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diff --git a/28766.txt b/28766.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2920fa7 --- /dev/null +++ b/28766.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8555 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Elements of Gaelic Grammar, by Alexander Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Elements of Gaelic Grammar + +Author: Alexander Stewart + +Release Date: May 12, 2009 [EBook #28766] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. + + * * * * * + + +['e] signifies "e acute"; [`e] "e grave"; and so forth. + + * * * * * + + +ELEMENTS + +OF + +GAELIC GRAMMAR + +IN FOUR PARTS + +I. OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY + +II. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH + +III. OF SYNTAX + +IV. OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION + +BY + +ALEXANDER STEWART + +MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL AT DINGWALL +HONORARY MEMBER OF THE HIGHLAND SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND + +Royal Celtic Society Edition. + +FOURTH EDITION REVISED. + +WITH PREFACE BY THE REV. DR McLAUCHLAN + +EDINBURGH + +JOHN GRANT, GEORGE IV. BRIDGE + +1892 + + * * * * * + + +{iii} + +PREFACE. + + * * * * * + +For several years the Grammar of the Gaelic language by the Rev. Dr Stewart +of Moulin has been out of print. This has been a source of regret to +scholars and students of that tongue. Not but that there are other Grammars +of real value, which it would be unjust either to ignore or to depreciate, +and which have served, and are serving, an excellent purpose in connection +with Celtic Literature. But the Grammar of Dr Stewart has peculiar features +of its own which give it a permanent value. It is distinguished by its +simplicity, conciseness, and philosophical accuracy. No Grammar of any +language bears on its pages the marks of real and profound scholarship, in +so far as it goes, more than does the Grammar of Dr Stewart. One cannot +read a sentence of it without seeing how carefully he had collected his +materials, and with what judgment, caution, and sagacity he has compared +them and drawn his conclusions. His discussions upon the Article, the Noun, +the Verb, and the Preposition, are ample evidence of this. It is no doubt +true that a much fuller discussion is, with the more abundant resources of +modern scholarship, {iv} competent and desirable, but, so far as he goes, +Dr Stewart's treatment of the subject is of a masterly character. + +That there are defects to be found in the work is very true. On the subject +of Syntax his disquisitions are deficient in fulness, and there is a want +of grammatical exercises throughout. It was at first thought desirable by +the publishers and their advisers to remedy these defects by introducing +fuller notices on the subject of Syntax, and a considerable number of +grammatical exercises from other sources open to them. But it was finally +deemed best in every view of it to give Stewart's work just as he had left +it, and that is done here with the exception of a list of subscribers' +names in the introduction. Messrs Maclachlan and Stewart are doing the +literary community a service in republishing this volume, and thanks are +specially due to the Royal Celtic Society of Edinburgh, a society which has +done much to foster the interests of education in the Highlands, and which +has given substantial aid towards the accomplishment of this undertaking. + +THOS. MCLAUCHLAN. + +EDINBURGH, _1st August 1876._ + + * * * * * + + +{v} + +CONTENTS. + + * * * * * + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION. + + PART I. + + Of Pronunciation and Orthography, 1 + + PART II. + + OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. + + CHAP. I.--Of the Article, 37 + + CHAP. II.--Of Nouns, 37 + Of Gender, 38 + Of Declension, 43 + + CHAP. III.--Of Adjectives, 55 + Of Numeral Adjectives, 59 + + CHAP. IV.--Of Pronouns, 61 + + CHAP. V.--Of Verbs, 65 + Formation of the Tenses, 76 + Use and import of the Moods and Tenses, 85 + Irregular Verbs, 95 + Defective Verbs, 99 + Reciprocating state of Verbs, 102 + Impersonal use of Verbs, 105 + Auxiliary Verbs, 107 + + CHAP. VI.--Of Adverbs, 109 + + CHAP. VII.--Of Prepositions, 116 + Idiomatic phrases, 125 + + CHAP. VIII.--Of Conjunctions, 134 + + CHAP. IX.--Of Interjections, 136 + + {vi} + PART III. + + OF SYNTAX. + + CHAP. I.--Of Concord, 137 + + Sect. 1. Of the agreement of the Article with a Noun, 137 + Sect. 2. Of the agreement of an Adjective with a Noun, 141 + Sect. 3. Of the agreement of a Pronoun with its Antecedent, 146 + Sect. 4. Of the agreement of a Verb with its Nominative, 149 + Sect. 5. Of the agreement of one Noun with another, 152 + + CHAP. II.--Of Government, 154 + + Sect. 1. Of the Government of Nouns, 154 + Sect. 2. Of the Government of Adjectives, 159 + Sect. 3. Of the Government of Verbs, 159 + Sect. 4. Of the Government of Adverbs, 160 + Sect. 5. Of the Government of Prepositions, 160 + Sect. 6. Of the Government of Conjunctions, 162 + + PART IV. + + OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. + + CHAP. I.--Of Derivation, 164 + + CHAP. II.--Of Composition, 168 + + Exercises in Reading, &c., 175 + + * * * * * + + +{vii} + +INTRODUCTION. + + * * * * * + +The utility of a Grammar of the Scottish Gaelic will be variously +appreciated. Some will be disposed to deride the vain endeavour to restore +vigour to a decaying superannuated language. Those who reckon the +extirpation of the Gaelic a necessary step toward that general extension of +the English which they deem essential to the political interest of the +Highlands, will condemn every project which seems likely to retard its +extinction. Those who consider that there are many parts of the Highlands, +where the inhabitants can, at present, receive no useful knowledge whatever +except through the channel of their native tongue, will probably be of +opinion that the Gaelic ought at least to be tolerated. Yet these too may +condemn as useless, if not ultimately detrimental, any attempt to cultivate +its powers, or to prolong its existence. Others will entertain a different +opinion. They will judge from experience, as well as from the nature of the +case, that no measure merely of a literary kind will prevail to hinder the +progress of the English language over the Highlands; while general +convenience and emolument, not to mention private emulation and vanity, +conspire to facilitate its introduction, and prompt the natives to its +acquisition. They {viii} will perceive at the same time, that while the +Gaelic continues to be the common speech of multitudes,--while the +knowledge of many important facts, of many necessary arts, of morals, of +religion, and of the laws of the land, can be conveyed to them only by +means of this language,--it must be of material service to preserve it in +such a state of cultivation and purity, as that it may be fully adequate to +these valuable ends; in a word, that while it is a living language, it may +answer the purpose of a living language. + +To those who wish for an uniformity of speech over the whole kingdom, it +may not be impertinent to suggest one remark. The more that the human mind +is enlightened, the more desirous it becomes of farther acquisitions in +knowledge. The only channel through which the rudiments of knowledge can be +conveyed to the mind of a remote Highlander is the Gaelic language. By +learning to read and to understand what he reads, in his native tongue, an +appetite is generated for those stores of science which are accessible to +him only through the medium of the English language. Hence an acquaintance +with the English is found to be necessary for enabling him to gratify his +desire after further attainments. The study of it becomes, of course, an +object of importance; it is commenced, and prosecuted with increasing +diligence. These premises seem to warrant a conclusion which might at first +appear paradoxical, that, by cultivating the Gaelic, you effectually, +though indirectly, promote the study and diffuse the knowledge of the +English. + +To public teachers it is of the highest moment that the medium through +which their instructions are communicated be properly adapted to that use, +and that they be enabled to avail themselves of it in the fittest manner. A +language destitute of grammatical regularity can possess neither {ix} +perspicuity nor precision, and must therefore be very inadequate to the +purpose of conveying one's thoughts. The Gaelic is in manifest danger of +falling into this discreditable condition, from the disuse of old idioms +and distinctions, and the admission of modern corruptions, unless means be +applied to prevent its degenerating. It is obvious that a speaker cannot +express himself with precision without a correct knowledge of grammar. When +he is conscious of his ignorance in this respect, he must deliver himself +sometimes ambiguously or erroneously, always with diffidence and +hesitation, whereas one who has an accurate knowledge of the structure and +phraseology of the language he speaks, will seldom fail to utter his +thoughts with superior confidence, energy, and effect. + +A competent degree of this knowledge is requisite to the hearer also, to +enable him to apprehend the full import and the precise force of the words +of the speaker. Among the readers of Gaelic, who are every day becoming +more numerous, those only who have studied it grammatically are qualified +to understand accurately what they read, and to explain it distinctly to +others. Yet it cannot be denied that comparatively few ever arrive at a +correct, or even a tolerable knowledge of grammar, without the help of a +treatise composed for the purpose. Whoever, therefore, allows that the +Gaelic must be employed in communicating to a large body of people the +knowledge of revealed Truth and the way of eternal Life, will readily admit +the extensive utility of investigating and unfolding its grammatical +principles. Impressed with this conviction, I have been induced to offer to +the public the following attempt to develop the grammar of the Scottish +Gaelic. + +While I have endeavoured to render this treatise useful to those who wish +to improve the knowledge of Gaelic which {x} they already possess, I have +also kept in view the gratification of others, who do not understand the +Gaelic, but yet may be desirous to examine the structure and properties of +this ancient language. To serve both these purposes, I have occasionally +introduced such observations on the analogy between the Gaelic idiom and +that of some other tongues, particularly the Hebrew, as a moderate +knowledge of these enabled me to collect. The Irish dialect of the Gaelic +is the nearest cognate of the Scottish Gaelic. An intimate acquaintance +with its vocables and structure, both ancient and modern, would have been +of considerable use. This I cannot pretend to have acquired. I have not +failed, however, to consult, and to derive some advantage from such Irish +philologists as were accessible to me, particularly O'Molloy, O'Brien, +Vallancey, and Lhuyd. To these very respectable names I have to add that of +the Rev. Dr Neilson, author of "An Introduction to the Irish Language," +Dublin, 1808, and E. O'C., author of "A Grammar of the Gaelic Language," +Dublin, 1808; to the latter of whom I am indebted for some good-humoured +strictures, and some flattering compliments, which, however unmerited, it +were unhandsome not to acknowledge. I know but one publication professedly +on the subject of Gaelic grammar written by a Scotsman[1]. I have consulted +it also, but in this quarter I have no obligations to acknowledge. + +With respect to my literary countrymen who are proficients in the Gaelic, +and who may cast an eye on this volume, less with a view to learn than to +criticise, while I profess a due deference to their judgment, and declare +my anxiety to obtain their favourable suffrage, I must take the liberty to +entreat their attention to the following considerations. + +{xi} + +The subject of Universal Grammar has been examined in modern times with a +truly philosophical spirit, and has been settled on rational and stable +principles; yet, in applying these principles to explain the grammar of a +particular language, the divisions, the arrangements, and the rules to be +given are, in a good measure, mechanical and arbitrary. One set of rules +may be equally just with another. For what is it that grammatical rules do? +They bring into view the various parts, inflections, or, as they may be +termed, the _phenomena_ of a language, and class them together in a certain +order. If these _phenomena_ be all brought forward, and stated according as +they actually appear in the language, the rules may be said to be both just +and complete. Different sets of rules may exhibit the same things in a +different order, and yet may all be equally just. The superiority seems, on +a comparison, to belong to that system which follows most nearly the order +of nature, or the process of the mind in forming the several inflections; +or rather, perhaps, to that system which, from its simplicity, or clear and +comprehensive arrangement, is most fitted to assist the memory in acquiring +and retaining the parts of speech with their several inflections. + +In distributing the various parts of language into their several classes, +and imposing names on them, we ought always to be guided by the nature of +that language, and to guard against adopting, with inconsiderate servility, +the distributions and technical terms of another. This caution is the more +necessary because, in our researches into the grammar of any particular +tongue, we are apt to follow implicitly the order of the Latin grammar, on +which we have been long accustomed to fix our attention, and which we are +ever ready to erect into a model for the grammar of all languages. To force +the several parts of speech into moulds formed for the {xii} idioms of the +Latin tongue, and to frame them so as to suit a nomenclature adapted to the +peculiarities of Latin grammar, must have the effect of disguising or +concealing the peculiarities, and confounding the true distinctions, which +belong to the language under discussion. + +Although, in treating of Gaelic grammar, the caution here suggested ought +never to be forgotten, yet it is needless to reject indiscriminately all +the forms and terms introduced into the grammar of other languages. Where +the same classifications which have been employed in the grammar of the +Latin, or of any other well-known tongue, will suit the Gaelic also, it is +but a convenient kind of courtesy to adopt these, and apply to them the +same names which are already familiar to us. + +In stating the result of my researches into Gaelic grammar, I have +endeavoured to conform to these general views. The field of investigation +was wide, and almost wholly untrodden. My task was not to fill up or +improve the plan of any former writer, but to form a plan for myself. In +the several departments of my subject that distribution was adopted which, +after various trials, appeared the most eligible. When there were terms +already in use in the grammars of other languages that suited tolerably +well the divisions which it was found requisite to make, I chose to adopt +these, rather than load the treatise with novel or uncommon terms. If their +import was not sufficiently obvious already, it was explained, either by +particular description, or by reference to the use of these terms in other +grammars. In some instances it was found necessary to employ less common +terms, but in the choice of these I endeavoured to avoid the affectation of +technical nicety. I am far from being persuaded that I am so fortunate as +to have hit on the best possible plan. I am certain that it must {xiii} be +far from complete. To such charges a first essay must necessarily be found +liable. Still there is room to hope that the work may not prove wholly +useless or unacceptable. Imperfect as it is, I may be allowed to think I do +a service of its kind to my countrymen by frankly offering the fruits of my +labour to such as may choose to make use of them. It has been, if I mistake +not, the misfortune of Gaelic grammar that its ablest friends have done +nothing directly in its support, because they were apprehensive that they +could not do everything. + +I confess that my circumscribed knowledge of the varieties of dialect used +in different parts of the Highlands, may have left me unacquainted with +some genuine Gaelic idioms which ought to be noticed in a work of this +kind. The same cause may have led me to assert some things in too general +terms, not being sufficiently informed concerning the exceptions which may +be found in use in some particular districts. I respectfully invite, and +will thankfully receive, the correction of any person whose more accurate +and extensive information enables him to supply my omissions, or to rectify +my mistakes. + +In a few particulars I have differed from some of the highest living +authorities,--I mean those gentlemen whose superior abilities are so +conspicuous in the masterly translation of the sacred Scriptures with which +the Highlands of Scotland are now blessed.[2] Here I have been careful to +{xiv} state the grounds on which my judgment was formed. In doing this, I +would always be understood to advance my opinion and propose my reasons +with the view of suggesting them to the consideration of my countrymen, +rather than in the expectation of having my conclusions universally +sustained and adopted. + +Among my grammatical readers, it is probable that some may have formed to +themselves arrangements on the subjects different from mine. Of these I +have to request that they do not form a hasty judgment of the work from a +partial inspection of it, nor condemn it merely because it may differ from +their preconceived schemes. Let them indulge me with a patient perusal of +the whole, and a candid comparison of the several parts of the system with +each other. To a judicious critic, some faults and many defects may appear, +and several improvements will occur. On this supposition, I have one +request more to make: that he join his efforts with mine in serving a +common cause, interesting to our country, and dear to every patriotic +Highlander. + + * * * * * + + +{xv} + +ADVERTISEMENT + +TO THE + +SECOND EDITION. + + * * * * * + +In preparing a Second Edition of the following treatise, the author has +endeavoured to avail himself of every assistance in his power, from books, +observation, and the communications of some literary friends, to whom he is +indebted for several judicious remarks. In comparing the opinions of +different critics, it was not to be expected that all should be found to +agree together. It sometimes happened that one approved what another would +have rejected. If the author has not adopted every hint that was offered +him, but used the privilege of exercising his own judgment, the +responsibility must rest with himself. He hopes those gentlemen who most +obligingly favoured him with their remarks will forgive him for mentioning +their names, for he is unwilling to withhold from the public the +satisfaction of knowing that he has had the best assistance which his +country could afford him in compiling and modelling his work. He thankfully +acknowledges his obligations to the Rev. Dr Robertson, of Callander; Dr +Graham, of Aberfoyle; Dr Stuart, of Luss; Dr Macleod, of Kilmarnock; and Mr +Irvine, of Little Dunkeld. + +From these sources of emendation, omissions have been {xvi} supplied, +idiomatic phrases have been collected and inserted, some alterations have +been made by simplifying or compressing particular parts, and new examples +and illustrations have been introduced throughout, according as the +advantages which the author enjoyed enabled him to extend his knowledge of +the language, and served to correct, or to confirm, his former judgments. +He thought it might be acceptable to Gaelic scholars to have a few lessons +subjoined as exercises in translating and analysing. For this purpose he +has selected some specimens of original prose composition, extracted from +unpublished manuscripts, and from the oldest Gaelic books that are known to +be extant. These specimens, short as they are, may suffice to exhibit +something of the powers and elegances of the language in its native purity, +unmixed with foreign words and idioms, as well as to show the manner in +which it was written two or three centuries ago. + +The present edition owes its existence to the generous patronage of Sir +John Macgregor Murray of Lanrick, Bart., to whom the author is happy in +avowing his obligations for the unsolicited and liberal encouragement given +him in the execution and publication of his work. To the same gentleman he +is indebted for the honour of being permitted here to record the names of +those patriotic sons of Caledonia who, in concert with the honourable +baronet, and at his suggestion, though residing in the remote provinces of +India, yet mindful of their country's fame, contributed a liberal sum of +money for promoting Celtic literature, more especially for publishing the +poems of Ossian in their original language. It is owing, in a principal +degree, to their munificent aid, that the anxious expectation of the public +has been at last so richly gratified by Sir John Sinclair's elegant and +elaborate edition of the poems of that tender and lofty bard. + + * * * * * + + +{1} + +ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR. + + * * * * * + +PART I. + +OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY. + +The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, +i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e, i, o, u; the +rest consonants. + +In explaining the powers of the letters, and of their several combinations, +such obstacles lie in the way that complete success is not to be expected. +In order to explain, in writing, the sounds of a particular language, the +only obvious method is to represent them by the letters commonly employed +to exhibit similar sounds in some well-known living language. But there are +sounds in the Gaelic to which there are none perfectly similar in English, +nor perhaps in any modern European tongue. Besides, the same combination of +letters does not invariably represent the same sound in one age that it did +in a former, or that it may do in the next. And this may be equally true of +the letters of the Gaelic alphabet, whose powers are to be taught; and of +the letters of any other language, by whose sounds the powers of the former +are to be explained. A diversity of pronunciation is very distinguishable +also in different districts of the Highlands of Scotland, even in uttering +the same words written in the same manner. Though the powers of the +letters, then, may be explained to a certain degree of accuracy, yet much +will still remain to be learned by the information of the ear alone. {2} + +Although the chief use of the vowels be to represent the _vocal sounds_ of +speech, and that of the consonants to represent its _articulations_, yet, +as in many languages, so in Gaelic, the consonants sometimes serve to +modify the sound of the vowels with which they are combined; while, on the +other hand, the vowels often qualify the sound of the consonants by which +they are preceded or followed. + +It may not appear obvious at first sight how a vowel should be employed, +not to represent a vocal sound, but to modify an articulation. Yet examples +are to be found in modern languages. Thus, in the English words, George, +sergeant, the _e_ has no other effect than to give _g_ its soft sound; and +in guest, guide, the _u_ only serves to give _g_ its hard sound. So in the +Italian words giorno, giusto, and many others, the _i_ only qualifies the +sound of the preceding consonant. The same use of the vowels will be seen +to take place frequently in Gaelic orthography. + +Besides the common division of the letters into Vowels and Consonants, it +is found convenient to adopt some further subdivisions. + +The Vowels are divided into _broad_ and _small_: a, o, u, are called +_broad_ vowels; e, i, _small_ vowels. + +The Consonants are divided into _Mutes_ and _Liquids_: _Mutes_, b, c, d, f, +g, m, p, t; _Liquids_, l, n, r, s[3]. They are also divided into _Labials_, +_Palatals_, and _Linguals_, so named from the organs employed in +pronouncing them: _Labials_, b, f, m, p; _Palatals_, c, g; _Linguals_, d, +l, n, r, s, t. + +The aspirate _h_ is not included in any of these divisions[4]. + +{3} + + + +OF THE SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS[5]. + +All the vowels are sometimes long, sometimes short. A long vowel is often +marked with an accent, especially when the _quantity_ of the vowel +determines the meaning of the word; as, b[`a]s _death_, s[`a]il _the heel_, +c[`a]raid _a pair_, r[`i]s _again_, m[`o] _more_, l[`o]n _a marsh_; which +are distinguished by the accent alone from bas _the palm_ of the hand, sail +_a beam_, caraid _a friend_, ris _to_, lon _the elk_. + +All the vowels, but especially the broad ones, have somewhat of a nasal +sound when preceded or followed by m, mh, n, nn. No vowels are doubled in +the same syllable like _ee_, _oo_, in English. + +In almost all polysyllables, excepting some words compounded with a +preposition, the accent falls on the first syllable[6]. The other syllables +are short and unaccented, and the vowels in that situation have in general +the same short obscure sound. Hence it happens that the broad vowels in +these syllables are often used indiscriminately. + +There are no quiescent final vowels. + +A. + +A has three sounds. + +1. The first is both long and short; long, like _a_ in the English words +_far_, _star_; as, [`a]r _slaughter_, [`a]th _a ford_, gr[`a]dh, {4} +_love_, s[`a]ruich _oppress_; short, like _a_ in _that_; as, cath _a +battle_, alt _a joint_; abuich _ripe_. + +2. Both long and short, before _dh_ and _gh_. This sound has none like it +in English. Long, as, adhbhar _a cause_, adhradh _worship_; short, as, lagh +_a law_, magh _a field_, adharc _a horn_. + +3. Short and obscure, like _e_ in _mother_; as, an, a _the_, ar _our_, ma +_if_, and in the plural termination a or an. + +E. + +_E_ has three sounds. + +1. Both long and short: long, like _e_ in _where, there_; as, [`e], s[`e] +_he_, r[`e] _during_. This _e_ is generally marked with a grave accent. +Short, like _e_ in _met_; as, le _with_, leth _half_. + +2. Long, as, r['e] _the moon_, c['e] _the earth_, and d['e] _yesterday_. +This _e_ is commonly marked with an acute accent. + +3. Short, like _e_ in _mother_; as, duine _a man_, ceannuichte _bought_. + +I. + +_I_ has two sounds. + +1. Both long and short, like _ee_ in _seem_: long, as, m[`i]n _smooth_, +righ _a king_; short, as, min _meal_, crith _trembling_. + +2. Short and obscure, like _i_ in _this_; as, is _am_, _art_, &c. + +O. + +_O_ has three sounds. + +1. Both long and short: long, somewhat like _o_ in _more_; as, m[`o]r +_great_, [`o]r _gold_, d[`o]chas _expectation_; short, like _o_ in _hot_; +as, mo _my_, do _thy_, dochann _harm_. + +2. Both long and short: long, nearly like _o_ in _old_; as, lom _bare_, +toll _a hole_; short, as, lomadh _making bare_, tolladh _boring_. + +3. Both long and short, like (2) a[7]: long, as, foghlum _to learn_; short, +as, roghuinn _choice_, logh _to forgive_. + +{5} + +U. + +_U_ has one sound, both long and short, like _oo_ in _fool_: long, as, +[`u]r _fresh_, [`u]raich _to renew_; short, as, ubh _an egg_, urras _a +surety_. + + + +OF THE DIPHTHONGS. + +There are thirteen Diphthongs reckoned in Gaelic; ae, ai, ao, ea, ei, eo, +eu; ia, io, iu; oi; ua, ui. Of these, ao, eu, ia, ua, are always long; the +others are sometimes long, sometimes short. + +AE. + +The sound of _ae_ is made up of (1) _a_ long, and (1) _e_ short. This +diphthong hardly occurs, except in Gael _a Gaul_ or _Highlander_, and +Gaelic the _Gaelic_ language[8]. + +AI. + +The sound of _ai_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of the former. + +1. Made up of (1) _a_ and (1) _i_: the _a_ long, the _i_ short; as, +f[`a]idh _a prophet_; the _a_ short, the _i_ short; as, claidheamh _a +sword_. + +2. Made up of (2) _a_ and (1) _i_: the _a_ long, the _i_ short; as, saighde +_arrows_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ often loses its +sound, and only serves to qualify the sound of the following consonant[9]; +hence, + +3. Like (1) _a_ alone: long, as, f[`a]isg _squeeze_, f[`a]ilte +_salutation_; short, as, glaic _a hollow_, tais _soft_. + +4. Like (2) _a_ alone: short, as, airm _arms_, gairm _a call_. + +AO. + +1. The sound of _ao_ is like (2) _a_, long: as, caora _a sheep_, faobhar +_the edge of a tool_, saothair _labour_. + +{6} + +EA. + +The sound of _ea_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of one of them. + +1. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _a_: _e_ very short, _a_ long, as, beann _a +summit_, _pinnacle_, feall _deceit_; _a_ short, as, meal _to enjoy_, speal +_a scythe_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _a_ frequently loses its +sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _e_, long: as, dean _do_; short, as, fear _a man_, bean _a +woman_. + +3. Like (2) _e_, long: as, easlan _sick_; short, as, fead _whistle_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _e_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +4. Like (1) _a_, long: as, c[`e]ard _an artificer_; short, as, geal +_white_. + +5. Like (3) _a_, short: as, itheadh _eating_, coireach _faulty_. + +EI. + +The sound of _ei_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of _e_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _e_ and (1) _i_: _e_ long, _i_ short, as, sgeimh +_beauty_; _e_ short, as, meidh _a balance_. + +2. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _i_: _e_ long, _i_ short, as, feidh _deer_; +_e_ short, as, greigh _a herd_, _stud_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +3. Like (1) _e_ alone: long, as, m[`e]ise _of a plate_. + +4. Like (2) _e_ alone: long, as, ['e]igin _necessity_; short, as, eich +_horses_. + +EO. + +The sound of _eo_ is either made up of the sounds of both vowels, or like +that of _o_ alone. {7} + +1. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _o_: _e_ very short, _o_ long, as, beo +_alive_, eolas _knowledge_; _o_ short, as, beothail _lively_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _e_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _o_: long, as, leomhann _a lion_; short, as, deoch _drink_. + +EU. + +The sound of _eu_ is like (2) _e_ alone: long, as, teum _to bite_, gleus +_trim, entertainment_. + +One of the most marked variations of dialect occurs in the pronunciation of +the diphthong _eu_, which, instead of being pronounced like long _e_, is +over all the North Highlands commonly pronounced like _ia_; as, nial, ian, +fiar, for neul, eun, feur. + +IA. + +The sound of _ia_ is made up of the sounds of both the vowels. + +1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (1) _a_: both of equal length, as, fial +_liberal_, iar _west_. + +2. Made up of (1) _i_ and (2) _a_: of equal length, as, fiadh _a deer_, +ciall _common sense_. + +In cia _which?_ iad _they_, _ia_ is often found like (1) _[`e]_. + +IO. + +The sound of _io_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like one of them alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (3) _o_: _i_ long, _o_ short, as, diol _to pay_, +fior _true_; _i_ short, as, iolach _a shout_, ionnsuidh _an attack_. + +Before a Lingual or Palatal, not quiescent, the _o_ sometimes loses its +sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _i_: long, as, iodhol _an idol_; short, as, crios _a girdle_, +biorach _pointed_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ {8} sometimes loses +its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +3. Like _u_ in _fun_, short and obscure: as, cionta _guilt_, tiondadh _to +turn_. + +IU. + +The sound of _iu_ is either made up of the sound of both the vowels, or +like _u_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (1) _u_: _i_ short, _u_ long, as, fi[`u] +_worthy_; _u_ short, as, iuchair _a key_. + +After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _u_: long, as, di[`u] _worst part, refuse_; short, as, tiugh +_thick_, giuthas _fir_. + +OI. + +The sound of _oi_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of _o_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _o_ and (1) _i_: _o_ long, _i_ short, as, [`o]igh _a +virgin_; _o_ short, as, troidh _a foot_. + +2. Made up of (3) _o_ and (1) _i_: _o_ long, _i_ short, as, oidhche +_night_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +3. Like (1) _o_ long: as, m[`o]id _more_; short, as, toic _wealth_. + +4. Like (2) _o_ long: as, f[`o]id _a turf_; short, as, fois _rest_. + +5. Like (3) _o_ short; as, coileach _a cock_, doire _a wood_. + +UA. + +The sound of _ua_ is made up of the sounds of both the vowels. + +1. Made up of (1) _u_ and (1) _a_, equally long; as, cuan _the sea_, fuar +_cold_. + +2. Made up of (1) _u_ and (2) _a_; as, tuadh _a hatchet_, sluagh _people_. +{9} + +UI. + +The sound of _ui_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or +like that of _u_ alone. + +1. Made up of (1) _u_ and (1) _i_: _u_ long, _i_ short, as, suigheag _a +rasp-berry_; _u_ short, as, buidheann _a company_. + +Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and +only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence, + +2. Like (1) _u_ long: as, d[`u]il _expectation_, c[`u]ig _five_; short, as, +fuil _blood_, muir _the sea_. + + + +OF THE TRIPHTHONGS. + +There are five Triphthongs, in each of which _i_ is the last letter: aoi, +eoi, iai, iui, uai. In these the two first vowels have the same sounds and +powers as when they form a diphthong. The final _i_ is sounded short; but +before a Palatal or a Lingual, not quiescent, it loses its sound, and only +qualifies that of the following consonant. + +AOI. + +1. Made up of _ao_ and (1) _i_; as, caoidh _lamentation_, aoibhneas _joy_, +laoigh _calves_. + +2. Like _ao_; as, caoineadh _wailing_, maoile _baldness_. + +EOI. + +1. Made up of (2) _eo_ and (1) _i_; as, geoigh _geese_. + +2. Like (1) _eo_; as, meoir _fingers_. + +3. Like (2) _eo_; as, deoir _tears_, treoir _ability_. + +IAI. + +1. Like (1) _ia_; as, fiaire _more awry_. + +IUI. + +1. Like (2) _iu_; as, ci[`u]il _of music_, fliuiche _more wet_. {10} + +UAI. + +1. Made up of (1) _ua_ and (1) _i_; as, luaithe _quicker_. + +2. Made up of (2) _ua_ and (1) _i_; as, cruaidh _hard_, fuaim _sound_. + +3. Like (1) _ua_; as, uair _time, an hour_, cluaise _of an ear_. + + + +OF THE POWERS OF THE CONSONANTS. + +The simple powers of the consonants differ not much from their powers in +English. Those called _mediae_ by the writers on Greek grammar, viz., _b_, +_d_, _g_, approach nearer in force to the corresponding _tenues_ _p_, _t_, +_c_, than they do in English. + +In accented syllables, where, if the vocal sound be short, the voice +necessarily rests on the subsequent articulation, the consonants, though +written single, are pronounced with the same degree of force as when +written double in English; as, bradan _a salmon_, cos _a foot_; pronounced +braddan, coss. No consonants are written double except _l_, _n_, _r_. + +A propensity to aspiration is a conspicuous feature in the Gaelic +tongue[10]. The aspirating of a consonant has been {11} usually marked, in +the Irish dialect, by a dot over the letter aspirated; in the Scottish +dialect by writing _h_ after it. All the consonants have their sounds +changed by being aspirated, and the effect is different on different +consonants. In some cases the articulation is changed, but still formed by +the same organ. In others the articulation is formed by a different organ. +In others the _h_ alone retains its power. And sometimes both the _h_ and +the consonant to which it is subjoined become entirely quiescent. + +{12} + +In treating of the consonants separately, it will be convenient to depart a +little from the alphabetical order of the letters, and to consider first +the _Labials_, next the _Palatals_, and lastly the _Linguals_. + + + +LABIALS. + +P. + +1. Plain. Like _p_ in English; as, poll _a pool_, pill _return_. + +2. Aspirated. Like _ph_ or _f_ in English; as, a' phuill _of the pool_, +phill _returned_[11]. + +B. + +1. Plain. Like _b_ in English; as, baile _a town_, beo _alive_. + +2. Aspirated. Like _v_ in English, as, bhuail _struck_. In the end of a +syllable the articulation is sometimes feeble, and often passes into the +vocal sound of _u_[12]; as in marbh[13] _dead_, garbh _rough_, dabhach _a +vat_. + +M. + +1. Plain. Like _m_ in English; as, mac _a son_, cam _crooked_. + +2. Aspirated. Somewhat like _v_ in English, but more feeble and nasal; as, +mhathair _O mother_, lamh _the hand_. The sound _mh_ has the same relation +to that of _bh_, as the sound of _m_ has to that of b. Sometimes, like +_bh_, it becomes a vocal sound like a nasal _u_; as, in damh _an ox_, +samhradh _summer_: and sometimes the articulation becomes so feeble as not +to be perceived; as, comhradh _speech_, domhainn _deep_. + +{13} + +F. + +1. Plain. Like _f_ in English, as, faigh _to get_, f[`o]id _a turf_. + +2. Aspirated. Quiescent; as, fheara _O men_. In fhuair _found_, the +aspiration is retained, and the word is pronounced as if written _huair_. +It is probable that it was originally written and pronounced fuair[14]; +that huair is but a provincial pronunciation[15]; and that to adapt the +spelling in some shape to this pronunciation, the word came to be written +fhuair. + + + +PALATALS AND LINGUALS. + +In treating of the Diphthongs (ai, ea, ei, &c.) notice has been often taken +of the powers of certain vowels in modifying the sound of the adjoining +consonants. This refers to a twofold mode of pronouncing the Palatal and +Lingual consonants, whether _plain_ or _aspirated_. The difference between +these two modes of pronunciation is, in some consonants, abundantly +striking; in others it is minute, but sufficiently discernible to an ear +accustomed to the Gaelic. The one of these modes of articulation belongs to +Palatals and Linguals, chiefly when connected with a _broad vowel_; the +other belongs to them when connected with a _small vowel_. Hence, the +former may be called the _broad_ sound, the latter the _small_ sound of a +_Palatal_ or a _Lingual_. + +These sounds are not distinguished in writing, but may be known, for the +most part, by the relative situation of the letters. + +C. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: like _c_ in _come_, _curb_; as, c[`u]l _the back_, +cridhe _the heart_. + +{14} + +2. _Small_: like _c_ in _care_, _cure_; as, taic _support_, circe _of a +hen_[16]. + +3. Aspirated. _Broad_: like the Greek [chi], as pronounced in Scotland, in +[Greek: chora]; as, croch _to hang_, chaidh _went_. + +4. _Small_: like [chi] in [Greek: chion]; as, chi _shall see_, eich +_horses_. + +G. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: like _g_ in _go_, _rogue_; as, gabh _to take_, glor +_speech_, bog _soft_. + +2. _Small_: like _g_ in _give_, _fatigue_; as, gin _to produce_, thig +_shall come_, tilg _to throw_. + +3. Aspirated. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; ghabh _took_, +ghleidh _kept_. + +4. _Small_: nearly like _y_ in _young_; as, ghin _produced_. + +5. _Gh_ in the end of a syllable is often quiescent; as, righ _a king_, +tiugh _thick_, fuigheall _remainder_. + +T. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: nearly like _t_ in _tone_, _bottom_; as, tog _to raise_, +trom _heavy_, brat _a covering_. + +{15} + +2. _Small_: like _ch_ in _cheek_, _choose_; as, tinn _sick_, caillte +_lost_. + +3. Aspirated. Like _h_ in _house_; as, thig _shall come_, throisg _fasted_, +maith _good_. + +4. _Quiescent_: in the middle of a polysyllable, in the end of a long +syllable, and in certain tenses of a few irregular verbs when preceded by +_d'_; as, snitheach[17] _watery_, s[`i]th _peace_, an d' thug e? _did he +give?_ also in the pronoun thusa _thou_. + +D. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: nearly like _d_ in _done_; as, dol _going_, dl[`u] +_near_, _close_, ciod _what_. + +2. _Small_: like _j_ in _June_, _jewel_; as, di[`u] _refuse_, maide _a +stick_, airde _height_. + +_D_, after _ch_, is commonly sounded like _c_; as, bochd _poor_, pronounced +as if written bochc[18]. + +{16} + +3. Aspirated[19]. _Broad_: like broad _gh_, as, dhruid _did shut_, gradh +_love_. + +4. _Small_: like small _gh_; as, dhearc _looked_. + +5. Quiescent; as, f[`a]idh _a prophet_, cridhe _a heart_, radh _saying_, +bualadh _striking_. + +RULE.--_The consonants c, g, t, d, have their _SMALL_ sound, when, in the +same syllable, they are preceded, or immediately followed, by a _SMALL +VOWEL_; in all other situations they have their _BROAD_ sound._ + +S. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: like _s_ in _sun_, _this_; as, speal _a scythe_, cas _a +foot_, s[`u]il _an eye_, scian _a knife_. + +2. _Small_: like _sh_ in _show_, _rash_; as, bris _to break_, s[`e]imh +_quiet_, sniomh _to twine_, st['e]idh _foundation_. + +3. Aspirated: like _h_ in _him_; as, shuidh _sat_, shrann _snorted_. Before +_l_ and _n_, it is almost, if not altogether, quiescent; as, shlanuich +_healed_, shniomh _twisted_. _S_ followed by a _mute_ consonant is never +aspirated. + +RULE.--_S has its _SMALL_ sound, when, in the same syllable, it is preceded +or followed by a _SMALL VOWEL_, with or without an intervening Lingual. In +all other situations it has its _BROAD_ sound._ EXCEPT. _S_ is _broad_ in +is _am_. It is _small_ in so _this_, sud _yon_. It is customary to give _s_ +its _broad_ sound in the beginning of a word, when the former word ends +with _r_, in which case the _r_ also has its broad sound; as, chuir sinn +_we put_, air son _on account_. + +{17} + + + +OF L, N, R. + +A distinction between a consonant when _plain_, and the same consonant when +_aspirated_, has been easily traced thus far. This distinction readily +discovers itself, not only in the pronunciation and orthography, but also +(as will be seen in its proper place) throughout the system of inflection. +It takes place uniformly in those consonants which have been already +considered. With respect to the remaining linguals, _l_, _n_, _r_, a +corresponding distinction will be found to take place in their +pronunciation, and likewise in the changes they suffer by inflection. This +close correspondence between the changes incident to _l_, _n_, _r_, and the +changes which the other consonants undergo, seems to be a sufficient reason +for still using the same discriminative terms in treating of their powers, +though these terms may not appear to be so strictly applicable to these +three consonants as to the rest. The powers of _l_, _n_, _r_, shall +accordingly be explained under the divisions _plain_ and _aspirated_, +_broad_ and _small_. + +L. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; lom _bare_, labhair +_speak_, mall _slow_, alt _a joint_, ald _a brook_, slat _a rod_, dl[`u] +_near_. + +2. _Small_: like _ll_ in _million_; as, linn _an age_, lion _fill_, pill +_to return_, slighe _a way_. + +3. Aspirated. _Broad_: like _l_ in _loom_, _fool_; as, labhair _spoke_, lom +feminine of lom _bare_, mol _to praise_, dhl[`u] feminine of dl[`u] _near_. + +4. _Small:_ nearly like _l_ in _limb_, _fill_; as, a linn _his age_, lion +_filled_, mil _honey_, dligheach _due, lawful_. + +N. + +1. Plain. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; nuadh _new_, naisg +_bind_, lann _a blade_, carn _a heap of stones_. + +2. _Small_: like _n_ in the second syllable of _opinion_; as, nigh _wash_, +binn _melodious_, cuirn _heaps of stones_. {18} + +3. Aspirated. _Broad:_ like _n_ in _no_, _on_; as, nuadh feminine of nuadh +_new_, naisg _bound_, shnamh _swam_, sean _old_[20], chon _of dogs_, d[`a]n +_a poem_. + +4. _Small_: like _n_ in _keen_, _near_; as, nigh _washed_, shniomh +_twisted_, coin _dogs_, d[`a]in _poems_. + +In an when followed by a Palatal, the _n_ is pronounced like _ng_ in +English; as, an gille _the lad_, an comhnuidh _always_. + +_N_, after a mute, is in a few instances pronounced like _r_[21]; as in +mnathan _women_, cnatan _a cold_, an t-sn[`a]th _of the yarn_; pronounced +mrathan, cratan, &c. + +R. + +1. Plain. Nearly like _r_ in _roar_; as, ruadh _reddish_, righ _a king_, +ruith _run_, torr _a heap_, ceartas _justice_. + +2. Aspirated. _Broad_: nearly like _r_ in _rear_; as, car _a turn_, ruith +_ran_, m[`o]r _great_. + +3. _Small_: has no sound like it in English; a righ _O king_, seirbhe +_satiety_, m[`o]ir gen. of m[`o]r _great_. + +The _plain_, _aspirated_, _broad_, and _small_ sounds of these Linguals are +not distinguished in writing; but they may, for the most part, be known +from the relative position of the letters. + +RULE.--L, N, R, _have their _PLAIN_ sound when, in the same syllable, they +are immediately preceded by a plain Liquid, or immediately followed by a +plain Lingual; also in the beginning of certain cases and tenses; in all +other situations, they have their _ASPIRATED_ sound. They have their +_SMALL_ sound when, in the same syllable, they are preceded or followed by +a small vowel, with or without an intervening Liquid; in other situations, +they have their _BROAD_ sound._ + +{19} + +H. + +H is never used as an independent radical letter. When prefixed to a word +beginning with a vowel, it is pronounced like h in _how_; as, na +h-[`o]ighean _the virgins_, na h-oidhche _of the night_. + + + +The following scheme exhibits a succinct view of the letters, both singly +and in their several combinations. The first column contains the letters +whose sound is to be exhibited; the prefixed figures marking the number of +different sounds denoted by the same letter. The second column explains the +sounds by examples or by references. The third column contains Gaelic +words, with their translation, in which the several sounds are exemplified. + +VOWELS. + + 1 a {long far star [`a]r _slaughter_, [`a]th _a ford_. + {short that ar _to plow_, abu[^i]ch _ripe_. + + 2 a {long adhradh _worship_, adhbhar _reason_. + {short adharc _a horn_, adhart _a bolster_. + + 3 a short similar ma _if_, an _the_, a _his, her_. + + 1 e {long there [`e] s[`e] _he_, gn[`e] _sort, kind_. + {short met le _with_, leth _half_. + + 2 e long an d['e] _yesterday_, c['e] _the earth_. + + 3 e short mother duine _a man_, briste _broken_. + + 1 i see {m[`i]n _smooth_, righ _a king_. + {min _meal_, crith _a shaking_. + + 2 i short this is _am, art, is_. + + 1 o {long more m[`o]r _great_, l[`o]n _food_. + {short hot mo _my_, do _thy_, lon _the ouzle_. + + 2 o {long } old lom _bare_, toll _a hole_. + {short} lomadh _making bare_. + + 3 o {long } (2) a roghnuich _to choose_. + {short} roghuinn _choice_. + {20} + + 1 u {long } fool {[`u]r _fresh_, s[`u]gh _juice_. + {short} {ubh _an egg_, tur _quite_. + +DIPHTHONGS. + + 1 ae (1) a (2) e laeth _days_. + 1 ai (1) a (1) i f[`a]idh _a prophet_, claidheamh _a sword_. + 2 ai (2) a (1) i saidhbhir, _rich_. + 3 ai (1) a f[`a]isg _squeeze_, tais _soft_. + 4 ai (2) a airm _arms_, gairm _to call_. + 1 ao (2) a faobhar _edge_ of an instrument. + 1 ea (2) e (1) a beann _a pinnacle_, meal _enjoy_. + 2 ea (1) e dean _to do, make_, bean _a woman_. + 3 ea (2) e easlan _sick_, fead _whistle_. + 4 ea (1) a ceard _an artificer_, geal _white_. + 5 ea (3) a coireach _faulty_. + 1 ei (1) e (1) i sg[`e]imh _beauty_, meidh _a balance_. + 2 ei (2) e (1) i feidh _deer_, greigh _a herd_. + 3 ei (1) e m[`e]ise _of a plate_. + 4 ei (2) e ['e]igin _necessity_, eich _horses_. + 1 eo (2) e (1) o beo _alive_, beothail _lively_. + 2 eo (1) o leomhann _a lion_, deoch _a drink_. + 1 eu (2) e teum _to bite_, gleus _trim_. + 1 ia (1) i (1) a fial _liberal_, fiar _oblique_. + 2 ia (1) i (2) a fiadh _a deer_, biadh _food_. + 1 io (1) i (3) o diol _to pay_, iolach _a spout_. + 2 io (1) i iodhol _an idol_, crios _a girdle_. + 3 io fun cionta _guilt_. + 1 iu (1) i u fi[`u] _worth_, iuchair _a key_. + 2 iu u di[`u] _refuse_, tiugh _thick_. + 1 oi (1) o (1) i [`o]igh _a virgin_, troidh _a foot_. + 2 oi (3) o (1) i oidhche _night_. + 3 oi (1) o m[`o]id _more_, toic _wealth_. + 4 oi (2) o f[`o]id _a turf_, fois _rest_. + 5 oi (3) o coileach _a cock_, goirid _short_. + 1 ua u (1) a cuan _the sea_, fuath _hatred_. + 2 ua u (2) a tuadh _a hatchet_, sluagh _people_. + {21} + 1 ui u (1) i s[`u]igheah _a raspberry_, buidheann _a company_. + 2 ui u d[`u]il _expectation_, fuil _blood_. + +TRIPHTHONGS. + + 1 aoi (1) ao (1) i caoidh _lamentation_. + 2 aoi (1) ao caoin _mild_, saoil _to think_. + 1 eoi (2) eo (1) i geoigh _geese_. + 2 eoi (1) eo meoir _fingers_. + 3 eoi (2) eo deoir _tears_. + 1 iai (1) ia fiaire _more oblique_. + 1 iui (2) iu ci[`u]il _of music_. + 1 uai (1) ua (1) i luaithe _quicker_. + 2 uai (2) ua (1) i cruaidh _hard_, fuaim _sound_. + 3 uai (1) ua gluais _to move_, uair _time_. + +CONSONANTS + +_Labials._ + + 1 p part poll _a pool_, streap _to climb_. + 2 ph Philip phill _returned_. + 1 b boil baile _a town_, breab _to kick_. + 2 bh vile bhuail _struck_, gabh _to take_. + 1 m my m[`o]r _great_, anam _life, soul_. + 2 mh mhothuich _perceived_, damh _an ox_. + 1 f feel fill _to fold_. + 2 fh _quiescent_ fheara _O men_. + + _Palatals._ + + 1 c cock can _to say, sing_, creid _to believe_. + 2 c kick ceann _end, head_, reic _to sell_. + 3 ch [Greek: chora] chaidh _went_, rach _go_. + 4 ch [Greek: cheimon] chi _shall see_, cr[`i]che _of a boundary_. + 1 g go gabh _to take_, rag _stiff_. + {22} + 2 g give geinne _a wedge_, ruig _to reach_. + 3 gh ghabh _took_, ghleidh _kept_. + 4 gh you gheibh _will get_. + 5 _quiescent_ righ _a king_, sluagh _people_. + +_Linguals._ + + 1 t tone tog _to raise_, slat _a rod_. + 2 t chin tinn _sick_, [`a]ite _a place_. + 3 th have thainig _came_. + 4 th _quiescent_ maith _good_, f[`a]th _occasion_. + 1 d done dol _going_, dragh _trouble_. + 2 d join diom _resentment_, maide _a stick_. + 3 dh (3) gh dhall _blind_. + 4 dh (4) gh dhearc _looked_. + 5 dh _quiescent_ radh _saying_, bualadh _threshing_. + 1 s so sannt _desire_, sloc _a pit_. + 2 s show s[`e]imh _gentle_, so _this_. + 3 sh how shuidh _sat_, shaoil _thought_. + 1 l lom _bare_, slat _a rod_, moll _chaff_. + 2 l million l[`i]nn _an age_, caillte _lost_. + 3 l look bl[`a]th _blossom_, shlanuich _healed_. + 4 l believe leum _leaped_, shleamhnuich _slipped_. + 1 n crann _a tree_, naomh _holy_, naisg _bind_. + 2 n opinion seinn _to sing_, nigh _wash_. + 3 n no fan _to stay_, naisg _bound_. + 4 n near coin _dogs_, nigh _washed_. + 1 r roar fearr _better_, righ _a king_, ruith _run_. + 2 r rear fear _a man_, ruith _ran_. + 3 r fir _men_, a righ _O king_, treoir _strength_. + + + +There is no doubt that the Gaelic has been for many ages a written +language. It is equally certain that its orthography, since it was first +committed to writing, has undergone {23} considerable changes. In this +respect it has shared the common fate of all written languages. + +In the first exhibition of the sounds of a living language, by alphabetical +characters, it is probable that the principle which regulated the system of +orthography was, that every elementary sound should be represented by a +corresponding character, either simple or compounded, and that the same +sound should be represented by the same character. If different sounds were +represented by the same letter; if the same sound were represented by +different letters; if more letters were employed then were necessary to +exhibit the sound; or if any sound were not represented by a corresponding +character; then the _written_ language would not be an adequate +representation of the _spoken_. It is hardly to be supposed that, in the +first rude attempts at alphabetical writing, the principle above laid down +could be strictly and uniformly followed. And though it had, yet, in the +course of a few generations, many causes would occur to bring about +considerable departures from it. A gradual refinement of ear, and +increasing attention to _euphonia_; contractions and elisions brought into +vogue by the carelessness or the rapidity of colloquial speech, or by the +practice of popular speakers; above all, the mixture of the speech of +different nations would introduce numberless varieties into the +pronunciation. Still, those who wrote the language might choose to adhere +to the original orthography for the sake of retaining the radical parts, +and preserving the etymon of vocables undisguised, and for maintaining an +uniformity in the mechanism of the inflections. Hence the pronunciation and +the orthography would disagree in many instances, till at length it would +be found expedient to alter the orthography, and to adapt it to such +changes in the speech or spoken language as long use had established, in +order to maintain what was most necessary of all, a due correspondence +between the mode of speaking and the mode of writing the same language. + +It will probably be found on inquiry that in all languages when the +_speech_ has undergone material and striking changes, {24} the _written +language_ also has varied in a considerable degree in conformity to these +changes, but that it has not scrupulously kept pace with the spoken +language in every smaller variation. The written language of the Greeks +suffered many changes between the time that the old Pelasgic was spoken and +the days of Demosthenes. The various modes of pronunciation used in the +different districts of Greece are marked by a diversity in the orthography +of the written language. The writing of the Latin underwent considerable +alterations between the era of the _Decemviri_ and the Augustan age, +corresponding, no doubt, to the changes which had taken place during that +interval in speaking the Latin. English and French books printed within the +last century exhibit a mode of orthography very different from what is +found in books printed two or three hundred years ago. These instances show +the tendency which the written language has to follow the lead of the +spoken language, and to maintain a certain degree of conformity to those +modes of pronunciation which are from time to time adopted by those who +speak it. + +On the other hand, numberless examples might be adduced from any living +language to prove that the written language does not adapt itself, on all +occasions and with strict uniformity, to the sounds of speech. Words are +written differently which are pronounced alike. The same combinations of +letters, in different situations, represent different sounds. Letters are +retained in writing, serving to point out the derivations of words, after +they have been entirely dropped in speaking. + +From such facts as these, it appears a just conclusion that _written +language_ generally follows the _spoken language_ through its various +revolutions, but still at a certain distance,--not dropping so far behind +as to lose sight of its precursor, nor following so close as to be led +through all its fantastic deviations. + +Here a question occurs of importance in settling the orthography of any +particular tongue: How near ought the _written language_ to correspond to +the _spoken_, and where may a disagreement between them be allowed with +{25} propriety? The following observations may serve to throw some light on +the subject of this question, though by no means sufficient to furnish a +complete answer. + +It is obvious that in speech the _articulations_ (which are represented by +consonants in writing) are the least liable to variation. _Vowel sounds_ +are continually varying. In this variety chiefly consists that diversity of +tone and dialect which is found in the speech of different districts of the +same country, where the same words are spoken. The changes, too, which are +introduced by time fall with greater effect on the vowel sounds than on the +articulations. This circumstance will strike an observer who steps into any +deliberative assembly, where the speakers are of different ages. St Jerome +makes a remark on the reading of Hebrew, which is applicable, in some +measure, to the pronunciation of all languages: "Nec refert utrum _Salem_ +aut _Salim_ nominetur; cum vocalibus in medio literis perraro utantur +Hebraei; et pro voluntate lectorum, ac _varietate regionum_, eadem verba +_diversis sonis_ atque accentibus proferantur." It may be observed that the +superior stability of the articulations above the vowel sounds is the +natural consequence of the position of the organs of speech in uttering +them. The different modifications of the vowel sounds are effected by +minute changes in the conformation of the organs; those of the +articulations are made by more distinct and operose inflections of the +organs. + +It seems, then, a warrantable conclusion that, of the elementary +constituents of speech, viz., articulations and vowel sounds, the +_articulations_ are, in their own nature, ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and +PREDOMINANT; the _vowel sounds_, comparatively considered, are ADJUNCTIVE, +FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE. + +Further, all the vowel sounds that usually occur in speech seem to be +uttered with equal ease, in whatever situation they occur, as the same +organs are employed for all. In forming the common articulations of speech, +as different organs are employed, a degree of difficulty is sometimes felt +in making a transition from one articulation to another. {26} Thus a +difficulty will occasionally occur in pronouncing certain words, where the +general analogy of inflection or of collocation has brought together +articulations which do not easily coalesce. Hence a necessity arises of +departing in such a case from the general analogy, and altering or +displacing some of those discrepant articulations, for the sake of ease and +convenience in pronunciation, and to relieve the ear from an offensive +discordant sound. Departures are made from the general rules of speech in +the case of the vowel sounds also, of which the Greek tongue abounds with +examples. These departures, however, seem to have been made from a desire +to indulge the ear in certain national predilections or aversions which it +had conceived with regard to particular sounds. In examining the anomalies +of speech, or those peculiarities which have been reckoned anomalous, it +will be found that such of them as affect the articulations have, for the +most part, been adopted for the purpose of ease and convenience in +pronunciation; while those which affect the vowel sounds have proceeded +from the peculiar taste of the speakers. Thus the former spring from a +cause urgent and constant in its nature, and uniform in its operation; the +latter, from a cause local and temporary in its nature, and variable in its +operation. + +If this theory be just, it ought to follow that, in all polished tongues, +an agreement will be found among those irregularities which affect the +articulations, that is not so observable in those which affect the vowel +sounds. There is reason to believe that, if a full comparison were made +between different languages, this would accordingly be found to be the +case. Let it be observed, then, that in speech a deference has been usually +paid to the articulations which has not been paid to the vowel sounds, +inasmuch as the latter have been changed from the state in which the +structure of each tongue had at first placed them, frequently and from +peculiar taste or humour; the former more rarely, and for the most part +from necessity. If this observation be found to be well supported, we shall +have the sanction of general practice in favour of the conclusion that was +formerly {27} drawn from the nature of articulate sounds, viz., that the +articulations are ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and PREDOMINANT; the vowel sounds +ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE. + +If it appear, then, that the vowel sounds in speech are perpetually varying +in the mouths of different speakers, from causes which either elude our +search, or, when discovered, are seen to be of small importance, may we not +judge that it would be equally vain and improper to attempt to make +_Writing_ follow all these minute variations; and that, however it may +happen that the same vowel sound may be represented in many instances by +different letters, and different vowel sounds by the same letters, yet this +disagreement between _Speech_ and _Writing_ must be connived at, for the +sake of preserving some degree of uniformity, where alone it can be +preserved, in the _written language_? If it appear, again, that the +variations from the established analogy which are made on the articulations +are less frequent, and proceed from causes obvious and cogent, ought not +these variations to be exhibited in writing, for preserving that general +correspondence between the written and the spoken language which ought to +be preserved, as far as the limited powers of letters will permit, and +without which the words I speak and those I write do not belong to the same +language? + +One exception from this principle seems allowable in the case of quiescent +consonants. It may be inferred, from the practice of all living languages, +that consonants whereof the corresponding articulations have been +suppressed in speaking may yet be retained with propriety in writing, when +they are requisite to point out the derivation of vocables, or the radical +part of declinable words. But this exception ought to be allowed only to a +moderate extent, for the reasons already assigned; to which it may be +added, that the far greater part of the suppressed articulations can be +easily discovered and retraced to their roots, without any index in the +_written_ any more than in the _spoken_ language to point them out. {28} + +These observations being premised, I shall proceed to explain the present +state of Gaelic Orthography, and shall endeavour to assist the reader in +forming a judgment of its merit, and how far it may admit of improvement. + +I. It may be laid down as one settled principle in orthography, that each +letter or combination of letters in the written language ought always to +denote one and the same sound. From the explanation that has been given of +the powers of the letters, it may be seen how far this principle has been +regarded in the Gaelic. Though almost every one of the letters represents +more than one sound, yet there is an evident affinity between the several +sounds of the same letter. And it may be readily allowed that less +confusion and inconvenience follow from exhibiting a few kindred sounds by +the same letter, than would have taken place had the characters been +multiplied to such a degree as that a separate one could have been +appropriated to each minute variety of sound. + +It is obvious to remark, as a departure from this principle, that in the +case of the consonants _l_, _n_, _r_, the distinction between their _plain_ +and their _aspirated_ state is not marked in writing, but that in both +states the consonant is written in one way. In the middle and end of words, +as has been shown, this distinction may be known from the relative +situation of the letters. In the beginning of certain cases and tenses of +declinable words, it may often be known from their _grammatical_ +connection, but is not marked by any _graphical_ index whatever. The proper +reading is to be determined by the sense of the passage, instead of the +sense being understood by the proper reading. It is not easy to discover +how those who first committed the Gaelic to writing neglected to mark such +a material distinction. Inconveniencies and ambiguities not unfrequently +arise from this cause, which have been long felt and regretted. Is there +room to hope that it is not yet too late to recommend a method of remedying +this defect? The method I would suggest is the most simple and obvious of +any. It is to annex to the initial _l_, _n_, and _r_, in their aspirated +state, the letter _h_, just as has been {29} done to all the other +consonants. The analogy of orthography would thus be maintained, the system +of inflection would be more justly exhibited, and carried on by an uniform +process in _Writing_ as it is in _Speech_, and errors in reading and +ambiguities in syntax would be avoided[22]. + +II. Another principle of authority in regulating orthography is, that each +sound ought always to be represented by one and the same letter, or +combination of letters. The deviations from this rule in Gaelic are +extremely few. The sound of _ao_ is represented sometimes by _a_ alone, +sometimes by _o_ alone. The sound of _gh_ is represented also by _dh_; and +final _c_ often, though corruptly, represents the same sound with _chd_. + +III. A third principle in orthography is, that no more letters ought to be +employed than are necessary to represent the sound. There are probably few +polished languages in which departures from this rule are not found in +abundance. Reasons have been already mentioned which render it expedient to +retain letters in writing many words, after the corresponding sounds have +been dropped in pronouncing the same words. Quiescent letters, both vowels +and consonants, are not unfrequent in Gaelic. Though these quiescent +letters have no sound themselves, they are not always without effect in +pronunciation, as they often determine the sound of other letters. Most, if +not all, the quiescent vowels seem to have been introduced for this +purpose. They ascertain the _broad_ or the _small_ sound of the adjoining +{30} consonants. This has been made sufficiently clear in treating of the +vowels and diphthongs separately. A consonant, as has been shown, has its +_broad_ sound, both when preceded and when followed by a broad vowel; and +in like manner has its _small_ sound, both when preceded and when followed +by a small vowel. If a consonant were preceded by a vowel of one quality, +and followed by one of a different quality, the reader, it has been +thought, might be doubtful whether that consonant ought to be pronounced +with its broad or with its small sound. Hence this rule has long obtained +in Gaelic orthography, that in polysyllables the last vowel of one syllable +and the first vowel of the subsequent syllable must be both of the same +quality[23]. To the extensive application and the rigid observance of this +rule it is owing that so many diphthongs appear where one vowel is +sufficient to express the vocal sound, and that the homogeneous vowels, +when used in their quiescent capacity, are often exchanged for each other, +or written indiscriminately[24]. From the former of these circumstances, +most of the words in the language appear loaded with superfluous vowels; +from the latter, the orthography of many words appears, in some respects, +arbitrary and unsettled. Even a partial correction of these blemishes must +be desirable. It may therefore be worth while to examine this long +established canon of Gaelic orthography, with a view to discover whether it +has not been extended farther than is necessary, and whether it ought not +in many cases to be set aside. + +We have seen that the Labials _b_, _m_, _f_, _p_, whether aspirated or not, +have no distinction of broad and small sound. + +{31} It cannot, then, be necessary to employ vowels, either prefixed or +postfixed, to indicate the sound of these. Thus, abuich _ripe_, gabhaidh +_will take_, chromainn _I would bow_, ciomaich _captives_, have been +written with a broad vowel in the second syllable, corresponding to the +broad vowel in the first syllable; yet the letters abich, gabhidh, +chrominn, ciomich, fully exhibit the sound. The prepositive syllable im, +when followed by a small vowel, is written im, as in imlich _to lick_, +imcheist _perplexity_. But when the first vowel of the following syllable +is broad, it has been the practice to insert an _o_ before the _m_, as in +iomlan _complete_, iomghaoth _a whirlwind_, iomluasg _agitation_. Yet the +inserted _o_ serves no purpose, either in respect of derivation, of +inflection, or of pronunciation. The unnecessary application of the rule in +question appears most unequivocally in words derived from other languages. +From the Latin words _imago_, _templum_, _liber_, are formed in Gaelic +iomhaigh, teampull, leabhar. Nothing but a servile regard to the rule under +consideration could have suggested the insertion of a broad vowel in the +first syllable of these words, where it serves neither to guide the +pronunciation, nor to point out the derivation. + +Another case, in which the observation of this rule seems to be wholly +unnecessary, is when two syllables of a word are separated by a quiescent +consonant. Thus in gleidheadh _keeping_, itheadh _eating_, buidheann _a +company_, dligheach _lawful_, the aspirated consonants in the middle are +altogether quiescent. The vocal sound of the second syllable is +sufficiently expressed by the last vowel. No good reason, then, appears for +writing a small vowel in the second syllable. + +Thus far it is evident that the rule respecting the correspondence of +vowels is wholly impertinent in the case of syllables divided by Labials, +or by quiescent consonants. If we examine further into the application of +this rule, we shall find more cases in which it may be safely set aside. + +Many of the inflections of nouns and verbs are formed by adding one or more +syllables to the root. The final {32} consonant of the root must always be +considered as belonging to the radical part, not to the adjected +termination. The sound of that consonant, whether broad or small, falls to +be determined by the quality of the vowel which precedes it in the same +syllable, not by the quality of that which follows it in the next syllable. +It seems, therefore, unnecessary to employ any more vowels in the adjected +syllable than what are sufficient to represent its own vocal sound. The +rule under consideration has, notwithstanding, been extended to the +orthography of the oblique cases and tenses, and a supernumerary vowel has +been thrown into the termination, whenever that was requisite to preserve +the supposed necessary correspondence with the foregoing syllable. Thus, in +forming the nominative and dative plural of many nouns, the syllables _an_ +and _ibh_ are added to the singular, which letters fully express the true +sound of these terminations. If the last vowel of the nominative singular +is broad, _an_ alone is added for the nominative plural; as, lamh-an +_hands_, cluas-an _ears_. But if the last vowel be small, an _e_ is thrown +into the termination; as, s[`u]il-ean _eyes_, sr[`o]in-ean _noses_. Now if +it be observed that, in the two last examples, the small sound of the _l_ +and _n_ in the root is determined by the preceding small vowel _i_, with +which they are necessarily connected in one syllable, and that the letters +_an_ fully represent the sound of the termination, it must be evident that +the _e_ in the final syllable is altogether superfluous. So in forming the +dative plural: if the last vowel of the root be small, _ibh_ is added; as, +s[`u]il-ibh, sroin-ibh. But if the last vowel of the root is broad, the +termination is written _aibh_; as, lamh-aibh, cluas-aibh, where the _a_, +for the reason already assigned, is totally useless. + +These observations apply with equal justness to the tenses of verbs, as +will be seen by comparing the following examples: creid-idh _will believe_, +stad-aidh _will stop_; chreid-inn _I would believe_, stad-_a_inn _I would +stop_; creid-_e_am _let me believe_, stad-am _let me stop_; creid-ibh +_believe ye_, stad-_a_ibh _stop ye_. + +The same observations may be further applied to derivative words, formed by +adding to their primitives the syllables {33} _ach_, _achd_, _ag_, _an_, +_ail_, _as_; in all which _e_ has been unnecessarily introduced, when the +last vowel of the preceding syllable was small; as, sannt-ach _covetous_, +toil-_e_ach _willing_; naomh-achd _holiness_, doimhn-_e_achd _depth_; +sruth-an _a rivulet_, cuil-_e_an _a whelp_; cauch-ag _a little cup_, +cail-_e_ag _a girl_; fear-ail _manly_, caird-_e_il _friendly_[25]; ceart-as +_justice_, caird-_e_as _friendship_. + +The foregoing observations appear sufficient to establish this general +conclusion, that in all cases in which a vowel serves neither to exhibit +the vocal sound, nor to modify the articulations of _the syllable to which +it belongs_, it may be reckoned nothing better than an useless incumbrance. +There seems, therefore, much room for simplifying the present system of +Gaelic Orthography, by the rejection of a considerable number of quiescent +vowels[26]. + +{34} + +Almost the only quiescent consonants which occur in Gaelic are _d_, _f_, +_g_, _s_, _t_, in their aspirated state. When these occur in the +inflections of declinable words, serving to indicate the Root, or in +derivatives, serving to point out the primitive word, the omission of them +might, on the whole, be unadvisable. Even when such letters appear in their +absolute form, though they have been laid aside in pronunciation, yet it +would be rash to discard them in writing, as they often serve to show the +affinity of the words in which they are found to others in different +languages, or in different dialects of the Celtic. The aspirated form of +the consonant in writing sufficiently shows that, in speaking, its +articulation is either attenuated or wholly suppressed. + +The writers of Gaelic seem to have carefully avoided bringing into +apposition two vowels which belong to different syllables. For this purpose +they have sometimes introduced a quiescent consonant into the middle of +compound or of inflected words; as, gneidheil, or rather gnethail _kindly_, +made up of gn[`e] and ail; beothail _lively_, made up of beo and ail; +diathan _gods_, from the singular dia; lathaibh _days_, from the singular +l[`a], &c. It may at least bear a question, whether it would not be better +to allow the vowels to denote the sound of the word by their own powers, +without the intervention of quiescent consonants, as has been done in {35} +mnaibh _women_, d['e]ibh _gods_, rather than insert consonants which have +nothing to do with either the radical or the superadded articulations of +the word. + +From the want of an established standard in orthography, the writers of +Gaelic, in spelling words wherein quiescent consonants occurred, must have +been often doubtful which of two or three consonants was the proper one, +and may therefore have differed in their manner of spelling the same word. +Accordingly we find, in many instances, the same words written by different +writers, and even at different times by the same writer, with different +quiescent consonants. This variation affects not indeed the pronunciation, +or does it in a very slight degree. Hence, however, some who judge of the +language only from its appearance in writing, have taken occasion to vilify +it, as unfixed and nonsensical[27]. A proper attention to the affinity +which the Scottish Gaelic bears to some other languages, particularly to +other dialects of the Celtic, might contribute to fix the orthography in +some cases where it appears doubtful, or has become variable[28]. + +IV. The last principle to be mentioned, which ought to regulate +orthography, is that every sound ought to be represented by a corresponding +character. From this rule there is hardly a single deviation in Gaelic, as +there is no sound in the spoken language which is not, in some measure, +{36} exhibited in the written language. The fault of the Gaelic orthography +is sometimes a redundancy, but never a deficiency of letters. + +A few observations on the mode of writing some particular words, or +particular parts of speech, remain to be brought forward in the sequel of +this work, which it would be premature to introduce here. + +The Scottish writers of Gaelic in general followed the Irish orthography, +till after the middle of the last century. However that system may suit the +dialect of Ireland, it certainly is not adapted to the Gaelic of this +country. In the Gaelic translation of the New Testament, printed in 1767, +not only were most of the Irish idioms and inflections which had been +admitted into the Scottish Gaelic writings rejected, and the language +adapted to the dialect of the Scottish Highlands, but the orthography also +was adapted to the language. In later publications, the manner of writing +the language was gradually assimilated to that pattern. The Gaelic version +of the sacred Scriptures lately published has exhibited a model, both of +style and orthography, still more agreeable to the purest Scottish idiom, +and has a just title to be acknowledged as the standard in both. Little +seems to be now wanting to confer on the orthography of the Scottish Gaelic +such a degree of uniformity as may redeem its credit and ensure its +stability. This, it is to be hoped, may be attained by a judicious regard +to the separate, and especially the relative powers of the letters, to the +most common and approved modes of pronunciation, to the affinity of the +Scottish Gaelic with other branches of the Celtic tongue, to the analogy of +inflection and derivation, and, above all, to the authority of some +generally received standard, to which pre-eminence the late Gaelic version +of the Scriptures has the only indisputable claim. + + * * * * * + + +{37} + +PART II. + +OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. + +The parts of speech in Gaelic may be conveniently divided and arranged as +follows:--Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, +Conjunction, Interjection. Of these, the first five are declinable; the +other four are indeclinable. + + + +CHAPTER I. + +OF THE ARTICLE. + +The Gaelic article an corresponds to the English definite article _the_. +There is in Gaelic no indefinite article corresponding to the English _a_ +or _an_. The inflections of the article are but few. They depend on the +gender, the number, and the case, of the noun to which it is prefixed. +Hence the article is declined by gender, number, and case, as follows: + + Singular. Plural. + _Masc._ _Fem._ _Masc. & Fem._ + _Nom._ an, am an, a' na + _Gen._ an, a' na nan, nam + _Dat._ an, a', n' an, a', n' na + +In the singular, final _n_ of the article is sometimes cut off, and its +absence marked by an apostrophe. The same happens to the initial _a_ of the +dative singular. + + + +CHAPTER II. + +OF NOUNS. + +A Noun is the Name of any person, object, or thing whatsoever, that we have +occasion to mention. In treating of {38} this Part of Speech, we have to +consider the _Gender_ and the _Declension_ of Nouns. + +OF GENDER. + +In imposing names on sensible objects, the great and obvious distinction of +Sex in the animal world suggested the expediency of inventing names, not +only for the particular species of animals, but also for distinguishing +their Sex. Such are _vir_, _femina_; _bull_, _cow_; _coileach_, _cearc_, +&c. To mark at once identity of species, and diversity of Sex, the same +word, with a slight change on its form, was applied to both sexes: as +_equus_, _equa_; _lion_, _lioness_; _oglach_, _banoglach_. In most +languages, distinction of Sex has been marked, not only thus by the form of +the noun, but further by the form of the adjective connected with the noun. +Most adjectives were furnished with two forms, the one of which indicated +its connection with the name of a male, the other its connection with the +name of a female. The one was called by grammarians the _masculine gender_, +the other the _feminine gender_ of the adjective. Adjectives possessing +thus a two-fold form, must necessarily have appeared under one or other of +these forms, with whatever noun they happened to be conjoined. Even nouns +significant of inanimate objects came thus to possess one mark of nouns +discriminative of Sex, as they happened to be accompanied by an adjective +of the masculine or by one of the feminine gender. If any noun was observed +to be usually coupled with an adjective of the masculine gender, it was +termed by grammarians a _masculine noun_; if it was found usually coupled +with an adjective of the feminine gender, it was termed a _feminine noun_. +Thus a distinction of nouns into masculine and feminine came to be noted, +and this also was called gender. + +It is observable, then, that gender, in grammar, is taken in two different +acceptations. When applied to an adjective, {39} it signifies a certain +_form_, by which _bonus_ is distinguished from _bona_. When applied to a +noun, it signifies a certain _relation_ of the word to the attributives +connected with it, by which _amor_ is distinguished from _cupido_. As Sex +is a natural characteristic pertaining to living objects, so gender is a +grammatical characteristic pertaining to nouns, the names of objects +whether animate or inanimate. The gender of nouns is not, properly +speaking, indicated; it is constituted by that of the attributives +conjoined with them. If there were no distinction of gender in adjectives, +participles, &c. there could be none in nouns. When we say that _amor_ is a +noun of the masculine gender, and _cupido_ a noun of the feminine gender, +we do not mean to intimate any distinction between the things signified by +these nouns; we mean nothing more than to state a grammatical fact, viz., +that an adjective connected with _amor_ is always of the same form as when +joined to a noun denoting a male, and that an adjective connected with +_cupido_ is always of the same form as when joined to a noun denoting a +female[29]. + +{40} + +When an adjective was to be connected with a noun that denoted an object +devoid of Sex, it is not always easy to guess what views might have +determined the speaker to use the adjective in one gender rather than in +the other. Perhaps Sex was attributed to the object signified by the noun. +Perhaps its properties were conceived to bear some resemblance to the +qualities characteristic of Sex in living creatures. In many instances, the +form of the noun seems to have decided the point. It must be confessed that +in this mental process, the judgment has been often swayed by trivial +circumstances, and guided by fanciful analogies. At least it cannot be +denied that in the Gaelic, where all nouns whatever are ranked under the +class of masculines or of feminines, the gender of each has been fixed by a +procedure whereof the grounds cannot now be fully investigated or +ascertained. Neither the natural nor artificial qualities or uses of the +things named, nor the form of the names given them, furnish any invariable +rule by which the gender of nouns may be known. It ought to be remembered, +however, that the Gaelic is far from being singular in this respect. The +oldest language with which we are acquainted, as well as some of the most +polished modern tongues, stand in the same predicament. + +The following observations may serve to give some idea of the analogy of +gender in Gaelic nouns; though they do not furnish a complete set of rules +sufficient to ascertain the gender of every noun:-- + +{41} + +MASCULINES. Nouns signifying males are masculines; as, fear _a man_, righ +_a king_, sagart _a priest_, tarbh _a bull_, cu _a dog_. + +Many nouns, signifying the young of animals of either Sex, are masculine, +even when the individual objects they denote are mentioned as being of the +female Sex; as, laogh _a calf_, isean _a gosling_, uan _a lamb_, &c.[30]. + +Diminutives in _an_; as, rothan _a little wheel_, dealgan _a little pin_, +&c. + +Derivatives in _as_, which are, for the most part, abstract nouns; as, +cairdeas _friendship_, naimhdeas _enmity_, ciuineas _calmness_, +breitheamhnas _judgment_, ceartas _justice_, maitheas _goodness_, &c. + +Derivatives in _air_, _ach_, _iche_, which are, for the most part, agents; +as, cealgair _a deceiver_, sealgair _a huntsman_, dorsair _a door-keeper_, +marcach _a rider_, maraiche _a sailor_, coisiche _a foot traveller_, &c. + +Names of such kinds of trees as are natives of Scotland; as, darach _oak_, +giuthas _fir_, uimhseann _ash_. + +Most polysyllables whereof the last vowel is broad, are masculine. + +FEMININES. Nouns signifying females are feminine; as, bean _a woman_, +mathair _a mother_, bo _a cow_, &c. Except bainionnach or boirionnach _a +female_, mart _a cow_, capull _a horse_ or _mare_, but commonly _a mare_, +which are masculine, and caileann or cailinn _a damsel_, masculine or +feminine.[31] Mark, vi. 28. + +{42} + +Some nouns denoting a species are feminine, even when the individual spoken +of is characterised as a male; as, gabhar fhirionn, _a he-goat_. Psal. l. +9. + +Names of countries; as, Albainn _Scotland_, Eirinn _Ireland_. + +Names of musical instruments; as, clarsach _a harp_, piob, _a pipe_. + +Names of the heavenly bodies; as, Grian _sun_, Gealach _moon_. + +Names of diseases; as, teasach _a fever_, a' ghriuthach _the measles_, a' +bhreac _the small-pox_, a' bhuidheach _the jaundice_, a' bhuinneach, _a +diarrhoea_, &c. + +Collective names of trees or shrubs are feminine; as, giuthasach _a fir +wood_, iugharach _a yew copse_, seileach _a willow copse_, droighneach _a +thorny brake_. + +Diminutives in _ag_ or _og_; as, caileag _a girl_, cuachag _a little cup_. + +Derivatives in _achd_; as, iomlanachd _fulness_, doillearachd _duskiness_, +doimhneachd _depth_, rioghachd _kingdom_, sinnsireachd _ancestry_, &c. + +Abstract nouns formed from the genitive of adjectives; as, doille +_blindness_, gile _whiteness_, leisge _laziness_, buidhre _deafness_, &c. + +Many monosyllables in _ua_ followed by one or more consonants are feminine; +as, bruach _a bank_, cruach _a heap_, cuach _a cup_, cluas _an ear_, gruag +_the hair of the head_, sguab _a sheaf_, tuadh _a hatchet_, tuath +_peasantry_. + +Almost all polysyllables, whereof the last vowel is small, except those in +_air_ and _iche_, already noticed, are feminine. + +A few nouns are of either gender; Salm _a Psalm_, creidimh _belief_, are +used as masculine nouns in some places, and feminine in others. Cruinne +_the globe_, talamb _the earth, land_, are masculine in the nominative; as, +an cruinne-c['e] _the globe of the earth_. Psal. lxxxix. 11., xc. 2.--D. +Buchan. 1767. p. 12. 15; an talamh tioram _the dry land_. Psal. xcv. {43} +5. The same nouns are generally feminine in the genitive; as, gu cr[`i]ch +na cruinne _to the extremity of the world_. Psal. xix. 4.; aghaidh na +talmhainn _the face of the earth_. Gen. i. 29. Acts xvii. 24. + +OF DECLENSION. + +Nouns undergo certain changes significant of Number and of Relation. + +The forms significant of Number are two: the _Singular_, which denotes one; +and the _Plural_, which denotes any number greater than one. + +The changes expressive of Relation are made on nouns in two ways: 1. On the +beginning of the noun; 2. On its termination. The relations denoted by +changes on the termination are different from those denoted by changes on +the beginning; they have no necessary connection together; the one may take +place in absence of the other. It seems proper, therefore, to class the +changes on the termination by themselves in one division, and give it a +name, and to class the changes on the beginning also by themselves in +another division, and give it a different name. As the changes on the +termination denote, in general, the same relations which are denoted by the +Greek and Latin cases, that seems a sufficient reason for adopting the term +case into the Gaelic Grammar, and applying it, as in the Greek and Latin, +to signify "the changes made on the _termination_ of nouns or adjectives to +mark relation".[32] According to this description of them, there are four +cases in Gaelic. These may be {44} named, like the corresponding cases in +Latin, the _Nominative_, the _Genitive_, the _Dative_, and the +_Vocative_.[33] The Nominative is used when any person or thing is +mentioned as the _subject_ of a proposition or question, or as the _object_ +of an action or affection. The Genitive corresponds to an English noun +preceded by _of_. The Dative is used only after a preposition. The Vocative +is employed when a person or thing is addressed. + +The changes on the beginning of nouns are made by aspirating an initial +consonant; that is, writing _h_ after it. This may be called the +_Aspirated_ form of the noun. The aspirated form extends to all the cases +and numbers. A noun, whereof the initial form is not changed by aspiration, +is in the _Primary_ form. + +The _accidents_ of nouns may be briefly stated thus. A noun is declined by +Number, Case, and Initial form. The Numbers are two: _Singular_ and +_Plural_. The Cases are four: _Nominative_, _Genitive_, _Dative_, and +_Vocative_. The Initial form is twofold: the _Primary form_, and the +_Aspirated form_ peculiar to nouns beginning with a consonant. + +In declining nouns, the formation of the cases is observed to depend more +on the last vowel of the nominative than on {45} the final letter. Hence +the last vowel of the nominative, or in general of any declinable word, may +be called the _characteristic_ vowel. The division of the vowels into +_broad_ and _small_ suggests the distribution of nouns into two +Declensions, distinguished by the quality of the characteristic vowel. The +first Declension comprehends those nouns whereof the _characteristic_ vowel +is _broad_; the second Declension comprehends those nouns whereof the +_characteristic_ vowel is _small_. + +The following examples are given of the inflection of nouns of the + + FIRST DECLENSION. + + Bard, mas. _a Poet_. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Bard Baird + _Gen._ Baird Bard + _Dat._ Bard Bardaibh + _Voc._ Bhaird Bharda + + Cluas, fem. _an Ear_. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Cluas Cluasan + _Gen._ Cluaise Cluas + _Dat._ Cluais Cluasaibh + _Voc._ Chluas Chluasa + +_Formation of the Cases of Nouns of the First Declension._ + +_Singular Number._ + +_General Rule for forming the Genitive._--The Genitive is formed from the +Nominative, by inserting _i_ after the characteristic vowel, as, b[`a]s +mas. _death_, Gen. sing. b[`a]is; fuaran m. a _fountain_, g. s. fuarain; +clarsach f. _a harp_, g. s. clarsaich. Feminine monosyllables likewise add +a short _e_ to the Nominative; as, cluas f. _an ear_, g. s. cluaise; +l[`a]mh _a hand_, g. s. l[`a]imhe[34]. + +{46} + +_Particular Rules for the Genitive._--1. If the nominative ends in a vowel, +the genitive is like the nominative; as, tr[`a] m. _a time_ or _season_, g. +s. tr[`a]; so also beatha f. _life_, cro m. _a sheepfold_, cliu m. _fame_, +duine _a man_, Donncha _Duncan_, a man's name, and many others. Except bo +f. _a cow_, g. s. boin; cu m. _a dog_, g. s. coin; bru f. _the belly_, g. +s. broinn or bronn. + +2. Nouns ending in _chd_ or _rr_ have the genitive like the nominative; as, +uchd m. _the breast_, sliochd m. _offspring_, feachd m. _a host_, reachd m. +_statute_, cleachd m. _habit_, beachd m. _vision_, smachd m. _authority_, +fuachd m. _cold_, sprochd m. _gloom_, beannachd m. _a blessing_, naomhachd +f. _holiness_, earr m. _the tail_, torr m. _a heap_. Except slochd g. s. +sluichd m. _a pit_, unless this word should rather be written sloc, like +boc, cnoc, soc. + +3. Monosyllables ending in _gh_ or _th_ add _a_ for the genitive; as, lagh +m. _law_, g. s. lagha; roth m. _a wheel_, g. s. rotha; sruth m. _a stream_, +g. s. srutha. Except [`a]gh m. _felicity_, _grace_, or _charm_, g. s. +aigh[35]. + +4. Monosyllables characterised by _io_ either drop the _o_ or add _a_ for +the genitive; as, siol m. _seed_, g. s. s[`i]l; lion m. _a net_, g. s. +l[`i]n; crioch f. _a boundary_, g. s. cr[`i]ch; cioch f. _the pap_, g. s. +c[`i]che; fion m. _wine_, g. s. fiona; crios m. _a girdle_, g. s. criosa; +fiodh m. _timber_, g. s. fiodha. Except Criost or Criosd m. _Christ_, which +has the gen. like the nominative. + +5. Many monosyllables, whose characteristic vowel is _a_ or _o_, change it +into _u_ and insert _i_ after it; as, gob m. _the bill of a bird_, g. s. +guib; crodh m. _kine_, g. s. cruidh; bolg or balg m. _a bag_, g. s. builg; +clog or clag m. _a bell_, g. s. cluig; lorg f. _a staff_, g. s. luirge; +long f. _a ship_, g. s. luinge; alt m. _a {47} joint_, g. s. uilt; alld m. +_a rivulet_, g. s. uilld; car m. _a turn_, g. s. cuir; carn m. _a heap of +stones_, g. s. cuirn. So also ceol m. _music_, g. s. ciuil; seol m. _a +sail_, g. s. siuil. Except nouns in _on_ and a few feminines, which follow +the general rule; as, br[`o]n m. _sorrow_, g. s. br[`o]in; l[`o]n m. +_food_, g. s. l[`o]in; cloch or clach f. _a stone_, g. s. cloiche; cos or +cas f. _the foot_, g. s. coise; br[`o]g f. _a shoe_, g. s. br[`o]ige. So +also clann f. _children_, g. s. cloinne; crann m. _a tree_, g. s. croinn. +Mac m. _a son_, has its g. s. mic. + +6. Polysyllables characterised by _ea_ change _ea_ into _i_; as, fitheach +m. _a raven_, g. s. fithich; cailleach f. _an old woman_, g. s. +caillich[36]. These two suffer a syncope, and add _e_; buidheann f. _a +company_, g. s. buidhne; sitheann f. _venison_, g. s. sithne. + +Of monosyllables characterised by _ea_, some throw away _a_ and insert _i_; +as, each m. _a horse_, g. s. eich; beann f. _a peak_, g. s. beinne; fearg +f. _anger_, g. s. feirge. Some change _ea_ into _i_; as, breac m. _a +trout_, g. s. bric; fear m. _a man_, g. s. fir; ceann m. _a head_, _end_, +g. s. cinn; preas m. _a bush_, g. s. pris; breac f. _the small-pox_, g. s. +brice; cearc f. _a hen_, g. s. circe; leac f. _a flag_, g. s. lice. Gleann +m. _a valley_, adds _e_, g. s. glinne. Some add _a_ to the nominative; as, +speal m. _a scythe_, g. s. speala. Dream f. _people_, _race_, gean m. +_humour_, have their genitive like the nominative. Feall f. _deceit_, g. s. +foill or feill. Geagh m. _a goose_, makes g. s. geoigh. + +{48} + +7. Nouns in _eu_ followed by a liquid, change _u_ into _o_ and insert _i_ +after it; as, neul m. _a cloud_, g. s. neoil, eun m. _a bird_, g. s. eoin; +feur m. _grass_, g. s. feoir; meur m. _a finger_, g. s. meoir; leus m. _a +torch_, g. s. leois. Beul m. _the mouth_, g. s. beil or beoil; sgeul. m. _a +tale_, g. s. sgeil or sgeoil. Other nouns characterised by _eu_ add _a_ for +the gen., as, treud m. _a flock_, g. s. treuda; feum m. _use_, _need_, g. +s. feuma; beum m. _a stroke_, g. s. beuma. Meud m. _bulk_, beuc m. _a +roar_, freumh f. _a fibre_, _root_, hardly admit of _a_, but have their +gen. rather like the nom. + +8. Monosyllables characterised by _ia_ change _ia_ into _ei_; as, sliabh m. +_a moor_, g. s. sleibh; fiadh m. _a deer_, g. s. feidh; biadh m. _food_, g. +s. beidh or bidh; iasg m. _fish_, g. s. eisg; grian f. _the sun_, g. s. +greine; sgiath f. _a wing_, g. s. sgeithe. Except Dia m. _God_, g. s. De; +sgian f. _a knife_, g. s. sgine. + +Piuthar f. _a sister_, has g. s. peathar; leanabh m. _a child_, g. s. +leinibh; ceathramh m. _a fourth part_, g. s. ceithrimh, leabaidh or leaba +f. _a bed_, g. s. leapa; talamh m. _earth_, g. s. talmhainn. + +The _Dative_ singular of masculine nouns is like the nominative; of +feminine nouns, is like the genitive; as, tobar m. _a well_, d. s. tobar; +clarsach f. _a harp_, g. s. and d. s. clarsaich; misneach f. _courage_, g. +s. and d. s. misnich. + + + +_Particular Rules for the Dative of Feminine Nouns._--1. If _e_ was added +to the nominative in forming the genitive, it is thrown away in the dative; +as, slat f. _a rod_, g. s. slaite--d. s. slait; grian f. _the sun_, g. s. +greine, d. s. grein. + +2. If the nominative suffered a syncope in forming the genitive, or if the +last vowel of the genitive is broad, the dative is like the nominative; as, +buidheann f. _a company_, g. s. buidhne, d. s. buidheann; piuthar f. _a +sister_, g. s. peathar, d. s. piuthar. + +The _Vocative_ of masc. nouns is like the genitive; of feminine nouns is +like the nominative; as, b[`a]s m. _death_, g. s. b[`a]is, v. s. bhais; cu +m. _a dog_, g. s. coin, v. s. choin; grian f. _the sun_, v. s. ghaoth. {49} + +_Plural Number._ + +_Nominative._ Masculine nouns which insert _i_ in the gen. sing. have their +nom. plur. like the gen. sing.; as, oglach m. _a servant_, g. s. oglaich, +n. p. oglaich; fear m. _a man_, g. s. and n. p. fir. Many of these form +their nom. plur. also by adding a short _a_ to the nominative singular. +Other masculine nouns, and all feminine nouns, have their nom. plural in +_a_, to which _n_ is added, _euphoniae causa_, before an initial vowel[37]. + + + +_Particular Rules_ for forming the Nom. Plur. in _a_ or _an_. + +1. By adding _a_ to the nom. singular; as, dubhar m. _a shadow_, n. p. +dubhara; rioghachd f. _a kingdom_, n. p. rioghachdan. Under this Rule, some +nouns suffer a syncope; as, dorus m. _a door_, n. p. dorsa for dorusa. + +2. Nouns ending in _l_ or _nn_, often insert _t_ before _a_; as, reul m. _a +star_, n. p. reulta; beann f. _a pinnacle_, n. p. beannta. So l[`o]n m. _a +marsh_, n. p. l[`o]intean. + +3. Some nouns in _ar_ drop the _a_, and add to the nom. sing. the syllable +_aich_; and then the final _a_ becomes _e_, to correspond to the preceding +small vowel; as, leabhar m. _a book_, n. p. leabhraiche; tobar m. _a well_, +n. p. tobraiche; lann. f. _an enclosure_, inserts _d_, n. p. lanndaiche. +Piuthar f. _a sister_, from the g. s. peathar, has n. p. peathraiche; so +leaba f. _a bed_, g. s. leapa, n. p. leapaiche. Bata m. _a staff_, n. p. +batacha; la or latha _a day_, n. p. lathachan or laithean. + +4. Some polysyllables in _ach_ add _e_ or _ean_ to the genitive singular; +as, mullach m. _summit_, g. s. mullaich, n. p. mullaichean; otrach m. _a +dunghill_, n. p. otraichean; clarsach f. _a harp_, n. p. clarsaichean; +deudach f. _the jaw_, n. p. deudaichean. So sliabh m. _a moor_, g. s. +sleibh, with _t_ {50} inserted, n. p. sleibhte. Sabhul m. _a barn_, g. s. +sabhuil, n. p. saibhlean, contracted for sabhuilean. + +The following Nouns form their Nominative Plural irregularly: Dia m. _God_, +n. p. d['e]e or diathan; scian f. _a knife_, n. p. sceana or scinichean; +sluagh m. _people_, n. p. sloigh; bo. f. _a cow_, n. p. ba. + + + +_Genitive._ 1. Monosyllables, and nouns which form their nominative plural +like the genitive singular, have the genitive plural like the nominative +singular; as, geug f. _a branch_, g. p. geug; coimhearsnach m. _a +neighbour_, g. s. and n. p. coimhearsnach. + +2. Polysyllables which have their nominative plural in _a_ or _an_, form +the genitive like the nominative; leabhar m. _a book_, n. p. and g. p. +'leabraichean'--When the nominative plural is twofold, the genitive is so +too; as 'fear' n. _a man_, n. p. fir, or sometimes feara, g. p. fear or +feara. + +Cu m. _a dog_ has its g. p. con; caora f. _a sheep_, g. p. caorach; sluagh +m. _people_, g. p. sluagh or slogh. + + + +_Dative._ The dative plural is formed either from the nominative singular +or from the nominative plural. If the nominative plural ends in a +consonant, the dative plural is formed by adding _ibh_ to the nominative +singular; as, crann m. _a tree_, n. p. croinn, d. p. crannaibh; mac m. _a +son_, n. p. mic, d. p. macaibh. If the nominative plural ends in a vowel, +the final vowel is changed into _ibh_; as, tobar _a well_, n. p. tobraiche, +d. p. tobraichibh. + +2. Monosyllables ending in an aspirated consonant, which have their +nominative plural like the genitive singular, form their dative plural like +the nominative plural; as, damh _an ox_, g. s. and n. p. daimh, d. p. +daimh, not damhaibh; fiadh m. _a deer_, g. s. and n. p. and d. p. feidh. So +sluagh m. _people_, _host_, g. s. sluaigh, n. p. and d. p. sloigh. Nouns +ending in _ch_, of three or more syllables, form their dative plural like +the nominative plural, rather than in _ibh_; as, coimhearsnach m. _a +neighbour_, d. p. coimhearsnaich rather than coimhearsnachaibh; phairiseach +m. _a Pharisee_, d. p. phairisich rather than phairiseachaibh. {51} + +_Vocative._ The vocative plural is like the nominative plural, terminating +in _a_, but seldom in _an_; as, fear m. _a man_, n. p. fir or feara, v. p. +_fheara_; oglach m. _a servant_, n. p. _oglaich_, v. p. _oglacha_. Except +perhaps monosyllables which never form their nominative plural in _a_, nor +their dative plural in _ibh_; as, damh m. _an ox_, n. p. daimh, v. p. +dhaimh; a shloigh, Rom. xv. 11. + +The irregular noun Bean f. _a woman_, is declined thus: + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Bean Mnai, mnathan + _Gen._ Mna Ban + _Dat._ Mnaoi Mnathaibh + _Voc._ Bhean. Mhnathan. + + + + SECOND DECLENSION. + + Cealgair, mas. _a deceiver_. + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Nom._ Cealgair Cealgaire + _Gen._ Cealgair Cealgair + _Dat._ Cealgair Cealgairibh + _Voc._ Chealgair. Chealgaire. + + Clais, fem. _a gully_. + + _Nom._ Clais Claisean + _Gen._ Claise Clais + _Dat._ Clais Claisibh + _Voc._ Chlais. Chlaise. + +_Formation of the cases of nouns of the second Declension._ + +_Singular Number._ + +_General Rule for the Genitive._ The genitive of polysyllables is like the +nominative; of monosyllables is made by adding _e_ to the nominative; as, +caraid m. _a friend_, g. s. caraid; aimsir f. _time_, g. s. aimsir; tigh m. +_a house_, g. s. tighe; ainm m. _a name,_ g. s. ainme; im m. _butter_, g. +s. ime; craig f. _a rock_, g. s. craige. {52} + +_Particular Rules for the Genitive._ 1. Feminine nouns in _ail_ and _air_ +drop the _i_ and add _ach_; if the nominative be a polysyllable, _ai_ is +thrown away; as, sail f. _a beam_, g. s. salach; dail f. _a plain_, g. s. +dalach; lair f. _a mare_, g. s. l[`a]rach; cathair f. _a seat_, g. s. +cathrach; nathair f. _a serpent_, g. s. nathrach; lasair f. _a flame_, g. +s. lasrach. To these add c[`o]ir f. _right_, g. s. c[`o]rach or c[`o]ire. + +2. Monosyllables characterised by _oi_ drop _i_ and add _a_; as, feoil f. +_flesh_, g. s. feola; t[`o]in f. _bottom_, g. s. t[`o]na; sr[`o]in f. _the +nose_, g. s. sr[`o]ine or sr[`o]na. + +3. Monosyllables characterised by _ui_ change _ui_ into _a_ or _o_, and add +_a_; as, muir f. _the sea_, g. s. mara; fuil f. _blood_, g. s. fola or +fala; druim f. _a ridge_, g. s. droma. Except s[`u]il f. _the eye_, g. s. +s[`u]la; cuid f. _a part_, g. s. codach or cuid. + +4. A few feminine polysyllables in _eir_ form their genitive like +monosyllables; as, inneir f. _dung_, g. s. inneire; suipeir f. _supper_, g. +s. suipeire. + +5. The following dissyllables seem to have formed their genitive like +monosyllables, and then suffered a contraction. Sometimes the +characteristic vowel is retained, and sometimes it is thrown away, the +final _e_ of the genitive being converted into _a_, when requisite to suit +an antecedent broad vowel. + + Amhainn, f. _a river_, g. s. aimhne, _contracted for_ amhainne + Aghainn } + Aghann } f. _a pan_, g. s. aighne, aghainne + Banais f. _a wedding_, g. s. bainse, banaise + Coluinn f. _the body_, g. s. colna, colla coluinne + Duthaich f. _a country_, g. s. duthcha, duthaiche + Fiacail f. _a tooth_, g. s. fiacla, fiacaile + Gamhuinn m. _a steer_, g. s. gamhna, gamhuinne + Gualainn f. _the shoulder_, g. s. guaille, gualainne + Madainn f. _morning_, g. s. maidne, madainne + Obair f. _work_, g. s. oibre, obaire + Uilinn f. _the elbow_, g. s. uillne, uilinne + +{53} + +6. The following nouns form their genitive by dropping the characteristic +small vowel; athair m. _a father_, g. s. athar; mathair f. _a mother_, g. +s. mathar; brathair m. _a brother_, g. s. brathar; namhaid m. _an enemy_, +g. s. namhad. Cnaimh m. _a bone_, g. s. cnamha; uaimh f. _a cave_, g. s. +uamha. Mil f. _honey_, has g. s. meala. + +7. A few monosyllables ending in a vowel have their genitive like the +nominative; as, ni m. _a thing_, ti m. _a person_, r['e] m. _the moon_; to +which add righ m. _a king_. + +_Dative._ The dative singular is like the nominative; as, duine m. _a man_, +d. s. duine; madainn f. _morning_, d. s. madainn. + +_Vocative._ The vocative singular is like the nominative, as, caraid m. +_friend_, v. s. charaid; mathair f. _mother_, v. s. mhathair. + +_Plural Number._ + +_Nominative.--General Rule._ The nominative plural is formed by adding to +the nominative singular _a_ or _an_, written _e_ or _ean_ to correspond to +a preceding small vowel; as, piobair m. _a piper_, n. p. piobairean; aimsir +f. _time_, _season_, n. p. aimsirean. Some nouns suffer a contraction in +the nominative plural; as, caraid m. _a friend_, n. p. c[`a]irdean; +naimhaid m. _an enemy_, n. p. naimhdean; fiacail f. _a tooth_, n. p. +fiaclan. + +_Particular Rules._ 1. Some nouns, whose last consonant is _l_ or _n_, +insert _t_ in the nominative plural; as, tuil f. _a flood_, n. p. tuilte; +smuain f. _thought_, n. p. smuaintean; coille f. _a wood_, n. p. coilltean; +[`a]ithne f. _a command_, n. p. [`a]ithnte. The _t_ is aspirated in dail f. +_a plain_, n. p. dailthean; sail f. _a beam_, n. p. sailthean. + +2. Some nouns in _air_, chiefly such as form their genitive singular in +_ach_, retain the same syllable in the nominative plural, and insert _i_ +after _a_; as, + + Cathair, f. _a seat_, g. s. cathrach, n. p. cathraichean. + Lasair, f. _a flame_, g. s. lasrach, n. p. lasraichean. + Nathair, f. _a serpent_, g. s. nathrach, n. p. nathraichean. + +{54} So also cuid f. _a part_, from the g. s. codach, has the n. p. +codaichean; athair m. _a father_, n. p. aithrichean; mathair f. _a mother_, +n. p. maithrichean. To which add amhainn f. _a river_, n. p. aimhnichean; +uisge m. _water_, n. p. uisgeachan; cridhe m. _the heart_, n. p. +cridheachan. + +The following nouns form their nominative plural irregularly; duine m. _a +man_, n. p. daoine; righ m. _a king_, n. p. righre; ni m. _a thing_, n. p. +nithe; cliamhuinn m. _a son-in-law_, or _brother-in-law_, n. p. cleamhna. + +_Genitive._ The genitive plural of monosyllables and masculine +polysyllables is twofold, like the nominative singular, and like the +nominative plural; as, righ m. _a king_, g. p. righ or righre. The genitive +plural of feminine polysyllables is like the nominative plural only; as, +amhainn f. _a river_, g. p. aimhnichean. Suil f. _the eye_, has its g. p. +s[`u]l. + +_Dative._ The dative plural is formed from the nominative plural by +changing the final vowel into _ibh_; as, coluinn f. _the body_, n. p. +coluinne, d. p. coluinnibh; cridhe m. _the heart_, n. p. cridheacha, d. p. +cridheachaibh. + +_Vocative._ The vocative plural is like the nominative plural; as, duine m. +_a man_, n. p. daoine, v. p. dhaoine. + +Final _a_ or _e_ in all the singular cases of polysyllables is occasionally +cut off, especially in verse; as, leab _bed_, teang _tongue_, coill _wood_, +cridh _heart_. + +_Of the Initial form of Nouns._ + +In nouns beginning with a consonant, all the cases admit of the _aspirated +form_. In the vocative singular and plural the aspirated form alone is +used, except in nouns beginning with a lingual, which are generally in the +primary form, when preceded by a lingual; as, a sheann duine _old man_. +Nouns beginning with _s_ followed by a mute consonant have no aspirated +form, because _s_ in that situation does not admit of the aspirate. In +nouns beginning with _l_, _n_, _r_, a distinction is uniformly observed in +pronouncing the initial consonant, corresponding precisely to the +distinction of primary and {55} aspirated forms in nouns beginning with +other consonants. This distinction has already been fully stated in +treating of pronunciation. + +The general use of the singular and plural numbers has been already +mentioned. A remarkable exception occurs in the Gaelic. When the numerals +fichead _twenty_, ceud _a hundred_, mile _a thousand_, are prefixed to a +noun, the noun is not put in the plural, but in the singular number, and +admits no variation of case. The termination of a noun preceded by da +_two_, is the same with that of the dative singular, except when the noun +is governed in the genitive case, and then it is put in the genitive +plural[38]; when preceded by fichead, ceud, &c., the termination is that of +the nominative singular; thus da laimh _two hands_, da chluais _two ears_, +d[`a] fhear _two men_, fichead l[`a]mh _twenty hands_, ceud fear _a hundred +men_, m[`i]le caora _a thousand sheep_, deich m[`i]le bliadhna _ten +thousand years_[39]. + + + +CHAPTER III. + +OF ADJECTIVES. + +An adjective is a word used along with a noun, to express some quality of +the person or thing signified by the noun. + +Adjectives undergo changes which mark their relation to other words. These +changes are made, like those on nouns, partly on the beginning, and partly +on the termination, and may be fitly denominated by the same names. The +changes on the beginning are made by aspirating an initial consonant. The +numbers and cases, like those of nouns, are distinguished by changes on the +termination. The gender is marked partly by the initial form, partly by the +termination. + +Adjectives whereof the characteristic vowel is broad, follow, {56} in most +of their inflections, the form of nouns of the first declension, and may be +termed Adjectives of the first declension. Those adjectives whereof the +characteristic vowel is small, may be called Adjectives of the second +declension. + +_Example of Adjectives of the First Declension._ + +M[`o]r, _great_. + + Singular. Plural + _Mas._ _Fem._ _Com. Gend._ + _Nom._ Mor, Mhor, Mora. + _Gen._ Mhoir, Moire, Mora. + _Dat._ Mor, Mhoir, Mora. + _Voc._ Mhoir, Mhor, Mora. + +_Formation of the Cases of Adjectives of the First Declension._ + +_Singular._ + +_Nominative._ The feminine gender is, in termination, like the masculine. + +The other cases, both mas. and fem., are formed from the nominative, +according to the rules already given for forming the cases of nouns of the +first declension. Take the following examples in adjectives:-- + +_Genitive._--_General rule._ Marbh _dead_, g. s. m. mhairbh, f. mairbhe; +dubh _black_, g. s. m. dhuibh, f. duibhe; fadalach _tedious_, g. s. m. +fhadalaich, f. fadalaich. + +_Particular rules._ 1. Sona _happy_, g. s. m. shona, f. sona; aosda _aged_, +g. s. m. and f. aosda; beo _alive_, g. s. m. bheo, f. beo. + +2. Bochd _poor_, g. s. m. bhochd, f. bochd; gearr _short_, g. s. m. ghearr, +f. gearr. + +3. Breagh _fine_, g. s. m. bhreagha, f. breagha. + +4. Crion _little_, _diminutive_, g. s. m. chr[`i]n, f. cr[`i]ne. + +5. Donn _brown_, g. s. m. dhuinn, f. duinne; gorm _blue_, g. s. m. ghuirm, +f. guirme; lom _bare_, g. s. m. luim, f. luime. {57} But dall _blind_, g. +s. m. dhoill, f. doille; mall _slow_, g. s. m. mhoill, f. moille; like the +nouns crann, clann. + +6. Cinnteach _certain_, g. s. m. chinntich, f. cinntich; maiseach +_beautiful_, g. s. m. mhaisich, f. maisich. Tearc _rare_, g. s. m, theirc, +f. teirce; dearg _red_, g. s. m. dheirg, f. deirge; deas _ready_, g. s. m. +dheis, f. deise. Breac _speckled_, g. s. m, bhric, f. brice; geal _white_, +g. s. m. ghil, f. gile. + +7. Geur _sharp_, g. s. m. gh['e]ir, f. g['e]ire; like the nouns breug, +geug. + +8. Liath _hoary_, g. s. m. leith, f. l['e]ithe; dian _keen_, g. s. m. +dh['e]in, f. d['e]ine. + +Irregulars. Odhar _pale_, g. s. m. and f. uidhir; bodhar _deaf_, g. s. m. +bhuidhir, f. buidhir. + +_Dative._--_General rule._ Uasal _noble_, d. s. m. uasal f. uasail; bodhar +_deaf_, d. s. m. bodhar, f. bhuidhir. + +_Particular rule._ 1. Trom _heavy_, d. s. m. trom, f. thruim. + +_Vocative._ Beag _small_, v. s. m. bhig, f. bheag. + +_Plural._ + +In Monosyllables the plural, through all its cases, is formed by adding _a_ +to the nom. sing.; in Polysyllables, it is like the nom. sing.; as, crom +_crooked_, pl. croma; tuirseach _melancholy_, pl. tuirseach. + +A few Dissyllables form their Plural like Monosyllables, and suffer a +contraction; as, reamhar _fat_, pl. reamhra, contracted for reamhara. Gen. +xli. 20. + +_Adjectives of the Second Declension._ + +All the Cases of Adjectives of the Second Declension are formed according +to the general rules for nouns of the second declension; that is, +Monosyllables add _e_ for the gen. sing. fem. and for the plural cases; +Polysyllables are like the nom. sing. throughout. + +In the Second Declension, as in the First, Dissyllables sometimes suffer a +contraction in the plural; as, milis _sweet_, pl. milse contracted for +milise. {58} + +_Of the Initial Form of Adjectives._ + +Adjectives admit the _aspirated form_ through all the Numbers and Cases. In +Adjectives beginning with a Labial or a Palatal, the aspirated form alone +is used in the gen. and voc. sing. masc. the nom. dat. and voc. sing. +feminine. + +_Comparison of Adjectives._ + +There are in Gaelic two forms of Comparison, which may be called the +_First_ and the _Second Comparative_. + +The _First Comparative_ is formed from the gen. sing. mas. by adding _e_; +as, geal _white_, g. s. m. gil, comp. gile, ghile; ciontach _guilty_, g. s. +m. ciontaich, comp. ciontaiche. Some Adjectives suffer a contraction in the +Comparative; as, bodhar _deaf_, comp. buidhre for buidhire; boidheach +_pretty_, comp. boidhche for boidhiche. + +If the last letter of the gen. be _a_, it is changed into _e_, and _i_ +inserted before the last consonant; as, fada _long_, g. s. m. fada, comp. +faide; tana _thin_, g. s. m. tana, comp. taine. + +_The Second Comparative_ is formed from the first, by changing final _e_ +into _id_; as, trom _heavy_, 1. comp. truime, 2. comp. truimid; tiugh +_thick_, 1. comp. tiuighe, 2. comp. tiuighid. Many Adjectives, especially +Polysyllables, do not admit of the Second Comparative. + +Both these forms of Comparison have an _aspirated_ as well as a _primary +form_, but are otherwise indeclinable. + +The following Adjectives are compared irregularly. + + _Positive._ _1. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Math, maith, _good_, fearr, feaird. + Olc, _bad, evil_, miosa, misd. + M[`o]r, _great_, m[`o], m[`o]id. + Beag, _small_, lugha, lughaid. + Goirid, gearr, _short_, giorra, giorraid. + Duilich, _difficult_, dorra. + Teath, _hot_, teoithe, teoithid. + Leathan, _broad_, leatha, l[`e]ithne. + Fogus, _near_, foisge. + {59} + C[`a]irdeach, _akin_, c[`a]ra. + Furas, _easy_, fhusa, + Toigh, _dear_, docha. + Ionmhuinn, _beloved_, annsa, ionnsa. + +To these may be added the nouns-- + +Moran _a great number_ or _quantity_, and Tuilleadh _more_. + +The _Superlative_, which is but a particular mode of expressing comparison, +is the same in form with the First Comparative. + +An eminent degree of any quality is expressed by putting one of the +particles ro, gl['e], before the Positive; as, ro ghlic _very wise_, gl['e] +gheal _very white_. The same effect is produced by prefixing fior _true_, +s[`a]r _exceeding_, &c., which words are, in that case, used adverbially; +as, fior mhaiseach _truly beautiful_, s[`a]r mhaith _exceedingly good_. + +_Cardinal Numbers._ + + 1 Aon, a h-aon, _one_. 40 D[`a] fhichead. + 2 D[`a], a dh[`a] 50 Deich is d[`a] fhichead. + 3 Tri. 60 Tri fichead. + 4 Ceithir. 100 Ceud. + 5 Cuig. 200 D[`a] cheud. + 6 S[`e], sia. 300 Tri ceud. + 7 Seachd. 400 Ceithir cheud. + 8 Ochd. 500 Cuig ceud. + 9 Naoi. 1,000 M[`i]le. + 10 Deich. 2,000 D[`a] mh[`i]le. + 11 Aon deug. 3,000 Tri m[`i]le. + 12 A dh[`a] dheug. 10,000 Deich m[`i]le. + 13 Tri deug. 20,000 Fichead m[`i]le. + 20 Fichead. 100,000 Ceud m[`i]le. + 21 Aon thar fhichead. 200,000 D[`a] cheud m[`i]le. + 22 Dha 'ar fhichead. 1,000,000 Deich ceud m[`i]le, + 23 Tri 'ar fhichead. M[`i]le de mh[`i]ltibh. + 30 Deich 'ar fhichead. &c. &c. + 31 Aon deug thar fhichead. + +{60} + +_Cardinal Numbers joined to a Noun._ + + Of the mas. gender. Of the fem. gender. + + 1 Aon fhear, _one man_. Aon chlach, _one stone_. + 2 D[`a] fhear. D[`a] chloich. + 3 Tri fir. Tri clachan. + 10 Deich fir. Deich clachan. + 11 Aon fhear deug. Aon chlach dheug. + 12 D[`a] fhear dheug. D[`a] chloich dheug. + 13 Tri fir dheug. Tri clachan deug. + 20 Fichead fear. Fichead clach. + 21 Aon fhear thar fhichead. Aon chlach thar fhichead. + 22 D[`a] fhear thar fhichead. D[`a] chloich thar fhichead. + 23 Tri fir fhichead. Tri clacha fichead. + 30 Deich fir fhichead. Deich clacha fichead. + 31 Aon fhear deug 'ar fhichead. Aon chlach dheug thar fhichead. + 40 D[`a] fhichead fear. D[`a] fhichead clach. + 41 Fear is d[`a] fhichead. Clach is d[`a] fhichead. + 42 D[`a] fhear is d[`a] fhichead. D[`a] chloich is da fhichead. + 50 Deich is d[`a] fhichead fear. Deich is da fhichead clach. + 60 Tri fichead fear. Tri fichead clach. + 70 Tri fichead fear agus deich. Tri fichead clach agus deich. + 100 Ceud fear. Ceud clach. + 101 Ceud fear agus a h-aon. Ceud clach agus a h-aon. + 300 Tri cheud fear. Tri cheud clach. + 1,000 M[`i]le fear. M[`i]le clach. + 10,000 Deich m[`i]le fear, &c. Deich m[`i]le clach, &c. + +_Ordinal Numbers._ + + 1 An ceud fhear, _the first man_; a' cheud chlach, _the first stone_. + 2 An dara fear. + 3 An treas fear, an tri-amh fear. + 4 An ceathramh fear. + 5 An cuigeamh fear. + 6 An seathamh fear. + 7 An seachdamh fear. + 8 An t-ochdamh fear. + {61} + 9 An naothamh fear. + 10 An deicheamh fear. + 11 An t-aon fear deug. + 12 An dara fear deug. + 20 Am ficheadamh fear. + 21 An t-aon fhear fichead. + 22 An dara fear fichead. + 31 An t-aon fhear deug thar fhichead. + 40 An d[`a] fhicheadamh fear. + 60 An tri ficheadamh fear. + 100 An ceudamh fear. + 101 An t-aon fhear thar cheud. + 120 Am ficheadamh fear thar cheud. + 200 An da cheudamh fear. + 1000 Am m[`i]leamh fear, &c. + +The following numeral Nouns are applied only to persons:-- + + 2. Dithis, _two persons_. 7. Seachdnar. + 3. Triuir. 8. Ochdnar. + 4. Ceathrar. 9. Naoinar. + 5. Cuignear. 10. Deichnar. + 6. S[`e]anar. + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +OF PRONOUNS. + +The _Pronouns_ are, for the most part, words used instead of nouns. They +may be arranged under the following divisions: Personal, Possessive, +Relative, Demonstrative, Interrogative, Indefinite, Compound. + +The _Personal Pronouns_ are those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons. They have +a Singular and a Plural Number, a Simple and an Emphatic Form. They are +declined thus:-- {62} + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + _Simple Form._ _Emphat. F._ _Simple F._ _Emphat._ + 1. Mi, mhi, _I_, _me_, Mise, mhise. Sinn, _we_, _us_, Sinne. + 2. {Th, thu, _thou_, } Tusa, thusa. Sibh, _ye_, _you_, Sibhse. + {Thu, _thee_, } + 3. {E, se, _he_, } Esan. + {E, _him_, } + {I, si, _she_, } Ise. {Iad, siad, _they_} + {I, _her_, } {Iad, _them,_ } Iadsan[40] + +The Pronoun 'sibh' _you_, of the plural number is used almost universally +in addressing a single person of superior rank or of greater age; while +'tu' _thou_, of the singular number is used in addressing an inferior or an +equal. But the degree of seniority or of superiority, which is understood +to entitle a person to this token of respect, varies in different parts of +the Highlands[41]. The Supreme Being is always addressed by the pronoun +'tu' _thou_, of the singular number. + +The _Possessive Pronouns_ correspond to the Personal Pronouns, and, like +them, may be called those of the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons singular, and 1st, +2d, and 3d persons plural. They have an Emphatic Form, which is made by +connecting the syllable _sa_ with the possessive pronoun of the 1st, 2d, +{63} and 3d persons singular, and 2d person plural; _ne_ with that of the +1st person plural, and _san_ with that of the 3d person plural. These +syllables are placed immediately after the nouns to which the possessive +pronouns are prefixed, and connected by a hyphen. + +These Pronouns are as follow:-- + + _Simple._ _Emphatic._ _Simple._ _Emphatic._ + _Singular._ _Plural._ + 1. Mo, _my_, mo mhac-sa 1. Ar, _our_, ar mac-ne + 2. Do, _thy_, do ----sa 2. Bhur, 'ur, _your_, bhur ----sa + 3. {A, _his_, a mhac-sa, san} 3. An, am, _their_, an, am ----sa, san + {A, _her_, a mac-sa, san } + +If the noun be followed by an adjective, the emphatic syllable is affixed +to the adjective; as, do l[`a]mh gheal-sa _thy white hand_. + +The possessive pronouns mo, do, when followed by a vowel, commonly lose the +_o_, whose absence is marked by an apostrophe; as, m' aimn _my name_; d' +athair[42] _thy father_. The same pronouns when preceded by the preposition +ann _in_, suffer a transposition of their letters, and are written am, ad, +one broad vowel being substituted for another, as, ann ad chridhe _in thy +heart_, 1 Sam. xiv. 7, ann am aire _in my thoughts_. + +The possessive pronoun a _his_, is often suppressed altogether after a +vowel; as, na sanntaich bean do choimhearsnaich, no oglach, no bhanoglach, +no dhamh, no asal, _covet not thy neighbour's wife, or his man-servant, or +his maid-servant_, &c., Exod. xx. 17. In these and similar instances, as +the tense is but imperfectly expressed (especially when the noun begins +with a vowel), and cannot be gathered with certainty from any other part of +the sentence, perhaps it might {64} be an improvement to retain the +pronoun, even at the expense of cutting off the final vowel of the +preceding word; as, n' a oglach, n' a bhanoglaich, &c. In many cases, +however, this appears hardly practicable; as, cha bheo athair _his father +is not alive_, which could not with any propriety be written cha bheo a +athair[43]. + +The word fein corresponding to the English words _self_, _own_, is +subjoined occasionally both to the personal and possessive pronouns: thus +mi fein _myself_, mise fein _I myself_, thu fein _thyself_, thusa fein +_thou thyself_, or _thy own self_, mo shluagh fein _my own people_. + +The other Pronouns are as follow:-- + + _Relative._ _Demonstrative._ _Interrogative._ + _N._ A, _who_, _which_, So, _this_, _these_. Co? _who?_ + _that_. + _G.&D._ An. Sin, _that_, _those_. Cia? _which?_ + Nach, _who not_, Sud[44], ud, _yon_. Ciod, creud? _what?_ + _which not_, + Na, _that which_, + _what_[45]. + + _Indefinite._ _Compound._ + Eigin, _some_. E so, _this one_, m. E sud, _yon one_, m. + Ge b'e } _whoever_[46]. I so, _this one_, f. I sud, _yon one_, f. + Cia b'e } + {65} + Eile, _other_. Iad so, _these_. Iad sud, _yon_, pl. + Gach, } _each_, } E sin, _that one_, m. Cach eile, _the rest_. + Cach, } _every_[47]. } + Cach, _others, the rest_. Iad sin, _those_. Cach a ch['e]ile, + Cuid, _some_. _each other_[48]. + + + +CHAPTER V. + +OF VERBS. + +A word that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer anything, is called a +_Verb_. + +The Verb in Gaelic, as in other languages, is declined by Voices, Moods, +Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. + +The _Voices_ are two: Active and Passive. + +The _Moods_ are five: the Affirmative or Indicative, the Negative or +Interrogative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. Many, +but not all, Transitive Verbs have a Passive Participle. + +The _Tenses_ are three: the Present, the Preterite, and the Future. + +The _Numbers_ are two: Singular and Plural. + +The _Persons_ are three: First, Second, and Third. The {66} distinction of +number and person takes place only in a few tenses. + +The inflections of Verbs, like those of nouns, are made by changes at the +beginning, and on the termination. + +The changes on the termination are made according to one model, and by the +same rules. But for the sake of stating some diversity in the _initial_ +changes, it may be convenient to arrange the verbs in two _conjugations_, +whereof the first comprehends those verbs which begin with a consonant, the +second, those verbs which begin with a vowel. Verbs beginning with _f_, +followed by a vowel, are ranged under the second conjugation, along with +verbs beginning with a vowel. + +The verb Bi _be_, which is used as an auxiliary to other verbs, is declined +as follows:-- + +Bi, _be_. + + _Affirmative_ or _Indicative Mood_. + + Present. Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1. Ta mi, _I am_, Bha mi, _I was_, Bithidh mi, _I will be_, + 2. Ta thu, Bha thu, Bithidh tu, + 3. Ta e; Bha e; Bithidh se; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1. Ta sinn, Bha sinn, Bithidh sinn, + 2. Ta sibh, Bha sibh, Bithidh sibh, + 3. Ta iad. Bha iad. Bithidh siad. + + _Negative_ or _Interrogative Mood_. + + Present. Preterite. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 Bheil mi, _I am not,_ Robh mi, _I was not,_ + ni { 2 Bheil thu, Robh thu, + cha { 3 Bheil e; Robh e; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 Bheil sinn, Robh sinn, + { 2 Bheil sibh, Robh sibh, + { 3 Bheil iad. Robh iad. + +{67} + + Future. + _Sing._ + { Bi mi, _I shall not be_, + ni { Bi thu, + cha { Bi se; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ + &c. { Bi sinn, + { Bi sibh, + { Bi siad. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite or Imperfect. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhithinn, _I would be_, Ma bhitheas mi, _If I shall be_, + 2 Bhitheadh tu, Bhitheas tu, + 3 Bhitheadh e; Bhitheas e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhitheadheamaid, Bhitheas sinn, + Bhitheadh sinn, + 2 Bhitheadh sibh, Bhitheas sibh, + 3 Bhitheadh iad. Bhitheas iad. + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _Sing._ + 1 Bitheam, _let me be_, Bith, _being_, + 2 Bi, bi thusa, do bhith, } _to be_, + 3 Bitheadh e; a bhith, } + gu bhith, } _to be_, + _Plur._ gu bith, } + 1 Bitheamaid, iar bhith,} _after being_, _been_, + 2 Bithibh, iar bith, } + 3 Bitheadh iad. o bhith, _from being_, &c. + +_Compound Tenses._ + + Present. Preterite. Future. + _Affirmative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ _Sing._ + Ta mi iar bith, Bha mi iar bith, Bithidh mi iar bith, + _I have been_, &c. _I had been_, &c. _I shall have been_, &c. + {68} + + _Negative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ _Sing._ + ni, {Bheil mi iar bith, Robh mi iar bith, Bi mi air bith, + &c. {_I have not been._ _I had not been._ _I shall not have been._ + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite or Pluperfect. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhithinn iar bith, Ma bhitheas mi iar bith, + _I should have been, &c._ _If I shall have been, &c._ + +The present affirmative ta is often written tha. This is one of many +instances where there appears reason to complain of the propensity remarked +in Part I. in those who speak the Gaelic, to attenuate its articulations by +aspiration. Another corrupt way of writing ta which has become common, is +ata. This has probably taken its rise from uniting the relative to the +verb; as, an uair _ata_ mi; instead of an uair _a ta_, &c., mar _a ta_, &c. +Or perhaps it may have proceeded from a too compliant regard to a +provincial pronunciation. + +The pret. neg. robh appears to be made up of the verbal participle ro, the +same with do, and bha, throwing away the last vowel; ro bha, robh. + +The verb and pronoun of the 1st per. sing. and 3d per. plur. are frequently +incorporated into one word, and written taim _I am_, taid _they are_. + +The pres. neg. loses the initial _bh_ after the participle cha _not_, mur +_if not_, nach _that not_; _n_ is inserted, _euphoniae causa_, betwixt the +participle cha and the verb; as, cha n 'eil, mur 'eil, nach 'eil. This +Tense is often pronounced beil after the participle am; as, am beil e? _is +it?_ + +In the North Highlands, the pret. neg. often takes the common verbal +participle do before it; as, cha do robh mi, or cha d'robh mi, _I was not_. + +Initial _b_ of the fut. neg. is aspirated after the participle cha _not_; +as, cha bhi. + +Initial _bh_ of the pret. subj. loses the aspiration after the {69} +participles ni _not_, mur _if not_, nach _that not_, gu _that_, nam _if_; +as, mur bithinn, nam bitheadh tu. + +The subjunct. and imper. often suffer a contraction, by changing _ithea_ +into _io_; as, biodh, biom, bios, &c. + +Some of the compound tenses of Bi are rarely if ever used. They are here +given complete, because they correspond to the analogy of other verbs; and +show how accurately the various modifications of time may be expressed by +the substantive verb itself. + +Example of a verb of the First Conjugation. Buail _to strike_. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Simple Tenses. + + _Affirmative_ or _Indicative Moods_. + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Do bhuail mi, _I struck_, Buailidh mi, _I will strike_, + Bhuail mi, + 2 Bhuail thu, Buailidh tu, + 3 Bhuail e; Buailidh se; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuail sinn, Buailidh sinn, + 2 Bhuail sibh, Buailidh sibh, + 3 Bhuail iad. Buailidh siad. + + _Negative_ or _Interrogative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 Do bhuail mi, _I struck not_ Buail mi, _I will not strike_, + ni { 2 Do bhuail thu, Buail thu, + cha { 3 Do bhuail e; Buail e; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 Do bhuail sinn, Buail sinn, + { 2 Do bhuail sibh, Buail sibh, + { 3 Do bhuail iad. Buail iad. + +{70} + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhuailinn, _I would strike_, Ma bhuaileas mi, _If I shall strike_, + 2 Bhuaileadh tu, Bhuaileas tu, + 3 Bhuaileadh e; Bhuaileas e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuaileamaid, Bhuaileas sinn, + Bhuaileadh sinn, + 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, Bhuaileas sinn, + 3 Bhuaileadh iad. Bhuaileas iad. + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _Sing._ + 1 Buaileam, _let me strike_, Bualadh, _striking_, + 2 Buail, ag bualadh, _a-striking_, _striking_, + 3 Buaileadh e; iar bualadh, _struck_, + do bhualadh, } + _Plur._ a bhualadh, } _to strike_, + 1 Buaileamaid, ri bualadh, _at striking_, + 2 Buailibh, le bualadh, _with striking_, + 3 Buaileadh iad. o bhualadh, _from striking_, &c. + +Compound Tenses. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ta mi ag bualadh, Bha mi ag bualadh, Bithidh mi ag bualadh, + _I am striking_, &c. _I was striking_, &c. _I will be striking_, &c. + + {71} + Present. Preterite. Future. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ta mi iar bualadh, Bha mi iar bualadh, Bithidh mi iar bualadh, + _I have struck_, &c. _I had struck_, &c. _I will have struck_, &c. + + _Negative Mood_ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + { Bheil mi ag bualadh, Robh mi ag bualadh, + { _I am not striking_, &c. _I was not striking_, &c. + { + { Future. + { _1. Comp._ + { Bi mi ag bualadh, + ni { _I will not be striking_, &c. + cha { + nach { Present. Preterite, + mur, { _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + &c. { Bheil mi iar bualadh, Robh mi iar bualadh, + { _I have not struck_,&c. _I had not struck,_ &c. + { + { Future. + { _2. Comp._ + { Bi mi iar bualadh, + { _I will not have struck,_ &c. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bhithinn ag bualadh, Ma bhitheas mi ag bualadh, + _I would be striking_, &c. _If I shall be striking_, &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bhithinn iar bualadh, Ma bhitheas mi iar bualadh, + _I would have struck,_ &c. _If I shall have struck_, &c. + {72} + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bitheam ag bualadh, Do bhith ag bualadh, + _Let me be striking,_ &c. _To be striking,_ &c. + Iar bith ag bualadh, + _Been striking,_ &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bitheam iar bualadh, Do bhith iar bualadh, + _Let me have struck,_ &c. _To have been striking,_ &c. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Simple Tenses. + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, _I was struck._ Buailear mi, _I shall be struck._ + Bhuaileadh mi, + 2 Bhuaileadh thu, Buailear thu, + 3 Bhuaileadh e; Buailear e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuaileadh sinn, Buailear sinn, + 2 Bhuaileadh sibh, Buailear sibh, + Bhuaileadh iad. Buailear iad. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 Do bhuaileadh mi, Buailear mi, + { _I was not struck_, _I shall not be struck_, + ni { 2 Do bhuaileadh thu, Buailear thu, + cha { 3 Do bhuaileadh e; Buailear e; + nach { + mur, { _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 Do bhuaileadh sinn, Buailear sinn, + { 2 Do bhuaileadh sibh, Buailear sibh, + { 3 Do bhuaileadh iad, Buailear iad. + +{73} + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhuailteadh mi, _ Ma bhuailear mi, + _I would be struck,_ _If I shall be struck._ + 2 Bhuailteadh thu, Bhuailear thu, + 3 Bhuailteadh e; Bhuailear e; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Bhuailteadh sinn, Bhuailear sinn, + 2 Bhuailteadh sibh, Bhuailear sibh, + 3 Bhuailteadh iad. Bhuailear iad. + + _Imperative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + 1 Buailtear mi, _Let me be struck,_ 1 Buailtear sinn, + 2 Buailtear thu, 2 Buailtear sibh, + 3 Buailtear e. 3 Buailtear iad. + + _Participle._ + Buailte, _struck._ + + Compound Tenses + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ta mi buailte, _I am struck,_ &c. Bha mi buailte, _I was struck,_ &c. + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Bithidh mi buailte, _I shall be struck,_ &c. + +{74} + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Ta mi iar mo bhualadh, Bha mi iar mo bhualadh, + _I have been struck,_ _I had been struck,_ + 2 Ta thu iar do bhualadh, Bha thu iar do bhualadh, + 3 Ta se iar a bhualadh; Bha se iar a bhualadh; + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Ta sinn iar ar bualadh, Bha sinn iar ar bualadh, + 2 Ta sibh iar 'ur bualadh, Bha sibh iar 'ur bualadh, + 3 Ta siad iar am bualadh. Bha siad iar am bualadh. + + Future. + _2. Comp._ + _Sing._ + 1 Bithidh mi iar mo bhualadh, _I shall have been struck._ + 2 Bithidh tu iar do bhualadh, + 3 Bithidh se iar a bhualadh; + + _Plur._ + 1 Bithidh sinn iar ar bualadh, + 2 Bithidh sibh iar 'ur bualadh, + 3 Bithidh siad iar am bualadh. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ni bheil mi buailte, Ni'n robh mi buailte, + _I am not struck,_ &c. _I was not struck,_ &c. + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi buailte, _I shall not be struck,_ &c. + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ni 'm bheil mi iar mo bhualadh, Ni'n robh mi iar mo bhualadh, + _I have not been struck,_ &c. _I had not been struck,_ &c. + {75} + + Future. + _2. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi iar mo bhualadh, _I shall not have been struck,_ &c. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bhithinn buailte, Ma bhitheas mi buailte, + _I would be struck,_ &c. _If I shall be struck,_ &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bhithinn iar mo bhualadh, Ma bhitheas mi iar mo bhualadh, + _I would have been struck,_ &c. _If I shall have been struck,_ &c. + + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bitheam buailte, Do bhith buailte, + _Let me be struck,_ &c. _To be struck,_ &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bitheam iar mo bhualadh, Do bhith iar mo bhualadh, + _Let me have been struck,_ &c. _To have been struck,_ &c. + + + +_Examples of Verbs of the Second Conjugation._ + +Orduich, _to appoint._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Simple Tenses + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirmat._ Dh'orduich, Orduichidh, + _Negat._ D'orduich, Orduich, + _Subjunct._ Dh'orduichinn. Dh'orduicheas. + _Imperat._ Orduicheam. _Infinit._ Orduchadh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirmat._ Dh'orduicheadh, Orduichear, + _Negat._ D'orduicheadh, Orduichear, + _Subjunct._ Dh'orduichteadh. Dh'orduicheas. + _Imperat._ Orduichear. _Particip._ Orduichte. + +{76} + +Folaich, _to hide._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirmat._ Dh'fholaich, Folaichidh, + _Negat._ D'fholaich, Folaich, + _Subjunct._ Dh'fholaichinn. Dh'fholaicheas. + _Imperat._ Folaicheam. _Infinit._ Folachadh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirmat._ Dh'fholaicheadh, Folaichear, + _Negat._ D'fholaicheadh, Folaichear, + _Subjunct._ Dh'fholaichteadh. Dh'fholaichear. + _Imperat._ Folaichtear. _Particip._ Folaichte. + +The Compound tenses may be easily learned from those of the Verb Buail in +the first Conjugation, being formed exactly in the same manner. + + + +FORMATION OF THE TENSES. + +_Of the Initial Form._ + +An Initial Consonant is aspirated in the Preterite Tense, through all the +Moods and Voices, except in the Preterite Subjunctive after the Particles +ni, mur, nach, gu, an, am. An initial Consonant is occasionally aspirated +in the Future Tense, and in the Infinitive and Participle, indicating their +connection with the preceding word. + +In the first Conjugation, do is prefixed to the Pret. Aff. and Neg. Active +and Passive. However, it often is, and always may be, omitted before the +Pret. Aff. It is sometimes omitted in the Pret. Neg. in verse, and in +common conversation. In the second Conjugation, the same Particle do is +prefixed to the Preterite through all the Moods and Voices, and to the Fut. +Subj. excepting only the Subjunctive Tenses after ni, mur, nach, gu, an, +am. In this {77} Conjugation, do always loses the _o_ to avoid a _hiatus_, +and the _d_ is aspirated in the Affirm. and Subjunct. Moods[49]. + +_Of the Termination._ + +In all regular Verbs, the Terminations adjected to the Root are, strictly +speaking, the same in Verbs characterised by a small vowel. But where the +first vowel of the Termination does not correspond in quality to the last +vowel of the Root, it has become the constant practice to insert in the +Termination a vowel of the requisite quality, in order to produce this +correspondence. Thus a variety has been introduced into the Terminations +even of regular Verbs, prejudicial to the uniformity of inflection, and of +no use to ascertain either the sense or the pronunciation[50]. In the +foregoing examples of regular Verbs, the common mode of Orthography has +been followed, but in the following rules the simple Terminations only are +specified. + +ACTIVE VOICE. + +Simple Tenses. + +The Theme or Root of the Verb is always found in the second Per. sing. of +the imperative. + +The _Preterite_ Affirm. and Negat. is like the Root, and has no distinction +of Number or Person. In most of the editions of the Gaelic Psalms, some +inflections of the {78} Preterite have been admitted, with good effect, +from the Irish Verb; such as, bhuaileas _I struck_, bhuailis _thou didst +strike_, bhuaileamar _we struck_, bhuaileadar _they struck_. The Pret. +Subj. is formed by adding to the Root _inn_ for the first pers. sing., and +_adh_ for the other persons. The first pers. plur. also terminates in +_amaid_. + +The _Future_ Affirm. adds _idh_ to the Root; in the Negat. it is like the +Root; and in the Subjunct. it adds _as_. A poetic Future Tense terminating +in _ann_ or _onn_, is frequent in the Gaelic Psalms; as, gairionn _will +call_, seasfann _will stand_, do bheirionn, _will give_, &c. The Future has +no distinction of Number or Person. The Termination of the Future Affirm. +and Negat. in many Verbs was formerly _fidh_, like the Irish; of which many +examples occur in the earlier editions of the Gaelic Psalms. In later +Gaelic publications, the _f_ has been uniformly set aside[51]. The +Termination of the first pers. and third pers. plur. is often incorporated +with the corresponding Pronoun; as, seinnam cliu _I will sing praise_, +Psal. lxi. 8., Ni fuigham b[`a]s, ach mairfam beo, _I shall not die, but +shall remain alive_, Ps. cxviii. 17., Ithfid, geillfid, innsid, _they will +eat_, _they will submit_, _they will tell_, Ps. xxii, 26, 29, 31. [52]. + +{79} + +In the _Imperative_ Mood, the second pers. sing. is the Root of the Verb. +The other persons are distinguished by these Terminations; 1st pers. sing. +_am_, 3d pers. sing. _adh_, 1st pers. plur. _amaid_, 2d pers. plur. _ibh_, +3d pers. plur. _adh_. + +The Terminations peculiar to the 1st pers. sing. and plur. of the Pret. +Subj. and of the Imperat. supply the place of the Personal Pronouns; as +does also the Termination of the 2d pers. plur. of the Imperative. + +The _Infinitive_ is variously formed. + +_General Rule._ The Infinitive is formed by adding _adh_ to the Root; as, +aom _bow, incline_, Infin. aomadh; ith _eat_, Infin. itheadh. + +1. Some Verbs suffer a syncope in the penult syllable, and are commonly +used in their contracted form; as, + + _Imper._ _Infin._ + Caomhain, _spare_, Caomhnadh. + Coisin, _win_, Coisneadh, Cosnadh. + Diobair, _deprive_, Diobradh. + F[`o]gair, _remove_, F[`o]gradh. + Foghain, _suffice_, Foghnadh. + Fosgail, _open_, Fosgladh. + Innis, _tell_, Innseadh. + Iobair, _sacrifice_, Iobradh. + Mosgail, _awake_, Mosgladh. + Seachain, _avoid_, Seachnadh. + Tionsgain, _begin_, Tionsgnadh. + Togair, _desire_, Togradh. + +Observe that Verbs which thus suffer a syncope in forming {80} the +Infinitive, suffer a like syncope in the Preterite Subjunctive, and in the +Imperative Mood; as, innis _tell_, Infin. innseadh, Pret. Subj. innsinn, +innseadh, innseamaid, Imperat. innseam, innseamaid, innsibh. + +2. A considerable number of Verbs have their Infinitive like the Root; as, + + Caoidh, _lament_. Ol, _drink_. + Dearmad, _neglect_. Ruith, _run_. + F[`a]s, _grow_. Snamh, _swim_. + Gairm, _call_. Sniomh, _twine_. + Meas, _estimate_. + +3. Polysyllables in _ch_, whose characteristic Vowel is small, either throw +it away, or convert it into a broad Vowel and add _adh_; as, + + Ceannaich, _buy_, Ceannachadh. + Smuainich, _think_, Smuaineachadh. + +Most Monosyllables in _sg_, and a few others, follow the same Rule; as, + + _Imper._ _Infin._ _Imper._ _Infin._ + Coisg, _check_, Cosgadh. Naisg, _bind_, Nasgadh. + F[`a]isg, _wring_, F[`a]sgadh. Paisg, _wrap_, Pasgadh. + Loisg, _burn_, Losgadh. Blais, _taste_, Blasadh. + Luaisg, _rock_, Luasgadh. Buail, _strike_, Bualadh. + +4. Many Verbs, whose characteristic Vowel is small, either throw it away, +or convert it into a broad Vowel, without adding _adh_; as, + + _Imper._ _Infin._ _Imper._ _Infin._ + Amhairc, _look_, Amharc. Iomain, _drive_, Ioman. + Amais, _reach_, Amas. Leighis, _cure_, Leigheas. + Caill, _lose_, Call. Sguir, _cease_, Sgur. + Ceangail, _bind_, Ceangal. Siubhail, _travel_, Siubhal. + Cuir, _put_, Cur. Tachrais, _wind_, Tachras. + Coimhid, _keep_, Coimhead. Tiondaidh, _turn_, Tiondadh. + Fulaing, _suffer_, Fulang. Toirmisg, _forbid_, Toirmeasg. + Fuirich, _stay_, Fuireach. Toinail, _gather_, Toinal. + Guil, _weep_, Gul. Tionsgail, _contrive_, Tionsgal. + +{81} + +5. The following Verbs in _air_ add _t_ to the Root:-- + + _Imper._ _Infin._ + Agair, _claim_, Agairt. + Bagair, _threaten_, Bagairt. + Casgair, _slaughter_, Casgairt. + Freagair, _answer_, Freagairt. + Iomair, _use_, Iomairt. + Labhair, _speak_, Labhairt. + Lomair, _shear_, Lomairt. + Saltair, _trample_, Saltairt. + Tabhair, _give_, Tabhairt. + Tachair, _meet_, Tachairt. + +6. These Monosyllables add _sinn_ to the Root:-- + + Beir, _bear_, Beirsinn. + Creid, _believe_, Creidsinn. + Faic, _see_, Faicsinn. + Goir, _crow_, Goirsinn. + Mair, _continue_, Mairsinn. + Saoil, _think_, Saoilsinn. + Tr['e]ig, _forsake_, Tr['e]igsinn. + Tuig, _understand_, Tuigsinn, or Tuigeil. + Ruig, _reach_, Ruigsinn, or Ruigheachd. + +7. These Monosyllables add _tuinn_ or _tinn_ to the Root:-- + + Bean, _touch_, Beantuinn. + Buin, _take away_, Buntuinn. + Can, _say, sing_, Cantuinn. + Cinn, _grow_, Cinntinn. + Cluinn, _hear_, Cluinntinn. + Fan, _stay_, Fantuinn. + Gin, _produce_, Giontuinn, or Gionmhuin. + Lean, _follow_, Leantuinn, or Leanmhuin. + Meal, _enjoy_, Mealtuinn. + Pill, _return_, Pilltinn. + Seall, _look_, Sealltuinn. + +{82} + +8. The following Monosyllables add _ail_ to the Root:-- + + _Imper._ _Infin._ _Imper._ _Infin._ + Cum, _hold_, Cumail. Leag, _cast down_, Leagail. + Gabh, _take_, Gabhail. Tog, _raise_, Togail. + F[`a]g, _leave_, F[`a]gail. Tuig, _understand_, Tuigeil. + +9. These Monosyllables add _amh_ to the Root:-- + + _Imper._ _Infin._ + Caith, _spend_, Caitheamh. + Dean, _do, make_, Deanamh. + Feith, _wait_, Feitheamh. + Seas, _stand_, Seasamh. + +10. The following Verbs form the Infinitive irregularly:-- + + Beuc, _roar_, Beucaich. + B[`u]ir, _bellow_, B[`u]irich. + Geum, _low_, Geumnaich. + Glaodh, _cry_, Glaodhaich. + Caisd, _listen_, Caisdeachd. + Eisd, _hearken_, Eisdeachd. + Marcaich, _ride_, Marcachd. + Thig, _come_, Teachd, tighinn. + Faigh, _find_, Faghail, faotainn. + Eirich, _rise_, Eirigh. + Iarr, _request_, Iarraidh. + Taisg, _lay up_, Tasgaidh. + Coidil, _sleep_, Codal. + Fuaigh, _sew_, Fuaghal. + Gluais, _move_, Gluasad, gluasachd. + Tuit, _fall_, Tuiteam. + Teirig, _wear out_, Teireachduinn. + Teasairg, _deliver_, Teasairgin. + +_Compound Tenses._ + +The _compound Tenses of the first order_ are made up of the several simple +Tenses of the auxiliary verb Bi _be_, and the Infinitive preceded by the +Preposition ag _at_. Between two Consonants, ag commonly loses the _g_, and +is written _a'_; as, {83} ta iad a' deanamh _they are doing_. Between two +Vowels, the _a_ is dropped, and the _g_ is retained; as, ta mi 'g iarruidh +_I am asking_. When preceded by a Consonant, and followed by a Vowel, the +Preposition is written entire, as, ta iad ag iarruidh _they are asking_. +When preceded by a Vowel, and followed by a Consonant, it is often +suppressed altogether; as, ta mi deanamh _I am doing_[53]. + +The _compound Tenses of the second order_ are made up of the simple Tenses +of Bi and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition iar _after_[54]. + +PASSIVE VOICE. + +_Simple Tenses._ + +The _Preterite_ Affirm. and Negat. is formed from the same Tense in the +Active, by adding _adh_. The Preter. Subj. adds _teadh_. + +The _Future_ is formed from the Fut. Act. by changing the Terminations in +the Affirm. and Subj. into _ar_, (more properly _far_, as of old) and +adding the same syllable in the Negative. + +The _Imperative_ is formed from the Imperat. Act. by adding to the second +pers. sing. _tar_, _thar_, or _ar_.[55] + +{84} + +The _Participle_ is formed by adding _te_ to the Root[56]. + +There is no distinction of Number or Person in the Tenses of the Passive +Voice. + +Verbs which suffer a syncope in the Infinitive, suffer a like syncope in +the Pret. Aff. and Neg. throughout the Future Tense, and in the Imperative. + +_Compound Tense._ + +The _compound Tenses of the first order_ are made up of the simple Tenses +of the auxiliary Bi and the Passive Participle. + +{85} + +The _compound Tenses of the second order_ are made up of the simple Tenses +of _Bi_ and the Infinitive preceded by the Preposition _iar_ and the +Possessive Pronoun corresponding in Person to the Pronoun, or to the Noun, +which is the Nominative to the verb. + +_Use and Import of the Moods and Tenses._ + +The _Affirmative_ or _Indicative_ Mood expresses affirmation, and is used +in affirmative propositions only, as, Do bhuail mi _I struck_, bha mi ag +bualadh _I was striking_. + +The _Negative_ or _Interrogative_ Mood is used in negative propositions and +interrogative clauses, after the Particles ni _not_, cha _not_, nach _which +not_, _that not_, _not?_ mur _if not_; also, gu, gur, _that_, an, am, +whether used relatively or interrogatively; as, cha d'fholaich mi _I did +not hide_, mur buail sinn _if we shall not strike_, nach robh iad _that +they were not_, gu robh iad _that they were_; am buail mi? _shall I +strike?_ It is used in the Future Tense after ged _although_; as, ged +bhuail e mi, _though he strike me_[57]. + +The _Subjunctive_ Mood is used in the Preterite, either with or without +conjunctions; as, bhuailinn _I would strike_, na'm, mur, nach, &c., +buailinn _if, unless, &c., I should strike_. In the Future it is used only +after the conjunctions ma _if_, o, o'n _since_, and the Relative _a_ +expressed or understood; as, ma bhuaileas mi _if I shall strike_, am fear a +bhuaileas mi _the man {86} who will strike me_, or _the man whom I shall +strike_; an uair a bhuaileas mi, tra bhuaileas mi _the time [in] which I +shall strike, i. e., when I shall strike_; c'uin [cia [`u]ine] a bhuaileas +mi? _what [is] the time [in] which I shall strike? i. e., when shall I +strike?_ + +The _Imperative_ Mood expresses desire, whether purpose, command, or +request; as, buaileam _let me strike_, buailibh _strike ye_. + +The _Infinitive_[58] is, in all respects, a noun, denoting the action or +energy of the verb, and commonly preceded by a Preposition which marks the +time of the action; as, ag bualadh _at striking_, am bualadh _the striking, +the threshing_. It assumes a regular genitive case, bualadh g. s. bualaidh; +as, urlar-bualaidh _a threshing floor_. The Infinitive sometimes loses the +termination, and is regularly declined in its abridged form; thus, +cruinnich _assemble_, inf. cruinneach-adh per. apocop. cruinneach g. s. +cruinnich; hence, [`a]ite-cruinnich _a place of meeting_, Acts xix. 29, 31, +so, fear-criochnaich, Heb. xii. 2, fear-cuidich, Psalm xxx. 10, liv. 4, +ionad-foluich, Psalm xxxii. 7, cxix. 114, litir-dhealaich, Matt. v. 31[59]. + +There is no part of the Active Voice that can, strictly speaking, be +denominated a Participle. The Infinitive preceded by the Preposition ag +_at_, corresponds in meaning to the present Participle; and preceded by iar +_after_, it corresponds to the participle of the past time; as, ag bualadh +_at striking_, or _striking_; iar bualadh _after striking_, or +_struck_[60]. + +{87} + +Many words, expressing state or action, take the Preposition _ag_ before +them, and may be considered as Infinitives of Verbs, whereof the other +parts are not in use; as, ag atharrais _mimicking_, ag g[`a]ireachdaich +_laughing_, a' fanoid, a' magadh _mocking_, _jeering_. + +{88} + +The _Participle_ passive is an adjective, denoting the completion of the +action or energy expressed by the verb; as, arbhar buailte _threshed corn_. + +The _Simple Tenses_ which belong to all verbs are the Preterite or Future, +besides which the verb Bi to _be_, and the defective verb Is I _am_, have a +Present Tense[61]. + +The _Present_ expresses present existence, state, or energy. + +The _Preterite Affirmative_ and _Negative_ expresses past time +indefinitely. The _Preterite Subjunctive_ corresponds to the English Tenses +formed by the auxiliaries _would_, _could_, &c. In general it denotes that +the action or energy of the verb takes place eventually or conditionally. +The Pret. Aff. or {89} Neg. is used sometimes in this sense, like the +English, when the Pret. Subj. occurred in the preceding clause of a +sentence, as, na'm biodh tus' an so, cha d' fhuair mo bhrathair b[`a]s, _if +thou hadst been here, my brother had not [would not have] died_; mur +bitheamaid air deanamh moille bha sinn a nis air pilltinn air ar n-ais, _if +we had not lingered, we had [should have] now returned_, Gen. xliii. 10. + +The _Future_ marks future time indefinitely. This Tense is used in a +peculiar sense in Gaelic, to signify that an action or event takes place +uniformly, habitually, according to ordinary practice, or the course of +nature. Thus; Blessed is he that _considereth_ the poor, expressed +according to the Gaelic idiom, would be, Blessed is he that _will +consider_, &c. A wise son _maketh_ a glad father, in Gaelic would run, A +wise son _will make_, &c. Your patient, I am told, is in a bad way; he +neither _enjoys_ rest, nor _takes_ medicine. Nay, his situation is worse +than you know of; yesterday, he became delirious, and is now almost +unmanageable; he _tosses_ his arms, and _endeavours_ to beat every one +within his reach. In Gaelic, _will enjoy--will take--will toss--will +endeavour_. In like manner, a great many Gaelic Proverbs express a general +truth by means of the Future tense; _e.g._, bithidh d[`u]il ri fear feachd, +ach cha bhi d[`u]il ri fear lic, _There _is_ hope that a man may return +from war, but there _is_ no hope that a man may return from the grave_; +literally, there _will be_ hope--there _will be_ no hope. Teirgidh gach ni +r' a chaitheamh, _every thing_ wears _out in the using_; literally,--_will +wear_ out[62]. + +The _Compound Tenses_ mark different modifications of time, {90} which will +be easily understood by analysing their component parts. + +In the _Active Voice_, the compound tenses of the first order denote that +the action is going on, but not completed at the time specified by the +auxiliary verb, or its adjuncts; as, ta mi ag bualadh, _I am at striking_, +i.e., _I am striking_; bha mi ag bualadh an d['e], _I was striking +yesterday_. + +Those of the second order denote that the action is newly completed and +past, at the time marked by the auxiliary verb; ta mi iar bualadh, _I am +after striking_, i.e., _I have struck_, _Je viens de frapper_; Bha mi iar +bualadh, _I was striking_, i.e., _I had struck_. + +In the _Passive Voice_, the compound tenses of the first order denote that +the action is _finished_ at the time marked by the auxiliary verb; ta mi +buailte, _I am struck_. + +Those of the second order denote that the action is _newly finished_ at the +time marked by the auxiliary[63]; ta mi iar mo bhualadh, _I am after my +striking_, or, _I am after the striking of me_, which has always a passive +signification; that is, it is always understood, from this form of +expression, that _striking_ is the action of some agent different from the +person struck. It is equivalent to _I have been struck_, _Je viens d'etre +frapp['e]_. + +A set of Compound Tenses, of a structure similar to these last, having the +preposition ag, in place of iar, is sometimes used, and in a passive sense, +denoting that the action is _going on_ at the time marked by the auxiliary; +as, tha 'n tigh 'g a thogail, _the house is at its building_, i.e., +_a-building_; sea bliadhna agus da fhichead bha 'n teampull 'g a thogail, +_forty and six years was this temple in building_. John ii. 20, 1 Kings vi. +7. Bha an crodh 'g an leigeadh, _the cows were a-milking_; bidh deudaichean +'g an rusgadh. "Gillies' Collect." p. 82. So {91} in English, the book is +a-printing; the deed's a-doing now, "Douglas," Act 1. + +The following scheme shows the different modifications of time, as +expressed by the several Tenses of the Gaelic Verb, brought together into +one view, and compared with the corresponding Tenses of the Greek Verb in +Moor's Greek Grammar. + + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + _Indicative or Affirmative Mood._ + + Present Tense. + Ta mi ag bualadh, [Greek: tupto], I strike, + or am striking. + + Imperfect. + Bha mi ag bualadh, [Greek: etupton], I was striking. + + Future. + + Buailidh mi } [Greek: tupso], I will strike, + Bithidh mi ag bualadh } or be striking. + + Aorist or Preterite. + Bhuail mi, [Greek: etupsa], I struck. + + Perfect. + Ta mi iar bualadh, [Greek: tetupha], I have struck. + + Pluperfect. + Bha mi iar bualadh, [Greek: etetuphein], I had struck. + + _Interrogative or Negative Mood._ + + Present. + Am bheil mi ag bualadh? Am I striking? + + Imperfect. + An robh mi ag bualadh? Was I striking? + + Future. + Am buail mi? Shall I strike? + + {92} + + Aorist or Preterite. + An do bhuail mi? Did I strike? + + Perfect. + Am bheil mi iar bualadh? Have I struck? + + Pluperfect. + An robh mi iar bualadh? Had I struck? + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Imperfect. + Bhuailinn, } [Greek: etupton an], I would strike. + Bhithinn ag bualadh, } + + Future. + Ma bhuaileas mi, If I shall strike. + + Pluperfect. + Bhithinn iar bualadh, [Greek: etupsa an], I would have struck. + + _Imperative Mood._ + Buaileam, Let me strike. + Buail, [Greek: tupte], Strike. + + _Infinitive Mood._ + Am bualadh, [Greek: to tuptein], The striking. + A' bhualaidh, [Greek: tou tuptein], Of the striking. + Ag bualadh, [Greek: en toi tuptein], A-striking. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Indicative or Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. + Ta mi 'g am bhualadh, [Greek: tuptomai], I am in striking[64]. + + Imperfect. + Bha mi 'g am bhualadh, [Greek: etuptomen], I was in striking. + + {93} + Future. + Buailear mi, } [Greek: tuphthesomai], I shall be struck. + Bithidh mi buailte, } + + Aorist or Preterite. + Bhuaileadh mi, [Greek: etuphthen], I was struck. + + Perfect. + Ta mi buailte, } [Greek: tetummenos eimi], I have been struck. + Ta mi iar mo bhualadh } + Pluperfect. + Bha mi buailte, } [Greek: tetummenos en], I had been struck. + Bha mi iar mo bhualadh} + + _Interrogative or Negative Mood._ + + Future. + Am buailear mi? Shall I be struck? + + Aorist or Preterite. + An do bhuaileadh mi? Was I struck? + + Perfect. + Am bheil mi buailte? } Have I been struck? + Am bheil mi iar mo bhualadh? } + + Pluperfect. + An robh mi buailte? } Had I been struck? + An robh mi iar mo bhualadh? } + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Imperfect. + Bhuailteadh mi, [Greek: etuptomen an], I should be struck. + + Future. + Ma bhuailtear mi, If I shall be struck. + {94} + + Pluperfect. + Bhithinn buailte, } + Bhithinn iar mo } [Greek: etuphthen an], I should have been + bhualadh, } struck. + + _Imperative Mood._ + Buailtear mi, Let me be struck. + Buailtear thu, [Greek: tuptou], Be thou struck. + &c. + + Participle. + Buailte, [Greek: tetummenos] Struck. + +It will afford satisfaction to the grammatical reader, to see how correctly +the various modifications of time, as distinguished and arranged by Mr +Harris, are expressed in the Gaelic verb, by the auxiliaries, bi _be_, and +dol _going_. See _Hermes B. I. c. 7._ + + + Aorist of the Present. + [Greek: Tupto], I strike, ---- + + Aorist of the Past. + [Greek: Etupsa], I struck, Bhuail mi. + + Aorist of the Future. + [Greek: Tupso], I shall strike, Buailidh mi. + + Inceptive Present. + [Greek: Mello tuptein], I am going to strike, Ta mi dol a bhualadh. + + Middle or extended Present. + [Greek: Tunchano tupton], I am striking, Ta mi ag bualadh. + + Completive Present. + [Greek: Tetupha], I have struck, Ta mi iar bualadh. + + ------ + + Inceptive Past. + [Greek: Emellon tuptein], I was going to strike, Bha mi dol a bhualadh. + {95} + + Middle or extended Past. + [Greek: Etupton], I was striking, Bha mi ag bualadh. + + Completive Past. + [Greek: Etetuphein], I had struck, Bha mi iar bualadh. + + ------ + + Inceptive future. + [Greek: Melleso tuptein], I shall be going to Bithidh mi dol a + strike, bhualadh. + + Middle or extended Future. + [Greek: Esomai tupton], I shall be striking, Bithidh mi ag bualadh. + + Completive Future. + [Greek: Esomai tetuphos], I shall have struck, Bithidh mi iar bualadh. + + + +IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. + + Beir, _bear._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do rug, Beiridh. + _Negat._ D' rug, Beir. + _Subjunct._ Bheirinn, Bheireas. + _Imperat._ Beiream. _Infin._ Beirsinn, breith. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do rugadh, Beirear. + _Negat._ D' rugadh, Beirear. + _Subjunct._ Bheirteadh, Bheirear. + _Imperat._ Beirthear. + + {96} + + Cluinn, _hear._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do chuala, Cluinnidh. + _Negat._ Cuala, Cluinn. + _Subjunct._ Chluinnin, Chluinneas. + _Imperat._ Cluinneam. _Infin._ Cluinntinn. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do Chualadh, Cluinnear. + _Negat._ Cualadh, Cluinnear. + _Subjunct._ Chluinnteadh, Chluinnear. + _Imperat._ Cluinntear. + + Dean, _do_ or _make._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do rinn, Ni. + _Negat._ D' rinn, Dean. + _Subjunct._ Dheanainn, Ni. + _Imperat._ Deanam. _Infin._ Deanamh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do rinneadh, Nithear. + _Negat._ D' rinneadh, Deanar. + _Subjunct._ Dheantadh, Nithear. + _Imperat._ Deantar. _Particip._ Deanta. + + Rach, _go._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do chaidh, Th['e]id. + _Negat._ Deachaidh, T['e]id[65]. + _Subjunct._ Rachainn, Th['e]id. + _Imperat._ Racham. _Infin._ Dol. + + {97} + Ruig, _reach._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do rainig, Ruigidh. + _Negat._ D' rainig, Ruig. + _Subjunct._ Ruiginn, Ruigeas. + _Imperat._ Ruigeam. _Infin._ Ruigsinn, ruigheachd. + + Tabhair,[66] _give._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do thug, Bheir. + _Negat._ D' thug, Tabhair. + _Subjunct._ Bheirinn, tabhairinn, Bheir. + _Imperat._ Tabhaiream, thugam. _Infin._ Tabhairt. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do thugadh, Bheirear. + _Negat._ D' thugadh, Tabhairear. + _Subjunct._ Bheirteadh, tugtadh. Bheirear. + _Imperat._ Thugthar. + + Thig, _come._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do thainig, Thig. + _Negat._ D' thainig, Tig[67]. + _Subjunct._ Thiginn, Thig. + _Imperat._ Thigeam. _Infin._ Tighinn, teachd. + +{98} + + + +IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. + + Abair,[68] _say._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Thubhairt, dubhairt, Their. + _Negat._ Dubhairt, Abair. + _Subjunct._ Theirinn, abairinn, Their. + _Imperat._ Abaiream. _Infin._ Radh. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Dubhradh, Theirear. + _Negat._ Dubhradh, Abairear. + _Subjunct._ Theirteadh, abairteadh, Theirear. + _Imperat._ Abairear[69]. + + Faic, _see._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Do chunnaic, Chi. + _Negat._ Faca, Faic. + _Subjunct._ Chithinn, faicinn, Chi. + _Imperat._ Faiceam. _Infin._ Faicsinn. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Do chunnacadh, Chithear. + _Negat._ Facadh, Faicear. + _Subjunct._ Chiteadh, faicteadh, Chithear. + _Imperat._ Faicthear. _Infin._ Faicsinn. + + {99} + Faigh, _get._ + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Preterite. Future. + _Affirm._ Fhuair, Gheibh. + _Negat._ D'fhuair, Faigh. + _Subjunct._ Gheibhinn, faighinn, Gheibh. + _Imperat._ Faigheam. _Infin._ Faghail, faotainn. + + PASSIVE VOICE. + + _Affirm._ Fhuaradh, Gheibhear. + _Negat._ D' fhuaradh, Faighear. + _Subjunct._ Gheibhteadh, faighteadh, Gheibhear. + _Imperat._ Faightear. + +The verbs Tabhair, Abair, Faic, Faigh, have a double Preterite Subjunctive. +The latter form of it, which is derived regularly from the Root, is used +after the same particles which are prefixed to the Negative Mood, _viz._ +ni, cha, nach, mur, gu, an, am. + + * * * * * + +OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. + +The following defective verbs are in common use. + +Arsa _said_, _quoth_, indeclinable; used only in the Pret. Aff. through all +the persons; arsa Donull, _quoth Donald_. + +Tiucainn _come along_, tiucainnibh _come ye along_, used only in the 2d +pers. sing. and plur. of the Imperative. + +Theab mi _I was near to, I had almost_; used through all the persons of the +Pret. Aff. and Neg.; as, theab iad bhith caillte _they had nearly +perished_. + +Is mi _I am_, used in the Pres. and Pret. Tenses, which are declined as +follows:-- {100} + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Is mi, _I am, it is I._ Bu mhi, _I was, it was I._ + 2 Is tu. Bu tu. + 3 Is e. B' e. + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Is sinn. Bu sinn. + 2 Is sibh. Bu sibh. + 3 Is iad. B' iad. + + _Negative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + { 1 mi, _I am not_, &c. Bu mhi, _I was not_, &c. + { 2 tu. Bu tu. + ni, { 3 e. B' e. + cha, { + nach,{ _Plur._ _Plur._ + &c. { 1 sinn. Bu sinn. + { 2 sibh. Bu sibh. + { 3 iad. B' iad. + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Ma 's mi, _If I be, it be I._ Nam bu mhi, _If I were, it were I._ + 2 's tu. Bu tu. + 3 's e. B' e. + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 's sinn. Bu sinn. + 2 's sibh. Bu sibh. + 3 's iad. B' iad. + +The only varieties of form which this Verb admits of, are the two syllables +_is_ and _bu_. Each of these syllables {101} commonly loses the vowel when +it comes in apposition with another vowel. + +It is remarkable, that in the Pres. Neg. the Verb disappears altogether, +and the preceding Particle, ni, cha, nach, gur, &c., and the subsequent +Pronoun, or Noun, are always understood to convey a proposition, or a +question, as unequivocally as though a Verb had been expressed; as, cha tu +_thou art not_, nach e? _is he not? is it not he?_ am mise e? _is it I?_ +cha luchd-brathaidh sinn _we are not spies_, Gen. xlii. 31. Am m[`o] thusa +na Abraham? _Art thou greater than Abraham?_ gur c[`o]ir urnuigh a dheanamh +_that it is proper to pray_, Luke xviii. 1[70]. + +{102} + +OF THE RECIPROCATING STATE OF VERBS. + +Any transitive Verb may be so combined with a Pronoun, either Personal or +Possessive, that it shall denote the agent to be also the object of the +action. This may be called the _reciprocating state_ of the Verb. It is +declined as follows:-- + +Buail thu fein, _strike thyself_. + + ACTIVE VOICE. + + Simple Tenses. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, Buailidh mi mi fein, + Bhuail mi mi fein, _I will strike myself._ + _I struck myself._ + 2 Do bhuail thu thu fein, Buailidh tu thu fein. + 3 Do bhuail se e fein; Buailidh se e fein. + + _Plur._ _Plur._ + 1 Do bhuail sinn sinn fein, Buailidh sinn sinn fein. + 2 Do bhuail sibh sibh fein, Buailidh sibh sibh fein. + 3 Do bhuail siad iad fein. Buailidh siad iad fein. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _Sing._ _Sing._ + cha,{ 1 Do bhuail mi mi fein, Bhuail mi mi fein, + &c. { _I struck not myself._ _I shall not strike myself._ + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Sing._ + 1 Bhuailinn mi fein, 1 Bhuaileas mi mi fein, + _I would strike myself._ _I shall strike myself._ + + {103} + _Imperative Mood._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + 1 Buaileam mi fein, Buaileamaid sinn fein. + _Let me strike myself._ + 2 Buail thu fein. Buailibh sibh fein. + 3 Buaileadh e e fein. Buaileadh iad iad fein. + +_Infinitive Mood._ + + 'g am bhualadh fein, _striking myself_. + 'g ad bhualadh fein, _striking thyself_. + 'g a bhualadh fein, _striking himself_. + 'g ar bualadh fein, _striking ourselves_. + 'g 'ur bualadh fein, _striking yourselves_. + 'g am bualadh fein, _striking themselves_. + iar mo bhualadh fein, _after striking myself_, &c. + gu mo bhualadh fein, _to strike myself_, &c. + + Compound Tenses. + + _Affirmative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, Bha mi 'g am bhualadh fein, + _I am striking myself._ _I was striking myself._ + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Bidh mi 'g am bhualadh fein, + _I will be striking myself._ + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ta mi iar mo, &c. Bha mi iar mo, &c. + _I have struck myself._ _I had struck myself._ + + {104} + Future. + _2. Comp._ + Bidh mi iar mo, &c. + _I shall have struck_, &c. + + _Negative Mood._ + + Present. Preterite. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Ni bheil mi 'g am, &c. Ni robh mi 'g am, &c. + _I am not striking myself._ _I was not striking myself._ + + Future. + _1. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi 'g am bhualadh fein. + _I shall not be striking myself._ + + Present. Preterite. + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Ni bheil mi iar mo, &c. Ni robh mi iar mo, &c. + _I have not struck myself._ _I had not struck myself._ + + Future. + _2. Comp._ + Ni'm bi mi iar mo, &c. + _I shall not have struck myself._ + + _Subjunctive Mood._ + + Preterite. Future. + _1. Comp._ _1. Comp._ + Bhithinn 'g am, &c. Ma bhitheas mi 'g am, + _I would be striking_, &c. _If I shall be striking_, &c. + + _2. Comp._ _2. Comp._ + Bhithinn iar mo, &c. Ma bhitheas mi iar mo, &c. + _I would have struck_, &c. _If I shall have struck_, &c. + + {105} + _Imperative Mood._ _Infinitive Mood._ + + _1. Comp._ Do bhith 'g am bhualadh fein, + _To be striking myself._ + + Bitheam 'g am bhualadh fein, Iar bith 'g am bhualadh fein. + _Let me be striking myself._ _To have been striking myself._ + +From the foregoing example it appears that the Verb, in its reciprocating +state, retains its original form throughout its several Moods, Tenses, and +Persons. In the _simple Tenses_, the Personal Pronoun immediately following +the Verb is the Nominative to the Verb. The same pronoun repeated is to be +understood as in the objective state. The word fein, corresponding to the +English _self_, accompanies the last Pronoun. + +In the _compound Tenses_, the auxiliary Verb, as usual, is placed first; +then follows the Personal Pronoun as its Nominative, then the Prep. _ag_ +abridged to _'g_ in the compound Tenses of the first order, iar in those of +the second order; after which follows the Possessive Pronoun, corresponding +in Person to that which is the Nominative to the Verb; and lastly the +Infinitive, which is the noun to the Possessive Pronoun. Mo and do are here +changed, by Metathesis and the substitution of one broad vowel for another, +into am and ad. Ta mi 'g am bhualadh fein, rendered literally, is, _I am at +my own striking, i.e., I am at the striking of myself_, equivalent to, _I +am striking myself_. The reciprocal fein is sometimes omitted in the +compound Tenses, but is generally retained in the 3d Persons, to prevent +their being mistaken for the same persons when used without reciprocation: +ta e 'g a bhualadh, _he is striking him_, ta e 'g a bhualadh fein, _he is +striking himself_. + +OF THE IMPERSONAL USE OF VERBS. + +Intransitive Verbs, though they do not regularly admit of a Passive Voice, +yet are used _impersonally_ in the 3d Pers. Sing. of the Passive Tenses. +This impersonal use of the Passive of intransitive Verbs is founded on the +same principle with the Latin Impersonals _concurritur_, _pugnatum est_, +{106} &c., which are equivalent to _concursus fit_, _pugna facta est_. So +in Gaelic, gluaisfear leam, _I will move_, Psal. cxvi. 9; gluaisfear leo, +_they will move_, Psal. cxix. 3; ghuileadh leinn, _we did weep_, flebatur a +nobis, Psal. cxxxvii. 1, Edit. Edinb. 1787; cha bhithear saor o pheacadh, +_there wanteth not sin_, Prov. x. 19. + +To the class of Impersonals ought to be referred a certain part of the Verb +which has not yet been mentioned. It resembles in form the Fut. Negat. +Passive; buailear, faicear, faighear, &c. In signification, it is Active, +Present, and Affirmative. In the course of a narrative, when the speaker +wishes to enliven his style by representing the occurrences narrated as +present, and passing actually in view, instead of the Preterite Tenses, he +adopts the Part of the Verb now described, employing it in an impersonal +acceptation, without a Nominative to it expressed. One or two examples will +serve to exhibit the use and effect of this anomalous Tense:--Shuidh an +[`o]g bhean air sgeir, is a s[`u]il air an lear. Chunnaic i long a' teachd +air barraibh nan tonn. Dh' aithnich i aogas a leannain, is chlisg a cridhe +'n a com. Gun mhoille gun tamh, _buailear_ dh' fhios na traighe; agus +_faighear_ an laoch, 's a dhaoine m' a thimchioll. In English thus: The +young woman sat on a rock, and her eye on the sea. She spied a ship coming +on the tops of the waves. She perceived the likeness of her lover, and her +heart bounded in her breast. Without delay or stop, she _hastens_ to the +shore; and _finds_ the hero, with his men around him. Again: Mar sin chuir +sinn an oidhche tharuinn. 'S a' mhadainn dh' imich sinn air ar turus. O bha +sinn 'n ar coigrich anns an tir, _gabhar_ suas gu mullach an t-sleibh, +_direar_ an tulach gu grad, agus _seallar_ mu 'n cuairt air gach taobh. +_Faicear_ thall fa 'r comhair sruth cas ag ruith le gleann cumhann, &c. +Thus we passed the night. In the morning we pursued our journey. As we were +strangers in the land, we _strike_ up to the top of the moor, _ascend_ the +hill with speed, and _look_ around us on every side. We _see_ over against +us a rapid stream, rushing down a narrow valley, &c. {107} + +The scrupulous chastenesss of style maintained in the Gaelic version of the +Sacred Scriptures, has totally excluded this form of expression. It is, +however, universally known and acknowledged, as an established idiom of the +Gaelic, very common in the mouths of those who speak it, and in animated +narration almost indispensable[71]. + +OF AUXILIARY VERBS. + +It has been already shown how bi _be_, is used as an Auxiliary in the +declension of all verbs. There are two other verbs which are occasionally +employed in a similar capacity; the one with an Active the other with a +Passive effect. These are dean to _do_ or _make_, and rach to _go_. + +The simple tenses of dean combined with the Infinitive of any verb, +correspond to the English auxiliary _do_, _did_. It sometimes adds to the +emphasis, but not to the sense. The following are examples of this +Auxiliary combined with the Infinitive of an _Intransitive_ verb:--Rinn e +seasamh _he made standing_, i.e., _he did stand;_ dean suidhe _make +sitting_, i.e., _sit down_; dheanainn gul agus caoidh _I would make weeping +{108} and lamentation_, i.e., _I would weep and lament._ The same +arrangement takes place when the Auxiliary is combined with the Infinitive +of a _Transitive_ verb, accompanied by a possessive pronoun; as, rinn e mo +bhualadh _he made my striking_, i.e., _he made [or caused] the striking of +me_, or, _he did strike me_; cha dean mi do mholadh, _I will not make your +praising_, i.e., _I will not praise you_; dean do gharadh, _make your +warming_, dean do gharadh fein, _make your own warming_, i.e., _warm +yourself._ + +The Simple Tenses of rach, combined with the Infinitive of a transitive +verb, correspond to the Passive Voice of the verb; as, chaidh mo bhualadh +_my striking went_, i.e., _came to pass_, or _happened_, equivalent to _I +was struck_; rachadh do mharbhadh _your killing would happen_, i.e., _you +would be killed._ + +In phrases where either of the auxiliaries dean or rach is combined with a +transitive verb, as above, the possessive pronoun may be exchanged for the +corresponding personal pronoun in the emphatic form, followed by the +preposition _do_ before the Infinitive. The preposition in this case is +attenuated into _a_, which, before a verb of the second conjugation is +dropped altogether. Thus, rinn e mo bhualadh _he struck me_, rinn e mis' a +bhualadh _he struck_ ME, chaidh mo bhualadh _I was struck_, chaidh mis' a +bhualadh _I myself was struck_. In like manner, a noun, or a demonstrative +pronoun, may occupy the place of this personal pronoun; as, chaidh an +ceannard a mharbhadh[72], agus na daoine chur san ruaig, _the leader was +killed, and the men put to flight_; theid am buachaill a bhualadh, agus an +treud a sgapadh, _the shepherd will be smitten, and the sheep scattered_; +is math a chaidh sin innseadh dhuit, _that was well told you_. + +{109} + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +OF ADVERBS. + +An Adverb, considered as a separate part of speech, is a single +indeclinable word, significant of time, place, or any other circumstance or +modification of an action or attribute. The number of simple Adverbs in +Gaelic is but small. Adverbial phrases, made up of two or more words, are +sufficiently numerous. Any adjective may be converted into an adverbial +expression, by prefixing to it the preposition gu _to_; as, f[`i]rinneach +_true_, gu f[`i]rinneach _[corresponding] to [what is] true_, [Greek: kata +to alethes], i.e., _truly_. Adverbs of this form need not be enumerated. It +may be useful, however, to give a list of other adverbs and adverbial +phrases, most commonly in use; subjoining, where it can be done, a literal +translation of their component parts, and also the English expression which +corresponds most nearly to the sense of the Gaelic phrase. + + _Adverbs of Time._ + + A cheana; already, truly. + A chianamh; a little while ago. + A chlisge; quickly, in a trice. + A choidhche, } + Choidh; } for ever. + A nis, } + Nise; } now. + A r[`i]s, } + Rithist; } again. + Ainmic, } + Ainmeach; } seldom. + Air ball; _on [the] spot_, immediately. + Air dheireadh; hindmost. + Air thoiseach; foremost. + Air t[`u]s; in the beginning, at first. + Air uairibh; _at times_, sometimes. + {110} + Am bliadhna; this year. + Am feadh; whilst. + Am feasd; for ever. + Am m[`a]ireach; to-morrow. + An ceart uair; _the very hour_, presently. + An comhnuidh; _in continuation_, continually. + An d['e]; yesterday. + An deigh laimh; _behind hand_, afterwards. + An diugh; _the [present] day_, to-day[73]. + An ear-thrath, } + An iar-thraith; } _the after time_, the day after to-morrow. + An nochd; _the [present] night_, to-night. + An raoir, } + An reidhr; } yesternight. + An sin; _in that [time]_, then. + An trath; _the time_, when. + An tr[`a]th so, } + An tr[`a]s'; } _this time_, at present. + An uair; _the time_, when. + An uiridh; last year. + Aon uair; _one time_, once. + Cia fhada; how long. + Cia minic, } + Cia tric; } how often. + C'uine; _what time_, when. + Do la, } + A la; } by day[74]. + Dh' oidhche; by night[74]. + Do ghn[`a]th; _[according] to custom_, always. + Fa dheoidh; _at the end_, at last. + Fathast, } + F[`o]s; } yet, still. + {111} + Gu br[`a]th[75], } + Gu la bhr[`a]th; } _to the general conflagration_, for ever. + Gu d[`i]linn[75]; _to the expiration of time_, or _till the deluge_, for + ever. + Gu minic; often. + Gu siorruidh; _to ever-flowing_, for ever. + Gu suthainn; for ever. + Gu tric; often. + Idir; at all. + Mar tha; _as it is_, already. + Mu dheireadh; at last. + O cheann tamuill; a while ago. + O chian; _from far_, of old, long ago. + R[`e] seal, } + R[`e] tamuill; } for a time. + Riamh; ever, said of past time only. + Roimh l[`a]imh; before hand. + Uair eigin; some time. + + _Adverbs of Place._ + + A bhos, } + Bhos; } on this side, here below. + A leth taobh; to one side, aside. + A mach, } + A muigh; } without, out. + A mh[`a]n[76]; downwards, down. + An aird; _to the height_, upwards, up. + A nall, } + Nall; } to this side. + A nuas; _from above_, down hither. + A null, } + Null, nunn; } to the other side. + {112} + A thaobh; aside. + Air aghaidh, } + Air adhart; } _on [the] face_, forward. + Air ais; backwards. + Air dheireadh; hindmost. + Air thoiseach; foremost. + Am fad, } + An c['e]in; } afar. + An gar; close to. + An laimh; in hand, in custody. + An sin; _in that [place]_, there. + An so; _in this [place]_, here. + An sud; _in yon [place]_, yonder. + An taice; close adjoining, in contact. + Asteach, } + Astigh; }[77] within, in. + C' [`a]ite; _what place_, where. + Cia an taobh; _what side_, whither. + C' ionadh; _what place_, whither. + Fad as; afar off. + Fad air astar; far away. + Far; where,--relatively. + Fogus, } + Am fogus; } near. + H-uig' agus uaith; to and fro. + Iolar, } + Ioras; } below there, below yonder. + Le leathad; _by a descent_, downwards. + Leis; _along with it_, down a stream, declivity, &c. + Mu 'n cuairt; _by the circuit_, around. + Ri bruthach; _to an ascent_, upwards. + Ris; in an exposed state, bare, uncovered. + Seachad; past, aside. + Sios, a sios; downwards. + Suas, a suas; upwards. + {113} + Shios; below there, below yonder. + Shuas; above there, above yonder. + Tarsuing; across. + Thairis; over. + Thall; on the other side. + Uthard; above there, above yonder. + + Deas[78]; south. + Gu deas; southward. + A deas; from the south. + + Iar[79], } + Siar; } west. + Gus an aird an iar; westward. + O'n iar; from the west. + + Tuath; north. + Gu tuath; northward. + A tuath; from the north. + + Ear, Oir, Soir; east. + Gus an aird an ear; eastward. + O'n ear; from the east. + + _Adverbs of Manner._ + + Air achd; in a manner. + Air a' chuthach, } + Air boile; } distracted, mad. + Air chall; lost. + Air ch[`o]ir; aright. + Air chor; in a manner. + Air chor eigin; in some manner, somehow. + Air chuairt; sojourning. + Air chuimhne; in remembrance. + Air ['e]igin; with difficulty, scarcely. + Air fogradh; in exile, in a fugitive state. + {114} + Air ghleus; in trim. + Air iomadan; adrift. + Air iomroll; astray. + Air iunndrain; amissing. + Air lagh; trimmed for action, as a bow bent, a firelock cocked, &c. + Air leth; apart, separately. + Air seacharan; astray. + Air sgeul; found, not lost. + Amh[`a]in; only. + Amhuil, } + Amhludh; } like as. + Am bidheantas; customarily, habitually. + Am feabhas; convalescent, improving. + An coinnimh a chinn; headlong. + An coinnimh a ch[`u]il; backwards. + An deidh, } + An geall; } desirous, enamoured. + An nasgaidh; for nothing, gratis. + An t[`o]ir; in pursuit. + Araon; together. + As an aghaidh; _out of the face_, to the face, outright. + As a ch['e]ile; loosened, disjointed. + Car air char; rolling, tumbling over and over. + Cia mar; _as how_, how. + C' arson; _on account of what_, why, wherefore. + C' ionnas; _what manner_, how. + Cha, cho; not. + Comhla[80], mar chomhla, } + Cuideachd; } together, in company. + C'uime, for what, why. + Do dheoin, a dheoin; spontaneously, intentionally. + Dh' aindeoin; against one's will. + Do dh[`i]th, a dh[`i]th; a-wanting. + Do r[`i]readh; really, actually, indeed. + {115} + Fa leth; severally, individually. + Gle; very. + Gu beachd; _to observation_, evidently, clearly. + Gu buileach; _to effect_, thoroughly, wholly. + Gu dearbh; _to conviction_, truly, certainly. + Gu deimhin; _to assurance_, assuredly, verily. + Gu leir; altogether. + Gu leor; _to sufficiency_, enough. + Gun amharus; _without doubt_, doubtless. + Gun ch[`a]ird; _without rest_, incessantly, without hesitation. + Leth mar leth; half and half. + Le ch['e]ile; _with each other_, together. + Maraon; _as one_, together, in concert. + Mar an ceudna; in like manner, likewise. + Mar sin; _as that_, in that manner. + Mar so; _as this_, thus. + Mar sud; _as yon_, in yon manner. + Mu seach; in return, alternately. + Na, Nar; let not,--used optatively, or imperatively. + Nach; that not, who not, not? + Ni; not. + Ni h-eadh[81]; it is not so. + Os [`a]ird; openly. + Os barr; _on top_, besides. + Os iosal; secretly, covertly. + Ro; very. + Roimh a cheile; prematurely, too hastily. + Seadh[81]; it is so. + Thar a ch['e]ile, } + Troimh a ch['e]ile; } in disorder, in confusion, stirred about. + Theagamh; perhaps. + Uidh air 'n uidh; _stage by stage_, gradually. + +{116} + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +OF PREPOSITIONS. + +The Prepositions, strictly so called, are single words, most of them +monosyllables, employed to mark relation. Relation is also expressed by +combinations of words which often correspond to simple prepositions in +other languages. These combinations are, not improperly, ranked among the +prepositions. The following lists contain first the Prepositions properly +so called, which are all simple; secondly, improper Prepositions, which, +with one or two exceptions, seem all to be made up of a simple Preposition +and a Noun. + +Proper Prepositions. + + Aig, Ag, _at_. + Air, _on_. + Ann, _in_. + As, A, _out of_. + De, _of_. + Do, _to_ + Eadar, _between_. + Fa, _upon_. + Fuidh, Fo, _under_. + Gu, Gus, _to_. + Gun, _without_. + Iar, _after_. + Le, Leis, _with, by_. + Mar, _like to_. + Mu, _about_. + O, Ua, _from_. + Os, _above_. + Re, Ri, Ris, _to_. + Roimh, _before_. + Tar, Thar, _over, across_. + Tre, } + Troimh, } _through_. + Throimh, } + Seach, _past, in comparison with_. + +The Preposition ann is often written double, ann an eolas, _in knowledge_; +ann an gliocas, _in wisdom_. The final _n_ or _nn_ is changed into _m_ +before a labial; as, am measg, _among_; ann am meadhon, _in midst_. Before +the Article or the Relative, this Preposition is written anns; as, anns an +toiseach, _in the beginning_, an cor anns am bheil e, _the condition in +which he is_; and in this situation the letters _ann_ are often dropped, +and the _s_ alone retained, 's an toiseach, _in the beginning_. + +De, so far as I know, is found in no Scottish publications. The reasons +which have induced me to assign it a place among the prepositions will be +mentioned in treating of the combinations of the Proper Prepositions with +the Personal Pronouns. + +The Preposition _do_, like the verbal particle, and the Possessive Pronoun +of the same sound, loses the _o_ before a vowel, and the consonant is +aspirated; thus, dh' Albainn, _to {117} Scotland_. It is also preceded +sometimes by the vowel _a_ when it follows a final consonant; as, dol a dh' +Eirin, _going to Ireland_. This _a_ seems to be nothing else than the vowel +of _do_ transposed; just as the letters of the pronouns mo, do, are in +certain situations transposed, and become am, ad. In this situation, +perhaps it would be advisible to join the _a_, in writing, to the _dh_ +thus, dol adh Eirin. This would rid us of one superfluous _a_ appearing as +a separate inexplicable word. The same remarks apply to the prep. _de_; +_e.g._, armailt mh[`o]r de dhaoinibh agus _a dh'_ eachaibh, _a great army +of men and of horses_, lan do [de] reubainn agus a dh' aingidheachd, _full +of ravining and wickedness_, Luke xi. 39. Do, as has been already observed, +often loses the _d_ altogether, and is written _a_; as, dol a Dhuneidin, +_going to Edinburgh_. When the preposition is thus robbed of its +articulation, and only a feeble obscure vowel sound is left, another +corruption very naturally follows, and this vowel, as well as the +consonant, is discarded, not only in speaking, but even in writing; as, +chaidh e Dhuneidin, _he went to Edinburgh_; chaidh e th[`i]r eile, _he went +to another land_; where the nouns appear in their aspirated form, without +any word to govern them. + +Fa has been improperly confounded with fuidh or fo. That fa signifies +_upon_, is manifest from such phrases as fa 'n bhord, _upon the board_, +said of a dead body stretched upon a board; leigeader fa l[`a]r, _dropped +on the ground_, Carswell: fa 'n adhbhar ud, _on that account_, equivalent +to air an adhbhar ud, see Psal. cvi. 42, and xlv. 2, metr. version. + +The reason for admitting iar _after_, has been already given in treating of +the Compound Tenses of Verbs in Chap. V. + +The manner of combining these prepositions with nouns will be shown in +treating of Syntax. The manner of combining them with the personal pronouns +must be explained in this place, because in that connection they appear in +a form somewhat different from their radical form. A Proper Preposition is +joined to a Personal Pronoun by incorporating both into one word, commonly +with some change on the Preposition, or on the Pronoun, or on both. + +The following are the Prepositions which admit of this kind of combination, +incorporated with the several Personal Pronouns: {118} + + Prep. Singular. + + _1st Pers._ _2d Pers._ _3d Pers._ + + { m. aige, + Aig, } agam, agad, { _at him;_ + Ag; } _at_. _at me_, _at thee_. { f. aice, + { _at her_. + + { m. air. + { f. oirre. + Air; orm, ort, { uirre. + { orra. + + { m. ann. + Ann; annam, annad, { f. innte. + + { m. as. + As; asam, asad, { f. aisde. + + { m. dheth. + De; dhiom, dhiot, { f. dh'i. + + { dhomh, } { m. dha. + Do; { dhom, } dhuit, { f. dh'i. + + Eadar; ... ... ... + + { m. fodha. + Fo, Fuidh; fodham, fodhad, { f. fuidhpe. + + { m. h-uige. + Gu; h-ugam, h-ugad, { f. h-uice. + + { m. leis. + Le; leam, leat, { f. leatha. + + { m. uime. + Mu; umam, umad, { f. uimpe. + + { m. uaith. + O, Ua; uam, uait, { f. uaipe. + + { m. ris. + Re, Ri; rium, riut, { f. rithe. + + { m. roimhe. + Roimh; romham, romhad, { f. roimpe. + + Thar; tharam, tharad, f. thairte. + + { m. troimhe. + Troimh; tromham, tromhad, { f. troimpe. + + {119} + Plural. + _1st Pers._ _2d Pers._ _3d Pers._ + + Aig, } againn, agaibh, aca, + Ag; } _at_. _at us_. _at you_. _at them_. + + Air; oirnn, oirbh, orra. + + Ann; annainn, annaibh, annta. + + As; asainn, asaibh, asda. + + De; dhinn, dhibh, dhiu. + + Do; dhuinn, dhuibh, dhoibh. + + Eadar; eadarainn, eadaraibh, eatorra. + + Fo, Fuidh; fodhainn, fodhaibh, fodhpa. + + Gu; h-ugainn, h-ugaibh, h-uca. + + Le; leinn, leibh, leo. + + Mu; umainn, umaibh, umpa. + + O, Ua; uainn, uaibh, uapa. + + Re, Ri; ruinn, ribh, riu. + + Roimh; romhainn, romhaibh, rompa. + + Thar; tharuinn, tharuibh, tharta. + + Troimh; tromhainn, tromhaibh, trompa. + +{120} + +In most of these compound terms, the fragments of the Pronouns which enter +into their composition, especially those of the first and second Persons, +are very conspicuous[82]. These fragments take after them occasionally the +emphatic syllables _sa_, _san_, _ne_, in the same manner as the Personal +Pronouns themselves do; as, agamsa _at ME_, aigesan _at HIM_, uainne _from +US_. + +The two prepositions _de_ and _do_ have long been confounded together, both +being written _do_. It can hardly be supposed that the composite words +dhiom, dhiot, &c. would have been distinguished from dhomh, dhuit, &c., by +orthography, pronunciation, and signification, if the Prepositions, as well +as the Pronouns, which enter into the composition of these words, had been +originally the same. In dhiom, &c., the initial Consonant is always +followed by a small vowel. In dhomh, &c., with one exception, it is +followed by a broad vowel. Hence it is presumable that the Preposition +which is the root of dhiom, &c., must have had a small vowel after _d_, +whereas the root of dhomh, &c., has a broad vowel after d. _De_ is a +preposition preserved in Latin (a language which has many marks of affinity +with the Gaelic), in the same sense which must have belonged to the root of +dhiom, &c., in Gaelic. The preposition in question itself occurs in Irish, +in the name given to a Colony which is supposed to have settled in Ireland, +A.M. 2540, called Tuath de Danann. (See Lh. "Arch. Brit." tit. x. _voc._ +Tuath; also Miss Brooke's "Reliques of Irish Poetry," p. 102.) These facts +afford more than a presumption that the true root of the Composite dhiom, +&c., is _de_, and that it signifies _of_. It has therefore appeared proper +to separate it from _do_, and to assign to each its appropriate +meaning[83]. + +{121} + +Dhiom, dhiot, &c., and dhomh, dhuit, &c., are written with a _plain d_ +after a Lingual; diom, domh, &c. + +Eadar is not incorporated with the pronouns of the singular number, but +written separately; eadar mis agus thusa, _between me and thee_. + +In combining _gu_ and _mu_ with the pronouns, the letters of the +Prepositions suffer a transposition, and are written _ug_, _um_. The former +of these was long written with _ch_ prefixed, thus chugam, &c. The +translators of the Scriptures, observing that _ch_ neither corresponded to +the pronunciation, nor made part of the radical Preposition, exchanged it +for _th_, and wrote thugam. The _th_, being no more than a simple +aspiration, corresponds indeed to the common mode of pronouncing the word. +Yet it may well be questioned whether the _t_, even though aspirated, ought +to have a place, if _g_ be the only radical consonant belonging to the +Preposition. The component parts of the word might be exhibited with less +disguise, and the common pronunciation (whether correct or not), also +represented, by retaining the _h_ alone, and connecting it with the +Preposition by a hyphen, as when written before a Noun, thus h-ugam, +h-ugaibh, &c. + + Improper Prepositions. + + Air cheann; _at [the] end_, against a certain time. + Air feadh, } + Air fad; } throughout, during. + Air muin; _on the back_, mounted on. + Air sg[`a]th; for the sake, on pretence. + Air son; on account. + Air t[`o]ir; in pursuit. + Air beulaobh; _on the fore side_, before. + Air culaobh; _on the back side_, behind. + Am fochair; _in presence_. + Am measg; _in the mixture_, amidst, among. + {122} + An aghaidh; _in the face_, against, in opposition. + An ceann; _in the end_, at the expiration. + An comhail, } + An coinnimh; } _in meeting_, to meet. + An cois, } + A chois; } _at the foot_, near to, hard by. + An d[`a]il; _in the rencounter_, to meet. + An diaigh, } + An deigh, } probably for } + An deaghaidh, } an deireadh; } in the end, after. + An d['e]is; } + An eiric; in return, in requital. + Am fianuis, } + An lathair; } in presence. + An lorg; _in the track_, in consequence. + As eugais, } + As easbhuidh; } _in want_, without. + As leth; in behalf, for the sake. + A los; in order to, with the intention of. + Car; during. + Do bhrigh, a bhrigh; _by virtue_, because. + Do ch[`o]ir, a ch[`o]ir; _to the presence_, near, implying motion. + Do chum, a chum[84]; to, towards, in order to. + Do dh[`i]th, a dh[`i]th, } + Dh' easbhuidh; } for want. + Dh' fhios; _to the knowledge_, to. + Dh' ionnsuidh; _to the approach_, or _onset_, toward. + Do r['e]ir, a r['e]ir; according to. + Do thaobh, a thaobh; _on the side_, with respect, concerning. + Fa ch[`u]is; by reason, because. + Fa chomhair; opposite. + Mu choinnimh; opposite, over against. + Mu thimchoill, timchioll; _by the circuit_, around. + O bharr, bharr; _from the top_, off. + Os ceann; _on the top_, above, atop. + {123} + R['e]; _duration_, during. + Tar['e]is; _after_[85]. + Trid; through, by means. + +It is evident, from inspection, that almost all these improper Prepositions +are compounded; and comprehend, as one of their component parts, a Noun, +which is preceded by a simple or Proper Preposition; like the English, _on +account, with respect_, &c. The words ceann, aghaidh, lorg, barr, taobh, +&c., are known to be real Nouns, because they are employed in that capacity +in other connections, as well as in the phrases here enumerated. The case +is not so clear with regard to son, cum, or cun, reir, which occur only in +the above phrases; but it is probable that these are nouns likewise, and +that, when combined with simple Prepositions, they constitute phrases of +precisely the same structure with the rest of the foregoing list[86]. +Comhair is probably comh-aire _mutual attention_. D[`a]il and c[`o]ir, in +the sense of proximity, are found in their compounds comh-dhail and fochair +[fa ch[`o]ir.] T[`o]ir, in like manner, in its derivative t[`o]ireachd, +_the act of pursuing_. Dh' fhios, _to the knowledge_, must have been +originally applied to persons only. So it is used in many Gaelic songs: +beir mo shoiridh le d[`u]rachd dh' fhios na cailinn, &c., _bear my good +wishes with cordiality to the knowledge of the maid_, &c., i.e., _present +my affectionate regards_, &c. This appropriate meaning and use of the +phrase came by degrees to be overlooked; and it was employed, promiscuously +with do chum and dh' ionnsuidh, to signify _unto_ in a more general sense. +If this analysis of the expression be just, then ghios[87] must be deemed +only a different, and a corrupt manner of writing dh' fhios. + +In the improper preposition os ceann, the noun has almost {124} always been +written cionn. Yet in all other situations, the same noun is uniformly +written ceann. Whence has arisen this diversity in the orthography of a +simple monosyllable? And is it maintained upon just grounds? It must have +proceeded either from a persuasion that there are two distinct nouns +signifying _top_, one of which is to be written ceann, and the other +cionn[88]; or from an opinion that, granting the two words to be the same +individual noun, yet it is proper to distinguish its meaning when used in +the capacity of a preposition, from its meaning in other situations, by +spelling it in different ways. I know of no good argument in support of the +former of these two opinions; nor has it probably been ever maintained. The +latter opinion, which seems to be the real one, is founded on a principle +subversive of the analogy and stability of written language, namely, that +the various significations of the same word are to be distinguished in +writing, by changing its letters, the constituent elements of the word. The +variation in question, instead of serving to point out the meaning of a +word or phrase in one place, from its known meaning in another connection, +tends directly to disguise it; and to mislead the reader into a belief that +the words, which are thus presented to him under different forms, are +themselves radically and essentially different. If the same word has been +employed to denote several things somewhat different from each other, that +does by no means appear a sufficient reason why the writers of the language +should make as many words of one[89]. + +{125} + +The use of the _proper Prepositions_ has been already shown in the +composition of adverbial phrases, and of the _improper Prepositions_. The +following examples show the further use of them in connection with Nouns +and Verbs, and in some idiomatic expressions which do not always admit of +being literally rendered in English. + +Ag, aig. + +_At_: aig an dorus, _at the door_; aig an tigh, _at the house, at home_. + +_By reason of_: aig ro mheud aighir 's a sh[`o]lais, _by reason of his +great joy and satisfaction_, Smith's _Seann d[`a]na_, p. 9; ag meud a +mhiann _through intense desire_, Psal. lxxxiv. 2, metr. vers.; ag +lionmhoireachd, Psal. xl. 5. + +Signifying possession: tha tuill aig na sionnaich, _the foxes have holes_; +bha aig duine araidh dithis mhac, _a certain man had two sons_; cha n'eil +fhios agam, _I have not the knowledge of it, I do not know it_. + +Chaidh agam air, _I have prevailed over him_, Psal. xiii. 4, metr. vers. + +Joined to the Infinitive of Verbs: ag imeachd, _a-walking, walking_. + +Air. + +On, upon: air an l[`a]r, _on the ground_; air an l[`a] sin, _on that day_; +air an adhbhar sin, _on that account, for that reason_. + +{126} + +Denoting claim of debt: ioc dhomh na bheil agam ort, _pay me what thou +owest me_, Matt. xviii. 28; cia meud ata aig mo thighearn ortsa? _how much +owest thou unto my lord?_ Luke xvi. 57.[90] + +Denoting an oath: air m' fhocal, _upon my word_; air l[`a]imh d' athar 's +do sheanathar, _by the hand of your father and grandfather_. + +Tha eagal, mulad, sg[`i]os, ocras, &c., air, _he is afraid, sad, fatigued, +hungry_, &c. + +Thig mo bheul air do cheartas, is air do chli[`u], _my mouth shall speak of +thy justice and thy praise_, Psal. xxxv. 28. metr.; thig mo bheul air +gliocas, _my mouth shall speak of wisdom_, Psal. xlix. 3, metr. v.; sin +c[`u]is air am bheil mi nis a' teachd, _that is the matter of which I am +now to treat_. + +Tog ort, _rouse thyself, bestir thyself_, Psal lxxiv. 22, metr. v. + +Chaidh agam air, _I prevailed over him_, Psal. xiii. 4.; metr.; 'S ann +ormsa chaidh, _it was I that was worsted_. + +Thug e am monadh air, _he betook himself to the mountain_. + +_In respect of_: cha 'n fhaca mi an samhuil air olcas, _I never saw their +like for badness_, Gen. xli. 19; air a lughad, _however small it be_. + +_Joined with, accompanied by_: m[`o]ran iarruinn air bheag faobhar, _much +iron with little edge_, McIntyre's Songs. Oidhche bha mi 'n a theach, air +mh[`o]ran b[`i]dh 's air bheagan eudaich, _I was a night in his house, with +plenty of {127} food, but scanty clothing_; air leth laimh, _having but one +hand_. + +Denoting measure or dimension: d[`a] throidh air [`a]irde, _two feet in +height_. + +Olc air mhath leat e, _whether you take it well or ill_. + +Ann, ann an, anns. + +_In.:_ Anns an tigh, _in the house_; anns an oidhche, _in the night_; ann +an d[`o]chas, _in hope_; anns a' bharail sin, _of that opinion_. + +Denoting existence: ta abhainn ann, _there is a river_, Psal. xlvi. 4, +metr.; nach bithinn ann ni 's m[`o], _that I should not be any more_; b' +fhearr a bhi marbh na ann, _it were better to be dead than to be alive_; +ciod a th' ann? _what is it?_ is mise th' ann, _it is I_; mar gu b' ann, +_as it were_; tha e 'n a dhuine ionraic, _he is a just man_; tha i 'n a +bantraich, _she is a widow_[91]. + +Marking emphasis: is ann air eigin a th[`a]r e as, _it was with difficulty +he got off_; an [`a]ite seasamh is ann a theich iad, _instead of standing +(keeping their ground) they fled_; nach freagair thu? fhreagair mi ann, +_will you not answer? I have answered_. + +As. + +_Out of:_ as an d['u]thaich, _out of the country_. + +Denoting extinction: tha an solus, no an teine, air dol as, _the light, or +the fire, is gone out_. + +As an alt, _out of joint_; as a' ghualainn, as a' chruachainn, as an +uilinn, &c., _dislocated in the shoulder, hip, elbow-joint_. + +{128} + +Chaidh e as, _he escaped_. + +Cuir as da, _destroy him_, or _it_. + +Chaidh as da, _he is perished, undone_. + +Thug e na buinn as, _he scampered off_. + +Dubh as, _blot out_. + +De. + +_Of:_ Armailt mh[`o]r de dhaoinibh agus a dh' eachaibh, _a great army of +men and horses_. + +_Off:_ Bha na geugan air an sgathadh dheth, _the branches were lopped off_; +thug iad an ceann deth, _they beheaded him_. + +Dh' aon r[`u]n, _with one consent, with one purpose_; dh' aon bharail, +_with one mind, judgment_. + +A l[`a] agus a dh' oidhche, _i.e._, de l[`a] agus de oidhche, _by day and +by night_. Lat. _de nocte_, Hor. + +Saidhbhreas m['o]r d'a mheud, _riches however great_. Psal. cxix. 14, metr. + +Do. + +_To:_ Tabhair dhomh, _give to me, give me_; thug sinn a bos m[`i]n do +Dhearg, _we gave her soft hand to Dargo_. + +Dh' eirich sud dha gu h-obann, _that befell him suddenly_. Mar sin duinne +gu latha, _so it fared with us till day, so we passed the night_; ma 's olc +dhomh, cha n-fhearr dhoibh, _if it goes ill with me, they fare no better_. + +Latha dhomhsa siubhal bheann, _one day as I travelled the hills_; latha +dhuinn air machair Alba, _one day when we were in the lowlands of Scotland; +on Scotia's plains_. + +Eadar. + +_Between:_ eadar an dorus agus an ursainn, _between the door and the post_. + +Dh' eirich eadar mi agus mo choimhearsnach, _a quarrel arose betwixt me and +my neighbour_. + +{129} Eadar mh[`o]r agus bheag, _both great and small_, Psal. xlix. 2, +metr.; Rev. xix. 5, eadar bhochd agus nochd, _both the poor and the naked_. + +Fa. + +_Upon:_ Fa 'n bh[`o]rd, _upon the board_; leigeadar fa l[`a]r, _was dropped +on the ground, omitted, neglected_. Carswel. Fa 'n adhbhar ud, _on that +account_; creud fa 'n abradh iad? _wherefore should they say?_ + +Fa sheachd, _seven times_, Psal. vii. 6, metr.; fa cheud, _a hundred +times_, Psal. lxii. 9, metr. + +Fuidh, fo. + +_Under:_ Fuidh 'n bh[`o]rd, _under the board_; fuidh bhl[`a]th _in +blossom_; tha an t-arbhar fo dh['e]is, _the corn is in the ear_; fuidh +smuairean, _under concern_; fo ghruaim, _gloomy_; fo mhi-ghean, _in bad +humour_; fuidh mhi-chliu, _under bad report_. + +Denoting intention or purpose: air bhi fuidhe, _it being his purpose_, Acts +xx. 7; tha tighinn fodham, _it is my intention or inclination_. + +Gu, Gus. + +_To:_ O thigh gu tigh, _from house to house_; gu cr[`i]ch mo shaoghail +fein, _to the end of my life_; gus an crion gu luaithre a' chlach, _until +the stone shall crumble to dust_. Sm. Seann d[`a]na. + +A' bhliadhna gus an [`a]m so, _this time twelvemonth, a year ago_; a +sheachduin gus an d['e], _yesterday se'ennight_. + +Mile gu leth, _a mile and a half_; bliadhna gu leth, _a year and a half_. + +Gun. + +_Without:_ Gun amharus, _without doubt_; gun bhrogan, _without shoes_; gun +fhios, _without knowledge, unwittingly_; gun fhios nach faic thu e, _in +case you may see him_, {130} _if perhaps you may see him_; gun fhios am +faic thu e, _if perhaps you may not see him_. Gun chomas aig air, _without +his being able to prevent it, or avoid it_; _involuntarily_. Gniomh gun +chomain, _an unmerited, or unprovoked deed_. Dh' [`a]ithn e dha gun sin a +dheanamh, _he ordered him not to do that_. Fhuair iad rabhadh gun iad a +philltinn, _they were warned not to return_. + +Iar. + +_After_: Iar sin, _after that_; iar leughadh an t-Soisgeil, _after the +reading of the Gospel_; iar tuiteam sios da aig a chosaibh, _having fallen +down at his feet_; bha mi iar mo mhealladh, _I was received_. + +Le, leis. + +_With_: Chaidh mi leis a' chuideachd mh[`o]ir, _I went with the multitude_. + +Denoting the instrument: mharbh e Eoin leis a' chlaidheamh, _he killed John +with the sword_. + +Denoting the agent: thomhaiseadh le Diarmid an torc, _the boar was measured +by Diarmid_. + +Denoting possession: is le Donull an leabhar, _the book is Donald's_; cha +leis e, _it is not his_. + +Denoting opinion or feeling: is fada leam an l[`a] gu h-oidhche, _I think +the day long, or tedious, till night come_; is cruaidh leam do chor, _I +think your case a hard one_; is d[`o]cha leam, _I think it probable_; is +doilich leam, _I am sorry_; is aithreach leis, _he repents_. + +_Along_: leis an t-sruth _along the stream_; leis an leathad, _down the +declivity_. + +Leig leam, _let me alone_; leig leis, _let him alone_. + +Mu. + +_About_: ag iadhadh mu a cheann, _winding about his head_; labhair e mu +Iudas, _he spoke about Judas_; nuair smachduichear duine leat mu 'lochd, +_when thou {131} correctest a man for his sin_, Psal. xxxix. 11, metr.; sud +am f[`a]th mu'n goir a' chorr, _that is the reason of the heron's cry_. +Seann d[`a]na. Sud f[`a]th mu 'n guidheann ort na naoimh, _for this reason +will the saints make supplication to Thee_. + +O. + +_From_: O bhaile gu baile, _from town to town_; o mhadainn gu feasgar, +_from morning to evening_; o 'n l[`a] thainig mi dhachaidh, _from the day +that I came home_; o 'n l[`a], is often abridged into la; as, la thainig mi +dhachaidh, _since I came home_. + +_Since_, _because_: thugamaid uil' oirnn a' bhanais, o fhuair sinn cuireadh +dhol ann, _let us all to the wedding, since we have been bidden to it_. + +Denoting want in opposition to possession, denoted by _aig_: na tha uainn +'s a b' fheairrd sinn againn, _what we want and should be the better for +having_. + +Implying desire: ciod tha uait? _what would you have?_ Tha claidheamh uam, +_I want a sword_. + +Os. + +_Above_: Mar togam os m' uil' aoibhneas [`a]rd cathair Ierusaleim, _if I +prefer not Jerusalem above my chief joy_, Psal. cxxxvii. 6, metr.; os mo +cheann, _above me_, _over me_. + +Ri, ris. + +_To_: cosmhuil ri mac righ, _like to the son of a king_; chuir iad teine +ris an tigh, _they set fire to the house_. + +Maille ri, _together with_. + +Laimh ris a' bhalla, _nigh to the wall_. + +Ri l[`a] gaoithe, _on a day of wind_; ri fad mo r['e] 's mo l[`a], _during +all the days of my life_; ri l[`i]nn Righ Uilliam, _in the reign of King +William_. + +Na bi rium, _don't molest me_. + +Feuch ris, _try it_. + +Cuir ris, _ply your work_, _exert yourself_; cuirear na {132} nithe so +ribh, _these things shall be added unto you_, Matt. vi. 33. Tha an Spiorad +ag cur ruinn na saorsa, _the Spirit applieth to us the redemption_, Assemb. +Sh. Catech. + +_Exposed_: tha an craicionn ris, _the skin is exposed, or bare_; leig ris, +_expose or make manifest_. + +Roimh. + +_Before_: roimh 'n charbad, _before the chariot_; roimh 'n chamhair, +_before the dawn_; roimh na h-uile nithibh, _before, in preference to, all +things_; chuir mi romham, _I set before me, purposed, intended_. + +Imich romhad, _go forward_; dh' fhalbh e roimhe, _he went his way_, _he +went off_. + +Seach. + +_Past_: chaidh e seach an dorus, _he passed by the door_. + +_In comparison with_: is trom a' chlach seach a' chl[`o]ineag, _the stone +is heavy compared with the down_. + +Tar, thar. + +_Over_, _across_: chaidh e thar an amhainn, thar a' mhonadh, _he went over +the river, over the mountain_; tha sin thar m' eolas, thar mo bheachd, &c., +_that is beyond my knowledge, beyond my comprehension_, &c. + +Tre, troimh, throimh. + +_Through_: tre uisge is tre theine, _through water and through fire_. + + + +OF INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. + +The following initial syllables, used only in composition, are prefixed to +nouns, adjectives, or verbs, to modify or alter their signification:-- +{133} + +An[92], Di, Ao, ea, eu, eas, Mi, Neo:--Privative syllables signifying +_not_, or serving to change the signification of the words to which they +are prefixed into its contrary; as, socair _ease_, anshocair _distress_, +_uneasiness_; ciontach _guilty_, dichiontach _innocent_; treabh _to +cultivate_, dithreabh _an uncultivated place_, _a desert_; dionach _tight_, +_close_, aodionach _leaky_; c[`o]ir _justice_, eucoir _injustice_; sl[`a]n +_whole_, _in health_, easlan _sick_; caraid _a friend_, eascaraid _an +enemy_; buidheachas _gratitude_, mibhuidheachas _ingratitude_; claon +_awry_, neochlaon _unbiassed_, _impartial_; duine _a man_, neodhuine _a +worthless unnatural creature_. + +An, ain, intensitive, denoting an immoderate degree, or faulty excess; as, +tighearnas _dominion_, aintighearnas _tyranny_; tromaich _to make heavy_, +antromaich _to make very heavy_, _to aggravate_; teas _heat_, ainteas +_excessive heat_; miann _desire_, ainmhiann _inordinate desire_, _lust_. + +Ais, ath, _again_, _back_; as, eirigh _rising_, aiseirigh _resurrection_; +beachd _view_, ath-bheachd _retrospect_; f[`a]s _growth_, ath-fh[`a]s +_after-growth_. + +Bith, _continually_; as, bithdheanamh _doing continually_, _busy_; am +bithdheantas _incessantly_. + +Co, com, comh, con, _together_, _equally_, _mutually_; as, gleacadh +_fighting_, co-ghleacadh _fighting together_; lion _to fill_, colion _to +fulfil_, _accomplish_; ith _to eat_, comith _eating together_; radh +_saying_, comhradh _conversation, speech_; trom _weight_, cothrom _equal +weight_, _equity_; aois _age_, comhaois _a contemporary_. + +Im, _about_, _round_, _entire_; as, l[`a]n _full_, iomlan _quite complete_; +gaoth _wind_, iomghaoth _a whirlwind_; slainte _health_, iom-shlainte +_perfect health_. + +{134} + +In, or ion, _worthy_: as, ion-mholta _worthy to be praised_: ion-roghnuidh +_worthy to be chosen_, Psal. xxv. 12, metr. vers. + +So, _easily_, _gently_: as, faicsin _seeing_, so-fhaicsin _easily seen_; +sion _weather_, soinion [so-shion] _calm weather_; sgeul _a tale_, soisgeul +_a good tale_, _gospel_. + +Do, _with difficulty_, _evil_; as, tuigsin _understanding_, do-thuigsin +_difficult to be understood_; doinion _stormy weather_; beart _deed, +exploit_. do-bheart _evil deed_. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +OF CONJUNCTIONS. + +Under this class of words, it is proper to enumerate not only those single +Particles which are usually denominated Conjunctions; but also the most +common phrases which are used as Conjunctions to connect either words or +sentences. + + Ach; but. + Agus, is; and. + A chionn gu; because that. + A chum as gu; in order that. + A chum as nach; that not. + Air chor as gu; so that. + Air eagal gu, } + D' eagal gu; } _for fear that_, lest. + Air son gu, } + Du bhrigh gu; } by reason that + Bheil fhios, 'l fhios? _is there knowledge?_ is it known? an expression + of curiosity, or desire to know. + Co; as. + Ged, giodh; although[93]. + {135} + Ged tha, ge ta; _though it be_, notwithstanding. + Gidheadh; yet, nevertheless. + Gu, gur; that. + Gun fhios; _without knowledge_, it being uncertain whether or not, in + case not. + Ionnas gu; insomuch that, so that. + {136} + Ma; if. + Mar; as, like as. + Mar sud agus; so also. + Ma seadh, } + Ma ta; } _if so_, _if it be so_, _then_. + Mur; if not. + Mur bhiodh gu; were it not that. + Mus an, mu 'n; before that, lest. + Na; than. + Nach; that not. + Na'n, na'm; if. + No; or. + O; since, because. + Oir; for. + Os barr; moreover. + Sol, suil; before that. + Tuille eile; further. + Uime sin; therefore. + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +OF INTERJECTIONS. + +The syllables or sounds, employed as expressions of various emotions or +sensations, are numerous in Gaelic, but for the most part provincial, and +arbitrary. Only one or two single vocables, and a few phrases, require to +be noticed under this division. + + Och! Ochan! alas! + Ochan nan och! _alas_ and _well-a-day!_ + Fire faire! what a pother! + Mo thruaighe! _my misery!_ } + Mo chreachadh! _my despoiling!_ } woe's me! + Mo n[`a]ire! _my shame_, for shame! fy! + H-ugad, _at you_, take care of yourself, _gardez-vous_. + Feuch! behold! lo! + + * * * * * + + +{137} + +PART III. + +OF SYNTAX. + +Syntax treats of the connection of words with each other in a sentence; and +teaches the proper method of expressing their connection by the +_Collection_ and the _Form_ of the words. Gaelic Syntax may be conveniently +enough explained under the common divisions of Concord and Government. + + + +CHAPTER I. + +OF CONCORD. + +Under Concord is to be considered the agreement of the Article with its +Noun;--of an Adjective with its Noun;--of a Pronoun with its +Antecedent;--of a Verb with its Nominative;--and of one Noun with another. + +SECTION I. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE ARTICLE WITH A NOUN. + +_Collocation._ + +The article is always placed before its Noun, and next to it, unless when +an Adjective intervenes. + +_Form._ + +The article agrees with its Noun in Gender, Number, and Case. Final _n_ is +changed into _m_ before a plain Labial; as, am baile _the town_, am fear +_the man_. It is usually cut off before an aspirated Palatal, or Labial, +excepting _fh_; as, a' chaora _the sheep_, a' mhuc _the sow_, a' choin _of +the dog_. In the Dat. Sing. initial _a_ is cut off after a Preposition +ending in a Vowel; as, do 'n chloich _to the stone_[94]. + +{138} + +A Noun, when immediately preceded by the Article, suffers some changes in +Initial Form:--1. With regard to Nouns beginning with a Consonant, the +_aspirated_ form is assumed by a mas. Noun in the gen. and dat. singular; +by a fem. noun in the nom. and dat. singular. If the Noun begins with _s_ +followed by a vowel or by a Liquid, instead of having the _s_ aspirated, +_t_ is inserted between the Article and the Noun, in the foresaid cases; +and the _s_ becomes entirely quiescent[95]. 2. With regard to Nouns +beginning with a Vowel, _t_ or _h_ is inserted between the Article and the +Noun in certain Cases, viz. _t_ in the Nom. sing. of mas. Nouns, _h_ in the +gen. sing. of fem. Nouns, and _h_ in the nom. and dat. plur. of Nouns of +either gender. Throughout the other sing. and plur. Cases, all Nouns retain +their Primary form. + +The following examples show all the varieties that take place in declining +a Noun with the Article. + +_Nouns beginning with a Labial or a Palatal._ + + Bard, mas. _a Poet_. + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ am Bard, na Baird, + _G._ a' Bhaird, nam Bard, + _D._ a', 'n Bhard[96]. na Bardaibh. + + Cluas, fem. _an Ear_. + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ a' Chluas, na Cluasan, + _G._ na Cluaise, nan Cluas, + _D._ a', 'n Chluais. na Cluasaibh. + + {139} + _Nouns beginning with f._ + + Fleasgach, m. _a Bachelor._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ am Fleasgach, na Fleasgaich, + _G._ an Fhleasgaich, nam Fleasgach, + _D._ an, 'n Fhleasgach. na Fleasgaich. + + F[`o]id, f. a _Turf._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Fh[`o]id, na Foidean, + _G._ na F[`o]ide, nam F[`o]id, + _D._ an, 'n Fh[`o]id. na Foidibh. + + _Nouns beginning with a Lingual._ + + Dorus, m. _a Door._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Dorus, na Dorsan, + _G._ an Doruis, nan Dorsa, + _D._ an, 'n Dorus, na Dorsaibh. + + Teasach, f. _a Fever._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Teasach, na Teasaichean, + _G._ na Teasaich, nan Teasach, + _D._ an, 'n Teasaich. na Teasaichibh. + + _Nouns beginning with s._ + + Sloc, mas. _a Pit._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Sloc, na Sluic, + _G._ an t-Sluic, nan Sloc, + _D._ an, 'n t-Sloc. na Slocaibh. + + {140} + S[`u]il, fem. _an Eye._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an t-S[`u]il, na Suilean, + _G._ na S[`u]la nan S[`u]l, + _D._ an, 'n t-S[`u]il. na Suilibh. + + _Nouns beginning with a Vowel._ + + Iasg, m. _a Fish._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an t-Iasg, na h-Iasga, + _G._ an Eisg, nan Iasg, + _D._ an, 'n Iasg. na h-Iasgaibh. + + Adharc, f. _a Horn._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ an Adharc, na h-Adhaircean, + _G._ na h-Adhairc, nan Adharc, + _D._ an, 'n Adhairc. na h-Adhaircibh. + +The initial Form of Adjectives immediately preceded by the Article, follows +the same rules with the initial Form of Nouns. + +Besides the common use of the Article as a Definitive to ascertain +individual objects, it is used in Gaelic-- + +1. Before a Noun followed by the Pronouns _so_, _sin_, or _ud_; as, am fear +so, _this man_; an tigh ud, _yon house_. + +2. Before a Noun preceded by the Verb _is_ and an Adjective; as, is maith +an sealgair e, _he is a good huntsman_; bu luath an coisiche e, _he was a +swift footman_. + +3. Before some names of countries; as, righ na Spainne, _the king of +Spain_; chaidh e do 'n Fhrainc, _he went to France_; but righ Bhreatain, +_the king of Britain_; chaidh e dh' Eirin, _he went to Ireland_, without +the Article. {141} + + + +SECTION II. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF AN ADJECTIVE WITH A NOUN. + +_Collocation._ + +When an Adjective and the Noun which it qualifies are in the same clause or +member of a sentence, the Adjective is usually placed after its Noun; as, +ceann liath, _a hoary head_; duine ro ghlic, _a very wise man_. If they be +in different clauses, or if the one be in the subject, and the other in the +predicate of a proposition, this rule does not apply; as, is glic an duine +sin, _that is a wise man_; cha truagh leam do chor, _I do not think your +case unfortunate_. + +1. Numerals, whether Cardinal or Ordinal, to which add, iomadh _many_, gach +_every_, are placed before their Nouns; as, tri lathan, _three days_; an +treas latha, _the third day_; iomadh duine, _many a man_; gach eun g' a +nead, _every bird to its nest_.--Except such instances as the following : +Righ Tearlach a h-Aon, _King Charles the First_; Righ Seumas a Cuig, _King +James the Fifth_. + +2. The possessive pronouns mo, do, &c., are always placed before their +nouns; as, mo lamh, _my hand_. The interrogatives co, cia, &c., are placed +before their nouns, with the article intervening; as, cia am fear? _which +man?_ + +3. Some adjectives of one syllable are usually placed before their Nouns; +as, deadh dhuine, _a good man_; droch ghniomh, _a bad action_; seann +sluagh, _old people_. Such Adjectives, placed before their Nouns, often +combine with them, so as to represent one complex idea, rather than two +distinct ones; and the adjective and noun, in that situation, may rather be +considered as one complex term, than as two distinct words, and written +accordingly; as, oigfhear, _a young man_; ogbhean, _a young woman_; +garbhchriochan, _rude regions_[97]. + +{142} + +_Form._ + +Though a Gaelic Adjective possesses a variety of Forms, yet its Form is not +always determined by the Noun whose signification it modifies. The Form of +the Adjective depends on its Noun, when it immediately follows the Noun, or +only with the intervention of an intensitive Particle, ro, gle, &c., and +when both the Noun and the Adjective are in the Subject, or both in the +Predicate, or in the same clause or member of a sentence. In all other +situations, the form of the Adjective does in no respect depend on the +Noun; or, in other words, the Adjective does not agree with the Noun[98]. + +To illustrate this rule, let the following examples be attentively +considered:--Is beag orm a' ghaoth fhuar, _I dislike the cold wind_; is +beag orm fuaim na gaoithe fuaire, _I dislike the sound of the cold wind_; +is beag orm seasamh anns a' ghaoith fhuair, _I dislike standing in the cold +wind_. In these examples, the Adjective and the Noun are both in the same +clause or member of a sentence, and therefore they must agree together. In +the following examples the Adjective and the Noun do not necessarily agree +together:--Is fuar a' ghaoth ['a] tuath, _cold is the wind from the north_; +is tric leis a' ghaoith ['a] tuath bhi fuar, _it is usual for the wind from +the north to be cold_. In these examples, the Noun is in the Subject, and +the Adjective in the Predicate of the proposition. + +{143} + +The grammatical distinction observable in the following examples is +agreeable to the strictest philosophical propriety:--Rinn mis an scian +gheur, _I made the sharp knife_: here the Adjective agrees with the Noun, +for it modifies the Noun, distinguishing that knife from others. Rinn mis +an scian geur, _I made the knife sharp_: here the Adjective does not agree +with the Noun, for it modifies not the Noun but the Verb. It does not +characterize the _object_ on which the operation is performed, hut it +combines with the Verb in specifying the _nature of the operation_ +performed. The expression is equivalent to gheuraich mi an scian, _I +sharpened the knife_. So also, mhothaich mi a' ghaoth fhuar, _I felt the +cold wind_; but mhothaich mi a' ghaoth fuar, _I felt the wind cold_. In the +former of these examples the Adjective modifies the Noun, and agrees with +it; in the latter it does not agree with the Noun, for its use is to modify +the Verb, or to specify the nature of the sensation felt. In like manner, +dh' fh[`a]g iad an obair criochnaichte, _they left the work finished_; +fhuaradh an [`o]igh s[`i]nte, marbh, _the maid was found stretched out +dead_. And so in other similar instances. + + + +1. When an Adjective and Noun are so situated and related, that an +agreement takes place between them, then the Adjective agrees with its noun +in Gender, Number, and Case. A Noun preceded by the Numeral da _two_, +though it be in the Singular Number, [see conclusion of Part II. Chap I.] +takes an Adjective in the Plural; as, da iasg bheaga, _two small fishes_, +John, vi. 9. The Initial Form of the Adjective depends partly on the Gender +of the Noun, partly on its Termination, and partly on its being preceded by +the Article. + +The following examples of an Adjective declined along with its Noun, +exhibit the varieties in the Initial Form, as well as in the Termination of +the Adjective:-- + +{144} + + MONOSYLLABLES. + + Fear m[`o]r, mas. _a Great Man_. + + _Without the Article._ + + _Sing._ _Plur._ + _N._ Fear m[`o]r, Fir mh[`o]ra, + _G._ Fir mh[`o]ir, Fheara m[`o]ra, + _D._ Fear m[`o]r, Fearaibh m[`o]ra, + _V._ Fhir mh[`o]ir. Fheara m[`o]ra. + + _With the Article._ + + _N._ Am Fear m[`o]r, Na Fir mh[`o]ra, + _G._ An Fhir mh[`o]ir, Nam Fear m[`o]ra, + _D._ An Fhear mh[`o]r. Na Fearaibh m[`o]ra. + + Slat gheal, fem. _a white rod_. + + _Without the Article._ + + _N._ Slat gheal, Slatan geala, + _G._ Slaite gile, Shlatan geala, + _D._ Slait ghil, Slataibh geala, + _V._ Shlat gheal. Shlata geala. + + _With the Article._ + + _N._ An t-Slat gheal, Na Slatan geala, + _G._ Na Slaite gile, Nan Slata geala, + _D._ An t-Slait ghil. Na Slataibh geala. + + POLYSYLLABLES. + + Oglach dileas, m. _a Faithful Servant_. + + _Without the Article._ + + _N._ Oglach dileas, Oglaich dhileas, + _G._ Oglaich dhilis, Oglach dileas, + _D._ Oglach dileas, Oglachaibh dileas, + _V._ Oglaich dhilis. Oglacha dileas. + + {145} + _With the Article._ + + _N._ An t-Oglach dileas, Na h-Oglaich dhileas. + _G._ An Oglaich dhilis, Nan Oglach dileas. + _D._ An Oglach dhileas, Na h-Oglachaibh dileas. + + Clarsach fhonnmhor, f. _a Tuneful Harp._ + + _Without the Article._ + + _N._ Clarsach fhonnmhor, Clarsaichean fonnmhor. + _G._ Clarsaich fhonnmhoir, Chlarsach fonnmhor. + _D._ Clarsaich fhonnmhoir, Clarsaichibh fonnmhor. + _V._ Chlarsach fhonnmhor, Chlarsaiche fonnmhor. + + _With the Article._ + + _N._ A' Chlarsach fhonnmhor, Na Clarsaichean fonnmhor. + _G._ Na Clarsaich fonnmhoir, Nan Clarsach fonnmhor. + _D._ A', 'n Chlarsaich fhonnmhoir, Na Clarsaichibh fonnmhor. + +An Adjective, beginning with a Lingual, and preceded by a Noun terminating +in a Lingual, retains its primary Form in all the Singular cases; for the +sake, it would seem, of preserving the agreeable sound arising from the +coalescence of the two Linguals; as, nighean donn _a brown maid_, instead +of nighean dhonn; a' choin duibh _of the black dog_, instead of a' choin +dhuibh; air a' chois deis _on his right foot_, instead of air a chois +dheis. + +II. A Noun preceded by an Adjective assumes the aspirated Form; as, ard +bheann _a high hill_, cruaidh dheuchainn _a hard trial_. + +1. A Noun preceded by a Numeral is in the primary Form; as, tri meoir +_three fingers_; to which add iomadh _many_, gach _every_; as, iomadh fear +_many a man_; gach craobh _every tree_.--Except aon _one_, da _two_; ceud +_first_; as, aon fhear _one man_, da chraoibh _two trees_. + +2. A Noun preceded by any of the following Possessive Pronouns, a _her_, ar +_our_, bhur _your_, an _their_, is in the primary {146} Form; as, a mathair +_her mother_, ar brathair _our brother_. When the Possessive Pronoun a +_her_, precedes a Noun or an Adjective beginning with a vowel, _h_ is +inserted between them; as, a h-athair, _her father_, a h-aon mhac _her only +son_. The Possessive Pronouns ar _our_, bhur _your_, usually take _n_ +between them and the following Noun or Adjective beginning with a vowel; +as, ar n-athair _our father_, bhur n-aran _your bread_. Perhaps a +distinction ought to be made, by inserting _n_ only after ar, and not after +bhur[99]. This would serve often to distinguish the one word from the other +in speaking, where they are ready to be confounded by bhur being pronounced +ur. + +3. A Noun beginning with a Lingual, preceded by an Adjective ending in _n_, +is in the primary Form; as, aon duine _one man_, seann sluagh _old people_. + + + +SECTION III. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF A PRONOUN WITH ITS ANTECEDENT. + +The Personal and Possessive Pronouns follow the _Number_ of their +Antecedents, _i.e._ of the Nouns which they represent. Those of the 3d +Pers. Sing. follow also the Gender of their antecedent; as, sheas a'bhean +aig _a_ chosaibh, agus thoisich _i air am_ fliuchadh leis _a_ deuraibh, +agus thiormaich _i iad_ le gruaig _a_ cinn, _the woman stood at his feet, +and she began to wet them with her tears, and she wiped them with the hair +of her head_, Luke vii. 38. They follow, however, not the Gender of the +Antecedent, but the sex of the creature signified by the Antecedent, in +those words in which Sex and Gender disagree, as, an gobhlan-gaoithe mar an +ceudn' do sholair nead dh'i fein _the swallow too hath provided a nest for +herself_, Psal. lxxxiv. 3. Gobhlan-gaoithe _a swallow_, is a mas. Noun, as +appears by the mas. Article: but as it is the dam that is spoken of, the +reference is made by the Personal Pronoun of the fem. gender. Ta gliocas +air a fireanachadh leis a cloinn _Wisdom {147} is justified by her +children_, Matt. xi. 19. Gliocas is a mas. noun; but as Wisdom is here +personified as a female, the regimen of the Possessive Pronoun is adapted +to that idea[100]. See also Prov. ix. 1-3. In this sentence Och nach b' i +mhaduinn e, Deut. xxviii. 67, the former pronoun _i_ is correctly put in +the fem. gender, as referring to the fem. noun _maduinn_; while the latter +pron. _e_ is put in the mas. gend. because referring to no expressed +antecedent. + +If the Antecedent be a sentence, or clause of a sentence, the Pronoun is of +the 3d Pers. Sing. masculine; as, dh' ith na b[`a] caola suas na b[`a] +reamhra, agus cha n-aithnichteadh orra _e_, _the lean cattle ate up the fat +cattle, and could not be known by them_. + +If the Antecedent be a collective Noun, the Pronoun is of the 3d Pers. +Plur. as, thoir [`a]ithne do 'n t-sluagh, d' eagal gu m bris _iad_ asteach +_charge the people lest they break in_, Exod. xix. 21. + +An Interrogative combined with a Personal Pronoun, asks a question without +the intervention of the Substantive verb; as, co mise? _who [am] I?_ co iad +na daoine sin? _who [are] those men?_ cia i a' cheud [`a]ithne? _which [is] +the first commandment?_ In interrogations of this form, the noun is +sometimes preceded by the Personal Pronoun, and sometimes not; as, co e am +fear? _who [is] the man?_ co am fear? _what man?_ Co am fear? is evidently +an incomplete sentence, like _what man?_ in English. The ellipsis may be +supplied thus; co e am fear a ta thu ciallachadh? _who is the man whom you +mean?_ This example may be abridged into another common interrogation, in +which the Interrogative is immediately followed by the Relative; as, co a +ta thu ciallachadh? _who [is he] whom you mean?_ ciod a ta thu faicinn? +_what [is it] that you see?_ + +In an interrogative sentence including a Personal Pronoun and a Noun, as, +co e am fear sin? if the Noun be restricted in {148} its signification by +some other words connected with it, such as the Article, an Adjective, +another Noun in the Genitive, or a relative clause, then the Pronoun +usually follows the Gender of the Noun, or the Sex of the object signified +by the Noun, if the Gender does not correspond to it; as, co _e_ am fear a +theid a suas? _who is the man that shall ascend?_ co _i_ am boirionnach +sin? _who is that woman?_ cia _i_ a' cheud [`a]ithne? _which is the first +commandment?_ If the Noun be not _so restricted_, the Pronoun is of the +masculine gender; as, ciod e uchdmhacachd? _what is adoption?_ ciod e +urnuigh? _what is prayer?_[101] + +{149} + + + +SECTION IV. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF A VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. + +As the Verb has no variation of _form_ corresponding to the Person or +Number of its Nominative, the connection between a Verb and its Nominative +can be marked only by its _collocation_. Little variety therefore is +allowed in this respect. The Nominative, whether Noun or Pronoun, is +ordinarily placed after the Verb; as, ta mi _I am_, rugadh duine-cloinne _a +man-child is born_[102]. The Article or an Adjective, is frequently {150} +placed between the Verb and its Nominative; as, thainig an uair, _the hour +is come_; aithrisear iomadh droch sgeul, _many an evil tale will be told_. +Sometimes, but more rarely, circumstances are expressed beween the Verb and +its Nominative; as, rugadh dhuinne, an diugh, ann am baile Dhaibhi, an +Slanuighear, _there is born to us, this day, in David's town, the Saviour_. + +The word denoting the object of the verbal action, can never, even in +poetry, be placed between the Verb and its Nominative, without altering the +sense. Hence the arrangement in the following passages is incorrect:--Ghabh +domblas agus fiongeur iad, _they took gall and vinegar_. "Buch. Gael. +Poems," Edin. 1767. p. 14. The collocation should have been ghabh iad +domblas, &c. Do chual e 'n cruinne-c['e], _the world heard it_, id. p. 15, +ought to have been, do chual an cruinne-c['e] e. So also, do ghabh +truaighe, Iosa dhoibh, _Jesus took pity {151} on them_. Matt. xx. 34, Irish +vers. It ought to have been, do ghabh Iosa truaighe, &c.[103]. + +The Relatives a _who_, nach _who not_, are always put before the verb; as, +am fear a thuit, _the man who fell_; am fear nach dean beud, _the man who +will not commit a fault_. + +In poetry, or poetical style, where inversion is allowed, the Nominative is +sometimes placed before the Verb; as doimhneachd na talmhain ta 'n a laimh, +_in his hand is the depth of the earth_. Psal. xcv. 4. + + Oigh cha tig le cl[`a]r 'n an comhdhail, + _No virgin with harp will come to meet them._ + Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 285. + + Gach doire, gach coire, 's gach eas, + Bheir a' m' chuimhne cneas mo Ghraidh. + +_Each grove, each dell, and each water-fall, will bring to my remembrance +the form of my love._ Id. p. 30. + + An la sin cha tigh gu br[`a]th, + A bheir dearrsa mo ghraidh gu tuath. + +_That day shall never come, which shall bring the sun-beam of my love to +the North._ Fingal II. 192. + + Am focail geilleam do Mhorlamh; + Mo lann do neach beo cha gheill. + +_In words I yield to Morla; my sword to no living man shall yield._ Fing. +II. 203. This inversion is never admitted into plain discourse or +unimpassioned narrative. + +In those Persons of the Verb in which the terminations supply the place of +the Personal Pronouns, no Nominative is expressed along with the Verb. In +all the other Persons of the Verb, a Noun or a Pronoun is commonly +expressed as its Nominative. In sentences of a poetical structure, the +Nominative is sometimes, though rarely, omitted; as, am fear nach {152} +gabh 'nuair gheibh, cha 'n fhaigh 'nuair 's aill, _the man who will not +take when [he] can get, will not get when [he] wishes_. + + A Gharna, cuim a sheas? a Ghuill, cuim a thuit? + _Garno, why stoodst? Gaul, why didst fall?_ + Smith's "Ant. Gal. Poems," p. 153. + +The Infinitive often takes before it the Nominative of the Agent; in which +case the Preposition _do_ is either expressed or understood before the +Infinitive; as, feuch, cia meud a mhaith, braithre do bhi 'n an comhnuidh +ann sith! _behold how great a good it is, that brethren dwell in peace!_ +Psal. cxxxiii, 1. Is e mi dh' fhantuinn 's an fheoil, a 's feumaile +dhuibhse, _my abiding in the flesh is more needful for you_, Phil. i. 24, +Cha n'eil e iomchuidh sinne dh' fhagail focail D['e], agus a fhrithealadh +do bhordaibh, _it is not meet that we should leave the word of God, and +serve tables_, Acts vi. 2. The Preposition _do_, being softened as usual +into _a_, readily disappears after a Vowel; as, air son mi bhi a r[`i]s a +lath[`a]ir maille ribh, _by my being again present with you_, Phil. i. +26[104]. + + + +SECTION V. + +OF THE AGREEMENT OF ONE NOUN WITH ANOTHER. + +When in the same sentence two or more Nouns, applied as names to the same +object, stand in the same grammatical relation to other words, it should +naturally be expected that their Form, in so far as it depends on that +relation, should be the same; in other words, that Nouns denoting the same +object, and related alike to the governing word, should agree in Case. This +accordingly happens in Greek and Latin. In Gaelic, where a variety of form +gives room for the application of the same rule, it has been followed in +some instances; as, Doncha mac Chailain mhic Dhonuil, _Duncan the son of +{153} Colin the son of Donald_; where the words Chailain and mhic denoting +the same person, and being alike related to the preceding Noun mac are on +that account both in the same Case. It must be acknowledged, however, that +this rule, obvious and natural as it is, has not been uniformly observed by +the speakers of Gaelic. For example; instead of mac Ioseiph an t-saoir, +_the son of Joseph the carpenter_, many would more readily say, mac Ioseiph +an saor; instead of thuit e le laimh Oscair an laoich chruadalaich, _he +fell by the hand of Oscar the bold hero_, it would rather be said, thuit e +le laimh Oscair an laoch cruadalach. The latter of these two modes of +expression may perhaps be defended on the ground of its being elliptical; +and the ellipsis may be supplied thus: mac Ioseiph [is e sin] an saor; +laimh Oscair [neach is e] an laoch cruadalach. Still it must be allowed, in +favour of the rule in question, that the observance of it serves to mark +the relation of the Nouns to each other, which would otherwise remain, in +many instances, doubtful. Thus in one of the foregoing examples, if we +should reject the rule, and write mac Ioseiph an saor; it would be +impossible to know, from the form of the words, whether Joseph or his son +were the carpenter. + +The translators of the Scriptures into Gaelic, induced probably by the +reasonableness and utility of the rule under consideration, by the example +of the most polished Tongues, and by the usage of the Gaelic itself in some +phrases, have uniformly adhered to this rule when the leading Noun was in +the Genitive; as, do mhacaibh Bharsillai a' Ghileadaich, 1 Kings ii. 7; +righ-chathair Dhaibhi athar, 1 Kings ii. 12; do thaobh Bheniamin am +brathar, Judg. xxi. 6; ag gabhail nan clar chloiche, eadhon chlar a' +cho-cheangail, Deut. ix. 9. The rule seems to have been disregarded when +the leading Noun was in the Dative. See 1 Kings i. 25, Ruth iv. 5, Acts +xiii. 33. {154} + + + +CHAPTER II. + +OF GOVERNMENT. + +Under this head is to be explained the Government of Nouns, of Adjectives, +of Verbs, of Prepositions, and of Conjunctions. + + + +SECTION I. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF NOUNS. + +One Noun governs another in the Genitive. The Noun governed is always +placed after that which governs it; as, ceann tighe, _the head of a house +or family_; solus na gr['e]ine, _light of the sun_; bainne ghabhar _milk of +goats_. + +The Infinitives of Transitive Verbs, being themselves Nouns, (See Part II. +Chap. V. p. 86.) govern in like manner the Genitive of their object; as, ag +cur s[`i]l, _sowing seed_; a dh' fhaicinn an t-sluaigh, _to see the +people_; iar leughadh an t-soisgeil, _after reading the gospel_[105]. + +Although no good reason appears why this rule, which is common to the +Gaelic with many other languages, should ever be set aside, yet it has been +set aside in speaking, and sometimes in writing Gaelic. + +1. When the Noun governed does in its turn govern another Noun in the +Genitive, the former is often put in the Nominative instead of the Genitive +case. The following instances of this anomaly occur in the Gaelic +Scriptures:--Guth briathran an t-sluaigh, instead of, bhriathran, _the +voice of the words of the people_, Deut. v. 28; do mheas craobhan a' +gharaidh, instead of, chraobhan, _of the fruit of the trees of the garden_, +{155} Gen. iii. 2; ag itheadh tighean bhantrach, for thighean, _devouring +widows' houses_, Matt. xxiii. 14; ag nochdadh obair an lagha, for oibre, +_showing the work of the law_, Rom. ii. 15; ag cuimhneachadh gun sgur obair +bhur creidimh, agus saothair bhur graidh, for oibre, saoithreach, +_remembering without ceasing your work of faith, and labour of love_, 1 +Thess. i. 3; trid fuil is fearta Chriost, _through the blood and merits of +Christ_, Gael. Paraph. 1787, p. 381, for trid fola Chriost, as in Eph. ii. +13; ag [`a]iteach sliabh Shioin, for sleibh, _inhabiting the hill of Zion_, +Psal. ix. 11. metr; air son obair Chriosd, Phil. ii. 30, 1767, according to +the usage of the language, but changed to oibre, in Edit. 1796, to suit the +Grammatical Rule[106]. For the most part, however, the general rule, even +in these circumstances, is followed; as, guth fola do bhrathar, _the voice +of thy brother's blood_, Gen. iv. 10; amhainn duthcha cloinne a shluaigh +_the river of the land of the children of his people_, Numb. xxii. 5; a' +nigheadh chos sheirbhiseach mo thighearna, _to wash the feet of the +servants of my lord_, 1 Sam. xxv. 41. + +2. Such expressions as the following seem to be exceptions to the +rule:--Dithis mac, 2 Sam. xv. 27, 36; ceathrar mac, 1 Chron. xxi. 20; +leanabaibh mac, Matt. ii. 16. In the following similar instances, the rule +is observed:--Dithis mhac, Gen. xli. 50; dithis fhear, 2 Sam. xii. 1; +ceathrar fhear, Acts xxi. 23; ceathrar mhaighdiona, Acts xxi. 9. + +The same anomaly takes place in the regimen of the infinitive, as in that +of other Nouns. Though an Infinitive be in that grammatical relation to a +preceding Noun which would require its being put in the Genitive, yet when +itself also governs another noun in the Genitive, it often retains the form +of the Nominative. The Infinitives naomhachadh, gnathachadh, briseadh, +admit of a regular Genitive, naomhachaidh, gnathachaidh, brisidh. In the +following examples, {156} these Infinitives, because they govern a +subsequent Noun in the Genitive, are themselves in the Nominative, though +their relation to the preceding word naturally requires their being put in +the Genitive Case. Tha an treas [`a]ithne a' toirmeasg mi-naomhach_adh_ no +mi-ghnathach_adh_ ni sam bith, &c., _the third commandment forbids the +profaning or the abusing of any thing_, &c. Assem. Cat. Gael. Edin. 1792, +Answer to Q. 55. Ged fheud luchdbris_eadh_ na h-aithne so dol as, &c., id. +Q. 56., _though the transgressors of this commandment may escape_, &c. Cuis +crath_adh_ cinn is cas_adh_ b['e]il, Psal. xxii. 7, as it is in the older +edition of the Gaelic Psalms. An deigh leugh_adh_ an lagha, _after the +reading of the Law_, Acts. xiii. 15; luchd cum_adh_ uilc, Rom. i. 30[107]. + +The Infinitive is not put in the Genitive, when preceded {157} by a +Possessive Pronoun, because it is in the same limited state as if it +governed a Noun in the Genitive Case; as, a chum am marbh_a_dh 's na +beanntaibh, _to kill them in the mountains_, Exod. xxxii., not marbh_ai_dh, +which is the Case regularly governed by chum. Co tha 'g iarraidh do +mharbh_a_dh? John vii. 20, not do mharbh_ai_dh. Thug iad leo e chum a +cheus_adh_. Matt. xxvii. 31. Chum an cruinneach_adh_ gu cath. Rev. xx. +8[108]. + +This coincidence in the Regimen of the Infinitive in two similar +situations, viz., when limited by a Possessive Pronoun, and when limited by +a subsequent Noun, furnishes no slight argument in support of the +construction defended above, of putting the Infin. in the Nom. case when +itself governs a Noun in the Genitive; for we find the Infin. is invariably +put in the Nom. when limited in its signification by a Possess. Pronoun. + +When one Noun governs another in the Genitive, the Article is never joined +to both, even though each be limited in its signification, as, mac an righ, +_the son of the king_, not am mac an righ; taobh deas a' bhaile, _the south +side of the town_, not an taobh deas a' bhaile[109]. For the most part, the +Article is thus joined to the latter Noun. Sometimes it is joined to the +former Noun; as, an ceann tighe, _the head of the family_; an ceann iuil, +_the pilot_; but in such instances the two Nouns figure as one complex +term, like _paterfamilias_, rather than as two terms. The following +examples, in which the Article is joined to both Nouns, seem to be totally +repugnant to the Gaelic idiom: cuimhneachadh _nan_ c[`u]ig aran _nan_ +c[`u]ig m[`i]le, Matt. xvi. 9; _nan_ seachd aran _nan_ ceithir m[`i]le, +Matt. xvi. 10[110]. + +{158} + +A Possessive Pronoun joined to the Noun governed excludes, in like manner, +the Article from the Noun governing; as, barr-iall a bhr[`o]ige, _the +latchet of his shoe_, not am barr-iall a bhr[`o]ige; obair bhur lamh, _the +work of your hands_, not an obair bhur lamh. + +The Noun governed is sometimes in the Primary, sometimes in the Aspirated +Form. + +Proper Names of the Masculine Gender are in the Aspirated Form; as, +br[`a]thair Dhonuill, _Donald's brother_; uaigh Choluim, _Columba's grave_. +Except when a final and an initial Lingual meet; as, clann Donuill, +_Donald's descendants_; beinn Deirg _Dargo's hill_. + +When both Nouns are Appellatives, and no word intervenes between them, the +initial Form of the latter Noun follows, for the most part, that of an +Adjective agreeing with the former Noun. See p. 144. + +Thus, d' a gh[`a]radh _f_iona, g' a gh[`a]radh _f_iona, without the +Article, Matt, xx. 1, 2, like do dhuine _m_aith; but do 'n gh[`a]radh +_fh_iona, with the Article _v._ 4, 7, like do 'n duine _mh_aith. So we +should say do 'n ard fhear-_ch_iuil, rather than do 'n ard fhear-_c_iuil, +as in the title of many of the Psalms. + +EXCEPT.--If the latter Noun denote an individual of a species, that is, if +it take the Article _a_ before it in English, it is put in the _primary +form_, although the former Noun be feminine; as, s[`u]il caraid, _the eye +of a friend_, not s[`u]il _ch_araid, like s[`u]il _mh_or, duais _f_[`a]idh, +_a prophet's reward_, Matt. x. 4, not duais _fh_[`a]idh, like duais +_mh_[`o]r. Chum maitheanais _p_eacaidh, Acts, ii. 38, signifies _for the +remission of a sin_; rather chum maitheanais _ph_eacaidh _for the remission +of sin_. + +{159} + + + +SECTION II. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. + +Adjectives of fulness govern the Genitive; as, l[`a]n uamhainn _full of +dread_, Acts, ix. 6, buidheach beidh, _satisfied with meat_. + +The first Comparative takes the Particle na _than_, before the following +Noun; as, ni 's gile na an sneachdadh, _whiter than the snow_, b' fhaide +gach mios na bliadhna, _each month seemed longer than a year_. Smith's +"Ant. Poems," p. 9. + +The second Comparative is construed thus: is feairrd mi so, _I am the +better for this_; bu mhisd e am buille sin, _he was the worse for that +blow_; cha truimid a' choluinn a ciall, _the body is not the heavier for +its understanding_. + +Superlatives are followed by the Preposition de or dhe _of_; as, am fear a +'s [`a]irde dhe 'n triuir, _the man who is tallest of the three_, _the +tallest man of the three_. + + + +SECTION III. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. + +A Transitive Verb governs its object in the Nominative or Objective Case; +as, mharbh iad an righ, _they killed the king_; na buail mi, _do not strike +me_. The object is commonly placed after the Verb, but never between the +Verb and its Nominative. [See Part III. Chap. I., Sect. IV.] Sometimes the +object is placed, by way of emphasis, before the Verb; as, mise chuir e +r[`i]s ann am [`a]ite, agus esan chroch e, _me he put again in my place, +and him he hanged_, Gen. xli. 13. An t-each agus a mharcach thilg e 's an +fhairge, _the horse and his rider hath he cast into the sea_, Exod. xv. 1. + +Many Transitive Verbs require a Preposition before their object; as, iarr +air Donull, _desire Donald_; labhair ri Donull, _speak to Donald_; leig le +Donull, _let Donald alone_; beannuich do Dhonull, _salute Donald_; +fiosraich de Dhonull, _enquire of Donald_. {160} + +Bu _was_, requires the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, bu +mhaith dhuit, _it was good for you_; bu chruaidh an gnothuch, _it was a +hard case_; except initial _d_, and _t_ which are not aspirated; as, bu +dual duit, _it was natural for you_; bu trom an eallach, _the burden was +heavy_; bu ghearr a lo, 's bu dubh a sgeul, _short was her course, and sad +was her story_. Smith's "Ant. Poems." + + + +SECTION IV. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ADVERBS. + +The collocation of Adverbs is for the most part arbitrary. + +The Adverbs ro, gle, _very_, are placed before the Adjectives they modify, +and require the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, ro bheag, +_very little_; gle gheal, _very white_. + +The Negative cha or cho _not_, when followed by a word beginning with a +Labial or Palatal, requires the initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, cha +mh[`o]r e, _it is not great_; cha bhuail mi, _I will not strike_; cha +chuala mi, _I did not hear_; but an initial Lingual remains unaspirated; +as, cha dean mi, _I will not do_; cha tog e, _he will not raise_; cha +soirbhich iad, _they will not prosper_. _N_ is inserted between cha and an +initial Vowel or an aspirated _f_; as, cha n-e, _it is not_; cha +n-['e]igin, _it is not necessary_; cha n-fhaca mi, _I saw not_. + +The Negative ni requires _h_ before an initial Vowel; as, ni h-iad, _they +are not_; ni h-eudar, _it may not_. + + + +SECTION V. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS. + +The Proper Prepositions aig, air, &c., govern the Dative; as, aig mo chois, +_at my foot_; air mo laimh, _on my hand_. They are always placed before the +word they govern. The following Prepositions require the Noun governed to +be put in the Aspirated Form, viz., de, do, fuidh, fo, fa, gun, mar, mu, o, +tre. Air sometimes governs the Noun in the Aspirated Form; as, air +bharraibh sgiath na gaoithe, _on the extremities of the {161} wings of the +wind_, Psal. xviii. 10. Gun governs either the Nominative or Dative; as, +gun chrioch, _without end_, Heb. vii. 16; gun ch['e]ill, _without +understanding_, Psal. xxxii. 9; gun chloinn, Gen. xv. 2. Mar, and gus or +gu, when prefixed to a Noun without the Article, usually govern the Dative +case; as, mar nighin, _as a daughter_, 2 Sam. xii. 13; mar amhainn +mh[`o]ir, _like a great river_, Psal. cv. 41; gu cr[`i]ch mo shaoghail +fein, _to the end of my life-time_, Psal. cxix. 33, xlviii. 10. But if the +Article be joined to the Noun, it is governed in the Nominative; as, mar a' +ghrian, _like the sun_, Psal. lxxxix. 36, 37; gus an sruth, _to the +stream_, Deut. iii. 16; gus a' chrioch, _to the end_, Heb. iii. 6, 14. +Eadar governs the Nom.; as, eadar a' chraobh agus a' chlach, _between the +tree and the stone_. Eadar, when signifying _between_, requires the Primary +Form; as, eadar maighstir agus muinntireach, _between a master and a +servant_; when it signifies _both_, it requires the Aspirated Form; as, +eadar shean agus [`o]g, _both old and young_; eadar fheara agus mhnai, +_both men and women_, Acts viii. 12. + +The Prepositions as, gus, leis, ris, are used before the Monosyllables an, +am, a'. The corresponding Prepositions a, gu, le, ri, often take an _h_ +before an initial Vowel; as, a h-Eirin, _out of Ireland_; gu h-ealamh, +_readily_; le h-eagal, _with fear_. + +The Improper Prepositions govern the following Noun in the Genitive; as, +air feadh na t[`i]re, _throughout the land_; an aghaidh an t-sluaigh, +_against the people_; r['e] na h-[`u]ine, _during the time_. It is manifest +that this Genitive is governed by the Noun feadh, aghaidh, r['e], &c., +which is always included in the Preposition. See Part II. Chap. VII. + +Prepositions are often prefixed to a Clause of a sentence; and then they +have no regimen; as, gus am bord a ghiulan, _to carry the table_, Exod. +xxv. 27; luath chum fuil a dhortadh, _swift to shed blood_, Rom. iii. 15. +Edit. 1767; an d['e]igh an obair a chriochnachadh, _after finishing the +work_. {162} + + + +SECTION VI. + +OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CONJUNCTIONS. + +The Conjunctions agus _and_, no _or_, couple the same Cases of Nouns; as, +air feadh chreagan agus choilltean, _through rocks and woods_; ag reubadh +nam bruach 's nan crann, _tearing the banks and the trees_. When two or +more Nouns, coupled by a Conjunction, are governed in the Dative by a +Preposition, it is usual to repeat the Preposition before each Noun; as, +air fad agus air leud, _in length and in breadth_; 'n an cridhe, 'n an +cainnt, agus 'n am beus, _in their heart, in their speech, and in their +behaviour_. + +Co _as_, prefixed to an Adjective, commonly requires the initial consonant +of the Adj. to be aspirated; as, co mhaith, _as good_, co ghrinn, _as +fine_. But sometimes we find co m[`o]r, _as great_, co buan, _as durable_, +&c., without the aspirate. Sometimes the aspirate is transferred from the +Adj. to the Conjunct. as, cho beag, _as little_, for co bheag. In the North +Highlands, an adjective preceded by co is commonly put in the Comparative +form; as, co miosa, _as bad_; co treise, _as strong_. + +The Conjunctions mur _if not_, gu, gur _that_, are always joined to the +Negative Mood; as, mur 'eil mi, _if I be not_; gu robh e, _that he was_. +_M_ or _n_ is often inserted, _euphoniae causa_, between gu and an initial +Consonant; viz., _m_ before a Labial, _n_ before a Palatal or Lingual; as, +gu-m faca tu, _that you saw_; gu-n dubhairt iad, _that they said_[111]. + +The Conjunctions ma _if_, o, o'n _because, since_, are joined to the Pres. +and Pret. Affirmative, and Fut. Subjunctive; as, ma ta e, _if he be_; o'n +tha e, _since he is_; ma bhuail e, _if he struck_; o'n bhuail e, _because +he struck_; ma bhuaileas tu, _if you strike_; o bhitheas sinn, _since we +shall be_. + +Na'm, na'n _if_, is joined only to the Pret. Subjunctive. {163} The initial +Consonant of the Verb loses its aspiration after this Conjunction; as, na'm +bithinn, _if I were_; nan tuiteadh a' chraobh, _if the tree should fall_. + +Ged _although_, is used before the Present and Preterite Affirmative, the +Fut. Negative, and the Pret. Subjunctive; as, ged tha e, _though he be_; +ged bha mi, _though I was_; ge do bhuail thu mi, _though you struck me_; +ged bhuail thu mi, _though you strike me_; ged bheireadh e dhomh, _though +he should give me_[112]. + + * * * * * {164} + + +PART IV. + +OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. + +CHAPTER I. + +OF DERIVATION. + +The Parts of Speech which are formed by derivation from other words are +Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. These are chiefly derived from Nouns and +Adjectives, and a few from Verbs. + +I. NOUNS. + +Derivative Nouns may be classed as follows, according to the varieties of +their termination. + +1. Abstract Nouns in _as_, formed from Adjectives or Nouns; as, from ceart +_just_, ceartas _justice_; from diomhan _idle, vain_, diomhanas _idleness, +vanity_; from caraid _a friend_, cairdeas contracted for caraideas +_friendship_; from namhaid _an enemy_, naimhdeas contracted for namhaideas +_enmity_. + +2. Abstract Nouns in _achd_, formed from Adjectives, and sometimes, though +more rarely, from Verbs and Nouns; as, from naomh _holy_, naomhachd +_holiness_; from domhain _deep_, doimhneachd contracted for domhaineachd +_depth_; from righ _a king_, rioghachd _a kingdom_; coimhid _to keep_, +coimheadachd _keeping_; clachair _a mason_, clachaireachd _mason-work_; +gobhain _a smith_, goibhneachd contracted for gobhaineachd _iron-work_, or +rather _the trade or occupation of a smith_. + +3. Abstract Nouns formed from the genitive of Adjectives, by adding _e_; +as, from dall gen. doill _blind_, doille _blindness_; from geal gen. gil +_white_, gile _whiteness_; from leasg gen. leisg _lazy_, leisge _laziness_; +tearc gen. teirc _rare_, teirce _rarity_; trom gen. truim _heavy_, truime +_heaviness_; truagh gen. truaigh _unhappy_, truaighe _misery_; uasal gen. +{165} uasail _noble_, uasaile contr. uaisle or by metath. uailse +_nobility_. + +4. Abstract Nouns in _ad_, formed from the Comparative of Adjectives, and +used in speaking of the degree of a quality; as, gilead _whiteness_, +boidhchead _beauty_, doimhnead _depth_, lughad _smallness_, tainead +_thinness_; these are construed with the Prepositions _de_, _air_; as, cha +n-fhaca mi a samhuil air bhoidhchead, _I have not seen her match for +beauty_; air a lughad or d' a lughad, _however small it be_. + +5. Nouns in _air_ or _oir_, _ach_, _iche_, derived, most of them, from +nouns, and signifying persons or agents, as, p[`i]obair _a player on the +pipe_, from p[`i]ob _a pipe_; cl[`a]rsair _a player on the harp_, from +cl[`a]rsach _a harp_; cealgair or cealgoir _a deceiver_, from cealg +_deceit_; sealgair or sealgoir _a huntsman_, from sealg _hunting_; marcach +_a rider_, from marc _a horse_; athach _a man of terror, a gigantic +figure_, from atha _fear_; oibriche _a workman_, from obair _work_; +sgeulaiche _a reciter of tales_, from sgeul _a tale_; ceannaiche _a +merchant_, from ceannaich _to buy_[113]. + +6. Diminutives in _an_, and in _ag_ or _og_, formed from Nouns or +Adjectives; as, lochan _a small lake_, from loch _a lake_; from braid +_theft_, bradag _a thievish girl_; from ciar _dark-coloured_, ciarag _a +little dark-coloured creature_. These Diminutives are often formed from the +Genitive of their Primitives; as, from feur gen. feoir _grass_, feoirnean +_a pile of grass_; moll gen. muill _chaff_, muillean _a particle of chaff_; +folt gen. fuilt _hair_, fuiltean _a single hair_; clag gen. cluig _a bell_, +cluigean _a little bell_; gual gen. guail _coal_, guailnean _a cinder_; +sm[`u]r gen. sm[`u]ir _dust_, sm[`u]irnean _a particle of dust, a mote_; +cl[`o]imh _plumage_, cl[`o]imhneag _a small feather, a flake of snow_. + +Some Nouns are formed in _an_, which are not Diminutives; as, from l[`u]b +_to bend_, l[`u]ban _a bow_; from buail _to beat, thresh_, {166} buailtean +_a beater_, or _thresher_, applied to that part of the flail which threshes +out the grain. + +7. Collective Nouns in _ridh_ or _ri_, derived from Nouns or Adjectives; +as, from [`o]g _young_, [`o]igridh _youth_, in the collective sense of the +word; from mac _a son_, macruidh _sons, young men_, Psal. cxlviii. 12;[114] +from laoch _a hero_, laochruidh _a band of heroes_, Psal. xxix. 1. +Macfarlan's Paraph. vi. 15, from ceol _music_, ceolraidh _the muses_. A. +Macdonald's Songs, p. 7, from cos the _foot_, coisridh _infantry, a party +on foot_. McIntyre's Songs, Edin. 1768, p. 110, from gas _a lad_, gasradh +_a band of domestic attendants_. O'Brien's Ir. Dict. voc. gas; eachradh, +eachruith _cavalry_, Fingal. IV. 299, Carthon, 59.--This termination is +probably the Noun ruith _a troop_. See Lhuyd et O'Brien, in voc.[115] + +8. Nouns in _ach_, chiefly Patronymics, formed from Proper Names, thus; +from Donull _Donald_, is formed Donullach _a man of the name of Macdonald_; +from Griogar _Gregor_, Griogarach _a Macgregor_; so Leodach _a Macleod_, +Granntach _a Grant_, &c., from Albainn _Scotland_, Albannach _a Scotsman_; +from Eirin _Ireland_, Eirineach _an Irishman_. These Nouns form their +Plural regularly, Donullaich, Leodaich, Albannaich, Eirinich. So the +following _Gentile_ Nouns, which occur in the Gaelic Scriptures, are +regularly formed from their respective Primitives, Partuich _Parthians_, +Medich _Medes_, Elamuich _Elamites_, Acts ii. 9. Macedonaich _Macedonians_, +2 Cor. ix. 2, 4. See also Gen. xv. 19, 20, 21; Exod. xxiii. 23, 28.[116]. + +{167} + +9. Collective Nouns in _ach_; as, duille _a leaf_, duilleach _foliage_; +giuthas _fir_, giuthasach _a fir wood_; iughar _yew_, iugharach _a yew +copse_; fiadh _a deer_, fiadhach _deer, a herd of deer_; crion _diminutive, +shrunk_, crionach _decayed wood_. + +II. ADJECTIVES. + +1. Adjectives in _ach_, formed generally from Nouns; as, from f[`i]rinn +_truth_, f[`i]rinneach _true, faithful_; from sunnt _glee_, sunntach +_cheerful_; cr[`a]dh _pain_, cr[`a]iteach _painful_; togradh _desire_, +togarrach _willing, desirous_. + +2. Adjectives in _mhor_ or _or_, derived from Nouns; as, from [`a]dh +_felicity_, adhmhor _happy, blessed_; from feoil _flesh_, feolmhor +_carnal_; from neart _strength_, neartmhor _strong_. + +3. Adjectives in _ail_ derived from Nouns; as, from fear _man_, fearail +_manful_; from caraid _a friend_, cairdail contr. for caraidail _friendly_; +from namhaid _an enemy_, naimhdail contr. for namhaidail _hostile_; from +s[`u]rd _alertness_, surdail _alert_[117]. + +4. A few Adjectives in _ta_ or _da_, derived from Nouns; as, Gaelta +_belonging to the Gael_; Eireanda _Irish_; Romhanta _Roman_; _Kirk._ +f[`i]reanta _righteous_, Matt. xxiii. 35. + +III. VERBS. + +Verbs in _ich_, for the most part Transitive, and implying causation, +derived from Nouns or Adjectives; as, from geal {168} _white_, gealaich _to +whiten_; naomh _holy_, naomhaich _to sanctify_; cruinn _round_, cruinnich +_to gather together_; lamh _the hand_, laimhsich _to handle_; cuimhne +_memory_, cuimhnich _to remember_. A few are Intransitive; as, from crith +_tremor_, criothnuich _to tremble_; fann _feeble_, fannuich _to faint_. + + + +CHAPTER II. + +OF COMPOSITION. + +All compound words in Gaelic consist of two component parts, exclusive of +the derivative terminations enumerated in the preceding Chapter. Of these +component parts, the former may be conveniently named the Prepositive, the +latter the Subjunctive term. It sometimes happens, though rarely, that the +Subjunctive term also is a compound word, which must itself be decompounded +in order to find out the Root. + +In compounding words, the usual mode has been, to prefix to the term +denoting the principal idea the word denoting the accessory idea or +circumstance by which the signification of the principal word is modified. +Accordingly we find Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs modified by prefixing to +them a Noun, an Adjective, a Verb, or a Preposition. + +In forming compound words, a Rule of very general application is, that when +the Subjunctive term begins with a Consonant, it is aspirated. From this +Rule, however, are to be excepted, 1. Words beginning with _s_ followed by +a mute, which never admit the aspirate; 2. Words beginning with a Lingual +when the Prepositive term ends in _n_; 3. A few other instances in which +there is an euphonic agreement between the Consonants thus brought into +apposition, which would be violated if either of them were aspirated. + +These observations will be found exemplified in the following Compounds:-- +{169} + +I. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A NOUN PREFIXED. + +_Nouns Compounded with a Noun._ + +Beart _dress, equipage_, ceann _head_--ceann-bheart _head-dress, armour for +the head_. + +F[`a]inn _a ring_, cluas _the ear_--cluas-fhainn _an ear-ring_. + +Galar _a distemper_, crith _shaking_--crith-ghalar _distemper attended with +shaking, the palsy_. + +Oglach _a servant_, bean (in composition, ban) _a woman_--banoglach _a +female servant_. + +F[`a]idh _a prophet_, ban-fhaidh _a prophetess_. + +Tighearn _a lord_, baintighearn _a lady_. + +_Adjectives Compounded with a Noun._ + +Geal _white_, bian the _skin_--biangheal _white-skinned_. + +Lom _bare_, cas the _foot_--caslom _bare-foot_; ceann the _head_--ceannlom +_bare-headed_. + +Biorach _pointed, sharp_, cluas the _ear_--cluasbhiorach _having pointed +ears_. + +_Verbs Compounded with a Noun._ + +Luaisg _to rock_ or _toss_, tonn _a wave_--tonn-luaisg _to toss on the +waves_. + +Sleamhnuich _to slide_, c[`u]l the _back_--c[`u]l-sleamhnuich _to +back-slide_. + +Folaich _to hide_, feall _deceit_--feall-fholaich _to lie in wait_. + +II. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH AN ADJECTIVE PREFIXED. + +_Nouns Compounded with an Adjective._ + +Uisge _water_, fior _true, genuine_--fioruisge _spring-water_. + +Airgiod _silver_, beo _alive_--beo-airgiod _quick-silver_. + +Sgolt _a crack_, crion _shrunk, decayed_--crionsgolt _a fissure in wood +caused by drought or decay_. + +Criochan _bounds, regions_, garbh _rough_--garbhchriochan _rude mountainous +regions_. {170} + +_Adjectives Compounded with an Adjective._ + +Donn _brown_, dubh _black_--dubh-dhonn _dark-brown_. + +Gorm _blue_, dubh _black_--dubh-ghorm _dark-blue_. + +Briathrach (not in use) from briathar _a word_, deas +_ready_--deas-bhriathrach _of ready speech, eloquent_. + +Seallach (not in use) from sealladh _sight_, geur _sharp_--geur-sheallach +_sharp-sighted_. + +_Verbs Compounded with an Adjective._ + +Ruith _to run_, dian _keen, eager_--dian-ruith _to run eagerly_. + +Lean _to follow_, geur _sharp, severe_--geur-lean _to persecute_. + +Buail _to strike_, trom _heavy_--trom-buail _to smite sore, discomfit_. + +Ceangail _to bind_, dl[`u]th _closer_--dl[`u]th-cheangail _to bind fast_. + +III. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A VERB PREFIXED. + +Art _a stone_, tarruing _to draw_--tarruing-art _load-stone_. + +S[`u]il _the eye_, meall _to beguile_--meall-shuil _a leering eye_. + +IV. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A PREPOSITION. + +Radh _a saying_, roimh _before_--roimh-radh _preface, prologue_. + +Solus _light_, eadar _between_--eadar-sholus _twilight_. + +M[`i]nich _to explain_, eadar-mh[`i]nich _to interpret_. + +Gearr _to cut_, timchioll _about_--timchioll-ghearr _circumcise_. + +Lot _to wound_, troimh _through_--troimh-lot _to stab, pierce through_. + +Examples of words compounded with an inseparable Preposition are already +given in Part II. Chap. VII. + +Compound Nouns retain the gender of the principal Nouns in their simple +state. Thus crith-ghalar _palsy_, is masculine, because the principal Noun, +Galar _distemper_, is masculine, although the accessary Noun crith, by +which galar is qualified, be feminine. So c[`i]s-mhaor is masculine though +c[`i]s be a feminine Noun, Luke xviii. 11; c[`i]s-mheasadh ought also to be +masculine, Acts v. 37. Except Nouns compounded with {171} Bean _woman_, +which are all feminine, though the simple principal Noun be masculine, +because the compound word denotes an object of the female sex; as, oglach +_a servant_, masculine, but banoglach _a maid-servant_, feminine, caraid _a +friend_, masculine, bancharaid _a female friend_, feminine. + +Compound words are declined in the same manner as if they were +uncompounded. + +In writing compound words, the component parts are sometimes separated by a +hyphen, and sometimes not. The use of the hyphen does not seem to be +regulated by any uniform practice. In the case of two vowels coming in +apposition, the insertion of a hyphen seems indispensable; because, by the +analogy of Gaelic orthography, two Vowels, belonging to different +syllables, are scarcely ever placed next to each other without some mark of +separation[118]. Thus so-aomaidh, _easily induced_, _propense_; +so-iomchair, _easily carried_; do-innsidh, _difficult to be told_; and not +soamaidh, doinnsidh, &c., without the hyphen. + +It was formerly remarked, Part I., that almost all Gaelic Polysyllables are +accented on the first syllable. When, in pronouncing compound words, the +accent is placed on the first syllable, the two terms appear to be +completely incorporated into one word. When, on the other hand, the accent +is placed, not on the first syllable of the Compound, but on the first +syllable of the Subjunctive term, the two terms seem to retain their +respective powers, and to produce their effect separately, and instead of +being incorporated into one word, to be rather collaterally connected. A +rule may then be derived from the pronunciation for the use of the hyphen +in writing Compounds, viz., to insert the hyphen between the component +parts, when the Prepositive term is not accented. Thus it is proposed to +write aineolach _ignorant_, antromaich _to exaggerate_, comhradh +_conversation_, dobheart _a bad action_, {172} soisgeul _Gospel_, banoglach +_a maidservant_, &c., without a hyphen; but to write an-fhiosrach +_unacquainted_, ban-fhiosaiche _a female fortune-teller_, co-fhreagarach +_corresponding_, so-fhaicsin _easily seen_, &c., with a hyphen[119]. By +this rule, a correspondence is maintained, not only between the writing and +the pronunciation, but likewise between the written language and the ideas +expressed by it. A complex idea, whose parts are most closely united in the +mind, is thus denoted by one undivided word; whereas an idea composed of +parts more loosely connected, is expressed by a word, whereof the component +parts are distinguished, and exhibited separately to the eye. Thus also the +Gaelic scholar would have one uniform direction to follow in reading, viz., +to place the accent always on the first syllable of an undivided word, or +member of a word. If any exception be allowed, it must be only in the case +already stated of two vowels coming in apposition, as beo-airgiod +_quicksilver_. + +Let it be observed that, according to this rule, an Adjective preceding a +Noun can never, but in the case just mentioned, be connected with it by a +hyphen. For if the accent be wholly transferred from the Noun to the +Adjective, then they are to be written as one undivided word; as, +garbhchriochan _highlands_; but if the accent be not so transferred, the +Adjective and the Noun are to be written as two separate words; as, seann +duine _an old man_, deagh chomhairle _good advice_, droch sgeul _a bad +tale_. + + + +It not unfrequently happens that two Nouns, whereof the one qualifies the +meaning of the other, and connected by the common grammatical relation of +the one governing the other in the Genitive, come through use to be +considered as denoting only one complex object. The two Nouns in this case +are sometimes written together in one word, and thus form a Compound of a +looser structure than those which have been considered. Such are +ceann-cinnidh, _the head of a tribe or {173} clan_; ceann-tighe, _the head +of a family_; ceann-feadhna, _the leader of an army_; fear-turnis, _a +traveller_; luchd-faire, _watchmen_; iobairt-pheacaidh, _a sin-offering_; +urlar-bualaidh, _a threshing-floor_; fear-bainse, _a bridegroom_; +crith-thalmhain, _an earth-quake_; crios-guailne, _a shoulder-belt_, &c. In +writing Compound Nouns of this description, the two Nouns are never written +in one undivided word, but always separated by a hyphen. It comes to be a +question, however, in many instances of one Noun governing another in the +Genitive, whether such an expression is to be considered as a compound +term, and the words to be connected by a hyphen in writing, or whether they +are to be written separately, without any such mark of composition. An +observation that was made in treating of the Government of Nouns may help +us to an answer, and furnish an easy rule in the case in question. It was +remarked that when one Noun governed another in the Genitive, the Article +was never joined to both; that for the most part, it was joined to the Noun +governed, but sometimes to the Noun governing, that in the latter case, the +two Nouns seemed to figure as one compound term, denoting one complex idea. +If this last remark hold true, it may be laid down as a rule that in every +instance of a Noun governing another in the Genitive, where the Article is +or may be prefixed to the _governing Noun_, there the two Nouns ought to be +connected by a hyphen in writing; otherwise not. Thus we can say, without +impropriety, an ceann-feadhna, _the commander_; an luchd-coimhid, _the +keepers_; and the Nouns are accordingly considered as Compounds, and +written with a hyphen. But it would be contrary to the usage of the +language to say, am mullach craige, _the top of a rock_; an t-uachdar +talmhain, _the surface of the ground_. Accordingly it would be improper to +write a hyphen between the Nouns in these and similar examples. + +The different effects of these two modes of writing, with or without the +hyphen, is very observable in such instances as the following:--Ainm +d[`u]thcha, _the name of a country_, as Scotland, Argyle, &c.; +ainm-d[`u]thcha, _a country name_, or {174} _patronymic_, as Scotsman, +Highlander, &c.; clann Donuill, _Donald's children_; clann-Donuill, _the +Macdonalds_. + + + +Though few have exerted themselves hitherto in explaining the structure of +the Gaelic language, in respect of its inflections, construction, and +collocation, this cannot be said to be the case with regard to Etymology. +Much has been attempted, and something has been done, toward analysing +single vocables, particularly names of places. But this analysis seems to +have been too often made rather in a way of random conjecture than by a +judicious regard to the analogy of Derivation and Composition. The passion +for analysing has even induced some to assert that all true Gaelic +Primitives consist of but one syllable, that all Polysyllables are either +derived or compounded, and therefore that there is room to search for their +etymon. This seems to be carrying theory too far. It appears a fruitless +and rather chimerical attempt to propose a system of directions by which +all Polysyllables whatever may be resolved into component parts, and traced +to a root of one syllable. All I have thought it necessary to do is to +methodize and exemplify those general principals of Etymology which are +obvious and unquestioned, and which regulate the composition and derivation +of those classes of words whereof the analysis may be traced with some +probability of success. + + * * * * * + + +{175} + +EXERCISES IN READING, EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING. + + * * * * * + +_From an Address to the Soldiers of a Highland Regiment_, by D. SMITH, M.D. + +Theid an deadh shaighdear gu h-aobhach suilbhear an d[`a]il gach tuiteamais +a thig 'n a chrannchur. Ach 's e a's n[`o]s do 'n droch shaighdear a bhi +gearan 's a' talach air gach l[`a]imh; beadaidh ri l[`i]nn socair, is +diombach ann eiric caoimhneis; lag-chridheach ri h-am cruachais, agus +d[`i]blidh ri h-uchd feuma. + +_In English._ + +The good soldier will advance, with spirit and cheerfulness, to any service +that falls in his way. But it is the practice of the bad soldier to be +complaining and grumbling on all occasions; saucy in time of ease, and +peevish in return for kindness; faint-hearted under hardships, and feeble +in encountering exigency. + +_Analysis._ + +_Theid._ 3. per. sing. Fut. Affirm, of the irregular Verb _Rach_, go. + +_An._ Nom. sing. of the Article _an_, the. + +_Deadh._ An indeclinable Adjective, always placed before its Noun. + +_Shaighdear._ Nom. sing. of the mas. noun _saighdear_, a soldier, in the +aspirated form, because preceded by the Adj. _deadh_. Gram. p. 145. {176} + +_Gu._ A proper Preposition, to, for. + +_Aobhach._ An Adject. of the first Declension, joyous, having an _h_ before +it, because preceded by the Prep. _gu_. Gram. p. 161. _Gu h-aobhach_, +joyfully, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. Gram. p. 109. + +_Suilbhear._ An Adject. cheerful. _Gu_ is to be supplied from the former +phrase; _gu suilbhear_, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. + +_An d[`a]il._ An improper Preposition, to meet, to face, to encounter; made +up of the proper Prep. _ann_, in, and the Noun _d[`a]il_, meeting. Gram. p. +121. + +_Gach._ An indeclinable Adj. Pronoun, each, every. + +_Tuiteamais._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _tuiteamas_, an occurrence, +accident, governed in the Gen. case by the improp. Prep. _an d[`a]il_ +(Gram. p. 161), derived from the Verb _tuit_. Infinitive _tuiteam_, to +fall, befal. + +_A._ Nom. sing. Relative Pronoun, who, which. + +_Thig._ Fut. Affirm. of the irregular Verb _thig_, come. + +_'N._ Contracted for _ann_, a proper Prep., in. + +_A._ Possessive Pronoun, his. + +_Chrannchur._ Mas. Noun, a lot; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. _ann_; in +the aspirated form after the adject. Pron. _a_, 'his'--compounded of +_crann_, a lot, and _cur_, casting, the Infinitive of the Verb _cuir_, to +put, cast. + +_Ach._ Conjunction, but. Hebr. [Hebrew: AD]. + +_'S._ for _is_, Pres. Indic. of the Verb _is_, I am. _'S e a 's_ it is +[that] which is. + +_N[`o]s._ Noun mas., custom, habit. + +_Do._ Prep. to. + +_An._ the article, the. + +_Droch._ indeclinable Adject. bad; always placed before its Noun. + +_Shaighdear._ mas. Noun, soldier; governed in the Dative by the Prep. _do_; +in the aspir. form after the Adject. _droch_. {177} + +_A bhi._ for _do bhi_ or _do bhith_, Infinit. of the irregular Verb _bi_, +to be. + +_Gearan._ Infin. of the obsolete Verb _gearain_, to complain, _ag_ being +understood; _ag gearan_ equivalent to a present Participle, complaining. +Gram. p. 86. + +_'S._ for _agus_, conjunction, and. + +_A' talach._ for _ag talach_, complaining, repining; Infin. of the obsolete +Verb _talaich_, to complain of a thing or person. + +_Air._ Prep. on. + +_Gach._ Adject. Pron. indeclin. each, every. + +_L[`a]imh._ dat. sing. of the fem. Noun _l[`a]mh_, a hand; governed in the +Dat. by the Prep. _air_, on. _Air gach l[`a]imh_, on every hand. + +_Beadaidh._ Adject. nice, fond of delicacies, saucy, petulant. + +_Ri._ Prep. to, at. + +_L[`i]nn._ Noun fem. an age, period, season. _Ri l[`i]nn_, during the time +of any event, or currency of any period; _ri l[`i]nn Fhearghuis_, in the +time, or reign of Fergus; _gu faigheamaid s[`i]th r' ar l[`i]nn_, that we +may have peace in our time. + +_Socair._ Noun fem., ease, conveniency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun +_l[`i]nn_. + +_Is._ for _agus_, Conjunct. and. + +_Diombach_, or _di[`u]mach_. Adject. displeased, indignant; derived from +the Noun _diom_ or _di[`u]m_, indignation. + +_Ann._ Prep. governing the Dat. in. + +_Eiric._ Noun femin., requital, compensation; governed in the Dat. by the +Prep. _ann_. + +_Caoimhneis._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _caoimhneas_, kindness; governed +in the Gen. by the noun _eiric_, derived from the Adject. _caomh_, gentle, +kind. + +_Lag-chridheach._ Adject. faint-hearted; compounded of the Adject. _lag_, +weak, and _cridhe_, the heart. + +_Ri._ Prep. to, at. {178} + +_Am._ Noun masc., time; governed in the Dat. case by the Prep. _ri_, and +preceded by _h_. Gram. p. 161. + +_Cruachais._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _cruachas_, hardship, strait; +governed in the Gen. by the noun _am_; compounded of the Adject. _cruaidh_, +hard, and _c[`a]s_, danger, extremity. + +_Agus._ Conjunct., and. + +_D[`i]blidh._ Adject., feeble, silly. + +_Uchd._ Noun mas. breast, chest; hence it signifies an ascent, a steep; in +the Dat. case, preceded by _h_, after the Prep. _ri_: _ri h-uchd_, in +ascending, breasting, encountering, assailing. + +_Feuma._ Gen. sing. of the Noun mas. _feum_, necessity, exigency; governed +in the Gen. by the Noun _uchd_. + + * * * * * + +_Extract from an old Fingalian Tale or Legend._ + +Dh' imich Garbh mac Stairn agus Dual a dh' fhaicinn Fhinn agus a threun +fheara colgach, iomraiteach ann an gniomharaibh arm. Bha Fionn 's an [`a]m +sin 'n a thigheadas samhraidh am Buchanti. 'N an turus d'a ionnsuidh, ghabh +iad beachd air gach gleann agus faoin mhonadh, air gach allt agas caol +choirean. Ghabh iad sgeul de gach coisiche agus gach fear a thachair 'n an +c[`o]ir. Ann an gleann nan cuach agus nan lon, chunnaic b[`u]th taobh +sruthain; chaidh a steach, dh' iarr deoch; dh' eirich ribhinn a b' aluinne +snuadh a dh' fh[`a]ilteachadh an turuis le s[`i]th. Thug i biadh dhoibh r'a +itheadh, dibhe ri [`o]l; dh' iarr an sgeul le cainnt thl[`a]. Bhuail gaol o +a s[`u]il an Garbh borb, agus dh' innis cia as doibh. "Thainig sinn o +th[`i]r nan crann, far an lionor sonn--mac righ Lochlainn mise--m' ainm +Garbh na'm b' aill leat--esan Dual, o th[`i]r nam beann, a thuinich ann +Albainn o thuath--a ghabhail cairdeis gun sg[`a]th agus aoidheachd o 'n +[`a]rd righ Fionn, sud f[`a]th ar turuis a Chiabh na maise--ciod am bealach +am buail sinn? seol ar cos gu teach Fhinn, bi dhuinn mar i[`u]l, is gabh +duais." "Duais {179} cha do ghabh mi riamh, ars an nighean bu bhl[`a]ithe +s[`u]il 's bu deirge gruaidh; cha b' e sud [`a]bhaist Theadhaich nam beann +['e]ilde, 'g am bu lionor d[`a]imheach 'n a thalla, 'g am bu tric tathaich +o thuath--ni mise dhuibh i[`u]l." Gu gleann-s[`i]th tharladh na fir; gleann +an tric guth feidh is loin; gleann nan glas charn is nan scor; gleann nan +sruth ri uisg is gaoith. Thachair orra buaghar bho, is rinn dhoibh i[`u]l; +thug dhoibh sgeul air duthaich nan creag, air fir agus air mnaibh, air +f[`a]s shliabh agus charn, air neart feachd, air rian nan arm, air miann +sloigh, agus craobhthuinidh nam Fiann. + +_In English._ + +Garva the son of Starno and Dual, went to visit Fingal and his brave +warriors, renowned for feats of arms. Fingal was at that time in his summer +residence at Buchanti. On their journey thither, they took a view of every +valley and open hill, every brook and narrow dell. They asked information +of every passenger and person that came in their way. In the glen of +cuckoos and ouzles they observed a cottage by the side of a rivulet. They +entered; asked drink, a lady of elegant appearance arose and kindly bade +them welcome. She gave the food to eat, liquor to drink. In mild speech she +inquired their purpose. Love from her eye smote the rough Garva, and he +told whence they were. "We are come from the land of Pines, where many a +hero dwells--the son of Lochlin's king am I--my name is Garva, be pleased +to know--my comrade is Dual, from the land of hills, his residence is in +the north of Albion. To accept the hospitality and confidential friendship +of the mighty prince Fingal, this is the object of our journey, O Lady +fair[120]; say, by what pass shall we shape our course? Direct our steps to +the mansion of Fingal, be our guide, and accept a reward." "Reward I never +took," said the damsel of softest eye and rosiest cheek; "such was not the +manner of [my father] Tedaco of the hill of hinds; {180} many were the +guests in his hall, frequent his visitors from the North,--I will be your +guide." The chiefs reach Glenshee, where is heard the frequent voice of +deer and elk; glen of green mounts and cliffs; glen of many streams in time +of rain and wind. A keeper of cattle met them, and directed their course. +He gave the information concerning the country of rocks; concerning its +inhabitants male and female; the produce of moor and mount; the military +force, the fashion of the armour; the favourite pursuits of the people; and +the pedigree of the Fingalians. + + * * * * * + +_Extract from Bishop_ CARSUEL'S _Gaelic translation of the +Confession of Faith, Forms of Prayer, &c., used in the Reformed +Church of Scotland_; Printed in the year 1567. + +(_From the Epistle Dedicatory._) + +Acht ata ni cheana is mor an leathtrom agas anuireasbhuidh ata riamh +orainde gaoidhil alban & eireand, tar an gcuid eile don domhan, gan ar +gcanamhna gaoidheilge do chur agcl['o] riamh mar ataid agcanamhna & +adteangtha f['e]in agcl['o] ag gach uile chinel dhaoine oile sa domhan, & +ata uireasbhuidh is m['o] ina gach uireasbhuidh oraind, gan an Biobla +naomhtha do bheith agcl['o] gaoidheilge againd, marta s[`e] agcl['o] laidne +agas bherla agas ingach teangaidh eile osin amach, agas f['o]s gan seanchus +arsean no ar sindsear do bheith mar an gcedna agcl['o] againd riamh, acht +ge t['a] cuid eigin do tseanchus ghaoidheal alban agas eireand sgriobhtha +aleabhruibh l['a]mh, agas adtamhlorgaibh fileadh & ollamhan, agas +asleachtaibh suadh. Is mortsaothair sin re sgriobhadh do laimh, ag fechain +an neithe buailtear sa chl['o] araibrisge agas ar aithghiorra bhios gach +['e]n ni dh['a] mhed da chriochnughadh leis. Agas is mor an doille agas +andorchadas peacaidh agas aineolais agas indtleachda do lucht deachtaidh +agas sgriobhtha agas chumhdaigh na gaoidheilge, gurab m['o] is mian leo +agas gurab m['o] ghnathuidheas siad eachtradha dimhaoineacha buaidheartha +bregacha {181} saoghalta do cumadh ar thuathaibh d['e]dhanond agas ar +mhacaibh mileadh agas arna curadhaibh agas fhind mhac cumhaill gona +fhianaibh agas ar mh['o]ran eile nach airbhim agas nach indisim andso do +chumhdach, agas do choimhleasughagh, do chiond luadhuidheachta dimhaonigh +an tsaoghail dfhaghail doibhf['e]in, ina briathra disle D['e] agas slighthe +foirfe na firinde do sgriobhadh, agas dheachtadh, agas do chumhdach. + +_English Translation._ + +[_From the_ REPORT _of the Committee of the_ +HIGHLAND SOCIETY _of_ SCOTLAND, _appointed to inquire into the +nature and authenticity of the Poems of_ OSSIAN.] + +But there is one great disadvantage which we the Gaeil of Scotland and +Ireland labour under, beyond the rest of the world, that our Gaelic +language has never yet been printed, as the language of every other race of +men has been. And we labour under a disadvantage which is still greater +than every other disadvantage, that we have not the Holy Bible printed in +Gaelic, as it has been printed in Latin and in English, and in every other +language; and also that we have never yet had any account printed of the +antiquities of our country, or of our ancestors; for though we have some +accounts of the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland, contained in manuscripts, +and in the genealogies of bards and historiographers, yet there is great +labour in writing them over with the hand, whereas the work which is +printed, be it ever so great, is speedily finished. And great is the +blindness and sinful darkness, and ignorance and evil design of such as +teach, and write, and cultivate the Gaelic language, that, with the view of +obtaining for themselves the vain rewards of this world, they are more +desirous, and more accustomed, to compose vain, tempting, lying, worldly +histories, concerning the _Tuath de dannan_, and concerning warriors and +champions, and _Fingal_ the son of _Cumhal_, with his heroes, and +concerning many others which {182} I will not at present enumerate or +mention, in order to maintain or reprove, than to write and teach and +maintain the faithful words of God, and of the perfect way of truth[121]. + + * * * * * + +_From the Preface to a Metrical Version of the Book of Psalms +in Gaelic_, by Mr ROBERT KIRK, Minister of the Gospel +at Balquhidder; Printed in the year 1684. + +Ataid na Psalma taitneamhach, tarbhach: beag nach mion-fhlaitheas l['a]n +dainglibh, Cill fhonnmhar le ceol naomhtha. Mur abholghort Eden, lionta do +chrannaibh brioghmhoire na beatha, & do luibhennibh iocshlainteamhail, +amhluidh an leabhar Psalmso Dhaibhioth, ata na liaghais ar uile anshocair +na nanma. Ata an saoghal & gach be['o] chreatuir da bfuil ann, na +chlarsigh; an duine, se is Clairseoir & duanaire, chum moladh an mor-Dhia +mirbhuileach do sheinn; & ata Daibhidh do ghn['a] mar fhear don chuideachd +bhias marso ag caoin-chaint gu ceolmhar ma nard-R['i].... Do ghabhas mar +chongnamh don obairsi, dioghlum ughdairidh an uile ch['a]il, ar +sheann['o]s, phriomh chreideamh & eachdardha na nGaoidheal, sgriobhta & +cl['o]-bhuailte: achd gu ba reula iuil & soluis dhamh, br['i]dh na nSalm +fein. Anois maseadh a Chomharbadha ro chaomh, ata mar phlaneidi dhealroidh +ag sdiurughadh na ngcorp ioch dardha gan mhonmar, is deaghmhaise dhaoibh an +tsaothairse a sgrudadh & a ghnathughadh gu neimhfhiat, gan ghuth ar +bheiginmhe & neimhnitheachd an tsaothairigh. Griosam oraibhse a Uaisle, & a +Thuatha charthanacha araon, gun {183} bheith mur thacharain ar luaidrean a +nunn & a nall go sbailpe breigi; achd le gcroidhibh daingne, dosgartha, +deagh-fhreumhaighte, druididh re Firinn, Ceart, & Ceannsachd, mar +fhuraileas na psalma: Ata clu & tarbha a nsdriocadh don choir; call & +masladh a ntuitim le heugcoir. + + Imthigh a Dhuilleachain gu d['a]n, + Le D['a]n glan diagha duisg iad thall; + Cuir failte ar Fonn fial na bFionn, + Ar Gharbh chriocha, 's Indseadh gall. + +_In English._ + +The Psalms are pleasant and profitable. A church resounding with sacred +melody is almost a little Heaven full of angels. As the Garden of Eden, +replenished with trees of life of potent efficacy, and with medicinal +plants, so is this Book of the Psalms of David, which contains a remedy for +all the diseases of the soul. The world and every living creature it +contains are the Harp; man is the Harper and Poet, who sings the praise of +the great wonder-working God; and David is ever one of the company who are +thus employed in sweetly and tunefully discoursing about the Almighty +King.... I was assisted in this work by culling from authors of every kind, +who have treated of the ancient manners, the primitive religion, and the +history of the Gaels, both in manuscript and in print: but the star and +light by which I steered was the sense of the Psalms themselves. Now, then, +my very dear colleagues, who as shining luminaries guide the inferior +bodies, it becomes you to examine and to use this work candidly, without +regarding the meanness and insignificancy of the workman. I beseech you, +men of high and of low degree alike, that you be not, like weak silly +creatures, tossed to and fro by false conceits; but with firm, resolute, +well-established hearts, adhere to Truth, Justice, and Temperance, as these +Psalms exhort. There is honour and profit in complying with what is right, +loss and disgrace in declining to what is wrong. {184} + + Little Volume, move boldly on; + In pure godly strains awaken yonder people; + Salute the hospitable land of the Fingalians, + The highland regions, and the Isles of strangers[122]. + + * * * * * + +PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH. + + * * * * * + + +Notes + + * * * * * + +[1] Analysis of the Gaelic Language, by William Shaw, A.M. + +[2] A few examples of what I conceived to be deviations from grammatical +propriety are given from the Gaelic version of the Bible. As the +translation of the Prophetical Books underwent a revision, the +exceptionable passages in those Books have been changed in the second +edition from what they were as they came out of the hands of the original +translator. The criticism on those passages is, however, allowed to remain +in this edition of the Grammar, because the first edition of the Gaelic +Prophets is still in the hands of many, and because it often happens that +"we can best teach what is right by showing what is wrong."--_Lowth._ + +[3] It will immediately occur to any grammarian that there is a slight +difference between this and the common division into _mutes_ and _liquids_, +by the letter _m_ being removed from the class of liquids to that of mutes. +This is not an oversight, but an intentional arrangement; as the +_accidents_ of the letter _m_ are, in Gaelic, the same with those of the +mute, not of the liquid consonants. For a like reason, _s_ is included in +the class of liquids. + +[4] Writers, who have touched on this part of Gaelic Grammar, following the +Irish grammarians, have divided the consonants further into _mutable_ and +_immutable_. The former name has been given to consonants which, in +writing, have been occasionally combined with the letter _h_; and the +latter name to those consonants which have not, in writing, been combined +with _h_. But, in fact, both classes of consonants are alike _mutable_ in +their pronunciation; and their _mutation_ ought to have been marked in the +orthography, though it has not. This defect in Gaelic orthography has been +often observed and regretted, though it has never been corrected. Rather +than continue a distinction which has no foundation in the structure of the +language, I venture to discard the division of _mutable_ and _immutable_ +consonants, as not merely useless, but as tending to mislead the learner. + +[5] In explaining the sounds of the letters I have availed myself of the +very correct and acute remarks on this subject annexed to the Gaelic +version of the New Testament, 1767. + +[6] If it be thought that this renders the language too monotonous, it may +be observed, on the other hand, that it prevents ambiguities and +obscurities in rapid speaking, as the accent marks the initial syllable of +polysyllables. Declaimers, of either sex, have often found their advantage +in this circumstance. + +[7] That is the second sound assigned to a. + +[8] The plural of la or latha _a day_, is sometimes written laeth; but it +is doubtful how far this is a proper mode of writing it. + +[9] The effect of the vowels in qualifying the sound of the adjoining +consonants will be explained in treating of the Palatals and Linguals. + +[10] This propensity is seen in the aspirating of consonants in Gaelic +words, which have an evident affinity to words in other languages, where +the same consonants are not so aspirated. The following list will +sufficiently illustrate and confirm the truth of this remark:-- + + _Greek._ _Latin._ _Gaelic._ + [Greek: Diabolos] Dia_b_olus Diabhol. + Scri_b_o* Scriobh, _write_. + Fe_b_ris* Fiabhrus, _a fever_. + Ba_c_ulum Bacholl, _a staff_. + [Greek: Deka] De_c_em Deich, _ten_. + Lori_c_a L[`u]ireach, _a coat of mail_. + Cleri_c_us Cleireach, _a clerk_. + Mo_d_us Modh, _manner_. + Gla_d_ius Claidheamh, _a sword_. + [Greek: Kardia] } Cor_d_-is Cridhe, _the heart_. + [Greek: Kradia] } + Me_d_ium Meadhon, _middle_. + Lau_d_o Luadh, _mention_. + Le_g_o Leugh, _read_. + Gre_g_-is Greigh, _a herd_. + Re_g_-is Righ, _a king_. + Pla_g_a Plaigh, _a plague_. + Sa_g_itta Saighead, _an arrow_. + Ma_g_ister Maighistir, _master_. + Ima_g_o Iomhaigh, _an image_. + Pri_m_us Priomh, _chief_. + Re_m_us R[`a]mh, _an oar_. + Si_m_ilis Samhuil, _like_. + Hu_m_ilis Umhal, _humble_. + Ca_p_ra Gabhar, _a goat_. + [Greek: Meter] Ma_t_er Mathair, _mother_. + Ro_t_a Roth, Rath, _a wheel_. + Mu_t_o M[`u]th, _change_. + +It is probable that the consonants, thus aspirated, were pronounced without +aspiration in the older dialects of the Celtic tongue; for we are told that +in the Irish manuscripts of the first class for antiquity, the consonants +are for the most part written without any mark of aspiration. See "Lhuyd's +Archaeol. Brit.," p. 301, col. 1. + +The tendency to attenuate the articulations shows itself in a progressive +state, in a few vocables which are pronounced with an aspiration in some +districts, but not universally. Such are deatach or deathach _smoke_, +cuntart or cunthart _danger_, ta or tha _am_, _art_, tu or thu _thou_, +troimh or throimh _through_, tar or thar _over_, am beil or am bheil _is +there?_ dom or domh _to me_, &c. Has not this remission or suppression of +the articulations the effect of enfeebling the speech, by mollifying its +bones and relaxing its nerves? Ought not therefore the progress of this +corruption to be opposed, by retaining unaspirated articulations in those +instances where universal practice has not entirely superseded them, and +even by restoring them in some instances, where the loss of them has been +attended with manifest inconvenience? It is shameful to see how many +monosyllables, once distinguished by their articulations, have in process +of time, by dropping these articulations, come to be represented by the +solitary vowel _a_, to the no small confusion of the language and +embarrassment of the reader. The place of the absent consonant is often +supplied, indeed, in writing, by an apostrophe. This, however, is at best +but an imperfect and precarious expedient. + + * So in French, from Aprilis, _Avrilis_; habere, _avoir_; Febris, + Fi[`e]vre: [Greek: episkopos], _ev['e]que_. + +[11] Ph is found in no Gaelic word which is not inflected, except a few +words transplanted from the Greek or the Hebrew, in which _ph_ represents +the Greek [phi], or the Hebrew [Hebrew: P]. It might perhaps be more +proper to represent [Hebrew: P] by _p_ rather than _ph_; and to represent +[phi] by _f_, as the Italians have done in _filosofia_, _filologia_, &c., +by which some ambiguities and anomalies in declension would be avoided. + +[12] The affinity between the sounds of _v_ and _u_ is observable in many +languages, particularly in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. + +[13] Agreeably to the like pronunciation, the Welsh write this word _marw_, +the Manks _marroo_. + +[14] It is still pronounced fuair in the Northern Highlands, and it is so +written in Irish. See Irish Bible, Gen. xxxv. 18, 19; John ii. 14, viii. +62, 53. + +[15] So fathast _yet_, fein _self_, are in some places pronounced as if +they began with an _h_ instead of an _f_. The latter word is, by the Manks, +written hene. + +[16] Over a considerable part of the Highlands that propensity to +aspiration, which has been already remarked, has affixed to _c_, in the end +of a word, or of an accented syllable, the sound of _chc_; as, mac _a son_, +torc _a boar_, acain _moaning_; pronounced often machc, torchc, achcain. + +There is reason to believe that this compound sound of _chc_ was not known +of old, but is a modern corruption. + +This pronunciation is not universal over the Highlands. In some parts the +_c_ retains its proper sound in all situations. + +If the articulation in question had, from the first, been compounded, it is +highly probable that it would have been represented, in writing, by a +combination of letters, such as _chc_; especially as we find that the same +sound is represented at other times, not by a single consonant, but by a +combination, as in the case of _chd_. Why should it be thought that boc _a +buck_, and bochd _poor_, were originally pronounced alike, when they are +distinguished both in writing and signification? + +The word [Hebrew: SHQ] _a sack_, has been transplanted from the Hebrew into +many languages, among the rest the Gaelic, where it has been always written +sac, although now pronounced sachc. In none of the other languages in which +the word is used (except the Welsh alone), has the final palatal been +aspirated. It would appear therefore that the sound sachc is a departure +from the original Gaelic pronunciation. The same change may have happened +in the pronunciation of other words, in which the plain _c_ is now +aspirated, though it may not have been so originally. + +[17] Though _th_ be quiescent in the middle of a polysyllable, over the +North and Central Highlands, yet it is, with more propriety, pronounced, in +the West Highlands, as an aspiration; as, athair _father_, mathanas +_pardon_, pronounced a-hair, mahanas. + +[18] I am informed that this pronunciation of _chd_ is not universal; but +that in some districts, particularly the East Highlands, the _d_ has here, +as in other places, its proper lingual sounds. In many, if not all the +instances in which _chd_ occurs, the ancient Irish wrote _ct_. This +spelling corresponds to that of some foreign words that have a manifest +affinity to Gaelic words of the same signification; which, it is therefore +presumable, were all originally pronounced, as they were written, without +an aspiration, such as, + + _Latin._ _Old French._ _Gaelic._ + + Noct-u Noct-is, &c. Nuict an nochd, _to night_. + Oct-o Huict Ochd, _eight_. + Benedict-um Benoict Beannachd, _blessing_. + Maledict-um Maudict Mallachd, _cursing_. + Ruct-us Bruchd, _evomition_. + Intellect-us Intleachd, _contrivance_. + Lact-is, -i, &c. Lachd, _milk_. + Dict-o, -are, &c. Deachd, _to dictate_. + Rego } + Rect-um } Reachd, _a law, institution_. + +From the propensity of the Gaelic to aspiration, the original _c_ was +converted into _ch_, and the words were written with _cht_, as in the Irish +acht _but_, &c., or with the slight change of _t_ into _d_, as in ochd, &c. +This is the opinion of O'Brien, when he says the word lecht is the Celtic +root of the Latin _lectio_--the aspirate _h_ is but a late +invention.--_O'Br. Ir. Dict. voc. lecht._ In process of time the true sound +of _cht_ or _chd_ was confounded with the kindred sound of _chc_, which was +commonly, though corruptly, given to final c. + +[19] It is certain that the natural sound of d aspirated is that of [the +Saxon dh] or _th_ in _thou_; as the natural sound of _t_ aspirated is that +of _th_ in _think_. This articulation, from whatever cause, has not been +admitted into the Gaelic, either Scottish or Irish, although it is used in +the kindred dialects of Cornwall and Wales. + +[20] In sean _old_, the _n_ has its _plain_ sound when the following word +begins with a Lingual. Accordingly it is often written in that situation +seann; as, seann duine _an old man_, an t-seann tiomnaidh _of the old +Testament_. + +[21] So in Latin, _canmen_ from _cano_ was pronounced, and then written +_carmen_; _genmen_ from the obsolete [Greek: geno] passed into _germen_. + +[22] Another mode, proposed by a learned correspondent, of marking the +distinction in the sound of the initial Linguals, is by writing the letter +double, thus ll, nn, rr, when its sound is the same with that which is +represented by those double letters in the end of a syllable; and when the +sound is otherwise, to write the letter single; as, llamh _hand_, llion +_fill_, mo lamh _my hand_, lion mi _I filled_. + +It is perhaps too late, however, to urge now even so slight an alteration +as this in the Orthography of the Gaelic, which ought rather to be held as +fixed beyond the reach of innovation, by the happy diffusion of the Gaelic +Scriptures over the Highlands. + +[23] _Leathan re Leathan, is Caol re Caol._ + +Of the many writers who have recorded or taken notice of this rule, I have +found none who have attempted to account for its introduction into the +Gaelic. They only tell that such a correspondence between the vowels ought +to be observed, and that it would be improper to write otherwise. Indeed, +none of them seem to have attended to the different effects of a broad and +of a small vowel on the sound of an adjacent consonant. From this +circumstance, duly considered, I have endeavoured to derive a reason for +the rule in question, the only probable one that has yet occurred to me. + +[24] As deanuibh or deanaibh _do ye_, beannuich or beannaich _bless_. + +[25] It is worthy of remark that in such words as caird-eil _friendly_, +slaint-eil _salutary_, the substitution of _e_ in place of _a_ in the +termination, both misrepresents the sound, and disguises the derivation of +the syllable. The sound of this termination as in fear-ail _manly_, ban-ail +_womanly_, is properly represented by _ail_. This syllable is an +abbreviation of amhuil _like_, which is commonly written in its full form +by the Irish, as fear-amhuil, &c. It corresponds exactly to the English +termination _like_, in _soldier-like_, _officer-like_, which is abridged to +_ly_, as _manly_, _friendly_. By writing _eil_ instead of _ail_, we almost +lose sight of amhuil altogether. + +[26] From the extracts of the oldest Irish manuscripts given by Lhuyd, +Vallancey, and others, it appears that the rule concerning the +correspondence of vowels in contiguous syllables, was by no means so +generally observed once as it is now. It was gradually extended by the more +modern Irish writers, from whom, it is probable, it has been incautiously +adopted by the Scottish writers in its present and unwarrantable latitude. +The rule we have been considering has been reprobated in strong terms by +some of the most judicious Irish philologers, particularly O'Brien, author +of an Irish Dictionary printed at Paris 1768, and Vallancey, author of an +Irish Grammar, and of various elaborate disquisitions concerning Irish +antiquities, from whom I quote the following passages: "This Rule [of +dividing one syllable into two by the insertion of an aspirated consonant] +together with that of substituting small or broad vowels in the latter +syllables, to correspond with the vowel immediately following the consonant +in the preceding syllable, has been very destructive to the original and +radical purity of the Irish language." _Vallancey's Ir. Gram. Chap. III. +letter A._ "Another [Rule] devised in like manner by our bards and rhymers, +I mean that which is called _Caol le caol, agus Leathan le leathan_, has +been woefully destructive to the original and radical purity of the Irish +language. This latter (much of a more modern invention than the former, for +our old manuscripts show no regard to it) imports and prescribes that two +vowels, thus forming, or contributing to form, two different syllables, +should both be of the same denomination or class of either broad or small +vowels, and this without any regard to the primitive elementary structure +of the word." _O'Brien's Ir. Dict. Remarks on A._ "The words _biran_ and +_biranach_ changed sometimes into _bioran_ and _bioranach_ by the abusive +rule of _Leathan le leathan_." _Id. in voc._ Fear. The opinion of Lhuyd on +this point, though not decisive, yet may properly be subjoined to those of +Vallancey and O'Brien, as his words serve at least to show that this +judicious philologer was no advocate for the Rule in question. "As for +passing any censure on the rule concerning broad and small vowels, I chose +rather to forbear making any remark at all upon them, by reason that old +men who formerly wrote arget _silver_, instead of airgiod as we now write +it, never used to change a vowel but in declining of words, &c. And I do +not know that it was ever done in any other language, unless by some +particular persons who, through mistake or ignorance, were guilty of it." +_Archaeol. Brit. Preface to Ir. Dict. translated in Bp. Nicolson's Irish +Historical Library._ + +[27] Pinkerton's Inquiry into the History of Scotland. + +[28] _E.g._, troidh _a foot_, has been written troidh or troigh, either of +which corresponds to the pronunciation, as the last consonant is quiescent. +In Welsh, the articulation of the final consonant has been preserved, and +the word is accordingly written troed. This authority seems sufficient to +determine the proper orthography in Gaelic to be troidh and not troigh. For +a like reason, perhaps, it would be proper to write tr[`a]idh _shore_, +rather than tr[`a]igh, the common way of spelling the word, for we find the +Irish formerly wrote tr[`a]idh, and the Welsh traeth. Claidheamh _a sword_, +since the final articulation was wholly dropped, has been sometimes written +claidhe. The mode of writing it still with a final labial, though +quiescent, will probably be thought the more proper of the two, when it is +considered that claidheamh is the cognate, or rather the same word with the +Irish cloidheamh the Welsh cleddyf, and the French glaive. + +[29] I flatter myself that all my readers, who are acquainted with any of +the ancient or the modern languages which have a distinction of gender in +their attributives, will readily perceive that the import of the term +Gender, in the grammar of those languages, is precisely what I have stated +above. The same term has been introduced into the grammar of the English +Tongue, rather improperly, because in an acceptation different from what it +bears in the grammar of all other languages. In English there is no +distinction of gender competent to Articles, Adjectives, or Participles. +When a noun is said to be of the masculine gender, the meaning can only be +that the object denoted by it is of the male sex. Thus in the English +grammars, gender signifies a quality of the _object_ named, while in other +grammars it signifies a quality of the _name_ given to the object. The +varieties of _who_, _which_, and _he_, _she_, _it_, refer not to what is +properly called the _gender_ of the antecedent _noun_, but to the _Sex_ +real or attributed, or the _absence of Sex_, of the _object_ signified by +the antecedent. This is in effect acknowledged by writers on rhetoric, who +affirm that in English the pronouns _who_, _he_, _she_, imply an express +personification, or attribution of life, and consequently of Sex, to the +objects to which these pronouns refer. The same thing is still more +strikingly true of the variations on the termination of nouns, as _prince_, +_princess_; _lion_, _lioness_, which are all discriminative of Sex. It +seems therefore to be a mis-stated compliment which is usually paid to the +English, when it is said that "this is the only language which has adapted +the gender of its nouns to the constitution of Nature." The fact is, that +it has adapted the _Form_ of some of the most common names of living +creatures, and of a few of its pronouns, to the obvious distinction of +_male_, and _female_, and _inanimate_, while it has left its nouns without +any mark characteristic of _gender_. The same thing must necessarily happen +to any language by abolishing the distinction of masculine and feminine in +its attributives. If all languages had been constructed on this plan, it +may confidently be affirmed that the grammatical term _gender_ would never +have come into use. The compliment intended, and due to the English, might +have been more correctly expressed, by saying that "it is the only language +that has rejected the unphilosophical distinction of gender, by making its +attributives, in this respect, all indeclinable." + +[30] Uan beag bainionn, 2 Sam. xii. 3. Numb. vi. 14. So leomhann boirionn, +Ezek. xix. 1. + +[31] It must appear singularly strange that any nouns which signify females +exclusively should be of the masculine gender. The noun bainionnach, is +derived from the adjective bainionn, _female_, which is formed from bean, +the appropriate term for a _woman_. Yet this noun bainionnach, or +boirionnach, _a female_, is masculine, to all grammatical intents and +purposes. We say boirionnach c[`o]ir, _a civil woman_, am boirionnach +maiseach, _the handsome woman_. + +The gender of this Noun seems to have been fixed, not by its signification, +but by its determination, for most Derivatives in _ach_ are masculines; as, +oganach _a young man_, marcach _a horseman_, Albanach _a Scotsman_, &c. So +in Latin, mancipium, scortum, though applied to persons, follow the gender +of their termination. + +[32] It was necessary to be thus explicit in stating the changes at the +beginning and those on the termination as unconnected independent +_accidents_, which ought to be viewed separately; because many who have +happened to turn their thoughts toward the declension of the Gaelic noun +have got a habit of conjoining these, and supposing that both contribute +their united aid toward the forming the _cases_ of nouns. This is blending +together things which are unconnected, and ought to be kept distinct. It +has therefore appeared necessary to take a separate view of these two +_accidents_ of nouns, and to limit the term _case_ to those changes which +are made on the termination, excluding entirely those which take place at +the beginning. + +[33] It is to be observed that these names of the cases are adopted merely +because they are already familiar, not because they all denominate +correctly the relations expressed by the cases to which they are +respectively applied. There is no Accusative or Objective case in Gaelic +different from the Nominative; neither is there any Ablative different from +the Dative. For this reason, it is not only unnecessary, but erroneous, to +reckon up six Cases in Gaelic, distinguished not by the form of the Noun, +but by the Prepositions prefixed. This is to depart altogether from the +common and proper use of the term _Case_. And if the new use of that term +is to be adopted, then the enumeration is still incomplete, for we ought to +have as many Cases as there are Prepositions in the language. Thus, besides +a Dative do Bhard, and an Ablative o Bhard, we should have an Impositive +Case air Bhard, a Concomitative le Bard, an Insertive ann am Bard, a +Precursive roimh Bhard, &c. &c. Grammarians have very correctly reckoned +only five Cases in Greek, two in English, one in French [See _Moore_, +_Murray_, _Buffier_, &c.] because the variations in the form of the Noun +extend no further. Surely nothing but an early and inveterate prepossession +in favour of the arrangements of Latin Grammar could ever have suggested +the idea of Six Cases in Gaelic or in English. + +[34] It is not improbable that anciently all feminine nouns, except a few +irregular ones, added a syllable to the nominative, as _e_ or _a_, in +forming the genitive. The translators of the S. S. have sometimes formed +the genitive of feminine polysyllables in this manner, as sionagoige from +sionagog, Mark v. 36, 38. But it appears more agreeable to the analogy of +inflection that such polysyllables should now be written without an _e_ in +the genitive. + +[35] It is probable that this noun should rather be written [`a]dh. See +McFarlane's Paraphrases, III. 3. also Lhuyd and O'Brien, _in loco_. + +[36] Derivatives in _an_, and _ag_ should form their genitive according to +the general Rule, _ain_, _aig_; and in pronunciation they do so. When the +syllable preceding the termination ends in a small vowel, the Rule of 'Caol +re caol' has introduced an _e_ into the final syllable, which is then +written _ean_, _eag_. In this case writers have been puzzled how to form +the genitive. The terminations _eain_, _eaig_, would evidently contain too +many vowels for a short syllable. To reduce this awkward number of vowels +they have commonly thrown out the _a_, the only letter which properly +expressed the vocal sound of the syllable. Thus from caimean m. a _mote_, +they formed the gen. sing. caimein; from cuilean m. a _whelp_, g. s. +cuilein; from duileag f. a _leaf_, g. s. duileig; from caileag f. a _girl_, +g. s. caileig. Had they not yielded too far to the encroachments of the +Rule of 'Caol re caol' they would have written both the nom. and the gen. +of these and similar nouns more simply and more justly, thus: caiman, g. s. +caimain; cuilan, g. s. cuilain; duilag, g. s. duilaig; cailag, g. s. +cailaig. + +[37] In many instances, the Plural termination _a_ is oftener written with +this final _n_ than without it. When the vowel preceding the termination is +small, the termination _a_ or _an_ is very needlessly written _e_ or _ean_, +to preserve the correspondence of vowels. + +[38] We are informed by E. O'C. that this is the usual construction in the +Irish Dialect, and it appears to be the same in the Scottish. Thus, air son +mo dh[`a] sh[`u]l, _for my two eyes_.--Judg. xvi. 28. Ir. & Scott. +versions. + +[39] So in Hebrew, we find a noun in the singular number joined with +_twenty_, _thirty_, _a hundred_, _a thousand_, &c. + +[40] The Pronouns tu _thou_, se _he_, si _she_, siad _they_, are not +employed, like other nominatives, to denote the object after a transitive +verb. Hence the incorrectness of the following expression in most editions +of the Gaelic Psalms: Se chr[`u]nas _tu_ le coron graidh, Psal. ciii. 4., +which translated literally signifies, _it is he whom thou wilt crown_, &c. +To express the true sense, viz., _it is he who will crown thee_, it ought +to have been, se chr[`u]nas _thu_ le coron graidh. So is mise an Tighearn a +slanuicheas _thu_, _I am the Lord that healeth thee_, Exod. xv. 26; Ma ta e +ann a fhreagaireas _thu_, _If there be any that will answer thee_, Job v. +1; Co e a bhrathas thu? _Who is he that will betray thee?_ John xxi. 20., +Comp. Gen. xii. 3. and xxvii. 29. + +[41] This use of the Pronoun of the 2d person plural is probably a modern +innovation, for there is nothing like it found in the more ancient Gaelic +compositions, nor in the graver poetry even of the present age. As this +idiom seems, however, to be employed in conversation with increasing +frequency, it will probably lose by degrees its present import, and will +come to be used as the common mode of addressing any individual; in the +same manner as the corresponding Pronouns are used in English, and other +European languages. + +[42] There seems hardly a sufficient reason for changing the _d_ in this +situation into _t_, as has been often done, as t'oglach for d'oglach _thy +servant_, &c. The _d_ corresponds sufficiently to the pronunciation, and +being the constituent consonant of the pronoun, it ought not to be changed +for another. + +[43] The Irish are not so much at a loss to avoid a _hiatus_, as they often +use na for a _his_; which the translators of the Psalms have sometimes +judiciously adopted; as, + + An talamh tioram le na laimh + Do chruthaich e 's do dhealbh. Psal. xcv. 5. + +[44] In the North Highlands this Pronoun is pronounced sid. + +[45] This Pronoun occurs in such expressions as an deigh na chuala tu +_after what you have heard_; their leat na th' agad, or na bheil agad, +_bring what you have_. It seems to be contracted for an ni a _the thing +which_. + +[46] There is reason to think that ge b'e is corruptly used for cia b' e. +Of the former I find no satisfactory analysis. The latter cia b' e is +literally _which it be_, or _which it were_; which is just the French _qui +que ce soit_, _qui que ce f[^u]t_ expressed in English by one word +_whosoever_, _whichsoever_. We find cia used in this sense and connection, +Psal. cxxxv. 11. Glasg. 1753. Gach uile rioghachd mar an ceadn' _cia_ +h-iomdha bhi siad ann, _All_ _kingdoms likewise, however numerous they be_. +See also Gen. xliv. 9, Rom. ii. 1. + +[47] This pronoun is found written with an initial c in Lhuyd's "Archaeol. +Brit." Tit. I. page 20. col. 2. ceach; again Tit. X. voc. Bealtine, cecha +bliadna _each year_. So also O'Brien, cach _all_, _every_, like the French +_chaque_. "Irish Dict." voc. cach. + +[48] The pronouns _cach eile_ and _cach a ch['e]ile_ are hardly known in +Perthshire. Instead of the former, they use the single word c[`a]ch +pronounced long, and declined like a noun of the singular number; and +instead of the latter, a ch['e]ile, as in this example, choinnich iad a +ch['e]ile; thuit cuid, agus theich c[`a]ch, _they met each other; some +fell, and the rest fled_. Here c[`a]ch may be considered as a simple +pronoun; but the first clause, choinnich iad a cheile, _they met his +fellow_, hardly admits of any satisfactory analysis. The phrases, in fact, +seem to be elliptical, and to be expressed more fully, according to the +practice of other districts, thus: choinnich iad cach a chi['e]le; thuit, +cuid, agus theich cach eile. Now, if cach be nothing else than gach +_every_, (a conjecture supported by the short pronunciation of the _a_, as +well as by the authorities adduced in the preceding note,) the expressions +may be easily analysed: choinnich iad gach [aon] a cheile; thuit cuid, agus +theich gach [aon] eile; _they met every [one] his fellow; some fell, and +every other [one] fled_, See 1 Thess. v. 11. + +[49] In the older Irish MSS. the Particle _do_ appears under a variety of +forms. In one MS. of high antiquity it is often written _dno_. This seems +to be its oldest form. The two consonants were sometimes separated by a +vowel, and the _n_ being pronounced and then written _r_, (See Part I. p. +19.) the word was written doro. (See _Astle's Hist. of the Orig. and Progr. +of Writing, page 126, Irish Specimen, No. 6._) The Consonants were +sometimes transposed, suppressing the latter Vowel, and the Particle became +nod (_O Brien's Ir. Dict. voc._ Sasat, Treas,) and rod (_id. voc._ Ascaim, +Fial.) Sometimes one of the syllables only was retained; hence no (_O'Br. +voc._ No,) ro (_id. voc._ Ro,) and do in common use. Do likewise suffered a +transposition of letters, and was written sometimes ad. (O'Br. _voc._ Do.) + +[50] This correspondence of the Termination with the Root was overlooked in +the older editions of the Gaelic Psalms; as pronnfidh, cuirfar, molfidh, +innsam, guidham, coimhdar, sinnam, gluaisfar, &c. + +[51] The disposition in the Gaelic to drop articulations has, in this +instance, been rather unfortunate; as the want of the _f_ weakens the sound +of the word, and often occasions a _hiatus_. There seems a propriety in +retaining the _f_ of the Future, after a Liquid, or an aspirated Mute; as, +cuirfidh, mairfidh, molfidh, geillfidh, pronnfidh, brisfidh, &c., for these +words lose much in sound and emphasis by being changed into caithidh, +mairidh, &c. + +[52] The incorporation of the Verb with a Personal Pronoun is a manifest +improvement, and has gradually taken place in almost all the polished +languages. There is incomparably more beauty and force in expressing the +energy of the Verb, with its _personal_ relation and concomitant +circumstances, in one word, than by a periphrasis of pronouns and +auxiliaries. The latter mode may have a slight advantage in point of +precision, but the former is greatly superior in elegance and strength. The +structure of the Latin and Greek, compared with that of the English Verb, +affords a striking illustration of this common and obvious remark. Nothing +can be worse managed than the French Verb; which, though it possesses a +competent variety of _personal_ inflections, yet loses all the benefit of +them by the perpetual enfeebling recurrence of the personal Pronouns. + +In comparing the Scottish and Irish dialects of the Gaelic, it may be +inferred that the former, having less of inflection or _incorporation_, +than the latter, differs less from the parent tongue, and is an older +branch of the Celtic, than its sister dialect. It were unfair, however, to +deny that the Irish have improved the Verb, by giving a greater variety of +inflection to its _Numbers_ and _Persons_, as well as by introducing a +simple Present Tense. The authors of our metrical version of the Gaelic +Psalms were sensible of the advantage possessed by the Irish dialect in +these respects, and did not scruple to borrow an idiom which has given +grace and dignity to many of their verses. + +[53] Such at least is the common practice in writing, in compliance with +the common mode of colloquial pronunciation. It might perhaps be better to +retain the full form of the Preposition, in grave pronunciation, and always +in writing. It is an object worthy of attention to preserve radical +articulations, especially in writing; and particularly to avoid every +unnecessary use of the monosyllable _a_, which, it must be confessed, +recurs in too many senses. + +[54] The Preposition iar has here been improperly confounded with air _on_. +I have ventured to restore it, from the Irish Grammarians. Iar is in common +use in the Irish dialect, signifying _after_. Thus, iar sin _after that_, +iar leaghadh an tshoisgeil _after reading the Gospel_, iar sleachdadh do +niomlan _after all have kneeled down_, iar seasamh suas _after standing +up_, &c. See "Irish Book of Common Prayer." Air, when applied to time, +signifies not _after_, but _at_ or _on_, air an am so, air an uair so _at +this time_, air an la sin _on that day_. There is therefore sufficient +reason to believe that, in the case in question, iar is the proper word; +and that it has been corruptly supplanted by air. + +[55] The Imperative seems to have been anciently formed by adding _tar_ to +the Root. This form is still retained in Ireland, and in some parts of +Scotland, chiefly in verbs ending in a Lingual; as, buailtear, deantar. +(See the Lord's Prayer in the older editions of the Gaelic Version of the +Assembly's Catechism; also, the "Irish N. Test." Matt. vi. 10. Luke xi. 2.) +In other verbs, the _t_ seems to have been dropped in pronunciation. It +was, however, retained by the Irish in writing, but with an aspiration to +indicate its being quiescent; thus, togthar, teilgthear, "Ir. N. T." Matt. +xxi. 21, Mark xi. 23, crochthar, Matt. xxvii. 22. So also the "Gaelic N. +T." 1767, deanthar. Matt. vi. 10, Luke xi. 2. In the later publications the +_t_ has been omitted altogether, with what propriety may be well doubted. + +[56] To preserve a due correspondence with the pronunciation, the Pass. +Part. should always terminate in _te_, for in this part of the verb, the +_t_ has always its _small_ sound. Yet in verbs whereof the characteristic +vowel is broad, it is usual to write the termination of the Pass. Part. +_ta_; as, togta _raised_, crochta _suspended_. This is done in direct +opposition to the pronunciation, merely out of regard to the Irish Rule of +_Leathan ri leathan_, which in this case, as in many others, has been +permitted to mar the genuine orthography. + +When a verb, whose characteristic vowel is broad, terminates in a Liquid, +the final consonant coalesces so closely with the _t_ of the Pass. Part. +that the _small_ sound of the latter necessarily occasions the like sound +in pronouncing the former. Accordingly the small sound of the Liquid is +properly represented in writing, by an _i_ inserted before it. Thus, [`o]l +_drink_, Pass. Part. [`o]ilte; pronn _pound_, proinnte; crann _bar_, +crainnte; sparr _ram_, spairrte; trus _pack_, truiste. But when the verb +ends in a mute, whether plain or aspirated, there is no such coalescence +between its final consonant and the adjected _t_ of the Participle. The +final consonant if it be pronounced retains its broad sound. There is no +good reason for maintaining a correspondence of vowels in the Participle, +which ought therefore to be written, as it is pronounced, without regard to +_Leathan ri leathan_; as, tog _raise_, Pass. Part. togte; croch _hang_, +crochte; s[`a]th _thrust_, s[`a]thte; cnamh _chew_, cnamhte. + +The same observations apply, with equal force, to the Pret. Subj. in which +the _t_ of the termination is always pronounced with its _small_ sound, and +should therefore be followed by a small vowel in writing; as, thogteadh, +chrochteadh, not thogtadh, chrochtadh. + +[57] In all _regular_ verbs, the difference between the Affirmative and the +Negative Moods, though marked but slightly and partially in the Preterite +Tense, (only in the initial form of the 2d Conjugation,) yet is strongly +marked in the Future Tense. The Fut. Aff. terminates in a feeble vocal +sound. In the Fut. Neg. the voice rests on an articulation, or is cut short +by a forcible aspiration. Supposing these Tenses to be used by a speaker in +reply to a command or a request; by their very structure, the former +expresses the softness of compliance; and the latter, the abruptness of a +refusal. If a command or a request be expressed by such verbs as these, tog +sin, gabh sin, ith sin, the compliant answer is expressed by togaidh, +gabhaidh, ithidh; the refusal, by the cha tog, cha ghabh, cha n-ith. May +not this peculiar variety of form in the same Tense, when denoting +affirmation, and when denoting negation, be reckoned among the +characteristic marks of an original language? + +[58] This part of the verb, being declined and governed like a noun, bears +a closer resemblance to the Latin Gerund than to the Infinitive; and might +have been properly named the Gerund. But as Lhuyd and all the later Irish +Grammarians have already given it the name of Infinitive, I choose to +continue the same appellation rather than change it. + +[59] The Editor of the Gaelic Psalms printed at Glasgow, 1753, judging, as +it would seem, that cuidich was too bold a licence for cuideachaidh, +restored the gen. of the full form of the Infinitive; but in order to +reduce it to two syllables, so as to suit the verse, he threw out the +middle syllable, and wrote cuid'idh. + +[60] I have met with persons of superior knowledge of the Gaelic who +contended that such expressions as--ta mi deanamh _I am doing_, ta e +bualadh _he is striking_ (see page 83), are complete without any +Preposition understood; and that in such situations deanamh, bualadh, are +not infinitives or nouns, but real participles of the Present Tense. With +much deference to such authorities, I shall here give the reasons which +appear to me to support the contrary opinion. + +1. The form of the supposed Participle is invariably the same with that of +the Infinitive. + +2. If the words deanamh, bualadh, in the phrases adduced, were real +Participles, then in all similar instances, it would be not only +unnecessary, but ungrammatical, to introduce the preposition ag at all. But +this is far from being the case. In all verbs beginning with a vowel, the +preposition ag or its unequivocal representative _g_ is indispensable; as, +ta iad ag iarruidh, ta mi 'g iarruidh. Shall we say, then, that verbs +beginning with a consonant have a present participle, while those that +begin with a vowel have none? But even this distinction falls to the +ground, when it is considered that in many phrases which involve a verb +beginning with a consonant, the preposition ag stands forth to view, and +can on no account be suppressed; as, ta iad 'g a bhualadh _they are +striking him_, ta e 'g ar bualadh _he is striking us_. From these +particulars it may be inferred that the preposition ag must always precede +the infinitive, in order to complete the phrase which corresponds to the +English or Latin pres. participle; and that in those cases where the +preposition has been dropped, the omission has been owing to the rapidity +or carelessness of colloquial pronunciation. + +3. A still stronger argument, in support of the same conclusion, may be +derived from the regimen of the phrase in question. The infinitive of a +transitive verb, preceded by any preposition, always governs the noun, +which is the object of the verbal action, in the genitive. This is an +invariable rule of Gaelic Syntax; thus, ta sinn a' dol a dh' iarruidh na +spr['e]idhe, _we are going to seek the cattle_; ta iad ag iomain na +spr['e]idhe, _they are driving the cattle_; ta iad iar cuairteachadh na +spr['e]idhe, _they have gathered the cattle_. This regimen can be accounted +for on no other principle, in Gaelic, than that the governing word is a +noun, as the infinitive is confessed to be. Now, it happens that the +supposed participle has the very same regimen, and governs the genitive as +uniformly as the same word would have done, when the presence of a +preposition demonstrated it to be a noun; so, ta mi bualadh an doruis, _I +am knocking the door_; ta thu deanamh an uilc, _you are doing mischief_. +The inference is, that even in these situations, the words--bualadh, +deanamh, though accompanied with no preposition, are still genuine nouns, +and are nothing else than the infinitives of their respective verbs, with +the preposition ag understood before each of them. + +4. The practice in other dialects of the Celtic, and the authority of +respectable grammarians, affords collateral support to the opinion here +defended. Gen. Vallancey, the most copious writer on Irish grammar, though +he gives the name of participle to a certain part of the Gaelic verb, +because it corresponds, in signification, to a part of the Latin verb which +has obtained that name, yet constantly exhibits this participle, not as a +single word, but a composite expression; made up of a preposition and that +part of the verb which is here called the infinitive. The phrase is fully +and justly exhibited, but it is wrong named; unless it be allowed to extend +the name of Participle to such phrases as _inter ambulandum_, [Greek: en +toi peripatein].--Lhuyd, in his Cornish Grammar, informs us, with his usual +accuracy, that the Infinitive Mood, as in the other dialects of the +British, sometimes serves as a Substantive, as in the Latin; and by the +help of the participle _a_ [the Gaelic ag] before it, it supplies the room +of the participle of the present tense, &c. "Archaeol. Brit." page 245, +col. 3. This observation is strictly applicable to the Gaelic verb. The +infinitive, with the particle _ag_ before it, _supplies the room of the +present Participle_. The same judicious writer repeats this observation in +his "Introduction to the Irish or Ancient Scottish Language": The +Participle of the Present Tense is _supplied_ by the Participle _ag_ before +the Infinitive Mood; as, _ag radh_ saying, _ag cainnt_ talking, _ag +teagasg_ teaching, _ag dul_ going, &c. "Arch. Brit." page 303, col. 2. + +[61] It may appear a strange defect in the Gaelic, that its Verbs, +excepting the substantive verbs Bi, Is, have no _simple_ Present Tense. Yet +this is manifestly the case in the Scottish, Welsh, and Cornish dialects +(see "Arch. Brit." page 246, col. 1, and page 247, col. 1.); to which may +be added the Manks. Creidim _I believe_, guidheam _I pray_, with perhaps +one or two more Present Tenses, now used in Scotland, seem to have been +imported from Ireland, for their paucity evinces that they belong not to +our dialect. The want of the simple Present Tense is a striking point of +resemblance between the Gaelic and the Hebrew verb. + +I am indebted to a learned and ingenious correspondent for the following +important remark; that the want of the simple Present Tense in all the +British dialects of the Celtic, in common with the Hebrew, while the Irish +has assumed that Tense, furnishes a strong presumption that the Irish is a +dialect of later growth; that the British Gaelic is its parent tongue; and +consequently that Britain is the mother country of Ireland. + +[62] From observing the same thing happen repeatedly or habitually it is +naturally inferred that it will happen again. When an event is predicted it +is supposed that the speaker, if no other cause of his foreknowledge +appears, infers the future happening of the event from its having already +happened in many instances. Thus the Future Tense, which simply foretells, +conveys to the hearer an intimation that the thing foretold has already +taken place frequently and habitually. In Hebrew, the Future Tense is used +with precisely the same effect. In the law of Jehovah he _will_ meditate; +_i.e._, he _does_ meditate habitually. Psal. i, 2. See also Psal. xlii. 1, +Job ix. 11, xxiii. 8, 9, &c., _passim_. + +[63] Though this be the precise import of the Compound Tenses of the second +order, yet they are not strictly confined to the point of time stated +above; but are often used to denote past time indefinitely. In this way, +they supply the place of the Compound Tenses of the first order in those +verbs which have no passive participle. + +[64] See Moor. So tha 'n tigh 'g a thogail, _the house is in building_. + +[65] T['e]id the Fut. Negat. of Rach to _go_, has been generally written +d'th['e]id; from an opinion, it would seem, that the full form of that +Tense is do th['e]id. Yet as the participle _do_ is never found prefixed to +the Future Negative of any regular verb, it appears more agreeable to the +analogy of conjugation to write this tense in its simplest form t['e]id. +See "Gael. New Test." 1767, and 1796, Mat. xiii. 28. xiv. 15. A different +mode of writing this tense has been adopted in the edition of the "Gael. +Bible," Edin. 1807, where we uniformly find dth['e]id, dthoir, dthig. + +[66] Throughout the verb tabhair, the syllables _abhair_ are often +contracted into _oir_; as, toir, torinnn, &c. Acts xviii. 10. Sometimes +written d'thoir, d'thoirinn; rather improperly. See note 65. + +[67] Tig rather than d'thig. See note 65. + +[68] A Pres. Aff. of this Verb, borrowed from the Irish, is often used in +the G. SS. Deiream _I say_, deir e _he saith_, deir iad _they say_. + +[69] Dubhairt, dubhradh, are contracted for do thubhairt, &c. Abairinn, +abaiream, abairear, are often contracted into abrainn, abram, abrar. + +[70] It may appear an odd peculiarity in the Gaelic, that in many of the +most common phrases, a proposition or question should thus be expressed +without the least trace of a Verb. It can hardly be said that the +Substantive Verb is _understood_, for then there would be no impropriety in +expressing it. But the fact is, that it would be completely contrary to the +idiom and usage of the language, to introduce a Substantive Verb in these +phrases. It will diminish our surprise at this peculiarity to observe that +in the ancient languages numerous examples occur of sentences, or clauses +of sentences, in which the Substantive Verb is omitted, without occasioning +any obscurity or ambiguity; and this in Prose as well as in Verse. Thus in +Hebrew; Gen. xlii. 11, 13, 14. We [are] all one man's sons--we [are] true +men--thy servants [are] twelve brethren--the youngest [is] with his +father--ye [are] spies--&c. + + [Greek: Ouk agathon polukoiranie.]--_Iliad_, B. 204. + [Greek: kaka kerdea is' atesi.]--_Hes._ [Greek: E. kai E. a]. + [Greek: ego de tisou tachupeithes.]--_Theoc. Idyl._ 7. + Et m[^i] genus ab Jove summo.--_Virg. Aen._ VI. 123. + Varium et mutabile semper Femina.--_Aen._ IV. 569. + +Omnia semper suspecta atque sollicita; nullus locus amicitiae. _Cic. de +Amic._ 15. + + mira feritas, foeda paupertas; non arma, non equi, non penates; +victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubile humus; sola in sagittis spes, +&c.--_Tacit. de. mor. Germ. Cap. ult._ In these and the like examples, the +Substantive Verb might have been expressed, if with less elegance, yet +without grammatical impropriety. What has been frequently done in other +languages, seems, in Gaelic, to have been adopted, in certain phrases, as +an invariable mode of speech. + +The omission of the Substantive Verb is not unknown in English; as, + + "In winter awful thou."--_Thomson._ + "A ministering angel thou."--_Scott._ + "A cruel sister she."--_Mallet._ + +[71] The effect of this Tense in narration seems to be very nearly, if not +precisely, the same with that of the Present of the Infinitive in Latin; as +in these passages: + + "----misere discedere quaerens, + _Ire_ modo ocius; interdum _consistere_; in aurem + _Dicere_ nescio quid puero."--_Hor. Sat. 1. 8. v. 9._ + + "At Danaum proceres, Agamemnoniaeque phalanges + Ingenti _trepidare_ metu; pars _vertere_ terga, + Ceu quondam peti[^e]re rates; pars _tollere_ vocem."--_Aeneid. VI. 492._ + + "----nihil illi _tendere_ contra; + Sed _celerare_ fugam in sylvas, et _fidere_ nocti.'--_Aeneid. IX. 378._ + +"Tarquinius _fateri_ amorem, _orare_, _miscere_ precibus minas, _versare_ +in omnes partes muliebrem animum."--_Liv. I. 58._ + +"Neque post id locorum Jugurthae dies aut nox ulla quieta fuere: neque +loco, neque mortali cuiquam, aut tempori satis _credere_; cives, hostes, +juxta _metuere_; _circumspectare_ omnia, et omni strepitu _pavescere_; alio +atque alio loco, saepe contra decus regium, noctu _requiescere_; interdum +somno excitus, arreptis armis, tumultum _facere_; ita formidine quasi +vecordia _exagitari_."--_Sall. Bell. Jugur. 72._ + +[72] "An ceannard a mharbhadh" may be considered as the nominative to the +verb chaidh; and so in similar phrases; much in the same way as we find in +Latin, an Infinitive with an accusative before it, become the nominative to +a verb; as "_hominem_ hominis incommodo suum _augere_ commodum _est_ contra +naturam." _Cic. de. Offic._ III. 5. "Turpe _est eos_ qui bene nati sunt +turpiter _vivere_." + +[73] So in Hebrew, the article prefixed to the nouns _day_, _night_, +imports the present day or night. See Exod. xiv. 13. + +[74] Perhaps the proper Prep. in these phrases is _de_, not _do_--see the +Prepositions in the next Chap.--as we find the same Prep. similarly applied +in other languages; de nuit _by night_, John iii. 2; de nocte, Hor. Epis. +1. 2, 32; de tertia vigilia, Caes. B. G. + +[75] These expressions are affirmed, not without reason, to refer to the +supposed destruction of the world by fire, or by water; events which were +considered as immeasurably remote. (See Smith's "Gal. Antiq." pp. 59. 60). +Another explanation has been given of dilinn, as being compounded of dith, +_want, failure_, and linn _an age_; qu. _absumptio saeculi_. + +[76] Perhaps am f[`a]n, from f[`a]n or f[`a]nadh _a descent_. (See Lhuyd's +"Arch. Brit." tit. x. _in loco_.) + +[77] _i.e._ anns an teach, anns an tigh, _in the house_. So in Hebrew, +[Hebrew: MBYT] _within_, Gen. vi. 14. + +[78] Deas, applied to the hand, signifies the _right hand_. So in Hebrew, +[Hebrew: YMYN] signifies the _right hand_ and the _South_. + +[79] Iar, as a Preposition, signifies _after_ or _behind_. In like manner +in Hebrew, [Hebrew: ATR] signifies _after_, or the _West_. + +[80] Probably co luath _equally quick, with equal pace_. + +[81] The probable analysis of seadh is, is ['e], _it is_, pronounced in one +syllable, 's e. When this syllable was used as a responsive, and not +followed by any other word; the voice, resting on the final sound, formed a +faint articulation. This was represented in writing by the gentle aspirate +_dh_; and so the word came to be written as we find it. In like manner ni +h-eadh is probably nothing else than a substitute for ni he, _it is not_. + +[82] This mode of incorporating the Prepositions with the personal pronouns +will remind the Orientalist of the Pronominal Affixes, common in Hebrew and +other Eastern languages. The close resemblance between the Gaelic and many +of the Asiatic tongues, in this particular, is of itself an almost +conclusive proof that the Gaelic bears a much closer affinity to the parent +stock than any other living European language. + +[83] "In corroboration of this (Mr. S.'s) hypothesis, I have frequently met +_de_ in old MSS. I have therefore adopted it in its proper place."--E. +O'C.'s "Grammar of the Irish Gaelic." Dublin, 1808. + +[84] In many places, this Prep. is pronounced hun. + +[85] Tar ['e]is, on the track or footstep. See O'Brien's "Ir. Dict." _voc._ +['e]is. + +[86] On consulting O'Brien's "Ir. Dict." we find son translated _profit, +advantage_, cum _a fight, combat_, r['e]ir _will, desire_. From these +significations the common meaning of air son, do chum, do r['e]ir, may +perhaps be derived without much violence. + +[87] See Gaelic Poems published by Doctor Smith, pp. 8, 9, 178, 291. + +[88] There is in Gaelic a Noun cion or cionn, signifying _cause_; which +occurs in the expressions a chionn gu _because that_, cion-f[`a]th _a +reason_ or _ground_. But this word is entirely different from ceann _end_ +or _top_. + +[89] Some confusion has been introduced into the Grammar of the Latin +language, by imposing different grammatical names on words, according to +the connection in which they stood, while they retained their form and +their signification unchanged; as in calling _quod_ at one time a Relative +Pronoun, at another time a Conjunction; _post_ in one situation a +Preposition, in another, an Adverb. An expedient was thought requisite for +distinguishing, in such instances, the one part of speech from the other. +Accordingly an accent, or some such mark, was, in writing or printing, +placed over the last vowel of the word, when employed in what was reckoned +its secondary use; while, in its primary use, it was written without any +distinguishing mark. So the conjunction _qu[`o]d_ was distinguished from +the relative _quod_; and the adverb _post_ from the preposition _p[`o]st_. +The distinction was erroneous; but the expedient employed to mark it was, +at least, harmless. The word was left unaltered and undisguised; and thus +succeeding grammarians had it the more in their power to prove that the +relative _quod_ and the conjunction _qu[`o]d_ are, and have ever been, in +reality, one and the same part of speech. It would have been justly thought +a bold and unwarrantable step, had the older grammarians gone so far as to +alter the letters of the word, in order to mark a distinction of their own +creation. + +[90] From this use of the preposition _air_ arises the _equivoque_ so +humorously turned against Mr James Macpherson by Maccodrum the poet, as +related in the Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland +on the authenticity of Osian's Poems, Append. p. 95. Macpherson asked +Maccodrum, "Am bheil dad agad air an Fh['e]inn?" literally, "Have you +anything on the Fingalians?" intending to inquire whether the latter had +any poems in his possession _on_ the subject of the Fingalian history and +exploits. The expression partakes much more of the English than of the +Gaelic idiom. Indeed, it can hardly be understood in Gaelic, in the sense +that the querist intended. Maccodrum, catching up the expression in its +true Gaelic acceptation, answered, with affected surprise, "Bheil dad agam +air an Fh['e]inn? Ma bha dad riamh agam orra, is fad o chaill mi na +c[`o]irichean." "Have I any claim on the Fingalians? If ever I had, it is +long since I lost my voucher." + +[91] This use of the preposition _ann_ in conjunction with a possessive +Pronoun, is nearly akin to that of the Hebrew [Hebrew: l], [for] in such +expressions as these: 'He hath made me [for] a father to Pharaoh, and [for] +lord of all his house;' _rinn e mi 'n am athair do Pharaoh, agus 'n am +thighearn os ceann a thighe uile_, Gen. xlv. 8. 'Thou hast taken the wife +of Uriah to be [for] thy wife;' _ghabh thu bean Uriah gu bi 'n a mnaoi +dhuit fein._ 2 Sam. xii. 10. + +[92] This syllable assumes various forms. Before a broad vowel or consonant +_an_, as, anshocair; before a small vowel or consonant _ain_, as, aineolach +_ignorant_, aindeoin _unwillingness_; before a labial _am_ or _aim_, as, +aimbeartach _poor_; sometimes with the _m_ aspirated, as, aimhleas +_detriment_, _ruin_, aimh-leathan _narrow_. + +[93] The conjunction ged loses the _d_ when written before an adjective or +a personal pronoun; as, ge binn do ghuth, _though your voice be sweet_; ge +h-[`a]rd Jehovah, Psal. cxxxviii. 6. + +The translators of the Scriptures appear to have erred in supposing ge to +be the entire Conjunction, and that _d_ is the verbal particle do. This has +led them to write ge d' or ge do in situations in which do alters the sense +from what was intended, or is totally inadmissible. Ge do ghluais mi, Deut. +xxix. 19, is given as the translation of _though I walk_, i.e. _though I +shall walk_, but in reality it signifies _though I did walk_, for do +ghluais is past tense. It ought to be ged ghluais mi. So also ge do ghleidh +thu mi, Judg. xiii. 16, _though you detain me_, ought rather to be ged +ghleidh thu mi. Ge do ghlaodhas iad rium, Jer. xi. 11, _though they cry to +me_, is not agreeable to the Gaelic idiom. It ought rather to be ged +ghlaodh iad rium, as in Hosea, xi. 7. Ge do dh' fheudainnse muinghin bhi +agam, Phil. iii. 4, _though I might have confidence_. Here the verbal +particle is doubled unnecessarily, and surely not according to classical +precision. Let it be written ged dh' fheudainnse, and the phrase is +correct. Ge do 's eigin domh am bas fhulang, Mark xiv. 31, _though I must +suffer death_: ge do tha aireamh chloinn Israel, &c., Rom. ix. 27, _though +the number of the children of Israel be_, &c. The present tenses is and tha +never take the do before them. Ged is eigin, ged tha, is liable to no +objection. At other times, when the do appeared indisputably out of place, +the _d_ has been dismissed altogether, contrary to usual mode of +pronunciation; as, ge nach eil, Acts xvii. 27, 2 Cor. xii. 11, where the +common pronunciation requires ged nach eil. So, ge d' nach duin' an +t-aodach, &c. ge d' nach biodh ann ach an righ &c. (McIntosh's "Gael Prov." +pp. 35, 36), where the _d_ is retained even before nach, because such is +the constant way of pronouncing the phrase. + +These faulty expressions which, without intending to derogate from the high +regard due to such respectable authorities, I have thus freely ventured to +point out, seemed to have proceeded from mistaking the constituent letters +of the conjunction in question. It would appear that _d_ was originally a +radical letter of the word; that through time it came, like many other +consonants, to be aspirated; and by degrees became, in some situations, +quiescent. In Irish it is written giodh. This manner of writing the word is +adopted by the translator of Baxter's "Call." One of its compounds is +always written gidheadh. In these, the _d_ is preserved, though in its +aspirated state. In Scotland it is still pronounced, in most situations, +ged, without aspirating the _d_ at all. These circumstances put together +seem to prove the final _d_ is a radical constituent letter of this +Conjunction. + +I have the satisfaction to say that the very accurate Author of the Gaelic +Translation of the Scriptures has, with great candour, acknowledged the +justice of the criticism contained in the foregoing note. It is judged +expedient to retain it in this edition of the Grammar, lest the authority +of that excellent Translation might perpetuate a form of speech which is +confessed to be faulty. + +[94] To avoid, as far as may be, the too frequent use of _a_ by itself, +perhaps it would be better always to write the article full, an or am; and +to apply the above rules, about the elision of its letters, only to +regulate the pronunciation. Irish books, and our earlier Scottish +publications, have the article written almost always full, in situations +where, according to the latest mode of Orthography, it is mutilated. + +[95] The practice of suppressing the sound of an initial consonant in +certain situations, and supplying its place by another of a softer sound, +is carried to a much greater extent in the Irish dialect. It is termed +_eclipsis_ by the Irish grammarians, and is an evidence of a nice attention +to _euphonia_. + +[96] The Dat. case is always preceded by a Preposition, ris a' bhard, do 'n +bhard, aig na bardaibh; in declining a Noun with the article, any _Proper +Preposition_ may be supplied before the Dative case. + +[97] So in English, _Grandfather_, _Highlands_, _sometimes_; in Latin, +_Respublica_, _Decemviri_; in Italian, _Primavera_; in French, _Bonheur_, +_Malheur_, &c. from being an adjective and a noun, came to be considered as +a single complex term, or a compound word, and to be written accordingly. + +A close analogy may be traced between the Gaelic and the French in the +collocation of the Adjective. In both languages, the Adjective is +ordinarily placed after its Noun. If it be placed before its Noun, it is by +a kind of poetical inversion; dorchadas tiugh, _des tenebres epaisses_; by +inversion, tiugh dhorchadas, _d' epaisses tenebres_; fear m[`o]r, _un homme +grand_; by inversion, in a metaphorical sense, m[`o]r fhear, _un grand +homme_. A Numeral Adjective, in both languages, is placed before its Noun; +as also iomadh, _plusieurs_; except when joined to a proper name, where the +Cardinal is used for the Ordinal; Seumas a Ceithir, _Jaques Quatre_. + +[98] The same seems to be the case in the Cornish Language. See Lhuyd's +"Arch. Brit." p. 243, col. 3. + +When an Adjective precedes its Noun, it undergoes no change of termination; +as, thig an Tighearn a nuas le ard iolaich, _the Lord will descend with a +great shout_, 1 Thes. iv. 16; mar ghuth mor shluaigh, _as the voice of a +great multitude_, Rev. xix. 6. + +[99] Thus, bhur inntinn _your mind_, Acts xv. 24. + +[100] This, however, does not happen invariably. Where the _Sex_, though +specified, is overlooked as of small importance, the Personal or Possessive +Pronouns follow the _Gender_ of the Antecedent. See 2 Sam. xii. 3. + +[101] I am aware of the singularity of asserting the grammatical propriety +of such expressions as ciod e Uchdmhacachd? ciod e Urnuigh? as, the nouns +uchdmhacachd, urnuigh are known to be of the feminine Gender; and as this +assertion stands opposed to the respectable authority of the Editor of the +Assembly's Catechism in Gaelic, Edin. 1792, where we read, Ciod i urnuigh? +&c. The following defence of it is offered to the attentive reader. + +In every question the words which convey the interrogation must refer to +some higher genus or species than the words which express the subject of +the query. It is in the choice of the speaker to make that reference to any +genus or species he pleases. If I ask 'Who was Alexander?' the +Interrogative _who_ refers to the species _man_, of which _Alexander_, the +subject of the query, is understood to have been an individual. The +question is equivalent to 'What man was Alexander?' If I ask 'What is Man?' +the Interrogative _what_ refers to the genus of Existence or Being, of +which Man is considered as a subordinate genus or species. The question is +the same with 'What Being is Man?' I may also ask 'What was Alexander?' +Here the Interrogative _what_ refers to some genus or species of which +Alexander is conceived to have been an individual, though the particular +genus intended by the querist is left to be gathered from the tenor of the +preceding discourse. It would be improper, however, to say 'Who is man?' as +the Interrogative refers to no higher genus than that expressed by the word +_Man_. It is the same as if one should ask 'What man is Man?' + +In the question 'What is Prayer?' the object of the querist is to learn the +meaning of the term _Prayer_. The Interrogative _what_ refers to the genus +of Existence, as in the question 'What is Man?' not to the word _Prayer_, +which is the subject of the query. It is equivalent to 'What is [that thing +which is named] Prayer?' In those languages where a variety of gender is +prevalent, this reference of the Interrogative is more conspicuously +marked. A Latin writer would say '_Quid_ est Oratio*?' A Frenchman, 'Qu' +est-ce que la Pri[`e]re?' These questions, in a complete form, would run +thus; 'Quid est [id quod dicitur] Oratio?' 'Qu' est-ce que [l'on appelle] +la Pri[`e]re?' On the same principle, and in the same sense, a Gaelic +writer must say, 'Ciod e urnuigh?' the Interrogative Ciod e referring not +to urnuigh but to some higher genus. The expression, when completed, is +'Ciod e [sin de 'n goirear] urnuigh?' + +Is there then no case in which the Interrogative may follow the gender of +the subject? If the subject of the query be expressed, as it often is, by +_a general term, limited in its signification_ by a noun, adjective, +relative clause, &c; the reference of the Interrogative is often, though +not always not necessarily, made to _that term_ in its general acceptation, +and consequently be 'What is the Lord's Prayer?' Here the subject of the +query is not _Prayer_, but an individual of that species, denoted by the +term _prayer_ limited in its signification by another noun. The +Interrogative _what_ may refer, as in the former examples, to the genus of +Existence; or it may refer to the species _Prayer_, of which the subject of +the query is an individual. That is, I may be understood to ask either +'What is that _thing_ which is called the Lord's Prayer?' or 'What is that +_prayer_ which is called the Lord's Prayer?' A Latin writer would say, in +the former sense, 'Quid est Oratio Dominica+?' in the latter sense, +'Quaenam est Oratio Dominica?' The former of these expressions is +resolvable into 'Quid est [id quod dicitur] Oratio Dominica?' the latter +into 'Quaenam [oratio] est Oratio Dominica?' The same diversity of +expression would be used in French: 'Qu' est-ce que l'Oraison Dominicale?' +and 'Quelle est l'Oraison Dominicale?' The former resolvable into 'Qu' +est-ce que [l'on appelle] l'Oraison Dominicale? the latter into 'Quelle +[oraison] est l'Oraison Dominicale? So also in Gaelic, 'Ciod e Urnuigh an +Tighearna?' equivalent to 'Ciod e [sin de'n goirear] Urnuigh an Tighearna?' +or, which will occur oftener, 'Ciod i Urnuigh an Tighearna?' equivalent to +'Ciod i [an urnuigh sin de 'n goirear] Urnuigh an Tighearna?' + +* See a short Latin Catechism at the end of Mr Ruddiman's Latin Rudiments, +where many similar expressions occur; as 'Quid est fides? 'Quid est Lex? +Quid est Baptismus? Quid Sacramenta?' &c. + ++ So Ruddiman, 'Quid est Sacra Coena?' + +[102] The same arrangement obtains pretty uniformly in Hebrew, and seems +the natural and ordinary collocation of the Verb and its Noun in that +language. When the Noun in Hebrew is placed before the Verb, it will +generally be found that the Noun does not immediately connect with the Verb +as the Nominative to it, but rather stands in an absolute state; and that +it is brought forward in that state by itself to excite attention, and +denotes some kind of emphasis, or opposition to another Noun. Take the +following examples for illustration: Gen. i. 1, 2. 'In the beginning God +created [[Hebrew: BR' 'LHYM] in the natural order] the Heaven and the +Earth.' [Hebrew: WH'RTS HYTH]; not and the Earth was, &c., but 'and with +respect to the Earth, it was without form,' &c. Thus expressed in Gaelic: +'agus an talamh bha e gun dealbh,' &c. Gen. xviii. 33. 'And the Lord went +his way [[Hebrew: WYLK YHWH] in the natural order] as soon as he had left +communing with Abraham;' [Hebrew: W'BRHM SHB], not simply 'and Abraham +returned,' &c., but 'and Abraham--he too returned to his place.' In Gaelic, +'agus Abraham, phill esan g' aite fein.' See also Num. xxiv. 25.--Gen. iii. +12. 'And the man said, the woman whom thou gavest to be with me, [Hebrew: +HW' NTNH LY] _she_ it was that gave me of the tree, and I did eat.' Gen. +iii. 13. 'And the woman said, [Hebrew: HNCHSH HSHY'NY], not merely 'the +Serpent beguiled me,' but '_the Serpent_ was the cause; it beguiled me, and +I did eat.' Exod. xiv. 14. '_Jehovah_--he will fight for you; but as for +_you_, ye shall hold your peace.' This kind of emphasis is correctly +expressed in the Eng. translation of Psal. lx. 12, 'for he _it is that_ +shall tread down our enemies.' Without multiplying examples, I shall only +observe that it must be difficult for the English reader to conceive that +the Noun denoting the subject of a proposition, when placed after its Verb, +should be in the natural order; and when placed before its Verb, should be +in an inverted order of the words. To a person well aquainted with the +Gaelic, this idiom is familiar; and therefore it is the easier for him to +apprehend the effect of such an arrangement in any other language. For want +of attending to this peculiarity in the structure of the Hebrew, much of +that force and emphasis, which in other languages would be expressed by +various particles, but in Hebrew depend on the collocation alone, must pass +unobserved and unfelt. + +[103] I am happy to be put right, in my stricture on the above passage, by +E. O'C., author of a Gaelic Grammar, Dublin, 1808, who informs us that +_truaighe_ is here the Nominative, and _Iosa_ the Accusative case; and that +the meaning is not _Jesus took pity on them_, but _pity seized Jesus for +them_. + +[104] This construction resembles that of the Latin Infinitive preceded by +the Accusative of the Agent. + + ----Mene desistere victam, + Nec posse Italia Teucrorum avertere regem?--I. Aenid 28. + +[105] So in English, the Infinitive of a Transitive Verb is sometimes used +instead of the Present Participle, and followed by the Preposition _of_; +as, 'the woman was there gathering of sticks.' 1 Kings xvii. 10. + + -------- some sad drops + Wept at completing of the mortal sin.--"Parad. Lost." + +See more examples, Num. xiii, 25, 2 Sam. ii. 21, 2 Chron. xx. 25, xxxv. 14, +Ezek. xxxix. 12. + +[106] On the same principle it is that in some compound words, composed of +two Nouns whereof the former governs the latter in the Genitive, the former +Noun is seldom itself put in the Genitive case. Thus, ainm bean-na-bainse, +_the bride's name_; it would sound extremely harsh to say ainm +mna-na-bainse; clach ceann-an-teine, not clach cinn-an-teine, the stone +which supports a hearth fire. + +[107] These examples suggest, and seem to authorise a special use of this +idiom of Gaelic Syntax, which, if uniformly observed, might contribute much +to the perspicuity and precision of many common expressions. When a +compound term occurs, made up of a Noun and an Infinitive governed by that +Noun, it often happens that this term itself governs another Noun in the +Genitive. Let the two parts of the compound term be viewed separately. If +it appear that the subsequent Noun is governed by the _former_ part of the +compound word, then the latter part should remain regularly in the Genitive +Case. But if the subsequent Noun be governed by the _latter_ part of the +compound word, then, agreeably to the construction exemplified in the above +passages, that latter part, which is here supposed to be an Infinitive, +should fall back into the Nominative Case. Thus tigh-coimh_i_d an Righ, +_the King's store house_, where the Noun Righ is governed by tigh, the +former term of the compound word; but tigh comh_ea_d an ionmhais, John +viii. 20, _the house for keeping the treasure_, where ionmhais is governed +by coimhead, which is therefore put in the Nominative instead of the +Genitive. So luchd-coimh_i_d, Matt. xxviii. 4, when no other Noun is +governed; but fear-coimh_ea_d a' phriosuin, Acts, xvi. 27, 36, where the +last Noun is governed in the Genitive by coimh_ea_d, which is therefore put +in the Nominative. So also fear-coimh_i_d, Psal. cxxi. 3, but +fear-coimh_ea_d Israeil, Psal. cxxi. 4. Edin. 1799. Tigh-bearr_ai_dh nam +buachaillean, _the shearing-house belonging to the shepherds_, 2 King, x. +12, but tigh-bearr_a_dh nan caorach, _the house for shearing the sheep_. +Luchd-brath_ai_dh an Righ _the King's spies_; but luchd-brath_a_dh an Righ, +_the betrayers of the King_. Luchd-mort_ai_dh Heroid, _assassins employed +by Herod_; but luchd-mort_a_dh Eoin, _the murderers of John_. + +I am aware that this distinction has been little regarded by the +translators of the Scriptures. It appeared, however, worthy of being +suggested, on account of its evident utility in point of precision, and +because it is supported by the genius and practice of the Gaelic language. + +[108] For this reason, there seems to be an impropriety in writing chum a +losgaidh, 1 Cor. xiii. 3, instead of chum a losgadh. + +[109] The same peculiarity in the use of the Article takes place in Hebrew, +and constitutes a striking point of analogy in the structure of the two +languages. See _Buxt. Thes. Gram. Heb. Lib. II. Cap. V._ + +[110] This solecism is found in the Irish as well as in the Scottish Gaelic +translation. The Manks translation has avoided it. In the Irish version and +in the Scottish Gaelic version of 1767, a similar instance occurs in Acts, +ii. 20, _an_ la mor agus oirdheirc sin _an_ Tighearna. In the Scottish +edition of 1796, the requisite correction is made by omitting the first +Article. It is omitted likewise in the Manks N. T. On the other hand, the +Article, which had been rightly left out in the Edition of 1767, is +improperly introduced in the Edition of 1796, in 1 Cor. xi. 27, an cupan so +an Tighearna. It is proper to mention that, in the passage last quoted, the +first article _an_ had crept, by mistake, into a part of the impression +1796, but was corrected in the remaining part. + +[111] The inserted _m_ or _n_ is generally written with an apostrophe +before it, thus gu'm, gu'n. This would indicate that some vowel is here +suppressed in writing. But if no vowel ever stood in the place of this +apostrophe, which seems to be the fact, the apostrophe itself has been +needlessly and improperly introduced. + +[112] I much doubt the propriety of joining the Conjunction ged to the Fut. +Affirm.; as, ge do gheibh na h-uile dhaoine oilbheum, _though all men shall +be offended_, Matt. xxvi. 33. It should rather have been, ged fhaigh na +h-uile dhaoine, &c. The Fut. Subj. seems to be equally improper; as, ge do +ghlaodhas iad rium, _though they shall cry to me_, Jer. xi. 21, Edit. 1786. +Rather, ged ghlaodh iad rium, as in Hosea, xi. 7. So also, ged eirich +dragh, 's ged bhagair b[`a]s, _though trouble shall arise, and though death +shall threaten_. Gael. Paraph. xlvii. 7. Edin. 1787. See page 134. Note 93. + +[113] The terminations _air_, _oir_, seem from their signification as well +as form, to be nothing else than fear _man_, in its aspirated form fhear. +From these terminations are derived the Latin terminations _or_, orator, +doctor, &c., _arius_ sicarius, essedarius, &c.; the French _eur_, vengeur, +createur, &c.; _aire_, commissaire, notaire, &c., _ter_, chevalier, +charretier, &c.; the English _er_, maker, lover, &c., _ary_, prebendary, +antiquary, &c., _eer_, volunteer, &c. + +[114] Timcheal na macraidhe _beside the young men_, Lhuyd, O'Brien. voc. +timcheal. This passage proves macraidh to be a singular Noun of the fem. +gender, not, as might be thought, the Plural of mac. So laochruidh, +madraidh, &c., may rather be considered as collective Nouns of the singular +Number than as plurals. + +[115] The same termination having the same import, is found in the French +words cavalerie, infanterie, and in the English cavalry, infantry, +yeomanry. + +[116] In the Gaelic N. Test, the _Gentile_ Nouns [Greek: Korinthios, +Galatai, Ephesioi], are rendered Corintianaich, Galatianaich, Ephesianaich. +Would it not be agreeable to the analogy of Gaelic derivation to write +Corintich, Galataich, Ephesich, subjoining the Gaelic termination alone to +the Primitive, rather than by introducing the syllable _an_, to form a +Derivative of a mixed and redundant structure, partly vernacular, partly +foreign? The word Samaritanaich, John iv. 40, is remarkably redundant, +having no fewer than three _Gentile_ Terminations. From [Greek: Samareia] +is formed, agreeably to the Greek mode of derivation, [Greek: Samareitai]. +To this the Latins added their own termination, and wrote _Samaritani_; +which the Irish lengthened out still further into Samaritanaich. The proper +Gaelic derivation would be Samaraich, like Elamaich, Medich, Persich, &c. +The Irish Galil['e]anach is, in the Scottish Translation 1796, properly +changed into Galil['e]ach, Acts v. 37. + +[117] The termination _ail_ is a contraction for amhuil _like_. In Irish +this termination is generally written full, fearamhuil, geanamhuil, &c. +From the Gaelic termination _ail_, is derived the Latin termination _alis_, +fatalis, hospitalis, &c., whence the English _al_, final, conditional, &c. +See page 33. Note 25. + +[118] Two or three exceptions from this rule occur; as the Plurals _d['e]e +gods_, mnai _women_, lai _days_. But these are so irregular in their form +as well as spelling, that they ought rather to be rejected altogether, and +their place supplied by the common Plurals diathan, mnathan, lathan or +lathachan. + +[119] As if we should write in English impious, impotent, without a hyphen; +but im-penitent, im-probable, with a hyphen. + +[120] O beautiful ringlet. + +[121] The above is the passage so often referred to in the controversy +concerning the antiquity of Ossian's Poems. It was natural enough for the +zealous Bishop to speak disparagingly of anything which appeared to him to +divert the minds of the people from those important religious truths to +which he piously wished to direct their most serious attention. But +whatever may be thought of his judgment, his testimony is decisive as to +the existence of traditional histories concerning Fingal and his people; +and proves that the rehearsal of those compositions was a common and +favourite entertainment with the people throughout the Highlands at the +time when he lived. + +[122] _i.e._, the Hebrides. + + * * * * * + + +Corrections made to printed original. + +page 17, "slat a rod": 'flat ...' in original. + +page 31, "dligheach lawful,": 'dlighecah' in original. + +page 34, "beo and ail": 'and and' over line break in original. + +page 48, "iasg m. _fish_, g. s. eisg;": 'g. s. eifg' in original. + +page 50, "n. p. and g. p. 'leabraichean'--When the nominative plural is +twofold, the genitive is so too; as 'fear' n. a man," these two line +missing in the 1892 edition are re-instated from that of 1812. + +ibid, "rather than phairiseachaibh": 'phairseachaibh' in original (1812 +edition: phairlseachaibh). + +page 53, "mathair f. a mother, g. s. mathar": 'g. s. mathair' in original. + +page 60, "300 Tri cheud fear.": '309' in original. + +page 61, "120 Am ficheadamh fear thar cheud.": '200' in original. + +page 69, "3 Do bhuail e": 'bhuall' in original. + +page 89, "The Future marks future time": 'makes future time' in original +(1812 edition: marks). + +page 90, "bha mi ag bualadh an d['e]": 'buailadh' in original. + +page 116, "Tar, Thar, over, across.": 'accross' in original. + +page 134, "Bheil fhios, 'l fhios": ''l fhois' in original (1812 edition: +fhios). + +page 145, "D. A', 'n Chlarsaich fhonnmhoir": 'fhonnoir' in original, there +is no explanation why the 'mh' should be dropped. + +page 146, "Perhaps a distinction ought to be made": 'ought to made' in +original. + +page 162, "commonly put in the Comparative form": 'Comparitive' in +original. + +page 176, "Aobhach": 'Aobhachh' in original. + +page 176, "Extract from Bishop Carsuel's Gaelic translation", etc: this +appears in fact to be the Gaelic version of the following English section +concerning the Poems of Ossian. + +Footnote 89: "placed over the last vowel": 'the the' on footnote break +across two pages in original. + +Footnote 93: "an adjective or a personal pronoun": 'of' for 'or' in +original (1812 edition: or) + +Footnote 102: "Gen. i. 1, 2. 'In the beginning ...'": 'Gen. i. 1, 5' in +original. + +Footnote 107: "made up of a Noun and an Infinitive": 'Infinite' in original +(1812 edition: Infinitive) + +Footnote 110: "improperly introduced in the Edition of 1796": 'properly' in +original (1812 edition: improperly) + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Elements of Gaelic Grammar, by Alexander Stewart + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF GAELIC GRAMMAR *** + +***** This file should be named 28766.txt or 28766.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/7/6/28766/ + +Produced by Feòrag NicBhrìde, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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