig mi dhachaidh, _from the day +that I came home_; o 'n l[`a], is often abridged into la; as, la thainig mi +dhachaidh, _since I came home_. + +_Since_, _because_: thugamaid uil' oirnn a' bhanais, o fhuair sinn cuireadh +dhol ann, _let us all to the wedding, since we have been bidden to it_. + +Denoting want in opposition to possession, denoted by _aig_: na tha uainn +'s a b' fheairrd sinn againn, _what we want and should be the better for +having_. + +Implying desire: ciod tha uait? _what would you have?_ Tha claidheamh uam, +_I want a sword_. + +Os. + +_Above_: Mar togam os m' uil' aoibhneas [`a]rd cathair Ierusaleim, _if I +prefer not Jerusalem above my chief joy_, Psal. cxxxvii. 6, metr.; os mo +cheann, _above me_, _over me_. + +Ri, ris. + +_To_: cosmhuil ri mac righ, _like to the son of a king_; chuir iad teine +ris an tigh, _they set fire to the house_. + +Maille ri, _together with_. + +Laimh ris a' bhalla, _nigh to the wall_. + +Ri l[`a] gaoithe, _on a day of wind_; ri fad mo r['e] 's mo l[`a], _during +all the days of my life_; ri l[`i]nn Righ Uilliam, _in the reign of King +William_. + +Na bi rium, _don't molest me_. + +Feuch ris, _try it_. + +Cuir ris, _ply your work_, _exert yourself_; cuirear na {132} nithe so +ribh, _these things shall be added unto you_, Matt. vi. 33. Tha an Spiorad +ag cur ruinn na saorsa, _the Spirit applieth to us the redemption_, Assemb. +Sh. Catech. + +_Exposed_: tha an craicionn ris, _the skin is exposed, or bare_; leig ris, +_expose or make manifest_. + +Roimh. + +_Before_: roimh 'n charbad, _before the chariot_; roimh 'n chamhair, +_before the dawn_; roimh na h-uile nithibh, _before, in preference to, all +things_; chuir mi romham, _I set before me, purposed, intended_. + +Imich romhad, _go forward_; dh' fhalbh e roimhe, _he went his way_, _he +went off_. + +Seach. + +_Past_: chaidh e seach an dorus, _he passed by the door_. + +_In comparison with_: is trom a' chlach seach a' chl[`o]ineag, _the stone +is heavy compared with the down_. + +Tar, thar. + +_Over_, _across_: chaidh e thar an amhainn, thar a' mhonadh, _he went over +the river, over the mountain_; tha sin thar m' eolas, thar mo bheachd, &c., +_that is beyond my knowledge, beyond my comprehension_, &c. + +Tre, troimh, throimh. + +_Through_: tre uisge is tre theine, _through water and through fire_. + + + +OF INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. + +The following initial syllables, used only in composition, are prefixed to +nouns, adjectives, or verbs, to modify or alter their signification:-- +{133} + +An[92], Di, Ao, ea, eu, eas, Mi, Neo:--Privative syllables signifying +_not_, or serving to change the signification of the words to which they +are prefixed into its contrary; as, socair _ease_, anshocair _distress_, +_uneasiness_; ciontach _guilty_, dichiontach _innocent_; treabh _to +cultivate_, dithreabh _an uncultivated place_, _a desert_; dionach _tight_, +_close_, aodionach _leaky_; c[`o]ir _justice_, eucoir _injustice_; sl[`a]n +_whole_, _in health_, easlan _sick_; caraid _a friend_, eascaraid _an +enemy_; buidheachas _gratitude_, mibhuidheachas _ingratitude_; claon +_awry_, neochlaon _unbiassed_, _impartial_; duine _a man_, neodhuine _a +worthless unnatural creature_. + +An, ain, intensitive, denoting an immoderate degree, or faulty excess; as, +tighearnas _dominion_, aintighearnas _tyranny_; tromaich _to make heavy_, +antromaich _to make very heavy_, _to aggravate_; teas _heat_, ainteas +_excessive heat_; miann _desire_, ainmhiann _inordinate desire_, _lust_. + +Ais, ath, _again_, _back_; as, eirigh _rising_, aiseirigh _resurrection_; +beachd _view_, ath-bheachd _retrospect_; f[`a]s _growth_, ath-fh[`a]s +_after-growth_. + +Bith, _continually_; as, bithdheanamh _doing continually_, _busy_; am +bithdheantas _incessantly_. + +Co, com, comh, con, _together_, _equally_, _mutually_; as, gleacadh +_fighting_, co-ghleacadh _fighting together_; lion _to fill_, colion _to +fulfil_, _accomplish_; ith _to eat_, comith _eating together_; radh +_saying_, comhradh _conversation, speech_; trom _weight_, cothrom _equal +weight_, _equity_; aois _age_, comhaois _a contemporary_. + +Im, _about_, _round_, _entire_; as, l[`a]n _full_, iomlan _quite complete_; +gaoth _wind_, iomghaoth _a whirlwind_; slainte _health_, iom-shlainte +_perfect health_. + +{134} + +In, or ion, _worthy_: as, ion-mholta _worthy to be praised_: ion-roghnuidh +_worthy to be chosen_, Psal. xxv. 12, metr. vers. + +So, _easily_, _gently_: as, faicsin _seeing_, so-fhaicsin _easily seen_; +sion _weather_, soinion [so-shion] _calm weather_; sgeul _a tale_, soisgeul +_a good tale_, _gospel_. + +Do, _with difficulty_, _evil_; as, tuigsin _understanding_, do-thuigsin +_difficult to be understood_; doinion _stormy weather_; beart _deed, +exploit_. do-bheart _evil deed_. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +OF CONJUNCTIONS. + +Under this class of words, it is proper to enumerate not only those single +Particles which are usually denominated Conjunctions; but also the most +common phrases which are used as Conjunctions to connect either words or +sentences. + + Ach; but. + Agus, is; and. + A chionn gu; because that. + A chum as gu; in order that. + A chum as nach; that not. + Air chor as gu; so that. + Air eagal gu, } + D' eagal gu; } _for fear that_, lest. + Air son gu, } + Du bhrigh gu; } by reason that + Bheil fhios, 'l fhios? _is there knowledge?_ is it known? an expression + of curiosity, or desire to know. + Co; as. + Ged, giodh; although[93]. + {135} + Ged tha, ge ta; _though it be_, notwithstanding. + Gidheadh; yet, nevertheless. + Gu, gur; that. + Gun fhios; _without knowledge_, it being uncertain whether or not, in + case not. + Ionnas gu; insomuch that, so that. + {136} + Ma; if. + Mar; as, like as. + Mar sud agus; so also. + Ma seadh, } + Ma ta; } _if so_, _if it be so_, _then_. + Mur; if not. + Mur bhiodh gu; were it not that. + Mus an, mu 'n; before that, lest. + Na; than. + Nach; that not. + Na'n, na'm; if. + No; or. + O; since, because. + Oir; for. + Os barr; moreover. + Sol, suil; before that. + Tuille eile; further. + Uime sin; therefore. + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +OF INTERJECTIONS. + +The syllables or sounds, employed as expressions of various emotions or +sensations, are numerous in Gaelic, but for the most part provincial, and +arbitrary. Only one or two single vocables, and a few phrases, require to +be noticed under this division. + + Och! Ochan! alas! + Ochan nan och! _alas_ and _well-a-day!_ + Fire faire! what a pother! + Mo thruaighe! _my misery!_ } + Mo chreachadh! _my despoiling!_ } woe's me! + Mo n[`a]ire! _my shame_, for shame! fy! + H-ugad, _at you_, take care of yourself, _gardez-vous_. + Feuch! behold! lo! + + * * * * * + + +{137} + +PART III. + +OF SYNTAX. + +Syntax treats of the connection of words with each other in a sentence; and +teaches the proper method of expressing their connection by the +_Collection_ and the _Form_ of the words. Gaelic Syntax may be conveniently +enough explained under the common divisions of Concord and Government. + + + +CHAPTER I. + +OF CONCORD. + +Under Concord is to be considered the agreement of the Article with its +Noun;--of an Adjective with its Noun;--of a Pronoun with its +Antecedent;--of a Verb with its Nominative;--and of one Noun with another. + +SECTION I. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE ARTICLE WITH A NOUN. + +_Collocation._ + +The article is always placed before its Noun, and next to it, unless when +an Adjective intervenes. + +_Form._ + +The article agrees with its Noun in Gender, Number, and Case. Final _n_ is +changed into _m_ before a plain Labial; as, am baile _the town_, am fear +_the man_. It is usually cut off before an aspirated Palatal, or Labial, +excepting _fh_; as, a' chaora _the sheep_, a' mhuc _the sow_, a' choin _of +the dog_. In the Dat. Sing. initial _a_ is cut off after a Preposition +ending in a Vowel; as, do 'n chloich _to the stone_[94]. + +{138} + +A Noun, when immediately preceded by the Article, suffers some changes in +Initial Form:--1. With regard to Nouns beginning with a Consonant, the +_aspirated_ form is assumed by a mas. Noun in the gen. and dat. singular; +by a fem. noun in the nom. and dat. singular. If the Noun begins with _s_ +followed by a vowel or by a Liquid, instead of having the _s_ aspirated, +_t_ is inserted between the Article and the Noun, in the foresaid cases; +and the _s_ becomes entirely quiescent[95]. 2. With regard to Nouns +beginning with a Vowel, _t_ or _h_ is inserted between the Article and the +Noun in certain Cases, viz. _t_ in the Nom. sing. of mas. Nouns, _h_ in the +gen. sing. of fem. Nouns, and _h_ in the nom. and dat. plur. of Nouns of +either gender. Throughout the other sing. and plur. Cases, all Nouns retain +their Primary form. + +The following examples show all the varieties that take place in declining +a Noun with the Article. + +_Nouns beginning with a Labial or a Palatal._ + + Bard, mas. _a Poet_. + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ am Bard, na Baird, + _G._ a' Bhaird, nam Bard, + _D._ a', 'n Bhard[96]. na Bardaibh. + + Cluas, fem. _an Ear_. + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ a' Chluas, na Cluasan, + _G._ na Cluaise, nan Cluas, + _D._ a', 'n Chluais. na Cluasaibh. + + {139} + _Nouns beginning with f._ + + Fleasgach, m. _a Bachelor._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ am Fleasgach, na Fleasgaich, + _G._ an Fhleasgaich, nam Fleasgach, + _D._ an, 'n Fhleasgach. na Fleasgaich. + + F[`o]id, f. a _Turf._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Fh[`o]id, na Foidean, + _G._ na F[`o]ide, nam F[`o]id, + _D._ an, 'n Fh[`o]id. na Foidibh. + + _Nouns beginning with a Lingual._ + + Dorus, m. _a Door._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Dorus, na Dorsan, + _G._ an Doruis, nan Dorsa, + _D._ an, 'n Dorus, na Dorsaibh. + + Teasach, f. _a Fever._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Teasach, na Teasaichean, + _G._ na Teasaich, nan Teasach, + _D._ an, 'n Teasaich. na Teasaichibh. + + _Nouns beginning with s._ + + Sloc, mas. _a Pit._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Sloc, na Sluic, + _G._ an t-Sluic, nan Sloc, + _D._ an, 'n t-Sloc. na Slocaibh. + + {140} + S[`u]il, fem. _an Eye._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an t-S[`u]il, na Suilean, + _G._ na S[`u]la nan S[`u]l, + _D._ an, 'n t-S[`u]il. na Suilibh. + + _Nouns beginning with a Vowel._ + + Iasg, m. _a Fish._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an t-Iasg, na h-Iasga, + _G._ an Eisg, nan Iasg, + _D._ an, 'n Iasg. na h-Iasgaibh. + + Adharc, f. _a Horn._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Adharc, na h-Adhaircean, + _G._ na h-Adhairc, nan Adharc, + _D._ an, 'n Adhairc. na h-Adhaircibh. + +The initial Form of Adjectives immediately preceded by the Article, follows +the same rules with the initial Form of Nouns. + +Besides the common use of the Article as a Definitive to ascertain +individual objects, it is used in Gaelic-- + +1. Before a Noun followed by the Pronouns _so_, _sin_, or _ud_; as, am fear +so, _this man_; an tigh ud, _yon house_. + +2. Before a Noun preceded by the Verb _is_ and an Adjective; as, is maith +an sealgair e, _he is a good huntsman_; bu luath an coisiche e, _he was a +swift footman_. + +3. Before some names of countries; as, righ na Spainne, _the king of +Spain_; chaidh e do 'n Fhrainc, _he went to France_; but righ Bhreatain, +_the king of Britain_; chaidh e dh' Eirin, _he went to Ireland_, without +the Article. {141} + + + +SECTION II. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF AN ADJECTIVE WITH A NOUN. + +_Collocation._ + +When an Adjective and the Noun which it qualifies are in the same clause or +member of a sentence, the Adjective is usually placed after its Noun; as, +ceann liath, _a hoary head_; duine ro ghlic, _a very wise man_. If they be +in different clauses, or if the one be in the subject, and the other in the +predicate of a proposition, this rule does not apply; as, is glic an duine +sin, _that is a wise man_; cha truagh leam do chor, _I do not think your +case unfortunate_. + +1. Numerals, whether Cardinal or Ordinal, to which add, iomadh _many_, gach +_every_, are placed before their Nouns; as, tri lathan, _three days_; an +treas latha, _the third day_; iomadh duine, _many a man_; gach eun g' a +nead, _every bird to its nest_.--Except such instances as the following : +Righ Tearlach a h-Aon, _King Charles the First_; Righ Seumas a Cuig, _King +James the Fifth_. + +2. The possessive pronouns mo, do, &c., are always placed before their +nouns; as, mo lamh, _my hand_. The interrogatives co, cia, &c., are placed +before their nouns, with the article intervening; as, cia am fear? _which +man?_ + +3. Some adjectives of one syllable are usually placed before their Nouns; +as, deadh dhuine, _a good man_; droch ghniomh, _a bad action_; seann +sluagh, _old people_. Such Adjectives, placed before their Nouns, often +combine with them, so as to represent one complex idea, rather than two +distinct ones; and the adjective and noun, in that situation, may rather be +considered as one complex term, than as two distinct words, and written +accordingly; as, oigfhear, _a young man_; ogbhean, _a young woman_; +garbhchriochan, _rude regions_[97]. + +{142} + +_Form._ + +Though a Gaelic Adjective possesses a variety of Forms, yet its Form is not +always determined by the Noun whose signification it modifies. The Form of +the Adjective depends on its Noun, when it immediately follows the Noun, or +only with the intervention of an intensitive Particle, ro, gle, &c., and +when both the Noun and the Adjective are in the Subject, or both in the +Predicate, or in the same clause or member of a sentence. In all other +situations, the form of the Adjective does in no respect depend on the +Noun; or, in other words, the Adjective does not agree with the Noun[98]. + +To illustrate this rule, let the following examples be attentively +considered:--Is beag orm a' ghaoth fhuar, _I dislike the cold wind_; is +beag orm fuaim na gaoithe fuaire, _I dislike the sound of the cold wind_; +is beag orm seasamh anns a' ghaoith fhuair, _I dislike standing in the cold +wind_. In these examples, the Adjective and the Noun are both in the same +clause or member of a sentence, and therefore they must agree together. In +the following examples the Adjective and the Noun do not necessarily agree +together:--Is fuar a' ghaoth ['a] tuath, _cold is the wind from the north_; +is tric leis a' ghaoith ['a] tuath bhi fuar, _it is usual for the wind from +the north to be cold_. In these examples, the Noun is in the Subject, and +the Adjective in the Predicate of the proposition. + +{143} + +The grammatical distinction observable in the following examples is +agreeable to the strictest philosophical propriety:--Rinn mis an scian +gheur, _I made the sharp knife_: here the Adjective agrees with the Noun, +for it modifies the Noun, distinguishing that knife from others. Rinn mis +an scian geur, _I made the knife sharp_: here the Adjective does not agree +with the Noun, for it modifies not the Noun but the Verb. It does not +characterize the _object_ on which the operation is performed, hut it +combines with the Verb in specifying the _nature of the operation_ +performed. The expression is equivalent to gheuraich mi an scian, _I +sharpened the knife_. So also, mhothaich mi a' ghaoth fhuar, _I felt the +cold wind_; but mhothaich mi a' ghaoth fuar, _I felt the wind cold_. In the +former of these examples the Adjective modifies the Noun, and agrees with +it; in the latter it does not agree with the Noun, for its use is to modify +the Verb, or to specify the nature of the sensation felt. In like manner, +dh' fh[`a]g iad an obair criochnaichte, _they left the work finished_; +fhuaradh an [`o]igh s[`i]nte, marbh, _the maid was found stretched out +dead_. And so in other similar instances. + + + +1. When an Adjective and Noun are so situated and related, that an +agreement takes place between them, then the Adjective agrees with its noun +in Gender, Number, and Case. A Noun preceded by the Numeral da _two_, +though it be in the Singular Number, [see conclusion of Part II. Chap I.] +takes an Adjective in the Plural; as, da iasg bheaga, _two small fishes_, +John, vi. 9. The Initial Form of the Adjective depends partly on the Gender +of the Noun, partly on its Termination, and partly on its being preceded by +the Article. + +The following examples of an Adjective declined along with its Noun, +exhibit the varieties in the Initial Form, as well as in the Termination of +the Adjective:-- + +{144} + + MONOSYLLABLES. + + Fear m[`o]r, mas. _a Great Man_. + + _Without the Article._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ Fear m[`o]r, Fir mh[`o]ra, + _G._ Fir mh[`o]ir, Fheara m[`o]ra, + _D._ Fear m[`o]r, Fearaibh m[`o]ra, + _V._ Fhir mh[`o]ir. Fheara m[`o]ra. + + _With the Article._ + + _N._ Am Fear m[`o]r, Na Fir mh[`o]ra, + _G._ An Fhir mh[`o]ir, Nam Fear m[`o]ra, + _D._ An Fhear mh[`o]r. Na Fearaibh m[`o]ra. + + Slat gheal, fem. _a white rod_. + + _Without the Article._ + + _N._ Slat gheal, Slatan geala, + _G._ Slaite gile, Shlatan geala, + _D._ Slait ghil, Slataibh geala, + _V._ Shlat gheal. Shlata geala. + + _With the Article._ + + _N._ An t-Slat gheal, Na Slatan geala, + _G._ Na Slaite gile, Nan Slata geala, + _D._ An t-Slait ghil. Na Slataibh geala. + + POLYSYLLABLES. + + Oglach dileas, m. _a Faithful Servant_. + + _Without the Article._ + + _N._ Oglach dileas, Oglaich dhileas, + _G._ Oglaich dhilis, Oglach dileas, + _D._ Oglach dileas, Oglachaibh dileas, + _V._ Oglaich dhilis. Oglacha dileas. + + {145} + _With the Article._ + + _N._ An t-Oglach dileas, Na h-Oglaich dhileas. + _G._ An Oglaich dhilis, Nan Oglach dileas. + _D._ An Oglach dhileas, Na h-Oglachaibh dileas. + + Clarsach fhonnmhor, f. _a Tuneful Harp._ + + _Without the Article._ + + _N._ Clarsach fhonnmhor, Clarsaichean fonnmhor. + _G._ Clarsaich fhonnmhoir, Chlarsach fonnmhor. + _D._ Clarsaich fhonnmhoir, Clarsaichibh fonnmhor. + _V._ Chlarsach fhonnmhor, Chlarsaiche fonnmhor. + + _With the Article._ + + _N._ A' Chlarsach fhonnmhor, Na Clarsaichean fonnmhor. + _G._ Na Clarsaich fonnmhoir, Nan Clarsach fonnmhor. + _D._ A', 'n Chlarsaich fhonnmhoir, Na Clarsaichibh fonnmhor. + +An Adjective, beginning with a Lingual, and preceded by a Noun terminating +in a Lingual, retains its primary Form in all the Singular cases; for the +sake, it would seem, of preserving the agreeable sound arising from the +coalescence of the two Linguals; as, nighean donn _a brown maid_, instead +of nighean dhonn; a' choin duibh _of the black dog_, instead of a' choin +dhuibh; air a' chois deis _on his right foot_, instead of air a chois +dheis. + +II. A Noun preceded by an Adjective assumes the aspirated Form; as, ard +bheann _a high hill_, cruaidh dheuchainn _a hard trial_. + +1. A Noun preceded by a Numeral is in the primary Form; as, tri meoir +_three fingers_; to which add iomadh _many_, gach _every_; as, iomadh fear +_many a man_; gach craobh _every tree_.--Except aon _one_, da _two_; ceud +_first_; as, aon fhear _one man_, da chraoibh _two trees_. + +2. A Noun preceded by any of the following Possessive Pronouns, a _her_, ar +_our_, bhur _your_, an _their_, is in the primary {146} Form; as, a mathair +_her mother_, ar brathair _our brother_. When the Possessive Pronoun a +_her_, precedes a Noun or an Adjective beginning with a vowel, _h_ is +inserted between them; as, a h-athair, _her father_, a h-aon mhac _her only +son_. The Possessive Pronouns ar _our_, bhur _your_, usually take _n_ +between them and the following Noun or Adjective beginning with a vowel; +as, ar n-athair _our father_, bhur n-aran _your bread_. Perhaps a +distinction ought to be made, by inserting _n_ only after ar, and not after +bhur[99]. This would serve often to distinguish the one word from the other +in speaking, where they are ready to be confounded by bhur being pronounced +ur. + +3. A Noun beginning with a Lingual, preceded by an Adjective ending in _n_, +is in the primary Form; as, aon duine _one man_, seann sluagh _old people_. + + + +SECTION III. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF A PRONOUN WITH ITS ANTECEDENT. + +The Personal and Possessive Pronouns follow the _Number_ of their +Antecedents, _i.e._ of the Nouns which they represent. Those of the 3d +Pers. Sing. follow also the Gender of their antecedent; as, sheas a'bhean +aig _a_ chosaibh, agus thoisich _i air am_ fliuchadh leis _a_ deuraibh, +agus thiormaich _i iad_ le gruaig _a_ cinn, _the woman stood at his feet, +and she began to wet them with her tears, and she wiped them with the hair +of her head_, Luke vii. 38. They follow, however, not the Gender of the +Antecedent, but the sex of the creature signified by the Antecedent, in +those words in which Sex and Gender disagree, as, an gobhlan-gaoithe mar an +ceudn' do sholair nead dh'i fein _the swallow too hath provided a nest for +herself_, Psal. lxxxiv. 3. Gobhlan-gaoithe _a swallow_, is a mas. Noun, as +appears by the mas. Article: but as it is the dam that is spoken of, the +reference is made by the Personal Pronoun of the fem. gender. Ta gliocas +air a fireanachadh leis a cloinn _Wisdom {147} is justified by her +children_, Matt. xi. 19. Gliocas is a mas. noun; but as Wisdom is here +personified as a female, the regimen of the Possessive Pronoun is adapted +to that idea[100]. See also Prov. ix. 1-3. In this sentence Och nach b' i +mhaduinn e, Deut. xxviii. 67, the former pronoun _i_ is correctly put in +the fem. gender, as referring to the fem. noun _maduinn_; while the latter +pron. _e_ is put in the mas. gend. because referring to no expressed +antecedent. + +If the Antecedent be a sentence, or clause of a sentence, the Pronoun is of +the 3d Pers. Sing. masculine; as, dh' ith na b[`a] caola suas na b[`a] +reamhra, agus cha n-aithnichteadh orra _e_, _the lean cattle ate up the fat +cattle, and could not be known by them_. + +If the Antecedent be a collective Noun, the Pronoun is of the 3d Pers. +Plur. as, thoir [`a]ithne do 'n t-sluagh, d' eagal gu m bris _iad_ asteach +_charge the people lest they break in_, Exod. xix. 21. + +An Interrogative combined with a Personal Pronoun, asks a question without +the intervention of the Substantive verb; as, co mise? _who [am] I?_ co iad +na daoine sin? _who [are] those men?_ cia i a' cheud [`a]ithne? _which [is] +the first commandment?_ In interrogations of this form, the noun is +sometimes preceded by the Personal Pronoun, and sometimes not; as, co e am +fear? _who [is] the man?_ co am fear? _what man?_ Co am fear? is evidently +an incomplete sentence, like _what man?_ in English. The ellipsis may be +supplied thus; co e am fear a ta thu ciallachadh? _who is the man whom you +mean?_ This example may be abridged into another common interrogation, in +which the Interrogative is immediately followed by the Relative; as, co a +ta thu ciallachadh? _who [is he] whom you mean?_ ciod a ta thu faicinn? +_what [is it] that you see?_ + +In an interrogative sentence including a Personal Pronoun and a Noun, as, +co e am fear sin? if the Noun be restricted in {148} its signification by +some other words connected with it, such as the Article, an Adjective, +another Noun in the Genitive, or a relative clause, then the Pronoun +usually follows the Gender of the Noun, or the Sex of the object signified +by the Noun, if the Gender does not correspond to it; as, co _e_ am fear a +theid a suas? _who is the man that shall ascend?_ co _i_ am boirionnach +sin? _who is that woman?_ cia _i_ a' cheud [`a]ithne? _which is the first +commandment?_ If the Noun be not _so restricted_, the Pronoun is of the +masculine gender; as, ciod e uchdmhacachd? _what is adoption?_ ciod e +urnuigh? _what is prayer?_[101] + +{149} + + + +SECTION IV. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF A VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. + +As the Verb has no variation of _form_ corresponding to the Person or +Number of its Nominative, the connection between a Verb and its Nominative +can be marked only by its _collocation_. Little variety therefore is +allowed in this respect. The Nominative, whether Noun or Pronoun, is +ordinarily placed after the Verb; as, ta mi _I am_, rugadh duine-cloinne _a +man-child is born_[102]. The Article or an Adjective, is frequently {150} +placed between the Verb and its Nominative; as, thainig an uair, _the hour +is come_; aithrisear iomadh droch sgeul, _many an evil tale will be told_. +Sometimes, but more rarely, circumstances are expressed beween the Verb and +its Nominative; as, rugadh dhuinne, an diugh, ann am baile Dhaibhi, an +Slanuighear, _there is born to us, this day, in David's town, the Saviour_. + +The word denoting the object of the verbal action, can never, even in +poetry, be placed between the Verb and its Nominative, without altering the +sense. Hence the arrangement in the following passages is incorrect:--Ghabh +domblas agus fiongeur iad, _they took gall and vinegar_. "Buch. Gael. +Poems," Edin. 1767. p. 14. The collocation should have been ghabh iad +domblas, &c. Do chual e 'n cruinne-c['e], _the world heard it_, id. p. 15, +ought to have been, do chual an cruinne-c['e] e. So also, do ghabh +truaighe, Iosa dhoibh, _Jesus took pity {151} on them_. Matt. xx. 34, Irish +vers. It ought to have been, do ghabh Iosa truaighe, &c.[103]. + +The Relatives a _who_, nach _who not_, are always put before the verb; as, +am fear a thuit, _the man who fell_; am fear nach dean beud, _the man who +will not commit a fault_. + +In poetry, or poetical style, where inversion is allowed, the Nominative is +sometimes placed before the Verb; as doimhneachd na talmhain ta 'n a laimh, +_in his hand is the depth of the earth_. Psal. xcv. 4. + + Oigh cha tig le cl[`a]r 'n an comhdhail, + _No virgin with harp will come to meet them._ + Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 285. + + Gach doire, gach coire, 's gach eas, + Bheir a' m' chuimhne cneas mo Ghraidh. + +_Each grove, each dell, and each water-fall, will bring to my remembrance +the form of my love._ Id. p. 30. + + An la sin cha tigh gu br[`a]th, + A bheir dearrsa mo ghraidh gu tuath. + +_That day shall never come, which shall bring the sun-beam of my love to +the North._ Fingal II. 192. + + Am focail geilleam do Mhorlamh; + Mo lann do neach beo cha gheill. + +_In words I yield to Morla; my sword to no living man shall yield._ Fing. +II. 203. This inversion is never admitted into plain discourse or +unimpassioned narrative. + +In those Persons of the Verb in which the terminations supply the place of +the Personal Pronouns, no Nominative is expressed along with the Verb. In +all the other Persons of the Verb, a Noun or a Pronoun is commonly +expressed as its Nominative. In sentences of a poetical structure, the +Nominative is sometimes, though rarely, omitted; as, am fear nach {152} +gabh 'nuair gheibh, cha 'n fhaigh 'nuair 's aill, _the man who will not +take when [he] can get, will not get when [he] wishes_. + + A Gharna, cuim a sheas? a Ghuill, cuim a thuit? + _Garno, why stoodst? Gaul, why didst fall?_ + Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 153. + +The Infinitive often takes before it the Nominative of the Agent; in which +case the Preposition _do_ is either expressed or understood before the +Infinitive; as, feuch, cia meud a mhaith, braithre do bhi 'n an comhnuidh +ann sith! _behold how great a good it is, that brethren dwell in peace!_ +Psal. cxxxiii, 1. Is e mi dh' fhantuinn 's an fheoil, a 's feumaile +dhuibhse, _my abiding in the flesh is more needful for you_, Phil. i. 24, +Cha n'eil e iomchuidh sinne dh' fhagail focail D['e], agus a fhrithealadh +do bhordaibh, _it is not meet that we should leave the word of God, and +serve tables_, Acts vi. 2. The Preposition _do_, being softened as usual +into _a_, readily disappears after a Vowel; as, air son mi bhi a r[`i]s a +lath[`a]ir maille ribh, _by my being again present with you_, Phil. i. +26[104]. + + + +SECTION V. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF ONE NOUN WITH ANOTHER. + +When in the same sentence two or more Nouns, applied as names to the same +object, stand in the same grammatical relation to other words, it should +naturally be expected that their Form, in so far as it depends on that +relation, should be the same; in other words, that Nouns denoting the same +object, and related alike to the governing word, should agree in Case. This +accordingly happens in Greek and Latin. In Gaelic, where a variety of form +gives room for the application of the same rule, it has been followed in +some instances; as, Doncha mac Chailain mhic Dhonuil, _Duncan the son of +{153} Colin the son of Donald_; where the words Chailain and mhic denoting +the same person, and being alike related to the preceding Noun mac are on +that account both in the same Case. It must be acknowledged, however, that +this rule, obvious and natural as it is, has not been uniformly observed by +the speakers of Gaelic. For example; instead of mac Ioseiph an t-saoir, +_the son of Joseph the carpenter_, many would more readily say, mac Ioseiph +an saor; instead of thuit e le laimh Oscair an laoich chruadalaich, _he +fell by the hand of Oscar the bold hero_, it would rather be said, thuit e +le laimh Oscair an laoch cruadalach. The latter of these two modes of +expression may perhaps be defended on the ground of its being elliptical; +and the ellipsis may be supplied thus: mac Ioseiph [is e sin] an saor; +laimh Oscair [neach is e] an laoch cruadalach. Still it must be allowed, in +favour of the rule in question, that the observance of it serves to mark +the relation of the Nouns to each other, which would otherwise remain, in +many instances, doubtful. Thus in one of the foregoing examples, if we +should reject the rule, and write mac Ioseiph an saor; it would be +impossible to know, from the form of the words, whether Joseph or his son +were the carpenter. + +The translators of the Scriptures into Gaelic, induced probably by the +reasonableness and utility of the rule under consideration, by the example +of the most polished Tongues, and by the usage of the Gaelic itself in some +phrases, have uniformly adhered to this rule when the leading Noun was in +the Genitive; as, do mhacaibh Bharsillai a' Ghileadaich, 1 Kings ii. 7; +righ-chathair Dhaibhi athar, 1 Kings ii. 12; do thaobh Bheniamin am +brathar, Judg. xxi. 6; ag gabhail nan clar chloiche, eadhon chlar a' +cho-cheangail, Deut. ix. 9. The rule seems to have been disregarded when +the leading Noun was in the Dative. See 1 Kings i. 25, Ruth iv. 5, Acts +xiii. 33. {154} + + + +CHAPTER II. + +OF GOVERNMENT. + +Under this head is to be explained the Government of Nouns, of Adjectives, +of Verbs, of Prepositions, and of Conjunctions. + + + +SECTION I. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF NOUNS. + +One Noun governs another in the Genitive. The Noun governed is always +placed after that which governs it; as, ceann tighe, _the head of a house +or family_; solus na gr['e]ine, _light of the sun_; bainne ghabhar _milk of +goats_. + +The Infinitives of Transitive Verbs, being themselves Nouns, (See Part II. +Chap. V. p. 86.) govern in like manner the Genitive of their object; as, ag +cur s[`i]l, _sowing seed_; a dh' fhaicinn an t-sluaigh, _to see the +people_; iar leughadh an t-soisgeil, _after reading the gospel_[105]. + +Although no good reason appears why this rule, which is common to the +Gaelic with many other languages, should ever be set aside, yet it has been +set aside in speaking, and sometimes in writing Gaelic. + +1. When the Noun governed does in its turn govern another Noun in the +Genitive, the former is often put in the Nominative instead of the Genitive +case. The following instances of this anomaly occur in the Gaelic +Scriptures:--Guth briathran an t-sluaigh, instead of, bhriathran, _the +voice of the words of the people_, Deut. v. 28; do mheas craobhan a' +gharaidh, instead of, chraobhan, _of the fruit of the trees of the garden_, +{155} Gen. iii. 2; ag itheadh tighean bhantrach, for thighean, _devouring +widows' houses_, Matt. xxiii. 14; ag nochdadh obair an lagha, for oibre, +_showing the work of the law_, Rom. ii. 15; ag cuimhneachadh gun sgur obair +bhur creidimh, agus saothair bhur graidh, for oibre, saoithreach, +_remembering without ceasing your work of faith, and labour of love_, 1 +Thess. i. 3; trid fuil is fearta Chriost, _through the blood and merits of +Christ_, Gael. Paraph. 1787, p. 381, for trid fola Chriost, as in Eph. ii. +13; ag [`a]iteach sliabh Shioin, for sleibh, _inhabiting the hill of Zion_, +Psal. ix. 11. metr; air son obair Chriosd, Phil. ii. 30, 1767, according to +the usage of the language, but changed to oibre, in Edit. 1796, to suit the +Grammatical Rule[106]. For the most part, however, the general rule, even +in these circumstances, is followed; as, guth fola do bhrathar, _the voice +of thy brother's blood_, Gen. iv. 10; amhainn duthcha cloinne a shluaigh +_the river of the land of the children of his people_, Numb. xxii. 5; a' +nigheadh chos sheirbhiseach mo thighearna, _to wash the feet of the +servants of my lord_, 1 Sam. xxv. 41. + +2. Such expressions as the following seem to be exceptions to the +rule:--Dithis mac, 2 Sam. xv. 27, 36; ceathrar mac, 1 Chron. xxi. 20; +leanabaibh mac, Matt. ii. 16. In the following similar instances, the rule +is observed:--Dithis mhac, Gen. xli. 50; dithis fhear, 2 Sam. xii. 1; +ceathrar fhear, Acts xxi. 23; ceathrar mhaighdiona, Acts xxi. 9. + +The same anomaly takes place in the regimen of the infinitive, as in that +of other Nouns. Though an Infinitive be in that grammatical relation to a +preceding Noun which would require its being put in the Genitive, yet when +itself also governs another noun in the Genitive, it often retains the form +of the Nominative. The Infinitives naomhachadh, gnathachadh, briseadh, +admit of a regular Genitive, naomhachaidh, gnathachaidh, brisidh. In the +following examples, {156} these Infinitives, because they govern a +subsequent Noun in the Genitive, are themselves in the Nominative, though +their relation to the preceding word naturally requires their being put in +the Genitive Case. Tha an treas [`a]ithne a' toirmeasg mi-naomhach_adh_ no +mi-ghnathach_adh_ ni sam bith, &c., _the third commandment forbids the +profaning or the abusing of any thing_, &c. Assem. Cat. Gael. Edin. 1792, +Answer to Q. 55. Ged fheud luchdbris_eadh_ na h-aithne so dol as, &c., id. +Q. 56., _though the transgressors of this commandment may escape_, &c. Cuis +crath_adh_ cinn is cas_adh_ b['e]il, Psal. xxii. 7, as it is in the older +edition of the Gaelic Psalms. An deigh leugh_adh_ an lagha, _after the +reading of the Law_, Acts. xiii. 15; luchd cum_adh_ uilc, Rom. i. 30[107]. + +The Infinitive is not put in the Genitive, when preceded {157} by a +Possessive Pronoun, because it is in the same limited state as if it +governed a Noun in the Genitive Case; as, a chum am marbh_a_dh 's na +beanntaibh, _to kill them in the mountains_, Exod. xxxii., not marbh_ai_dh, +which is the Case regularly governed by chum. Co tha 'g iarraidh do +mharbh_a_dh? John vii. 20, not do mharbh_ai_dh. Thug iad leo e chum a +cheus_adh_. Matt. xxvii. 31. Chum an cruinneach_adh_ gu cath. Rev. xx. +8[108]. + +This coincidence in the Regimen of the Infinitive in two similar +situations, viz., when limited by a Possessive Pronoun, and when limited by +a subsequent Noun, furnishes no slight argument in support of the +construction defended above, of putting the Infin. in the Nom. case when +itself governs a Noun in the Genitive; for we find the Infin. is invariably +put in the Nom. when limited in its signification by a Possess. Pronoun. + +When one Noun governs another in the Genitive, the Article is never joined +to both, even though each be limited in its signification, as, mac an righ, +_the son of the king_, not am mac an righ; taobh deas a' bhaile, _the south +side of the town_, not an taobh deas a' bhaile[109]. For the most part, the +Article is thus joined to the latter Noun. Sometimes it is joined to the +former Noun; as, an ceann tighe, _the head of the family_; an ceann iuil, +_the pilot_; but in such instances the two Nouns figure as one complex +term, like _paterfamilias_, rather than as two terms. The following +examples, in which the Article is joined to both Nouns, seem to be totally +repugnant to the Gaelic idiom: cuimhneachadh _nan_ c[`u]ig aran _nan_ +c[`u]ig m[`i]le, Matt. xvi. 9; _nan_ seachd aran _nan_ ceithir m[`i]le, +Matt. xvi. 10[110]. + +{158} + +A Possessive Pronoun joined to the Noun governed excludes, in like manner, +the Article from the Noun governing; as, barr-iall a bhr[`o]ige, _the +latchet of his shoe_, not am barr-iall a bhr[`o]ige; obair bhur lamh, _the +work of your hands_, not an obair bhur lamh. + +The Noun governed is sometimes in the Primary, sometimes in the Aspirated +Form. + +Proper Names of the Masculine Gender are in the Aspirated Form; as, +br[`a]thair Dhonuill, _Donald's brother_; uaigh Choluim, _Columba's grave_. +Except when a final and an initial Lingual meet; as, clann Donuill, +_Donald's descendants_; beinn Deirg _Dargo's hill_. + +When both Nouns are Appellatives, and no word intervenes between them, the +initial Form of the latter Noun follows, for the most part, that of an +Adjective agreeing with the former Noun. See p. 144. + +Thus, d' a gh[`a]radh _f_iona, g' a gh[`a]radh _f_iona, without the +Article, Matt, xx. 1, 2, like do dhuine _m_aith; but do 'n gh[`a]radh +_fh_iona, with the Article _v._ 4, 7, like do 'n duine _mh_aith. So we +should say do 'n ard fhear-_ch_iuil, rather than do 'n ard fhear-_c_iuil, +as in the title of many of the Psalms. + +EXCEPT.--If the latter Noun denote an individual of a species, that is, if +it take the Article _a_ before it in English, it is put in the _primary +form_, although the former Noun be feminine; as, s[`u]il caraid, _the eye +of a friend_, not s[`u]il _ch_araid, like s[`u]il _mh_or, duais _f_[`a]idh, +_a prophet's reward_, Matt. x. 4, not duais _fh_[`a]idh, like duais +_mh_[`o]r. Chum maitheanais _p_eacaidh, Acts, ii. 38, signifies _for the +remission of a sin_; rather chum maitheanais _ph_eacaidh _for the remission +of sin_. + +{159} + + + +SECTION II. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. + +Adjectives of fulness govern the Genitive; as, l[`a]n uamhainn _full of +dread_, Acts, ix. 6, buidheach beidh, _satisfied with meat_. + +The first Comparative takes the Particle na _than_, before the following +Noun; as, ni 's gile na an sneachdadh, _whiter than the snow_, b' fhaide +gach mios na bliadhna, _each month seemed longer than a year_. Smith's +"Ant. Poems," p. 9. + +The second Comparative is construed thus: is feairrd mi so, _I am the +better for this_; bu mhisd e am buille sin, _he was the worse for that +blow_; cha truimid a' choluinn a ciall, _the body is not the heavier for +its understanding_. + +Superlatives are followed by the Preposition de or dhe _of_; as, am fear a +'s [`a]irde dhe 'n triuir, _the man who is tallest of the three_, _the +tallest man of the three_. + + + +SECTION III. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. + +A Transitive Verb governs its object in the Nominative or Objective Case; +as, mharbh iad an righ, _they killed the king_; na buail mi, _do not strike +me_. The object is commonly placed after the Verb, but never between the +Verb and its Nominative. [See Part III. Chap. I., Sect. IV.] Sometimes the +object is placed, by way of emphasis, before the Verb; as, mise chuir e +r[`i]s ann am [`a]ite, agus esan chroch e, _me he put again in my place, +and him he hanged_, Gen. xli. 13. An t-each agus a mharcach thilg e 's an +fhairge, _the horse and his rider hath he cast into the sea_, Exod. xv. 1. + +Many Transitive Verbs require a Preposition before their object; as, iarr +air Donull, _desire Donald_; labhair ri Donull, _speak to Donald_; leig le +Donull, _let Donald alone_; beannuich do Dhonull, _salute Donald_; +fiosraich de Dhonull, _enquire of Donald_. {160} + +Bu _was_, requires the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, bu +mhaith dhuit, _it was good for you_; bu chruaidh an gnothuch, _it was a +hard case_; except initial _d_, and _t_ which are not aspirated; as, bu +dual duit, _it was natural for you_; bu trom an eallach, _the burden was +heavy_; bu ghearr a lo, 's bu dubh a sgeul, _short was her course, and sad +was her story_. Smith's "Ant. Poems." + + + +SECTION IV. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ADVERBS. + +The collocation of Adverbs is for the most part arbitrary. + +The Adverbs ro, gle, _very_, are placed before the Adjectives they modify, +and require the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, ro bheag, +_very little_; gle gheal, _very white_. + +The Negative cha or cho _not_, when followed by a word beginning with a +Labial or Palatal, requires the initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, cha +mh[`o]r e, _it is not great_; cha bhuail mi, _I will not strike_; cha +chuala mi, _I did not hear_; but an initial Lingual remains unaspirated; +as, cha dean mi, _I will not do_; cha tog e, _he will not raise_; cha +soirbhich iad, _they will not prosper_. _N_ is inserted between cha and an +initial Vowel or an aspirated _f_; as, cha n-e, _it is not_; cha +n-['e]igin, _it is not necessary_; cha n-fhaca mi, _I saw not_. + +The Negative ni requires _h_ before an initial Vowel; as, ni h-iad, _they +are not_; ni h-eudar, _it may not_. + + + +SECTION V. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS. + +The Proper Prepositions aig, air, &c., govern the Dative; as, aig mo chois, +_at my foot_; air mo laimh, _on my hand_. They are always placed before the +word they govern. The following Prepositions require the Noun governed to +be put in the Aspirated Form, viz., de, do, fuidh, fo, fa, gun, mar, mu, o, +tre. Air sometimes governs the Noun in the Aspirated Form; as, air +bharraibh sgiath na gaoithe, _on the extremities of the {161} wings of the +wind_, Psal. xviii. 10. Gun governs either the Nominative or Dative; as, +gun chrioch, _without end_, Heb. vii. 16; gun ch['e]ill, _without +understanding_, Psal. xxxii. 9; gun chloinn, Gen. xv. 2. Mar, and gus or +gu, when prefixed to a Noun without the Article, usually govern the Dative +case; as, mar nighin, _as a daughter_, 2 Sam. xii. 13; mar amhainn +mh[`o]ir, _like a great river_, Psal. cv. 41; gu cr[`i]ch mo shaoghail +fein, _to the end of my life-time_, Psal. cxix. 33, xlviii. 10. But if the +Article be joined to the Noun, it is governed in the Nominative; as, mar a' +ghrian, _like the sun_, Psal. lxxxix. 36, 37; gus an sruth, _to the +stream_, Deut. iii. 16; gus a' chrioch, _to the end_, Heb. iii. 6, 14. +Eadar governs the Nom.; as, eadar a' chraobh agus a' chlach, _between the +tree and the stone_. Eadar, when signifying _between_, requires the Primary +Form; as, eadar maighstir agus muinntireach, _between a master and a +servant_; when it signifies _both_, it requires the Aspirated Form; as, +eadar shean agus [`o]g, _both old and young_; eadar fheara agus mhnai, +_both men and women_, Acts viii. 12. + +The Prepositions as, gus, leis, ris, are used before the Monosyllables an, +am, a'. The corresponding Prepositions a, gu, le, ri, often take an _h_ +before an initial Vowel; as, a h-Eirin, _out of Ireland_; gu h-ealamh, +_readily_; le h-eagal, _with fear_. + +The Improper Prepositions govern the following Noun in the Genitive; as, +air feadh na t[`i]re, _throughout the land_; an aghaidh an t-sluaigh, +_against the people_; r['e] na h-[`u]ine, _during the time_. It is manifest +that this Genitive is governed by the Noun feadh, aghaidh, r['e], &c., +which is always included in the Preposition. See Part II. Chap. VII. + +Prepositions are often prefixed to a Clause of a sentence; and then they +have no regimen; as, gus am bord a ghiulan, _to carry the table_, Exod. +xxv. 27; luath chum fuil a dhortadh, _swift to shed blood_, Rom. iii. 15. +Edit. 1767; an d['e]igh an obair a chriochnachadh, _after finishing the +work_. {162} + + + +SECTION VI. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CONJUNCTIONS. + +The Conjunctions agus _and_, no _or_, couple the same Cases of Nouns; as, +air feadh chreagan agus choilltean, _through rocks and woods_; ag reubadh +nam bruach 's nan crann, _tearing the banks and the trees_. When two or +more Nouns, coupled by a Conjunction, are governed in the Dative by a +Preposition, it is usual to repeat the Preposition before each Noun; as, +air fad agus air leud, _in length and in breadth_; 'n an cridhe, 'n an +cainnt, agus 'n am beus, _in their heart, in their speech, and in their +behaviour_. + +Co _as_, prefixed to an Adjective, commonly requires the initial consonant +of the Adj. to be aspirated; as, co mhaith, _as good_, co ghrinn, _as +fine_. But sometimes we find co m[`o]r, _as great_, co buan, _as durable_, +&c., without the aspirate. Sometimes the aspirate is transferred from the +Adj. to the Conjunct. as, cho beag, _as little_, for co bheag. In the North +Highlands, an adjective preceded by co is commonly put in the Comparative +form; as, co miosa, _as bad_; co treise, _as strong_. + +The Conjunctions mur _if not_, gu, gur _that_, are always joined to the +Negative Mood; as, mur 'eil mi, _if I be not_; gu robh e, _that he was_. +_M_ or _n_ is often inserted, _euphoniae causa_, between gu and an initial +Consonant; viz., _m_ before a Labial, _n_ before a Palatal or Lingual; as, +gu-m faca tu, _that you saw_; gu-n dubhairt iad, _that they said_[111]. + +The Conjunctions ma _if_, o, o'n _because, since_, are joined to the Pres. +and Pret. Affirmative, and Fut. Subjunctive; as, ma ta e, _if he be_; o'n +tha e, _since he is_; ma bhuail e, _if he struck_; o'n bhuail e, _because +he struck_; ma bhuaileas tu, _if you strike_; o bhitheas sinn, _since we +shall be_. + +Na'm, na'n _if_, is joined only to the Pret. Subjunctive. {163} The initial +Consonant of the Verb loses its aspiration after this Conjunction; as, na'm +bithinn, _if I were_; nan tuiteadh a' chraobh, _if the tree should fall_. + +Ged _although_, is used before the Present and Preterite Affirmative, the +Fut. Negative, and the Pret. Subjunctive; as, ged tha e, _though he be_; +ged bha mi, _though I was_; ge do bhuail thu mi, _though you struck me_; +ged bhuail thu mi, _though you strike me_; ged bheireadh e dhomh, _though +he should give me_[112]. + + * * * * * {164} + + +PART IV. + +OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. + +CHAPTER I. + +OF DERIVATION. + +The Parts of Speech which are formed by derivation from other words are +Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. These are chiefly derived from Nouns and +Adjectives, and a few from Verbs. + +I. NOUNS. + +Derivative Nouns may be classed as follows, according to the varieties of +their termination. + +1. Abstract Nouns in _as_, formed from Adjectives or Nouns; as, from ceart +_just_, ceartas _justice_; from diomhan _idle, vain_, diomhanas _idleness, +vanity_; from caraid _a friend_, cairdeas contracted for caraideas +_friendship_; from namhaid _an enemy_, naimhdeas contracted for namhaideas +_enmity_. + +2. Abstract Nouns in _achd_, formed from Adjectives, and sometimes, though +more rarely, from Verbs and Nouns; as, from naomh _holy_, naomhachd +_holiness_; from domhain _deep_, doimhneachd contracted for domhaineachd +_depth_; from righ _a king_, rioghachd _a kingdom_; coimhid _to keep_, +coimheadachd _keeping_; clachair _a mason_, clachaireachd _mason-work_; +gobhain _a smith_, goibhneachd contracted for gobhaineachd _iron-work_, or +rather _the trade or occupation of a smith_. + +3. Abstract Nouns formed from the genitive of Adjectives, by adding _e_; +as, from dall gen. doill _blind_, doille _blindness_; from geal gen. gil +_white_, gile _whiteness_; from leasg gen. leisg _lazy_, leisge _laziness_; +tearc gen. teirc _rare_, teirce _rarity_; trom gen. truim _heavy_, truime +_heaviness_; truagh gen. truaigh _unhappy_, truaighe _misery_; uasal gen. +{165} uasail _noble_, uasaile contr. uaisle or by metath. uailse +_nobility_. + +4. Abstract Nouns in _ad_, formed from the Comparative of Adjectives, and +used in speaking of the degree of a quality; as, gilead _whiteness_, +boidhchead _beauty_, doimhnead _depth_, lughad _smallness_, tainead +_thinness_; these are construed with the Prepositions _de_, _air_; as, cha +n-fhaca mi a samhuil air bhoidhchead, _I have not seen her match for +beauty_; air a lughad or d' a lughad, _however small it be_. + +5. Nouns in _air_ or _oir_, _ach_, _iche_, derived, most of them, from +nouns, and signifying persons or agents, as, p[`i]obair _a player on the +pipe_, from p[`i]ob _a pipe_; cl[`a]rsair _a player on the harp_, from +cl[`a]rsach _a harp_; cealgair or cealgoir _a deceiver_, from cealg +_deceit_; sealgair or sealgoir _a huntsman_, from sealg _hunting_; marcach +_a rider_, from marc _a horse_; athach _a man of terror, a gigantic +figure_, from atha _fear_; oibriche _a workman_, from obair _work_; +sgeulaiche _a reciter of tales_, from sgeul _a tale_; ceannaiche _a +merchant_, from ceannaich _to buy_[113]. + +6. Diminutives in _an_, and in _ag_ or _og_, formed from Nouns or +Adjectives; as, lochan _a small lake_, from loch _a lake_; from braid +_theft_, bradag _a thievish girl_; from ciar _dark-coloured_, ciarag _a +little dark-coloured creature_. These Diminutives are often formed from the +Genitive of their Primitives; as, from feur gen. feoir _grass_, feoirnean +_a pile of grass_; moll gen. muill _chaff_, muillean _a particle of chaff_; +folt gen. fuilt _hair_, fuiltean _a single hair_; clag gen. cluig _a bell_, +cluigean _a little bell_; gual gen. guail _coal_, guailnean _a cinder_; +sm[`u]r gen. sm[`u]ir _dust_, sm[`u]irnean _a particle of dust, a mote_; +cl[`o]imh _plumage_, cl[`o]imhneag _a small feather, a flake of snow_. + +Some Nouns are formed in _an_, which are not Diminutives; as, from l[`u]b +_to bend_, l[`u]ban _a bow_; from buail _to beat, thresh_, {166} buailtean +_a beater_, or _thresher_, applied to that part of the flail which threshes +out the grain. + +7. Collective Nouns in _ridh_ or _ri_, derived from Nouns or Adjectives; +as, from [`o]g _young_, [`o]igridh _youth_, in the collective sense of the +word; from mac _a son_, macruidh _sons, young men_, Psal. cxlviii. 12;[114] +from laoch _a hero_, laochruidh _a band of heroes_, Psal. xxix. 1. +Macfarlan's Paraph. vi. 15, from ceol _music_, ceolraidh _the muses_. A. +Macdonald's Songs, p. 7, from cos the _foot_, coisridh _infantry, a party +on foot_. McIntyre's Songs, Edin. 1768, p. 110, from gas _a lad_, gasradh +_a band of domestic attendants_. O'Brien's Ir. Dict. voc. gas; eachradh, +eachruith _cavalry_, Fingal. IV. 299, Carthon, 59.--This termination is +probably the Noun ruith _a troop_. See Lhuyd et O'Brien, in voc.[115] + +8. Nouns in _ach_, chiefly Patronymics, formed from Proper Names, thus; +from Donull _Donald_, is formed Donullach _a man of the name of Macdonald_; +from Griogar _Gregor_, Griogarach _a Macgregor_; so Leodach _a Macleod_, +Granntach _a Grant_, &c., from Albainn _Scotland_, Albannach _a Scotsman_; +from Eirin _Ireland_, Eirineach _an Irishman_. These Nouns form their +Plural regularly, Donullaich, Leodaich, Albannaich, Eirinich. So the +following _Gentile_ Nouns, which occur in the Gaelic Scriptures, are +regularly formed from their respective Primitives, Partuich _Parthians_, +Medich _Medes_, Elamuich _Elamites_, Acts ii. 9. Macedonaich _Macedonians_, +2 Cor. ix. 2, 4. See also Gen. xv. 19, 20, 21; Exod. xxiii. 23, 28.[116]. + +{167} + +9. Collective Nouns in _ach_; as, duille _a leaf_, duilleach _foliage_; +giuthas _fir_, giuthasach _a fir wood_; iughar _yew_, iugharach _a yew +copse_; fiadh _a deer_, fiadhach _deer, a herd of deer_; crion _diminutive, +shrunk_, crionach _decayed wood_. + +II. ADJECTIVES. + +1. Adjectives in _ach_, formed generally from Nouns; as, from f[`i]rinn +_truth_, f[`i]rinneach _true, faithful_; from sunnt _glee_, sunntach +_cheerful_; cr[`a]dh _pain_, cr[`a]iteach _painful_; togradh _desire_, +togarrach _willing, desirous_. + +2. Adjectives in _mhor_ or _or_, derived from Nouns; as, from [`a]dh +_felicity_, adhmhor _happy, blessed_; from feoil _flesh_, feolmhor +_carnal_; from neart _strength_, neartmhor _strong_. + +3. Adjectives in _ail_ derived from Nouns; as, from fear _man_, fearail +_manful_; from caraid _a friend_, cairdail contr. for caraidail _friendly_; +from namhaid _an enemy_, naimhdail contr. for namhaidail _hostile_; from +s[`u]rd _alertness_, surdail _alert_[117]. + +4. A few Adjectives in _ta_ or _da_, derived from Nouns; as, Gaelta +_belonging to the Gael_; Eireanda _Irish_; Romhanta _Roman_; _Kirk._ +f[`i]reanta _righteous_, Matt. xxiii. 35. + +III. VERBS. + +Verbs in _ich_, for the most part Transitive, and implying causation, +derived from Nouns or Adjectives; as, from geal {168} _white_, gealaich _to +whiten_; naomh _holy_, naomhaich _to sanctify_; cruinn _round_, cruinnich +_to gather together_; lamh _the hand_, laimhsich _to handle_; cuimhne +_memory_, cuimhnich _to remember_. A few are Intransitive; as, from crith +_tremor_, criothnuich _to tremble_; fann _feeble_, fannuich _to faint_. + + + +CHAPTER II. + +OF COMPOSITION. + +All compound words in Gaelic consist of two component parts, exclusive of +the derivative terminations enumerated in the preceding Chapter. Of these +component parts, the former may be conveniently named the Prepositive, the +latter the Subjunctive term. It sometimes happens, though rarely, that the +Subjunctive term also is a compound word, which must itself be decompounded +in order to find out the Root. + +In compounding words, the usual mode has been, to prefix to the term +denoting the principal idea the word denoting the accessory idea or +circumstance by which the signification of the principal word is modified. +Accordingly we find Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs modified by prefixing to +them a Noun, an Adjective, a Verb, or a Preposition. + +In forming compound words, a Rule of very general application is, that when +the Subjunctive term begins with a Consonant, it is aspirated. From this +Rule, however, are to be excepted, 1. Words beginning with _s_ followed by +a mute, which never admit the aspirate; 2. Words beginning with a Lingual +when the Prepositive term ends in _n_; 3. A few other instances in which +there is an euphonic agreement between the Consonants thus brought into +apposition, which would be violated if either of them were aspirated. + +These observations will be found exemplified in the following Compounds:-- +{169} + +I. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A NOUN PREFIXED. + +_Nouns Compounded with a Noun._ + +Beart _dress, equipage_, ceann _head_--ceann-bheart _head-dress, armour for +the head_. + +F[`a]inn _a ring_, cluas _the ear_--cluas-fhainn _an ear-ring_. + +Galar _a distemper_, crith _shaking_--crith-ghalar _distemper attended with +shaking, the palsy_. + +Oglach _a servant_, bean (in composition, ban) _a woman_--banoglach _a +female servant_. + +F[`a]idh _a prophet_, ban-fhaidh _a prophetess_. + +Tighearn _a lord_, baintighearn _a lady_. + +_Adjectives Compounded with a Noun._ + +Geal _white_, bian the _skin_--biangheal _white-skinned_. + +Lom _bare_, cas the _foot_--caslom _bare-foot_; ceann the _head_--ceannlom +_bare-headed_. + +Biorach _pointed, sharp_, cluas the _ear_--cluasbhiorach _having pointed +ears_. + +_Verbs Compounded with a Noun._ + +Luaisg _to rock_ or _toss_, tonn _a wave_--tonn-luaisg _to toss on the +waves_. + +Sleamhnuich _to slide_, c[`u]l the _back_--c[`u]l-sleamhnuich _to +back-slide_. + +Folaich _to hide_, feall _deceit_--feall-fholaich _to lie in wait_. + +II. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH AN ADJECTIVE PREFIXED. + +_Nouns Compounded with an Adjective._ + +Uisge _water_, fior _true, genuine_--fioruisge _spring-water_. + +Airgiod _silver_, beo _alive_--beo-airgiod _quick-silver_. + +Sgolt _a crack_, crion _shrunk, decayed_--crionsgolt _a fissure in wood +caused by drought or decay_. + +Criochan _bounds, regions_, garbh _rough_--garbhchriochan _rude mountainous +regions_. {170} + +_Adjectives Compounded with an Adjective._ + +Donn _brown_, dubh _black_--dubh-dhonn _dark-brown_. + +Gorm _blue_, dubh _black_--dubh-ghorm _dark-blue_. + +Briathrach (not in use) from briathar _a word_, deas +_ready_--deas-bhriathrach _of ready speech, eloquent_. + +Seallach (not in use) from sealladh _sight_, geur _sharp_--geur-sheallach +_sharp-sighted_. + +_Verbs Compounded with an Adjective._ + +Ruith _to run_, dian _keen, eager_--dian-ruith _to run eagerly_. + +Lean _to follow_, geur _sharp, severe_--geur-lean _to persecute_. + +Buail _to strike_, trom _heavy_--trom-buail _to smite sore, discomfit_. + +Ceangail _to bind_, dl[`u]th _closer_--dl[`u]th-cheangail _to bind fast_. + +III. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A VERB PREFIXED. + +Art _a stone_, tarruing _to draw_--tarruing-art _load-stone_. + +S[`u]il _the eye_, meall _to beguile_--meall-shuil _a leering eye_. + +IV. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A PREPOSITION. + +Radh _a saying_, roimh _before_--roimh-radh _preface, prologue_. + +Solus _light_, eadar _between_--eadar-sholus _twilight_. + +M[`i]nich _to explain_, eadar-mh[`i]nich _to interpret_. + +Gearr _to cut_, timchioll _about_--timchioll-ghearr _circumcise_. + +Lot _to wound_, troimh _through_--troimh-lot _to stab, pierce through_. + +Examples of words compounded with an inseparable Preposition are already +given in Part II. Chap. VII. + +Compound Nouns retain the gender of the principal Nouns in their simple +state. Thus crith-ghalar _palsy_, is masculine, because the principal Noun, +Galar _distemper_, is masculine, although the accessary Noun crith, by +which galar is qualified, be feminine. So c[`i]s-mhaor is masculine though +c[`i]s be a feminine Noun, Luke xviii. 11; c[`i]s-mheasadh ought also to be +masculine, Acts v. 37. Except Nouns compounded with {171} Bean _woman_, +which are all feminine, though the simple principal Noun be masculine, +because the compound word denotes an object of the female sex; as, oglach +_a servant_, masculine, but banoglach _a maid-servant_, feminine, caraid _a +friend_, masculine, bancharaid _a female friend_, feminine. + +Compound words are declined in the same manner as if they were +uncompounded. + +In writing compound words, the component parts are sometimes separated by a +hyphen, and sometimes not. The use of the hyphen does not seem to be +regulated by any uniform practice. In the case of two vowels coming in +apposition, the insertion of a hyphen seems indispensable; because, by the +analogy of Gaelic orthography, two Vowels, belonging to different +syllables, are scarcely ever placed next to each other without some mark of +separation[118]. Thus so-aomaidh, _easily induced_, _propense_; +so-iomchair, _easily carried_; do-innsidh, _difficult to be told_; and not +soamaidh, doinnsidh, &c., without the hyphen. + +It was formerly remarked, Part I., that almost all Gaelic Polysyllables are +accented on the first syllable. When, in pronouncing compound words, the +accent is placed on the first syllable, the two terms appear to be +completely incorporated into one word. When, on the other hand, the accent +is placed, not on the first syllable of the Compound, but on the first +syllable of the Subjunctive term, the two terms seem to retain their +respective powers, and to produce their effect separately, and instead of +being incorporated into one word, to be rather collaterally connected. A +rule may then be derived from the pronunciation for the use of the hyphen +in writing Compounds, viz., to insert the hyphen between the component +parts, when the Prepositive term is not accented. Thus it is proposed to +write aineolach _ignorant_, antromaich _to exaggerate_, comhradh +_conversation_, dobheart _a bad action_, {172} soisgeul _Gospel_, banoglach +_a maidservant_, &c., without a hyphen; but to write an-fhiosrach +_unacquainted_, ban-fhiosaiche _a female fortune-teller_, co-fhreagarach +_corresponding_, so-fhaicsin _easily seen_, &c., with a hyphen[119]. By +this rule, a correspondence is maintained, not only between the writing and +the pronunciation, but likewise between the written language and the ideas +expressed by it. A complex idea, whose parts are most closely united in the +mind, is thus denoted by one undivided word; whereas an idea composed of +parts more loosely connected, is expressed by a word, whereof the component +parts are distinguished, and exhibited separately to the eye. Thus also the +Gaelic scholar would have one uniform direction to follow in reading, viz., +to place the accent always on the first syllable of an undivided word, or +member of a word. If any exception be allowed, it must be only in the case +already stated of two vowels coming in apposition, as beo-airgiod +_quicksilver_. + +Let it be observed that, according to this rule, an Adjective preceding a +Noun can never, but in the case just mentioned, be connected with it by a +hyphen. For if the accent be wholly transferred from the Noun to the +Adjective, then they are to be written as one undivided word; as, +garbhchriochan _highlands_; but if the accent be not so transferred, the +Adjective and the Noun are to be written as two separate words; as, seann +duine _an old man_, deagh chomhairle _good advice_, droch sgeul _a bad +tale_. + + + +It not unfrequently happens that two Nouns, whereof the one qualifies the +meaning of the other, and connected by the common grammatical relation of +the one governing the other in the Genitive, come through use to be +considered as denoting only one complex object. The two Nouns in this case +are sometimes written together in one word, and thus form a Compound of a +looser structure than those which have been considered. Such are +ceann-cinnidh, _the head of a tribe or {173} clan_; ceann-tighe, _the head +of a family_; ceann-feadhna, _the leader of an army_; fear-turnis, _a +traveller_; luchd-faire, _watchmen_; iobairt-pheacaidh, _a sin-offering_; +urlar-bualaidh, _a threshing-floor_; fear-bainse, _a bridegroom_; +crith-thalmhain, _an earth-quake_; crios-guailne, _a shoulder-belt_, &c. In +writing Compound Nouns of this description, the two Nouns are never written +in one undivided word, but always separated by a hyphen. It comes to be a +question, however, in many instances of one Noun governing another in the +Genitive, whether such an expression is to be considered as a compound +term, and the words to be connected by a hyphen in writing, or whether they +are to be written separately, without any such mark of composition. An +observation that was made in treating of the Government of Nouns may help +us to an answer, and furnish an easy rule in the case in question. It was +remarked that when one Noun governed another in the Genitive, the Article +was never joined to both; that for the most part, it was joined to the Noun +governed, but sometimes to the Noun governing, that in the latter case, the +two Nouns seemed to figure as one compound term, denoting one complex idea. +If this last remark hold true, it may be laid down as a rule that in every +instance of a Noun governing another in the Genitive, where the Article is +or may be prefixed to the _governing Noun_, there the two Nouns ought to be +connected by a hyphen in writing; otherwise not. Thus we can say, without +impropriety, an ceann-feadhna, _the commander_; an luchd-coimhid, _the +keepers_; and the Nouns are accordingly considered as Compounds, and +written with a hyphen. But it would be contrary to the usage of the +language to say, am mullach craige, _the top of a rock_; an t-uachdar +talmhain, _the surface of the ground_. Accordingly it would be improper to +write a hyphen between the Nouns in these and similar examples. + +The different effects of these two modes of writing, with or without the +hyphen, is very observable in such instances as the following:--Ainm +d[`u]thcha, _the name of a country_, as Scotland, Argyle, &c.; +ainm-d[`u]thcha, _a country name_, or {174} _patronymic_, as Scotsman, +Highlander, &c.; clann Donuill, _Donald's children_; clann-Donuill, _the +Macdonalds_. + + + +Though few have exerted themselves hitherto in explaining the structure of +the Gaelic language, in respect of its inflections, construction, and +collocation, this cannot be said to be the case with regard to Etymology. +Much has been attempted, and something has been done, toward analysing +single vocables, particularly names of places. But this analysis seems to +have been too often made rather in a way of random conjecture than by a +judicious regard to the analogy of Derivation and Composition. The passion +for analysing has even induced some to assert that all true Gaelic +Primitives consist of but one syllable, that all Polysyllables are either +derived or compounded, and therefore that there is room to search for their +etymon. This seems to be carrying theory too far. It appears a fruitless +and rather chimerical attempt to propose a system of directions by which +all Polysyllables whatever may be resolved into component parts, and traced +to a root of one syllable. All I have thought it necessary to do is to +methodize and exemplify those general principals of Etymology which are +obvious and unquestioned, and which regulate the composition and derivation +of those classes of words whereof the analysis may be traced with some +probability of success. + + * * * * * + + +{175} + +EXERCISES IN READING, EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING. + + * * * * * + +_From an Address to the Soldiers of a Highland Regiment_, by D. SMITH, M.D. + +Theid an deadh shaighdear gu h-aobhach suilbhear an d[`a]il gach tuiteamais +a thig 'n a chrannchur. Ach 's e a's n[`o]s do 'n droch shaighdear a bhi +gearan 's a' talach air gach l[`a]imh; beadaidh ri l[`i]nn socair, is +diombach ann eiric caoimhneis; lag-chridheach ri h-am cruachais, agus +d[`i]blidh ri h-uchd feuma. + +_In English._ + +The good soldier will advance, with spirit and cheerfulness, to any service +that falls in his way. But it is the practice of the bad soldier to be +complaining and grumbling on all occasions; saucy in time of ease, and +peevish in return for kindness; faint-hearted under hardships, and feeble +in encountering exigency. + +_Analysis._ + +_Theid._ 3. per. sing. Fut. Affirm, of the irregular Verb _Rach_, go. + +_An._ Nom. sing. of the Article _an_, the. + +_Deadh._ An indeclinable Adjective, always placed before its Noun. + +_Shaighdear._ Nom. sing. of the mas. noun _saighdear_, a soldier, in the +aspirated form, because preceded by the Adj. _deadh_. Gram. p. 145. {176} + +_Gu._ A proper Preposition, to, for. + +_Aobhach._ An Adject. of the first Declension, joyous, having an _h_ before +it, because preceded by the Prep. _gu_. Gram. p. 161. _Gu h-aobhach_, +joyfully, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. Gram. p. 109. + +_Suilbhear._ An Adject. cheerful. _Gu_ is to be supplied from the former +phrase; _gu suilbhear_, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. + +_An d[`a]il._ An improper Preposition, to meet, to face, to encounter; made +up of the proper Prep. _ann_, in, and the Noun _d[`a]il_, meeting. Gram. p. +121. + +_Gach._ An indeclinable Adj. Pronoun, each, every. + +_Tuiteamais._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _tuiteamas_, an occurrence, +accident, governed in the Gen. case by the improp. Prep. _an d[`a]il_ +(Gram. p. 161), derived from the Verb _tuit_. Infinitive _tuiteam_, to +fall, befal. + +_A._ Nom. sing. Relative Pronoun, who, which. + +_Thig._ Fut. Affirm. of the irregular Verb _thig_, come. + +_'N._ Contracted for _ann_, a proper Prep., in. + +_A._ Possessive Pronoun, his. + +_Chrannchur._ Mas. Noun, a lot; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. _ann_; in +the aspirated form after the adject. Pron. _a_, 'his'--compounded of +_crann_, a lot, and _cur_, casting, the Infinitive of the Verb _cuir_, to +put, cast. + +_Ach._ Conjunction, but. Hebr. [Hebrew: AD]. + +_'S._ for _is_, Pres. Indic. of the Verb _is_, I am. _'S e a 's_ it is +[that] which is. + +_N[`o]s._ Noun mas., custom, habit. + +_Do._ Prep. to. + +_An._ the article, the. + +_Droch._ indeclinable Adject. bad; always placed before its Noun. + +_Shaighdear._ mas. Noun, soldier; governed in the Dative by the Prep. _do_; +in the aspir. form after the Adject. _droch_. {177} + +_A bhi._ for _do bhi_ or _do bhith_, Infinit. of the irregular Verb _bi_, +to be. + +_Gearan._ Infin. of the obsolete Verb _gearain_, to complain, _ag_ being +understood; _ag gearan_ equivalent to a present Participle, complaining. +Gram. p. 86. + +_'S._ for _agus_, conjunction, and. + +_A' talach._ for _ag talach_, complaining, repining; Infin. of the obsolete +Verb _talaich_, to complain of a thing or person. + +_Air._ Prep. on. + +_Gach._ Adject. Pron. indeclin. each, every. + +_L[`a]imh._ dat. sing. of the fem. Noun _l[`a]mh_, a hand; governed in the +Dat. by the Prep. _air_, on. _Air gach l[`a]imh_, on every hand. + +_Beadaidh._ Adject. nice, fond of delicacies, saucy, petulant. + +_Ri._ Prep. to, at. + +_L[`i]nn._ Noun fem. an age, period, season. _Ri l[`i]nn_, during the time +of any event, or currency of any period; _ri l[`i]nn Fhearghuis_, in the +time, or reign of Fergus; _gu faigheamaid s[`i]th r' ar l[`i]nn_, that we +may have peace in our time. + +_Socair._ Noun fem., ease, conveniency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun +_l[`i]nn_. + +_Is._ for _agus_, Conjunct. and. + +_Diombach_, or _di[`u]mach_. Adject. displeased, indignant; derived from +the Noun _diom_ or _di[`u]m_, indignation. + +_Ann._ Prep. governing the Dat. in. + +_Eiric._ Noun femin., requital, compensation; governed in the Dat. by the +Prep. _ann_. + +_Caoimhneis._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _caoimhneas_, kindness; governed +in the Gen. by the noun _eiric_, derived from the Adject. _caomh_, gentle, +kind. + +_Lag-chridheach._ Adject. faint-hearted; compounded of the Adject. _lag_, +weak, and _cridhe_, the heart. + +_Ri._ Prep. to, at. {178} + +_Am._ Noun masc., time; governed in the Dat. case by the Prep. _ri_, and +preceded by _h_. Gram. p. 161. + +_Cruachais._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _cruachas_, hardship, strait; +governed in the Gen. by the noun _am_; compounded of the Adject. _cruaidh_, +hard, and _c[`a]s_, danger, extremity. + +_Agus._ Conjunct., and. + +_D[`i]blidh._ Adject., feeble, silly. + +_Uchd._ Noun mas. breast, chest; hence it signifies an ascent, a steep; in +the Dat. case, preceded by _h_, after the Prep. _ri_: _ri h-uchd_, in +ascending, breasting, encountering, assailing. + +_Feuma._ Gen. sing. of the Noun mas. _feum_, necessity, exigency; governed +in the Gen. by the Noun _uchd_. + + * * * * * + +_Extract from an old Fingalian Tale or Legend._ + +Dh' imich Garbh mac Stairn agus Dual a dh' fhaicinn Fhinn agus a threun +fheara colgach, iomraiteach ann an gniomharaibh arm. Bha Fionn 's an [`a]m +sin 'n a thigheadas samhraidh am Buchanti. 'N an turus d'a ionnsuidh, ghabh +iad beachd air gach gleann agus faoin mhonadh, air gach allt agas caol +choirean. Ghabh iad sgeul de gach coisiche agus gach fear a thachair 'n an +c[`o]ir. Ann an gleann nan cuach agus nan lon, chunnaic b[`u]th taobh +sruthain; chaidh a steach, dh' iarr deoch; dh' eirich ribhinn a b' aluinne +snuadh a dh' fh[`a]ilteachadh an turuis le s[`i]th. Thug i biadh dhoibh r'a +itheadh, dibhe ri [`o]l; dh' iarr an sgeul le cainnt thl[`a]. Bhuail gaol o +a s[`u]il an Garbh borb, agus dh' innis cia as doibh. "Thainig sinn o +th[`i]r nan crann, far an lionor sonn--mac righ Lochlainn mise--m' ainm +Garbh na'm b' aill leat--esan Dual, o th[`i]r nam beann, a thuinich ann +Albainn o thuath--a ghabhail cairdeis gun sg[`a]th agus aoidheachd o 'n +[`a]rd righ Fionn, sud f[`a]th ar turuis a Chiabh na maise--ciod am bealach +am buail sinn? seol ar cos gu teach Fhinn, bi dhuinn mar i[`u]l, is gabh +duais." "Duais {179} cha do ghabh mi riamh, ars an nighean bu bhl[`a]ithe +s[`u]il 's bu deirge gruaidh; cha b' e sud [`a]bhaist Theadhaich nam beann +['e]ilde, 'g am bu lionor d[`a]imheach 'n a thalla, 'g am bu tric tathaich +o thuath--ni mise dhuibh i[`u]l." Gu gleann-s[`i]th tharladh na fir; gleann +an tric guth feidh is loin; gleann nan glas charn is nan scor; gleann nan +sruth ri uisg is gaoith. Thachair orra buaghar bho, is rinn dhoibh i[`u]l; +thug dhoibh sgeul air duthaich nan creag, air fir agus air mnaibh, air +f[`a]s shliabh agus charn, air neart feachd, air rian nan arm, air miann +sloigh, agus craobhthuinidh nam Fiann. + +_In English._ + +Garva the son of Starno and Dual, went to visit Fingal and his brave +warriors, renowned for feats of arms. Fingal was at that time in his summer +residence at Buchanti. On their journey thither, they took a view of every +valley and open hill, every brook and narrow dell. They asked information +of every passenger and person that came in their way. In the glen of +cuckoos and ouzles they observed a cottage by the side of a rivulet. They +entered; asked drink, a lady of elegant appearance arose and kindly bade +them welcome. She gave the food to eat, liquor to drink. In mild speech she +inquired their purpose. Love from her eye smote the rough Garva, and he +told whence they were. "We are come from the land of Pines, where many a +hero dwells--the son of Lochlin's king am I--my name is Garva, be pleased +to know--my comrade is Dual, from the land of hills, his residence is in +the north of Albion. To accept the hospitality and confidential friendship +of the mighty prince Fingal, this is the object of our journey, O Lady +fair[120]; say, by what pass shall we shape our course? Direct our steps to +the mansion of Fingal, be our guide, and accept a reward." "Reward I never +took," said the damsel of softest eye and rosiest cheek; "such was not the +manner of [my father] Tedaco of the hill of hinds; {180} many were the +guests in his hall, frequent his visitors from the North,--I will be your +guide." The chiefs reach Glenshee, where is heard the frequent voice of +deer and elk; glen of green mounts and cliffs; glen of many streams in time +of rain and wind. A keeper of cattle met them, and directed their course. +He gave the information concerning the country of rocks; concerning its +inhabitants male and female; the produce of moor and mount; the military +force, the fashion of the armour; the favourite pursuits of the people; and +the pedigree of the Fingalians. + + * * * * * + +_Extract from Bishop_ CARSUEL'S _Gaelic translation of the +Confession of Faith, Forms of Prayer, &c., used in the Reformed +Church of Scotland_; Printed in the year 1567. + +(_From the Epistle Dedicatory._) + +Acht ata ni cheana is mor an leathtrom agas anuireasbhuidh ata riamh +orainde gaoidhil alban & eireand, tar an gcuid eile don domhan, gan ar +gcanamhna gaoidheilge do chur agcl['o] riamh mar ataid agcanamhna & +adteangtha f['e]in agcl['o] ag gach uile chinel dhaoine oile sa domhan, & +ata uireasbhuidh is m['o] ina gach uireasbhuidh oraind, gan an Biobla +naomhtha do bheith agcl['o] gaoidheilge againd, marta s[`e] agcl['o] laidne +agas bherla agas ingach teangaidh eile osin amach, agas f['o]s gan seanchus +arsean no ar sindsear do bheith mar an gcedna agcl['o] againd riamh, acht +ge t['a] cuid eigin do tseanchus ghaoidheal alban agas eireand sgriobhtha +aleabhruibh l['a]mh, agas adtamhlorgaibh fileadh & ollamhan, agas +asleachtaibh suadh. Is mortsaothair sin re sgriobhadh do laimh, ag fechain +an neithe buailtear sa chl['o] araibrisge agas ar aithghiorra bhios gach +['e]n ni dh['a] mhed da chriochnughadh leis. Agas is mor an doille agas +andorchadas peacaidh agas aineolais agas indtleachda do lucht deachtaidh +agas sgriobhtha agas chumhdaigh na gaoidheilge, gurab m['o] is mian leo +agas gurab m['o] ghnathuidheas siad eachtradha dimhaoineacha buaidheartha +bregacha {181} saoghalta do cumadh ar thuathaibh d['e]dhanond agas ar +mhacaibh mileadh agas arna curadhaibh agas fhind mhac cumhaill gona +fhianaibh agas ar mh['o]ran eile nach airbhim agas nach indisim andso do +chumhdach, agas do choimhleasughagh, do chiond luadhuidheachta dimhaonigh +an tsaoghail dfhaghail doibhf['e]in, ina briathra disle D['e] agas slighthe +foirfe na firinde do sgriobhadh, agas dheachtadh, agas do chumhdach. + +_English Translation._ + +[_From the_ REPORT _of the Committee of the_ +HIGHLAND SOCIETY _of_ SCOTLAND, _appointed to inquire into the +nature and authenticity of the Poems of_ OSSIAN.] + +But there is one great disadvantage which we the Gaeil of Scotland and +Ireland labour under, beyond the rest of the world, that our Gaelic +language has never yet been printed, as the language of every other race of +men has been. And we labour under a disadvantage which is still greater +than every other disadvantage, that we have not the Holy Bible printed in +Gaelic, as it has been printed in Latin and in English, and in every other +language; and also that we have never yet had any account printed of the +antiquities of our country, or of our ancestors; for though we have some +accounts of the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland, contained in manuscripts, +and in the genealogies of bards and historiographers, yet there is great +labour in writing them over with the hand, whereas the work which is +printed, be it ever so great, is speedily finished. And great is the +blindness and sinful darkness, and ignorance and evil design of such as +teach, and write, and cultivate the Gaelic language, that, with the view of +obtaining for themselves the vain rewards of this world, they are more +desirous, and more accustomed, to compose vain, tempting, lying, worldly +histories, concerning the _Tuath de dannan_, and concerning warriors and +champions, and _Fingal_ the son of _Cumhal_, with his heroes, and +concerning many others which {182} I will not at present enumerate or +mention, in order to maintain or reprove, than to write and teach and +maintain the faithful words of God, and of the perfect way of truth[121]. + + * * * * * + +_From the Preface to a Metrical Version of the Book of Psalms +in Gaelic_, by Mr ROBERT KIRK, Minister of the Gospel +at Balquhidder; Printed in the year 1684. + +Ataid na Psalma taitneamhach, tarbhach: beag nach mion-fhlaitheas l['a]n +dainglibh, Cill fhonnmhar le ceol naomhtha. Mur abholghort Eden, lionta do +chrannaibh brioghmhoire na beatha, & do luibhennibh iocshlainteamhail, +amhluidh an leabhar Psalmso Dhaibhioth, ata na liaghais ar uile anshocair +na nanma. Ata an saoghal & gach be['o] chreatuir da bfuil ann, na +chlarsigh; an duine, se is Clairseoir & duanaire, chum moladh an mor-Dhia +mirbhuileach do sheinn; & ata Daibhidh do ghn['a] mar fhear don chuideachd +bhias marso ag caoin-chaint gu ceolmhar ma nard-R['i].... Do ghabhas mar +chongnamh don obairsi, dioghlum ughdairidh an uile ch['a]il, ar +sheann['o]s, phriomh chreideamh & eachdardha na nGaoidheal, sgriobhta & +cl['o]-bhuailte: achd gu ba reula iuil & soluis dhamh, br['i]dh na nSalm +fein. Anois maseadh a Chomharbadha ro chaomh, ata mar phlaneidi dhealroidh +ag sdiurughadh na ngcorp ioch dardha gan mhonmar, is deaghmhaise dhaoibh an +tsaothairse a sgrudadh & a ghnathughadh gu neimhfhiat, gan ghuth ar +bheiginmhe & neimhnitheachd an tsaothairigh. Griosam oraibhse a Uaisle, & a +Thuatha charthanacha araon, gun {183} bheith mur thacharain ar luaidrean a +nunn & a nall go sbailpe breigi; achd le gcroidhibh daingne, dosgartha, +deagh-fhreumhaighte, druididh re Firinn, Ceart, & Ceannsachd, mar +fhuraileas na psalma: Ata clu & tarbha a nsdriocadh don choir; call & +masladh a ntuitim le heugcoir. + + Imthigh a Dhuilleachain gu d['a]n, + Le D['a]n glan diagha duisg iad thall; + Cuir failte ar Fonn fial na bFionn, + Ar Gharbh chriocha, 's Indseadh gall. + +_In English._ + +The Psalms are pleasant and profitable. A church resounding with sacred +melody is almost a little Heaven full of angels. As the Garden of Eden, +replenished with trees of life of potent efficacy, and with medicinal +plants, so is this Book of the Psalms of David, which contains a remedy for +all the diseases of the soul. The world and every living creature it +contains are the Harp; man is the Harper and Poet, who sings the praise of +the great wonder-working God; and David is ever one of the company who are +thus employed in sweetly and tunefully discoursing about the Almighty +King.... I was assisted in this work by culling from authors of every kind, +who have treated of the ancient manners, the primitive religion, and the +history of the Gaels, both in manuscript and in print: but the star and +light by which I steered was the sense of the Psalms themselves. Now, then, +my very dear colleagues, who as shining luminaries guide the inferior +bodies, it becomes you to examine and to use this work candidly, without +regarding the meanness and insignificancy of the workman. I beseech you, +men of high and of low degree alike, that you be not, like weak silly +creatures, tossed to and fro by false conceits; but with firm, resolute, +well-established hearts, adhere to Truth, Justice, and Temperance, as these +Psalms exhort. There is honour and profit in complying with what is right, +loss and disgrace in declining to what is wrong. {184} + + Little Volume, move boldly on; + In pure godly strains awaken yonder people; + Salute the hospitable land of the Fingalians, + The highland regions, and the Isles of strangers[122]. + + * * * * * + +PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH. + + * * * * * + + +Notes + + * * * * * + +[1] Analysis of the Gaelic Language, by William Shaw, A.M. + +[2] A few examples of what I conceived to be deviations from grammatical +propriety are given from the Gaelic version of the Bible. As the +translation of the Prophetical Books underwent a revision, the +exceptionable passages in those Books have been changed in the second +edition from what they were as they came out of the hands of the original +translator. The criticism on those passages is, however, allowed to remain +in this edition of the Grammar, because the first edition of the Gaelic +Prophets is still in the hands of many, and because it often happens that +"we can best teach what is right by showing what is wrong."--_Lowth._ + +[3] It will immediately occur to any grammarian that there is a slight +difference between this and the common division into _mutes_ and _liquids_, +by the letter _m_ being removed from the class of liquids to that of mutes. +This is not an oversight, but an intentional arrangement; as the +_accidents_ of the letter _m_ are, in Gaelic, the same with those of the +mute, not of the liquid consonants. For a like reason, _s_ is included in +the class of liquids. + +[4] Writers, who have touched on this part of Gaelic Grammar, following the +Irish grammarians, have divided the consonants further into _mutable_ and +_immutable_. The former name has been given to consonants which, in +writing, have been occasionally combined with the letter _h_; and the +latter name to those consonants which have not, in writing, been combined +with _h_. But, in fact, both classes of consonants are alike _mutable_ in +their pronunciation; and their _mutation_ ought to have been marked in the +orthography, though it has not. This defect in Gaelic orthography has been +often observed and regretted, though it has never been corrected. Rather +than continue a distinction which has no foundation in the structure of the +language, I venture to discard the division of _mutable_ and _immutable_ +consonants, as not merely useless, but as tending to mislead the learner. + +[5] In explaining the sounds of the letters I have availed myself of the +very correct and acute remarks on this subject annexed to the Gaelic +version of the New Testament, 1767. + +[6] If it be thought that this renders the language too monotonous, it may +be observed, on the other hand, that it prevents ambiguities and +obscurities in rapid speaking, as the accent marks the initial syllable of +polysyllables. Declaimers, of either sex, have often found their advantage +in this circumstance. + +[7] That is the second sound assigned to a. + +[8] The plural of la or latha _a day_, is sometimes written laeth; but it +is doubtful how far this is a proper mode of writing it. + +[9] The effect of the vowels in qualifying the sound of the adjoining +consonants will be explained in treating of the Palatals and Linguals. + +[10] This propensity is seen in the aspirating of consonants in Gaelic +words, which have an evident affinity to words in other languages, where +the same consonants are not so aspirated. The following list will +sufficiently illustrate and confirm the truth of this remark:-- + + _Greek._ _Latin._ _Gaelic._ + [Greek: Diabolos] Dia_b_olus Diabhol. + Scri_b_o* Scriobh, _write_. + Fe_b_ris* Fiabhrus, _a fever_. + Ba_c_ulum Bacholl, _a staff_. + [Greek: Deka] De_c_em Deich, _ten_. + Lori_c_a L[`u]ireach, _a coat of mail_. + Cleri_c_us Cleireach, _a clerk_. + Mo_d_us Modh, _manner_. + Gla_d_ius Claidheamh, _a sword_. + [Greek: Kardia] } Cor_d_-is Cridhe, _the heart_. + [Greek: Kradia] } + Me_d_ium Meadhon, _middle_. + Lau_d_o Luadh, _mention_. + Le_g_o Leugh, _read_. + Gre_g_-is Greigh, _a herd_. + Re_g_-is Righ, _a king_. + Pla_g_a Plaigh, _a plague_. + Sa_g_itta Saighead, _an arrow_. + Ma_g_ister Maighistir, _master_. + Ima_g_o Iomhaigh, _an image_. + Pri_m_us Priomh, _chief_. + Re_m_us R[`a]mh, _an oar_. + Si_m_ilis Samhuil, _like_. + Hu_m_ilis Umhal, _humble_. + Ca_p_ra Gabhar, _a goat_. + [Greek: Meter] Ma_t_er Mathair, _mother_. + Ro_t_a Roth, Rath, _a wheel_. + Mu_t_o M[`u]th, _change_. + +It is probable that the consonants, thus aspirated, were pronounced without +aspiration in the older dialects of the Celtic tongue; for we are told that +in the Irish manuscripts of the first class for antiquity, the consonants +are for the most part written without any mark of aspiration. See "Lhuyd's +Archaeol. Brit.," p. 301, col. 1. + +The tendency to attenuate the articulations shows itself in a progressive +state, in a few vocables which are pronounced with an aspiration in some +districts, but not universally. Such are deatach or deathach _smoke_, +cuntart or cunthart _danger_, ta or tha _am_, _art_, tu or thu _thou_, +troimh or throimh _through_, tar or thar _over_, am beil or am bheil _is +there?_ dom or domh _to me_, &c. Has not this remission or suppression of +the articulations the effect of enfeebling the speech, by mollifying its +bones and relaxing its nerves? Ought not therefore the progress of this +corruption to be opposed, by retaining unaspirated articulations in those +instances where universal practice has not entirely superseded them, and +even by restoring them in some instances, where the loss of them has been +attended with manifest inconvenience? It is shameful to see how many +monosyllables, once distinguished by their articulations, have in process +of time, by dropping these articulations, come to be represented by the +solitary vowel _a_, to the no small confusion of the language and +embarrassment of the reader. The place of the absent consonant is often +supplied, indeed, in writing, by an apostrophe. This, however, is at best +but an imperfect and precarious expedient. + + * So in French, from Aprilis, _Avrilis_; habere, _avoir_; Febris, + Fi[`e]vre: [Greek: episkopos], _ev['e]que_. + +[11] Ph is found in no Gaelic word which is not inflected, except a few +words transplanted from the Greek or the Hebrew, in which _ph_ represents +the Greek [phi], or the Hebrew [Hebrew: P]. It might perhaps be more +proper to represent [Hebrew: P] by _p_ rather than _ph_; and to represent +[phi] by _f_, as the Italians have done in _filosofia_, _filologia_, &c., +by which some ambiguities and anomalies in declension would be avoided. + +[12] The affinity between the sounds of _v_ and _u_ is observable in many +languages, particularly in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. + +[13] Agreeably to the like pronunciation, the Welsh write this word _marw_, +the Manks _marroo_. + +[14] It is still pronounced fuair in the Northern Highlands, and it is so +written in Irish. See Irish Bible, Gen. xxxv. 18, 19; John ii. 14, viii. +62, 53. + +[15] So fathast _yet_, fein _self_, are in some places pronounced as if +they began with an _h_ instead of an _f_. The latter word is, by the Manks, +written hene. + +[16] Over a considerable part of the Highlands that propensity to +aspiration, which has been already remarked, has affixed to _c_, in the end +of a word, or of an accented syllable, the sound of _chc_; as, mac _a son_, +torc _a boar_, acain _moaning_; pronounced often machc, torchc, achcain. + +There is reason to believe that this compound sound of _chc_ was not known +of old, but is a modern corruption. + +This pronunciation is not universal over the Highlands. In some parts the +_c_ retains its proper sound in all situations. + +If the articulation in question had, from the first, been compounded, it is +highly probable that it would have been represented, in writing, by a +combination of letters, such as _chc_; especially as we find that the same +sound is represented at other times, not by a single consonant, but by a +combination, as in the case of _chd_. Why should it be thought that boc _a +buck_, and bochd _poor_, were originally pronounced alike, when they are +distinguished both in writing and signification? + +The word [Hebrew: SHQ] _a sack_, has been transplanted from the Hebrew into +many languages, among the rest the Gaelic, where it has been always written +sac, although now pronounced sachc. In none of the other languages in which +the word is used (except the Welsh alone), has the final palatal been +aspirated. It would appear therefore that the sound sachc is a departure +from the original Gaelic pronunciation. The same change may have happened +in the pronunciation of other words, in which the plain _c_ is now +aspirated, though it may not have been so originally. + +[17] Though _th_ be quiescent in the middle of a polysyllable, over the +North and Central Highlands, yet it is, with more propriety, pronounced, in +the West Highlands, as an aspiration; as, athair _father_, mathanas +_pardon_, pronounced a-hair, mahanas. + +[18] I am informed that this pronunciation of _chd_ is not universal; but +that in some districts, particularly the East Highlands, the _d_ has here, +as in other places, its proper lingual sounds. In many, if not all the +instances in which _chd_ occurs, the ancient Irish wrote _ct_. This +spelling corresponds to that of some foreign words that have a manifest +affinity to Gaelic words of the same signification; which, it is therefore +presumable, were all originally pronounced, as they were written, without +an aspiration, such as, + + _Latin._ _Old French._ _Gaelic._ + + Noct-u Noct-is, &c. Nuict an nochd, _to night_. + Oct-o Huict Ochd, _eight_. + Benedict-um Benoict Beannachd, _blessing_. + Maledict-um Maudict Mallachd, _cursing_. + Ruct-us Bruchd, _evomition_. + Intellect-us Intleachd, _contrivance_. + Lact-is, -i, &c. Lachd, _milk_. + Dict-o, -are, &c. Deachd, _to dictate_. + Rego } + Rect-um } Reachd, _a law, institution_. + +From the propensity of the Gaelic to aspiration, the original _c_ was +converted into _ch_, and the words were written with _cht_, as in the Irish +acht _but_, &c., or with the slight change of _t_ into _d_, as in ochd, &c. +This is the opinion of O'Brien, when he says the word lecht is the Celtic +root of the Latin _lectio_--the aspirate _h_ is but a late +invention.--_O'Br. Ir. Dict. voc. lecht._ In process of time the true sound +of _cht_ or _chd_ was confounded with the kindred sound of _chc_, which was +commonly, though corruptly, given to final c. + +[19] It is certain that the natural sound of d aspirated is that of [the +Saxon dh] or _th_ in _thou_; as the natural sound of _t_ aspirated is that +of _th_ in _think_. This articulation, from whatever cause, has not been +admitted into the Gaelic, either Scottish or Irish, although it is used in +the kindred dialects of Cornwall and Wales. + +[20] In sean _old_, the _n_ has its _plain_ sound when the following word +begins with a Lingual. Accordingly it is often written in that situation +seann; as, seann duine _an old man_, an t-seann tiomnaidh _of the old +Testament_. + +[21] So in Latin, _canmen_ from _cano_ was pronounced, and then written +_carmen_; _genmen_ from the obsolete [Greek: geno] passed into _germen_. + +[22] Another mode, proposed by a learned correspondent, of marking the +distinction in the sound of the initial Linguals, is by writing the letter +double, thus ll, nn, rr, when its sound is the same with that which is +represented by those double letters in the end of a syllable; and when the +sound is otherwise, to write the letter single; as, llamh _hand_, llion +_fill_, mo lamh _my hand_, lion mi _I filled_. + +It is perhaps too late, however, to urge now even so slight an alteration +as this in the Orthography of the Gaelic, which ought rather to be held as +fixed beyond the reach of innovation, by the happy diffusion of the Gaelic +Scriptures over the Highlands. + +[23] _Leathan re Leathan, is Caol re Caol._ + +Of the many writers who have recorded or taken notice of this rule, I have +found none who have attempted to account for its introduction into the +Gaelic. They only tell that such a correspondence between the vowels ought +to be observed, and that it would be improper to write otherwise. Indeed, +none of them seem to have attended to the different effects of a broad and +of a small vowel on the sound of an adjacent consonant. From this +circumstance, duly considered, I have endeavoured to derive a reason for +the rule in question, the only probable one that has yet occurred to me. + +[24] As deanuibh or deanaibh _do ye_, beannuich or beannaich _bless_. + +[25] It is worthy of remark that in such words as caird-eil _friendly_, +slaint-eil _salutary_, the substitution of _e_ in place of _a_ in the +termination, both misrepresents the sound, and disguises the derivation of +the syllable. The sound of this termination as in fear-ail _manly_, ban-ail +_womanly_, is properly represented by _ail_. This syllable is an +abbreviation of amhuil _like_, which is commonly written in its full form +by the Irish, as fear-amhuil, &c. It corresponds exactly to the English +termination _like_, in _soldier-like_, _officer-like_, which is abridged to +_ly_, as _manly_, _friendly_. By writing _eil_ instead of _ail_, we almost +lose sight of amhuil altogether. + +[26] From the extracts of the oldest Irish manuscripts given by Lhuyd, +Vallancey, and others, it appears that the rule concerning the +correspondence of vowels in contiguous syllables, was by no means so +generally observed once as it is now. It was gradually extended by the more +modern Irish writers, from whom, it is probable, it has been incautiously +adopted by the Scottish writers in its present and unwarrantable latitude. +The rule we have been considering has been reprobated in strong terms by +some of the most judicious Irish philologers, particularly O'Brien, author +of an Irish Dictionary printed at Paris 1768, and Vallancey, author of an +Irish Grammar, and of various elaborate disquisitions concerning Irish +antiquities, from whom I quote the following passages: "This Rule [of +dividing one syllable into two by the insertion of an aspirated consonant] +together with that of substituting small or broad vowels in the latter +syllables, to correspond with the vowel immediately following the consonant +in the preceding syllable, has been very destructive to the original and +radical purity of the Irish language." _Vallancey's Ir. Gram. Chap. III. +letter A._ "Another [Rule] devised in like manner by our bards and rhymers, +I mean that which is called _Caol le caol, agus Leathan le leathan_, has +been woefully destructive to the original and radical purity of the Irish +language. This latter (much of a more modern invention than the former, for +our old manuscripts show no regard to it) imports and prescribes that two +vowels, thus forming, or contributing to form, two different syllables, +should both be of the same denomination or class of either broad or small +vowels, and this without any regard to the primitive elementary structure +of the word." _O'Brien's Ir. Dict. Remarks on A._ "The words _biran_ and +_biranach_ changed sometimes into _bioran_ and _bioranach_ by the abusive +rule of _Leathan le leathan_." _Id. in voc._ Fear. The opinion of Lhuyd on +this point, though not decisive, yet may properly be subjoined to those of +Vallancey and O'Brien, as his words serve at least to show that this +judicious philologer was no advocate for the Rule in question. "As for +passing any censure on the rule concerning broad and small vowels, I chose +rather to forbear making any remark at all upon them, by reason that old +men who formerly wrote arget _silver_, instead of airgiod as we now write +it, never used to change a vowel but in declining of words, &c. And I do +not know that it was ever done in any other language, unless by some +particular persons who, through mistake or ignorance, were guilty of it." +_Archaeol. Brit. Preface to Ir. Dict. translated in Bp. Nicolson's Irish +Historical Library._ + +[27] Pinkerton's Inquiry into the History of Scotland. + +[28] _E.g._, troidh _a foot_, has been written troidh or troigh, either of +which corresponds to the pronunciation, as the last consonant is quiescent. +In Welsh, the articulation of the final consonant has been preserved, and +the word is accordingly written troed. This authority seems sufficient to +determine the proper orthography in Gaelic to be troidh and not troigh. For +a like reason, perhaps, it would be proper to write tr[`a]idh _shore_, +rather than tr[`a]igh, the common way of spelling the word, for we find the +Irish formerly wrote tr[`a]idh, and the Welsh traeth. Claidheamh _a sword_, +since the final articulation was wholly dropped, has been sometimes written +claidhe. The mode of writing it still with a final labial, though +quiescent, will probably be thought the more proper of the two, when it is +considered that claidheamh is the cognate, or rather the same word with the +Irish cloidheamh the Welsh cleddyf, and the French glaive. + +[29] I flatter myself that all my readers, who are acquainted with any of +the ancient or the modern languages which have a distinction of gender in +their attributives, will readily perceive that the import of the term +Gender, in the grammar of those languages, is precisely what I have stated +above. The same term has been introduced into the grammar of the English +Tongue, rather improperly, because in an acceptation different from what it +bears in the grammar of all other languages. In English there is no +distinction of gender competent to Articles, Adjectives, or Participles. +When a noun is said to be of the masculine gender, the meaning can only be +that the object denoted by it is of the male sex. Thus in the English +grammars, gender signifies a quality of the _object_ named, while in other +grammars it signifies a quality of the _name_ given to the object. The +varieties of _who_, _which_, and _he_, _she_, _it_, refer not to what is +properly called the _gender_ of the antecedent _noun_, but to the _Sex_ +real or attributed, or the _absence of Sex_, of the _object_ signified by +the antecedent. This is in effect acknowledged by writers on rhetoric, who +affirm that in English the pronouns _who_, _he_, _she_, imply an express +personification, or attribution of life, and consequently of Sex, to the +objects to which these pronouns refer. The same thing is still more +strikingly true of the variations on the termination of nouns, as _prince_, +_princess_; _lion_, _lioness_, which are all discriminative of Sex. It +seems therefore to be a mis-stated compliment which is usually paid to the +English, when it is said that "this is the only language which has adapted +the gender of its nouns to the constitution of Nature." The fact is, that +it has adapted the _Form_ of some of the most common names of living +creatures, and of a few of its pronouns, to the obvious distinction of +_male_, and _female_, and _inanimate_, while it has left its nouns without +any mark characteristic of _gender_. The same thing must necessarily happen +to any language by abolishing the distinction of masculine and feminine in +its attributives. If all languages had been constructed on this plan, it +may confidently be affirmed that the grammatical term _gender_ would never +have come into use. The compliment intended, and due to the English, might +have been more correctly expressed, by saying that "it is the only language +that has rejected the unphilosophical distinction of gender, by making its +attributives, in this respect, all indeclinable." + +[30] Uan beag bainionn, 2 Sam. xii. 3. Numb. vi. 14. So leomhann boirionn, +Ezek. xix. 1. + +[31] It must appear singularly strange that any nouns which signify females +exclusively should be of the masculine gender. The noun bainionnach, is +derived from the adjective bainionn, _female_, which is formed from bean, +the appropriate term for a _woman_. Yet this noun bainionnach, or +boirionnach, _a female_, is masculine, to all grammatical intents and +purposes. We say boirionnach c[`o]ir, _a civil woman_, am boirionnach +maiseach, _the handsome woman_. + +The gender of this Noun seems to have been fixed, not by its signification, +but by its determination, for most Derivatives in _ach_ are masculines; as, +oganach _a young man_, marcach _a horseman_, Albanach _a Scotsman_, &c. So +in Latin, mancipium, scortum, though applied to persons, follow the gender +of their termination. + +[32] It was necessary to be thus explicit in stating the changes at the +beginning and those on the termination as unconnected independent +_accidents_, which ought to be viewed separately; because many who have +happened to turn their thoughts toward the declension of the Gaelic noun +have got a habit of conjoining these, and supposing that both contribute +their united aid toward the forming the _cases_ of nouns. This is blending +together things which are unconnected, and ought to be kept distinct. It +has therefore appeared necessary to take a separate view of these two +_accidents_ of nouns, and to limit the term _case_ to those changes which +are made on the termination, excluding entirely those which take place at +the beginning. + +[33] It is to be observed that these names of the cases are adopted merely +because they are already familiar, not because they all denominate +correctly the relations expressed by the cases to which they are +respectively applied. There is no Accusative or Objective case in Gaelic +different from the Nominative; neither is there any Ablative different from +the Dative. For this reason, it is not only unnecessary, but erroneous, to +reckon up six Cases in Gaelic, distinguished not by the form of the Noun, +but by the Prepositions prefixed. This is to depart altogether from the +common and proper use of the term _Case_. And if the new use of that term +is to be adopted, then the enumeration is still incomplete, for we ought to +have as many Cases as there are Prepositions in the language. Thus, besides +a Dative do Bhard, and an Ablative o Bhard, we should have an Impositive +Case air Bhard, a Concomitative le Bard, an Insertive ann am Bard, a +Precursive roimh Bhard, &c. &c. Grammarians have very correctly reckoned +only five Cases in Greek, two in English, one in French [See _Moore_, +_Murray_, _Buffier_, &c.] because the variations in the form of the Noun +extend no further. Surely nothing but an early and inveterate prepossession +in favour of the arrangements of Latin Grammar could ever have suggested +the idea of Six Cases in Gaelic or in English. + +[34] It is not improbable that anciently all feminine nouns, except a few +irregular ones, added a syllable to the nominative, as _e_ or _a_, in +forming the genitive. The translators of the S. S. have sometimes formed +the genitive of feminine polysyllables in this manner, as sionagoige from +sionagog, Mark v. 36, 38. But it appears more agreeable to the analogy of +inflection that such polysyllables should now be written without an _e_ in +the genitive. + +[35] It is probable that this noun should rather be written [`a]dh. See +McFarlane's Paraphrases, III. 3. also Lhuyd and O'Brien, _in loco_. + +[36] Derivatives in _an_, and _ag_ should form their genitive according to +the general Rule, _ain_, _aig_; and in pronunciation they do so. When the +syllable preceding the termination ends in a small vowel, the Rule of 'Caol +re caol' has introduced an _e_ into the final syllable, which is then +written _ean_, _eag_. In this case writers have been puzzled how to form +the genitive. The terminations _eain_, _eaig_, would evidently contain too +many vowels for a short syllable. To reduce this awkward number of vowels +they have commonly thrown out the _a_, the only letter which properly +expressed the vocal sound of the syllable. Thus from caimean m. a _mote_, +they formed the gen. sing. caimein; from cuilean m. a _whelp_, g. s. +cuilein; from duileag f. a _leaf_, g. s. duileig; from caileag f. a _girl_, +g. s. caileig. Had they not yielded too far to the encroachments of the +Rule of 'Caol re caol' they would have written both the nom. and the gen. +of these and similar nouns more simply and more justly, thus: caiman, g. s. +caimain; cuilan, g. s. cuilain; duilag, g. s. duilaig; cailag, g. s. +cailaig. + +[37] In many instances, the Plural termination _a_ is oftener written with +this final _n_ than without it. When the vowel preceding the termination is +small, the termination _a_ or _an_ is very needlessly written _e_ or _ean_, +to preserve the correspondence of vowels. + +[38] We are informed by E. O'C. that this is the usual construction in the +Irish Dialect, and it appears to be the same in the Scottish. Thus, air son +mo dh[`a] sh[`u]l, _for my two eyes_.--Judg. xvi. 28. Ir. & Scott. +versions. + +[39] So in Hebrew, we find a noun in the singular number joined with +_twenty_, _thirty_, _a hundred_, _a thousand_, &c. + +[40] The Pronouns tu _thou_, se _he_, si _she_, siad _they_, are not +employed, like other nominatives, to denote the object after a transitive +verb. Hence the incorrectness of the following expression in most editions +of the Gaelic Psalms: Se chr[`u]nas _tu_ le coron graidh, Psal. ciii. 4., +which translated literally signifies, _it is he whom thou wilt crown_, &c. +To express the true sense, viz., _it is he who will crown thee_, it ought +to have been, se chr[`u]nas _thu_ le coron graidh. So is mise an Tighearn a +slanuicheas _thu_, _I am the Lord that healeth thee_, Exod. xv. 26; Ma ta e +ann a fhreagaireas _thu_, _If there be any that will answer thee_, Job v. +1; Co e a bhrathas thu? _Who is he that will betray thee?_ John xxi. 20., +Comp. Gen. xii. 3. and xxvii. 29. + +[41] This use of the Pronoun of the 2d person plural is probably a modern +innovation, for there is nothing like it found in the more ancient Gaelic +compositions, nor in the graver poetry even of the present age. As this +idiom seems, however, to be employed in conversation with increasing +frequency, it will probably lose by degrees its present import, and will +come to be used as the common mode of addressing any individual; in the +same manner as the corresponding Pronouns are used in English, and other +European languages. + +[42] There seems hardly a sufficient reason for changing the _d_ in this +situation into _t_, as has been often done, as t'oglach for d'oglach _thy +servant_, &c. The _d_ corresponds sufficiently to the pronunciation, and +being the constituent consonant of the pronoun, it ought not to be changed +for another. + +[43] The Irish are not so much at a loss to avoid a _hiatus_, as they often +use na for a _his_; which the translators of the Psalms have sometimes +judiciously adopted; as, + + An talamh tioram le na laimh + Do chruthaich e 's do dhealbh. Psal. xcv. 5. + +[44] In the North Highlands this Pronoun is pronounced sid. + +[45] This Pronoun occurs in such expressions as an deigh na chuala tu +_after what you have heard_; their leat na th' agad, or na bheil agad, +_bring what you have_. It seems to be contracted for an ni a _the thing +which_. + +[46] There is reason to think that ge b'e is corruptly used for cia b' e. +Of the former I find no satisfactory analysis. The latter cia b' e is +literally _which it be_, or _which it were_; which is just the French _qui +que ce soit_, _qui que ce f[^u]t_ expressed in English by one word +_whosoever_, _whichsoever_. We find cia used in this sense and connection, +Psal. cxxxv. 11. Glasg. 1753. Gach uile rioghachd mar an ceadn' _cia_ +h-iomdha bhi siad ann, _All_ _kingdoms likewise, however numerous they be_. +See also Gen. xliv. 9, Rom. ii. 1. + +[47] This pronoun is found written with an initial c in Lhuyd's "Archaeol. +Brit." Tit. I. page 20. col. 2. ceach; again Tit. X. voc. Bealtine, cecha +bliadna _each year_. So also O'Brien, cach _all_, _every_, like the French +_chaque_. "Irish Dict." voc. cach. + +[48] The pronouns _cach eile_ and _cach a ch['e]ile_ are hardly known in +Perthshire. Instead of the former, they use the single word c[`a]ch +pronounced long, and declined like a noun of the singular number; and +instead of the latter, a ch['e]ile, as in this example, choinnich iad a +ch['e]ile; thuit cuid, agus theich c[`a]ch, _they met each other; some +fell, and the rest fled_. Here c[`a]ch may be considered as a simple +pronoun; but the first clause, choinnich iad a cheile, _they met his +fellow_, hardly admits of any satisfactory analysis. The phrases, in fact, +seem to be elliptical, and to be expressed more fully, according to the +practice of other districts, thus: choinnich iad cach a chi['e]le; thuit, +cuid, agus theich cach eile. Now, if cach be nothing else than gach +_every_, (a conjecture supported by the short pronunciation of the _a_, as +well as by the authorities adduced in the preceding note,) the expressions +may be easily analysed: choinnich iad gach [aon] a cheile; thuit cuid, agus +theich gach [aon] eile; _they met every [one] his fellow; some fell, and +every other [one] fled_, See 1 Thess. v. 11. + +[49] In the older Irish MSS. the Particle _do_ appears under a variety of +forms. In one MS. of high antiquity it is often written _dno_. This seems +to be its oldest form. The two consonants were sometimes separated by a +vowel, and the _n_ being pronounced and then written _r_, (See Part I. p. +19.) the word was written doro. (See _Astle's Hist. of the Orig. and Progr. +of Writing, page 126, Irish Specimen, No. 6._) The Consonants were +sometimes transposed, suppressing the latter Vowel, and the Particle became +nod (_O Brien's Ir. Dict. voc._ Sasat, Treas,) and rod (_id. voc._ Ascaim, +Fial.) Sometimes one of the syllables only was retained; hence no (_O'Br. +voc._ No,) ro (_id. voc._ Ro,) and do in common use. Do likewise suffered a +transposition of letters, and was written sometimes ad. (O'Br. _voc._ Do.) + +[50] This correspondence of the Termination with the Root was overlooked in +the older editions of the Gaelic Psalms; as pronnfidh, cuirfar, molfidh, +innsam, guidham, coimhdar, sinnam, gluaisfar, &c. + +[51] The disposition in the Gaelic to drop articulations has, in this +instance, been rather unfortunate; as the want of the _f_ weakens the sound +of the word, and often occasions a _hiatus_. There seems a propriety in +retaining the _f_ of the Future, after a Liquid, or an aspirated Mute; as, +cuirfidh, mairfidh, molfidh, geillfidh, pronnfidh, brisfidh, &c., for these +words lose much in sound and emphasis by being changed into caithidh, +mairidh, &c. + +[52] The incorporation of the Verb with a Personal Pronoun is a manifest +improvement, and has gradually taken place in almost all the polished +languages. There is incomparably more beauty and force in expressing the +energy of the Verb, with its _personal_ relation and concomitant +circumstances, in one word, than by a periphrasis of pronouns and +auxiliaries. The latter mode may have a slight advantage in point of +precision, but the former is greatly superior in elegance and strength. The +structure of the Latin and Greek, compared with that of the English Verb, +affords a striking illustration of this common and obvious remark. Nothing +can be worse managed than the French Verb; which, though it possesses a +competent variety of _personal_ inflections, yet loses all the benefit of +them by the perpetual enfeebling recurrence of the personal Pronouns. + +In comparing the Scottish and Irish dialects of the Gaelic, it may be +inferred that the former, having less of inflection or _incorporation_, +than the latter, differs less from the parent tongue, and is an older +branch of the Celtic, than its sister dialect. It were unfair, however, to +deny that the Irish have improved the Verb, by giving a greater variety of +inflection to its _Numbers_ and _Persons_, as well as by introducing a +simple Present Tense. The authors of our metrical version of the Gaelic +Psalms were sensible of the advantage possessed by the Irish dialect in +these respects, and did not scruple to borrow an idiom which has given +grace and dignity to many of their verses. + +[53] Such at least is the common practice in writing, in compliance with +the common mode of colloquial pronunciation. It might perhaps be better to +retain the full form of the Preposition, in grave pronunciation, and always +in writing. It is an object worthy of attention to preserve radical +articulations, especially in writing; and particularly to avoid every +unnecessary use of the monosyllable _a_, which, it must be confessed, +recurs in too many senses. + +[54] The Preposition iar has here been improperly confounded with air _on_. +I have ventured to restore it, from the Irish Grammarians. Iar is in common +use in the Irish dialect, signifying _after_. Thus, iar sin _after that_, +iar leaghadh an tshoisgeil _after reading the Gospel_, iar sleachdadh do +niomlan _after all have kneeled down_, iar seasamh suas _after standing +up_, &c. See "Irish Book of Common Prayer." Air, when applied to time, +signifies not _after_, but _at_ or _on_, air an am so, air an uair so _at +this time_, air an la sin _on that day_. There is therefore sufficient +reason to believe that, in the case in question, iar is the proper word; +and that it has been corruptly supplanted by air. + +[55] The Imperative seems to have been anciently formed by adding _tar_ to +the Root. This form is still retained in Ireland, and in some parts of +Scotland, chiefly in verbs ending in a Lingual; as, buailtear, deantar. +(See the Lord's Prayer in the older editions of the Gaelic Version of the +Assembly's Catechism; also, the "Irish N. Test." Matt. vi. 10. Luke xi. 2.) +In other verbs, the _t_ seems to have been dropped in pronunciation. It +was, however, retained by the Irish in writing, but with an aspiration to +indicate its being quiescent; thus, togthar, teilgthear, "Ir. N. T." Matt. +xxi. 21, Mark xi. 23, crochthar, Matt. xxvii. 22. So also the "Gaelic N. +T." 1767, deanthar. Matt. vi. 10, Luke xi. 2. In the later publications the +_t_ has been omitted altogether, with what propriety may be well doubted. + +[56] To preserve a due correspondence with the pronunciation, the Pass. +Part. should always terminate in _te_, for in this part of the verb, the +_t_ has always its _small_ sound. Yet in verbs whereof the characteristic +vowel is broad, it is usual to write the termination of the Pass. Part. +_ta_; as, togta _raised_, crochta _suspended_. This is done in direct +opposition to the pronunciation, merely out of regard to the Irish Rule of +_Leathan ri leathan_, which in this case, as in many others, has been +permitted to mar the genuine orthography. + +When a verb, whose characteristic vowel is broad, terminates in a Liquid, +the final consonant coalesces so closely with the _t_ of the Pass. Part. +that the _small_ sound of the latter necessarily occasions the like sound +in pronouncing the former. Accordingly the small sound of the Liquid is +properly represented in writing, by an _i_ inserted before it. Thus, [`o]l +_drink_, Pass. Part. [`o]ilte; pronn _pound_, proinnte; crann _bar_, +crainnte; sparr _ram_, spairrte; trus _pack_, truiste. But when the verb +ends in a mute, whether plain or aspirated, there is no such coalescence +between its final consonant and the adjected _t_ of the Participle. The +final consonant if it be pronounced retains its broad sound. There is no +good reason for maintaining a correspondence of vowels in the Participle, +which ought therefore to be written, as it is pronounced, without regard to +_Leathan ri leathan_; as, tog _raise_, Pass. Part. togte; croch _hang_, +crochte; s[`a]th _thrust_, s[`a]thte; cnamh _chew_, cnamhte. + +The same observations apply, with equal force, to the Pret. Subj. in which +the _t_ of the termination is always pronounced with its _small_ sound, and +should therefore be followed by a small vowel in writing; as, thogteadh, +chrochteadh, not thogtadh, chrochtadh. + +[57] In all _regular_ verbs, the difference between the Affirmative and the +Negative Moods, though marked but slightly and partially in the Preterite +Tense, (only in the initial form of the 2d Conjugation,) yet is strongly +marked in the Future Tense. The Fut. Aff. terminates in a feeble vocal +sound. In the Fut. Neg. the voice rests on an articulation, or is cut short +by a forcible aspiration. Supposing these Tenses to be used by a speaker in +reply to a command or a request; by their very structure, the former +expresses the softness of compliance; and the latter, the abruptness of a +refusal. If a command or a request be expressed by such verbs as these, tog +sin, gabh sin, ith sin, the compliant answer is expressed by togaidh, +gabhaidh, ithidh; the refusal, by the cha tog, cha ghabh, cha n-ith. May +not this peculiar variety of form in the same Tense, when denoting +affirmation, and when denoting negation, be reckoned among the +characteristic marks of an original language? + +[58] This part of the verb, being declined and governed like a noun, bears +a closer resemblance to the Latin Gerund than to the Infinitive; and might +have been properly named the Gerund. But as Lhuyd and all the later Irish +Grammarians have already given it the name of Infinitive, I choose to +continue the same appellation rather than change it. + +[59] The Editor of the Gaelic Psalms printed at Glasgow, 1753, judging, as +it would seem, that cuidich was too bold a licence for cuideachaidh, +restored the gen. of the full form of the Infinitive; but in order to +reduce it to two syllables, so as to suit the verse, he threw out the +middle syllable, and wrote cuid'idh. + +[60] I have met with persons of superior knowledge of the Gaelic who +contended that such expressions as--ta mi deanamh _I am doing_, ta e +bualadh _he is striking_ (see page 83), are complete without any +Preposition understood; and that in such situations deanamh, bualadh, are +not infinitives or nouns, but real participles of the Present Tense. With +much deference to such authorities, I shall here give the reasons which +appear to me to support the contrary opinion. + +1. The form of the supposed Participle is invariably the same with that of +the Infinitive. + +2. If the words deanamh, bualadh, in the phrases adduced, were real +Participles, then in all similar instances, it would be not only +unnecessary, but ungrammatical, to introduce the preposition ag at all. But +this is far from being the case. In all verbs beginning with a vowel, the +preposition ag or its unequivocal representative _g_ is indispensable; as, +ta iad ag iarruidh, ta mi 'g iarruidh. Shall we say, then, that verbs +beginning with a consonant have a present participle, while those that +begin with a vowel have none? But even this distinction falls to the +ground, when it is considered that in many phrases which involve a verb +beginning with a consonant, the preposition ag stands forth to view, and +can on no account be suppressed; as, ta iad 'g a bhualadh _they are +striking him_, ta e 'g ar bualadh _he is striking us_. From these +particulars it may be inferred that the preposition ag must always precede +the infinitive, in order to complete the phrase which corresponds to the +English or Latin pres. participle; and that in those cases where the +preposition has been dropped, the omission has been owing to the rapidity +or carelessness of colloquial pronunciation. + +3. A still stronger argument, in support of the same conclusion, may be +derived from the regimen of the phrase in question. The infinitive of a +transitive verb, preceded by any preposition, always governs the noun, +which is the object of the verbal action, in the genitive. This is an +invariable rule of Gaelic Syntax; thus, ta sinn a' dol a dh' iarruidh na +spr['e]idhe, _we are going to seek the cattle_; ta iad ag iomain na +spr['e]idhe, _they are driving the cattle_; ta iad iar cuairteachadh na +spr['e]idhe, _they have gathered the cattle_. This regimen can be accounted +for on no other principle, in Gaelic, than that the governing word is a +noun, as the infinitive is confessed to be. Now, it happens that the +supposed participle has the very same regimen, and governs the genitive as +uniformly as the same word would have done, when the presence of a +preposition demonstrated it to be a noun; so, ta mi bualadh an doruis, _I +am knocking the door_; ta thu deanamh an uilc, _you are doing mischief_. +The inference is, that even in these situations, the words--bualadh, +deanamh, though accompanied with no preposition, are still genuine nouns, +and are nothing else than the infinitives of their respective verbs, with +the preposition ag understood before each of them. + +4. The practice in other dialects of the Celtic, and the authority of +respectable grammarians, affords collateral support to the opinion here +defended. Gen. Vallancey, the most copious writer on Irish grammar, though +he gives the name of participle to a certain part of the Gaelic verb, +because it corresponds, in signification, to a part of the Latin verb which +has obtained that name, yet constantly exhibits this participle, not as a +single word, but a composite expression; made up of a preposition and that +part of the verb which is here called the infinitive. The phrase is fully +and justly exhibited, but it is wrong named; unless it be allowed to extend +the name of Participle to such phrases as _inter ambulandum_, [Greek: en +toi peripatein].--Lhuyd, in his Cornish Grammar, informs us, with his usual +accuracy, that the Infinitive Mood, as in the other dialects of the +British, sometimes serves as a Substantive, as in the Latin; and by the +help of the participle _a_ [the Gaelic ag] before it, it supplies the room +of the participle of the present tense, &c. "Archaeol. Brit." page 245, +col. 3. This observation is strictly applicable to the Gaelic verb. The +infinitive, with the particle _ag_ before it, _supplies the room of the +present Participle_. The same judicious writer repeats this observation in +his "Introduction to the Irish or Ancient Scottish Language": The +Participle of the Present Tense is _supplied_ by the Participle _ag_ before +the Infinitive Mood; as, _ag radh_ saying, _ag cainnt_ talking, _ag +teagasg_ teaching, _ag dul_ going, &c. "Arch. Brit." page 303, col. 2. + +[61] It may appear a strange defect in the Gaelic, that its Verbs, +excepting the substantive verbs Bi, Is, have no _simple_ Present Tense. Yet +this is manifestly the case in the Scottish, Welsh, and Cornish dialects +(see "Arch. Brit." page 246, col. 1, and page 247, col. 1.); to which may +be added the Manks. Creidim _I believe_, guidheam _I pray_, with perhaps +one or two more Present Tenses, now used in Scotland, seem to have been +imported from Ireland, for their paucity evinces that they belong not to +our dialect. The want of the simple Present Tense is a striking point of +resemblance between the Gaelic and the Hebrew verb. + +I am indebted to a learned and ingenious correspondent for the following +important remark; that the want of the simple Present Tense in all the +British dialects of the Celtic, in common with the Hebrew, while the Irish +has assumed that Tense, furnishes a strong presumption that the Irish is a +dialect of later growth; that the British Gaelic is its parent tongue; and +consequently that Britain is the mother country of Ireland. + +[62] From observing the same thing happen repeatedly or habitually it is +naturally inferred that it will happen again. When an event is predicted it +is supposed that the speaker, if no other cause of his foreknowledge +appears, infers the future happening of the event from its having already +happened in many instances. Thus the Future Tense, which simply foretells, +conveys to the hearer an intimation that the thing foretold has already +taken place frequently and habitually. In Hebrew, the Future Tense is used +with precisely the same effect. In the law of Jehovah he _will_ meditate; +_i.e._, he _does_ meditate habitually. Psal. i, 2. See also Psal. xlii. 1, +Job ix. 11, xxiii. 8, 9, &c., _passim_. + +[63] Though this be the precise import of the Compound Tenses of the second +order, yet they are not strictly confined to the point of time stated +above; but are often used to denote past time indefinitely. In this way, +they supply the place of the Compound Tenses of the first order in those +verbs which have no passive participle. + +[64] See Moor. So tha 'n tigh 'g a thogail, _the house is in building_. + +[65] T['e]id the Fut. Negat. of Rach to _go_, has been generally written +d'th['e]id; from an opinion, it would seem, that the full form of that +Tense is do th['e]id. Yet as the participle _do_ is never found prefixed to +the Future Negative of any regular verb, it appears more agreeable to the +analogy of conjugation to write this tense in its simplest form t['e]id. +See "Gael. New Test." 1767, and 1796, Mat. xiii. 28. xiv. 15. A different +mode of writing this tense has been adopted in the edition of the "Gael. +Bible," Edin. 1807, where we uniformly find dth['e]id, dthoir, dthig. + +[66] Throughout the verb tabhair, the syllables _abhair_ are often +contracted into _oir_; as, toir, torinnn, &c. Acts xviii. 10. Sometimes +written d'thoir, d'thoirinn; rather improperly. See note 65. + +[67] Tig rather than d'thig. See note 65. + +[68] A Pres. Aff. of this Verb, borrowed from the Irish, is often used in +the G. SS. Deiream _I say_, deir e _he saith_, deir iad _they say_. + +[69] Dubhairt, dubhradh, are contracted for do thubhairt, &c. Abairinn, +abaiream, abairear, are often contracted into abrainn, abram, abrar. + +[70] It may appear an odd peculiarity in the Gaelic, that in many of the +most common phrases, a proposition or question should thus be expressed +without the least trace of a Verb. It can hardly be said that the +Substantive Verb is _understood_, for then there would be no impropriety in +expressing it. But the fact is, that it would be completely contrary to the +idiom and usage of the language, to introduce a Substantive Verb in these +phrases. It will diminish our surprise at this peculiarity to observe that +in the ancient languages numerous examples occur of sentences, or clauses +of sentences, in which the Substantive Verb is omitted, without occasioning +any obscurity or ambiguity; and this in Prose as well as in Verse. Thus in +Hebrew; Gen. xlii. 11, 13, 14. We [are] all one man's sons--we [are] true +men--thy servants [are] twelve brethren--the youngest [is] with his +father--ye [are] spies--&c. + + [Greek: Ouk agathon polukoiranie.]--_Iliad_, B. 204. + [Greek: kaka kerdea is' atesi.]--_Hes._ [Greek: E. kai E. a]. + [Greek: ego de tisou tachupeithes.]--_Theoc. Idyl._ 7. + Et m[^i] genus ab Jove summo.--_Virg. Aen._ VI. 123. + Varium et mutabile semper Femina.--_Aen._ IV. 569. + +Omnia semper suspecta atque sollicita; nullus locus amicitiae. _Cic. de +Amic._ 15. + + mira feritas, foeda paupertas; non arma, non equi, non penates; +victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubile humus; sola in sagittis spes, +&c.--_Tacit. de. mor. Germ. Cap. ult._ In these and the like examples, the +Substantive Verb might have been expressed, if with less elegance, yet +without grammatical impropriety. What has been frequently done in other +languages, seems, in Gaelic, to have been adopted, in certain phrases, as +an invariable mode of speech. + +The omission of the Substantive Verb is not unknown in English; as, + + "In winter awful thou."--_Thomson._ + "A ministering angel thou."--_Scott._ + "A cruel sister she."--_Mallet._ + +[71] The effect of this Tense in narration seems to be very nearly, if not +precisely, the same with that of the Present of the Infinitive in Latin; as +in these passages: + + "----misere discedere quaerens, + _Ire_ modo ocius; interdum _consistere_; in aurem + _Dicere_ nescio quid puero."--_Hor. Sat. 1. 8. v. 9._ + + "At Danaum proceres, Agamemnoniaeque phalanges + Ingenti _trepidare_ metu; pars _vertere_ terga, + Ceu quondam peti[^e]re rates; pars _tollere_ vocem."--_Aeneid. VI. 492._ + + "----nihil illi _tendere_ contra; + Sed _celerare_ fugam in sylvas, et _fidere_ nocti.'--_Aeneid. IX. 378._ + +"Tarquinius _fateri_ amorem, _orare_, _miscere_ precibus minas, _versare_ +in omnes partes muliebrem animum."--_Liv. I. 58._ + +"Neque post id locorum Jugurthae dies aut nox ulla quieta fuere: neque +loco, neque mortali cuiquam, aut tempori satis _credere_; cives, hostes, +juxta _metuere_; _circumspectare_ omnia, et omni strepitu _pavescere_; alio +atque alio loco, saepe contra decus regium, noctu _requiescere_; interdum +somno excitus, arreptis armis, tumultum _facere_; ita formidine quasi +vecordia _exagitari_."--_Sall. Bell. Jugur. 72._ + +[72] "An ceannard a mharbhadh" may be considered as the nominative to the +verb chaidh; and so in similar phrases; much in the same way as we find in +Latin, an Infinitive with an accusative before it, become the nominative to +a verb; as "_hominem_ hominis incommodo suum _augere_ commodum _est_ contra +naturam." _Cic. de. Offic._ III. 5. "Turpe _est eos_ qui bene nati sunt +turpiter _vivere_." + +[73] So in Hebrew, the article prefixed to the nouns _day_, _night_, +imports the present day or night. See Exod. xiv. 13. + +[74] Perhaps the proper Prep. in these phrases is _de_, not _do_--see the +Prepositions in the next Chap.--as we find the same Prep. similarly applied +in other languages; de nuit _by night_, John iii. 2; de nocte, Hor. Epis. +1. 2, 32; de tertia vigilia, Caes. B. G. + +[75] These expressions are affirmed, not without reason, to refer to the +supposed destruction of the world by fire, or by water; events which were +considered as immeasurably remote. (See Smith's "Gal. Antiq." pp. 59. 60). +Another explanation has been given of dilinn, as being compounded of dith, +_want, failure_, and linn _an age_; qu. _absumptio saeculi_. + +[76] Perhaps am f[`a]n, from f[`a]n or f[`a]nadh _a descent_. (See Lhuyd's +"Arch. Brit." tit. x. _in loco_.) + +[77] _i.e._ anns an teach, anns an tigh, _in the house_. So in Hebrew, +[Hebrew: MBYT] _within_, Gen. vi. 14. + +[78] Deas, applied to the hand, signifies the _right hand_. So in Hebrew, +[Hebrew: YMYN] signifies the _right hand_ and the _South_. + +[79] Iar, as a Preposition, signifies _after_ or _behind_. In like manner +in Hebrew, [Hebrew: ATR] signifies _after_, or the _West_. + +[80] Probably co luath _equally quick, with equal pace_. + +[81] The probable analysis of seadh is, is ['e], _it is_, pronounced in one +syllable, 's e. When this syllable was used as a responsive, and not +followed by any other word; the voice, resting on the final sound, formed a +faint articulation. This was represented in writing by the gentle aspirate +_dh_; and so the word came to be written as we find it. In like manner ni +h-eadh is probably nothing else than a substitute for ni he, _it is not_. + +[82] This mode of incorporating the Prepositions with the personal pronouns +will remind the Orientalist of the Pronominal Affixes, common in Hebrew and +other Eastern languages. The close resemblance between the Gaelic and many +of the Asiatic tongues, in this particular, is of itself an almost +conclusive proof that the Gaelic bears a much closer affinity to the parent +stock than any other living European language. + +[83] "In corroboration of this (Mr. S.'s) hypothesis, I have frequently met +_de_ in old MSS. I have therefore adopted it in its proper place."--E. +O'C.'s "Grammar of the Irish Gaelic." Dublin, 1808. + +[84] In many places, this Prep. is pronounced hun. + +[85] Tar ['e]is, on the track or footstep. See O'Brien's "Ir. Dict." _voc._ +['e]is. + +[86] On consulting O'Brien's "Ir. Dict." we find son translated _profit, +advantage_, cum _a fight, combat_, r['e]ir _will, desire_. From these +significations the common meaning of air son, do chum, do r['e]ir, may +perhaps be derived without much violence. + +[87] See Gaelic Poems published by Doctor Smith, pp. 8, 9, 178, 291. + +[88] There is in Gaelic a Noun cion or cionn, signifying _cause_; which +occurs in the expressions a chionn gu _because that_, cion-f[`a]th _a +reason_ or _ground_. But this word is entirely different from ceann _end_ +or _top_. + +[89] Some confusion has been introduced into the Grammar of the Latin +language, by imposing different grammatical names on words, according to +the connection in which they stood, while they retained their form and +their signification unchanged; as in calling _quod_ at one time a Relative +Pronoun, at another time a Conjunction; _post_ in one situation a +Preposition, in another, an Adverb. An expedient was thought requisite for +distinguishing, in such instances, the one part of speech from the other. +Accordingly an accent, or some such mark, was, in writing or printing, +placed over the last vowel of the word, when employed in what was reckoned +its secondary use; while, in its primary use, it was written without any +distinguishing mark. So the conjunction _qu[`o]d_ was distinguished from +the relative _quod_; and the adverb _post_ from the preposition _p[`o]st_. +The distinction was erroneous; but the expedient employed to mark it was, +at least, harmless. The word was left unaltered and undisguised; and thus +succeeding grammarians had it the more in their power to prove that the +relative _quod_ and the conjunction _qu[`o]d_ are, and have ever been, in +reality, one and the same part of speech. It would have been justly thought +a bold and unwarrantable step, had the older grammarians gone so far as to +alter the letters of the word, in order to mark a distinction of their own +creation. + +[90] From this use of the preposition _air_ arises the _equivoque_ so +humorously turned against Mr James Macpherson by Maccodrum the poet, as +related in the Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland +on the authenticity of Osian's Poems, Append. p. 95. Macpherson asked +Maccodrum, "Am bheil dad agad air an Fh['e]inn?" literally, "Have you +anything on the Fingalians?" intending to inquire whether the latter had +any poems in his possession _on_ the subject of the Fingalian history and +exploits. The expression partakes much more of the English than of the +Gaelic idiom. Indeed, it can hardly be understood in Gaelic, in the sense +that the querist intended. Maccodrum, catching up the expression in its +true Gaelic acceptation, answered, with affected surprise, "Bheil dad agam +air an Fh['e]inn? Ma bha dad riamh agam orra, is fad o chaill mi na +c[`o]irichean." "Have I any claim on the Fingalians? If ever I had, it is +long since I lost my voucher." + +[91] This use of the preposition _ann_ in conjunction with a possessive +Pronoun, is nearly akin to that of the Hebrew [Hebrew: l], [for] in such +expressions as these: 'He hath made me [for] a father to Pharaoh, and [for] +lord of all his house;' _rinn e mi 'n am athair do Pharaoh, agus 'n am +thighearn os ceann a thighe uile_, Gen. xlv. 8. 'Thou hast taken the wife +of Uriah to be [for] thy wife;' _ghabh thu bean Uriah gu bi 'n a mnaoi +dhuit fein._ 2 Sam. xii. 10. + +[92] This syllable assumes various forms. Before a broad vowel or consonant +_an_, as, anshocair; before a small vowel or consonant _ain_, as, aineolach +_ignorant_, aindeoin _unwillingness_; before a labial _am_ or _aim_, as, +aimbeartach _poor_; sometimes with the _m_ aspirated, as, aimhleas +_detriment_, _ruin_, aimh-leathan _narrow_. + +[93] The conjunction ged loses the _d_ when written before an adjective or +a personal pronoun; as, ge binn do ghuth, _though your voice be sweet_; ge +h-[`a]rd Jehovah, Psal. cxxxviii. 6. + +The translators of the Scriptures appear to have erred in supposing ge to +be the entire Conjunction, and that _d_ is the verbal particle do. This has +led them to write ge d' or ge do in situations in which do alters the sense +from what was intended, or is totally inadmissible. Ge do ghluais mi, Deut. +xxix. 19, is given as the translation of _though I walk_, i.e. _though I +shall walk_, but in reality it signifies _though I did walk_, for do +ghluais is past tense. It ought to be ged ghluais mi. So also ge do ghleidh +thu mi, Judg. xiii. 16, _though you detain me_, ought rather to be ged +ghleidh thu mi. Ge do ghlaodhas iad rium, Jer. xi. 11, _though they cry to +me_, is not agreeable to the Gaelic idiom. It ought rather to be ged +ghlaodh iad rium, as in Hosea, xi. 7. Ge do dh' fheudainnse muinghin bhi +agam, Phil. iii. 4, _though I might have confidence_. Here the verbal +particle is doubled unnecessarily, and surely not according to classical +precision. Let it be written ged dh' fheudainnse, and the phrase is +correct. Ge do 's eigin domh am bas fhulang, Mark xiv. 31, _though I must +suffer death_: ge do tha aireamh chloinn Israel, &c., Rom. ix. 27, _though +the number of the children of Israel be_, &c. The present tenses is and tha +never take the do before them. Ged is eigin, ged tha, is liable to no +objection. At other times, when the do appeared indisputably out of place, +the _d_ has been dismissed altogether, contrary to usual mode of +pronunciation; as, ge nach eil, Acts xvii. 27, 2 Cor. xii. 11, where the +common pronunciation requires ged nach eil. So, ge d' nach duin' an +t-aodach, &c. ge d' nach biodh ann ach an righ &c. (McIntosh's "Gael Prov." +pp. 35, 36), where the _d_ is retained even before nach, because such is +the constant way of pronouncing the phrase. + +These faulty expressions which, without intending to derogate from the high +regard due to such respectable authorities, I have thus freely ventured to +point out, seemed to have proceeded from mistaking the constituent letters +of the conjunction in question. It would appear that _d_ was originally a +radical letter of the word; that through time it came, like many other +consonants, to be aspirated; and by degrees became, in some situations, +quiescent. In Irish it is written giodh. This manner of writing the word is +adopted by the translator of Baxter's "Call." One of its compounds is +always written gidheadh. In these, the _d_ is preserved, though in its +aspirated state. In Scotland it is still pronounced, in most situations, +ged, without aspirating the _d_ at all. These circumstances put together +seem to prove the final _d_ is a radical constituent letter of this +Conjunction. + +I have the satisfaction to say that the very accurate Author of the Gaelic +Translation of the Scriptures has, with great candour, acknowledged the +justice of the criticism contained in the foregoing note. It is judged +expedient to retain it in this edition of the Grammar, lest the authority +of that excellent Translation might perpetuate a form of speech which is +confessed to be faulty. + +[94] To avoid, as far as may be, the too frequent use of _a_ by itself, +perhaps it would be better always to write the article full, an or am; and +to apply the above rules, about the elision of its letters, only to +regulate the pronunciation. Irish books, and our earlier Scottish +publications, have the article written almost always full, in situations +where, according to the latest mode of Orthography, it is mutilated. + +[95] The practice of suppressing the sound of an initial consonant in +certain situations, and supplying its place by another of a softer sound, +is carried to a much greater extent in the Irish dialect. It is termed +_eclipsis_ by the Irish grammarians, and is an evidence of a nice attention +to _euphonia_. + +[96] The Dat. case is always preceded by a Preposition, ris a' bhard, do 'n +bhard, aig na bardaibh; in declining a Noun with the article, any _Proper +Preposition_ may be supplied before the Dative case. + +[97] So in English, _Grandfather_, _Highlands_, _sometimes_; in Latin, +_Respublica_, _Decemviri_; in Italian, _Primavera_; in French, _Bonheur_, +_Malheur_, &c. from being an adjective and a noun, came to be considered as +a single complex term, or a compound word, and to be written accordingly. + +A close analogy may be traced between the Gaelic and the French in the +collocation of the Adjective. In both languages, the Adjective is +ordinarily placed after its Noun. If it be placed before its Noun, it is by +a kind of poetical inversion; dorchadas tiugh, _des tenebres epaisses_; by +inversion, tiugh dhorchadas, _d' epaisses tenebres_; fear m[`o]r, _un homme +grand_; by inversion, in a metaphorical sense, m[`o]r fhear, _un grand +homme_. A Numeral Adjective, in both languages, is placed before its Noun; +as also iomadh, _plusieurs_; except when joined to a proper name, where the +Cardinal is used for the Ordinal; Seumas a Ceithir, _Jaques Quatre_. + +[98] The same seems to be the case in the Cornish Language. See Lhuyd's +"Arch. Brit." p. 243, col. 3. + +When an Adjective precedes its Noun, it undergoes no change of termination; +as, thig an Tighearn a nuas le ard iolaich, _the Lord will descend with a +great shout_, 1 Thes. iv. 16; mar ghuth mor shluaigh, _as the voice of a +great multitude_, Rev. xix. 6. + +[99] Thus, bhur inntinn _your mind_, Acts xv. 24. + +[100] This, however, does not happen invariably. Where the _Sex_, though +specified, is overlooked as of small importance, the Personal or Possessive +Pronouns follow the _Gender_ of the Antecedent. See 2 Sam. xii. 3. + +[101] I am aware of the singularity of asserting the grammatical propriety +of such expressions as ciod e Uchdmhacachd? ciod e Urnuigh? as, the nouns +uchdmhacachd, urnuigh are known to be of the feminine Gender; and as this +assertion stands opposed to the respectable authority of the Editor of the +Assembly's Catechism in Gaelic, Edin. 1792, where we read, Ciod i urnuigh? +&c. The following defence of it is offered to the attentive reader. + +In every question the words which convey the interrogation must refer to +some higher genus or species than the words which express the subject of +the query. It is in the choice of the speaker to make that reference to any +genus or species he pleases. If I ask 'Who was Alexander?' the +Interrogative _who_ refers to the species _man_, of which _Alexander_, the +subject of the query, is understood to have been an individual. The +question is equivalent to 'What man was Alexander?' If I ask 'What is Man?' +the Interrogative _what_ refers to the genus of Existence or Being, of +which Man is considered as a subordinate genus or species. The question is +the same with 'What Being is Man?' I may also ask 'What was Alexander?' +Here the Interrogative _what_ refers to some genus or species of which +Alexander is conceived to have been an individual, though the particular +genus intended by the querist is left to be gathered from the tenor of the +preceding discourse. It would be improper, however, to say 'Who is man?' as +the Interrogative refers to no higher genus than that expressed by the word +_Man_. It is the same as if one should ask 'What man is Man?' + +In the question 'What is Prayer?' the object of the querist is to learn the +meaning of the term _Prayer_. The Interrogative _what_ refers to the genus +of Existence, as in the question 'What is Man?' not to the word _Prayer_, +which is the subject of the query. It is equivalent to 'What is [that thing +which is named] Prayer?' In those languages where a variety of gender is +prevalent, this reference of the Interrogative is more conspicuously +marked. A Latin writer would say '_Quid_ est Oratio*?' A Frenchman, 'Qu' +est-ce que la Pri[`e]re?' These questions, in a complete form, would run +thus; 'Quid est [id quod dicitur] Oratio?' 'Qu' est-ce que [l'on appelle] +la Pri[`e]re?' On the same principle, and in the same sense, a Gaelic +writer must say, 'Ciod e urnuigh?' the Interrogative Ciod e referring not +to urnuigh but to some higher genus. The expression, when completed, is +'Ciod e [sin de 'n goirear] urnuigh?' + +Is there then no case in which the Interrogative may follow the gender of +the subject? If the subject of the query be expressed, as it often is, by +_a general term, limited in its signification_ by a noun, adjective, +relative clause, &c; the reference of the Interrogative is often, though +not always not necessarily, made to _that term_ in its general acceptation, +and consequently be 'What is the Lord's Prayer?' Here the subject of the +query is not _Prayer_, but an individual of that species, denoted by the +term _prayer_ limited in its signification by another noun. The +Interrogative _what_ may refer, as in the former examples, to the genus of +Existence; or it may refer to the species _Prayer_, of which the subject of +the query is an individual. That is, I may be understood to ask either +'What is that _thing_ which is called the Lord's Prayer?' or 'What is that +_prayer_ which is called the Lord's Prayer?' A Latin writer would say, in +the former sense, 'Quid est Oratio Dominica+?' in the latter sense, +'Quaenam est Oratio Dominica?' The former of these expressions is +resolvable into 'Quid est [id quod dicitur] Oratio Dominica?' the latter +into 'Quaenam [oratio] est Oratio Dominica?' The same diversity of +expression would be used in French: 'Qu' est-ce que l'Oraison Dominicale?' +and 'Quelle est l'Oraison Dominicale?' The former resolvable into 'Qu' +est-ce que [l'on appelle] l'Oraison Dominicale? the latter into 'Quelle +[oraison] est l'Oraison Dominicale? So also in Gaelic, 'Ciod e Urnuigh an +Tighearna?' equivalent to 'Ciod e [sin de'n goirear] Urnuigh an Tighearna?' +or, which will occur oftener, 'Ciod i Urnuigh an Tighearna?' equivalent to +'Ciod i [an urnuigh sin de 'n goirear] Urnuigh an Tighearna?' + +* See a short Latin Catechism at the end of Mr Ruddiman's Latin Rudiments, +where many similar expressions occur; as 'Quid est fides? 'Quid est Lex? +Quid est Baptismus? Quid Sacramenta?' &c. + ++ So Ruddiman, 'Quid est Sacra Coena?' + +[102] The same arrangement obtains pretty uniformly in Hebrew, and seems +the natural and ordinary collocation of the Verb and its Noun in that +language. When the Noun in Hebrew is placed before the Verb, it will +generally be found that the Noun does not immediately connect with the Verb +as the Nominative to it, but rather stands in an absolute state; and that +it is brought forward in that state by itself to excite attention, and +denotes some kind of emphasis, or opposition to another Noun. Take the +following examples for illustration: Gen. i. 1, 2. 'In the beginning God +created [[Hebrew: BR' 'LHYM] in the natural order] the Heaven and the +Earth.' [Hebrew: WH'RTS HYTH]; not and the Earth was, &c., but 'and with +respect to the Earth, it was without form,' &c. Thus expressed in Gaelic: +'agus an talamh bha e gun dealbh,' &c. Gen. xviii. 33. 'And the Lord went +his way [[Hebrew: WYLK YHWH] in the natural order] as soon as he had left +communing with Abraham;' [Hebrew: W'BRHM SHB], not simply 'and Abraham +returned,' &c., but 'and Abraham--he too returned to his place.' In Gaelic, +'agus Abraham, phill esan g' aite fein.' See also Num. xxiv. 25.--Gen. iii. +12. 'And the man said, the woman whom thou gavest to be with me, [Hebrew: +HW' NTNH LY] _she_ it was that gave me of the tree, and I did eat.' Gen. +iii. 13. 'And the woman said, [Hebrew: HNCHSH HSHY'NY], not merely 'the +Serpent beguiled me,' but '_the Serpent_ was the cause; it beguiled me, and +I did eat.' Exod. xiv. 14. '_Jehovah_--he will fight for you; but as for +_you_, ye shall hold your peace.' This kind of emphasis is correctly +expressed in the Eng. translation of Psal. lx. 12, 'for he _it is that_ +shall tread down our enemies.' Without multiplying examples, I shall only +observe that it must be difficult for the English reader to conceive that +the Noun denoting the subject of a proposition, when placed after its Verb, +should be in the natural order; and when placed before its Verb, should be +in an inverted order of the words. To a person well aquainted with the +Gaelic, this idiom is familiar; and therefore it is the easier for him to +apprehend the effect of such an arrangement in any other language. For want +of attending to this peculiarity in the structure of the Hebrew, much of +that force and emphasis, which in other languages would be expressed by +various particles, but in Hebrew depend on the collocation alone, must pass +unobserved and unfelt. + +[103] I am happy to be put right, in my stricture on the above passage, by +E. O'C., author of a Gaelic Grammar, Dublin, 1808, who informs us that +_truaighe_ is here the Nominative, and _Iosa_ the Accusative case; and that +the meaning is not _Jesus took pity on them_, but _pity seized Jesus for +them_. + +[104] This construction resembles that of the Latin Infinitive preceded by +the Accusative of the Agent. + + ----Mene desistere victam, + Nec posse Italia Teucrorum avertere regem?--I. Aenid 28. + +[105] So in English, the Infinitive of a Transitive Verb is sometimes used +instead of the Present Participle, and followed by the Preposition _of_; +as, 'the woman was there gathering of sticks.' 1 Kings xvii. 10. + + -------- some sad drops + Wept at completing of the mortal sin.--"Parad. Lost." + +See more examples, Num. xiii, 25, 2 Sam. ii. 21, 2 Chron. xx. 25, xxxv. 14, +Ezek. xxxix. 12. + +[106] On the same principle it is that in some compound words, composed of +two Nouns whereof the former governs the latter in the Genitive, the former +Noun is seldom itself put in the Genitive case. Thus, ainm bean-na-bainse, +_the bride's name_; it would sound extremely harsh to say ainm +mna-na-bainse; clach ceann-an-teine, not clach cinn-an-teine, the stone +which supports a hearth fire. + +[107] These examples suggest, and seem to authorise a special use of this +idiom of Gaelic Syntax, which, if uniformly observed, might contribute much +to the perspicuity and precision of many common expressions. When a +compound term occurs, made up of a Noun and an Infinitive governed by that +Noun, it often happens that this term itself governs another Noun in the +Genitive. Let the two parts of the compound term be viewed separately. If +it appear that the subsequent Noun is governed by the _former_ part of the +compound word, then the latter part should remain regularly in the Genitive +Case. But if the subsequent Noun be governed by the _latter_ part of the +compound word, then, agreeably to the construction exemplified in the above +passages, that latter part, which is here supposed to be an Infinitive, +should fall back into the Nominative Case. Thus tigh-coimh_i_d an Righ, +_the King's store house_, where the Noun Righ is governed by tigh, the +former term of the compound word; but tigh comh_ea_d an ionmhais, John +viii. 20, _the house for keeping the treasure_, where ionmhais is governed +by coimhead, which is therefore put in the Nominative instead of the +Genitive. So luchd-coimh_i_d, Matt. xxviii. 4, when no other Noun is +governed; but fear-coimh_ea_d a' phriosuin, Acts, xvi. 27, 36, where the +last Noun is governed in the Genitive by coimh_ea_d, which is therefore put +in the Nominative. So also fear-coimh_i_d, Psal. cxxi. 3, but +fear-coimh_ea_d Israeil, Psal. cxxi. 4. Edin. 1799. Tigh-bearr_ai_dh nam +buachaillean, _the shearing-house belonging to the shepherds_, 2 King, x. +12, but tigh-bearr_a_dh nan caorach, _the house for shearing the sheep_. +Luchd-brath_ai_dh an Righ _the King's spies_; but luchd-brath_a_dh an Righ, +_the betrayers of the King_. Luchd-mort_ai_dh Heroid, _assassins employed +by Herod_; but luchd-mort_a_dh Eoin, _the murderers of John_. + +I am aware that this distinction has been little regarded by the +translators of the Scriptures. It appeared, however, worthy of being +suggested, on account of its evident utility in point of precision, and +because it is supported by the genius and practice of the Gaelic language. + +[108] For this reason, there seems to be an impropriety in writing chum a +losgaidh, 1 Cor. xiii. 3, instead of chum a losgadh. + +[109] The same peculiarity in the use of the Article takes place in Hebrew, +and constitutes a striking point of analogy in the structure of the two +languages. See _Buxt. Thes. Gram. Heb. Lib. II. Cap. V._ + +[110] This solecism is found in the Irish as well as in the Scottish Gaelic +translation. The Manks translation has avoided it. In the Irish version and +in the Scottish Gaelic version of 1767, a similar instance occurs in Acts, +ii. 20, _an_ la mor agus oirdheirc sin _an_ Tighearna. In the Scottish +edition of 1796, the requisite correction is made by omitting the first +Article. It is omitted likewise in the Manks N. T. On the other hand, the +Article, which had been rightly left out in the Edition of 1767, is +improperly introduced in the Edition of 1796, in 1 Cor. xi. 27, an cupan so +an Tighearna. It is proper to mention that, in the passage last quoted, the +first article _an_ had crept, by mistake, into a part of the impression +1796, but was corrected in the remaining part. + +[111] The inserted _m_ or _n_ is generally written with an apostrophe +before it, thus gu'm, gu'n. This would indicate that some vowel is here +suppressed in writing. But if no vowel ever stood in the place of this +apostrophe, which seems to be the fact, the apostrophe itself has been +needlessly and improperly introduced. + +[112] I much doubt the propriety of joining the Conjunction ged to the Fut. +Affirm.; as, ge do gheibh na h-uile dhaoine oilbheum, _though all men shall +be offended_, Matt. xxvi. 33. It should rather have been, ged fhaigh na +h-uile dhaoine, &c. The Fut. Subj. seems to be equally improper; as, ge do +ghlaodhas iad rium, _though they shall cry to me_, Jer. xi. 21, Edit. 1786. +Rather, ged ghlaodh iad rium, as in Hosea, xi. 7. So also, ged eirich +dragh, 's ged bhagair b[`a]s, _though trouble shall arise, and though death +shall threaten_. Gael. Paraph. xlvii. 7. Edin. 1787. See page 134. Note 93. + +[113] The terminations _air_, _oir_, seem from their signification as well +as form, to be nothing else than fear _man_, in its aspirated form fhear. +From these terminations are derived the Latin terminations _or_, orator, +doctor, &c., _arius_ sicarius, essedarius, &c.; the French _eur_, vengeur, +createur, &c.; _aire_, commissaire, notaire, &c., _ter_, chevalier, +charretier, &c.; the English _er_, maker, lover, &c., _ary_, prebendary, +antiquary, &c., _eer_, volunteer, &c. + +[114] Timcheal na macraidhe _beside the young men_, Lhuyd, O'Brien. voc. +timcheal. This passage proves macraidh to be a singular Noun of the fem. +gender, not, as might be thought, the Plural of mac. So laochruidh, +madraidh, &c., may rather be considered as collective Nouns of the singular +Number than as plurals. + +[115] The same termination having the same import, is found in the French +words cavalerie, infanterie, and in the English cavalry, infantry, +yeomanry. + +[116] In the Gaelic N. Test, the _Gentile_ Nouns [Greek: Korinthios, +Galatai, Ephesioi], are rendered Corintianaich, Galatianaich, Ephesianaich. +Would it not be agreeable to the analogy of Gaelic derivation to write +Corintich, Galataich, Ephesich, subjoining the Gaelic termination alone to +the Primitive, rather than by introducing the syllable _an_, to form a +Derivative of a mixed and redundant structure, partly vernacular, partly +foreign? The word Samaritanaich, John iv. 40, is remarkably redundant, +having no fewer than three _Gentile_ Terminations. From [Greek: Samareia] +is formed, agreeably to the Greek mode of derivation, [Greek: Samareitai]. +To this the Latins added their own termination, and wrote _Samaritani_; +which the Irish lengthened out still further into Samaritanaich. The proper +Gaelic derivation would be Samaraich, like Elamaich, Medich, Persich, &c. +The Irish Galil['e]anach is, in the Scottish Translation 1796, properly +changed into Galil['e]ach, Acts v. 37. + +[117] The termination _ail_ is a contraction for amhuil _like_. In Irish +this termination is generally written full, fearamhuil, geanamhuil, &c. +From the Gaelic termination _ail_, is derived the Latin termination _alis_, +fatalis, hospitalis, &c., whence the English _al_, final, conditional, &c. +See page 33. Note 25. + +[118] Two or three exceptions from this rule occur; as the Plurals _d['e]e +gods_, mnai _women_, lai _days_. But these are so irregular in their form +as well as spelling, that they ought rather to be rejected altogether, and +their place supplied by the common Plurals diathan, mnathan, lathan or +lathachan. + +[119] As if we should write in English impious, impotent, without a hyphen; +but im-penitent, im-probable, with a hyphen. + +[120] O beautiful ringlet. + +[121] The above is the passage so often referred to in the controversy +concerning the antiquity of Ossian's Poems. It was natural enough for the +zealous Bishop to speak disparagingly of anything which appeared to him to +divert the minds of the people from those important religious truths to +which he piously wished to direct their most serious attention. But +whatever may be thought of his judgment, his testimony is decisive as to +the existence of traditional histories concerning Fingal and his people; +and proves that the rehearsal of those compositions was a common and +favourite entertainment with the people throughout the Highlands at the +time when he lived. + +[122] _i.e._, the Hebrides. + + * * * * * + + +Corrections made to printed original. + +page 17, "slat a rod": 'flat ...' in original. + +page 31, "dligheach lawful,": 'dlighecah' in original. + +page 34, "beo and ail": 'and and' over line break in original. + +page 48, "iasg m. _fish_, g. s. eisg;": 'g. s. eifg' in original. + +page 50, "n. p. and g. p. 'leabraichean'--When the nominative plural is +twofold, the genitive is so too; as 'fear' n. a man," these two line +missing in the 1892 edition are re-instated from that of 1812. + +ibid, "rather than phairiseachaibh": 'phairseachaibh' in original (1812 +edition: phairlseachaibh). + +page 53, "mathair f. a mother, g. s. mathar": 'g. s. mathair' in original. + +page 60, "300 Tri cheud fear.": '309' in original. + +page 61, "120 Am ficheadamh fear thar cheud.": '200' in original. + +page 69, "3 Do bhuail e": 'bhuall' in original. + +page 89, "The Future marks future time": 'makes future time' in original +(1812 edition: marks). + +page 90, "bha mi ag bualadh an d['e]": 'buailadh' in original. + +page 116, "Tar, Thar, over, across.": 'accross' in original. + +page 134, "Bheil fhios, 'l fhios": ''l fhois' in original (1812 edition: +fhios). + +page 145, "D. A', 'n Chlarsaich fhonnmhoir": 'fhonnoir' in original, there +is no explanation why the 'mh' should be dropped. + +page 146, "Perhaps a distinction ought to be made": 'ought to made' in +original. + +page 162, "commonly put in the Comparative form": 'Comparitive' in +original. + +page 176, "Aobhach": 'Aobhachh' in original. + +page 176, "Extract from Bishop Carsuel's Gaelic translation", etc: this +appears in fact to be the Gaelic version of the following English section +concerning the Poems of Ossian. + +Footnote 89: "placed over the last vowel": 'the the' on footnote break +across two pages in original. + +Footnote 93: "an adjective or a personal pronoun": 'of' for 'or' in +original (1812 edition: or) + +Footnote 102: "Gen. i. 1, 2. 'In the beginning ...'": 'Gen. i. 1, 5' in +original. + +Footnote 107: "made up of a Noun and an Infinitive": 'Infinite' in original +(1812 edition: Infinitive) + +Footnote 110: "improperly introduced in the Edition of 1796": 'properly' in +original (1812 edition: improperly) + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Elements of Gaelic Grammar, by Alexander Stewart + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR *** + +***** This file should be named 28766.txt or 28766.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/7/6/28766/ + +Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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