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diff --git a/27995-h/27995-h.htm b/27995-h/27995-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..41db5b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/27995-h/27995-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10108 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The History of London, by Walter Besant. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; +} /* page numbers */ + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} +.lowercase {text-transform: lowercase;} + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +.figleft { + float: left; + clear: left; + margin-left: 0; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +.figright { + float: right; + clear: right; + margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: + 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 0; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Footnotes */ + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor {vertical-align:baseline; + position: relative; + bottom: 0.33em; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none;} + +/* Poetry */ +.poem { + margin-left:10%; + margin-right:10%; + text-align: left; +} + +.poem br {display: none;} + +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + +.poem span.i0 { + display: block; + margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poem span.i2 { + display: block; + margin-left: 2em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poem span.i4 { + display: block; + margin-left: 4em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} + +// --> +/* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of London, by Walter Besant + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The History of London + +Author: Walter Besant + +Release Date: February 4, 2009 [EBook #27995] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF LONDON *** + + + + +Produced by Susan Skinner and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> +<img src="images/image_001.jpg" width="440" height="600" alt="Cover" title="" /> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a> +<img src="images/image_002.jpg" width="600" height="383" alt="THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT: DESIGNED BY BARRY, OPENED 1852." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT: DESIGNED BY BARRY, OPENED 1852.</span> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h1><span style="font-size: 50%;">THE<br /></span> +<br /> +HISTORY OF LONDON</h1> + + +<p class='center'>BY<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-size: x-large;">WALTER BESANT</span></p> + +<p class='center'>AUTHOR OF 'LONDON' 'CHILDREN OF GIBEON' ETC.</p> + + +<p class='center'><i>SECOND EDITION</i></p> + + +<p class='center'>LONDON<br /> +LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.</p> + +<p class='center'>1894</p> + +<p class='center'><i>All rights reserved</i></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'>LESSON</td><td></td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_1_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON">The Foundation of London (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_2_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON">The Foundation of London (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_3_ROMAN_LONDON">Roman London (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_4_ROMAN_LONDON">Roman London (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_5_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">After the Romans (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_6_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">After the Romans (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>7.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_7_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">After the Romans (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>8.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_8_THE_FIRST_SAXON_SETTLEMENT">The First Saxon Settlement</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>9.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_9_THE_SECOND_SAXON_SETTLEMENT">The Second Saxon Settlement</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>10.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_10_THE_ANGLO-SAXON_CITIZEN">The Anglo-Saxon Citizen</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>11.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_11_THE_WALL_OF_LONDON">The Wall of London</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>12.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_12_NORMAN_LONDON">Norman London</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>13.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_13_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY">Fitzstephen's Account of the City (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>14.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_14_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY">Fitzstephen's Account of the City (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>15.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_15_LONDON_BRIDGE">London Bridge (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>16.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_16_LONDON_BRIDGE">London Bridge (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>17.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_17_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON">The Tower of London (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>18.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_18_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON">The Tower of London (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>19.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_19_THE_PILGRIMS">The Pilgrims</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>20.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_20_ST_BARTHOLOMEWS_HOSPITAL">St. Bartholomew's Hospital</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>21.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_21_THE_TERROR_OF_LEPROSY">The Terror of Leprosy</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>22.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE">The Terror of Famine</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>23.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_23_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL">St. Paul's Cathedral (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>24.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_24_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL">St. Paul's Cathedral (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>25.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_25_PAULS_CHURCHYARD">Paul's Churchyard</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>26.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_26_THE_RELIGIOUS_HOUSES">The Religious Houses</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>27.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_27_MONKS_FRIARS_AND_NUNS">Monks, Friars, and Nuns</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>28.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_28_THE_LONDON_CHURCHES">The London Churches</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>29.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_29_THE_STREETS">The Streets</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>30.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_30_WHITTINGTON">Whittington (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>31.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_31_WHITTINGTON">Whittington (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>32.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_32_WHITTINGTON">Whittington (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>33.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_33_GIFTS_AND_BEQUESTS">Gifts and Bequests</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>34.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_34_THE_PALACES_AND_GREAT_HOUSES">The Palaces and Great Houses</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>35.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_35_AMUSEMENTS">Amusements</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>36.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_36_WESTMINSTER_ABBEY">Westminster Abbey</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>37.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_37_THE_COURT_AT_WESTMINSTER">The Court at Westminster</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>38.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_38_JUSTICE_AND_PUNISHMENTS">Justice and Punishments</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>39.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_39_THE_POLITICAL_POWER_OF_LONDON">The Political Power of London</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>40.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_40_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">Elizabethan London (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>41.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_41_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">Elizabethan London (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>42.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_42_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">Elizabethan London (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>43.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_43_TRADE">Trade (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>44.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_44_TRADE">Trade (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>45.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_45_TRADE">Trade (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>46.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_46_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">Plays and Pageants (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>47.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_47_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">Plays and Pageants (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>48.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_48_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">Plays and Pageants (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>49.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_49_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">Plays and Pageants (IV)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>50.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_50_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE">The Terror of the Plague (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>51.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_51_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE">The Terror of the Plague (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>52.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_52_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE">The Terror of Fire (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>53.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_53_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE">The Terror of Fire (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>54.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_54_ROGUES_AND_VAGABONDS">Rogues and Vagabonds</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>55.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_55_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">Under George the Second (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>56.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_56_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">Under George the Second (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>57.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_57_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">Under George the Second (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>58.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_58_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">Under George the Second (IV)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>59.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_59_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">Under George the Second (V)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>60.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_60_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">The Government of the City (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>61.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_61_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">The Government of the City (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>62.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_62_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">The Government of the City (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>63.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_63_LONDON">London</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><a href="#NOTES">Notes</a></td><td></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>The New Houses of Parliament: designed by Barry, opened 1852</td><td align='right'><i><a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a></i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Early British Pottery</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Roman London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Remains of a Viking Ship, from a Cairn at Gokstad</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'>Saxon Horsemen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>7.</td><td align='left'>Saxon Church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>8.</td><td align='left'>City Gates</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>9.</td><td align='left'>Remains of the Wall</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>10.</td><td align='left'> Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_40">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>11.</td><td align='left'> Tower in the Earlier Style. Church at Earl's Barton</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>12.</td><td align='left'> A Norman Ship</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>13.</td><td align='left'> Building a Church in the later Style</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>14.</td><td align='left'> Lay Costumes in the Twelfth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>15.</td><td align='left'> Costume of Shepherds in the Twelfth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>16.</td><td align='left'> Ecclesiastical Costume in the Twelfth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>17.</td><td align='left'> Royal Arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>18.</td><td align='left'> Old London Bridge</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>19.</td><td align='left'> The Tower of London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>20.</td><td align='left'> A Bed in the Reign of Henry III.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>21.</td><td align='left'> Interior of the Hall at Penshurst, Kent</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_72">71</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>22.</td><td align='left'> The Upper Chamber or Solar at Sutton Courtenay Manor-house</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">73</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>23.</td><td align='left'> The Lepers Begging</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>24.</td><td align='left'> London before the Spire of St. Paul's was burned; showing +the Bridge, Tower, Shipping, &c.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>25.</td><td align='left'> Old St. Paul's, from the East</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>26.</td><td align='left'> Old St. Paul's on Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>27.</td><td align='left'> West Front of St. Paul's Cathedral +Church. (Built by Sir Christopher Wren)</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>28.</td><td align='left'> Paul's Cross</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_91">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>29.</td><td align='left'> Bermondsey Abbey</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>30.</td><td align='left'> Ruins of Gateway of Bermondsey Abbey</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>31.</td><td align='left'> Christ's Hospital</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_98">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>32.</td><td align='left'> Chepe in the Fifteenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>33.</td><td align='left'> Large Ship and Boat of the Fifteenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_110">111</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>34.</td><td align='left'> A Sea-Fight</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>35.</td><td align='left'> Durham, Salisbury, and Worcester Houses</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>36.</td><td align='left'> Bear-baiting</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_129">128</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>37.</td><td align='left'> Shooting at the Butts with the Long-bow</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>38.</td><td align='left'> Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster Abbey</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>39.</td><td align='left'> The Embarkation of Henry VIII. from Dover, 1520</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>40.</td><td align='left'> Coaches in the Reign of Elizabeth</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>41.</td><td align='left'> The City from Southwark</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>42.</td><td align='left'> South-east Part of London in the Fifteenth Century, +showing the Tower and Wall</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>43.</td><td align='left'> King Edward VI.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>44.</td><td align='left'> Sir Thomas Gresham</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>45.</td><td align='left'> First Royal Exchange</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>46.</td><td align='left'> Shipping in the Thames, <i>circa</i> 1660</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>47.</td><td align='left'> Sir Francis Drake, in his Forty-third Year</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>48.</td><td align='left'> The Globe Theatre</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>49.</td><td align='left'> Civil Costume about 1620</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_180">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>50.</td><td align='left'> Costume of a Lawyer</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_180">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='center'>Ordinary Civil Costume; <i>temp.</i> Charles I.:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>51.</td><td align='left'> A Countryman</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>52.</td><td align='left'> A Countrywoman</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>53.</td><td align='left'> A Citizen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>54.</td><td align='left'> A Citizen's Wife</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>55.</td><td align='left'> A Gentleman</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>56.</td><td align='left'> A Gentlewoman</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>57.</td><td align='left'> Lud-gate on Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>58.</td><td align='left'> Paul Pindar's House</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_192">191</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>59.</td><td align='left'> London, as Rebuilt after the Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>60.</td><td align='left'> Coach of the latter half of the Seventeenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>61.</td><td align='left'> Waggon of the second half of the Seventeenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>62.</td><td align='left'> Ordinary Dress of Gentlemen in 1675</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>63.</td><td align='left'> Dress of Ladies of Quality</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_200">199</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>64.</td><td align='left'> Ordinary Attire of Women of the Lower Classes</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_200">199</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>65.</td><td align='left'> Group showing Costumes and Sedan Chair, about 1720</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_201">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>66.</td><td align='left'> Temple Bar, London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>67.</td><td align='left'> Fleet Street and Temple Bar</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>68.</td><td align='left'> A Coach of the Middle of the Seventeenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_206">207</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>69.</td><td align='left'> View of School connected with Bunyan's Meeting House</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>70.</td><td align='left'> Grenadier in the time of the Peninsular War</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>71.</td><td align='left'> Uniform of Sailors, about 1790</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>72.</td><td align='left'> Costumes of Gentlefolk, about 1784</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_214">215</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>73.</td><td align='left'> Vessels unloading at the Customs House, at the beginning +of the Eighteenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>74.</td><td align='left'> The Old Houses of Parliament and Westminster Abbey, 1803</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr> +</table></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">{7}</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="LONDON" id="LONDON"></a>LONDON</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_1_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON" id="chap_1_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON"></a>1. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>'In the year 1108 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, Brutus, a descendant of Æneas, +who was the son of Venus, came to England with +his companions, after the taking of Troy, and founded +the City of Troynovant, which is now called London. +After a thousand years, during which the City grew and +flourished exceedingly, one Lud became its king. He +built walls and towers, and, among other things, the +famous gate whose name still survives in the street called +Ludgate. King Lud was succeeded by his brother Cassivelaunus, +in whose time happened the invasion of the +Romans under Julius Cæsar. Troynovant, or London, +then became a Roman city. It was newly fortified by +Helena, mother of Constantine the Great.'</p> + +<p>This is the legend invented or copied by Geoffrey of +Monmouth, and continued to be copied, and perhaps +believed, almost to the present day. Having paid this +tribute to old tradition, let us relate the true early +history of the City, as it can be recovered from such +documents as remain, from discoveries made in excavation, +from fragments of architecture, and from the lie<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">{8}</a></span> +of the ground. The testimony derived from the lie of +the ground is more important than any other, for several +reasons. First, an historical document may be false, or +inexact; for instance, the invention of a Brutus, son of +Æneas, is false and absurd on the face of it. Or a document +may be wrongly interpreted. Thus, a fragment of +architecture may through ignorance be ascribed to the +Roman, when it belongs to the Norman, period—one needs +to be a profound student of architecture before an opinion +of value can be pronounced upon the age of any monument: +or it may be taken to mean something quite apart +from the truth, as if a bastion of the old Roman fort, such +as has been discovered on Cornhill, should be taken for +part of the Roman wall. But the lie of the ground cannot +deceive, and, in competent hands, cannot well be +misunderstood. If we know the course of streams, the +height and position of hills, the run of valleys, the site +of marshes, the former extent of forests, the safety of +harbours, the existence of fords, we have in our hands a +guide-book to history. We can then understand why +towns were built in certain positions, why trade sprang +up, why invading armies landed at certain places, what +course was taken by armies, and why battles have been +fought on certain spots. For these things are not the +result of chance, they are necessitated by the geographical +position of the place, and by the lie of the ground. +Why, for instance, is Dover one of the oldest towns in +the country? Because it is the nearest landing ground +for the continent, and because its hill forms a natural +fortress for protecting that landing ground. Why was +there a Roman station at Portsmouth? On account of +the great and landlocked harbour. Why is Durham an +ancient city? Because the steep hill made it almost +impregnable. Why is Chester so called? Because it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">{9}</a></span> +was from very ancient times a fort, or stationary camp +(L. <i>castra</i>), against the wild Welsh.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/image_003.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="EARLY BRITISH POTTERY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EARLY BRITISH POTTERY.</span> +</div> + +<p>Let us consider this question as regards London. +Look at the map called 'Roman London' (p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>). You +will there see flowing into the river Thames two little +streams, one called Walbrook, and the other called the +Fleet River. You will see a steep slope, or cliff, indicated +along the river +side. Anciently, +before any buildings +stood along +the bank, this cliff, +about 30 feet high, +rose over an immense +marsh which +covered all the +ground on the +south, the east, +and the west. The +cliff receded from +the river on the +east and on the +west at this point: +on either side of +the Walbrook it +rose out of the +marsh at the very edge of the river at high tide. There +was thus a double hill, one on the east with the Walbrook +on one side of it, the Thames on a second side, and a +marsh on a third side, and the Fleet River on the west. +It was thus bounded on east, south, and west, by streams. +On the north was a wild moor (hence the name Moorfields) +and beyond the moor stretched away northwards a vast +forest, afterwards called the Middlesex forest. This forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">{10}</a></span> +covered, indeed, the greater part of the island, save +where marshes and stagnant lakes lay extended, the +haunt of countless wild birds. You may see portions and +fragments of this forest even now; some of it lies in +Ken Wood, Hampstead; some in the last bit left of +Hainault Forest; some at Epping.</p> + +<p>The river Thames ran through this marsh. It was +then much broader than at present, because there were +no banks or quays to keep it within limits: at high tide it +overflowed the whole of the marsh and lay in an immense +lake, bounded on the north by this low cliff of clay, and +on the south by the rising ground of what we now call +the Surrey Hills, which begin between Kennington and +Clapham, as is shown by the name of Clapham Rise. +In this marsh were a few low islets, always above water +save at very high tides. The memory of these islands is +preserved in the names ending with <i>ea</i> or <i>ey</i>, as Chelsea, +Battersea, Bermondsey. And Westminster Abbey was +built upon the Isle of Thorns or Thorney. The marsh, +south of the river, remained a marsh, undrained and +neglected for many centuries. Almost within the +memory of living men Southwark contained stagnant +ponds, while Bermondsey is still flooded when the tide is +higher than is customary.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_2_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON" id="chap_2_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON"></a>2. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>On these low hillocks marked on the map London was +first founded. The site had many advantages: it was +raised above the malarious marsh, it overlooked the +river, which here was at its narrowest, it was protected by +two other streams and by the steepness of the cliff, and it +was over the little port formed by the fall of one stream<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">{11}</a></span> +into the river. Here, on the western hill, the Britons +formed their first settlement; there were as yet no ships +on the silent river where they fished; there was no +ferry, no bridge, no communication with the outer +world; the woods provided the first Londoners with +game and skins; the river gave them fish; they lived in +round huts formed of clay and branches with thatched +roofs. If you desire to understand how the Britons fortified +themselves, you may see an excellent example not +very far from London. It is the place called St. George's +Hill, near Weybridge. They wanted a hill—the steeper +the side the better: they made it steeper by entrenching +it; they sometimes surrounded it with a high earthwork +and sometimes with a stockade: the great thing being to +put the assailing force under the disadvantage of having +to climb. The three river sides of the London fort presented +a perpendicular cliff surmounted by a stockade, +the other side, on which lay the forest, probably had an +earthwork also surmounted by a stockade. There were +no buildings and there was no trade; the people belonged +to a tribe and had to go out and fight when war was +carried on with another tribe.</p> + +<p>The fort was called Llyn-din—the Lake Fort. When +the Romans came they could not pronounce the word +Llyn—Thlin in the British way—and called it Lon—hence +their word Londinium. Presently adventurous +merchants from Gaul pushed across to Dover, and sailed +along the coast of Kent past Sandwich and through the +open channel which then separated the island of Thanet +from the main land, into the broad Thames, and, sailing +up with the tide, dropped anchor off the fishing villages +which lay along the river and began to trade. What did +they offer? What Captain Cook offered the Polynesians: +weapons, clothes, adornments. What did they take<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">{12}</a></span> +away? Skins and slaves at first; skins and slaves, and +tin and iron, after the country became better known and +its resources were understood. The taste for trading +once acquired rapidly grows; it is a delightful thing to +exchange what you do not want for what you do want, +and it is so very easy to extend one's wants. So that +when the Romans first saw London it was already a +flourishing town with a great concourse of merchants.</p> + +<p>How long a period elapsed between the foundation of +London and the arrival of the Romans? How long +between the foundation and the beginnings of trade? It +is quite impossible even to guess. When Cæsar landed +Gauls and Belgians were already here before him. As +for the Britons themselves they were Celts, as were the +Gauls and the Belgians, but of what is called the +Brythonic branch, represented in speech by the Welsh, +Breton and Cornish languages (the last is now extinct). +There were also lingering among them the surviving +families of an earlier and a conquered race, perhaps +Basques or Finns. When the country was conquered by +the Celts we do not know. Nor is there any record at +all of the people they found here unless the caves, full of +the bones which they gnawed and cut in two for the +marrow, were the homes of these earlier occupants.</p> + +<p>When the Romans came they found the town prosperous. +That is all we know. What the town was +like we do not know. It is, however, probable that the +requirements of trade had already necessitated some +form of embankment and some kind of quay; also, if +trade were of long standing, some improvement in the +huts, the manner of living, the wants, and the dress of +the people would certainly have been introduced.</p> + +<p>Such was the beginning of London. Let us repeat.</p> + +<p>It was a small fortress defended on three sides by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">{13}</a></span> +earthworks, by stockades, by a cliff or steeply sloping +bank, and by streams; on the fourth side by an earthwork, +stockade, and trench. The ground was slightly +irregular, rising from 30 to 60 feet. An open moor full +of quagmires and ponds also protected it on the north. +On the east on the other side of the stream rose another +low hill. The extent of this British fort of Llyn-din +may be easily estimated. The distance from Walbrook +to the Fleet is very nearly 900 yards; supposing the +fort was 500 yards in depth from south to north we +have an area of 450,000 square yards, i.e. about 100 +acres was occupied by the first London, the Fortress on +the Lake. What this town was like in its later days when +the Romans found it; what buildings stood upon it; how +the people lived, we know very little indeed. They went +out to fight, we know so much; and if you visit Hampstead +Heath you may look at a barrow on the top of a +hill which probably contains the bones of those citizens +of London who fell in the victory which they achieved +over the citizens of Verulam when they fought it out in +the valley below that hill.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_3_ROMAN_LONDON" id="chap_3_ROMAN_LONDON"></a>3. ROMAN LONDON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>The Romans, when they resolved to settle in England, +established themselves on the opposite hillock, the eastern +bank of the Walbrook. The situation was not so strong +as that of the British town, because it was protected by +cliff and river on two sides only instead of three. But +the Romans depended on their walls and their arms +rather than the position of their town. As was their +habit they erected here a strong fortress or a stationary +camp, such as others which remain in the country.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">{14}</a></span> +Perhaps the Roman building which most resembles this +fort is the walled enclosure called Porchester, which +stands at the head of Portsmouth Harbour. This is +rectangular in shape and is contained by a high wall built +of rubble stone and narrow bricks, with round, hollow +bastions at intervals. One may also see such a stationary +camp at Richborough, near Sandwich; and at Pevensey, +in Sussex; and at Silchester, near Reading, but the two +latter are not rectangular. One end of this fort was on +the top of the Walbrook bank and the other, if you look +in your map, on the site of Mincing Lane. This gives +a length of about 700 yards by a breadth of 350, +which means an enclosure of about 50 acres. This is a +large area: it was at once the barrack, the arsenal, and +the treasury of the station; it contained the residences +of the officers, the offices of the station, the law court +and tribunals, and the prisons; it was the official residence. +Outside the fort on the north was the burial +place. If we desire to know the character of the buildings +we may assure ourselves that they were not mean +or ignoble by visiting the Roman town of Silchester. +Here we find that the great Hall of Justice was a hall +more spacious than Westminster Hall, though doubtless +not so lofty or so fine. Attached to this hall were other +smaller rooms for the administration of justice; on one +side was an open court with a cloister or corridor running +all round it and shops at the back for the sale of +everything. This was the centre of the city: here the +courts were held; this was the Exchange; here were +the baths; this was the place where the people resorted +in the morning and lounged about to hear the news; +here the jugglers and the minstrels and the acrobats came +to perform; it was the very centre of the life of the city—as +was Silchester so was London.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">{15}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_004.jpg" width="500" height="358" alt="Walker & Boutallse. + +ROMAN LONDON." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ROMAN LONDON.</span> +</div> + +<p>Outside the Citadel the rude British town—if it was +still a rude town—disappeared rapidly. The security of +the place, strongly garrisoned, the extension of Roman +manners, the introduction of Roman customs, dress, and +luxuries gave a great impetus to the development of the +City. The little ports of the rivers Walbrook and Fleet +no longer sufficed for the shipping which now came up +the river; if there were as yet no quays or embankments +they were begun to be erected; behind them rose warehouses +and wharves. The cliff began to be cut away; a +steep slope took its place; its very existence was forgotten. +The same thing has happened at Brighton, where, +almost within the memory of living man, a low cliff ran +along the beach. This embankment extended east and +west—as far as the Fleet River, which is now Blackfriars, +on the west, and what is now Tower Hill on the +east. Then, the trade still increasing, the belt of ground<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">{16}</a></span> +behind the embankment became filled with a dense +population of riverside people—boatmen, sailors, boat-builders, +store-keepers, bargemen, stevedores, porters—all +the people who belong to a busy mercantile port. As for +the better sort, they lived round the Citadel, protected +by its presence, in villas, remains of which have been +found in many places.</p> + +<p>The two things which most marked the Roman occupation +were London Wall and Bridge. Of the latter we will +speak in another place. The wall was erected at a time +between <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 350 and <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 369—very near the end of the +Roman occupation. This wall remained the City wall +for more than a thousand years; it was rebuilt, repaired, +restored; the scanty remains of it—a few fragments +here and there—contain very little of the original +wall; but the course of the wall was never altered, and +we know exactly how it ran. There was first a strong +river wall along the northern bank. There were three +water gates and the Bridge gate; there were two land +gates at Newgate and Bishopsgate. The wall was 3 miles +and 205 yards long; the area enclosed was 380 acres. +This shows that the population must have been already +very large, for the Romans were not accustomed to erect +walls longer than they could defend.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_4_ROMAN_LONDON" id="chap_4_ROMAN_LONDON"></a>4. ROMAN LONDON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>We must think of Roman London as of a small stronghold +on a low hill rising out of the river. It is a strongly-walled +place, within which is a garrison of soldiers; +outside its walls stretch gardens and villas, many of them +rich and beautiful, filled with costly things. Below the fort +is a long river wall or quay covered with warehouses, bales<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">{17}</a></span> +of goods, and a busy multitude of men at work. Some +are slaves—perhaps all. Would you like to know what +a Roman villa was like? It was in plan a small, square +court, surrounded on three sides by a cloister or corridor +with pillars, and behind the cloister the rooms of the +house; the middle part of the court was a garden, and +in front was another and a larger garden. The house +was of one storey, the number and size of the rooms +varying according to the size of the house. On one side +were the winter divisions, on the other were the summer +rooms. The former part was kept warm by means of a +furnace constructed below the house, which supplied hot-air +pipes running up all the walls. At the back of the +house were the kitchen, stables, and sleeping quarters of +the servants. Tesselated pavements, statues, pictures, +carvings, hangings, pillows, and fine glass adorned the +house. There was not in London the enormous wealth +which enabled some of the Romans to live in palaces, +but there was comparative wealth—the wealth which +enables a man to procure for himself in reason all the +things that he desires.</p> + +<p>The City as it grew in prosperity was honoured by +receiving the name of Augusta. It remained in Roman +hands for nearly four hundred years. The Citadel, which +marks the first occupation by the Romans, was probably +built about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 43. The Romans went away in <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 410. +During these four centuries the people became entirely +Romanised. Add to this that they became Christians. +Augusta was a Christian city; the churches which stand—or +stood, because three at least have been removed—along +Thames Street, probably occupied the sites of older +Roman churches. In this part of the City the people +were thickest; in this quarter, therefore, stood the greater +number of churches: the fact that they were mostly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">{18}</a></span> +dedicated to the apostles instead of to later Saxon saints +seems to show that they stood on the sites of Roman +churches. It has been asked why there has never been +found any heathen temple in London; the answer is +that London under the Romans very early became +Christian; if there had been a temple of Diana or Apollo +it would have been destroyed or converted into a church. +Such remains of Augusta as have been found are inconsiderable: +they are nearly all in the museum of +the Guildhall, where they should be visited and +examined.</p> + +<p>The history of Roman London is meagre. Seventeen +years after the building of the Citadel, on the +rebellion of Boadicea, the Roman general Suetonius +abandoned the place, as unable to defend it. All those +who remained were massacred by the insurgents. +After this, so far as we know, for history is silent, there +was peace in London for 200 years. Then one +Carausius, an officer in command of the fleet stationed +in the Channel for the suppression of piracies, assumed +the title of emperor. He continued undisturbed for +some years, his soldiers remaining faithful to him on +account of his wealth: he established a Mint at London +and struck a large amount of money there. He was murdered +by one of his officers, Allectus, who called himself +emperor in turn and continued to rule in Britain for three +years. Then the end came for him as well. The Roman +general landing with a large force marched upon London +where Allectus lay. A battle fought in the south of +London resulted in the overthrow and death of the +usurper. His soldiers taking advantage of the confusion +began to plunder and murder in the town, but were +stopped and killed by the victors.</p> + +<p>Constantine, who became emperor in 306, was then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">{19}</a></span> +in Britain, but his name is not connected with London +except by coins bearing his name.</p> + +<p>Tradition connects the name of Helena, Constantine's +mother, with London, but there is nothing to prove that +she was ever in the island at all.</p> + +<p>Late in the fourth century troubles began to fall +thick upon the country. The Picts and the Scots overran +the northern parts and penetrated to the very walls of +London. The general Theodosius, whose son became +the emperor of that name, drove them back. About this +time the wall of London was built; not the wall of the +Roman fort, but that of the whole City. From the year +369, when Theodosius the general landed in Britain, to +the year 609 we see nothing of London except one brief +glimpse of fugitives flying for their lives across London +Bridge. Of this interval we shall speak in the next +chapter. Meanwhile it is sufficient to say that the decay +of the Roman power made it necessary to withdraw the +legions from the outlying and distant portions of the +Empire. Britain had to be abandoned. It was as if +England were to give up Hong Kong and Singapore and +the West Indies because she could no longer spare the +ships and regiments to defend them. The nation which +abandons her possessions is not far from downfall. +Remember, when you listen to those who advocate abandonment +of our colonies, the example of Rome.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_5_AFTER_THE_ROMANS" id="chap_5_AFTER_THE_ROMANS"></a>5. AFTER THE ROMANS.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>The Romans left London. That was early in the fifth +century; probably in the year 410.</p> + +<p>Two hundred years later we find the East Saxons in +London.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">{20}</a></span></p> + +<p>What happened during this long interval of seven +generations? Not a word reaches us of London for two +hundred years except once when, after a defeat of the +British by the Saxons at Crayford in the year 457, we +read that the fugitives crossed over London Bridge to +take refuge within the walls of the City. What happened +during this two hundred years?<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> On this subject, see the author's book <i>London</i> (Chatto & Windus).</p></div> + +<p>We know what happened with other cities. Anderida, +now called Pevensey, was taken by the Saxons, and all +its inhabitants, man, woman and child, were slaughtered, +so that it became a waste until the Normans built a +castle within the old walls. Canterbury, Silchester, +Porchester, Colchester—all were taken, their people +massacred, the walls left standing, the streets left +desolate. For the English—the Saxons—loved not city +walls. Therefore, we might reasonably conclude that +the same thing happened to London. But if it be +worthy of the chronicler to note the massacre of Anderida, +a small seaport, why should he omit the far more important +capture of Augusta?</p> + +<p>Let us hear what history has to tell. Times full of +trouble fell upon the country. Long before the Romans +went away the Picts and Scots were pouring their wild +hordes over the north and west, sometimes getting as far +south as the Middlesex Forest, murdering and destroying. +As early as the year 368, forty years before they left the +country, the Romans sent an expedition north to drive +back these savages. Already the Saxons, the Jutes and +the Angles were sending piratical expeditions to harry +the coast and even to make settlements. The arm of +the Roman was growing weak, it could not stretch out +so far: the fleets of the Romans, under the officer called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">{21}</a></span> +the 'Count of the Saxon Shore'—whose duty was to +guard the eastern and southern coasts—were destroyed +and their commander slain. So that, with foes on the +eastern seaboard, foes in the Channel, foes in the river, +foes in the north and west, it is certain that the trade of +Augusta was declining long before the City was left to +defend itself.</p> + +<p>What sort of defence were the people likely to offer? +For nearly four hundred years they had lived at peace, +free to grow rich and luxurious, with mercenaries to +fight for them. Between the taking of the City by +Boadicea and the departure of the Romans, a space of +three hundred and fifty years, the peace of the City was +only disturbed by the lawlessness of Allectus's mercenaries. +Their attempt to sack the City was put down, +it is significant to note, not by the citizens but by the +Roman soldiers who entered the City in time. The +citizens were mostly merchants: they were Christians +in name and in form of worship, they were superstitious, +they were luxurious, they were unwarlike. Many of +them were not Britons at all, but foreigners settled in the +City for trade. Moreover, for it is not true that the +whole British people had grown unfit for war, a revolt +of the Roman legions in the year 407 drew a large +number of the young men into their ranks, and when +Constantine the usurper took them over into Gaul for +the four years' fighting which followed, the country +was drained of its best fighting material. The City, +then, contained a large number of wealthy merchants, +native and foreign; it also contained a great many slaves +who were occupied in the conduct of the trade, and few, +since the young men went away with Constantine, who +could be relied upon to fight.</p> + +<p>One more point may be made out from history.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">{22}</a></span> +Since London was a town which then, as now, lived +entirely by its trade and was the centre of the export +and import trade of the whole country, the merchants, +as we have seen, must have suffered most severely long +before the Romans went away. We are, therefore, in +the year 410, facing a situation full of menace. The +Picts and Scots are overrunning the whole of the north, +the Saxons are harrying the east and the south-east, trade +is dying, there is little demand for imports, there are +few exports, it is useless for ships to wait cargoes which +never arrive, it is useless for ships to bring cargoes for +which there is no demand.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_005.jpg" width="500" height="364" alt="REMAINS OF A VIKING SHIP" title="" /> +<span class="caption">REMAINS OF A VIKING SHIP, FROM A CAIRN AT GOKSTAD. +<br /> +(<i>Now in the University at Christiania.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>A declining city, a dying trade, enemies in all directions, +an unwarlike population. When the curtain falls +upon the scene in the year 410 that is what we see.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">{23}</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_6_AFTER_THE_ROMANS" id="chap_6_AFTER_THE_ROMANS"></a>6. AFTER THE ROMANS.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>Consider, again, the position of London. It stood, as +you have seen, originally on two low hills overlooking the +river. A strong wall built all along the bank from +Blackfriars (now so called) to the present site of the +Tower kept the river from swamping the houses and +wharves which sprang up behind this wall. The walls +of the City later on, but only about fifty years before the +Romans went away, enclosed a large area covered over +with streets, narrow near the river and broad farther +north, and with residences, warehouses, villas, and workshops. +There was probably a population of 70,000 +or even more. On the west, in the direction of Westminster, +the City wall overlooked an immense marsh: on +the south across the river there was a still broader and +longer marsh: on the east there was another great +marsh with the sea overflowing the sedgy meadows at +every high tide: on the north there was a wild moor and +beyond the moor there was an immense forest. Four +roads not counting the river-way kept the City in communication +with the rest of the island. The most important +of these roads was that afterwards called Watling Street, +which passed out at Newgate and led across the heart of +the country to Chester and Wales, to York and the +north. The second, afterwards called Ermyn Street, +left the City at Bishopsgate and ran through Lincoln to +York, a third road called the Vicinal Way ran into the +eastern counties, and by way of London Bridge Watling +Street was connected with Dover.</p> + +<p>London, therefore, standing in its marshes had no +means of providing for itself. All the food for its great +population was imported. It was brought on pack asses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">{24}</a></span> +along these roads. It came from the farms and gardens +of the country inland by means of these high roads, +strong, broad, and splendid roads, as good as any we +have since succeeded in making. In peaceful times +these roads were crowded all the way from Chester and +Lincoln and Dover with long trains of animals laden +with provisions for the people of London, as well as with +goods for export from the Port of London. They were +met by long trains of animals laden with imports being +carried to their destination. The Thames in the same +way was filled with barges laden with provisions as well +as with goods going down the river to the people and the +Port of London. Below Bridge the river was filled with +merchant ships bringing cargoes of wine and spices and +costly things to be exchanged for skins and slaves and +metals. Let us remember that the daily victualling of +70,000 people means an immense service. We are so +accustomed to find everything ready to hand in cities +containing millions as well as in villages of hundreds, +that we forget the magnitude of this service. No mind +can conceive the magnitude of the food supply of modern +London, Paris, New York, or even such towns as Portsmouth, +Plymouth, Bristol. Yet try to understand what +it means to feed every day, without interruption, only a +small town of 70,000 people. So much bread for every +day, so much meat, so much fish, so much wine, beer, +mead, or cider—because at no time did people drink water +if they could get anything else—so much milk, honey, +butter, cheese, eggs, poultry, geese and ducks, so much +beans, pease, salad, fruit. All this had to be brought in +regularly—daily. There was salted meat for winter; +there was dried fish when fresh could not be procured; +there were granaries of wheat to provide for emergencies. +All the rest had to be provided day by day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">{25}</a></span></p> + +<p>First, the East Saxons, settling in Essex and spreading +over the whole of that county, stopped the supplies and +the trade over all the eastern counties; then the Jutes, +landing on the Isle of Thanet, stopped the ships that +went up and down the river; they also spread over the +south country and stopped the supplies that formerly +came over London Bridge. Then the Picts and Scots, +followed by more Saxons, harassed the north and middle +of the island, and no more supplies came down Watling +Street. Lastly, the enemy, pressing northward from the +south shore, gained the middle reaches of the Thames, +and no more supplies came down the river.</p> + +<p>London was thus deprived of food as well as of trade.</p> + +<p>This slowly, not suddenly, came to pass. First, one +source of supply was cut off, then another. First, trade +declined in one quarter, then it ceased in that quarter +altogether. Next, another quarter was attacked. The +foreign merchants, since there was no trade left, went on +board their own ships and disappeared. Whether they +succeeded in passing through the pirate craft that +crowded the mouth of the river, one knows not. The +bones of many lie at the bottom of the sea off the Nore. +They vanished from hapless Augusta; they came back no +more.</p> + +<p>Who were left? The native merchants. Despair +was in their hearts; starvation threatened them, even +amid the dainty appointments of their luxurious villas; +what is the use of marble baths and silken hangings, +tesselated pavements, and pictures, and books, and +statues, if there is no food to be had, though one bid for +it all the pictures in the house? With the merchants, +there were the priests, the physicians, the lawyers, the +actors and mimics, the artists, the teachers, all who +minister to religion, luxury, and culture. There were next<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">{26}</a></span> +the great mass of the people, the clerks and scribes, the +craftsmen, the salesmen, the lightermen, stevedores, +boatmen, marine store keepers, makers of ships' gear, +porters—slaves for the most part—all from highest to +lowest, plunged into helplessness. Whither could they +fly for refuge? Upon whom could they call for help?</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_7_AFTER_THE_ROMANS" id="chap_7_AFTER_THE_ROMANS"></a>7. AFTER THE ROMANS.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2> + + +<p>Abroad, the Roman Empire was breaking up. The +whole of Europe was covered with war. Revolts of conquered +tribes, rebellions of successful generals, invasions +of savages, the murders of usurpers, the sacking of +cities. Rome itself was sacked by Alaric; the conquest +of one country after another made of this period the +darkest in the history of the world. From over the seas +no help, the enemy blocking the mouth of the river, all +the roads closed and all the farms destroyed.</p> + +<p>There came a day at length when it was at last apparent +that no more supplies would reach the City. Then +the people began to leave the place: better to fight their +way across the country to the west where the Britons still +held their own, than to stay and starve. The men took +their arms—they carried little treasure with them, +because treasure would be of no use to them on their +way—their wives and children, ladies as delicate and as +helpless as any of our own time—children as unfit as our +own to face the miseries of cold and hunger and nakedness—and +they went out by the gate of Watling Street, +not altogether, not the whole population, but in small +companies, for greater safety. They left the City by the +gate; they did not journey along the road, but for +safety turned aside into the great forest, and so marching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">{27}</a></span> +across moors and marshes, past burned homesteads, and +ruined villages, and farm buildings thrown down, those +of them who did not perish by the way under the +enemies' sword or by malarious fever, or by starvation, +reached the Severn and the border of the mountains +where the Saxon could not penetrate.</p> + +<p>There was left behind a remnant—after every massacre +or exodus there is always left a remnant. The people +who stayed in the City were only a few and those of the +baser sort, protected by their wretchedness and poverty. +No one would kill those who offer no defence and have no +treasures; and their condition under any new masters +would be no worse. They shut the gates and barred +them: they closed and barred the Bridge: they took out +of the houses anything that they wanted—the soft warm +mantles, the woollen garments, the coverlets, the pillows +and hangings, but they abode in their hovels near the +river banks; as for the works of art, the pictures, +statues, and tesselated pavements, these they left where +they found them or for wantonness destroyed them. +They fished in the river for their food: they hunted over +the marshes where are now Westminster, Battersea, +and Lambeth: the years passed by and no one disturbed +them: they still crouched in their huts while the thin +veneer of civilisation was gradually lost with whatever +arts they had learned and all their religion except the +terror of the Unknown.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the roofs of the villas and churches fell +in, the walls decayed, the gardens were overgrown. +Augusta—the proud and stately Augusta—was reduced +to a wall enclosing a heap of ruins with a few savages +huddled together in hovels by the riverside.</p> + +<p>For the East Saxon had overrun Essex, the Jute +covered Kent and Surrey, the South Saxon held Sussex,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">{28}</a></span> +the West Saxon held Wessex. All around—on every side—London +was surrounded by the Conqueror of the Land. +Why, then, did they not take London? Because London +was deserted; there was nothing to take: London was +silent. No ships going up or down the river reminded +the Saxon of the City. It lay amid its marshes and its +moors, the old roads choked and overgrown; it was forgotten; +it was what the Saxons had already made of +Canterbury and Anderida, a 'Waste Chester,' that is, a +desolated stronghold.</p> + +<p>Augusta was forgotten.</p> + +<p>This is the story that we learn from the actual site of +London—its position among marshes, the conditions +under which alone the people could be maintained.</p> + +<p>How long did this oblivion continue? No one knows +when it began or when it ended. As I read the story +of the past, I find a day towards the close of the sixth +century when there appeared within sight of the deserted +walls a company of East Saxons. They were hunting: +they were armed with spears: they followed the chase +through the great forest afterwards called the Middlesex +Forest, Epping Forest, Hainault Forest, and across the +marshes of the river Lea, full of sedge and reed and +treacherous quagmires. And they saw before them the +gray walls of a great city of which they had never +heard.</p> + +<p>They advanced cautiously: they found themselves on +a firm road, the Vicinal Way, covered with grass: they +expected the sight of an enemy on the wall: none appeared. +The gates were closed, the timbers were rotten +and fell down at a touch: the men broke through and +found themselves among the streets of a city all in +ruins. They ran about—shouting—no one appeared: +the City was deserted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">{29}</a></span></p> + +<p>They went away and told what they had found.</p> + +<p>But Augusta had perished. When the City appears +again it is under its more ancient name—it is again +London.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_8_THE_FIRST_SAXON_SETTLEMENT" id="chap_8_THE_FIRST_SAXON_SETTLEMENT"></a>8. THE FIRST SAXON SETTLEMENT.</h2> + + +<p>A hundred and fifty years passed away between the landing +of the East Saxons and their recorded occupation of +the City. This long period made a great difference in +the fierce savage who followed the standard of the White +Horse and landed on the coast of Essex. He became +more peaceful: he settled down contentedly to periods of +tranquillity. Certain arts he acquired, and he learned +to live in towns: as yet he was not a Christian. This +means that the influence of Rome with its religion, its +learning and its arts had not yet touched him.</p> + +<p>But he had begun to live in towns; and he lived in +London.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the first of the new settlers were the foreign +merchants returning, as soon as more settled times +allowed, with their cargoes. London has always been a +place of trade. But for trade no one would have settled +in it. Therefore, either the men of Essex invited the +foreign merchants to return; or the foreign merchants +returned and invited the men of Essex to come into the +City and to bring with them what they had to exchange.</p> + +<p>In the year 597 Augustine, prior of a Roman monastery, +was sent by Pope Gregory the Great with forty +monks, to convert the English. Ethelbert, King of Kent, +and most powerful of the English kinglets, was married +to Bertha, a Christian princess. She had brought with +her a chaplain and it was probably at her invitation or +through her influence, that the monks were sent. They +landed at Thanet. They obtained permission to meet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">{30}</a></span> +the King in the open air. They appeared wearing their +robes, carrying a crucifix, and chanting Psalms. It is +probable that the conversion of the King had been +arranged beforehand; for without any difficulty or delay +the King and all his Court, and, following the King's +example, all the people were baptised.</p> + +<p>Augustine returned to Rome where he was consecrated +Archbishop of the English nation. A church was +built at Canterbury, and the work of preaching the +Faith went on vigorously. The East Saxons made no +more hesitation at being baptised than the men of Kent. +Ethelbert, indeed, could command obedience; he was +Over Lord of all the nations south of the Humber. +He it was, according to Bede, who built the first church +of St. Paul in London, a fact which proves his authority +and influence in London, and his sincere desire that the +East Saxons should become Christians.</p> + +<p>They did, in a way. But when King Siebehrt died, +they relapsed and drove their Bishop into exile.</p> + +<p>Then—Bede says that they were punished for this +sin—the East Saxons fell into trouble. They went to +war with the men of Wessex and were defeated by them. +After this, we find London in the hands of the Northumbrians +and the Mercians—that is to say—these nations +one after the other obtained the supremacy. It was in +the year 616 or thereabouts, that Bishop Mellitus had to +leave his diocese. Forty years later another conversion +of London took place under Bishop Cedd, consecrated at +Lindisfarne. The new faith was not strong enough to +stand against a plague, and the East Saxons of London +went back once more to their old gods. After another +thirty years, before the close of the seventh century, +London was again converted: and this time for good.</p> + +<p>In the eighth century London passed again out of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">{31}</a></span> +hands of the East Saxon kings into those of the +Mercians. The earliest extant document concerning +London is one dated 734, in which King Ethelbald +grants to the Bishop of Rochester leave to send one ship +without tax in or out of London Port.</p> + +<p>A witan—i.e. a national council—was held in London +in 811. It is +then spoken of as +an illustrious place +and royal city. +The supremacy of +Mercia passed to +that of Wessex—London +went with +the supremacy. In +833 Egbert, King +of Wessex, held a +witan in London.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"> +<img src="images/image_006.jpg" width="333" height="400" alt="MARTYRDOM OF ST. EDMUND BY THE DANES" title="" /> +<span class="caption">MARTYRDOM OF ST. EDMUND BY THE DANES. +<br /> +(<i>From a drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>When Egbert +died the supremacy +of Wessex fell with +him. Then the +Danish troubles fell +thick and disastrous +upon the +country. When +Alfred succeeded to the Crown the Danes held the +Isle of Thanet, which commanded the river; they had +conquered the north country from the Tweed to the +Humber; they had overrun all the eastern counties +twice—viz., in 839 and in 852: they had pillaged +London, which they presently occupied, making it their +headquarters. With this Danish occupation ends the +first Saxon settlement of the City.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">{32}</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_9_THE_SECOND_SAXON_SETTLEMENT" id="chap_9_THE_SECOND_SAXON_SETTLEMENT"></a>9. THE SECOND SAXON SETTLEMENT.</h2> + + +<p>The Danes held the City for twelve years at least. One +cannot believe that these fierce warriors, who were exactly +what the Saxons and Jutes had been four hundred years +before—as fierce, as rude, as pagan—suffered any of the +inhabitants, except the slaves, to remain. Massacre +and pillage—or the fear of both—drove away all the +residents. But the City was the headquarters of the +Danes. Alfred recovered it in the year 884.</p> + +<p>He found it as the East Saxons had found it three +hundred years before, a city of ruins; the wall a ruin; +the churches destroyed.</p> + +<p>King Alfred has left many imperishable monuments +of his reign. One of the greatest is the City of London, +which he rebuilt. A recent historian (Loftie, <i>Historic +Towns</i>, 'London') says that it would hardly be wrong to +write, 'London was founded, rather more than a thousand +years ago, by King Alfred—who chose for the site +of his city a place formerly fortified by the Romans but +desolated successively by the Saxons and the Danes.'</p> + +<p>The first thing he did was to rebuild the wall. This +work re-established confidence in the minds of the citizens. +Alfred placed his son-in-law Ethelred, afterwards Alderman +(i.e. Chief man—Governor) of the Mercians, in +command of the City, which seems to have been immediately +filled with people. The London citizens went out +with Ethelred to defeat the Danes at Benfleet, and with +Alfred to defeat the Danes at the mouth of the river +Lea; they went out with Athelstan to fight at Brunanburgh. +London was never again taken by the Danes. +Twice Sweyn endeavoured to take the City but was +repulsed. Nor did London open her gates to him until +the King had left the City. And when the Danes again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">{33}</a></span> +entered the City there was no more pillage or massacre; +London was too strong to be pillaged or massacred, and +too rich to be abandoned to the army.</p> + +<p>King Ethelred came back and died, and was buried +in St. Paul's; the old St. Paul's—that of King Ethelbert +or that of Bishop Cedd—was burned down and the +Londoners were building a new cathedral.</p> + +<p>Edmund Ironside was elected and crowned within +the City walls. Then followed a siege of London by +Canute. He dug a canal through the swamps, and +dragged his ships +by its means from +Redriff to Lambeth. +But he could not +take the City. But +the Treaty of Partition +between Edmund +and himself +was agreed upon +and the Dane once +more obtained the +City. He has left +one or two names +behind him. The +church of St. +Olave's in Hart Street, and that in 'Tooley,' or +St. Olave's Street, Southwark, and the Church of St. +Magnus, attest to the sovereignty of the Dane.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/image_007.jpg" width="350" height="312" alt="SAXON HORSEMEN" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SAXON HORSEMEN. +<br /> +(<i>Harl. MS. 603.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>At this time the two principal officers of the City +were the Bishop and the Portreeve: there was also the +'Staller' or Marshal. The principal governing body +was the 'Knighten Guild,' which was largely composed +of the City aldermen. But these aldermen were not like +those of the present day, an elected body: they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">{34}</a></span> +hereditary: they were aldermen in right of their estates +within the City. What powers the Knighten Guild possessed +is not easy to define. Besides this, the aristocracy +of the City, there were already trade guilds for religious +purposes and for feasting—but, as yet, with no powers. +The people had their folk mote, or general gathering: +their ward mote: and their weekly hustings. We +must not seek to define the powers of all these bodies +and corporations. They overlapped each other: the +aristocratic party was continually innovating while the +popular party as continually resisted. In many ways +what we call the government of the City had not begun +to be understood. That there was order of a kind is +shown by the strict regulations, as strictly enforced, of +the dues and tolls for ships that came up the river to +the Port of London.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_10_THE_ANGLO-SAXON_CITIZEN" id="chap_10_THE_ANGLO-SAXON_CITIZEN"></a>10. THE ANGLO-SAXON CITIZEN.</h2> + + +<p>The Londoner of Athelstan and Ethelred was an Anglo-Saxon +of a type far in advance of his fierce ancestor who +swept the narrow seas and harried the eastern coasts. +He had learned many arts: he had become a Christian: +he wanted many luxuries. But the solid things which +he inherited from his rude forefathers he passed on to +his children. And they remain an inheritance for us to +this day. For instance, our form of monarchy, limited +in power, comes straight down to us from Alfred and +Athelstan. Our nobility is a survival and a development +of the Saxon earls and thanes; our forms of justice, +trial by jury, magistrates—all come from the +Saxons; the divisions of our country are Saxon, our +municipal institutions are Saxon, our parliaments and +councils are Saxon in origin. We owe our language to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">{35}</a></span> +the Anglo-Saxon, small additions from Latin, French, +and other sources have been made, but the bulk of our +language is Saxon. Three-fourths of us are Anglo-Saxon +by descent. Whatever there is in the English +character of persistence, obstinacy, patience, industry, +sobriety, love of freedom, we are accustomed to attribute +to our Anglo-Saxon descent. In religion, arts, learning, +literature, culture, we owe little or nothing to the Anglo-Saxon. +In all these things we are indebted to the +South.</p> + +<p>Let us see how the Anglo-Saxon Londoner lived.</p> + +<p>He was a trader or a craftsman. As a trader he +received from the country inland whatever it had to produce. +Slaves, who were bred like cattle on the farms, +formed a large part of the exports; hides, wool, iron, +tin, the English merchant had these things, and nothing +more, to offer the foreigner who brought in exchange +wine, spices, silk, incense, vestments and pictures for the +churches and monasteries, books, and other luxuries. +The ships at first belonged to the foreign merchants: +they traded not only at London, but also at Bristol, +Canterbury, Dover, Arundel, and other towns. Before +the Conquest, however, English-built ships and English-manned +fleets had already entered upon the trade.</p> + +<p>The trader, already wealthy, lived in great comfort. +He was absolute master in his own house, but the household +was directed or ruled by his wife. Everything was +made in the house: the flour was ground, the bread was +baked, the meat and fish were salted; the linen was +woven, the garments were made by the wife, the +daughters, and the women servants. The Anglo-Saxon +ladies were remarkable for their skill in embroidery; +they excelled all other women in this beautiful art.</p> + +<p>The Anglo-Saxon house developed out of the common<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">{36}</a></span> +hall. Those who know the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge +can trace the growth of the house in any of them. +First there is the Common Hall. In this room, formerly, +the whole family, with the serving men and women, lived +and slept. There still exists at Higham Ferrars, in +Northampton, such a hall, built as an almshouse. It is +a long room: at the east end, raised a foot, is a little +chapel; on the south side is a long open stove; the almsmen +slept on the floor on reeds, each man wrapped in +his blanket.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_008.jpg" width="500" height="328" alt="SAXON CHURCH AT BRADFORD-ON-AVON, WILTS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SAXON CHURCH AT BRADFORD-ON-AVON, WILTS.</span> +</div> + +<p>Everybody lived and slept in the Common Hall. All +day long the women worked at the spinning and weaving +and sewing and embroidery. Women were defined by +this kind of work—we still speak of spinsters. Formerly +relationship through the mother was called 'on the +spindle side,' while, long after the men had to fight every +day against marauding tribes, relationship through the +father was called 'on the spear side.' All day long the +men worked outside in the fields, or in the warehouse, +and on the quays or at their craft. In the evening they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">{37}</a></span> +sat about the fire and listened to stories, or to songs +with the accompaniment of the harp.</p> + +<p>The first improvement was the separation of the +kitchen from the hall: in the Cambridge College you see +the hall on one side and the kitchen the other, separated +by a passage. The second step was the construction of +the 'Solar,' or chamber over the kitchen, which became +the bedroom of the master and the mistress of the house. +Then they built a room behind the solar for the daughters +and the maidservants; the sons and the menservants +still sleeping in the Hall. Presumably the house was at +this stage in the time of King Ethelred, just before the +Norman Conquest. The ladies' 'bower' followed, and +after that the sleeping rooms for the men.</p> + +<p>There was no furniture, as we understand it. +Benches there were, and trestles for the tables, which +were literally laid at every meal: a great chair was provided +for the Lord and Lady: tapestry kept out the +draughts: weapons, musical instruments, and other +things hung upon the walls. Dinner was at noon: +supper in the evening when work was over: they made +great use of vegetables and they had nearly all our +modern fruits: they drank, as the national beverage, +beer or mead.</p> + +<p>But everybody was not a wealthy merchant: most +of the citizens were craftsmen of some kind. These +lived in small wooden houses of two rooms, one above +the other: those who were not able to afford so much +slept in hovels, consisting of four uprights with 'wattle +and daub' for the sides, a roof of thatch, no window, +and a fire in the middle of the floor. They lived very +roughly: they endured many hardships: but they were +a well-fed people, turbulent and independent: their +houses were crowded in narrow lanes—how narrow may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">{38}</a></span> +be understood by a walk along Thames Street; they +were always in danger of fire—in 962, in 1087, in 1135, +the greater part of the City was burned to the ground. +They lived in plenty: there was work for all: they had +their folk mote—their City parliament—and their ward +mote—which still exists: they had no feudal lord to +harass them: as for the dirt and mud and stench of the +narrow City streets, they cared nothing for such things. +They were free: and they were well fed: and they were +cheerful and contented.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_11_THE_WALL_OF_LONDON" id="chap_11_THE_WALL_OF_LONDON"></a>11. THE WALL OF LONDON.</h2> + + +<p>Let us examine into the history and the course of the +Wall of London, if only for the very remarkable facts that +the boundary of the City was determined for fifteen +hundred years by the erection of this Wall; that for some +purposes the course of the Wall still affects the government +of London; and that it was only pulled down bit +by bit in the course of the last century.</p> + +<p>You will see by reference to the map what was the +course of the Wall. It began, starting from the east +where the White Tower now stands. Part of the foundation +of the Tower consists of a bastion of the Roman +wall. It followed a line nearly north as far as Aldgate. +Then it turned in a N.W. direction just north of +Camomile Street and Bevis Marks to Bishopsgate. +Thence it ran nearly due W., north of the street called +London Wall, turning S. at Monkwell Street. At Aldersgate +it turned W. until it reached Newgate, where +it turned nearly S. again and so to the river, a little +east of the present Blackfriars Bridge. It ran, lastly, +along the river bank to join its eastern extremity. The +river wall had openings or gates at Dowgate and Bishopsgate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">{39}</a></span> +and probably at Queen Hithe. The length of the +Wall, without counting the river side, was 2 miles and +608 feet.</p> + +<p>This formidable Wall was originally about 12 feet +thick made of rubble and mortar, the latter very hard, +and faced with stone. You may know Roman work by +the courses of tiles or bricks. They are arranged in +double layers about 2 feet apart. The so-called bricks +are not in the least like our bricks, being 6 inches long, +12 inches wide and 1½ inch thick. The Wall was 20 +feet high, with towers and bastions at intervals about +50 feet high. At first there was no moat or ditch, and +it will be understood that in order to protect the City +from an attack of barbarians—Picts or Scots—it was +enough to close the gates and to man the towers. The +invaders had no ladders.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_009.jpg" width="500" height="283" alt="CITY GATES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CITY GATES.</span> +</div> + +<p>In the course of centuries a great many repairs and rebuildings +of the Wall took place. The Saxons allowed it to +fall into a ruinous condition. Alfred rebuilt it and strengthened +it. The next important repairs were made in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">{40}</a></span> +reign of King John in 1215, by Henry III., Edward I., +Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Edward IV. After +these various rebuildings there would seem to be little +left of the original Wall. That, however, a great part of +it continued to be the hard rubble core of the Roman +work seems evident from the fact that the course of the +Wall was never altered. The only alteration was when +they turned the Wall west at Ludgate down to the Fleet +River and so to the confluence of the Fleet and the +Thames. The river side of the Wall was also allowed +to be removed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_010.jpg" width="500" height="358" alt="REMAINS OF THE WALL." title="" /> +<span class="caption">REMAINS OF THE WALL.</span> +</div> + +<p>The City was thus protected by a great wall pierced +by a few gates, with bastions and towers. At the East +End after the Norman Conquest rose the Great White +Tower still standing. At the West End was a tower +called Montfichet's Tower.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_011.jpg" width="500" height="384" alt="PART OF THE ROMAN WALL AT LEICESTER." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PART OF THE ROMAN WALL AT LEICESTER.</span> +</div> + +<p>But a wall without a ditch, where a ditch was possible,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">{41}</a></span> +became of little use as soon as scaling ladders were +invented with wooden movable towers and other devices. +A ditch was accordingly constructed in the year 1211 in +the reign of King John. It appears to have been from +the very first neglected by the citizens, who trusted +more to their own bravery than to the protection of a +ditch. It was frequently ordered to be cleansed and +repaired: it abounded, when it was clean, with good +fish of various kinds: but it was gradually allowed to +dry up until, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, nothing +was left but a narrow channel or no channel at all but a +few scattered ponds, with market gardens planted in the +ditch itself. In Agas's map of London these gardens +are figured, with summer houses and cottages for the +gardeners and cattle grazing. On the west side north +of Ludgate the ditch has entirely disappeared and +houses are built against the Wall on the outside.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">{42}</a></span> +Houndsditch is a row of mean houses facing the moat. +Fore Street is also built over against the moat. Within +and without the Wall they placed churchyards—those of +St. Alphege, Allhallows, and St. Martin's Outwich, +you may still see for yourselves within the Wall: that of +St. Augustine's at the north end of St. Mary Axe, has +vanished. Those of the three churches of St. Botolph, +Bishopsgate, Aldgate, Aldersgate, and that of St. Giles +are churchyards without the Wall. Then the ditch +became filled up and houses were built all along the Wall +within and without. Thus began unchecked, perhaps +openly encouraged, the gradual demolition of the Wall. +It takes a long time to tear down a wall of solid rubble +twelve feet thick. It took the Londoners about 160 years. +In the year 1760 they finally removed the gates. Most +of the Wall was gone by this time but large fragments +remained here and there. You may still see a considerable +piece, part of a bastion in the churchyard of St. +Giles, and the vestry of All Hallows on the Wall is built +upon a bastion. In Camomile Street and in other places +portions of the Wall have been discovered where excavations +have been made: and, of course, the foundation +of the Wall exists still, from end to end.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_12_NORMAN_LONDON" id="chap_12_NORMAN_LONDON"></a>12. NORMAN LONDON.</h2> + + +<p>When William the Conqueror received the submission +of the City he gave the citizens a Charter—their first +Charter—of freedom. There can be no doubt that the +Charter was the price demanded by the citizens and +willingly paid by the Conqueror in return for their submission. +The following is the document. Short as it is, +the whole future of the City is founded upon these few +words:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">{43}</a></span>—</p> + +<p>'William King greets William Bishop and Gosfrith +Portreeve and all the burghers within London, French +and English, friendly.</p> + +<p>'I do you to wit that I will that ye be all law worthy +that were in King Edward's day, and I will that every +child be his father's heir after his father's day: and I +will not endure that any man offer any wrong to you.</p> + +<p>'God keep you.'</p> + +<p>The ancient Charter itself is preserved at Guildhall. +Many copies of it and translations of it were made from +time to time. Let us see what it means.</p> + +<p>The citizens were to be 'law worthy' as they had +been in the days of King Edward. This meant that +they were to be free men in the courts of justice, with +the right to be tried by their equals, that is, by jury. +'All who were law worthy in King Edward's day.' +Serfs were not law worthy, for instance. That the +children should inherit their father's property was, as +much as the preceding clause, great security to the freedom +of the City, for it protected the people from any +feudal claims that might arise. Next, observe that +there was never any Earl of London: the City had no +Lord but the King: it never would endure any Lord but +the King. An attempt was made, but only one, and +that was followed by the downfall of the Queen—Matilda—who +tried it. Feudal customs arose and flourished +and died, but they were unknown in this free city.</p> + +<p>But the City with its strong walls, its great multitude +of people, and its resources, might prove so independent +as to lock out the King. William therefore began to +build the Tower, by means of which he could not only +keep the enemy out of London but could keep his own +strong hand upon the burghers. He took down a piece +of the wall and enclosed twelve acres of ground, in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">{44}</a></span> +he built his stronghold, within a deep and broad ditch. +The work was entrusted to Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester, +who left it unfinished when he died thirty years after.</p> + +<p>The next great Charter of the City was granted by +Henry the First. He remitted the payment of the +levies for feudal service, +of tax called Danegeld, +originally imposed for +buying off the Danes: +of the murder tax: of +wager of battle, that is, +that form of trial in +which the accused and +the accuser fought it out, +and from certain tolls. +He also gave the citizens +the county of Middlesex +to farm on payment to +the Crown of 300<i>l.</i> a +year—a payment still +made: they were to appoint +a Sheriff for the +county: and they were +to have leave to hunt in +the forests of Middlesex, +Surrey, and the Chiltern +Hills. They were also +empowered to elect their +own justiciar and allowed +to try their own cases within their own limits.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image_012.jpg" width="300" height="524" alt="TOWER IN THE EARLIER STYLE" title="" /> +<span class="caption">TOWER IN THE EARLIER STYLE. CHURCH +AT EARL'S BARTON. +<br /> +(<i>The battlements are much later.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>This was a very important Charter. No doubt, like +the first, it was stipulated as a price for the support of +the City. William Rufus was killed on Thursday—Henry +was in London on Saturday. He must therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">{45}</a></span> +have ridden hard to get over the hundred and twenty +miles of rough bridle track between the New Forest and +London. But the City supported him and this was their +reward.</p> + +<p>We are gradually approaching the modern constitution +of the City. The Portreeve or first Magistrate, in +the year 1189, in the person of Henry Fitz Aylwin, +assumed the title of Mayor—not Lord Mayor: the title +came later, a habit or style, never a rank conferred. +With him were two Sheriffs, the Sheriff of the City and +the Sheriff of the County. There was the Bishop: there +was the City Justiciar with his courts. There were also +the Aldermen, not yet an elected body.</p> + +<p>The Londoners elected Stephen King, and stood by +him through all the troubles that followed. The plainest +proof of the strength and importance of the City is +shown in the fact that when Matilda took revenge on +London by depriving the City of its Charters the citizens +rose and drove her out of London and made her +cause hopeless.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_13_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY" id="chap_13_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY"></a>13. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>The White Tower is the only building in modern London +which belongs to Norman London. Portions remain—fragments—a +part of the church of St. Bartholomew the +Great, a part of the church of St. Ethelburga, the crypt +of Bow Church: very little else. All the rest has been +destroyed by time, by 'improvements,' or by fire, the +greatest enemy to cities in every country and every age. +Thus, three great fires in the tenth and eleventh century +swept London from end to end. No need to ask if anything +remains of the Roman or the Saxon City. Not a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">{46}</a></span> +vestige is left—except the little fragment, known as the +London Stone, now lying behind iron bars in the wall of +St. Swithin's Church. Churches, Palaces, Monasteries, +Castles—all perished in those three fires. The City, no +doubt, speedily sprang again from its ashes, but of its +rebuilding on each occasion we have no details at all.</p> + +<p>Most fortunately, there exists a document priceless +and unique, short as it is and meagre in many of its +details, which describes London as it was in the reign of +Henry II. It is written by one FitzStephen, Chaplain +to Thomas Becket. He was present at the murder of +the Archbishop and wrote his life, to which this account +is an introduction.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_013.jpg" width="500" height="316" alt="A NORMAN SHIP." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A NORMAN SHIP. +<br /> +(<i>From the Bayeux Tapestry.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>He says, first of all, that the City contained thirteen +larger conventual churches and a hundred and twenty-six +parish churches. He writes only fifty years after the +Great Fire, so that it is not likely that new parishes had +been erected. All the churches which had been destroyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">{47}</a></span> +were rebuilt. Most of them were very small parishes, +with, doubtless, very small churches. We shall return +presently to the question of the churches.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 501px;"> +<img src="images/image_014.jpg" width="501" height="600" alt="BUILDING A CHURCH IN THE LATER STYLE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BUILDING A CHURCH IN THE LATER STYLE. +<br /> +(<i>From a drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>On the east was the White Tower which he calls the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">{48}</a></span> +'Palatine Castle:' on the west there were two towers—there +was the Tower called Montfichet, where is now +Blackfriars station, and Baynard's Castle, close beside it. +The walls of the City had seven double gates. The river +wall had by this time been taken down. Two miles from +the City, on the west, was the Royal Palace (Westminster), +fortified with ramparts and connected with the City by a +populous suburb. Already, therefore, the Strand and +Charing Cross were settled. The gates were Aldgate, +Bishopsgate, Cripplegate, Aldersgate, Newgate, Ludgate, +and the Bridge.</p> + +<p>FitzStephen says that the citizens were so powerful +that they could furnish the King with 20,000 horsemen +and 60,000 foot. This is clearly gross exaggeration. If +we allow 500 for each parish, we get a population of only +63,000 in all, and in the enumeration later on, for the +poll tax by Richard the Second, there were no more than +48,000. This, however, was shortly after a great Plague +had ravaged the City.</p> + +<p>But the writer tells us that the citizens excelled those +of any other city in the world in 'handsomeness of +manners and of dress, at table, and in way of speaking.' +There were three principal schools, the scholars of which +rivalled each other, and engaged in public contests of +rhetoric and grammar.</p> + +<p>Those who worked at trades and sold wares of any +kind were assigned their proper place whither they +repaired every morning. It is easy to make out from the +surviving names where the trades were placed. The +names of Bread Street, Fish Street, Milk Street, Honey +Lane, Wood Street, Soapers' Lane, the Poultry, for +instance, indicate what trades were carried on there. +Friday Street shows that the food proper for fast days +was sold there—namely, dried fish. Cheapside preserves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">{49}</a></span> +the name of the Chepe, the most important of all the +old streets. Here, every day, all the year round, was a +market held at which everything conceivable was sold, +not in shops, but in <i>selds</i>, that is, covered wooden sheds, +which could be taken down on occasion. Do not think +that 'Chepe' was a narrow street: it was a great open +space lying between St. Paul's and what is now the Royal +Exchange, with streets north and south formed by rows of +these <i>selds</i> or sheds. Presently the sheds became houses +with shops in front and gardens behind. The roadway +on the south side of this open space was called the Side +of Chepe. There was another open space for salesmen +called East Chepe, another at Billingsgate, called Roome +Lane, another at Dowgate—both for purposes of exposing +for sale imports landed on the Quays and the ports of +Queenhithe and Billingsgate. Those who have seen a +market-place in a French town will understand what +these places were like. A large irregular area. On +every side sheds with wares for sale: at first all seems +confusion and noise: presently one makes out that there +are streets in orderly array, in which those who know +can find what they want. Here are mercers; here goldsmiths; +here armourers; here glovers; here pepperers +or grocers; and so forth. West Chepe is the place of +shops where they sell the things made in the City and all +things wanted for the daily life.</p> + +<p>On the other side of the Walbrook, across which there +is a bridge where is now the Poultry, is East Chepe, +whither they bring all kinds of imported goods and sell +them to the retailers: and by the river side the merchants +assemble in the open places beside Queenhithe +and Billingsgate to receive or to buy the cargoes sent +over from France, Spain, and the Low Countries. One +more open space there was, that round St. Paul's, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">{50}</a></span> +place where the people held their folkmotes. But +London was not, as yet, by any means built over. Its +northern parts were covered with gardens. It was here, +as we shall see, that the great monasteries were shortly +to be built.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image_015.jpg" width="300" height="334" alt="LAY COSTUMES IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LAY COSTUMES IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.</span> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_14_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY" id="chap_14_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY"></a>14. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>Outside the walls, he says, there were many places of +pleasant resort, streams and springs among them. He +means the Fleet River winding at the bottom of its broad +valley: farther west Tyburn and Westbourne: on the +south the Wandle, the Effra, the Ravensbourne. There +was a well at Holywell +in the Strand—it lies +under the site of the +present Opéra Comique +Theatre: and at Clerkenwell: +these wells had +medicinal or miraculous +properties and there +were, no doubt, taverns +and places of amusement +about there. At +Smithfield—or Smooth +Field—just outside the +City walls, there was +held once a week—on +Friday—a horse fair. +Business over, horse racing followed. Then the river +was full of fish: some went fishing for their livelihood: +some for amusement: salmon were plentiful and great +fish such as porpoises sometimes found their way above +Bridge.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">{51}</a></span></p> + +<p>Then there were the sports of the young men and the +boys. They played at ball—when have not young men +played at ball? The young Londoners practised some +form of hockey out of which have grown the two noble +games of cricket and golf. They wrestled and leaped. +Nothing is said about boxing and quarterstaff. But +perhaps these belonged to the practice of arms and archery, +which were never neglected, because at any moment +the London craftsman might have to become a soldier. +They had cock +fighting, a sport to +which the Londoner +was always greatly +addicted. And they +loved dancing with +the girls to the +music of pipe and +tabor. In the winter, +when the broad +fens north of the +walls were frozen, +they skated. And +they hunted with hawk and hound in the Forest of +Middlesex, which belonged to the City.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;"> +<img src="images/image_016.jpg" width="325" height="232" alt="COSTUME OF SHEPHERDS IN THE TWELFTH +CENTURY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">COSTUME OF SHEPHERDS IN THE TWELFTH +CENTURY.</span> +</div> + +<p>The City, he tells us, is governed by the same laws +as those of Rome. Like Rome, London is divided into +wards: like Rome the City has annually elected magistrates +who are called Sheriffs instead of Consuls: like +Rome it has senatorial and inferior magistrates: like +Rome it has separate Courts and proper places for law +suits, and like Rome the City holds assemblies on ordered +days. The writer is carried away by his enthusiasm for +Rome. As we have seen, the government, laws, and +customs of London owed nothing at all, in any single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">{52}</a></span> +respect, to Rome. Everything grew out of the Anglo-Saxon +laws and customs.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<img src="images/image_017.jpg" width="425" height="379" alt="ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUME IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUME IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.</span> +</div> + +<p>By his loud praise of the great plenty of food of every +kind which could be found in London, FitzStephen reminds +us that he has lived in other towns, and especially +in Canterbury, when he was in the service of the Archbishop. +We see, though he does not mention it, the +comparison in his mind between the plentiful market +of London and the meagre market of Canterbury. Everything, +he says, was on sale. All the roasted meats and +boiled that one can ask for; all the fish, poultry, and +game in season, could every day be bought in London: +there were cookshops where dinners and suppers could +be had by paying for them. He dwells at length upon +this abundance. Now in the country towns and the +villages the supplies were a matter of uncertainty and +anxiety: a housewife had to keep her pantry and her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">{53}</a></span> +larder well victualled in advance: salt meat and salt fish +were the staple of food. Beef and mutton were scarce: +game there was in plenty if it could be taken; but game +laws were strict; very little venison would find its way +into Canterbury market. To this cleric who knew the +country markets, the profusion of everything in London +was amazing.</p> + +<p>Another thing he notices—'Nearly all the Bishops, +Abbots, and Magnates of England are, as it were, citizens +and freemen of London; having their own splendid houses +to which they resort, where they spend largely when summoned +to great Councils by the King, or by their Metropolitan, +or drawn thither by their own private affairs.'</p> + +<p>In another century or two London will become, as +you shall see, a City of Palaces. Observe that the palaces +are already beginning. Observe, also, that London +is already being enriched by the visits and residence +of great lords who, with their retinues, spend 'largely.' +Down to the present day the same thing has always +gone on. The wealthy people who have their town +houses in the West End of London and the thousands of +country people and foreigners who now flock to the +London hotels are the successors of the great men and +their following who came up to London in the twelfth +century and spent 'largely.'</p> + +<p>'I do not think,' says FitzStephen, 'that there is +any city with more commendable customs of church +attendance, honour to God's ordinances, keeping sacred +festivals, almsgiving, hospitality, confirming, betrothals, +contracting marriages, celebration of nuptials, preparing +feasts, cheering the guests, and also in care for funerals +and the interment of the dead. The only pests of London +are the immoderate drinking of fools and the frequency +of fires.'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">{54}</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_15_LONDON_BRIDGE" id="chap_15_LONDON_BRIDGE"></a>15. LONDON BRIDGE.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>Nobody knows who built the first Bridge. It was there +in the fourth century—a bridge of timber provided with +a fortified gate, one of the gates of the City. Who put it +up, and when—how long it stood—what space there was +between the piers—how broad it was—we do not know. +Probably it was quite +a narrow bridge consisting +of beams laid +across side by side +and a railing at the +side. That these +beams were not close +together is known by +the fact that so many +coins have been found +in the bed of the +river beneath the old +Bridge.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;"> +<img src="images/image_018.jpg" width="283" height="325" alt="ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND" title="" /> +<span class="caption">ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND FROM RICHARD I. +TO EDWARD III. +<br /> +(<i>From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave, Westminster +Abbey.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Besides the Bridge +there were ferries +across the river, especially +between Dowgate +and the opposite +bank called St. Mary +Overies Dock, where was afterwards erected St. Mary +Overies Priory, to which belonged the church now called +St. Saviour's, Southwark. The docks at either end of +the old ferry still remain.</p> + +<p>The Bridge had many misfortunes: it is said to have +been destroyed by the Danes in 1013. Perhaps for +'destruction' we should read 'damage.' It was, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">{55}</a></span> +certainly burned down in the Great Fire of 1136. +Another, also of wood, was built in its place and, in the +year 1176, a bridge of stone was commenced, which took +thirty years to build and remained standing till the year +1831, when the present Bridge was completed and the +old one pulled down.</p> + +<p>The Architect of this stone Bridge, destined to stand +for six hundred and fifty years, was one Peter, Chaplain +of St. Mary Colechurch in the Old Jewry (the church +was destroyed in the Great Fire and not rebuilt).</p> + +<p>Now the building of bridges was regarded, at this +time, as a work of piety. If we consider how a bridge +helps the people we shall agree with our forefathers. +Without a bridge, those living on one side of a river +can only carry on intercourse with those on the other side +by means of boats. Merchants cannot carry their wares +about: farmers cannot get their produce to market: +wayfarers can only get across by ferry: armies cannot +march—if you wish to follow an army across a country +where there are no bridges you must look for fords. +Roads are useless unless bridges cross the rivers. The +first essential to the union of a nation is the possibility +of intercommunication: without roads and bridges the +man of Devon is a stranger and an enemy to the man of +Somerset. We who have bridges over every river: who +need never even ford a stream: who hardly know what +a ferry means: easily forget that these bridges did not +grow like the oaks and the elms: but were built after +long study of the subject by men who were trained for +the work just as other men were trained and taught to +build cathedrals and churches. A religious order was +founded in France in the twelfth century: it was called +the Order of the 'Pontife' Brethren—<i>Pontife</i> is Pontifex—that +is—Bridge Builder. The Bridge Building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">{56}</a></span> +Brothers constructed many bridges in France of which +several still remain. It is not certain that Peter of +Colechurch was one of this Brotherhood, perhaps not. +When he died, in 1205, before the Bridge was completed, +King John called over a French 'Pontife' named Isembert +who had built bridges at La Rochelle and Saintes. +But the principal builders are said to have been three +merchants of London named Serle Mercer, William +Almain, and Benedict Botewrite. The building of the +Bridge was regarded as a national work: the King: the +great Lords: the Bishops: as well as the London Citizens, +gave money to hasten its completion. The list of +donors was preserved on 'a table fair written for posterity' +in the Chapel on the Bridge. It was unhappily +destroyed in the Great Fire.</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed that the Bridge of Peter Colechurch +was like the present stately Bridge of broad arches. +It contained twenty arches of irregular breadth: only +two or three being the same: they varied from 10 feet +to 32 feet: some of them therefore were very narrow: +the piers were also of different lengths. These irregularities +were certainly intentional and were based upon +some observations on the rise and fall of the tide. No +other great Bridge had yet been constructed across a +tidal river.</p> + +<p>When the Bridge was built it was thought necessary +to consecrate it to some saint. The latest saint, St. +Thomas Becket, was chosen as the titular saint of this +Bridge. A chapel, dedicated to him, was built in the +centre pier of the Bridge: it was, in fact, a double +chapel: in the lower part, the crypt, was buried Peter of +Colechurch himself: the upper part, which escaped the +Great Fire, became, after the Reformation, a warehouse.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">{57}</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_16_LONDON_BRIDGE" id="chap_16_LONDON_BRIDGE"></a>16. LONDON BRIDGE.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>Houses were erected in course of time along the Bridge on +either side like a street, but with intervals; and along the +roadway in the middle were chain posts to protect the +passengers. As the Bridge was only 40 feet wide the +houses must have been small. But they were built out +at the back overhanging the river, and the roadway +itself was not intended for carts or wheeled vehicles. +Remember that everything was brought to the City on +pack horse or pack ass. The table of Tolls sanctioned +by King Edward I. makes no mention of cart or waggon +at all. Men on horseback and loaded horses can get +along with a very narrow road. Perhaps we may allow +twelve feet for the road which gives for the houses on +either side a depth of 14 feet each.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_019.jpg" width="500" height="359" alt="OLD LONDON BRIDGE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">OLD LONDON BRIDGE.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">{58}</a></span></p> + +<p>These houses were occupied chiefly by shops, most of +which were 'haberdashers and traders in small wares.' +Later on there were many booksellers. Paper merchants +and stationers, after the Reformation, occupied the chapel. +The great painter Hans Holbein lived on the Bridge and +the two marine painters Peter Monamy and Dominic +Serres also lived here.</p> + +<p>The narrowness of the arches and the rush of the +flowing or the ebbing tide made the 'shooting' of the +Bridge a matter of great danger. The Duke of Norfolk +in 1429 was thrown into the water by the capsizing of +his boat and narrowly escaped with his life. Queen +Henrietta, in 1628, was nearly wrecked in the same way +by running into the piers while shooting the Bridge. +Rubens the painter was thrown into the water in the +same way.</p> + +<p>One of the twenty arches formed a drawbridge +which allowed vessels of larger size than barges to pass +up the river and could be used to keep back an enemy. +In this way Sir Thomas Wyatt in 1557 was kept out of +London. Before this drawbridge stood a tower on the +battlements of which were placed the heads of traitors +and criminals. The heads of Sir William Wallace, Jack +Cade, Sir Thomas More and many others were stuck up +here. On the Southwark side was another tower.</p> + +<p>The Bridge, which was the pride and boast of London, +was endowed with lands for its maintenance: the rents +of the houses were also collected for the same purpose: +a toll was imposed on all merchandise carried across, +and a Brotherhood was formed, called the Brothers of +St. Thomas on the Bridge, whose duty it was to perform +service in the chapel and to keep the Bridge in repair.</p> + +<p>Repairs were always wanting: to keep some of the +force of the water off the piers these were furnished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">{59}</a></span> +with 'starlings,' i.e. at first piles driven down in front +of the piers, afterwards turned into projecting buttresses +of stone. Then corn mills were built in some of the +openings, and in the year 1582 great waterworks were +constructed at the southern end. The tower before the +drawbridge was by Queen Elizabeth rebuilt and made a +very splendid house—called Nonesuch House. The Fire +destroyed the houses on the Bridge, some of which were +not rebuilt: and in the year 1757 all the houses were +removed from the Bridge.</p> + +<p>The New Bridge was finished and opened in 1831—it +stands 180 feet west of its predecessor. Then the Old +Bridge was pulled down. The work of Peter Colechurch +lasted from 1209 to 1831 or 622 years. The Pontife +Brothers, therefore, knew how to put in good and lasting +work.</p> + +<p>This is the history of London Bridge. First a narrow +wooden gangway of beams lying on timber piles with a +fortified gate; then a stone structure of twenty irregular +arches, the Bridge broad but the roadway still narrow +with houses on either side and a fortress and a chapel +upon it—in those times there was always a fortress, and +there was always a chapel. It must have been a pleasant +place of residence: the air fresh and clear: the supply +of water unlimited—one drew it up in a bucket: always +something going on: the entrance of a foreign ambassador, +a religious procession, a riding of the Lord +Mayor, a pageant, a nobleman with his livery, a Bishop +or a Prior with his servants, a pilgrimage, a string of +pack horses out of Kent bringing fruit for the City: +always something to see. Then there were the stories +and traditions of the place, with the songs which the +children sang about the Bridge. Especially there was +the story of Edward Osborne. He was the son of one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">{60}</a></span> +Richard Osborne, a gentleman of Kent. Like many +sons of the poor country gentlemen, he was sent up to +London and apprenticed to Sir William Hewitt a cloth +worker who lived on London Bridge. His master had a +daughter named Anne, a little girl who one day, while +playing with her nurse at an open window overhanging +the river, fell out into the rushing water sixty feet below. +The apprentice, young Osborne, leaped into the river +after her and succeeded in saving her. When the girl +was grown up her father gave her to his ex-apprentice, +Edward Osborne, to wife. Edward Osborne became +Lord Mayor. His descendant is now Duke of Leeds. +So that the Dukedom of Leeds sprang from that gallant +leap out of the window overhanging the river Thames from +London Bridge.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_17_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON" id="chap_17_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON"></a>17. THE TOWER OF LONDON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>In an age when every noble's house was a castle, and when +every castle was erected in order to dominate, as well +as to defend, the town and the district in which it stood, +the Tower of London was erected. The builder of the +White Tower was William the Conqueror, who gave the +City its Charter but had no intention of giving up his own +sovereignty; the architect, as has been already said, was +one Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester. Part of the City +wall was pulled down to make room for it, and it was +intended at once for the King's Palace, the King's Castle, +and the King's Prison. It was also the key of London—who +held the Tower, held the City.</p> + +<p>William Rufus built a wall round the Tower so as to +separate it entirely from the City and to prevent the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">{61}</a></span> +danger of a hasty rising of the people: with the same +object he gave it a water gate.</p> + +<p>A hundred years later, while Richard Cœur de Lion +was on his Crusade, the moat was constructed. Henry +III. and his son Edward I. added to the outer walls and +strengthened them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_020.jpg" width="500" height="346" alt="TOWER OF LONDON." title="" /> +<span class="caption">TOWER OF LONDON.</span> +</div> + +<p>There is a plan of the Tower made from a survey of +the year 1597 and published by the Society of Antiquaries. +A study of the plan should be made before +visiting the place. Remark first of all that the fortress +has three entrances only: one at the S.W. angle to +the City; one to the river now called Traitors' Gate; +and one on the S.E. angle called the Irongate: that it is +surrounded by a broad and deep moat which could be +filled at every high tide: that from the moat rises a +battlemented wall, and that within this first wall is another, +flanked with protecting towers; that the City +entrance is most jealously guarded by a strong gate first:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">{62}</a></span> +then by a narrow way passing under a tower: then over +a bridge. In all mediæval castles the first thought was +to make it impossible to carry the place by a rush. If +we would restore the Tower of Queen Elizabeth to the +Tower of Edward III. we must abolish all those buildings +which stand on the north and east sides, with those +called 'Lieutenants' Lodgings' on the south. The +space on the north side of the Keep was the exercising +ground: stables there must have been somewhere in +this great area; the men at arms would live in the +smaller towers. If you will study this plan carefully, +you will understand the general arrangement of a +mediæval castle.</p> + +<p>In the sixteenth century the place was no longer +regarded as a fortress for the defence or the domination +of the City. But the old forms were kept up: nobody +was admitted who carried arms: the guard kept +the gate: a garrison was maintained. Within, there +was an armoury, the beginning of the splendid collection +which is now shown: there was a Mint for the coining +of money: there were collections of tapestry, saddles, +bed furniture and robes belonging to the Crown: here +were kept the Crown and sceptre and insignia: here was +the Royal menagerie. Here were the rooms reserved for +state criminals. It was no longer the Royal Palace but +the sovereign sometimes occupied the Tower. James the +First was here, for instance, in 1604.</p> + +<p>Near the outer gate where is now the Refreshment +Room were kept the King's lions. Henry I. began this +menagerie which was continued until the year 1834. +At the entrance of the fortress is the Bell Tower where +Queen Elizabeth was once confined. The Water Gate +called Traitors' Gate is under St. Thomas's Tower. The +Beauchamp Tower has been the prison of, among others,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">{63}</a></span> +Queen Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane Grey. In the Great +White Tower Richard II. abdicated in favour of Henry +IV. In the vaults are dungeons, once the prison of Guy +Fawkes. In the Chapel the newly made Knights of the +Bath watched their armour all night long. The collection +of arms contains examples of weapons and armour +of every age. In the Church of St. Peter ad Vincula +you will find the graves of the unfortunate Princes, +Queens, and nobles who have been executed for State +offences. Nothing, except the Royal tombs of Westminster, +so much helps to prove the reality of History, +as this collection of graves and slabs and tablets in this +little church. And here were kept the Crown jewels +about which many a chapter might be written.</p> + +<p>But to study the Tower of London one must visit it +with the History of England in hand. Hither were +brought all the State prisoners: here they were confined: +here they were executed. Every tower, every stone +reminds one of sufferers and criminals and traitors and +innocent victims. Do not, however, forget that this +Tower was built for the restriction of the liberties of the +people. That purpose has been defeated. The liberties +have grown beyond what could ever have been hoped +while the privileges of the Crown, which this Tower +was built to protect and to enlarge, have been restricted +beyond the greatest fears of the mediæval kings.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_18_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON" id="chap_18_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON"></a>18. THE TOWER OF LONDON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>Of all the prisoners who suffered death at the termination +of their captivity in the Tower, there is none whose +fate was so cruel as that of Lady Jane Grey. Her story +belongs to English history. Recall, when next you visit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">{64}</a></span> +the Tower, the short and tragic life of this young Queen +of a nine days' reign.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_021.jpg" width="500" height="407" alt="Tower of London" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>She was not yet eighteen when she was beheaded, +not through any fault of her own, but solely because her +relationship to the Crown placed her in the hands of +men who used her for their own political purposes. She +was the second cousin of Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. +Her grandmother was the sister of Henry VIII., +widow of Louis XII. of France, and wife of Charles, Duke +of Suffolk. The young King on his deathbed was persuaded +to name her as his successor. She was sixteen +years of age: she was already married to Lord Guilford +Dudley, son of the Duke of Northumberland: when she +was proclaimed Queen. Nine days after the proclamation +she was a prisoner. On the 8th of July she was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">{65}</a></span> +acknowledged Queen by the Lord Mayor and Aldermen: +on the 10th she was taken by water from Greenwich to +the Tower, and proclaimed Queen in the City: on the +17th another proclamation was made of Queen Mary, +and her reign was over. But the Tower she was never +more to leave.</p> + +<p>On the 13th of November—after five months of suspense—she +was tried for high treason with Cranmer, her +husband Lord Guilford, and her husband's brother, +Lord Ambrose. They were all four found guilty, and +condemned to death—their judges being the very men +who had sworn allegiance to her as Queen. It would +seem that Mary had no desire to carry out the sentence: +Cranmer she reserved for a more cruel death than that +of beheading—he was to be burned as a heretic. The +other three, two boys and a girl, it would be dangerous +to execute on account of the popular sympathy their +death would awaken. They were therefore sent back to +the Tower. Probably it was intended that Lady Jane, +at least, should pass the rest of her life in honourable +captivity, as happened later on to Arabella Stuart. But +the rebellion of Wyatt showed that her name could still +be used as a cry in favour of a Protestant succession. It +was therefore resolved to put both husband and wife to +death. What further harm the young Lord Guilford +Dudley could do is not apparent. Even then the Queen's +advisers shrank from exhibiting on Tower Hill the +spectacle of a young and beautiful girl, taken forth to +be beheaded because certain hot-headed partizans had +used her name. She was executed therefore within the +verge of the Tower itself, on the so-called 'Green.'</p> + +<p>'The Green' is a place where no grass will grow—it +used to be said—on account of the blood that had been +shed upon it. Among the sufferers here was Hastings,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">{66}</a></span> +executed by order of King Richard: Anne Boleyn: +Katharine Howard: and Lady Jane Grey. A stone +marks the spot on which the scaffold was set up.</p> + +<p>It was on the morning of the 12th of February that +Lady Jane Grey was put to death. She was then confined +in the 'Brick' Tower, the residence of the Master of +the Ordnance. From her window she saw the headless +body of her husband brought back from Tower Hill in a +cart. She looked upon it without shrinking. 'Oh! Guilford,' +she said, 'the antipast is not so bitter after thou +hast tasted, and which I shall soon taste, as to make my +flesh tremble: it is nothing compared to the feast of +which we shall partake this day in Heaven.' So she +went forth with her two gentlewomen, Elizabeth Tylney +and Mistress Helen, but she shed no tears. When she +was on the scaffold she spoke to the officers of the Tower +and the soldiers that stood around. No man or woman, +however wise and dignified, could speak more clearly and +with greater dignity than this girl of sixteen. They had +been trying to make her a Catholic. Therefore, she +made confession of the Protestant Faith: 'Good Christian +people, bear witness that I die a true Christian +woman and that I do look to be saved by no other means +but only by the mercy of God, in the blood of his only +son, Jesus Christ.'</p> + +<p>So she made her gentlewomen bare her neck and +bind her eyes and kneeling down laid her head upon the +block, and while she was saying, 'Lord, into Thy hands +I commend my spirit,' the axe fell and she was dead.</p> + +<p>She lies buried before the altar of St. Peter's Church, +near the bodies of the Queens Anne Boleyn and Katharine +Howard.</p> + +<p>So she died, this poor innocent child of whom all we +know is that she was so scholarly that she could read<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">{67}</a></span> +Greek in the original: that she was beautiful: of a grave +and sweet disposition: and raised far above the voice of +calumny. She had, says Foxe, 'the innocency of childhood, +the beauty of youth, the gravity of age: she had +the birth of a princess, the learning of a clerk, the life of +a saint, and the death of a malefactor for her parents' +offences.'</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/image_022.jpg" width="350" height="249" alt="A BED IN THE REIGN OF HENRY III." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A BED IN THE REIGN OF HENRY III.</span> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_19_THE_PILGRIMS" id="chap_19_THE_PILGRIMS"></a>19. THE PILGRIMS.</h2> + + +<p>In the time when the road connecting village with village +and town with town was but an uncertain bridle path +through woods and over waste places, where in winter +horse, man, and wayfarer struggled with bog and quagmire, +where robbers lurked in the thickets, and fevers +and agues haunted the marsh, where men went armed +and every stranger +was a foe: it would +seem as if most men +stayed where they +were born and desired +not to court the +dangers of the unknown +world. In +many villages, especially +in the remote +places of the country, +this was the case. The men of Somerset abode where +they were born, speaking their own language, a race +apart: the men of Norfolk abode in their county cut +off from the rest of the world by fens in the west and +sea on the north and east: their language was not +understood by the men of the west or the south country. +Had the other conditions of life allowed this isolation to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">{68}</a></span> +continue undisturbed, the nation could never have been +created: we should have remained a scattered collection +of tribes speaking each its own language and developing +its own customs.</p> + +<p>There were three causes which stirred the stagnant +waters. The first was War. The Baron, or Feudal +Lord, carried off the young men of the village to fight: +those of them who returned had things to tell of the +outside world. They fired the imagination and awakened +the enterprise of the lads. The second was Trade at +the trading ports: the lads saw, and continued to talk +with, the foreign sailors—the Fleming, the German, the +man of Rouen or Bordeaux: some of them went on +board the ships of the merchant adventurers and sailed +to foreign lands. Lastly, there were the Pilgrimages.</p> + +<p>From the tenth to the fifteenth century there was a +rage for pilgrimage. Everybody wanted to become a +pilgrim. No money was wanted: there would certainly +be found every day some monastery at which bed and +a supper would be provided for the pilgrim: it was a +joyous company which fared along the road, some riding, +some on foot, travelling together for safety, all bound to +the same shrine where they would hear the masses and +make their vows and so return, light-hearted: it was, in +fact, the mediæval way of taking a holiday. Sometimes +it was to Canterbury, where was the shrine of Thomas +Becket, that the pilgrims were bound: sometimes to +Walsingham, where was the miraculous image of the +Virgin: sometimes to Glastonbury, hallowed by the +thorn miraculously flowering every year on Christmas +Day, planted by Joseph of Arimathea himself: sometimes +it was farther afield—to Compostella in Spain, +Rome, or even Jerusalem—that the pilgrims proposed to +go. Chaucer describes such a company all starting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">{69}</a></span> +together, riding from London to Canterbury on pilgrimage +to the shrine of Thomas Becket. They are pilgrims, +but there is very little piety in their discourse: +one can see that, whatever the motive, whether for the +expiation of sin, or any other cause, the journey is full +of cheerfulness and enjoyment. The Crusades were one +outcome of this passion for pilgrimage. Nay, the first +Crusade itself was little better than a great pilgrimage of +the common people, so ignorant that they asked at the +sight of every walled town if that was Jerusalem. It +was a pilgrimage from which few, indeed, returned.</p> + +<p>In England, the chief gain from pilgrimage was the +bringing together of men from the different parts of the +country. Remember that the men of the North could +not understand the speech of the men of the South: a +Norfolk rustic at the present day would hardly understand +a man of Devon: there was always danger of +forgetting that they all belonged to the same realm, the +same nation, and the same race.</p> + +<p>But the love of pilgrimage spread so wide that it +became a danger. The rustic left the plough: the +blacksmith his anvil: the carpenter his bench: all +left their wives and their children in order to tramp +across the country on pilgrimage to some shrine. By +day they marched together: at night they sat round +the fire in the strangers' room of the monastery, and +took their supper and slept on the reeds. A delightful +change from the monotony and hard work of the village! +But the Bishops interposed. Let no one go on pilgrimage +without his Bishop's license. Let not the monasteries +give a bed and supper to any pilgrim who could +not show his Bishop's license. Then the rustics and the +craftsmen had to remain at home where they have +stayed, except when they went out to fight, ever since.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">{70}</a></span></p> + +<p>When the pilgrim—especially the pilgrim who had +been over the seas—came home, he was able to entertain +his friends with stories he had seen all the rest of his +life. Thus, the earliest plan of the Holy Sepulchre is +one drawn by a pilgrim for the instruction of certain +monks who entertained him. The pilgrims were the +travellers of the time. They observed foreign manners +and customs: they brought home seeds and told of +strange food: they extended the boundaries of the +world: they prevented the native village from becoming +the whole world: they taught and encouraged men to +cease from regarding a stranger as an enemy. The +world was thus opened out by War, Trade, and Pilgrimage, +but most of all by Pilgrimage.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_20_ST_BARTHOLOMEWS_HOSPITAL" id="chap_20_ST_BARTHOLOMEWS_HOSPITAL"></a>20. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL.</h2> + + +<p>The oldest of the City Hospitals is that great and +splendid Foundation which stands in Smithfield—the +Smooth Field. It was first founded by one Rahere, of +whom we know little or nothing except that he lived in +the reign of Henry I., and that he founded the Priory +and Monastery of St. Bartholomew. In the church of +St. Bartholomew the Great you may see a very beautiful +tomb said to be his, but the work is of a later date. It +is related that while on a pilgrimage to Rome he fell ill +and was like to die. And he vowed that if he were +restored to health he would erect and establish a hospital +for poor sick people. He did recover and he fulfilled his +vow. He built the Priory of St. Bartholomew, whose +church still stands in part and beside it established his +hospital. The place called Smithfield was then a swampy +field used for a horse fair: it was also a place of execution +without the City wall. At first the hospital was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">{71}</a></span> +very small place. It consisted probably of two large +rooms or halls, one for men and one for women—with +a chapel. If it had any endowment at all it must +have been very small, because the Master or Hospitaller +had to go every morning to the Shambles, Newgate, in +order to beg meat for the maintenance of the sick. +Two hundred years later the hospital was taken in hand +by Edward IV. and provided with an establishment of +Master, eight brethren, priests, and four sisters, who +served the sick. They were all subject to the Rule of +St. Austin. After the death of Whittington, the hospital<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">{72}</a></span> +buildings were repaired by his bequests. On the dissolution +of the religious houses, the Priory and Hospital +of Bartholomew fell with the rest, but five years later +the hospital was refounded and endowed by the King and +the City.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_023.jpg" width="500" height="442" alt="INTERIOR OF THE HALL AT PENSHURST, KENT" title="" /> +<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF THE HALL AT PENSHURST, KENT. +<br /> +(<i>Showing the screen with minstrels' gallery over it, and the brazier for fire in the middle; +built about 1340.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>If you visit a hospital and are taken into a ward, +you see a row of clean white beds arranged in orderly +position on either side of the long room: the temperature +is regulated: the ventilation is perfect: there are means +by which the patient can be examined in private: the +diseases are apportioned to separate wards: every thing +is managed with the greatest cleanliness and order: if +an operation is performed the patient is kept under +chloroform and feels nothing. The physicians are men +of the highest scientific reputation: the nurses are +trained assistants: the food is the best that can be +procured. The poorest man brought to the hospital is +treated with the same care, the same science, the same +luxuries as the richest.</p> + +<p>Look, however, at the hospital as founded by Rahere.</p> + +<p>There is a great hall with a chapel at one end: at +which mass is daily sung. The room is narrow and +lofty, lit by Norman windows, two or three on a side: +there is a lanthorn in the roof: under the lanthorn a +fire is burning every day, the smoke rising to the roof: +the hall is dark and ill ventilated, the air foul and +heavy with the breath of sixty or seventy sick men +lying in beds arranged in rows along the wall. There +are not separate beds for each patient, but as the +sick are brought in they are laid together side by +side, in the same bed, whatever the disease, so that he +who suffers from fever is placed beside another who +suffers from palsy. There are four in a bed, and in +times of pressure even more. Sometimes one arrives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">{73}</a></span> +who develops the plague, when the whole of the patients +in the hospital catch the infection and all die together. +The surgeons are especially skilled in the dressing of +wounds received in battle or in fray: the sisters can +tie up a broken limb and stop a bleeding wound. The +brethren go about the beds administering the last offices +of the Church to the dying. The food is scanty: the +appliances are rude: there is small hope of recovery: +yet to die in hospital tended and consoled instead of in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">{74}</a></span> +the hut where life has been passed is something for which +to be grateful.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"> +<img src="images/image_024.jpg" width="387" height="500" alt="THE UPPER CHAMBER OR SOLAR AT SUTTON COURTENAY MANOR-HOUSE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE UPPER CHAMBER OR SOLAR AT SUTTON COURTENAY MANOR-HOUSE. +<br /> +(<i>Date, about 1350.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Consider into how great, how noble a Foundation the +little hospital of Rahere has grown. The modern +hospital contains 676 beds: it receives about 150,000 +patients every year, of whom 7,000 are inpatients, 18,000 +out patients, and 130,000 casuals. The eight brethren +have become 30 physicians and surgeons besides the +assistants called clinical clerks and dressers. The four +sisters are now 159 sisters and nurses. There is a noble +school of medicine: there are museums, libraries, lecture +rooms, and there is a residential college for medical +students: there is a convalescent hospital in the +country. No hospital in the world has a larger or +a more noble record than this of St. Bartholomew. And +it all sprang from the resolution of one man, who started +a humble house for the reception of the sick in a poor +and despised place outside the City wall, but near to the +Shambles where one could beg for broken victuals and for +the pieces of meat that the butchers could not sell. +Thus out of one good deed, apparently of small importance, +has grown a never-ending stream of refreshment +and healing. It has lasted for 700 years already: +there seems no reason why it should ever stop.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_21_THE_TERROR_OF_LEPROSY" id="chap_21_THE_TERROR_OF_LEPROSY"></a>21. THE TERROR OF LEPROSY.</h2> + + +<p>One mile outside the City walls, on the west, stood for +four hundred years the Hospital of St. Giles in the +Fields.</p> + +<p>Here was a Lazar House, i.e. a Hospital for Lepers. +It was founded by Maud, Queen of Henry I. It was +dedicated to St. Giles because this saint was considered +the protector of cripples. Hence the name Cripplegate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">{75}</a></span> +which really means the Little Gate, was applied to the +church of St. Giles, and supposed to mean the gate near +the church dedicated to the Patron Saint of Cripples. A +common result of leprosy was to make the sufferer lame +and crippled. Hence the connection. Generally, however, +Lazarus, whom our Lord raised from the dead, was +esteemed the Saint of Lepers, whence a Leper's Hospital +was always called a Lazar House.</p> + +<p>In the middle ages the mysterious disease called +leprosy was an ever present terror. Other plagues +appeared at intervals and disappeared. Leprosy remained. +It never left the land. It struck the King on +his Throne, the Bishop in his Cathedral, the Abbess in +her Nunnery, the soldier in camp, the merchant in his +counting house, the sailor at sea. No class could escape +it. Robert Bruce died of it; Orivalle, Bishop of London, +died of it; Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, died of it. To +this day it prevails in India, at the Cape, in the Pacific +Islands, while there are occasional cases found in our own +hospitals. The disease was incurable: the man, woman, +or child, attacked by it would surely and slowly die of it. +The leper was unclean: he was thrust out of the town: +he had to live apart, or congregated in hospitals with +other wretches similarly afflicted: if he walked abroad +he wore a grey gown for distinction and carried a clapper +as he went along, crying 'Unclean, Unclean,' so that the +people might stand aside and not so much as touch his +garments. And since he could not work with his hands, +he was permitted to carry into the market a 'clap dish,' +that is to say, a bowl or basin in which to receive food +and alms.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Lacroix, <i>Science</i>, p. 146.</p></div> + +<p>Leprosy is supposed to have had its origin in Egypt:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">{76}</a></span> +the laws laid down in the Book of Leviticus for the separation +of lepers are stringent and precise: it was believed, +partly, no doubt, on account of these statutes in the +Book of the Jewish Law, that the disease was brought +into Western Europe by the Crusaders; but this was +erroneous, because it was in this country before the +Crusaders. Thus the Palace of St. James stands upon +the site of a lazar house founded before the Conquest for +fourteen leprous maidens.</p> + +<p>This is not the place to describe the symptoms and +the results of this dreadful disease. Suffice it to say that +the skin thickens, is discoloured and ulcerates: that the +limbs swell: that the fingers and toes drop off: that the +voice sinks to a whisper: and that the sufferer's mind is +weakened by his malady.</p> + +<p>The fearful scourge was so prevalent that there was +not a town, hardly a village, in any country of Europe +which had not, in those centuries, its lepers and its lazar +house, great or small. Every effort was made to isolate +them: they were not allowed to worship with the rest of +the people: they were provided with a separate building +or chapel where, through a hole in the wall, they could +look on at the performance of mass. And in addition, +as you have seen, they lived apart and took their food +apart.</p> + +<p>As for their houses—the lazar houses—the chief of +them all, the place where Abbot possessed some kind of +authority over the others, was one built in a village near +Melton Mowbray called Burton Lazars. The Hospital of +St. Giles, for instance, became shortly after its foundation +a 'cell,' or dependency, of this House.</p> + +<p>Whatever the cause of this malady, whether it be +contagious, i.e. communicated by touch; or infectious, +that is, communicated by breathing the same air; or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">{77}</a></span> +hereditary; it is quite certain that it was greatly aggravated +by the habits of the time. Bad food, uncleanly +habits, bad air, all contributed to the spread of leprosy. +Especially it has been considered that the long fasts +during which meat was prohibited encouraged the +disease: not because abstinence from meat is in itself a +bad thing, but because the people had to eat fish imperfectly +cured or kept too long, and unwholesome. +Fresh-water fish could not be procured in sufficient +quantities and it was impossible to convey fish from the +sea more than a certain distance inland.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_025.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="THE LEPERS BEGGING." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE LEPERS BEGGING.</span> +</div> + +<p>The dreadful appearance of the lepers, their horrible +sufferings, produced loathing more than pity. People +were horror stricken at the sight of them: they drove +them out of their sight: they punished them cruelly if +they broke the rules of separation: they imprisoned any +citizen who should harbour a leper: they kept bailiffs at +the City gates to keep them from entering. Fourteen of +these afflicted persons were required to be maintained in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">{78}</a></span> +accordance with Queen Maud's Foundation by the Hospital +of St. Giles: there was also a lazar house in the +Old Kent Road, Southwark: one between Mile End and +Bow: one at Kingsland between Shoreditch and Stoke +Newington: one at Knightsbridge, west of Charing +Cross, and one at Holloway.</p> + +<p>On the Dissolution of the Monasteries, all these +lazar houses were suppressed. Now, since we hear very +little more about lepers, and since no new lazar houses +were built, and since the prohibitions to enter churches, +towns, &c., are no more renewed, it is tolerably certain +that leprosy by the middle of the sixteenth century had +practically disappeared. The above will show, however, +how great and terrible a thing it was between the ninth +and the sixteenth centuries.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE" id="chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE"></a>22. THE TERROR OF FAMINE.</h2> + + +<p>Suppose that all the ocean traffic were stopped; that +there was no communication, or exchange of commodities, +between our country and another; suppose that +the people of this island depended entirely on their own +harvests and their own cattle for their support. You +would then easily understand how a single bad year +might produce scarcity of food, and a very bad year might +produce a famine. That was our condition down to the +fifteenth century. Some corn may have been brought +over from Prussia or from Hamburg; but there was no +regular supply; the country depended on its own +harvests. Therefore, the fear of a famine—or of scarcity—was +ever present to the people.</p> + +<p>Many of these famines are on record. In the year +990 a famine raged over the whole of England; in 1126 +there was a terrible scarcity. Wheat was sold at 6<i>s.</i> a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">{79}</a></span> +horseload. Now, in the twelfth century a shilling meant +more than a pound of our money, in purchasing power. +It is not stated how much constituted a horseload. It would +probably mean the filling of the two baskets hanging on +either side of the packhorse. In 1257, after a wet season +and a bad harvest, wheat rose to 24<i>s.</i> a quarter, a price +which prohibited all but the richest from eating wheaten +bread. It is said that 20,000 perished of starvation. In +1316, after the same cause, wheat became so scarce that +its price rose to 4<i>l.</i> a quarter. So great was the distress +this year, that great nobles had to dismiss their retainers; +the roads in the country were crowded with robbers. +Robberies were openly committed in the streets for the +sake of food: in the prisons the unfortunate criminals, +left to starve, murdered and devoured each other. The +people ate carrion and dead dogs. In 1335 there was +another time of scarcity and suffering; in 1439, the +distress was so great that the people made bread of fern +roots and ivy berries. Then, for the first time, we read +of the famine being assuaged by the arrival of rye from +Prussia. In 1527 a threatened famine was checked by +the Hanseatic merchants who gave, or sold, a hundred +quarters of wheat to the City and sent three ships to +Dantzig for more. In 1593 and in 1597 wheat rose to +an enormous price. The last time of scarcity was during +the long war with France, which lasted, from 1792 to +1815, nearly a quarter of a century. We were then compelled +to depend almost entirely upon our own harvests. +Wheat went up as high as 103<i>s.</i> a quarter.</p> + +<p>At no time did the poorer classes depend much upon +wheat. Rye and oats made the bread of the working +people. But bad harvests affected rye and oats as much +as wheat.</p> + +<p>The famine prices of wheat may be explained by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">{80}</a></span> +following facts. In the reign of Henry I., at ordinary +prices, bread enough for one meal for 100 men could be +bought for a shilling and a whole sheep cost fourpence. +In the next century, when wheat was at 6<i>s.</i> a quarter, a +farthing loaf was to weigh 24 oz. whole meal and 16 oz. +white. When it was at 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a quarter the farthing +loaf was to weigh 96 oz. whole grain and 64 oz. white. +The quartern loaf of 4 lb. or 64 oz. now costs 5<i>d.</i>, wheat +being very cheap. So that prices in time of plenty being +supposed the same, money was worth twenty times in that +century as much as it is worth now. In the reign of +Edward I. wheat went down to 1<i>s.</i> a quarter.</p> + +<p>The food of the craftsmen in London was, in +ordinary times, plentiful and cheap. The City, as we +have seen, was always remarkable for the great abundance +of provision which was brought there. And there is +every reason to believe that while the rustic fared poorly +and was underfed, the craftsman of the towns always +enjoyed good food and enough of it. This made a time +of scarcity hard to bear for one who habitually lived +well.</p> + +<p>Once or twice an attempt was made to provide the +City with granaries in case of famine. Thus the origin +of Leadenhall, the great City market, was the erecting +of a public granary here by Sir Simon Eyre in 1419. +Attached to the Hall, after the manner of the time, was +a chapel dedicated to the Holy Trinity, which the founder +endowed for 60 priests who were to prepare service every +day for those who frequented the market.</p> + +<p>Another public granary was established in 1610 at +Bridewell Palace. This was built to contain 6,000 +quarters of wheat.</p> + +<p>Nothing more is heard about these public granaries. +Probably the public mind grew more assured on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">{81}</a></span> +subject of famine as it became better understood that +the loss of one country might be made up from the +superfluous harvests of another. The lesson taught by +the Hanseatic merchants in sending to Prussia for corn +was not likely to be lost.</p> + +<p>At the present moment, with means of transport +always in readiness and the electric wire joining the most +distant countries, it might seem that famine was a thing +no longer to be feared. There cannot be bad harvests +all over the world. Not only can we every year import +so much wheat that we need grow little in this country, +but we import frozen meat in vast quantities: we bring +fruit of all kinds from the most distant countries, insomuch +that there are some fruits, such as apples, oranges, +grapes, bananas, which we can enjoy the whole year round. +But famine may yet play a great and a disastrous part in +our history. We must not forget that we enjoy our present +abundance of all things on one of two conditions; first, +that we are strong enough to protect the waterway and +keep it open, or, secondly, that we remain at peace. The +latter we cannot hope to do always. Therefore it is of +vital importance that we maintain a strong fleet, well +equipped, ready to fight, at all times and at the shortest +notice, superior to any likely combination that may be +brought against us. Therefore, again, it behoves every +man in these Isles to be jealous of the fleet, for a time +may come when the way of the ocean may be closed and +when Great Britain, through the neglect of her rulers, +may be starved into a shameful and ruinous surrender.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">{82}</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_23_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL" id="chap_23_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL"></a>23. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>When London was converted to Christianity, in the year +610, the first Bishop of London, Mellitus, built a +church on the highest ground within the walls of the +City. This church he dedicated to St. Paul the Apostle +who first preached to the Gentiles. What kind of +church this was—whether great or small—whether of +wood or of stone—how often rebuilt or repaired—we +know not. Probably it was quite a small church at +first. This church, or its successor, was taken down in +the year 1087 when Bishop Maurice began to build a +new and far more stately Cathedral. Fifty years later +most of the church, not yet completed, was burned +down. Its building, thus delayed, was continued for +nearly two centuries. The steeple was not completed, +for instance, till a hundred and fifty years after the +commencement of the building. The drawing shows +the church as it was in the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries. Old St. Paul's was one of the largest +churches in Europe: its length was at least 600 feet; +the spire reached the height of 460 feet. The church +stood in a large walled enclosure, still kept partly open, +though the wall has long since been pulled down and +there have been encroachments on the north side.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">{83}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image_026.jpg" width="600" height="381" alt="LONDON BEFORE THE SPIRE OF ST. PAUL'S WAS BURNED: SHOWING ALSO THE BRIDGE, THE TOWER, SHIPPING, ETC." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LONDON BEFORE THE SPIRE OF ST. PAUL'S WAS BURNED: SHOWING ALSO THE BRIDGE, THE TOWER, SHIPPING, ETC.</span> +</div> + +<p>The church in the fourteenth century was not +regarded only as a place for public worship. Masses +and services of all kinds were going on all day long: the +place was bright, not only with the sunlight streaming +through the painted glass, but with wax tapers burning +before many a shrine—at some, all day and all night. +People came to the church to walk about, for rest, for +conversation, for the transaction of business—to make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">{84}</a></span> +or receive payments: to hire servants. The middle aisle +of the church where all this was done was called Paul's +Walk or Duke Humphrey's Walk. Here were tables +where twelve licensed scribes sat writing letters for those +who wanted their services. They would also prepare a +lease, a deed, a conveyance—any legal document. The +church was filled with tombs and monuments, some of +these very ancient, some of the greatest interest. Here +was one called the tomb of Duke Humphrey—Humphrey +Duke of Gloucester, who was really buried at St. +Alban's. On May Day the watermen used to come to +St. Paul's in order to sprinkle water and strew herbs +upon this tomb—I know not why. Those who were out +of work and went dinnerless were said to dine with Duke +Humphrey: and there was a proverb—'Trash and +trumpery is the way to Duke Humphrey.' Trumpery +being used in its original meaning—<i>tromperie</i>—<i>deceit</i>. +Among other tombs there were those of the Saxon Kings +Sebbi and Ethelred. The first of these was King of the +East Saxons. He was converted by Bishop Erkenwald. +The second was the elder brother of King Alfred. There +were tombs or shrines to many saints now forgotten—that +of St. Erkenwald, whose fame rivalled that of +Edward the Confessor at Westminster, St. Cuthbert at +Durham, and St. Thomas à Becket at Canterbury: that +of St. Ethelbert: that of St. Roger, Bishop of London—a +cope which St. Roger wore is still preserved in the +Sacristy: and that of St. Wilford. At every one of +these shrines miracles were wrought—or believed to be +wrought. There was also a miraculous crucifix said to +have been discovered by Lucius, the first Christian King +of ancient Britain in the year 140. Great gifts were +constantly made to this crucifix.</p> + +<p>Under the Cathedral, in the crypt, was a parish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">{85}</a></span> +church—that of St. Faith's—it is now united with the +parish church of St. Augustine's in Watling Street.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_027.jpg" width="500" height="370" alt="OLD ST. PAULS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">OLD ST. PAUL'S, FROM THE EAST. +<br /> +(<i>Showing its condition just before the Great Fire; from an engraving by Hollar.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Outside the church, almost against the south wall, was +the parish church of St. Gregory. In the same way the +parish church of St. Margaret's stands outside Westminster +Abbey. Within, we can see, in imagination, +the people walking about—they have not yet begun to +stand bareheaded in church—some dictating to the +scribes: some leaning against the tombs: some sitting +on the bases of the great round pillars—there +were no pews, benches, or chairs in the Cathedral: the +chantry priests are saying masses in the chapels: the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">{86}</a></span> +people are kneeling before the golden shrine of St. +Erkenwald, resplendent with lights, jewels, gold, and +silver: women lay their offerings before the miraculous +crucifix praying for the restoration to health of son or +husband: a wedding is celebrated in one chapel: a +funeral mass is being said in another: servants gather +about a certain pillar waiting to be hired: porters carrying +baskets on their heads enter at the north door and tramp +through, going out of the south: processions of priests +and choir pass up and down the aisles: the organ peals +and echoes along the long and lofty roof. See; here +comes a troop of men. They carry instruments of +music: they are dressed in a livery, a cloak of green: +they march together entering at the western doors and +tramping through the whole length of the church to the +chapel of Our Lady in the East. This is the Guild of +the Minstrels. There were many other guilds attached +to the Cathedral. You shall learn presently what was +the meaning of these guilds.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_24_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL" id="chap_24_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL"></a>24. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>Such was Paul's in the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth +the Reformation came. The candles were all put +out; the shrines were destroyed; the altars were taken +out of the chapels: the miraculous images were taken +away: the church, compared with its previous condition, +became a shell. The choir was walled off for public +worship: the rest of the church became a place of public +resort: the poets of the time are full of allusions to +Paul's Walk. It was a common thoroughfare even for +men leading pack horses and asses. The Cathedral, left +to neglect, began to fall into a ruinous condition. An<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">{87}</a></span> +attempt was made at restoration: funds were collected, +but they came in slowly. Laud, who became Bishop of +London in 1631, gave an impetus to the work: the celebrated +Inigo Jones was appointed architect: in order to +prevent the church from being turned into an Exchange, +he built a West Porch, which is shown in some of the +pictures of St. Paul's. In the time of the Commonwealth +this portico was let off in shops and stalls: the +nave of the church actually became a cavalry barrack.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_028.jpg" width="500" height="320" alt="OLD ST. PAULS ON FIRE" title="" /> +<span class="caption">OLD ST. PAUL'S ON FIRE. +<br /> +(<i>From Longman's 'A History of the Three Cathedrals of St. Paul's.'</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>When King Charles returned it was resolved to repair +and restore the cathedral, by this time almost in ruins: +but while the citizens were considering what should be +done, the Great Fire of London settled the question +by burning down all that was left.</p> + +<p>Then Christopher Wren began the present building. +The first stone was laid on June 21, 1675, nine years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">{88}</a></span> +after the Fire. Divine service was performed on December +2, 1697, the day of thanksgiving for the Peace of +Ryswick. The work was completed in 1710, thirty-five +years after its commencement. The present church is +100 feet shorter than its predecessor: its dome is also +100 feet lower than the former spire. The grandeur of +the building cannot be appreciated by any near view, +because the houses block it in on all sides, and the +former view from the bottom of Ludgate Hill is now +spoiled by the railway bridge. Those who wish to see +what St. Paul's really is—how splendid a church it is—how +grandly it stands above the whole City—must cross +the river and look at it from Bankside, Southwark.</p> + +<p>The dome is three fold: it consists of an outer casing +of wood covered with lead: a cone of bricks which supports +the lantern and cross: and an inner cupola of +brick which supports nothing. The towers at the west +end are 222 feet in height.</p> + +<p>St. Paul's, especially since the crowding at Westminster +Abbey, is becoming the National Burial Church. +It is already well filled with monuments of British +worthies and heroes of this and the last century. Of men +distinguished in Literature, Art, and Science, there are +buried here Dr. Johnson, Hallam the historian, Sir +Joshua Reynolds the painter, Turner the painter, Rennie +the engineer who built Waterloo Bridge, Sir William +Jones, the great Oriental scholar, and Sir Astley Cooper, +the great surgeon. There is also buried here, as he should +be, Sir Christopher Wren himself. But those who visit the +Cathedral desire most to see the tombs of Wellington and +Nelson. The remains of the former lie in a great sarcophagus +worked out of a single piece of Cornish porphyry. +Those of the Admiral were placed first in a coffin made +from the main mast of the French ship <i>Orient</i>, taken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">{89}</a></span> +at the Battle of the Nile. This was deposited in a sarcophagus +made by Cardinal Wolsey and intended for the +burial of King Henry the Eighth. In the Cathedral, too, +you will find the monuments of those splendid fighting +men, Lord Collingwood, Nelson's friend: Howe and +Rodney: Earl St. Vincent, who won the battle of Cape St. +Vincent: Lord Duncan of Camperdown, and many others.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;"> +<img src="images/image_029.jpg" width="353" height="500" alt="WEST FRONT OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL CHURCH." title="" /> +<span class="caption">WEST FRONT OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL CHURCH. +<br /> +(<i>Built by Sir Christopher Wren.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">{90}</a></span>In the crypt you will find, if you look for it, the brass +tablet which marks the spot where lie the remains of a +man whose history should be an encouragement to every +boy who reads this book. His name was Edward Palmer. +Born without family influence, plainly educated at the +grammar school of his town, he taught himself in the +teeth of all difficulties—that of bad health especially—Arabic, +Persian, and all the languages which belong to +that group: at the age of twenty-four he was so splendid +an Oriental scholar that the greatest Orientalist at Cambridge +declared that he could teach him nothing. He +was elected to a Fellowship at St. John's College and +became the Lord Almoner's Professor of Arabic. He +mastered, in addition to his Oriental studies, all the +European languages except Russian and the Slavonic +group. He explored the Desert of the Exodus and the +Peninsula of Sinai. He did a great deal of literary work. +But he was not buried in St. Paul's Cathedral for these +studies. In the year 1882, when the Egyptian War +broke out, he was sent on a secret mission to the tribes +of the Desert. He knew them all: he could talk their +language as well as his own: he was the equal of any +one in his knowledge of Arabic poetry and his power of +telling stories: they welcomed him with open arms: the +service that he rendered to his country for which he was +honoured with a funeral at St. Paul's, was that he prevented +these tribes from destroying the Suez Canal. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">{91}</a></span> +succeeded in reaching the British camp at Suez in safety, +his task accomplished, the safety of the Canal assured. +He was murdered in return by a party of Egyptian +Arabs sent from Cairo. His bones were recovered by +Sir Charles Warren—who further tracked down and +hanged every man connected with the murder. The +road to possible greatness lies open to all, but the way +leads through a difficult and thorny way only to be +passed, as Palmer found, by resolution invincible and by +long patient industry.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_25_PAULS_CHURCHYARD" id="chap_25_PAULS_CHURCHYARD"></a>25. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD.</h2> + + +<p>St. Paul's Cathedral stood in the centre of an oval-shaped +enclosure very much like the present St. Paul's Churchyard, +save that the houses now in the north are an +encroachment. This open space was surrounded by a +wall, in which were six gates embattled. The first was +the Great Western Gate, facing Ludgate Hill: the +second in Paul's Alley in Paternoster Row: the third at +Canon Alley: the fourth, or Little Gate, where is now +the entrance into Cheapside: the fifth, St. Augustine's +Gate, Watling Street: the sixth at Paul's Chain.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 452px;"> +<img src="images/image_030.jpg" width="452" height="500" alt="PAUL'S CROSS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PAUL'S CROSS.</span> +</div> + +<p>Walking round this enclosure we come first upon the +Bishop's Palace, standing on the north side of the Nave. +The Palace was provided with a private entrance into +the Cathedral. Beyond the Palace was a very beautiful +cloister called Pardon Church Haugh. In this cloister +stood a chapel built by Gilbert, father of Thomas à +Becket. Many monuments and tombs of great persons +stood within this cloister, which was also remarkable for +its 'Dances of Death.' This was a series of paintings +representing Death as a skeleton armed with a dart, leading +by the hand men and women of every degree, from +the highest to the lowest. There were formerly many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">{92}</a></span> +examples of such dances. Next to the cloister was the +library, the catalogue of which still exists to show what +a scholar's collection of books then meant. Next to the +library stood the College of the Minor Canons: then +came Charnel Chapel, beneath which was a crypt filled +with human bones taken from the churchyard. Remember +that this has been a burial place ever since<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">{93}</a></span> +the year 610, when a church was first built here. From +the year 610 till the year 1840, or for a period of 1,200 +years, new graves were continually made in this ground. +Who can guess how many thousands lie buried here? +Every handful of the dust is a handful of human remains. +From time to time, however, the bones were +collected and placed in this crypt of Charnel Chapel. +The chapel itself was apparently a large building, for +when it was pulled down the materials were used by the +Duke of Somerset at the Reformation in building Somerset +House in the Strand. There are yet standing some +portions of the original house, so that the stones of +Charnel Chapel may still be seen. As for the crypt, they +carried away the bones, which made a thousand cartloads, +and laid them over Finsbury Fields, covering them +with ground, on which were erected three windmills. +The site is marked by the street called Windmill Street.</p> + +<p>Next to Charnel Chapel stood the famous Paul's +Cross.</p> + +<p>This famous place was a Pulpit Cross, from which +sermons might be preached in the open air. Several +London churches had their open-air pulpits: notably +St. Michael's, Cornhill; St. Mary's Spital, without +Bishopsgate—at this Cross a sermon was preached +every Easter to the Lord Mayor and aldermen. When +Paul's Cross was erected is not known: it probably +stood on the site of some scaffold or steps, from which +the people were anciently harangued, for this was the +place of the folk-mote, or meeting of the people. Here +were read aloud, and proclaimed, the King's Laws and +Orders: here the people were informed of War and +Peace: here Papal Bulls were read. There was a cross +standing here in the year 1256—very likely it was +already ancient. In the year 1387 it was ruinous and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">{94}</a></span> +had to be repaired. It was again repaired or rebuilt in +1480. Paul's Cross played a very important part in the +Reformation. Here the 'Rood' of Bexley, which was a +crucifix where the eyes and lips were made to move +and the people were taught that it was miraculous, was +exposed and broken to pieces: here the famous images +of Walsingham and Ipswich, the object of so many pilgrimages, +were brought to be broken to pieces before the +eyes of the people. Here Latimer preached, a man of +the people who could speak to them in a way to make +them understand. Had it not been for the preaching of +Latimer and others like him in plain language, the +Reformation would have been an attempt, and probably +a failure, to enforce upon the people the opinions of +certain scholars. Paul's Cross did not perish in the +Fire: it was taken down in the year 1643, or thereabouts, +in order to be rebuilt; but this was not done, +and when the Fire destroyed the Cathedral Paul's Cross +was forgotten. Its site may be seen in the churchyard +at the N.E. corner of the choir, marked by a flat stone, +but it must be remembered that the old church was +wider but farther south.</p> + +<p>On the south side of Paul's Churchyard we pass +in succession the beautiful Chapter House: the Church +of St. Gregory and the Deanery. Close to the western +gate are residences for the Canons, south of the enclosure +are the Cathedral Brewhouse and Bakehouse.</p> + +<p>Such are some of the buildings in Paul's Churchyard. +The Cathedral establishment supported a great +army of priests and people. For many of them, perhaps +for most, there were residences of some kind either +within the enclosure or close beside it. Thus the +priests, including Bishop, Dean, Archdeacons and Canons, +a hundred and thirty in number: then there were the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">{95}</a></span> +inferior officers: yet persons of consideration and +authority, such as Sacrist, Almoner, Bookbinder, +Chief Brewer, Chief Baker, with all their servants: +scribes, messengers, bookbinders, illuminators and copyists: +singing-men and choir boys, and women to keep +the church clean. When we add that the Brewer had +to provide 200 gallons of beer a day, it is obvious that +there must have been a good many people belonging to +the Cathedral who lived in the enclosure called the +Churchyard.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_26_THE_RELIGIOUS_HOUSES" id="chap_26_THE_RELIGIOUS_HOUSES"></a>26. THE RELIGIOUS HOUSES.</h2> + + +<p>If we take a map of London in the fourteenth century +and lay down upon it all the monasteries and religious +Houses that then existed we shall find twenty, all rich +and splendid Foundations, without counting those of +Westminster and the villages within a few miles of +London Stone. These were built for the most part either +just within or just without the City wall. The reason +was that the City was less densely populated near the wall +than lower down along the river-side. Every one of these +Societies was possessed of estates in the country and +streets and houses in the City. Every one then retained, +besides the monks or friars and nuns, a whole army of +officers and servants. A great monastery provided employment +for a very large number of people. In every +separate estate which belonged to it, the monastery +wanted tenant farmers, foresters and hunters, labourers, +stewards and bailiffs, a curate or vicar in charge of the +church and all the officers who are required for the management +of an estate. For the House itself there were +wanted first, the service of the chapel, apart from the +singing which was done by the brethren: the school:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">{96}</a></span> +the library: lawyers and clerks to administer the +estates and guard the rights and privileges of the House: +the brewhouse, bakehouse, kitchen, cellar, stables, with +all the officers and servants required in a place where +everything was made in the house; the architects, surveyors, +carpenters and people wanted to maintain the +buildings. It is not too much to reckon that a fourth +part of the population of London belonged in some way +or other to the monasteries, while these Houses were +certainly the best customers for the wines, silks and +spices which were brought to the quays of Queenhithe +and Billingsgate.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_031.jpg" width="500" height="308" alt="BERMONDSEY ABBEY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BERMONDSEY ABBEY.</span> +</div> + +<p>It is generally believed that the monasteries, besides +relieving the sick and poor and teaching the boys and +girls, threw open their doors readily to any poor lad who +desired to take the vows of the Order.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_032.jpg" width="500" height="381" alt="RUINS OF GATEWAY OF BERMONDSEY ABBEY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RUINS OF GATEWAY OF BERMONDSEY ABBEY.</span> +</div> + +<p>All this is a misconception: there were the same difficulties +about relieving the poor as there are with us at the +present moment. That is to say, indiscriminate charity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">{97}</a></span> +then, as now, turned honest working men into paupers. +This the monks and friars understood very well. They +were therefore careful about their charities. Also in +many Houses the school was allowed to drop into disuse. +And as regards the admission of poor boys it was done +only in cases where a boy showed himself quick and +studious. It has been the glory of the Church in all +ages that she has refused to recognise any barrier of +birth: but she has also been careful to preserve her distinctions +for those who deserve them. Most of the +brethren in a rich Foundation were of gentle birth and +good family. If a poor boy asked to join a monastery he +was lucky if he was allowed to become one of its servants +and to wear its livery. Then his livelihood was assured. +There is every reason to believe that the rule of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">{98}</a></span> +brethren, strict for themselves, was light and easy for +their servants. You may find out for yourselves where +the London monasteries were, by the names of streets now +standing on their sites. Thus, following the line of the +wall from the Tower north and west you find St. Katharine's +Dock where stood St. Katharine's Hospital: the +Minories marks the House of the Minorites or Sisters +of St. Clare; Great St. Helens is on the site of St. +Helen's Nunnery: Spital Square stands where St. Mary's +Spital formerly received the sick: Blackfriars, Charter +House and Bartholomew's still keep their name: Austin +Friars is the name of a court and the Friars' Church +still stands: Whitefriars is still the name of a street: +Grey Friars is Christ's Hospital: the Temple is now the +lawyer's home; part of the Church of the Knights Hospitallers +is still to be seen. Three great Houses, it is +true, have left no trace or memory behind. Eastminster +or the Cistercian Abbey of St. Mary of Grace, which +stood north of St. Katharine's, and was a very great and +stately place indeed: the Priory of the Holy Trinity, +which stood where is now Duke's Place, north of the +church of St. Catharine Cree: and St. Mary of Bethlehem, +which stood just outside Bishopsgate. The memory of +Bermondsey Abbey and St. Mary Overy on the south +side of the river has also departed, but the church of +the latter still stands, the most beautiful church in +London next to Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_033.jpg" width="500" height="356" alt="Christ's Hospital" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Christ's Hospital</span> +</div> + +<p>But besides all these religious Houses employing +thousands of people, there were in the City of London +no fewer than 126 parish churches. Many of the parishes +were extremely small—a single street—or half a street: +many of the churches were insignificant: but many were +rich and costly structures, adorned and beautified by the +piety of many generations: all were endowed with funds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">{99}</a></span> +for the saying of masses for the dead, so that there were +many priests to every parish. Consider these things and +you will understand that the City was filled with ecclesiastics—priests, +friars, servants of the Church: at +every corner rose a church: to one standing on the other +bank of the river the City presented a forest of spires and +towers. The church then occupied a far larger part of +the daily life than is now the case even with Catholic +countries. All were expected to attend a daily service: +the trade companies went to church in state: +young men belonged to a guild: the ringing of the bells +was never silent: no one could escape, if he desired, from +the Church. No one did desire to escape, because every +one belonged to the Church. You must understand, not +only that the Church was so great and rich that it owned +and ruled a very large part of the country, but also that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">{100}</a></span> +the people all belonged to the Church: it was part of +their life as much as their daily work, their daily food, +their daily rest.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_27_MONKS_FRIARS_AND_NUNS" id="chap_27_MONKS_FRIARS_AND_NUNS"></a>27. MONKS, FRIARS, AND NUNS.</h2> + + +<p>We must not speak of monks indiscriminately as if they +were all the same. There were as many varieties +among the Orders as there are sects among Protestants +and as much rivalry and even hatred of one with the +other. Let us learn some of the distinctions among +them.</p> + +<p>Monks were first introduced into Western Europe in +the year 529. There had long been brotherhoods, +hermits, and solitaries in the East, where they existed +before the Christian age. St. Benedict founded at Monte +Casino in Campania a monastery for twelve brethren in +that year. The Benedictines are the most ancient Order: +they have also been always the most learned. The Priory +of the Holy Trinity in London was Benedictine. Several +branches sprang out of this Order, mostly founded with +the view of practising greater austerities. Among them +were the Carthusians, a very strict Order—in London +they had the Charter House, a name which is a corruption +of Chartreuse, their original House: and the Cistercians, +founded at Citeaux in France—they had Eastminster, +or the Abbey of St. Mary of Grace. All these +were monks.</p> + +<p>The Augustine, or Austin Friars, pretended to have +been founded by Augustine, but were not constituted +until the year 1256. They had the monastery of Austin +Friars in London. There were several branches of this +Order.</p> + +<p>There were next the three great Mendicant Orders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">{101}</a></span> +Franciscans, Dominicans, and Carmelites. These were +the popular Orders. The monks remained in their +Houses alone, separated from the world. The friars +went about among the people. By their vows they were +to possess nothing of their own: they were to sleep +where they could: they were to beg their food and +raiment: they were to preach to the people in the +streets and in their houses: they were to bring the rites +of the Church to those who would not enter the doors of +the Church. None were to be too poor or too miserable +for them. In their humility they would not be called +fathers but brothers—fratres—friars. In their preaching +they used every way by which they could move the +hearts of the people; some thundered, some wept, +some made jokes. They preached in the midst of the +markets, among the sports of the Fair, wherever they +could get an audience together.</p> + +<p>The Franciscans, who had Grey Friars House, now +the Bluecoat School, were founded by St. Francis of +Assisi in the beginning of the thirteenth century. They +came over to England and appeared in London a few +years later. On account of their austerities and the +faithfulness with which the earlier Franciscans kept +their vows and the earnestness of their preaching they +became very popular in this country. Their name—Grey +Friars—denotes the colour of their dress. The old +simplicity and poverty did not last long. It must, however, +be acknowledged that wealth was forced upon +them.</p> + +<p>The Dominicans were founded by St. Dominic about +the year 1215. Sixty years later they came to London +and established themselves in the place still known by +their name—Blackfriars. Their dress was white with a +black cloak. They were never so popular as the Franciscans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">{102}</a></span> +perhaps because they insisted more on doctrine, +and were associated with the Inquisition.</p> + +<p>The third of the Mendicant Orders was the Carmelite. +They were the Whitefriars, their dress being white with +a black hood. Their House was in Fleet Street. Here +was a sanctuary whose privileges were not abolished till +the year 1697.</p> + +<p>Other Orders represented in London were the Cluniacs, +a branch of Benedictines—they had the Abbey of St. +Saviour in Bermondsey; the Black Canons, established +at St. Bartholomew's: the Canons Regular of St. +Augustin—who had the Southwark Priory of St. Mary +Overie: the Knights Templars; and the Knights of St. +John.</p> + +<p>As a general rule it is enough to remember that the +monks were Benedictines with their principal branches of +Carthusians, Cistercians, and Cluniacs: that the friars +were those named after Augustine, Dominic, Francis, +and Mount Carmel; that the monks remained in their +Houses, practising a life of austerity and prayer—so long +as they were faithful to their vows: and that the friars +went about among the people, preaching and exhorting +them.</p> + +<p>Of the nunneries some were Benedictine, some Franciscan: +that of the Minorites belonged to the latter +Order: that of St. Helen's, to the former.</p> + +<p>The Religious Houses were dissolved at the Reformation. +You must remember that if it had not been for +the existence of these Houses, most of the arts, science, +and scholarship of the world would have perished utterly. +The monks kept alive learning of all kinds: they +encouraged painting: they were discoverers and inventors +in science: they were the chief agriculturists +and gardeners: they offered an asylum to the poor and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">{103}</a></span> +the oppressed. 'The friendship of the poor,' said Bernard, +'makes us the friends of Kings.' And in an age +of unrestrained passions they showed an example of self-restraint +and austerity. The friars did more: they +were poor among the poor: no one was below their +care and affection: they had nothing—they would take +nothing—at first: till the love and gratitude of the +people showered gifts upon them and even against their +will, if they still retained any love for poverty, they +became rich.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_28_THE_LONDON_CHURCHES" id="chap_28_THE_LONDON_CHURCHES"></a>28. THE LONDON CHURCHES.</h2> + + +<p>Before the Great Fire of London there were 126 +churches and parishes in the City. Most of these were +destroyed by the Fire, and many were never rebuilt at +all. Two or even three and four parishes were united +in one church. Of late years there has been a destruction +of City churches almost as disastrous as that of the +Fire. Those who have learned from this book, and elsewhere, +to respect the monuments of the past and to +desire their preservation, should do their utmost to prevent +the demolition of these churches, in consideration +of their history and their association with the past.</p> + +<p>Looking at a picture of London after the Fire, you +will certainly remark the great number of spires and +towers. London, in fact, was then, and much more so +before the Fire, a city of churches. Those which are +here represented and those which now remain are nearly +all the work of Christopher Wren, the architect of St. +Paul's. Many of them are very beautiful internally; +many have been decorated and adorned with the most +splendid carved woodwork. About many there cling the +memories of dead men and great men who worshipped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">{104}</a></span> +here and made gifts to the church and were buried +here.</p> + +<p>Let us show, by a few examples, how worthy these +City churches are of preservation and respect.</p> + +<p>First, many of them stand on the sites of the most +ancient churches in the history of London. Those about +Thames Street, dedicated to St. Peter, St. Paul (the +Cathedral), St. James, probably represent Christian +temples of Roman London. The church of St. Martin's, +Ludgate Hill, was traditionally built by a British prince: +that of St. Peter, Cornhill, by a Roman general. The +tradition proves at least the antiquity of the churches. +St. Augustine's preserves the memory of the preacher +who converted the Saxons. St. Olave's and St. Magnus +mark the Danish rule: St. Dunstan's, St. Alphege, St. +Ethelburga, St. Swithin, St. Botolph, commemorate Saxon +saints. Why, for instance, are there three churches +all dedicated to St. Botolph just outside City gates? +Because this saint—after whom the Lincolnshire town +of Icanhoe changed its name to Botolph's town, now +Boston—was considered the special protector of travellers. +Then the names of churches still commemorate some +fact in history. St. Mary Woolnoth, marks the wool +market: St. Osyth's—the name exists in Sise Lane, was +changed into St. Bene't Shere Hog—or Skin-the-Pig—because +the stream called Walbrook which ran close by +was used for the purpose of assisting this operation. St. +Austin's was the chapel of Austin Friars Monastery. +St. Andrew's Undershaft tells that the City May Pole +was hung up along its wall. St. Andrew's-by-the-Wardrobe +commemorates the existence of the Palace formerly +called the King's Wardrobe. In St. Michael's Bassishaw +survives the name of an old City family—the Basings. +In St. Martin Orgar's—now destroyed—we have another +old City name—Orgar.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">{105}</a></span></p> + +<p>Or, again, there are the people who are buried or were +baptised in these churches.</p> + +<p>In All Hallows, Bread Street, now pulled down, was +baptised the greatest poet of our country, John Milton. +For this cause alone the church should never have been +suffered to fall into decay. It was wickedly and wantonly +destroyed for the sake of the money its site would fetch in +the year 1877. When you visit Bow Church, Cheapside, +look for the tablet to the memory of Milton, now fixed +in that church. It belonged to All Hallows, Bread Street.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Three poets in three distant ages born,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Greece, Italy, and England did adorn:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The first in loftiness of thought surpassed,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The next in majesty—in both the last.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The force of Nature could no further go;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">To make a third she joined the other two.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Christ Church, Newgate, stands on part of the site +once occupied by the splendid church of the Grey Friars. +Four Queens lie buried here, and an immense number +of princes and great soldiers and nobles.</p> + +<p>Very few people, of the thousands who daily walk up +and down Fleet Street, know anything about the statue +in the wall of St. Dunstan's Church. This is the statue +of Queen Elizabeth which formerly stood on the west side +of Lud Gate. This gate was taken down in the year +1760, and some time after the statue was placed here. +One of the sights of London before the old church was +pulled down was a clock with the figure of a savage on +each side who struck the hours and the quarters on a +bell with clubs. London has seldom been without some +such show. As long ago as the fifteenth century there +was a clock with figures in Fleet Street. Tyndal the +Reformer, and Baxter the famous Nonconformist were +preachers in this church.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">{106}</a></span></p> + +<p>St. Mary le Bow, was so called because it was the +first church in the City built on arches—bows—of stone. +The church is most intimately connected with the life +and history of the City. Bow Bell rang for the closing +of the shops. If the ringer was late the prentice boys +reminded him pretty plainly.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'Clarke of the Bow Bell with thy yellow lockes:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">In thy late ringing, thy head shall have knockes.'<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>To which the clerk replied:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'Children of Chepe, hold you all stille:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For you shall have Bow Bell ring at your will.'<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>St. Mary's Woolnoth was for many years the church +of the Rev. John Newton, once the poet Cowper's friend. +He began his life in the merchant service and was for +many years engaged in the slave trade.</p> + +<p>For these reasons—their antiquity, their history, +their associations—the destruction of the City churches +ought to be resisted with the utmost determination. +You who read this page may very possibly become +parishioners of such a church. Learn that, without the +consent of the parishioners, no church can be destroyed. +A meeting of parishioners must be called: they must +vote and decide. Do not forget this privilege. The +time may come when your vote and your's alone, may +retain for your posterity a church rich in history and +venerable with the traditions of the past.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_29_THE_STREETS" id="chap_29_THE_STREETS"></a>29. THE STREETS.</h2> + + +<p>You have seen how the wall surrounded Roman London. +The same wall which defended and limited Augusta +defended and limited Plantagenet London. Outside the +wall on the east there continued to extend wide marshes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">{107}</a></span> +along the river; moorlands and forest on the north; +marshes with rising ground on the west; marshes on the +south. Wapping was called Wapping in the Wose +(Wash or Ouze), meaning in the Marsh: Bermondsey +was Bermond's Island, standing in the marsh: Battersea +was Batter's Island, or perhaps Island of Boats: Chelsea +was the Island of Chesel or Shingle: Westminster Abbey +was built on the Isle of Thorns. The monasteries +standing outside the wall attracted a certain number of +serving people who built houses round them: some of the +riverside folk—boat-builders, lightermen, and so forth—were +living in the precinct of St. Katharine, just outside +the Tower: all along the Strand were great men's houses, +one of which, the Somerset House, still stands in altered +form, and another, Northumberland House, was only +pulled down a few years ago. Southwark had a single +main street with a few branches east and west: it also +contained several great houses, and was provided with +many Inns for the use of those who brought their goods +from Kent and Surrey to London Market. It was +also admitted as a ward. On either side of the High +Street lay marshes. The river was banked—hence the +name Bank Side—but it is not known at what time.</p> + +<p>That part of the wall fronting the river had long +been pulled down, but the stairs were guarded with iron +chains, and there was a river police which rowed about +among the shipping at night.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">{108}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image_034.jpg" width="600" height="430" alt="CHEPE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHEPE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</span> +</div> + +<p>The streets and lanes of London within the walls were +very nearly the same as they are at present, except for +the great thoroughfares constructed within the last +thirty years. That is to say, when one entered at +Lud Gate and passed through Paul's Churchyard, he +found himself in the broad street, the market place of +the City, known as Chepe. This continued to the place +where the Royal Exchange now stands, where it broke +off into two branches, Cornhill and Lombard Street.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">{109}</a></span> +These respectively led into Leadenhall Street and Fenchurch +Street, which united again before Aldgate. +Another leading thoroughfare crossed the City from +London Bridge to Bishopsgate, and another, Thames +Street, by far the most important, because here the +merchant adventurers—those who had ships and imported +goods—met for the transaction of business. The rough +cobbled pavement of Thames Street was the Exchange +of Whittington and the merchants of his time, who all +had their houses on the rising ground, among the +narrow lanes north of the street. You have seen what +splendid houses a London merchant loved to build. +What kind of house did the retailer and the craftsman +occupy? It was of stone in the lower parts, but the +upper storey was generally of wood, and the roof was +too often thatched. The window was glazed in the +upper part, but had open work and shutter for the lower +half: this half, with the door, stood open during the +greater part of the year. The lower room was the +living room, and sometimes the work room of the +occupant. The upper floor contained the bed rooms. +There was but one fireplace in the house—that in the +living room. At the back of the house was generally a +small garden. But, besides these houses, there were +courts dark, narrow, noisome, where the huts were still +'wattle and daub,' that is, built with posts, the sides +filled in with branches or sticks and clay or mud, the +fire in the middle of the floor, the chimney overhead. +And still, as in Saxon times, the great danger to the +City was from fire.</p> + +<p>Men of the same trade still congregated together for +convenience. When all lived together the output would +be regulated, prices maintained, and wages agreed upon. +Nothing was more hateful to the mediæval trader than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">{110}</a></span> +forestalling and regrating. To forestall was to buy +things before they arrived at market with intent to sell +at a higher price. To regrate was to buy up in the +market and sell again in the same market at an advanced +price. To undersell your neighbour was then also an +unpardonable crime. You discover, therefore, that trade +in Plantagenet London was not like trade in Victorian +London. Then, all men of the same trade stood by +each other and were brothers: now, too often, men of +the same trade are enemies.</p> + +<p>The names of streets show the nature of the trades +carried on in them. Turners and makers of wooden +cups and platters, Wood Street: ironmongers, in their +Lane: poultry sellers, the Poultry: bakers, Bread +Street: and so on. Chepe was the great retail market +of the City. It was built over gradually, but in early +times it was a broad market covered with stalls, like the +market-place of Norwich, for instance; these stalls were +ranged in lines and streets: churches stood about among +the lines. Then the stalls, which had been temporary +wooden structures, were changed into permanent shops, +which were also the houses of the tenants: the living +room and kitchen were behind the shop: the master +and his family slept above, and the prentices slept under +the counter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 382px;"> +<img src="images/image_035.jpg" width="382" height="500" alt="LARGE SHIP AND BOAT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LARGE SHIP AND BOAT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. +<br /> +(<i>The mainsail of the ship has the Beauchamp arms, and the streamer the bear and ragged +staff. From the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick,' by John Rous; drawn +about 1485.</i>)</span> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_30_WHITTINGTON" id="chap_30_WHITTINGTON"></a>30 WHITTINGTON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>The story of Dick Whittington has been a favourite +legend for many generations. The boy coming up to +London poor and friendless; lying despairing on the +green slope of Highgate; resolved to return to the +country since he can find no work in London: the falling +upon his ears of the bells of Bow, wafted across the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">{111}</a></span> +fields by the south wind—every child knows all this. +What did the bells say to him—the soft and mellow +bells, calling to him across four miles of fields? 'Turn +again, Whittington—Turn again, Whittington—Lord +Mayor of London—Turn again, Whittington.' He did +turn, as we know, and became not once, but four times +Lord Mayor of London and entertained kings, and was +the richest merchant of his time. And all through a cat—we +know how the cat began his fortune.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">{112}</a></span></p> + +<p>That is the familiar legend. Now you shall learn +the truth.</p> + +<p>There was a Dick Whittington: and he was Lord +Mayor of London—to be accurate, he was Mayor of +London, for the title of Lord Mayor did not yet exist.</p> + +<p>He was not a poor and friendless lad by any means. +He belonged to a good family, his father, Sir William +Whittington, Knight, being owner of an estate in Herefordshire +called Soler's Hope, and one in Gloucestershire +called Pauntley. The father was buried at Pauntley +Church, where his shield may still be seen. Richard was +the youngest of three sons of whom the eldest, William, +died without children: and the second, Robert, had sons +of whom one, Guy, fought at Agincourt. From the +second son there are descendants to this day.</p> + +<p>Richard, at the age of fourteen, was sent to London, +where he had connections. Many country people had +connections in London who were merchants. Remember +that in those days it would be impossible for a boy to +rise from poverty to wealth and distinction by trade. +Such a lad might rise in the church, or even, but I know +not of any instance, by distinguished valour on the field +of battle. Most certainly, he would be prenticed to a craft +and a craftsman he would remain all his life. Whittington +was a gentleman: that was the first and necessary condition +to promotion: he came to London, not to learn +a craft at all, but to be apprenticed to his cousin Sir John<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">{113}</a></span> +Fitzwarren, Mercer and Merchant Adventurer. The +Mercers were the richest and most important company +in London: the merchant adventurers were those—the +foremost among the Mercers—who owned ships which +they despatched abroad with exports and with which +they imported stuffs and merchandise to the Port of +London. Whittington's master may have had a shop +or stall in Chepe—but he was a great importer of silks, +satins, cloth of gold, velvets, embroideries, precious +stones, and all splendid materials required for an age of +splendid costume.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 358px;"> +<img src="images/image_036.jpg" width="358" height="500" alt="A SEA-FIGHT." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A SEA-FIGHT. +<br /> +(<i>From the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick'; drawn by John Rous about 1485.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">{114}</a></span>What is the meaning of the 'cat' story? Immediately +after Whittington's death the story was spread +about. When his executors repaired Newgate they +placed a carven cat on the outside: when Whittington's +nephews, a few years later, built a house in Gloucester +they placed a carven cat over the door in recognition of +the story. All sorts of explanations have been offered. +First, that there never was any cat at all. Next, that +by a 'cat' is meant a kind of ship, a collier. Thirdly, +that the cat is symbolical and means something else. +Why need we go out of our way at all? A cat at that +time was a valuable animal: not by any means common: +in certain countries where rats were a nuisance a cat +was very valuable indeed. Why should not the lad +entrust a kitten to one of his master's skippers with +instructions to sell it for him in any Levantine port at +which the vessel might touch? Then he would naturally +ever afterwards refer to the sale of the cat, the first venture +of his own, as the beginning and foundation of his +fortune. But you must believe about the cat whatever +you please. The story has been told of other men. There +was a Portuguese sailor, named Alphonso, who was +wrecked on the Coast of Guinea. He carried a cat safely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">{115}</a></span> +ashore and sold her to the King for her weight in gold: +with this for his first capital he rapidly made a large +fortune. Again, one Diego Almagro, a companion of +Pizarro, bought the first cat ever taken to South America +for 600 pieces of eight. And the story is found in +Persia and in Denmark, and I dare say all over the +world. Yet I believe in its literal truth.</p> + +<p>In the year 1378 Whittington's name first appears +in the City papers. He was then perhaps twenty-one—but +the date of his birth is uncertain—and was already +in trade, not, as yet, very far advanced, for his assessment +shows that as yet he was in the lowest and poorest class +of the wholesale Mercers.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_31_WHITTINGTON" id="chap_31_WHITTINGTON"></a>31. WHITTINGTON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>For nearly fifty years after this Whittington leads an +active, busy, prosperous life. It was a distracted time, +full of troubles and anxieties. A Charter obtained in 1376, +two or three years before he began business, was probably +the real foundation of Whittington's fortune. For it +forbade foreign merchants to sell by retail. This meant +that a foreign ship bringing wine to the port of London +could only dispose of her merchandise to the wholesale +vintners: or one bringing silk could only sell it to wholesale +mercers. The merchants, no doubt, intended to use +this Charter for the furtherance of their own shipping +interests.</p> + +<p>This important Charter, presented by the King, was +nearly lost a little after, when there was trouble about +Wycliffe. The great scholar was ordered to appear at +St. Paul's Cathedral before the Archbishop of Canterbury<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">{116}</a></span> +and the Bishop of London, to answer charges of heresy. +He was not an unprotected and friendless man, and he +appeared at the Cathedral under the protection of the +powerful John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, son of +King Edward III. The Bishop of London rebuked the +Duke for protecting heretics, so the Duke, enraged, +threatened to pull the Bishop out of his own church by +the hair of his head. The people outside shouted that +they would all die before the Bishop should suffer indignity. +John of Gaunt rode off to Westminster and +proposed that the office of Mayor should be abolished +and that the Marshal of England should hold his court +in the City—in other words, that even the liberties and +Charters of the City should be swept clean away. Then +the Londoners rushed to the Savoy, the Duke's palace, +and would have sacked and destroyed it but for the +Bishop. This story indicates the kind of danger to +which, in those ages, the City was liable. There were no +police; a popular tumult easily and suddenly became +a rebellion: no one knew what might happen when the +folk met together and wild passions of unreasoning fury +were aroused.</p> + +<p>Another danger of the time for the peaceful merchant. +For some years the navigation of the North Sea and the +Channel was greatly impeded by a Scottish privateer +or pirate named Mercer. In vain had the City made +representations to the King. Nothing was done, and +the pirate grew daily stronger and bolder. Then Sir +John Philpot, the Mayor, did a very patriotic thing. He +built certain ships of his own, equipped them with arms, +went on board as captain or admiral, and manned them +with a thousand stout fellows. He found the pirate off +Scarborough, fell upon him, slew him with all his men +and returned to London Port with all his own ships and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">{117}</a></span> +all the pirate's ships—including fifteen Spanish vessels +which had joined Mercer.</p> + +<p>The King pretended to be angry with this private +mode of carrying on war, but the thing was done, and +it was a very good thing, and profitable to London and +to the King himself, therefore when Sir John Philpot +gave the King the arms and armour of a thousand men +and all his own ships and prize ships, the Royal clemency +was not difficult to obtain. I wish that I could state +that Whittington had sailed with Sir John on this +gallant expedition.</p> + +<p>A third trouble arose in the year 1381 on the rebellion +of the peasants under John Ball, Wat Tyler, Jack the +Miller, Jack the Carter, and Jack Trewman. The rebels +held possession of the City for awhile. They destroyed +the Savoy, the Temple and the houses of the foreign +merchants (this shows that they had been joined by +some of the London people). They murdered the Archbishop +of Canterbury and the Prior of St. John's Hospital. +Then the citizens roused themselves and with an army +of 6,000 men stood in ranks to defend the King.</p> + +<p>Then there happened the troubles of John of Northampton, +Mayor in 1382. You have learned how trades +of all kinds were banded together each in its own Company. +Every Company had the right of regulating prices. Thus +the Fishmongers sold their fish at a price ordered by the +Warden or Master of the Company. It is easy to understand +that this might lead to murmurs against the high +price of fish or of anything else. This, in fact, really +happened. It was a time of great questioning and doubt; +the rising of Wat Tyler shows that this spirit was abroad. +The craftsmen of London, those who made things, +grumbled loudly at the price of provisions. They asked +why the City should not take over the trade in food of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">{118}</a></span> +all kinds and sell it to the people at lower prices. John +of Northampton being Mayor, took the popular view. +He did not exactly make over the provisioning of the +City to the Corporation, but he first obtained an Act of +Parliament throwing open the calling of fishmonger +to all comers; and then another which practically +abolished the trade of grocers, pepperers, fruiterers, +butchers, and bakers. Imagine the rage with which such +an Act would now be received by London tradesmen!</p> + +<p>The next Mayor, however, obtained the rescinding of +these Acts. In consequence, fish went up in price and +there was a popular tumult, upon which one man was +hanged and John of Northampton was sent to the Castle +of Tintagel on the Cornish Coast, where he remained for +the rest of his life.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_32_WHITTINGTON" id="chap_32_WHITTINGTON"></a>32. WHITTINGTON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2> + + +<p>In the year 1384, being then about twenty-six years of +age, Whittington was elected a member of the Common +Council. In the year 1389 he was assessed at the same +sum as the richest citizen. So that these ten years of +his life were evidently very prosperous. In the year +1393 he was made Alderman for Broad Street Ward. +In the same year he was made Sheriff. In the year +1396, the Mayor, Adam Bamme, dying in office, Whittington +succeeded him. The following year he was +elected Mayor.</p> + +<p>In the year 1401, water was brought from Tyburn +(now the N.E. corner of Hyde Park) to Cornhill in pipes, +a great and important boon to the City.</p> + +<p>In the year 1406 he was again elected Mayor. The +manner of his election is described in the contemporary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">{119}</a></span> +records. After service in the chapel of the Guildhall, +the outgoing Mayor, with all the Aldermen and as many +as possible of the wealthier and more substantial +Commoners of the City, met in the Guildhall and chose +two of their number, viz., Richard Whittington and +Drew Barentyn. Then the Mayor receiving this nomination +retired into a closed chamber with the Aldermen +and made choice of Whittington.</p> + +<p>In the year 1419 he was elected Mayor for the third +and last time, but, counting his succession to Bamme, +he was actually four times Mayor. In 1416 he was +returned Member of Parliament for the City.</p> + +<p>It was not a new thing for a citizen to be made +Mayor more than once. Three during the reign of +Edward III. were Mayor four times; two, three times; +seven, twice.</p> + +<p>In Whittington's later years began the burning of +heretics and Lollards. It is certain that Lollardism had +some hold in the City, but one knows not how great was +the hold. A priest, William Sawtre, was the first who +suffered. Two men of the lower class followed. There +is nothing to show that Whittington ever swerved from +orthodox opinions.</p> + +<p>In 1416, the City was first lighted at night: all +citizens were ordered to hang lanterns over their doors. +How far the order was obeyed, especially in the poorer +parts of the City, is not known.</p> + +<p>In 1407 a plague carried off 30,000 persons in +London alone. If this number is correctly stated it +must have taken half the population.</p> + +<p>Many improvements were effected in the City during +these years: it is reasonable to suppose that Whittington +had a hand in bringing these about. Fresh water brought +in pipes: lights hung out after dark: the erection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">{120}</a></span> +of a house—Bakewell Hall—for the storage and sale of +broadcloth: the erection of a store for the reception +of grain, in case of famine—this was the beginning of +Leadenhall—the building of a new Guildhall: and an +attempt to reform the prisons—an attempt which failed.</p> + +<p>In his last year of office Whittington entertained the +King, Henry V. and his Queen.</p> + +<p>There was as yet no Mansion House: every Mayor +made use of his own private house.</p> + +<p>The magnificence of the entertainment amazed the +King. Even the fires were fed with cedar and perfumed +wood. When the Queen spoke of this costly gift the +Mayor proposed to feed the fire with something more +precious still. He then produced the King's bonds to +the value of 60,000<i>l.</i> which he threw into the fire and +burned. This great sum would be a very considerable +gift even now. In that time it represented at least +six times its present value. The Mayor therefore gave +the King the sum of 360,000<i>l.</i></p> + +<p>This is, very shortly, an account of Whittington's +public life.</p> + +<p>He lived, I believe, on the north side of St. Michael's +Paternoster Royal. I think so because his College was +established there after his death, and as he had no +children it is reasonable to suppose that his house would +be assigned to the College. There is nothing to show +what kind of house it was, but we may rest assured that +the man who could entertain the King and Queen in +such a manner was at least well housed. There is a +little court on this spot which is, I believe, on the site +of Whittington's house. They used to show a house in +Hart Street as Whittington's, but there was no ground +for the tradition except that it was a very old house.</p> + +<p>Whittington married his master's daughter, Alice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">{121}</a></span> +Fitzwarren. He had no children, and he died in 1423 +when he was sixty-five years of age.</p> + +<p>Such was the real Whittington. A gentleman by +birth, a rich and successful man, happy in his private +life, a great stickler for justice, as a magistrate severe +upon those who cheat and adulterate, a loyal and patriotic +man, and always filled with the desire to promote +the interests of the City which had received him and +made him rich.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_33_GIFTS_AND_BEQUESTS" id="chap_33_GIFTS_AND_BEQUESTS"></a>33. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS.</h2> + + +<p>The stream of charity which has so largely enriched and +endowed the City of London began very early. You +have seen how Rahere built and endowed Bartholomew's, +and how Queen Maud founded the Lazar House of St. +Giles. The fourteenth century furnishes many more +instances. Thus William Elsinge founded in 1332 a +hospital for a hundred poor blind men: in 1371 John +Barnes gave a chest containing 1,000 marks to be lent +by the City to young men beginning trade. You have +heard how one Mayor went out to fight a pirate and slew +him and made prizes of his vessels. Another when corn +was very dear imported at his own expense a great +quantity from Germany. Another gave money to relieve +poor prisoners: another left money for the help of poor +householders: another provided that on his commemoration +day in the year 2,400 poor householders, of the +City should have a dinner and every man two pence. +This means in present money about £600 a year, or an +estate worth £20,000: another left money to pay the tax +called the Fifteenth, for three parishes: another brought +water in a conduit from Highbury to Cripplegate.</p> + +<p>But the greatest and wisest benefactor of his time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">{122}</a></span> +was Whittington. In his own words: 'The fervent +desire and busy intention of a prudent, wise, and devout +man, should be to cast before and make secure the state +and the end of this short life with deeds of mercy and +pity, and especially to provide for those miserable persons +whom the penury of poverty insulteth, and to whom the +power of seeking the necessaries of life by act or bodily +labour is interdicted.'</p> + +<p>With these grave words, which should be a lesson to +all men, rich or poor, Whittington begins the foundation +of his College. If a man were in these days to found +a College he would make it either a school for boys or a +technical school—in any case a place which should be +always <i>working</i> for the world. In those days, when it +was universally believed that the saying of masses was +able to lift souls out of punishment, a man founded a +College which should <i>pray</i> for the world. Whittington's +College was to consist of a Master and four Fellows—who +were to be Masters of Arts—with clerks, choristers, +and servants. They were every day to say mass for the +souls of Richard and Alice Whittington in the church of +St. Michael's Paternoster Royal—which church Whittington +himself had rebuilt. Behind the church he +founded and built an almshouse for thirteen poor men, +who were to have 16<i>d.</i> each per week, about 7<i>s.</i> of our +money, with clothing and rooms on the condition of +praying daily for their founder and his wife. Part of +the ground for the building was granted by the Mayor +and Corporation.</p> + +<p>The College continued until the Dissolution of the Religious +Houses—that is, for one hundred and fifty years: +the almshouse continues to this day: but it has been removed +to Highgate: on its site the Mercers' Company +has established a school.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">{123}</a></span></p> + +<p>Whittington, further, built a library for the Franciscan +House; part of the building still remains at +Christ's Hospital. It was 129 feet long and 31 feet +broad. He also gave the friars 400<i>l.</i> to buy books. He +restored and repaired the Hospital of St. Bartholomew's, +to which he gave a library. He paved and glazed the +new building of Guildhall: he gave large sums for the +bridge—and the chapel on the bridge—at Rochester—as +a merchant he was greatly interested in keeping this +important bridge in order: he repaired Gloucester +Cathedral—the cathedral church of his native diocese: +he made 'bosses,' i.e. taps of water, to the great aqueduct: +he rebuilt and enlarged Newgate Prison; and +he founded a library at Guildhall.</p> + +<p>Many of these things were done after his death by +his executors.</p> + +<p>Such were the gifts by which a City merchant of the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries sought to advance +the prosperity of the citizens. Fresh water in plenty +by 'bosses' here and there: the light of learning by +means of libraries: almshouses for the poor: mercy +and charity for the prisoners: hospitals for the sick: +help for the young: prayers for the dead. These things +he understood.</p> + +<p>We cannot expect any man to be greatly in advance +of his age. Otherwise we should find a Whittington +insisting upon cleanliness of streets: fresh air in the +house: burial outside the City: the abolition of the +long fasts which made people eat stinking fish and so +gave them leprosy: the education of the craftsmen in +something besides their trade: the establishment of a +patrol by police: and the freedom of trade.</p> + +<p>He did not found any school. That is a remarkable +omission. One of his successors, Sir William Sevenoke,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">{124}</a></span> +founded a school for lads of his native town Sevenoaks: +another, Sir Robert Chichele, founded a school, an almshouse, +and a college in his native town of Higham +Ferrers. A friend of his own, Sir John Niel, proposed to +establish four new grammar schools in the City. And +yet Whittington left no money for a school. We may be +quite sure that there was a reason for the omission. +Perhaps he was afraid of the growing spirit of doubt and +inquiry. Boys who learn grammar and rhetoric may +grow into men who question and argue; and so, easily +and naturally, get bound to the stake and are consumed +with the pile of faggots. Everything was provided except +a school for boys. Libraries for men; but not a school +for boys. The City of London School was founded by +Whittington's executor, John Carpenter. There must +have been reasons in Whittington's mind for omitting +any endowment of schools. What those reasons were I +cannot even guess.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_34_THE_PALACES_AND_GREAT_HOUSES" id="chap_34_THE_PALACES_AND_GREAT_HOUSES"></a>34. THE PALACES AND GREAT HOUSES.</h2> + + +<p>When you think of a great city of the thirteenth or +fourteenth century you must remember two things. +First, that the streets were mostly very narrow—if you +walk down Thames Street and note the streets running +north and south you will be able to understand how +narrow the City streets were. Second, that the great +houses of the nobles and the rich merchants stood in +these narrow streets, shut in on all sides though they +often contained spacious courts and gardens. No attempt +was made to group the houses or to arrange them with +any view to picturesque effect.</p> + +<p>It has been the fashion to speak of mediæval London +as if it were a city of hovels grouped together along dark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">{125}</a></span> +and foul lanes. This was by no means the case. On +the contrary, it was a city of splendid palaces and houses +nearly all of which were destroyed by the Great Fire. +You have seen how the City was covered with magnificent +buildings of monasteries and churches. Do not believe +that the nobles and rich merchants who endowed and +built these places would be content to live in hovels.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_037.jpg" width="500" height="281" alt="DURHAM, SALISBURY, AND WORCESTER HOUSES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">DURHAM, SALISBURY, AND WORCESTER HOUSES.</span> +</div> + +<p>The nobles indeed wanted barracks. A great Lord +never moved anywhere without his following. The Earl +of Warwick, called the King Maker, when he rode into +London was followed by five hundred men, wearing his +colours: all of these had to find accommodation in his +town house. This was always built in the form of a +court or quadrangle. The modern Somerset House, which +is built on the foundations of the old house, shows us what +a great man's house was like: and the College of Heralds +in Queen Victoria Street, is another illustration, for this +was Lord Derby's town house. Hampton Court and St. +James's, are illustrations of a great house with more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">{126}</a></span> +one court. Any one who knows the colleges of Oxford +and Cambridge will understand the arrangement of the +great noble's town house in the reign of Richard II. +On one side was the hall in which the banquets took +place and all affairs of importance were discussed. The +kitchen, butteries and cellars stood opposite the doors of +the hall; at the back of the hall with a private entrance +were the rooms of the owner and his family: the rest of +the rooms on the quadrangle were given up to the use +of his followers.</p> + +<p>Baynard's Castle—the name yet survives—stood on +the river bank not far from Blackfriars. It was a huge +house with towers and turrets and a water gate with +stairs. It contained two courts. It was at last, after +standing for six hundred years, destroyed in the Great +Fire, and was one of the most lamentable of the losses +caused by that disaster. The house had been twice +before burned down, and that which finally perished was +built in 1428. Here Edward IV. assumed the Crown: +here he placed his wife and children for safety before going +forth to the Battle of Barnet. Here Buckingham +offered the Crown to Richard. Here Henry VIII. lived. +Here Charles II. was entertained.</p> + +<p>Eastward, also on the river bank and near the old +Swan Stairs, stood another great house called Cold Harbour. +It belonged to Holland, Dukes of Exeter, to +Richard III. and to Margaret, Countess of Richmond.</p> + +<p>North of Thames Street near College Hill was the +Erber, another great house which belonged successively +to the Scropes and the Nevilles. Here lived the King-maker +Earl of Warwick. His following was so numerous +that every day six oxen were consumed for breakfast +alone. His son-in-law, who had the house afterwards, was +the Duke of Clarence—'false, fleeting, perjured Clarence.'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">{127}</a></span></p> + +<p>If you would know how a great merchant of the +fifteenth century loved to be housed, go visit Crosby +Hall. It is the only specimen left of the ancient wealth +and splendour of a City merchant. But as one man lived +so did many. We cannot believe that Crosby was singular +in his building a palace for himself.</p> + +<p>London with its narrow streets, its crowded courts, and +the corners where the huts and hovels of wood and daub +and thatch stood among their foul surroundings, a constant +danger to the great houses of fire and plague, was +a city of great houses and palaces, with which no other +city in Europe could compare. Venice and Genoa had +their Crosby Halls—their merchants' palaces; but +London had in addition, the town houses of all the +nobles of the land. In the City alone, without counting +the Strand and Westminster, there were houses of the +Earls of Arundel, Northumberland, Worcester, Berkeley, +Oxford, Essex, Thanet, Suffolk, Richmond, Pembroke, +Abergavenny, Warwick, Leicester, Westmoreland. Then +there were the houses of the Bishops and the Abbots. +All these before we come to the houses of the rich merchants. +Let your vision of London under the Plantagenets +be that of a city all spires and towers, great churches +and stately convents, with noble houses as great and +splendid as Crosby Hall scattered all about the City +within the walls and lining the river bank from Ludgate +to Westminster.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_35_AMUSEMENTS" id="chap_35_AMUSEMENTS"></a>35. AMUSEMENTS.</h2> + + +<p>We have heard so much of the religious Houses, Companies, +Hospitals, quarrels and struggles that we may +have forgotten a very important element in the life of +the City—the amusements and pastimes of the citizens.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">{128}</a></span> +Never was there a time when the City had more amusements +than in these centuries. You have seen that it +was always a rich town: its craftsmen were well paid: +food was abundant: the people were well fed always, +except in times of famine, which were rare. There were +taverns with music and singing: there were pageants, +wonderful processions representing all kinds of marvels, +devised by the citizens to please the King or to please +themselves: there were plays representing scenes from +the Bible and from the Lives of the Saints: there were +tournaments to look at. Then there were the Festivals +of the year, Christmas Day, Twelfth Day, Easter, the +Day of St. John the Baptist, Shrove Tuesday, the Day +of the Company, May Day, at all of which feasting +and merriment were the rule. The young men, in +winter, played at football, hockey, quarterstaff, and +single stick. They had cock fighting, boar fights, and +the baiting of bulls and bears. On May Day they erected +a May-pole in every parish: they chose a May Queen:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">{129}</a></span> +and they had morris-dancing with the lads dressed up as +Robin Hood, Friar Tuck, Little John, Tom the Piper, +and other famous characters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_038.jpg" width="500" height="269" alt="BEAR-BAITING" title="" /> +<span class="caption">BEAR-BAITING. +<br /> +(<i>From the Luttrell Psalter.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Then they shot with the bow and the cross-bow for +prizes: they had wrestlings and they had foot races.</p> + +<p>The two great festivals of the year were the Eve of +St. John the Baptist and the Day of the Company.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_039.jpg" width="500" height="192" alt="SHOOTING AT THE BUTTS WITH THE LONG-BOW." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SHOOTING AT THE BUTTS WITH THE LONG-BOW.</span> +</div> + +<p>On the former there took place the March of the +Watch. Bonfires were lit in the streets, not for warmth +but in order to purge and cleanse the air of the narrow +streets: at the open doors stood tables with meat and +drink, neighbour inviting neighbour to hospitality. +Then the doors were wreathed with green branches, +leaves, and flowers: lamps of glass were hanging over +them with oil burning all the night: some hung out +branches of iron curiously wrought with hundreds of +hanging lights. And everywhere the cheerful sounds of +music and singing and the dancing of the prentice lads +and girls in the open street. Through the midst of this +joyousness filed the Watch. Four thousand men took +part in this procession which was certainly the finest +thing that Mediæval London had to show. To light the +procession on its way the City found two hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">{130}</a></span> +cressets or lanterns, the Companies found five hundred +and the constables of London, two hundred and fifty in +number, each carried one. The number of men who +carried and attended to the cressets was two thousand. +Then followed the Watch itself, consisting of two +thousand captains, lieutenants, sergeants, drummers +and fifers, standard bearers, trumpeters, demilances on +great horses, bowmen, pikemen, with morris-dancers and +minstrels—their armour all polished bright and some +even gilded. No painter has ever painted this March: +yet of all things, mediæval, it was the most beautiful +and the most mediæval.</p> + +<p>On the day of the Company, i.e. the Company's Saint's +Day, all the members assembled in the Hall, every man +in a new livery, in the morning. First they formed in +procession and marched to church, headed by priests +and singing boys, in surplices: after these walked the +servants, clerks, assistants, the chaplain, the Mayor's +sergeants, often the Lord Mayor himself. Lastly came +the Court with the Master and Wardens followed by the +Livery, i.e. the members.</p> + +<p>After church they returned in like manner to the Hall, +where a great banquet awaited them, music played in the +gallery: the banners of the Company were hung over +their heads: they burned scented wood: they sat in +order, Master and Wardens and illustrious guests at the +high table: and the freemen below, every man with his +wife or some maiden if he were unmarried. After +dinner the loving cup went round: the minstrels led in +the players: and they had dramatic shows, songs, dances +and 'mummeries' for the rest of the day.</p> + +<p>Do not think of mediæval London as a dull place—it +was full of life and of brightness: the streets were +narrow perhaps, but they were full of colour from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">{131}</a></span> +bright dresses of all—the liveries of the Companies—the +liveries of the great nobles—the splendid costume of the +knights and richer class. The craftsman worked from +daylight till curfew in the winter: from five or six in +the summer: he had a long day: but he had three +holidays: he had his evenings: and his Sundays. A +dull time was going to fall upon the Londoners, but not +yet for two hundred years.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_36_WESTMINSTER_ABBEY" id="chap_36_WESTMINSTER_ABBEY"></a>36. WESTMINSTER ABBEY.</h2> + + +<p>Hitherto our attention has been confined to the City +within the walls. It is time to step outside the walls.</p> + +<p>All this time, i.e. ever since peaceful occupation +became possible, a town had been growing up on the +west side of London. You have seen that formerly there +spread a broad marsh over this part. Some rising ground +kept what is now the Strand above the river, but Westminster, +except for certain reed-grown islets, was nothing +but a marsh covered over twice in the day by the tide. +The river thus spreading out over marshes on either bank +was quite shallow, and could in certain places be forded. +The spot where any ford existed afterwards became a ferry. +Lambeth Bridge spans the river at one such place, the +memory of which is now maintained in the name of the +Horseferry Road. The largest of these islets was once +called Thorney, i.e. the Isle of Thorns. If you will take a +map of Westminster, shift the bank of the river so as to +make it flow along Abingdon Street, draw a stream running +down College Street into the Thames; another +running into the Thames across King Street, and draw a +ditch or moat connecting the two streams along Delahaye +Street and Princes Street you will have Thorney, about +a quarter of a mile long, and not quite so much broad,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">{132}</a></span> +standing just above high water level. This was the +original Precinct of Westminster.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 438px;"> +<img src="images/image_040.jpg" width="438" height="600" alt="TOMB OF EDWARD III. IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">TOMB OF EDWARD III. IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">{133}</a></span></p> + +<p>The Abbey of St. Peter's, Westminster, is said to +have been founded on the first conversion of the East +Saxons, and at the same time as the Foundation of St. +Paul's. We know nothing about the foundation of the +church. During the Danish troubles the Abbey was +deserted. It was refounded by Dunstan. It was, however, +rebuilt in much greater splendour by Edward the +Confessor. Of his work something still remains, and +can be pointed out to the visitor. But the present Abbey +contains work by Henry III., Edward I., Richard II.—Whittington +being commissioner for the work—Henry +VII. and Wren, Hawksmoor and Gilbert Scott the architects.</p> + +<p>There is no monument on British soil more venerable +than Westminster Abbey. You must not think that you +know the place when you have visited it once or twice. +You must go there again and again. Every visit should +teach you something of your country and its history. +The building itself betraying to those who can read +architecture the various periods at which its builders +lived: the beauty of the building, the solemnity of the +services—these are things which one must visit the +Abbey often in order to understand. Then there are the +associations of the Abbey; the things that have been +done in the Abbey: the crowning of the Kings, in a long +line from Edward the Confessor downwards. Here +Edward the Fourth's Queen, Elizabeth Woodville, took +sanctuary when her husband suffered reverse: here the unfortunate +Edward V. was born. Here the same unhappy +Queen brought her two boys when her husband died. +Here Caxton set up his first printing press: here is the +coronation chair. Here is the shrine of the sainted Edward +the Confessor. It is robbed of its precious stones and its +gold: but the shrine is the same as that before which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">{134}</a></span> +for five hundred years people knelt as to the protector +saint of England. This is the burial-place of no +fewer than twenty-six of our Kings and their Queens. +This is the sacred spot where we have buried most of +our great men. To name a few whose monuments you +should look for, here are Sir William Temple, Lord +Chatham, Fox and Wilberforce, among statesmen; of +soldiers there are Prince Rupert and Monk; of Indian +fame, here are Lord Lawrence and Lord Clyde; of +sailors, Blake, Cloudesley Shovel, and Lord Dundonald. +Of poets, Chaucer, Spenser, Beaumont, Ben Jonson, +Dryden, Prior, Addison, Gay, Campbell. Of historians +and prose writers, Samuel Johnson, Macaulay, Dickens, +Livingston, Isaac Newton. Many others there are to +look for, notably the great poet Tennyson, buried here in +October 1892.</p> + +<p>Read what was written by Jeremy Taylor, a great +divine, on Westminster Abbey:—</p> + +<p>'A man may read a sermon, the best and most +passionate that ever man preached, if he shall but enter +into the sepulchre of Kings.... There the warlike +and the peaceful, the fortunate and the miserable, the +beloved and the despised princes mingle their dust and +pay down their symbol of mortality; and tell all the +world that when we die our ashes shall be equal to kings, +and our accounts easier, and our pains or our crowns +shall be less.'</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_37_THE_COURT_AT_WESTMINSTER" id="chap_37_THE_COURT_AT_WESTMINSTER"></a>37. THE COURT AT WESTMINSTER.</h2> + + +<p>Although the Kings of England have occasionally +lodged in the Tower and even at Baynard's Castle, and +other places in the City, the permanent home of the Court +was always from Edward the Confessor to Henry VIII. at +the Royal Palace of Westminster. Of this building,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">{135}</a></span> +large, rambling, picturesque, only two parts are left, +Westminster Hall and the crypt of St. Stephen's Chapel. +When King Henry VIII. exchanged Westminster for +Whitehall the rooms of the old Palace were given over +to various purposes. One of them was the Star Chamber, +in which the Star Chamber Court was held: one was +the Exchequer Chamber: St. Stephen's Chapel was the +House of Commons; and the House of Lords sat in the +Old Court of Bequests. All that was left of the Palace +except the Great Hall, was destroyed in the fire of 1834. +Very fortunately the Hall was saved. This magnificent +structure, one of the largest rooms in the world not supported +by pillars, was built by William Rufus, and +altered by Richard II. Here have been held Parliaments +and Grand Councils. Here have been many State trials. +Sir William Wallace was condemned in this Hall. Sir +Thomas More; the Protector Somerset; Lady Jane +Grey; Anne Boleyn; King Charles I.; the rebels of 1745, +Lords Kilmarnock, Balmerino and Lovat: Earl Ferrers, +for murdering his steward; all these were condemned. +One or two have been acquitted, Lord Byron—cousin +of the poet—for killing Mr. Chaworth: and Warren +Hastings, the great Indian statesman. In Westminster +Hall used to be held the Coronation Banquets at which +the hereditary champion rode into the Hall in full +armour and threw down a glove.</p> + +<p>After the removal of the Court the Hall became the +Law Courts. It is almost incredible that three Courts +sat in this Hall, cases being heard before three Judges at +the same time. In addition to the Courts, shops or +stalls were ranged along the walls where dealers in toys, +milliners, sempstresses, stationers and booksellers sold +their wares. A picture exists showing this extraordinary +use of the Hall.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">{136}</a></span></p> + +<p>It is more difficult to restore ancient Westminster +than any part of the City. We must remember that the +great Hall formed part of a square or quadrangle on which +were the private rooms of the Sovereign, the State rooms +of audience and banquet, the official rooms of the King's +ministers and servants; this court led into others—one +knows not how many—but certainly as many as belong +to the older part of Hampton Court, which may be taken +as resembling Westminster Palace in its leading features. +The courts were filled with men-at-arms, serving men, +pages, and minstrels. They went backwards and forwards +on their business or they lay about in the sun and +gambled. Sometimes there crossed the court some great +noble followed by two or three of his servants on his way +to a Council: or a bishop with his chaplain, to have +speech with the King: or a group of townsmen after a +brawl, who had been brought here with ropes about their +necks, uncertain whether all would be pardoned or half +a dozen hanged, the uncertainty lending a very repentant +and anxious look to their faces. Or it would be the +Queen's most Excellent Highness herself with her ladies +riding forth to see the hunt. This was the daily life +of the Court: we read the dry history of what happened +but we forget the scenery in which it happened—the +crowds of nobles, bishops, abbots, knights, men-at-arms, +serving men, among whom all these things took place. +We are apt to forget, as well, the extraordinary brightness, +the colour, the glitter and gleam that belonged to +those times when every man went dressed in some gay +livery wearing the colours and the crest of his lord. +Who rides there, the hart couchant—the deer at rest—upon +his helm? A Knight belonging to the Court: +one of the Knights of King Richard the Second. Who +march with the bear and ragged staff upon their arms?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">{137}</a></span> +They are the Livery of the Earl of Warwick. The clash +and gleam of arms and armour everywhere: colour on +the men as well as the women: colour on the trappings +of the horses: colour on the hanging arras of the wall: +colour on the cloth of scarlet which they hang out of the +windows when the royal pageant rides along.</p> + +<p>Close to the Palace, the Abbey. That too belongs to +the time. Within the Abbey precincts the people are +almost as crowded as in the Palace. But it is a different +crowd. There is not so much colour: no arms or armour: +an orderly crowd: there are the Benedictine monks themselves, +with their crowd of servants, cooks, and refectory +men: brewers: bakers: clothiers: architects, builders and +masons: scribes and lawyers: foresters and farmers from +the estates: stewards: cellarers: singing boys: organists—for +the Abbey Church of St. Peter is as great and as +rich and maintains as large an army of servants as +the Cathedral Church of St. Paul.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_38_JUSTICE_AND_PUNISHMENTS" id="chap_38_JUSTICE_AND_PUNISHMENTS"></a>38. JUSTICE AND PUNISHMENTS.</h2> + + +<p>In the time of the Plantagenets the punishments inflicted +on wrongdoers were much more lenient than those which +followed in later years. There is none of that brutal +flogging which grew up in the last century, the worst +time in the whole history of the country, for the people. +This flogging not only in the army and navy but also +for such offences as vagrancy, lasted even into the +present century. In the year 1804 six women were +publicly flogged at Gloucester for this offence. Under +Whittington this barbarous cruelty would not have been +done. There were, it is true, certain punishments which +seem excessively cruel. If a man struck a sheriff or an +alderman he was sentenced to have his right hand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">{138}</a></span> +chopped off. That is, indeed, worse than hanging. +But, consider, the whole strength of London lay in its +power to act and its resolution always to act, as one +man. This could only be effected by habitual obedience +to law and the most profound respect to the executive +officers. Therefore the worst penalty possible—that +which deprived a man of his power to work and his +power to fight—which reduced him to ruin—which +made his innocent children beggars—which branded +him till death as a malefactor of the most dangerous +kind—was inflicted for such an offence. Here, again, +mercy stepped in; for, when the criminal was brought +out for execution, if he expressed contrition the offended +officer, represented by the Alderman of the Ward—begged +that he might be pardoned.</p> + +<p>For burglary criminals were ruthlessly hanged. This +crime is bad enough now; it is a crime which ought at +all times to be punished with the utmost rigour. But +in these days what is it that a burglar can carry away +from an ordinary house? A clock or two: a silver ring: +a lady's watch and chain: a few trinkets: if any money, +then only a purse with two or three pounds. The wealth +of the family is invested in various securities: if the +burglar takes the papers they are of no use to him: there +is a current account at the bank; but that cannot be +touched. Books, engravings, candlesticks, plated spoons—these +are of little real value. Formerly, however, +every man kept all his money—all his wealth—in his own +house; if he was a rich merchant he had a stone safe or +strong box constructed in the wall of his cellar or basement—I +have seen such a safe in an old house pulled +down about seven years ago. If he was only a small +trader or craftsman he kept his money in a box: this he +hid: there were various hiding places: behind the bed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">{139}</a></span> +under the hearthstone—but they were all known. A +burglar, therefore, might, and very often did, take away +the whole of a man's property and reduce him to ruin. +For this reason it was very wisely ordered that a +burglar should be hanged.</p> + +<p>They began in the reign of Henry IV. to burn heretics. +Later on they burned witches and poisoners. As yet +they had not begun to slice off ears and to slit noses: +there was no rack: nobody was tortured: nobody was +branded on the hand: there was no whipping of women +in Bridewell as a public show—that came later: there +was no flogging at the cart tail.</p> + +<p>Punishments were mild. Sometimes the criminal +performed the <i>amende honorable</i>, marching along Chepe +bareheaded and wearing nothing but a white shirt, +carrying a great wax taper, escorted by the Mayor's +sergeants. There was a ducking-stool on the other side +of the river, at Bank Side, in which scolds were ducked. +There was the thewe, which was a chair in which women +were made to sit, lifted high above the crowd, exposed +to their derision. There was the pillory, which served +for almost all the cases which now come before a police +magistrate—adulteration, false weights and measures, +selling bad meat: pretending to be an officer of the +Mayor: making and selling bad work: forging title +deeds; stealing—all were punished in the same way. +The offender was carried or led through the City—sometimes +mounted with his head to the horse's tail—always +with something about his neck to show the +nature of his offence, and placed in pillory for a certain +time.</p> + +<p>There was one punishment always in reserve—the +worst of all. This was deprivation of the privileges of a +freeman and banishment from the City. 'Go,' said the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">{140}</a></span> +Mayor. 'Thou shalt dwell with us; trade with us; converse +with us; no more. Go.' And so that source of +trouble was removed.</p> + +<p>We have seen how the trades formed companies—every +trade having its own company. It must not, +however, be understood that the working man gained +much power by their unions. They were organised: +they had to obey: obedience was very good for them as +it is for all of us, always; but it must be obedience to a +corporate body, not to a master. This they did not +understand and they tried to form 'covins' or trades +unions of their own. The City put down these attempts +with a stern hand. The trade companies ruled hours +of work, wages, and standard of work. Lastly, though +there was no City police to guard the streets, there were +certain laws for the maintenance of order. Nobody +under the rank of knight was to carry arms in the +streets: no one was to walk about the street after nine +at night: houses were not to be built over streets. In +a word, there were not many laws; but the people were +law abiding. And this, perhaps, as much as anything +else, explains the greatness of London.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a></span> +<img src="images/image_041.jpg" width="600" height="302" alt="THE EMBARKATION OF HENRY VIII. FROM DOVER, 1520." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE EMBARKATION OF HENRY VIII. FROM DOVER, 1520. +<br /> +(<i>From the original painting at Hampton Court.</i>)</span> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_39_THE_POLITICAL_POWER_OF_LONDON" id="chap_39_THE_POLITICAL_POWER_OF_LONDON"></a>39. THE POLITICAL POWER OF LONDON.</h2> + + +<p>Until the rapid growth of the manufacturing interests +created immense cities in the North, the wealth and prosperity +and population of London gave it a consideration +and power in the political situation which was unequalled +by that of any other mediæval city. Even Paris, for +instance, has never held an equal importance in the +history of France. This power has been especially, and +significantly, employed in the election and proclamation +of Kings. It is not only that London has been the place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">{142}</a></span> +of proclamation: it is that the Londoners themselves +have repeatedly said, 'This shall be our King': and, as +repeatedly, by that very act, have given him to understand +that if he would not reign well he should, like some of his +predecessors, be deposed. London chose Kings Edmund +and Harold Harefoot, before the Conquest. After the +Conquest, they elected Stephen at a folkmote, a gathering +of all the citizens. They put him on the Throne and +they kept him there. The power of the Londoners is +very well put by Froissart, who wrote in the time of +Richard II. and Henry IV., and was an eyewitness of +many things which he relates. 'The English,' he says, +'are the worst people in the world: the most obstinate +and the most presumptuous: and, of all England, the +Londoners are the leaders; for, to say the truth, they +are very powerful in men and in wealth. In the City +there are 24,000 men completely armed from head to +foot and full 30,000 archers. This is a great force and +they are bold and courageous, and the more blood is +spilled, the greater is their courage.'</p> + +<p>Take the deposition of Edward II., also described by +Froissart. He says that when the Londoners found the +King 'besotted' with his favourites, they sent word to +Queen Isabella that if she could land in England with +300 armed men she would find the citizens of London +and the majority of the nobles and commonalty ready to +join her and place her on the Throne. This the Queen +effected: the citizens joined the little army thus collected—without +their assistance, Froissart says, the thing +could not have been done—and made Edward prisoner +at Berkeley Castle.</p> + +<p>Or there was the capture of Richard II. This also +was effected by an army composed entirely of Londoners +12,000 strong, led by Henry of Lancaster. Afterwards,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">{143}</a></span> +when Henry of Lancaster was Henry IV., and a +conspiracy was formed against him, the Lord Mayor +said, 'Sire, King we have made you: King we will keep +you.' The City played almost as great a part against +Henry VI.—half-heartedly at first, because they thought +that as he had no children there would be at some time +or other an end. Moreover, they could not readily forget +his grandfather, their own King; and his father, the hero +of Agincourt. When, however, a son was born, the +Londoners became openly and unreservedly Yorkists. +And the Yorkists triumphed. The election of Richard III. +was made in London. When Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed +Queen, it was not by the Mayor and Aldermen, +but by the Duke of Northumberland, and the City looked +on in apathy, expecting trouble. The greatest strength +of Elizabeth lay in the affection and support of London, +which never wavered. Had Charles I. conciliated the +City he might have died in his bed, still King of England. +It was the City which forced James II. to fly and called +over William Prince of Orange. It was, again, London +which supported Pitt in his firm and uncompromising +resistance to Napoleon. And in the end Napoleon was +beaten. It cannot be too often repeated that two causes +made the strength of London: the unity of the City, so +that its vast population moved as one man: and its +wealth. The King thought of the subsidies—under the +names of loans, grants, benevolences—which he could +extort from the merchants. We who enjoy the fruits of +the long struggle maintained especially by London for +the right of managing our own affairs, especially in the +matter of taxation, cannot understand the tyrannies +which the people of old had to endure from Kings and +nobles. Richard II., for instance, forced the citizens to +sign and seal blank 'charts'—try to imagine the Prime<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">{144}</a></span> +Minister making the Lord Mayor, the Aldermen, the +Common Council men, and all the more important merchants +sign blank cheques to be filled in as he pleased! +That, however, was the last exaction of Richard II. +Henry of Lancaster went out with 12,000 Londoners, +and made him prisoner.</p> + +<p>Another factor, less generally understood, assisted and +developed the power of London.</p> + +<p>It was also the position of the City as the centre of +the country; not geographically, which would give Warwick +that position, but from the construction of the roads +and from its position on the Thames. But, to repeat, +the use and wont of the City to act together by order of +the Mayor, principally made it so great a power. Whatever +troubles might arise, here was a solid body—'24,000 +men at arms and 30,000 archers,' all acting on one side. +The rest of the country was scattered, uncertain, inclined +this way and that. The City, to use a modern +phrase, 'voted solid.' There were no differences of +opinion in the City. And that, even more than its +wealth, made London a far more important factor, +politically, than the barons with all their following.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_40_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON" id="chap_40_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON"></a>40. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>A map of Elizabethan London, drawn by one Agas, +which is almost a picture as well as a map, shows us +very clearly the aspect of the City. Let us lay down the +map before us. First of all, we observe the wall of the +City; it is carefully drawn of uniform height, with battlements, +and at regular intervals, bastions. Outside +the wall there is the ditch, but it is now, as Stow +describes it, laid out in gardens—cows are grazing in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">{145}</a></span> +some parts of it—and there are mean houses built on +the other side of it. There is a single street of houses +with large gardens outside Aldgate, which is now Whitechapel. +The north side of Houndsditch is already built. +A street of houses runs north of Bishopsgate. No +houses stand between this street and two or three +streets outside Cripplegate. Moorfields are really fields. +There are windmills, gardens with summer-houses, pasture-fields +with cows, a large 'dogge house,' and fields +where women appear to be laying out clothes to dry. +Really, they are tenter fields, i.e. fields provided with +'tenters,' or pegs, by means of which cloth could be +stretched. North of Moorfields is indicated rising +ground with woods. There can be no doubt at all as to +the course of the wall, which is here marked with the +greatest clearness. On the east of the Tower there is +already a crowded quarter in the Precinct of St. Katherine's: +and a few buildings mark the former site of the +great monastery of Eastminster. In the Minories a group +of new houses marks the site of the nunnery which stood +here. London Bridge is covered with houses: on Bank +Side, Southwark, there are two round buildings, 'The +Bearebayting' and 'The Bullebayting.' There is also, +opposite to Blackfriars, Paris Garden, a very favourite +place of resort for the citizens. But as yet there are no +theatres. Along the river outside the walls we find, +beyond Bridewell Palace, an open space where was +formerly Whitefriars. Here presently grew up a curious +colony called Alsatia, which claimed to retain the right of +Sanctuary once belonging to the monastery. Arrests +for debt could not be made within its limits. That is to +say, it was so claimed by the residents, who resisted +any attempt to violate this privilege by force of arms. +It was a notorious place in the seventeenth century, filled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">{146}</a></span> +with rogues and broken-down gamblers, spendthrifts +and profligates. As yet (when this map was drawn) +there are very few houses between Whitefriars and the +Temple. Beyond the Temple there are marked Arundel +Place, Paget Place, Somerset Place, the Savoy, York +Place. Duresme—i.e. Durham—Place, and 'the Court'—i.e. +Whitehall—of which the map gives a plan, which +gives us a clear idea of the plan and appearance of this +palace, of which only the Banqueting Hall remains. +The Savoy, at the time (1561) was a hospital. Henry +VII. made a hospital of it, dedicated to St. John the +Baptist, receiving 100 poor people. At the Dissolution +of the Monasteries it was suppressed. Queen Mary +restored it, and it continued as a hospital till the year +1702, when it was finally suppressed. Like Whitefriars, +and for the same reason, it claimed the right of +Sanctuary: therefore it became the harbour of people +described as 'rogues and masterless men.' In the City +itself there are many large gardens and open spaces. +The courts of the Grey Friars, now a school, are still +standing: there are gardens on the site of the Austin +Friars' monastery and gardens between Broad Street and +Bishopsgate Street. We must not think of London as +a city crowded with narrow lanes and courts, the houses +almost touching their opposite neighbours. Such courts +were only found beside the river: many streets, it is true, +were narrow, but there were broad thoroughfares like +Cheapside, Gracechurch Street, Canwicke (now Cannon +Street) Tower Street, and Fenchurch Street. The river +is covered with boats: one of them is a barge filled with +soldiers, which is being tugged by a four-oared boat: +packhorses are being taken to the river to drink: below +bridge the lighters begin: two or three vessels are +moored at Billingsgate: the ships begin opposite the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">{147}</a></span> +Tower: two or three great three-masted vessels are +shown: and two or three smaller ships of the kind +called ketch, sloop, or hoy. Along the river front of the +Tower are mounted cannon. The ditch of the Tower +is filled with water. On Tower Hill there stands a permanent +gallows: beside it is some small structure, which +is probably a pillory with the stocks.</p> + +<p>Such is a brief account of London from this map. +The original is the property of the Corporation and is +kept in the Guildhall Library. A facsimile reprint has +been made.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_41_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON" id="chap_41_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON"></a>41. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>We have passed over two hundred years. We left London +under the Three Edwards. We find it under Elizabeth. +It was a City of Palaces—monasteries, with splendid +churches and stately buildings: town houses of bishops, +abbots, and noble lords, every one able to accommodate a +goodly following of liveried retainers and servants: the +mansions of rich City merchants, sometimes as splendid +as those of the lords: the halls of the City Companies: +the hundred and twenty City churches. Look at London +as Shakespeare saw it. Everywhere there are the ruins +of the monasteries: some of the buildings have been +destroyed with gunpowder: some have been pulled down: +where it has been too costly to destroy the monastic +chapels they are used as storehouses or workshops: the +marble monuments of the buried Kings and Queens have +been broken up and carried off: the ruins of refectory, +dormitory, library, chapter house stand still, being taken +down little by little as stones are wanted for building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">{148}</a></span> +purposes: some of the ruins, indeed, lasted till this very +century, notably a gateway of the Holy Trinity Priory, +at the back of St. Catharine Cree, Leadenhall Street, and +some of the buildings of St. Helen's Nunnery, beside +the church of Great St. Helen's. One would think that +the presence of all these ruins would have saddened the +City. Not so. The people were so thoroughly Protestant +that they regarded the ruins with the utmost satisfaction. +They were a sign of deliverance from what +their new preachers taught them was false doctrine.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">{149}</a></span> +Moreover, there were other reasons why the citizens under +Queen Elizabeth could not regret the past.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 460px;"> +<img src="images/image_042.jpg" width="460" height="500" alt="COACHES IN THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH." title="" /> +<span class="caption">COACHES IN THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH. +<br /> +(<i>From 'Archcæologia.'</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>The parish churches were changed. The walls, once +covered with paintings of saints and angels, were now +scraped or whitewashed: instead of altars with blazing +lights, there was a plain table: there were no more +watching candles: there were no more splendid robes for +the priest and the altar boys: the priest was transformed +into a preacher: the service consisted of plain prayers, +the reading of the Bible, and a sermon. In very few +churches was there an organ. There was no external +beauty in religion. Therefore external beauty in the +church itself ceased for three hundred years to be +desired. What was required was neatness, with ample +space for all to be seated, so arranged that all might +hear the sermon. And whereas under the Plantagenets +every other man was a priest, a friar, or some officer or +servant of a monastery, one only met here and there a +clergyman with black gown and Genevan bands.</p> + +<p>This change alone transformed London. But there +were other changes. Most of the great nobles had left +the City. Long before they went away their following +had been cut down to modest numbers: their great +barracks had become useless: they were let out in tenements, +and were falling into decay: some of them had +been removed to make way for warehouses and offices: +one or two remained till the Great Fire of 1666. Among +them were Baynard's Castle, close to Blackfriars, and +Cold Harbour. A few nobles continued to have houses +in the City. In the time of Charles II., the Duke of +Buckingham had a house on College Hill, and the palaces +along the Strand still remained.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_043.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="THE CITY FROM SOUTHWARK." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE CITY FROM SOUTHWARK.</span> +</div> + +<p>The merchants' houses took the place of these +palaces. They were built either in the form of a quadrangle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">{150}</a></span> +standing round a garden, with a cloister or +covered way running round, of which Gresham House, +pulled down in the last century, was a very fine example. +But, since few merchants could afford to build over so +large a piece of ground and land was too valuable to be +wasted on broad lawns and open courts, the houses +were built in four or five stories, with rich carvings all +over the front. The house called Sir Paul Pinder's +House in Bishopsgate Street, pulled down only a year or +two ago, was a very fine example of such a house. The +great hall was henceforth only built in great country +houses: in the City the following of the richest merchants, +in his private house, consisted of a few servants +only; small rooms henceforward became the rule: when +entertainments and festivities on a large scale are held, +the Companies' Halls may be used. The inferior kind +of Elizabethan house may still be seen in Holborn—outside +of Staple Inn: in Wych Street: in Cloth Fair: +and one or two other places. They were narrow: three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">{151}</a></span> +or four stories high: each story projected beyond the +one below: they were gabled: the windows were latticed, +with small diamond panes of glass: they were built of +plaster and timber. Building with brick only began in +the reign of James the First. Before every house hung +a sign, on which was painted the figure by which the +house was known: some of these signs may still be seen: +there is one in Holywell Street: one in Ivy Lane: and +there are many old Inns which still keep their ancient +signs.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_42_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON" id="chap_42_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON"></a>42. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2> + + +<p>The population of London at this time was perhaps, for +it is not certain, 150,000. There were no suburbs, unless +we call the Strand and Smithfield suburbs; the London +citizen stepped outside the gates into the open country. +This fact must be remembered when we think of the +narrow lanes. The great danger of the City still remained, +that of fire, for though the better houses were +built of stone, the inferior sort, as was stated above, continued +to be built of timber and plaster. There were +no vehicles in the streets except carts, and the number +of these was restricted to 420. When you think of +London streets at this time remember that in most of +them, in all except the busy streets and the chief +thoroughfares, there was hardly ever any noise of rumbling +wheels. The packhorses followed each other in +long procession, laden with everything; there were +doubtless wheelbarrows and hand carts; but the rumbling +of the wheels was not yet a part of the daily noise.</p> + +<p>The Lord Mayor was directed by Elizabeth always +to keep a certain number of the citizens drilled and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">{152}</a></span> +instructed in the use of arms. When the Spanish +invasion was threatened, the Queen ordered a body of +troops to be raised instantly. In a single day 1,000 +men, fully equipped, were marched off to camp. Afterwards +10,000 men were sent off, and thirty-eight ships +were supplied. Both men and sailors were raised by +impressment. A constant danger to the peace of the +City was the turbulence of the prentices, these lads were +always ready to rush into the streets, shouting, ready +to attack or destroy whatever was unpopular at the +moment. Thus, early in the reign of Henry VIII., at a +time when there was great animosity against foreign +merchants, of whom there were a great many beside the +Hanse merchants of the Steelyard, there was a riot in +which a great many houses of foreigners were destroyed, +many persons were killed, Newgate was assailed and +taken, eleven rioters hanged and 400 more taken before +the King with halters round their necks to receive his +pardon. This was called 'Evil May Day.' The disorderly +conduct of the prentices continued during +Elizabeth's reign, she ordered the Provost-Marshal in +order to put an end to this trouble, to hang all disorderly +persons so convicted by any Justice of the Peace.</p> + +<p>There was much complaint of extravagance in dress: +rules were passed by the Common Council on the subject. +Prentices especially were forbidden to dress in any but +the warmest and plainest materials. The dress of the +Blue Coat boy is exactly the dress of the prentice of the +period, including the flat cap which the modern wearer +of the dress carries in his pocket.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">{153}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image_044.jpg" width="600" height="366" alt="SOUTH-EAST PART OF LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, SHOWING THE TOWER AND WALL." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SOUTH-EAST PART OF LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, SHOWING THE TOWER AND WALL.</span> +</div> + +<p>The punishments of this time are much more severe +than had been found necessary in the Plantagenet period. +They not only carried criminals in shameful procession +through the City, but they flogged girls for idleness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">{154}</a></span> +apprentices for immorality, and rogues for selling goods +falsely described. A 'pillar of reformation' was set up +at the Standard in Cheap; here on Sunday morning the +mayor superintended the flogging of young servants. +When Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed Queen a young +fellow, for speaking slightingly of her title, had his ears +nailed to the pillory and afterwards cut off, heretics were +burned, traitors were hanged first for a few minutes and +then taken down and cut open—one of the most horrible +punishments ever inflicted.</p> + +<p>The Reformation, which suppressed the religious +Houses, at the same time suppressed the hospitals which +were all religious Houses and the schools which belonged +to the religious Houses. St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, +St. Mary's, St. Mary of Bethlehem, besides the smaller +houses, were all suppressed. The sick people were sent +back to their own houses; the brethren and sisters were +dispersed. One House contained one hundred blind men, +all these were cast adrift; another contained a number of +aged priests—these were turned into the streets. Eight +schools perished at the Dissolution. For a time London +had neither schools nor hospitals.</p> + +<p>This could not continue. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, +Bethlehem, and, under Queen Mary, the Savoy were +refounded under new statutes as hospitals. For schools, +St. Paul's which was never closed, was endowed by Dean +Colet; St. Anthony's continued, the Blue Coat School +was founded on the site of the Franciscan House. The +Mercers took over the school of St. Thomas. The +Merchant Taylors founded their school. In Southwark, +schools were founded at St. Olave's and St. Saviour's. +A few years later Charterhouse was converted into an +almshouse and a school.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">{155}</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_43_TRADE" id="chap_43_TRADE"></a>43. TRADE.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>London was anciently the resort of 'foreign' merchants. +It was rich because 'foreign' merchants brought and +exchanged their goods at this port. There were no +ships built in England until the reign of King Alfred. +When the kingdom became tranquil he is said to have +hired out his ships to foreign merchants. A list of tolls +paid by foreign ships in the reign of King Ethelred II. +shows that the imports were considerable. The foreign +merchants, however, were not to 'forestall their markets +from the burghers of London,' so that the retail trade +was kept in native hands. When retail trade was +separated from wholesale trade all that the London +merchants had was the collection, the warehousing, and +the sale of the exports. It is reasonable to suppose that +foreign merchants coming to the City year after year +would find it useful to have a permanent settlement—a +wharf with officers and servants of their own. Such a +settlement was, no doubt, permitted from very early +times. But in the year 1169 was founded a trade association +which, for wealth, success, and importance, might +compare with our East India Company. This was the +Hanseatic League (so called from the word <i>Hansa</i>, a +convention). In the League were confederated: first, +twelve towns in the Baltic, Lübeck at the head; next, +sixty-four—and even eighty—German towns. They +were first associated for protection against pirates: they +speedily became the greatest trading company of the +period. In the reign of Henry III. the League obtained +a Royal Charter granting them liberty of constant residence +at a place in London. They were permitted to +have a permanent establishment at a place called the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">{156}</a></span> +Steelyard—i.e. the place where the Steelyard or Scales +had formerly been kept—under certain conditions, including +the payment of custom dues. They were called +the Merchants of the Steelyard: they at once drew to +themselves the whole trade of England with the northern +ports: and they remained there for nearly 400 years.</p> + +<p>There was another association of foreigners called +the Merchants of the Staple. That is to say, they +dealed in what was called the 'staples' of England—in +the raw produce, as lead, tin, wool, &c. Gradually, +however, the word Staple came to be applied solely to +wool as the most important export. The Lord Chancellor, +to this day, is seated on a Woolsack. The Merchants +of the Staple became merged in the Merchants of +the Steelyard.</p> + +<p>These foreign merchants were at all times extremely +unpopular with the Londoners, who envied their +wealth, which they thought was made at the expense of +the City, not understanding, for a long time, that the +same way of wealth was open to themselves. When they +began to put forth merchant ships on their own account, +they at first sought the southern ports, sailing to Dunquerque, +Sluys, Rouen, Havre, Bordeaux, Lisbon, and +even to the Mediterranean ports. Whittington's trade +was entirely with the South. It was not at Lübeck or +on the shores of the Baltic that he found his cloth of +gold, his rich velvets, his silks, his gold embroidery, his +scented wood, his wines, his precious stones. And the +reason why he sent his ships to the South was that the +trade of the North was in the hands of the Steelyard.</p> + +<p>Edward III. seems first of our kings to have understood +the value of manufactures and of foreign trade. +He first passed laws for the repair of the highways: +under his reign the Merchant Adventurers were encouraged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">{157}</a></span> +and assisted: he first stimulated the making +of English cloth instead of selling our wool: under him +the shipping of the London merchants began to increase +and to develop. Still the foreign merchants continued +to occupy the Steelyard: still our merchants were shut +out of the northern ports: still other foreigners received +permission to settle: even craftsmen came over from +Germany and the Low Countries and followed their +trade in London. Richard III., in order to please the +citizens, ordered their expulsion, but it does not appear +that the order was obeyed. Henry VII., on the other +hand, persuaded many Flemish woollen manufacturers +to come over to this country.</p> + +<p>Early in the sixteenth century the exports of English +cloth by the foreign merchants amounted to 44,000 pieces, +while the English ships took away no more than 1,000 +pieces. When our own merchants were prepared with +ships and had what may be called the machinery of trade; +as a market, wharves, permission to buy and sell; it is +obvious that the old state of things could no longer continue. +It was not, however, until the reign of Edward VI. +that the foreign merchants were finally deprived of all +their privileges and charters.</p> + +<p>These rivals, with their powerful organisations and +their hold over all the northern ports, once out of the +way the English merchants began to push out their +enterprises in all directions. You shall see immediately +how they prospered.</p> + +<p>Meantime there remains a monument erected in +memory of the Hanseatic League. In the reign of +Queen Anne the merchants of Hamburg presented to +the church where the merchants of the Steelyard had +worshipped for 400 years, a splendid screen of carved +wood. Unless the church, which is already threatened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">{158}</a></span> +with destruction, is pulled down, you should go to +see that screen, and remember all that it means and +commemorates.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_44_TRADE" id="chap_44_TRADE"></a>44. TRADE.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>English trade, that is to say, trade in English hands, +practically began with Edward III. and, slowly increasing +under his successors, gained an enormous development +under Elizabeth. Several causes operated to produce +this increase. In the first place the abolition of the +Steelyard, though ordered by Edward VI., was not completely +carried out till many years afterwards. During +this period the merchants were learning the immense +possibilities open to them when this incubus should be +removed. Next, the great rival of London, Antwerp, +suffered, like the rest of the Netherlands, from the +religious wars. Thirdly, the wise and farseeing action +of Gresham transferred the commercial centre of the +northern world from that town to London.</p> + +<p>Antwerp in the fifteenth century was the richest and +most prosperous city in western Europe. There were +200,000 inhabitants, a great many more than could be +counted in London: 5,000 merchants met every day in +the Bourse for the transaction of business: 2,500 vessels +might be counted in the river: 500 loaded waggons +entered every day from the country. It was the port of +the great and rich manufacturing towns of Bruges and +Ghent. In the latter town there were 40,000 weavers, +and an army of 80,000 men fully armed and equipped, +could be raised at any moment. The former town, +Bruges, was the Market—the actual commercial centre—of +the world. Hither came the merchants of Venice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">{159}</a></span> +and Genoa, bringing the silks, velvets, cloth of gold, +spices and precious stones from the East to exchange +for the English wool and the produce of Germany and +the Baltic.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 427px;"> +<img src="images/image_045.jpg" width="427" height="500" alt="KING EDWARD VI." title="" /> +<span class="caption">KING EDWARD VI. +<br /> +(<i>From a picture belonging to H. Hucks Gibbs, Esq.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Religious Wars of the sixteenth century: the +ferocities, cruelties, and savagery of those wars: depopulated +and ruined this rich and flourishing country: +the Inquisition drove thousands of Flemings, an industrious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">{160}</a></span> +and orderly folk, to England, where they +established silk manufactures: and the carrying trade +which had been wholly in the hands of the Antwerp +shipowners was diverted and went across the narrow +seas to London, where it has ever since remained.</p> + +<p>Before the ruin of Antwerp, Bruges, and Ghent, it +was of these towns that the Kings of England obtained +their loans. They were taken up by the merchants of +the Low Countries at an interest of 14 per cent. This +enormous interest, then thought quite moderate and +reasonable, explains how the merchants of that time grew +so wealthy. Part of the loans, also, often had to be taken +in jewels. In order to negotiate these loans and to pay +the interest an agent of the English Sovereign was kept +at Antwerp, called the Royal Agent. Very fortunately +for London, the Royal Agent under Edward VI., Mary, +and the early years of Elizabeth, was Sir Thomas +Gresham.</p> + +<p>You must learn something about this great man. +He was the son of Sir Richard Gresham, formerly Lord +Mayor: nephew of Sir John Gresham, also Lord Mayor +(who preserved Bethlehem Hospital on the Dissolution +of the Religious Houses): he came of a Norfolk family +originally of the village of Gresham: like Whittington he +was of gentle birth. He was educated at Cambridge: he +was apprenticed to his uncle after taking his degree: and +he was received into the Mercers' Company at the age of +twenty-four. It must be observed that from the outset +the young man had every advantage—good birth, good +education, good society, and wealth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">{161}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;"> +<img src="images/image_046.jpg" width="442" height="500" alt="SIR THOMAS GRESHAM." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SIR THOMAS GRESHAM.</span> +</div> + +<p>At the age of thirty-two he was appointed Royal +Agent at Antwerp. At this time the City was at the +height of its splendour and prosperity. Gresham walked +upon the long quays, gazed at the lines of ships, saw +the river alive with boats and barges, loading and unloading, +watched the throng of merchants in the Bourse, +saw the palaces, the rows and streets of palaces in which +they lived, thought of London which he had formerly +regarded with so much pride though he now perceived +that it was even poor and quiet compared with this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">{162}</a></span> +crowded centre of an enormous trade—why, the city +which he had thought the envy of the whole world could +show no more than 317 merchants in all, against +Antwerp's 5,000: and these, though there were some +esteemed wealthy, could not between them all raise a +loan of even 10,000<i>l.</i> The King had to go abroad for +the money and to pay 14 per cent. for it. Then he +began to ask himself whether something could not be +done to divert some of this trade to his native town.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_047.jpg" width="500" height="460" alt="FIRST ROYAL EXCHANGE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">FIRST ROYAL EXCHANGE.</span> +</div> + +<p>First of all, he applied himself to the reduction of +the interest. This he managed to lower from fourteen +per cent. to twelve and even to ten. A gain of four per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">{163}</a></span> +cent. on a loan of, say, 60,000<i>l.</i> meant a saving of 2,400<i>l.</i> +a year.</p> + +<p>When he came back to England he brought with him +a discovery which seems simple. It is, however, the +most difficult thing in the world for people to understand: +we are always discovering it, over and over +again.</p> + +<p>His discovery was this—it applies to every kind of +business or enterprise—It is that union will effect what +single effort is powerless to attempt. The City had for +centuries understood this in matters of government: +they were now to learn the same thing in matters of +trade. The merchants of Antwerp had a central place +where they could meet for purposes of union and combination. +Those of London had none. As yet union +had only been practised for the regulation of trade prices +and work. True, the merchant adventurers existed, +but the spirit of enterprise had as yet spread a very +little way.</p> + +<p>Gresham determined to present to his fellow citizens +such a Bourse as the merchants of Antwerp had enjoyed +for centuries. He built his Bourse; he gave it to the +City: he gave it as a place of meeting for the merchants: +he gave it for the advance of enterprise. The Queen +opened it with great State, and called it the Royal +Exchange. It stood exactly where the present Royal +Exchange stands, but its entrance was on the south side, +not the west. And no gift has ever been made to any +city more noble, more farseeing, more wise, or productive +of greater benefits.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">{164}</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_45_TRADE" id="chap_45_TRADE"></a>45. TRADE.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2> + + +<p>The merchants got their Exchange. What did they do +in it? They did most wonderful things with it. Greater +things were never done in any Exchange. For the first +time they were enabled to act together: and it was the +most favourable opportunity that ever happened to any +trading community. The charters of the foreigners +were abolished: the markets of Bruges were depressed +in consequence of the civil wars already beginning: that +city itself, with Antwerp and Ghent, was on the point +of ruin. The way was open, and the spirit of enterprise +was awakened. In ordinary times it would have been the +love of gain alone that awakened this spirit. But these +were not ordinary times. The people of Western +Europe took a hundred years to discover that Columbus +had doubled the world: that there was a new continent +across the ocean. They began to send their ships across: +nobody as yet knew the possibilities of that continent +with its islands: the Spaniards had the first run, but the +French and the English were beginning to claim their +share. Then a way to India and the East had been +found out: we were no longer going to be dependent on +the Venetians for the products of Persia, India, the +Moluccas, China. All those turbulent and restless spirits +who could not settle down to peaceful crafts or the dull +life of the desk, longed to be on board ship sailing +Westward Ho. Fortune was waiting for them there: +fortune with fighting, privation, endurance—perhaps +death by fever or by battle: yet a glorious life. Or they +might sail southwards and so round the Cape of Good +Hope—called at first the Cape of Storms—and across +the Indian Ocean to the port of Calicut, there to trade.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">{165}</a></span> +There were dangers enough even on that voyage to +tempt the most adventurous: Moorish pirates off the coast +of Morocco: European pirates—English pirates—coming +out of the rivers and ports of Western Africa: storms off +the Cape: hurricanes in the Indian Ocean: the rocks +and reefs of seas as yet unsurveyed: treachery of natives. +Yet there were never wanting men in plenty to volunteer +for these long and perilous voyages. At home, then, +the spirit of enterprise, joined with the spirit of adventure, +achieved mighty things. The merchant adventurers +succeeding to some of the trade of the Hanseatic League, +established 'courts,' i.e. branches at Antwerp, Hamburg, +and Dordrecht: they had also courts at York, Hull, and +Newcastle. Many other companies were founded. There +was the Eastland Company or merchants of Ebbing. +Their trade was with the Baltic. There was the +'Merchant Adventurers for the discovery of Lands, not +before known to, or frequented by, the English.' This +afterwards became the Russian Company. They sent +out Sir Hugh Willoughby with three ships to find a +North-East passage to China. He and all his men +were frozen to death on the shores of Russian Lapland. +The Company afterwards took to whaling. There was +also the Turkey Company, which lasted to well into the +present century. There was the Royal African Company, +which has been revived. There were the Merchants of +Spain: the Merchants of France: the Merchants of +Virginia: the East India Company: the Hudson's Bay +Company: the South Sea Company: the Guinea +Company: the Canary Company. Some of these companies +were founded later, but they are all sprung from +the spirit of enterprise, first called into existence by +Gresham when he built his Exchange and brought the +merchants together.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">{166}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_048.jpg" width="500" height="347" alt="SHIPPING IN THE THAMES, CIRCA 1660" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SHIPPING IN THE THAMES, CIRCA 1660. +<br /> +(<i>From Pricke's 'South Prospect of London.'</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>By leaps and bounds the prosperity of the City increased, +and has still continued to increase, for the three +hundred years that have passed since Queen Elizabeth +opened the Royal Exchange. Whether this prosperity will +still further advance; whether forces, as yet unnoticed, will +bring about the decay of London, no one can venture to +prophecy. Antwerp may again become her rival: may +perhaps surpass her; the port of Antwerp is rising +yearly in importance: and that of Hamburg further +north, has, like Liverpool, its miles of quays and wharves +and its hundreds of vessels. But the trade of London is +still far greater than that of any other port in the +world, and for its three hundred years of prosperity we +must thank, above all men, that wise merchant Sir +Thomas Gresham.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">{167}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 465px;"> +<img src="images/image_049.jpg" width="465" height="600" alt="SIR FRANCIS DRAKE, IN HIS FORTY-THIRD YEAR." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SIR FRANCIS DRAKE, IN HIS FORTY-THIRD YEAR. +<br /> +(<i>From the engraving by Elstracke.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>He did more than give an Exchange to the City. He +gave a college: he gave his own house in Broad Street +for a college: he endowed it with professorships: he intended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">{168}</a></span> +it to become for London what Christ Church was +to Oxford, or Trinity to Cambridge. It has been converted +into a place for the delivery of lectures, but +there are signs that the City will once more have such a +college as Gresham intended.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_46_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS" id="chap_46_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS"></a>46. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>There were no theatres in England, nor any Plays, +before the reign of Queen Elizabeth. This is a statement +which is true, but needs explanation. It is not +the case that there was no acting. On the contrary, +there has always been acting of some kind or other. +There was acting at the fairs, where the Cheap Jack and +the Quack had their tumbling boys and clowns to attract +the crowd. There were always minstrels and tumblers, +men and women who played, sang, danced, and tumbled +in the hall for the amusement of the great people in the +long winter evenings. Not including the wandering +mummers, the Theatre was preceded by the Religious +Drama, the Pageant, and the Masque.</p> + +<p>The Religious Drama was usually performed in +churches, but sometimes in market-places and in front +of churches. They represented scenes from the Bible +and acts of saints. In a time when the people could +not read, such shows presented Sacred History in a most +vivid form. No one could possibly forget any detail in +the Passion of Our Lord who had once seen it performed +in a Mystery, with the dresses complete, with appropriate +words and action, and with music. In the year 1409 +there was a play representing the Creation of the World +performed at Clerkenwell. It lasted eight days, and was +witnessed by a vast concourse of all ranks. Here were +shown Paradise, our first parents, the admonition of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">{169}</a></span> +Creator, the Fall, and the expulsion. Such a sight was +better than a hundred sermons for teaching the people.</p> + +<p>The plays were not generally so long and so ambitious. +They acted detached scenes: the two men of +Emmaus meeting the Risen Lord: the Raising of +Lazarus: the Birth of Christ: the Flood: the Fall of +Lucifer: the Shepherds of Bethlehem: and other scenes. +The Mystery or Sacred Play was the Sunday school of +the middle ages. By those plays they learned the whole +of Scripture History. The churches taught detached +portions by the frescoes on the wall, the painted windows +and the carvings: but the history in its sequence +was taught by the Sacred Dramas.</p> + +<p>We have very full accounts of one Miracle Play, that +which was annually performed by the Guilds of the City +of Chester. It was performed at Whitsuntide and lasted +three days. The play began with the 'Fall of Lucifer' +performed by the tanners: went on to the 'Creation,' by +the drapers: then to the 'Flood,' and so on. Nine plays +were performed on the first day; nine on the second; and +seven on the third. Each Guild provided a scaffold on +wheels. The scaffold was provided with a canopy which +would represent the sky, or the roof of a house, or a tent, +or a cave, as the play demanded: the performers were +properly dressed for their parts: there was music, and +in some cases there were songs. Under the scaffold was +the room where the actors dressed and where the 'properties' +were kept. Every play was performed in every +principal street. When one was finished the scaffold +was rolled to another station and the play was repeated. +This method prevented crowding. The most sacred +Persons were exhibited at these plays, and nothing was +spared to make them realistic to the last degree. Sometimes +devils were put upon the stage: flames issued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">{170}</a></span> +from their mouths: they performed tricks of buffoonery: +they dragged off sinners to their doom. Sometimes +comic scenes were introduced, as in the play of the +'Flood,' where it was common to represent Noah's wife +as a shrew who beats her husband and refuses to go +into the Ark.</p> + +<p>These plays were swept away by the Reformation. +They had been productive for a long time of mischief +rather than of instruction. The profanity of the comic +scenes increased: and reverence was destroyed when in +the same tableau which presented the most sacred of +events appeared the most unbridled buffoons. Religious +plays have never been allowed since the Reformation. +Should they again be put upon the stage it must be +under the safeguard of those who can be trusted to +admit of no other consideration than the presentation +in the most reverent manner of sacred subjects. There +must be no thought of gain for those who manage, or +those who act, such plays. Many scenes and events of +the Bible would lend themselves wonderfully to dramatic +rendering. But the choice of these must not be left to +the lessee of a theatre: nor must the acting of such +plays be permitted to those who live by making the +people laugh.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_47_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS" id="chap_47_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS"></a>47. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>After the religious dramas, the Pageants gratified the +desire for spectacle and show. Pageants were held on +every grand occasion: to welcome the sovereign: to +honour the new Lord Mayor: to celebrate a victory. +Then they erected triumphal arches adorned with pasteboard +castles, ships, houses, caves—all kinds of things.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">{171}</a></span> +They either carried with them, as part of the procession, +or they stationed at some point, the City Giants. London +was not alone in having giants. York, Norwich, +Chester, possessed city giants. In Belgium the city +giant is still carried in procession in Antwerp, Douai, +and other towns. The figure of the giant symbolised +the strength and power of the city. After Agincourt +Henry V. was welcomed at the south gate of London +Bridge by two giants: his son, Henry VI., was also +received by a giant seventeen years later. Two giants +stood on London Bridge to welcome Philip and Mary: +the same two, at Temple Bar, afterwards welcomed +Elizabeth. The pair of giants now in Guildhall were +carved in 1707. The names Gog and Magog are wrong. +The original names were Gogmagog and Corineus.</p> + +<p>The following account of the Pageant to celebrate the +return of the victor Henry V. after Agincourt is preserved +in Stow's 'London.'</p> + +<p>The Mayor and Aldermen, dressed in scarlet, with +collars and chains, with 400 citizens in 'murrey,' all +well mounted, rode out to meet the King at Blackheath. +Then, after formal greetings, they all rode to London. +In Southwark the King was met by all the London +clergy in their most sumptuous robes, with crosses and +censers. At the entrance of London Bridge, on the top +of the tower, stood a pair of giants, male and female, the +former bearing in his right hand an axe, and in his left +hand the keys of the City. Around them stood a band +of trumpeters.</p> + +<p>On the drawbridge were two lofty columns, on one of +which stood an antelope and on the other a lion—both +the King's crests.</p> + +<p>At the other end of the Bridge was another tower, +and within it an image of St. George, with a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">{172}</a></span> +number of boys representing angels. These sang an +anthem, 'Give thanks, O England, to God for victory.' +This is supposed to be preserved in the song 'Our King +went forth to Normandy.'</p> + +<p>On Cornhill there was erected a tent of crimson +cloth ornamented with the King's arms. Within it was +a company of 'prophets' in golden coats. As the King +approached they set loose a great number of small birds, +which fluttered about while the 'prophets' sung 'Cantate +Domino canticum novum'—'Sing unto the Lord a new +song.'</p> + +<p>In Cheapside the conduit was hung with green. +Here sat the twelve Apostles and the twelve Kings, +Martyrs and Confessors of England. They also sung +a chant and made the conduit run with wine. This +represented the reception of Abraham by Melchisedek.</p> + +<p>The Cross of Chepe was built over by a high tower +of wood covered all over with splendid coats of arms. +There was a stage in front, on which a crowd of girls +came with timbrels dancing and singing. Thus the +maidens welcomed David when he returned from the +slaughter of Goliath. And all about the building were +crowds of boys, representing the Heavenly Host, who +showered down coins resembling gold, and boughs of +laurel, and sang 'Te Deum Laudamus.'</p> + +<p>Lastly, there was another tower at the west end of +Chepe. In each corner of this stood a girl, who out of +a cup strewed golden leaves before the feet of the King. +And there was a high canopy painted with blue and stars, +and beneath a figure all gold, to represent the sun surrounded +by angels singing and playing all kinds of +musical instruments.</p> + +<p>This witnessed, the King went on to St. Paul's to pay +his devotions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">{173}</a></span></p> + +<p>When you read this bald account of one of the +greatest Pageants ever celebrated in the City, you must +fill it up by imagining the long procession, every one in +his place. Trumpeters, bowmen in leather jerkins, +men-at-arms in shining helmet and cuirass, horsemen in +full armour, knights, nobles, heralds all in full panoply, +banners and bannerets, the Bishop and all the clergy, +the King and his retinue, the Lord Mayor and his four +hundred followers. Imagine the blare of the trumpets, +the singing of the chants, the roaring of the people, the +crimson hangings all along the line of march at every +window. There were no police to keep the line: you +might see the burgesses running out of the taverns on +their way with blackjacks of Malmsey to regale the +gallant soldiers who had fought and won the victory. +You would see the King bareheaded. Why was he bareheaded? +Because he was so modest—this brave King. +Because he would not let the people see his helmet dinted +and misshapen with the signs and scars of hard battle +in which he had played his part as well as any humble +leather-jerkined bowman in his array. Your ancestors, +these soldiers and these citizens: your forefathers. +They knew, far better than you will ever know, how to +marshal a gallant show. We have lost the art of making +a Pageant. It remains with us—once a year—in +the Lord Mayor's Show. But think of Henry's Riding +into London compared with the Lord Mayor's Show!</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_48_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS" id="chap_48_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS"></a>48. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2> + + +<p>Between the Pageant and the Play stands the Masque, +a form of entertainment which achieved its greatest +splendour both in stage mounting and in the words and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">{174}</a></span> +songs in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Nowhere +was the Masque more carefully studied and more magnificently +presented than in London. The scenic display +which in the early theatre was so meagre was carried in +the Masque to a height never surpassed until the splendid +shows of the present day. Nor did the greatest poets +disdain to write words for the Masque. The most +beautiful of those which remain are to be found in Ben +Jonson's works. Every great man's house had a hall +which was used for the Masque. Bacon, who gives +directions for building a house, orders that there must be +a room built on purpose for these performances. Under +it is to be another room for the actors to dress and for +the 'properties'—i.e. the things requisite for the presentation +of the Masque, such as scenery, the woods, +fountains, rocks, palaces, &c.—that might be required. +Let us show what a Masque was like by describing one +of Ben Jonson's. It is called the Masque of Oberon, and +was performed before Prince Henry, the eldest son of +James I., who died in youth.</p> + +<p>The scene presents a rock with trees beyond it and +'all the wildness that can be presented.' All is dark. +Presently the moon rising shows a Satyr, one of the +beings with whom the ancients peopled the forests and +wild places. They were drawn with the feet and legs of +goats, short horns on the head, and the body covered +with thick hair. This Satyr lifts his head and calls his +companions. There is no answer. He blows his cornet. +Echo answers him. He blows again, and is again +mocked by the Echo. A third time he blows, and other +Satyrs come leaping and dancing upon the stage. +Silenus, their leader, bids them prepare to see the young +Prince Oberon.</p> + +<p>The scene opens: the rocks and forests disappear:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">{175}</a></span> +there is shown a glorious palace whose walls and gates +are transparent. Before the gates lie asleep two +'Sylvans'—i.e. men of the woods. The Satyrs gather +round these sleeping sentinels and wake them up with +singing:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Buzz, quoth the blue fly:<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Hum, quoth the bee:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Buzz and hum they cry<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And so do we.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">In his ear, in his nose,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Thus do you see? [They tickle them.]<br /></span> +<span class="i0">He ate the dormouse<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Else it was he.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The Sylvans wake: they explain that it is yet too +early for the gates to open. Meantime let them sing +and dance to while away the time. One of them sings +therefore. After the song they fall into an 'antick +dance full of gesture and swift motion' and thus +continue till the crowing of a cock gives the signal for +the whole palace to open. It is like a transformation +scene at a pantomime. There is the palace with all its +occupants—the 'whole nation of Fays' or Fairies. Some +are playing instruments of music; some are singing: +some are bearing lights: at the back of the stage sit the +'Knights masquers.' With them Oberon in his chariot. +And then, drawn by two white bears, guarded by three +Sylvans on each side, the chariot moves down the stage. +Observe that to produce all these effects the stage must +have been very deep. The song they sing is in praise of +the King:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i2">Melt earth to sea, sea flow to air,<br /></span> +<span class="i4">And air fly into fire,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Whilst we in tunes to Arthur's chair<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Bear Oberon's desire:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Than which there's nothing can be higher<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Save James to whom it flies:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But he the wonder is of tongues and ears and eyes—<br /></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">{176}</a></span></div></div> + +<p>The Satyrs leap and dance again for joy at so +splendid a sight.</p> + +<p>Then Silenus speaks in praise of Prince Oberon, who +is, of course, Prince Henry, the elder son of James, +who died young. The flattery is no worse than was +usual in Masques. Silenus says that the Prince—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">Stays the time from turning old,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And keeps the age up in a head of gold.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">He makes it ever day and ever spring<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When he doth shine, and quickens everything.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Then two Fays sing a song and all the Fays together +dance, after which all together sing. Then Oberon and +his knights dance. Another song follows. Then they +all together dance 'measures, corantos, and galliards,' +till Phosphorus the day star appears and calls them +away—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">To rest! To rest! The herald of the day,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Bright Phosphorus commands you hence. Obey.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>They quickly dance their last dance, one by one getting +into the Palace. Then the Star vanishes, the day +breaks, and while the last song is sung the 'machine +closes'—i.e. the Palace becomes a wall of the room and +the show is over. This is the pretty song which ends +the Masque:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i2">O yet how early and before her time,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The envious morning up doth climb,<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Though she not love her bed!<br /></span> +<span class="i2">What haste the jealous sun doth make<br /></span> +<span class="i2">His fiery horses up to take<br /></span> +<span class="i4">And once more show his head!<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Lest, taken with the brightness of this night,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The world should wish it last and never miss his light.<br /></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">{177}</a></span></div></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_49_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS" id="chap_49_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS"></a>49. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART IV.</span></h2> + + +<p>Through the Religious Drama, the Pageant, the Masque, +we work our way to the Play itself. The first beginnings +of the modern Drama must here be passed over: +there were the rough and unformed comedies such as +'Gammer Gurton's Needle,' performed in a college hall: +or the tragedy played on boards spread over a waggon +in the courtyard of an inn. Let us suppose that we +are past the beginnings and are in Shakespeare's time—i.e. +the end of Queen Elizabeth and the whole reign of +James I.</p> + +<p>The first theatre was built in 1570. Thirty years +after there were seven. The Queen had companies of +children to play before her. They were the boys of the +choirs of St. Paul's, Westminster, Whitehall, and +Windsor. The actors called themselves the servants of +some great lord. Lord Leicester, Lord Warwick, Lord +Pembroke, Lord Howard, the Earl of Essex, and others +all had their company of actors—not all at the same +time. The principal Houses were those at Southwark, +and especially at Bank Side, where there were three, +including the famous Globe: the Blackfriars Playhouse: +the Fortune in Golden Lane, and the Curtain at Shoreditch. +If you will look at the map you will observe +that not one of these theatres is within the City—that at +Blackfriars was in the former precinct of the Dominicans +and outside the City. No theatre was allowed in the +City. Thus early sprang up the prejudice against actors. +Probably this was of old standing, and first belonged +to the time when the minstrel and the tumbler, the +musician and the dancing girl, the buffoon and the contortionist,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">{178}</a></span> +wandered about the country free of rule and +discipline, leading careless and lawless lives.</p> + +<p>The theatre was octagonal in shape but circular +within. What we call the pit was called the 'yarde.' +The stage projected into the 'yarde,' about three or four +feet high. The people who filled the 'yarde' were called +groundlings. Round the house were three galleries, the +lowest of which contained 'rooms' or private boxes: +what we call the upper circle and the gallery were above. +There were no seats in the pit, nor apparently in the +upper circles. On either side of the stage sat or lay +gentlemen, chiefly of the younger kind, who smoked pipes +of tobacco and talked loudly, disturbing the performance. +At the back of the stage was a kind of upper stage, +supported on columns, which gave the players a tower, +gallery, wall, a town, or an upper story of a house, or +anything of the kind that they wanted. There was a +great sale of apples, nuts, and ale before the play began +and between the acts: boys hawked the newest books +about the 'rooms': the people while they waited smoked +pipes, played cards. Above the stage on one side was the +'music.' Three times the trumpets sounded. At the +first, those who were outside hurried in to get a place: +at the second, the card-players left off their games: at +the third, those who bawled apples and ale and shouted +the name of the new book became silent: the audience +settled down: the Play began. Not much costume was +wanted: that of the Elizabethan—noble—courtier—young +knight—clown—fitted any and every age. There +was little scenery required: blue hangings above meant +day: black hangings night: the actors came out upon +the advanced stage and played their parts. No doubt +the illusion was as complete as we can contrive with +all our scenery, mounting, and correctness of costume.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">{179}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image_050.jpg" width="450" height="379" alt="THE GLOBE THEATRE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE GLOBE THEATRE.</span> +</div> + +<p>The parts of women were taken by boys. No women +appeared on the stage until the reign of Charles II. +The Play began with the Prologue, spoken by an actor +dressed in a long black velvet coat bowing very humbly +to the audience. After the Play was over the clowns +began to tumble and to sing. In short, a farce succeeded +a tragedy. The time of performance was one o'clock, +and the performance lasted until five.</p> + +<p>In the year 1610 the Lord Mayor and Aldermen +being alarmed at the increasing popularity of the Play, +ordered that there should be only two theatres, the +Fortune in Golden Lane and the Globe at Bankside. +This order, however, like so many other laws, was only +passed to satisfy a passing scare and does not seem to +have been carried into effect. It was in such a theatre +as this and with such scenery that the immortal plays +of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson were acted. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">{180}</a></span> +next you read a play of Shakespeare, remember the +stage projecting into the pit; the people in the pit all +standing, the gallants on the stage talking and smoking, +the ladies in the boxes, the boys enjoying apples and +nuts and ale and new books, and the actors playing +partly on the stage advanced and partly on the stage +behind.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_50_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE" id="chap_50_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE"></a>50. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>You have seen the City as it appeared to one who walked +about its streets and watched the people. It was free, +busy and prosperous, except at rare intervals, when its +own internal dissensions, or the civil wars of the country, +or the pretensions of the Sovereign, disturbed the peace +of the City. Behind this prosperity, however, lay hid +all through the middle ages, and down to two hundred +years ago, four great and ever-present terrors. The +first was the Terror of Leprosy: the second the Terror +of Famine: the third was the Terror of Plague: the last +was the Terror of Fire.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; height: 425px;"> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 166px;"> +<img src="images/image_051.jpg" width="166" height="300" alt="CIVIL COSTUME ABOUT 1620." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CIVIL COSTUME ABOUT 1620. +<br /> +<i>(From a contemporary broadside.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 190px;"> +<img src="images/image_052.jpg" width="190" height="300" alt="COSTUME OF A LAWYER." title="" /> +<span class="caption">COSTUME OF A LAWYER. +<br /> +(<i>From a broadside, dated 1623.</i>)</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>As for the first two, we have seen how lazar houses +were established outside every town, and how public +granaries were built. Let us consider the third. The +Plague broke out so often that there was hardly any +time between the tenth and the seventeenth century +when some living person could not remember a visitation +of this awful scourge. It appeared in London first—i.e. +the first mention of it occurs in history—in the year 962: +again in 1094: again in 1111: then there seems to have +been a respite for 250 years. In the year 1348 the Plague +carried off many thousands: in 1361 it appeared again: +in 1367 and in 1369. In 1407 30,000 were carried off in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">{181}</a></span> +London alone by the Plague. In 1478 a plague raged +throughout the country, which was said to have destroyed +more people than the Wars of the Roses. But we must +accept all mediæval estimates of numbers as indicating no +more than great mortality. With the sixteenth century +began a period of a hundred and sixty years, marked with +attacks of the Plague constantly recurring, and every +time more fatal and more widespread. Nothing teaches +the conditions of human life more plainly than the +history of the Plague in London. We are placed in the +world in the midst of dangers, and we have to find out +for ourselves how to meet those dangers and to protect +ourselves. Thus a vast number of persons were crowded +together within the walls of the City. The streets were +all narrow: the houses were generally of three or more +stories, built out in front so as to obstruct the light<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">{182}</a></span> +and air; there were many courts, in which the houses +were mere hovels: there was no drainage: refuse of all +kinds lay about the streets: everything that was required +for the daily life was made in the City, which added a +thousand noisome smells and noxious refuse. Then the +Plague came and carried off its thousands and disappeared. +Then the survivors went on their usual course. +Nothing was changed. Yet the Plague was a voice +which spoke loudly. It said 'Clean yourselves: cease +to defile the soil of the City with your decaying matter: +build your houses in wider streets: do not shut out the +sunshine—which is a splendid purifier—or light and air. +Keep yourselves clean—body and raiment, and house and +street.' The voice spoke, but no one heard. Then +came the Plague again. Still no one heard the voice. +It came again and again. It came in 1500, in 1525, in +1543, in 1563, in 1569, in 1574, in 1592, in 1603 (when +30,575 died), in 1625 (when 35,470 died), in 1635 (when +10,400 died), and lastly, in 1665. And in all that time +no one understood that voice, and the City was never +cleansed. All that was done was to light bonfires in the +street in order to increase the circulation of the air. +After the last, and worst attack, in 1666 the City was +burned, and in the purification of the flames it emerged +clean, and the Plague has never since appeared. The +same voice speaks to mankind still in every visitation of +every new pestilence. It used to cry aloud in time of +Plague: it cries aloud now in time of typhoid, diphtheria, +and cholera. Diseases spring from ignorance and from +vice. Physicians cannot cure them: but they can learn +their cause and they can prevent.</p> + +<p>The Plague of 1665 began in the autumn of the year +before. It had been raging in Amsterdam and Hamburg +in 1663. Precautions were taken to keep it out by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">{183}</a></span> +stopping the importation of goods from these towns. +But these proved ineffectual. Certain bales from +Holland were landed and taken to a house in Long Acre, +Drury Lane. Here they were opened by two Frenchmen, +both of whom caught the disease and died. A third +Frenchman who was seized in the same house was removed +to Bearbinder Lane, St. Swithin's Lane, where he, +too, died. And then the disease began to spread. A +severe frost checked it for a time. But in March, when +milder weather returned, it broke out again.</p> + +<p>The disease, when it seized upon a person, brought +upon him a most distressing horror of mind. This was +followed by fever and delirium. But the certain signs of +the plague were spots, pustules, and swellings, which +spread over the whole body. Death in most cases +rapidly followed. Some there were who recovered, but +the majority gave themselves over for lost on the first +appearance. Many of the physicians ran away from +the infected City: many of the parish clergy deserted +their churches. The Lord Mayor and Aldermen, however, +remained, by their presence giving heart to those +of the clergy and physicians who stayed, and by their +prudent measures preventing a vast amount of additional +suffering which would otherwise have fallen upon the +unhappy people.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_51_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE" id="chap_51_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE"></a>51. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>In the month of May it was found that twenty City +parishes were infected. Certain preventions, rather +than remedies, of which there were none, were now employed +by the Mayor. Infected houses were shut up: +no one was allowed to go in or to come out: food was conveyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">{184}</a></span> +by buckets let down from an upper window: the +dead bodies were lowered in the same way, from the +windows: on the doors were painted red crosses with +the words, 'Lord, have mercy upon us!' Watchmen +were placed at the doors to prevent the unhappy +prisoners from coming out. All the dogs and cats in +the City, being supposed to carry about infection in their +fur or hair, were slaughtered—40,000 dogs, it is stated, +and 200,000 cats, which seems an impossible number, +were killed. They also tried, but without success, to kill +the rats and mice. Everything was tried except the one +thing wanted—air and cleanliness. At the outset a +great many of the better sort left the City and stayed in +the country till the danger was over: others would have +followed but the country people would not suffer their +presence and drove them back with clubs and pikes. So +they had to come back and die in the City. Then all +the shops closed: all industries were stopped: men +could no longer sit beside each other: the masters dismissed +their apprentices and their workmen and their +servants. In the river the ships lay with their cargoes +half discharged: on the quays stood the bales, unopened. +In the churches there were no services except where the +scanty congregation sat singly and apart. The Courts +of Justice were empty: there were no crimes to try: in +the streets the passengers avoided each other. In the +markets which had to be kept open, the buyer lifted +down his purchase with a hook and dropped the money +into a bowl of vinegar. Many families voluntarily shut +their houses and would neither go in or out. Some of +these escaped the infection; the history of one such +family during their six months' imprisonment has been +preserved. They thanked God solemnly every morning +for continued health: they prayed three times a day for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">{185}</a></span> +safety. Some went on board ship and, as the Plague +increased, dropped down the river.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"> +<img src="images/image_053.jpg" width="420" height="300" alt="ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; temp. CHARLES I." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A COUNTRYMAN. A COUNTRYWOMAN. +<br /> +ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; <i>temp.</i> CHARLES I. +<br /> +(<i>From Speed's map of 'The Kingdom of England,' 1646.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>The deaths, which in the four weeks of July numbered +725, 1,089, 1,843, and 2,010, respectively, rose in +August and September to three, four, five, and even eight +thousand a week: but it was believed that the registers +were badly kept and that the numbers were greater than +appeared. Every evening carts were sent round, the +drivers who smoked tobacco as a disinfectant, crying +out, 'Bring out your Dead. Bring out your Dead,' and +ringing a bell. The churchyards were filled and pits +were dug outside the City into which the bodies were +thrown without coffins. When the pestilence ceased the +churchyards were covered with a thick deposit of fresh +mould to prevent ill consequences. It was observed that +during the prevalence of the disease there was an extraordinary +continuance of calm and serene sunshine. For<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">{186}</a></span> +many weeks together not the least breath of wind could +be perceived.</p> + +<p>When the summer was over and the autumn came +on, the disease became milder in its form: it lasted +longer: and whereas, at the first, not one in five recovered, +now not two in five died. Presently the cold +weather returned and the Plague was stayed. They +burned or washed all the linen, flannel, clothes, bedding, +tapestry and curtains belonging to the infected houses: +and they whitewashed the rooms in which the disease had +appeared. But they did not take steps for the cleansing +of the City. The voice had spoken in vain. The +number of deaths during the year was registered as +97,306 of which 68,596 were attributed to the Plague. +But there seems little doubt that the registers were inefficiently +kept. It was believed that the number who +perished by Plague alone was at least 100,000.</p> + +<p>It is easy to write down these figures. It is difficult +to understand what they mean. Among them, a quarter +at least, would be the breadwinners, the fathers of +families. In many cases all perished together, parents +and children: in others, the children were left destitute. +Then there was no work. There were 100,000 working +men out of employment. All these people had to be kept. +The Lord Mayor, assisted by his Aldermen and two noble +Lords, Albemarle and Craven, organised a service of +relief. The King gave a thousand pounds a week: the +City gave 600<i>l.</i> a week: the merchants contributed +thousands every week. And so the people were kept +from starving.</p> + +<p>When it was all over Pepys, who kept his Diary +through the time of the Plague but was not one of those +who stayed in the infected City, notes the enormous +number of beggars. Who should they be but the poor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">{187}</a></span> +creatures, the women and the children, the old and the +infirm who had lost their breadwinners, the men who +loved them and worked for them? The history is full +of dreadful things: but this amazing crowd of beggars is +the most dreadful.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_52_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE" id="chap_52_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE"></a>52. THE TERROR OF FIRE.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 434px;"> +<img src="images/image_054.jpg" width="434" height="300" alt="ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; temp. CHARLES I." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A CITIZEN. A CITIZEN'S WIFE. +<br /> +ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; <i>temp.</i> CHARLES I. +<br /> +(<i>From Speed's map of 'The Kingdom of England,' 1646.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>The City of London has suffered from fire more than +any other great town. In the year 961 a large number +of houses were destroyed: in 1077, 1086, and 1093, a +great part of the City was burned down. In 1136, a fire +which broke out at London Stone, in the house of one +Aylward, spread east and west as far as Aldgate on one +side and St. Erkinwald's shrine in St. Paul's Cathedral +on the other. London Bridge, then built of wood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">{188}</a></span> +perished in the fire, which for five hundred years was +known as the Great Fire. In these successive fires +every building of Saxon erection, to say nothing of the +Roman period, must have perished.</p> + +<p>But the ravages of all the fires together did less +harm than the terrible fire which laid the greater part +of London in ashes in the year 1666. If you will refer +to the map of London you may mark off within +the walls the North-East angle: that part contained by +the wall and a straight line running from Coleman +Street to Tower Hill. With the exception of that corner +the whole of London within the walls, and beyond as far +as the Temple, was entirely destroyed.</p> + +<p>The fire broke out at a baker's in Pudding Lane, +Thames Street. It was early on Sunday morning on +the second day of September, 1666. It was then, and +is now, a place where the houses stood very thick and +close together: all round were warehouses filled with +oil, wine, tar, and every kind of inflammable stuff. The +baker's shop contained a large quantity of faggots and +brushwood, so that the flames caught and spread very +rapidly. The people, for the most part, had time to +remove their most valuable things, but their furniture, +their clothes, the stock of their shops, the tools of their +trade, they had to leave behind them. Some hurriedly +placed their things in the churches for safety, as if the +fire would respect the sanctity of these buildings. A +stranger Sunday was never spent than this, when those +who had escaped were asking where to go, and those +upon whom the flames were advancing were tearing out +of their houses whatever they could carry away, and the +rest of the town were looking on and asking whether the +flames would be stayed before they reached their houses.</p> + +<p>Among those who thought that a church would be a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">{189}</a></span> +safe place were the booksellers of Paternoster Row. They +carried all their books into St. Paul's Cathedral and +retired—their stock in trade was safe. But the flames +closed round upon the Cathedral: they seized on Paternoster +Row, so that the booksellers like the rest were +fain to fly: and presently towering to the sky flamed up +the lofty roof of nave and chancel and tower. Then +with an awful crash the flaming timbers fell down into +the church below. Even the Cathedral was burned with +the rest, and with it all the books.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 427px;"> +<img src="images/image_055.jpg" width="427" height="300" alt="ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; temp. CHARLES I." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A GENTLEMAN. A GENTLEWOMAN. +<br /> +ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; <i>temp.</i> CHARLES I. +<br /> +(<i>From Speed's map of 'The Kingdom of England,' 1646.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>All Sunday, Monday, Tuesday and part of Wednesday, +the fire raged, till it seemed as if there would be no +end until the City was utterly destroyed. Happily a +remnant was saved, as you have seen. The fire was +stopped at last by blowing up houses everywhere to +arrest its progress. Close by the Temple Church (which +barely escaped) they stopped it in this way. At Aldersgate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">{190}</a></span> +Cripplegate, and Bishopsgate, they used the same +means, and at Pye Corner, Smithfield. Nearly opposite +Bartholomew's Hospital, you may still see the image of +a boy set up to commemorate the stopping of the fire +at that point. Had it gone further we should have lost +St. Bartholomew the Great and the houses of Cloth +Fair.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_056.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="LUD-GATE ON FIRE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LUD-GATE ON FIRE.</span> +</div> + +<p>When the fire stopped the people sat down to consider +the losses they had sustained and the best way out +of them.</p> + +<p>St. Paul's Cathedral, that ancient and venerable +edifice, with its thick walls and roof so lofty, that it +seemed as if no fire but the fire from heaven could reach +it, was a pile of ruins, the walls of the nave and transept +standing, the choir fallen into the crypt below. The +Parish churches to the number of 88 were burned: the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">{191}</a></span> +Royal Exchange—Gresham's Exchange—was down and +all the statues turned into lime, with the exception of +Gresham's alone: nearly all the great houses left in the +City, the great nobles' houses, such as Baynard's Castle, +Coldharbour, Bridewell Palace, Derby House, were in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">{192}</a></span> +ashes: all the Companies' Halls were gone: warehouses, +shops, private residences, palaces and hovels—everything +was levelled with the ground and burned to ashes. Five-sixths +of the City were destroyed: an area of 436 acres +was covered with the ruins: 13,200 houses were burned: +it is said that 200,000 persons were rendered homeless—an +estimate which would give an average of 15 residents +to each house. Probably this is an exaggeration. The +houseless people, however, formed a kind of camp in +Moorfields just outside the wall, where they lived in +tents, and cottages hastily run up. The place now +called Finsbury Square stands on the site of this curious +camp.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;"> +<img src="images/image_057.jpg" width="314" height="500" alt="PAUL PINDAR'S HOUSE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PAUL PINDAR'S HOUSE.</span> +</div> + +<p>We ask ourselves in wonder how life was resumed +after so great a calamity. The title deeds to houses and +estates were burned—who would claim and prove the +right to property? The account books were all lost—who +could claim or prove a debt? The warehouses and +shops with their contents were gone—who could carry +on business? The craftsmen had lost their employment—how +were they to live?</p> + +<p>Of debts and rents and mortgages and all such +things, little could be said. It was not a time to speak +of the past. They must think of the future: they must +all begin the world anew.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_53_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE" id="chap_53_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE"></a>53. THE TERROR OF FIRE.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>They must begin the world anew. For most of the +merchants nothing was left to them but their credit—their +good name: try to imagine the havoc caused by +burning all the docks, warehouses, wharves, quays, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">{193}</a></span> +shops in London at the present day with nothing at all +insured!</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image_058.jpg" width="600" height="353" alt="LONDON, AS REBUILT AFTER THE FIRE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LONDON, AS REBUILT AFTER THE FIRE.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">{194}</a></span>But the citizens of London were not the kind of +people to sit down weeping. The first thing was to +rebuild their houses. This done there would be time to +consider the future. The Lord Mayor and the Aldermen +took counsel together how to rebuild the City. They called +in Sir Christopher Wren, lately become an architect after +being astronomer at Cambridge, and Evelyn: they +invited plans for laying out the City in a more uniform +manner with wider streets and houses more protected +from fire. Both Wren and Evelyn sent in plans. But +while these were under consideration the citizens were +rebuilding their houses.</p> + +<p>They did not wait for the ashes to get cool. As +soon as the flames were extinct and the smoke had +cleared: as soon as it was possible to make way among +the ruined walls, every man sought out the site of +his own house and began to build it up again. So that +London, rebuilt, was almost—not quite, for some improvements +were effected—laid out with the same streets +and lanes as before the fire. It was two years, however, +before the ruins were all cleared away and four years +before the City was completely rebuilt. Ten thousand +houses were erected during that period, and these were +all of brick: the old timbered house with clay between +the posts was gone: so was the thatched roof: the +houses were all of brick: the roofs were tiled: the chief +danger was gone. At this time, too, they introduced +the plan of a pavement on either side of smooth flat +stones with posts to keep carts and waggons from interfering +with the comforts of the foot passengers. It took +much longer than four years to erect the Companies' +Halls. About thirty of the churches were never rebuilt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">{195}</a></span> +at all, the parishes being merged in others. The first +to be repaired, not rebuilt, was that of St. Dunstan's +two years after the fire: in four years more, another +church was finished. In every year after this one or +two: and the last of the City churches was not rebuilt +till thirty one years after the fire.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<img src="images/image_059.jpg" width="425" height="177" alt="COACH OF THE LATTER HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">COACH OF THE LATTER HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. +<br /> +(<i>From Loggan's 'Oxonia Illustrata.'</i>)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_060.jpg" width="500" height="171" alt="WAGGON OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">WAGGON OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. +<br /> +(<i>From Loggan's 'Oxonia Illustrata.'</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>It was at this time of universal poverty that the +advantages of union was illustrated to those who had +eyes to see. First of all, the Corporation had to find +food—therefore work. Thousands were employed in +clearing away the rubbish and carting it off so as to +make the streets, at least, free for traffic. The craftsmen +who had no work to do, were employed when this was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">{196}</a></span> +done on the building operations. The quays were cleared, +and the warehouses put up again, for the business of +the Port continued. Ships came, discharged their +cargoes, and waited for their freight outward bound. +Then the houses arose and the shops began to open +again. And the Companies stood by their members: +they gave them credit: advanced loans: started them +afresh in the world. Had it not been for the Companies, +the fate of London after the fire would have been as +the fate of Antwerp after the Religious Wars. But there +must have been many who were ruined completely by +this fearful calamity. Hundreds of merchants, and retailers, +having lost their all must have been unable to +face the stress and anxiety of making this fresh start. +The men advanced in life; the men of anxious and timid +mind; the incompetent and feeble: were crushed. They +became bankrupt: they went under: in the great crowd +no one heeded them: their sons and daughters took +a lower place: perhaps they are still among the ranks +into which it is easy to sink; out of which it is difficult +to rise. The craftsmen were injured least: their +Companies replaced their tools for them: work was +presently resumed again: their houses were rebuilt and, +as for their furniture, there was not much of it before +the fire and there was not much of it after the fire.</p> + +<p>The poet Dryden thus writes of the people during +and after the fire:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Those who have homes, when home they do repair,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To a last lodging call their wandering friends:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Their short uneasy sleeps are broke with care<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To look how near their own destruction tends.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Those who have none sit round where once it was<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And with full eyes each wonted room require:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Haunting the yet warm ashes of the place,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">As murdered men walk where they did expire.<br /></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">{197}</a></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">The most in fields like herded beasts lie down,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To dews obnoxious on the grassy floor:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And while the babes in sleep their sorrow drown,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Sad parents watch the remnant of their store.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"> +<img src="images/image_061.jpg" width="333" height="500" alt="ORDINARY DRESS OF GENTLEMEN IN 1675" title="" /> +<span class="caption">ORDINARY DRESS OF GENTLEMEN IN 1675. +<br /> +(<i>From Loggan's 'Oxonia Illustrata.'</i>)</span> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_54_ROGUES_AND_VAGABONDS" id="chap_54_ROGUES_AND_VAGABONDS"></a>54. ROGUES AND VAGABONDS.</h2> + + +<p>The aspect of the City varies from age to age: the streets +and the houses, the costumes, the language, the +manners, all change. +In one respect however, +there is no +change: we have always +with us the same +rogues and the same +roguery. We do not +treat them quite after +the manner followed +by our forefathers: +and, as their methods +were incapable of putting +a stop to the +tricks of those who live +by trickery, so are +ours; therefore we +must not pride ourselves +on any superiority +in this direction. +A large and very interesting +collection of +books might be formed +on the subject of +rogues and vagabonds. The collection would begin with +Elizabeth and could be carried on to the present day, new<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">{198}</a></span> +additions being made from year to year. But very few +additions are ever made to the customs and the methods +of the profession. For instance, there is the confidence +trick, in which the rustic is beguiled by the honest +stranger into trusting him. This trick was practised +three hundred years ago. Or there is the ring-dropping +trick, it is as old as the hills. Or there is the sham sailor—now +very rarely met with. When we have another war +he will come to the front again. We have still the cheating +gambler, but he has always been with us. In King Charles +the Second's time he was called a Ruffler, a Huff, or a +Shabbaroon. The woman who now begs along the streets +singing a hymn and leading borrowed children, did the +same thing two hundred years ago and was called a clapperdozen. +The man who pretends to be deaf and dumb +went about then, and was known as the dummerer. The +burglar was then the housebreaker. Burglary was +formerly a far worse crime than it is now, because the +people for the most part kept all their money in their +houses, and a robbery might ruin them. The pickpocket +plied his trade, only he was then a cutpurse. The footpad +lay in wait on the lonely country road or among the +bushes of the open fields at the back of Lincoln's Inn. +The punishments, which seem so mild under the Plantagenets, +increased in severity as the population outgrew the +powers of the government. Instead of plain standing +in pillory, ears were nailed to the post and even sliced off: +whippings became more commonly administered, and +were much more severe: heretics were burned by Elizabeth +as well as by Mary, though not so often. After +the civil wars we enter upon a period when punishment +became savage in its cruelty, of which you will presently +learn more. Meantime remark that when the City was +less densely populated, and when none lived outside<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">{199}</a></span> +the wards and walls, the people were well under the +control of the aldermen and their officers: they were also +well known to each other: they exercised that self-government—the +best of any—which consists in refusing +to harbour a rogue among them. If in every London +street the tenants would refuse to suffer any evildoer to +lodge in their midst, the police of London might be almost +abolished. But the City grew: the wards became densely +populated: then houses and extensive suburbs sprang +up at Whitechapel, Wapping, outside Cripplegate, at +Smithfield north of Fleet Street, Lambeth, Bermondsey +and Rotherhithe: the aldermen no longer knew their +people: the men of a ward did not know each other: +rogues were harboured about Smithfield and outside +Aldgate: the simple machinery for enforcing order ceased +to be of any use: and as yet the new police was not +invented. Therefore the punishments became savage.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">{200}</a></span> +Since the government could not prevent crime and +compel order, they would deter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/image_062.jpg" width="250" height="344" alt="DRESS OF LADIES OF QUALITY" title="" /> +<span class="caption">DRESS OF LADIES OF QUALITY. +<br /> +(<i>From Sandford's 'Coronation Procession +of James II.'</i>)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image_063.jpg" width="300" height="311" alt="ORDINARY ATTIRE OF WOMEN OF +THE LOWER CLASSES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ORDINARY ATTIRE OF WOMEN OF +THE LOWER CLASSES. +<br /> +(<i>From Sandford's 'Coronation Procession of +James II.'</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Apart from active crime, vagrancy was a great +scourge. Wars and civil wars left crowds of idle soldiers +who had no taste for steady work: they became vagrants: +there was also—and there is still—a certain proportion of +men and women who will not work: they become vagrants +by a kind of instinct: they are born vagabonds. Laws and +proclamations were continually passed for the repression +of vagrants. They were passed on to their native place: +they were provided with passes on their way. But these +laws were always being evaded, and vagrants increased +in number. Under Henry VIII. a very stringent statute +was passed by which old and impotent persons were provided +with license to beg, and anybody begging without +a license was whipped. But like all such acts it was +imperfectly carried out. For one who received a whipping +a dozen escaped. Stocks, pillory, bread and water, +all were applied, but without visible effect, because so many +escaped. London especially swarmed with beggars and +pretended cripples. They lived about Turnmill Street, +Houndsditch and the Barbican, outside the walls. From +time to time a raid was carried on against them, and +they dispersed, but only to collect again. In the year +1575, for instance, it is reported that there were few or +no rogues in the London prisons. But in the year 1581, +the Queen observing a large number of sturdy rogues +during a drive made complaint, with the result that the +next day 74 were arrested: the day after 60, and so on, +the catch on one day being a hundred, all of whom were +'soundly paid,' i.e. flogged and sent to their own homes. +The statute ordering the whipping of vagabonds was enforced +even in this present century, women being flogged +as well as men. No statutes, however, can put down the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">{201}</a></span> +curse of vagrancy and idleness. It can only be suppressed +by the will and resolution of the people themselves. +If for a single fortnight we should all refuse to +give a single penny to beggars: if in every street we +should all resolve upon having none but honest folk +among us: then and only then, would the rogue find this +island of Great Britain impossible to be longer inhabited +by him and his tribe.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_55_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND" id="chap_55_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND"></a>55. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap" style="font-weight: normal;">The Wealth of London</span>.</h2> + + +<p>If a new world was opened to the adventurous in the +reign of Queen Elizabeth, this new world two hundred +years later was only half explored and was constantly +yielding up new treasures. The lion's share of these +treasures came to Great Britain and was landed at the +Port of London. The wealth and luxury of the +merchants in the eighteenth century surpassed anything +ever recorded or ever imagined. So great was their +prosperity that historians and essayists predicted the +speedy downfall of the City: the very greatness of their +success frightened those who looked on and remembered +the past.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_064.jpg" width="500" height="318" alt="GROUP SHOWING COSTUMES AND SEDAN CHAIR, ABOUT 1720." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GROUP SHOWING COSTUMES AND SEDAN CHAIR, ABOUT 1720. +<br /> +(<i>From an engraving by Kip.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Though the appearance of the City had changed, and +its colour and picturesqueness were gone, at no time was +London more powerful or more magnificent. There +were no nobles living within the walls: only two or +three of the riverside palaces remained along the Strand: +there were no troops of retainers riding along the streets +in the bright liveries of their masters: the picturesque +gables, the latticed windows, the overhanging fronts—all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">{202}</a></span> +these were gone: instead of the old churches rich +with ancient carvings, frescoes in crimson and blue, +marble monuments and painted glass, were the square +halls—preaching halls—of Wren with their round +windows, rich only in carved woodwork: the houses +were square with sash windows: the shop fronts were +glazed: the streets were filled with grave and sober +merchants in great wigs and white ruffles. They lived +in stately and commodious houses, many of which still +survive—see the Square at the back of Austin Friars +Church for a very fine example—they had their country +houses: they drove in chariots: and they did a splendid +business. Their ships went all over the world: they +traded with India, not yet part of the Empire: with +China, and the Far East: with the West Indies, with +the Levant. They had Companies for carrying on trade +in every part of the globe. The South Sea Company,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">{203}</a></span> +the Hudson's Bay Company, the Turkey Company, the +African Company, the Russian Company, the East India +Company—are some. The ships lay moored below the +Bridge in rows that reached a mile down the river.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_065.jpg" width="500" height="502" alt="TEMPLE BAR, LONDON." title="" /> +<span class="caption">TEMPLE BAR, LONDON. +<br /> +(<i>Built by Sir Christopher Wren in 1670; taken down in 1878 and since +rebuilt at Waltham Cross.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>All this prosperity grew in spite of the wars which +we carried on during the whole of the last century. +These wars, though they covered the Channel and the +Bay of Biscay with privateers, had little effect to stay the +increase of London trade. And as the merchants lived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">{204}</a></span> +within the City, in sight of each other, their wealth was +observed and known by all. At the present day, when +London from nightfall till morning is a dead city, no one +knows the wealth of the merchants and it is only by considering +the extent of the suburbs that one can understand +the enormous wealth possessed by those men who +come up by train every day and without ostentation walk +among their clerks to their offices in the City. A hundred +and fifty years ago, one saw the rich men: sat in church +with them: sat at dinner with them on Company feast +days: knew them. The visible presence of so much +wealth helped to make London great and proud. It +would be interesting, if it were possible, to discover how +many families now noble or gentle—county families—derive +their origin or their wealth from the City merchants +of the last century.</p> + +<p>In one thing there is a great change. Till the middle +of the seventeenth century it was customary for the rank +of trade to be recruited—in London, at least—from the +younger sons. This fashion was now changed. The continual +wars gave the younger sons another career: they +entered the army and the navy. Hence arose the contempt +for trade which existed in the country for about a +hundred and fifty years. It is now fast dying out, but +it is not yet dead. Younger sons are now going into the +City again.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">{205}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image_066.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="FLEET STREET AND TEMPLE BAR." title="" /> +<span class="caption">FLEET STREET AND TEMPLE BAR.</span> +</div> + +<p>The old exclusiveness was kept up jealously. No one +must trade in the City who was not free of the City. +But the freedom of the City was easily obtained. The +craftsman and the clerk remained in their own places: +they were taught to know their places: they were taught, +which was a very fine thing, to think much of their own +places and to take pride in the station to which they were +called: to respect those in higher station and to receive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">{206}</a></span> +respect from those lower than themselves. Though +merchants had not, and have not, any rank assigned to +them by the Court officials, there was as much difference +of rank and place in the City as without. And in no +time was there greater personal dignity than in this age +when rank and station were so much regarded. But +between the nobility and the City there was little intercourse +and no sympathy. The manners, the morals, the +dignity of the City ill assorted with those of the aristocracy +at a time when drinking and gambling were ruining +the old families and destroying the noblest names. There +has always belonged to the London merchant a great +respect for personal character and conduct. We are +accustomed to regard this as a survival of Puritanism. +This is not so: it existed before the arrival of Puritanism: +it arose in the time when the men in the wards knew +each other and when the master of many servants set +the example, because his life was visible to all, of order, +honour, and self-respect.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_067.jpg" width="500" height="339" alt="A COACH OF THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A COACH OF THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. +<br /> +(<i>From an engraving by John Dunstall.</i>)</span> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_56_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND" id="chap_56_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND"></a>56. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>After the Great Fire, the number of City churches was +reduced from 126 to 87. Those that were rebuilt were +for the most part much larger and more capacious than +their predecessors. In many cases, Wren, the great +architect, who rebuilt St. Paul's Cathedral and all the +churches, in order to get a larger church took in a part +of the churchyard, which accounts for the fact that many +of the City churchyards are now so small. Again, as +the old churches had been built mainly for the purpose +of saying and singing mass, the new churches were built<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">{207}</a></span> +mainly for the purpose of hearing sermons. They were +therefore provided with pews for the accommodation of +the hearers, and resembled, in their original design, a +convenient square room, where the preacher might be +seen and heard by all, rather than a cruciform church. +Some of Wren's churches, however, though they may be +described as square rooms, are exceedingly beautiful, for +instance, St. Stephen's, Walbrook, while nearly all are +enriched with woodwork of a beautiful description. It +was the custom in the last century to attend frequent +church services, and to hear many sermons. The parish +church entered into the daily life much more under +George the Second's reign than it does now, in spite of +our improved services and our multiplication of services. +In forty-four City churches there was service, sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">{208}</a></span> +twice, sometimes once, every day. In all of them there +were evening services on Wednesday and Fridays: in +many there were endowed lectureships, which gave an +additional sermon once a week, or at stated times. Fast +days were commonly observed, though it was not customary +to close shops or suspend business on Good +Friday or Ash Wednesday: not more than half of the +City churches possessed an organ: on Sunday afternoons +the children were duly catechised: if boys misbehaved, +the beadle or sexton caned them in the churchyard: the +laws were still in force which fined the parishioners for +absence from church and for harbouring in their houses +people who did not go to church. Except for Sunday +services, sermons, and visitations of the sick, the clergy +had nothing to do. What is now considered the work +of the parish clergy—the work that occupies all their +time—is entirely modern. Formerly this kind of work +was not done at all; the people were left to themselves: +the clergy were not the organisers of mothers' meetings, +country jaunts, athletics, boys' clubs, and amusements. +The Nonconformists still formed an important part of +the City. They had many chapels, but their social +influence in London, which was very great at the beginning +of the century, declined steadily, until thirty or forty +years ago it stood at a very low ebb indeed.</p> + +<p>In the streets the roads were paved with round +pebbles—they were 'cobbled': the footway was protected +by posts placed at intervals: the paving stones, which +only existed in the principal streets before the year 1766, +were small, and badly laid: after a shower they splashed +up mud and water when one stepped upon them. The +signs which we have seen on the Elizabethan houses +still hung out from every shop and every house: they +had grown bigger: they were set in immense frames of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">{209}</a></span> +ironwork, which creaked noisily, and sometimes tore out +the front of a house by their enormous weight. The shop +windows were now glazed with small panes, mostly +oblong, and often in bow windows: you may find several +such shops still remaining: one at the top of the Haymarket: +one in Coventry Street: one in the Strand: +there were no fronts of plate glass brilliantly illuminated +to exhibit the contents exposed for sale: the old-fashioned +shopkeeper prided himself on keeping within, and out of +sight, his best and choicest goods. A few candles lit up +the shop in the winter afternoons.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image_068.jpg" width="500" height="376" alt="VIEW OF SCHOOL CONNECTED WITH BUNYAN'S MEETING HOUSE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VIEW OF SCHOOL CONNECTED WITH BUNYAN'S MEETING HOUSE.</span> +</div> + +<p>To walk in the streets meant the encounter of roughness +and rudeness which would now be thought intolerable. +There were no police to keep order: if a man +wanted order he might fight for it. Fights, indeed, were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">{210}</a></span> +common in the streets: the waggoners, the hackney +coachmen, the men with the wheelbarrows, the porters +who carried things, were always fighting in the streets: +gentlemen were hustled by bullies, and often had to +fight them: most men carried a thick cudgel for self-protection.</p> + +<p>The streets were far noisier in the last century than +ever they had been before. Chiefly, this was due to the +enormous increase of wheeled vehicles. Formerly everything +came into the City or went out of it on the backs +of pack-horses and pack-asses. Now the roads were so +much improved that waggons could be used for everything, +and the long lines of pack-horses had disappeared +from the main roads. In the country lanes the pack-horse +was still employed. Everybody was able to ride, +and the City apprentice, when he had a holiday, always +spent it on horseback. But for everyday the hackney +coach was used. Smaller carts were also coming into +use. And for dragging about barrels of beer and heavy +cases a dray of iron, without wheels, was used. All +these innovations meant more noise and still more noise. +Had Whittington, in the time of George II., sat down +on Highgate Hill (still a grassy slope), he would have +heard, loud above the sound of Bow Bells, the rumbling +of the waggons on Cheapside.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_57_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND" id="chap_57_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND"></a>57. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2> + + +<p>In walking through the City to-day, one may remark +that there is very little crying of things to sell. In +certain streets, as Broad Street, Whitecross Street, +Whitechapel, or Middlesex Street, there is a kind of +open street, fair, or market; but the street cries such as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">{211}</a></span> +Hogarth depicted exist no longer. People used to sell a +thousand things in the streets which are now sold in +shops. All the little things—thread, +string, pins, needles, +small coal, ink, and straps—that +are wanted in a house were +sold by hawkers and bawled all +day long in the streets: fruit +of all kinds was sold from house +to house: fish: milk: cakes +and bread: herbs and drugs: +brimstone matches: an endless +procession passed along, all +bawling their wares. Then +there were the people who +ground knives, mended chairs, +soldered pots and pans: these +bawled with the hawkers. We +can no longer speak of the roar +of London: there is no roar: +the vehicles, nearly all provided +with springs, roll smoothly over +an even surface of asphalt: +there are no more drays without +wheels: there are no more +street fights: there is comparatively +little bawling of things to +sell.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 176px;"> +<img src="images/image_069.jpg" width="176" height="500" alt="GRENADIER IN THE TIME OF +THE PENINSULAR WAR." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GRENADIER IN THE TIME OF +THE PENINSULAR WAR.</span> +</div> + +<p>In those days people liked +the noise. It was a part of the +City life: it showed how big +and busy the City was since it could make such a +tremendous noise by the mere carrying on of the daily +round. Could any other city—even Paris—boast of such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">{212}</a></span> +a noise? People who came up from the country to visit +London were invited to consider the noise of the City as +a part of its magnificence and pride.</p> + +<p>What else had they to consider? What were the +sights of London?</p> + +<p>First of all, St. Paul's and Westminster Abbey. +Then the Tower and the Monument, the Royal Exchange +and the Mansion House, Guildhall and the Bank +of England, London Bridge, Newgate, St. James's and +the Horse Guards. These were to be visited by day. +In the evening there were the theatres, Drury Lane and +Covent Garden: and there were the Gardens.</p> + +<p>The citizens were always fond of their Gardens. +They were opened as soon as the weather would allow, +and they continued open till the autumn chills made them +impossible. The gardens were those of Vauxhall—still +in existence as a small park: Ranelagh, at Chelsea: +Marylebone, opposite the old Parish Church in High +Street: Bagnigge Wells, which lay East of Gray's Inn +Road: Belsize, near Hampstead: the White Conduit +House in the fields near Islington: the Florida Gardens +at Brompton: the Temple of Flora, the Apollo Gardens, +and the Bermondsey Spa Gardens, all on the south side. +These Gardens, now built over, were all alike. Every +one of them had an ornamental water, walks and shrubs, +a room for dancing and singing, and a stand for the +band out of doors. People walked about, looked at each +other, had supper, drank punch—and went home. If +the Gardens were at any distance from the City they +marched together for safety.</p> + +<p>The river was still the favourite highway—thousands +of boats plied up and down: it was much safer, shorter, +and more pleasant to take oars from Westminster to the +City than to walk or to hire a coach.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">{213}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/image_070.jpg" width="450" height="357" alt="UNIFORM OF SAILORS ABOUT 1790." title="" /> +<span class="caption">UNIFORM OF SAILORS ABOUT 1790.</span> +</div> + +<p>The high roads of the country were rapidly improving. +Stage coaches ran from London to all the principal +towns. They started, for the most part, at eight in the +evening. They charged fourpence a mile, and they +pretended to accomplish the journey at the rate of seven +miles an hour. You may easily compare the cost of +travelling when you remember that you may now go +anywhere for a penny a mile—one fourth the former +charge at five or six times the rate. The 'short stages,' +of which there were a great many, ran to and from the +suburbs: they were like the omnibuses, but not so frequent, +and they cost a great deal more. Threepence a +mile was the usual charge. There was a penny post in +London, first set up by a private person. A letter sent +from London cost twopence the first stage: threepence +for two stages: above 150 miles, sixpence: Ireland +and Scotland, sixpence: any foreign country a shilling.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">{214}</a></span> +There were no bank notes under the value of 20<i>l.</i>: there +were no postal orders or any conveniences of that kind. +Money was remitted to London either by carrier or +through some merchant. Banks there were by this +time: but most people preferred keeping their own +money in their own houses. Also banks being few +everybody carried gold: this partly explains the prevalence +of highway robbery: very likely the passengers +on any long stage coach carried between them some +hundreds of guineas: a whole railway train in these days +would not yield so much: for people no longer carry +with them more money than is wanted for the small +expenditure of the day: tram, omnibus, cab, luncheon +or dinner.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_58_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND" id="chap_58_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND"></a>58. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART IV.</span></h2> + + +<p>So far we understand that London about the year 1750 +was a city filled with dignified merchants all getting rich, +and with a decorous, self-respecting population of retail +traders, clerks, craftsmen, and servants of all kinds, a +noisy but a well-behaved people. A church-going, +sermon-loving, and orderly people.</p> + +<p>This is in the main a fair and just appreciation of +the City. But there is the other side which must not be +overlooked—that side, namely, which presents the vice +and sin and misery which always accompany the congregation +of many people and the accumulation of wealth.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;"> +<img src="images/image_071.jpg" width="331" height="500" alt="COSTUMES OF GENTLEFOLK, ABOUT 1784." title="" /> +<span class="caption">COSTUMES OF GENTLEFOLK, ABOUT 1784.</span> +</div> + +<p>The vice which has always been the father of most +miseries is that of drink. In the middle of the last +century, everybody drank too much. The dignity of +the grave merchant was too often marred by indulgence +in port and punch: the City clergy drank too much:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">{215}</a></span> +even the ladies drank too much: it was hardly a +reproach, in any class, to be overcome with liquor. As for +the lower classes their habitual drink was beer—Franklin +tells us that when he was a printer in London every +man drank seven or eight pints of beer every day: nor +was this small ale or porter: it was generally good +strong beer: the beer would not perhaps hurt them so +much—though the money spent on drink was enormous—but +unfortunately they had now taken to gin as well—or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">{216}</a></span> +instead. The drinking of gin at one time threatened, +literally, to destroy the whole of the working classes of +London. There were 10,000 houses—one in four—where +gin was sold either secretly or openly. It was +advertised that a man could get drunk for a penny and +dead drunk for twopence. A check was placed upon +this habit by imposing a tax of 5<i>s.</i> on every gallon of +gin. This was in the year 1735 and in 1750 about 1,700 +gin shops were closed. Since then the continual efforts +made to stop the pernicious habit of dram drinking have +greatly reduced the evil. But it was not only the +drinking of gin: there was also the rum punch which +formed so large a part in the life of the Georgian citizen. +Every man had his club to which he resorted in the +evening after the day's work. Here he sat and for the +most part drank what he called a sober glass: that is to +say, he did not go home drunk, but he drank every night +more than was good for him. The results were the +transmission of gout and other disorders to his children. +It should be, indeed, a most serious thing to reflect that +in every evil habit we are bringing misery and suffering +upon our children as well as ourselves. The habits of +drinking showed themselves externally in a bloated body; +puffed and red cheeks; a large and swollen nose; +trembling hands; fat lips and bleared eyes: in the case +of gin drinkers it showed itself in a face literally blue. +It is said that King George the Third was persuaded to a +temperate life—in a time of universal intemperance, this +King remained always temperate—by the example of his +uncle the Duke of Cumberland, who at the age of forty-five +in consequence of his excesses in drink exhibited a +body swollen and bloated and tortured with disease.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">{217}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image_072.jpg" width="600" height="374" alt="VESSELS UNLOADING AT THE CUSTOMS HOUSE, AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VESSELS UNLOADING AT THE CUSTOMS HOUSE, AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</span> +</div> + +<p>If you look at a map of London of this time you will +see that the city extended a long way up and down the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">{218}</a></span> +river on either bank. Outside the walls there were the +crowded districts of Whitechapel, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate, +St. Katherine's, Wapping, Ratcliff, Shadwell, +Stepney, and others. These places were not only outside +the wards and the jurisdiction of the City, but they +were outside any government whatever. They were +growing up in some parts without schools, churches, or +any rule, order, or discipline whatever. The people in +many of these quarters were of the working classes, but too +often of the criminal class. They were rude and rough +and ignorant to an extraordinary degree. How could +they be anything else, living as they did? They were so +unruly, they were so numerous, they were so ready to break +out, that they became a danger to the very existence of +Order and Government. They were kept in some kind +of order by the greatest severity of punishment. +They were hanged for what we now call light offences: +they were kept half starved in foul and filthy prisons: +and they were mercilessly flogged. In the army it was +not unknown for a man to receive 500 lashes: in the +navy they were always flogging the men. Horrible as +it is to read of these punishments we must remember +that the men who received them were brutal and dead to +any other kind of persuasion. Drink and ignorance and +habitual vice had killed the sense of shame and stilled +the voice of conscience. The only thing they would feel +was the pain of the whip.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_59_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND" id="chap_59_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND"></a>59. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART V.</span></h2> + + +<p>It was estimated, some years later than the period we +are considering, that there were then in London 3,000 +receivers of stolen goods; that is to say, people who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">{219}</a></span> +bought without question whatever was brought to them +for sale: that the value of the goods stolen every year +from the ships lying in the river—there were then no great +Docks and the lading and unlading were carried on by +lighters and barges—amounted to half a million sterling +every year: that the value of the property annually stolen +in and about London amounted to 700,000<i>l.</i>: and that +goods worth half a million at least were annually stolen +from His Majesty's stores, dockyards, ships of war, &c. +The moral principle, a writer states plainly, 'is totally +destroyed among a vast body of the lower ranks of the +people.' To meet this deplorable condition of things there +were forty-eight different offences punishable by death: +among them was shoplifting above five shillings: stealing +linen from a bleaching ground: cutting hop bines and +sending threatening letters. There were nineteen kinds of +offences for which transportation, imprisonment, whipping, +or pillory were provided: there were twenty-one +kinds of offences punishable by whipping, pillory, fine +and imprisonment. Among the last were 'combinations +and conspiracies for raising the price of wages.' The +classification seems to have been done at haphazard: for +instance, to embezzle naval stores would seem as bad as +to steal a master's goods: but the latter offence was capital +and the former not. Again, it is surely a most abominable +crime to set fire to a house, yet this is classed among the +lighter offences. It was therefore a time when there was +a large and constantly increasing criminal class: and, as +a natural cause or a natural consequence, whichever we +please, there was a very large class of people as ignorant, +as rude, and as dangerous as could well be imagined. +I do not think there was ever a time, not even in the +most remote ages, when London contained savages more +brutal and more ignorant than could be found in certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">{220}</a></span> +districts outside the City of the Second George. But +these poor wretches had one great virtue—they were +brave: they manned our ships for us and gave Britannia +the command of the sea: they were knocked down, driven +and dragged aboard the ships by the press-gang. Once +there they fell into rank and order, carried a valiant +pike, manned the guns with zeal, joined the boarding +party with alacrity and carried their cutlasses into the +forlorn hope with faces that showed no fear. They were +so strong, so stubborn, and so brave, that one sighs to +think of the lash that kept them in discipline and order. +There is one more side of London that must not be forgotten. +It was a great and prosperous city: we can +never dwell too strongly on the prosperity of the city: +but there were shipwrecks many and disastrous. And +the fate of the man who could not pay his debts was well +known to all and could be witnessed every day, as an +example and a warning. For he went to prison and in +prison he stopped. 'Pay what you owe,' they said to +the debtor, 'or else stay where you are.' The debtor +could not pay: in prison the debtor had no means of +making any money: therefore he stayed where he was +until he died. For the accommodation of these unhappy +persons there were the King's Bench and the Marshalsea, +both in Southwark: there were the two Compters, both +in the City: and there was the Fleet Prison.</p> + +<p>The life in these prisons can be found described in +many novels. It was a squalid and miserable life among +ruined gamblers, spendthrifts, profligates, broken down +merchants, bankrupt tradesmen, and helpless women of +all classes. Unless one had allowances from friends, +starvation might be the end. In one at least the common +hall had shelves ranged round the walls for the reception +of beds: everything was carried on in the same room,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">{221}</a></span> +living, sleeping, eating, cooking. And into such a place +as this the unhappy debtor was thrust, there to remain +till death released him.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image_073.jpg" width="600" height="413" alt="THE OLD HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT AND WESTMINSTER ABBEY, 1803." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE OLD HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT AND WESTMINSTER ABBEY, 1803.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">{222}</a></span>This was the London of a hundred and fifty years +ago. No longer picturesque as in the old days, but solidly +constructed, handsome, and substantial. The merchants +still lived in the city but the nobles had all gone. The +Companies possessed the greater part of the City and +still ruled though they no longer dictated the wages, +hours, and prices. Within the walls there reigned comparative +order: outside there was no government at all. +The river below the Bridge was crowded with ships +moored two and four together side by side with an open +way in the middle. Thousands of barges and lighters +were engaged upon the cargoes: every day the church +bells rang for a large and orderly congregation: every +day arose in every street such an uproar as we cannot +even imagine: yet there were quiet spots in the City +with shady gardens where one could sit at peace: wealth +grew fast: but with it there grew up the mob with +the fear of anarchy and license, a taste of which was +afforded by the Gordon Riots. Yet it would be eighty +years before the city should understand the necessity for +a police.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_60_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY" id="chap_60_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY"></a>60. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2> + + +<p>Let us walk into the streets. You will not observe, +because you are used to these things, and have been +brought up among them, and are accustomed to them, +that all the men go about unarmed: that they do not +carry even a stick for their protection: that they do not +fight or quarrel with each other: that the strong do not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">{223}</a></span> +knock down the weak but patiently wait for them and +make room for them: that ladies walk about with no +protection or escort: that things are exposed for sale +with no other guard than a boy or a girl: that most +valuable articles are hung up behind a thin pane of glass. +You will further observe men in blue—you call them +policemen—who stroll about in a leisurely manner looking +on and taking no part in the bustle. What do these +policemen do? In the roads the vehicles do not run +into one another, but follow in rank and order, those +going one way taking their own side. Everybody is +orderly. Everything is arranged and disposed as if +there was no such thing as violence, crime, or disorder. +You think it has always been so? Nay: order in human +affairs does not grow of its own accord. Disorder, if you +please, grows like the weeds of the hedge side—but not +order.</p> + +<p>Again, you always find the shops well provided and +filled with goods. There are the food shops—those which +offer meat, bread, fruit, vegetables, coffee, tea, sugar, +butter, cheese. These shops are always full of these +things. There is never a day in the whole year when +the supply runs short. You think all these things come +of their own accord? Not so: they come because their +growth, importation, carriage, and distribution are so +ordered by experience that has accumulated for centuries +that there shall be no failure in the supply.</p> + +<p>Again, you find every kind of business and occupation +carried on without hindrance. Nobody prevents a +man from working at his trade; or from selling what +he has made. One workman does not molest another +though he is a rival. You think, perhaps, that this +peacefulness has come by chance? Nay: strife comes to +men left without rule—but not peace.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">{224}</a></span></p> + +<p>You may observe further, that the streets are paved +with broad stones convenient for walking and easy to be +kept clean: that the roadways are asphalted or paved +with wood, and are also clean: things that must be +thrown away are not thrown into the streets: they are +collected in carts and carried away. You think that the +streets of cities are kept clean by the rain? Not so: if +we had only the rain as a scavenger we should be in a +sorry plight.</p> + +<p>You find that water is laid on in every house. How +does that water come? That gas lights up houses and +streets. How does the gas come? That drains carry off +the rain and the liquid refuse. How did the drains +come?</p> + +<p>You may see as you go along a man who walks from +house to house delivering letters. Does he do this of +his own accord? You know very well that he does not; +that he is paid to do it: that he does his duty. What +is the whole of his duty? Who gives him his orders?</p> + +<p>Or you may see another man going from house to +house leaving a paper at each. He is a rate collector. +What is a rate collector? Who gives him authority to +take money from people? What does he do with the +money?</p> + +<p>Or you may see placards on the walls asking people +to vote for this man, or for that man, for the School +Board, the County Council, the House of Commons, or +the Vestry. Why does this man want to get elected to +one of those Councils? What will he do when he is +elected? What are all these Councils for?</p> + +<p>Again, the thing has never been otherwise in your +recollection and you therefore do not observe it, but if +you listen you will find that men talk with the greatest +freedom as they walk with their friends: no one interferes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">{225}</a></span> +with their conversation, no one interferes with +their dress, no one asks them what they want or where +they are going. Did this personal freedom always +exist? Certainly not, for personal freedom does not +grow of its own accord.</p> + +<p>You will also observe, as you walk along, churches—in +every street, a church—of all denominations: you +will find posted on the walls notices of public meetings +for discussion or for lectures and addresses on every conceivable +topic: you will see boys crying newspapers in +which all subjects are treated with the utmost freedom. +You suppose, perhaps, that freedom of thought, of speech, +of discussion, of writing comes to a community like the +rain and the wind? Not so. Slavery comes to a community +if you please, but not freedom. That has to be +achieved.</p> + +<p>You have seen the city growing larger and wealthier: +the people getting into finer houses, wider streets, and +more settled ways. Now, there is a thing which goes +with the advance of a people: it is good government. +Unless with advance of wealth there comes improved +government, the people fall into decay. But, which is +a remarkable thing, good government can only continue +or advance as the people themselves advance in wisdom +as well as in wealth. Such government as we have now +would have been useless in the time of King Ethelred or +King Edward I. Such government as we have now +would be impossible had not the citizens of London +continued to learn the lessons in order, in good laws, in +respect to law, which for generation after generation were +submitted to the people.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">{226}</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_61_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY" id="chap_61_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY"></a>61. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2> + + +<p>Since all these things do not grow of their own accord, +by whom were they first introduced, planted, and developed? +By whom are they now maintained? By the +collection of powers and authorities which we call the +Government of the City and County of London.</p> + +<p>Thus order reigns in the streets: in the rare cases +where disorder breaks out the policeman is present to +stop it. His presence stops it. Not because he is a +strong man, but because he is irresistible: he is the +servant of the Law: he represents Authority. Formerly +the Alderman of the Ward walked about his own streets +followed by two bailiffs. If any one dared to resist the +Alderman he was liable to have his hand struck off by +an axe. In this way people were taught to respect the +Law. By such sharp lessons it was forced upon them +that the Law must be obeyed. Thus there gradually +grew up among them a desire for Order. The policeman +appointed by the Chief Police Officer stands for a symbol +and reminder of the Law.</p> + +<p>You have seen how the people of London had their +Folks' Mote, their Ward Mote, and their Hustings. From +the first of these has sprung the Common Council, which +rules over the City of London within the old boundaries. +The Folks' Mote was a Parliament of the People—a rude +and tumultuous assembly, no doubt, but a free assembly. +When the City grew great such a Parliament became +impossible. It therefore became an elective Parliament. +The election was—and is still—conducted at the Ward +Motes, each Ward returning so many members in proportion +to its population, for the Common Council. +The Councillors are elected for one year only. If there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">{227}</a></span> +is a vacancy an Alderman is also elected, but that is +for life.</p> + +<p>Formerly every man in London followed a trade: he +therefore belonged to a Company. And as the commonalty, +all the men of London together assembled, i.e. all +the members of all the companies, elected the Mayor, +so to this day the electors of the Lord Mayor are the +members of the Companies. None others have any +voice in the election. The Companies no longer include +all the citizens, and the craftsmen have nearly all left +the City. But the power remains.</p> + +<p>The Lord Mayor is the chief magistrate. With him +is the Court of Aldermen, also magistrates. He has with +him the great officers of the City: the Recorder, or Chief +Justice; the Town Clerk; the Chamberlain, who is the +Treasurer; the Remembrancer; and the Common +Sergeant.</p> + +<p>The education of the young, the maintenance of the +old, the paving and cleansing of the streets, the lighting, +the removal of waste, the engines for extinguishing fires, +the regulation of the road traffic, the preservation of +order, all these things are conducted by the various +Councils and Courts of the City, and the cost is provided +by that kind of taxation known as the rates. That is to +say, every house is 'rated' or estimated as worth so much +rent. The tenant who pays the rent has to pay, in +addition, a charge of so much in the pound for this and +that object. Thus for education, if the rate be 1<i>s.</i> in the +pound, a man in a house whose rent is 100<i>l.</i> has to pay 5<i>l.</i> +on that charge. He has to pay also for the Police, the Fire +Brigade, the Poor, lighting and paving. His own water +supply is managed by a private company, and another +private company gives him his gas or his electricity. +In the same way the food is provided by private persons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">{228}</a></span> +and brought to the city by private companies. Thus +you are governed by men whom you are supposed yourselves +to elect: order is kept for you: education, protection, +and conveniences are found for you: in a word, life +is made tolerable for you by your own Government—elected +by yourselves—and at your own cost.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_62_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY" id="chap_62_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY"></a>62. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2> + + +<p>That is the best Government which gives the greatest +possible liberty to its people: only that people can be +happy which is capable of using their freedom aright. You +have seen how your personal freedom from violence, +robbery, and molestation in your work is secured for you: +how you are enabled to live in comfort and cleanliness—by +a vast machinery of Government whose growth has +been gradual and which must always be ready to meet +changes so as to suit the needs of the people. One +point you must carefully remember, that your greatest +liberty is liberty of speech and of thought and of the +Press. It is not so very long since martyrs—Catholic as +well as Protestant—were executed for their religious +belief: Catholics and Jews until quite recently were +excluded from Parliament. A hundred years ago the +debates of Parliament could not be reported: one had +to weigh his words very carefully in speaking of the +Sovereign or the Ministers: certain forms of opinion +were not allowed to be published. All that is altered. +You can believe what you like and advocate what you +like, so long as it is not against Divine Law or the Law +of the Land. Thus, if one were to preach the duty of +Murder he would be very properly stopped. Therefore, +when you buy a daily paper: whenever you enter a church +or chapel: whenever you hear an address or a lecture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">{229}</a></span> +remember that you are enjoying the freedom won for you +by the obstinacy and the tenacity of your ancestors.</p> + +<p>We have spoken of the City Companies. They still +exist and though their former powers are gone and they +no longer control the trades after which they are named, +their power is still very great on account of the revenues +which they possess and their administration of charities, +institutions, &c., under their care. There were 109 in all, +but many have been dissolved. There are still, however, +76. About half of these possess Halls which are now the +Great Houses of the City. The number of livery men, +i.e. members of the Companies, is 8,765. The Companies +vary greatly in numbers: there are 448 Haberdashers, +for instance: 380 Fishmongers: and 356 Spectacle +Makers: while there are only 16 Fletchers, i.e. makers of +arrows. Many of the trades are now extinct, such as the +Fletchers above named, the Bowyers, the Girdlers, the +Bowstring Makers and the Armourers.</p> + +<p>Some of these Companies are now very rich. One of +them possesses an income, including Trust money, of +83,000<i>l.</i> a year. It must be acknowledged that the +Companies carry on a great deal of good work with their +money. Many of them, however, have little or nothing: +the Basket Makers have only 102<i>l.</i> a year: the Glass +Sellers only 21<i>l.</i> a year: the Tinplate Workers 7<i>l.</i> 7<i>s.</i> a +year. If, therefore, you hear of the great riches of the +City Companies remember (1) that 25 of them have less +than 500<i>l.</i> a year each: and (2) that the rich Companies +support Technical Colleges and Schools, grant scholarships, +encourage trade, hold exhibitions, maintain almshouses, +and make large grants to objects worthy of +support. It is not likely that the privilege of electing +the Lord Mayor will long continue to be in the hands of +the Companies. It is not, indeed, worthy of a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">{230}</a></span> +City that its Chief Magistrate should be elected by so +small a minority as 8,765 out of the hundreds of +thousands who have their offices and transact their +business in the City: but while this privilege will cease, +the Companies may remain and continue to exercise a +central influence, at the least in London, over the Crafts +and Arts which they represent. Let us never destroy +what has been useful: let us, on the other hand, preserve +it, altered to meet changed circumstances. For an +institution is not like a tree which grows and decays. If +it is a good institution, built upon the needs and adapted +to the circumstances of human nature, it will never +decay but, like the Saxon form of popular election, live +and develop and change as the people themselves change +from age to age.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="chap_63_LONDON" id="chap_63_LONDON"></a>63. LONDON.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="font-weight: normal;">GREATER LONDON.</span></h2> + + +<p>It has been a great misfortune for London that, when +its Wall ceased to be the true boundary of the town, and +when the people began to spread in all directions outside +the walls, no statesman arose with vision clear enough +to perceive that the old system must be enlarged or +abolished: that the City must cease to mean the City +of the Edwards, and must include these new suburbs, +from Richmond on the West to Poplar on the East, and +from Hampstead on the North to Balham on the South. +It is true that something was done: there are the Wards +of Bridge Without, which is Southwark: and of Farringdon +Without. There should have been provision +for the creation of new Wards whenever the growth of a +suburb warranted its addition. That, however, has not +been done. The Old London remains as it was, and as +we now see it, surrounded by another, and an immense<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">{231}</a></span> +City, or aggregate of cities, all placed under the rule of a +Council.</p> + +<p>This was done by the Act of 1888, which created a +County whose boundaries were the same as those of the +former Metropolitan Board of Works; in other words, it +embraces all the suburbs of London properly so called. +This County extends from Putney and Hammersmith on +the West to Plumstead on the East: on the North are +Hampstead and Highgate; on the South are Tooting, +Streatham, Lewisham and Eltham. There are 138 +Councillors, of whom 19 are Aldermen and one a Chairman. +The conservative tendency of our people is shown +in their retention of the old division of aldermen. It is, +once more, Kings, Lords, and Commons. But the functions +of the Aldermen do not differ from those of the +Councillor. The Councillors are elected by the ratepayers +for three years, the Aldermen for six; but there +is a rule as to retiring by rotation.</p> + +<p>The powers of the County Council are enormous. +It regulates the building of houses and streets: the +drainage: places of amusement: it can close streets +and pull down houses: it administers and makes regulations +concerning parks, bridges, tunnels, subways, dairies, +cattle diseases, explosives, lunatic asylums, reformatory +schools, weights and measures. It grants licenses for +music and dancing: it carries on, in fact, the whole +administration of the greatest City in the world, and, in +some respects, the best managed City.</p> + +<p>In order to carry out these works the Council expend +about 600,000<i>l.</i> a year. It has a debt of 30,000,000<i>l.</i>, +against which are various assets, so that the real debt is +no more than 18,000,000<i>l.</i> The rating outside the City +was last year 12½<i>d.</i> in the pound. The first Chairman +was Lord Rosebery. He has been succeeded by Sir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">{232}</a></span> +John Lubbock and Mr. John Hutton. The list of County +Councillors contains men of every rank and every opinion. +Dukes, Earls and Barons, sit upon the Council beside +plain working men—an excellent promise for the future.</p> + +<p>Such is the government of London. Within the +City what was intended to be democratic has become +oligarchic. The election by the whole people has become +the election by 8,000 only. Without the City a great +democratic Parliament attracts men whose historic names +and titles belong to the aristocracy. In the London +County Council the Peers may, if they are elected, sit +beside the Commons.</p> + +<p>Lastly, what is the chief lesson for you to learn out +of this history? It is short, and may be summed up +in a few sentences.</p> + +<p>1. Consider how your liberties have grown silently +and steadily out of the original free institutions of your +Saxon ancestors. They have grown as the trunk, the +tree, the leaves, the flower, the fruit, grow from the single +seed. The Folk Mote, the 'Law worthiness' of every man, +the absence of any Over Lord but the King, have kept +London always free and ready for every expansion of her +liberties. Respect, therefore, the ancient things which +have made the City—and the country—what it is. +Trust that the further natural growth of the old tree—still +vigorous—will be safer for us than to cut it down +and plant a sapling, which may prove a poison tree. +And with the old institutions respect the old places. +Never, if you can help it, suffer an old monument to be +pulled down and destroyed. Keep before your eyes the +things which remind you of the past. When you look +on London Stone, remember that Henry of London Stone +was one of the first Mayors. When you go up College +Hill, remember Whittington who gave it that name. +When you pass the Royal Exchange think of Gresham:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">{233}</a></span> +when you go up Walbrook remember the stream beneath +your feet, the Roman Fortress on your right, and the +British town on your left. London is crammed full of +associations for those who read and know and think. +You will be better citizens of the present for knowing +about the citizens of the past.</p> + +<p>2. The next lesson is your duty to your country. +What does it mean, the right of the Folk Mote? The +Mote has now become a House of Commons, a County +Council, a School Board. You have the same rights +that your ancestor had. He was jealous over them: he +fought to the death to preserve them and to strengthen +them. Be as jealous, for they are far more important to +you than ever they were to him. You have a hundred +times as much to defend: you have dangers which he did +not know or fear. Show your jealousy by exercising your +right as the most sacred duty you have to fulfil. Your +vote is an inheritance and a trust. You have inherited +it direct from the Angles and the Jutes: as you exercise +that vote so it will be ill or well with you and your +children. Be very jealous of the man you put in power: +learn to distinguish the man who wants place from the +man who wants justice: vote only for the right man: and +do your best to find out the right man. It is difficult at +all times. You may make it less difficult by sending to +the various Parliaments of the country a man you know, +who has lived among you, whose life, whose private +character, whose previous record you know instead of the +stranger who comes to court your vote. Above all things +<i>vote always</i> and let the first duty in your mind always be +to protect your rights and your liberties.</p> + +<p>These are the two lessons that this book should teach +you—the respect that is due to the past and the duty +that is owed to the present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">{235}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="NOTES" id="NOTES"></a>NOTES</h2> + +<h3><a href="#chap_1_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON">1. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Æneas</b>: a Trojan prince who escaped from Troy when it was destroyed by +the Greeks.</p> + +<p><b>Venus</b>, the Roman Goddess of Love and Beauty, was the mother of Æneas.</p> + +<p><b>Troy</b>: a famous city in the north-west corner of Asia Minor. It was destroyed +by Greek invaders about 1,000 years before Christ, and the stories connected +with it form one of the chief subjects of Greek and Latin poets.</p> + +<p><b>Troynovant</b> means New Troy.</p> + +<p><b>Constantine the Great</b> was Emperor of Rome, that is, of all the then known +world from 305 to 337 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> He was the first Roman Emperor to adopt and +favour Christianity. Constantinople is named after him, and was made by +him the capital of the Empire.</p> + +<p><b>Geoffrey of Monmouth</b> was a British historian of the twelfth century. He +was made Bishop of St. Asaph in 1152. His 'histories' are largely made +up of stories, such as that about Brutus, which nobody believes now.</p> + +<p><b>historical document</b>: a piece of writing that can be used to prove some +event in the history of past times.</p> + +<p><b>architecture</b>: the art of building; the style in which houses are built.</p> + +<p><b>Cornhill</b>: a street in the City of London running west to east from the +Royal Exchange into Leadenhall Street. It was probably named after a +family of that name, and not from any corn market on the site.</p> + +<p><b>bastion</b>: a strong turret or tower at the corner of a fortified building.</p> + +<p><b>Walbrook</b>: a small stream that crossed the City from north to south. It +flowed near where the Mansion House now stands (Walbrook is a street at +the side of the Mansion House), and fell into the Thames at Dowgate, near +where Cannon Street Railway Station now stands.</p> + +<p><b>Fleet River</b>: a small stream which fell into the Thames near where Blackfriars +Railway Station now stands.</p> + +<p><b>Moorfields</b> was a piece of moor land lying to the north of the City, outside the +walls. The City gate which led to this district was the Moorgate, a name +which still survives in Moorgate Street.</p> + +<p><b>Ken Wood</b>, in Hampstead, <b>Hainault Forest</b>, a small piece of wood in Essex, +about eight miles north-east of London, and <b>Epping Forest</b>, a larger portion, +also in Essex, to the west of Hainault Forest, are all remaining portions of +a great forest that once stretched away from London far into the country.</p> + +<p><b>Chelsea, Bermondsey</b>: in all such words <i>ea</i> or <i>ey</i> is an old word for island. +In this way are formed Winchelsea, Battersea, &c.; <b>Thorney</b> (where Westminster +is now) is the Island of Thorns; and <b>Jersey</b>, Cæsar's Island.</p> + +<p><b>Southwark</b>: a district of London opposite the City, on the south side of the +Thames. It was the South work, or fort, and is spoken of as a village as +late as 1327, the accession of Edward III.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">{236}</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_2_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON">2. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Malarious</b>: causing the air to be bad, and so giving rise to fevers; unhealthy. +(Latin <i>malus</i>, bad; <i>aer</i>, air.)</p> + +<p><b>Weybridge</b>, in Surrey, near where the river Wey, after flowing past Godalming +and Guildford, falls into the Thames.</p> + +<p><b>entrenching</b>: making a trench or ditch. The earth dug out was formed into +a mound. The mound and ditch, together with the stockade, protected the +place.</p> + +<p><b>stockade</b>: a barrier made of <i>stakes</i> stuck in the ground.</p> + +<p><b>Gaul</b>: the old name for the country now called France—the land of the Galli, +or Celts. <i>Gaelic</i> is the language still spoken by the Celts in Scotland.</p> + +<p><b>Thanet</b>: a district in the north-east of Kent, containing Ramsgate, Margate, +and Broadstairs. The river Stour parts it from the rest of Kent, so that +it is still an 'island,' though the channel was formerly much wider and +deeper.</p> + +<p><b>Captain Cook</b>: a famous sailor born 1728, murdered in the Sandwich Islands +1779. He was among the first to visit Australia and New Zealand, and +made many discoveries in the Pacific.</p> + +<p><b>Polynesians</b>: the natives of Polynesia, or the smaller islands in the South +Pacific. They are brown-skinned, and akin in race to the Maories of New +Zealand and the Malays.</p> + +<p><b>Brythonic</b>: that portion of the Celts whose descendants are now the Welsh, +Bretons: (in Bretagne, on the west coast of France), and Cornishmen.</p> + +<p><b>Basques</b>: the natives of a part of northern Spain, near the Pyrenees. Their +language is unconnected with any other, except perhaps that of the Finns. +The Province and Bay of Biscay is named after them.</p> + +<p><b>Finns</b>: the natives of Finland in Russia. Like the Basques, they are the +remains of a nation which once spread over all Europe, and has now nearly +disappeared.</p> + +<p><b>barrow</b>: a mound raised over a grave.</p> + +<p><b>Verulam</b>: an old British, and then a Roman town, on the site of which is now +St. Albans, in Hertfordshire.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_3_ROMAN_LONDON">3. ROMAN LONDON. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Stationary camp</b>: a fixed or permanent camp; a fort. A Roman army on +the march constructed a camp if it only spent one night in a place. Such +camps were not stationary.</p> + +<p><b>Porchester</b>: a small town on the north side of Portsmouth Harbour. Chester +is the Latin <i>castra</i>, a camp, and occurs in Leicester, Colchester, Chester, +Silchester, &c.</p> + +<p><b>rubble</b>: small rough stones often used inside piles of masonry.</p> + +<p><b>Silchester</b>: a place near Reading at which remains of old Roman buildings +have been dug out.</p> + +<p><b>Mincing Lane</b>: a narrow street in the east part of the City.</p> + +<p><b>tribunal</b>: the place where judges sit to administer justice.</p> + +<p><b>Exchange</b>: the place where merchants meet and carry on their business.</p> + +<p><b>stevedores</b>: those engaged in the work of loading and unloading ships.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_4_ROMAN_LONDON">4. ROMAN LONDON. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Tesselated</b>: formed of small pieces of stone or tile of various colours arranged +to form a pattern, like mosaic work.</p> + +<p><b>Diana</b>: the Roman Goddess of Hunting; also of the Moon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">{237}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Apollo</b>: the Roman God of Poetry, Music, and Prophecy.</p> + +<p><b>Guildhall</b>: the hall of the Guild or Corporation of the City of London, near +Cheapside.</p> + +<p><b>usurper</b>: one who by force seizes and holds a position which does not belong +to him.</p> + +<p><b>Picts</b>: wild savages from the country which we call Scotland; <b>Scots</b>, also +savage men, who, though they afterwards gave their name to Scotland, at +that time came from Ireland.</p> + +<p><b>Hong Kong</b>: an island off the coast of China; <b>Singapore</b>, a large British +seaport on an island of the same name off the south end of the Malay +Peninsula; <b>West Indies</b>, a number of islands to the east of Central America +in the Atlantic: of those belonging to Great Britain Jamaica is the largest.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_5_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">5. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>East Saxons</b> were those who dwelt in Essex, the county named after them.</p> + +<p><b>Crayford</b>: on the river Cray in north Kent. Here the Saxons under Hengist +totally defeated the Britons under Vortimer in 457 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><b>Canterbury</b> is the burgh, borough, or fortified place of the men of Kent.</p> + +<p><b>Pulborough</b>, in Sussex, gives us another form of the suffix.</p> + +<p><b>chronicler</b>: a historian, particularly one living in early times.</p> + +<p><b>Saxons</b>: German tribes from the district by the mouth of the Elbe; <b>Jutes</b>, +from a part of Denmark which still preserves their name, Jutland; <b>Angles</b>, +from what is now Schleswig and Holstein.</p> + +<p><b>Count of the Saxon Shore</b>: the Roman admiral set to defend the southern +parts of the English coast, which were called 'Saxon Shore,' because most +liable to attack from the Saxons.</p> + +<p><b>mercenaries</b>: soldiers who do not fight for the safety and glory of their own +country, but for hire.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_6_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">6. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Blackfriars</b>, at the eastern end of the Thames Embankment, derives its +name from a monastery or house of Black Friars which stood there.</p> + +<p><b>Watling Street</b>, <b>Ermyn Street</b>, <b>Vicinal Way</b>: made by the Romans, who +were famous makers of high roads, many of which are still in use. (See +map on p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.)</p> + +<p><b>Newgate</b> was a gate on the west of the walls which enclosed the City; +<b>Bishopsgate</b>, on the north-east.</p> + +<p><b>victualling</b>: providing food for.</p> + +<p><b>emergencies</b>: times of difficulty and danger.</p> + +<p><b>Isle of Thanet</b>: it must be remembered that the Stour, at the back of Thanet, +was once much wider and deeper than it is now. In fact, it was the general +route for vessels coming up the Thames.</p> + +<p><b>appointments</b>: furniture, fittings.</p> + +<p><b>mimics</b>: actors who played in farces, like our panto<i>mimes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scribes</b>: among the Romans, clerks in public offices.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_7_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">7. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART III.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Alaric</b>, king of a German tribe called the Visigoths (West Goths) invaded +Greece and Italy, and after several defeats finally took and sacked Rome in +410 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> It was this state of thing which compelled the Romans to withdraw +their troops from Britain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">{238}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>The West where the Britons still held their own</b>: Wales and Cornwall +were never occupied by the invading Saxons: Welsh and Cornishmen are +Celts, with a language of their own in Wales, while the Cornish language +has only disappeared during the last hundred years.</p> + +<p><b>Wessex</b>: the land of the West Saxons corresponds roughly to England south +of the Thames.</p> + +<p><b>oblivion</b>: being forgotten.</p> + +<p><b>The river Lea</b> rises in Bedfordshire, near Luton, passes Hertford and Ware, +forms the boundary between Middlesex and Essex, and falls into the Thames +at Blackwall, after a course of forty miles.</p> + +<p><b>quagmires</b>: marshy, boggy ground that <i>quakes</i> under the feet (quake, mire).</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_8_THE_FIRST_SAXON_SETTLEMENT">8. THE FIRST SAXON SETTLEMENT.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Ecclesiastic</b>: connected with the Church. For many centuries Rome was +the centre of Christian influence, and is so still to all Roman Catholics.</p> + +<p><b>ritual</b>: the customs and ceremonies employed in performing service in a +church.</p> + +<p><b>Gregory I.</b> or <b>the Great</b> was Pope from 590-604 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> He it was who sent +Augustine to attempt the conversion of the English in the year 597.</p> + +<p><b>kinglet</b>: a petty king. England was then divided among many kings, so that +the realm of each was necessarily very small.</p> + +<p><b>crucifix</b>: a figure of Christ fixed to the cross.</p> + +<p><b>Bede</b>: a monk and Church historian who lived and died at Jarrow in county +Durham in 735 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><b>Lindesfarne</b>, or Holy Island, off the coast of Northumberland.</p> + +<p><b>Northumbrians</b>: the men of Northumbria—that is, Yorkshire, Durham, and +Northumberland.</p> + +<p><b>Mercians</b>: the men of Mercia, or land of the Middle English.</p> + +<p><b>supremacy</b>: Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, were separate kingdoms which +were successively, in the order in which they are given, strong enough to +overawe or exercise supremacy over the others. The king of Wessex +eventually became king of England.</p> + +<p><b>Witan</b>, or in its fuller form <b>wit-an-a-ge-mote</b>, the 'meeting of wise men,' +was the national council which afterwards grew up into our modern +parliament.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_9_THE_SECOND_SAXON_SETTLEMENT">9. THE SECOND SAXON SETTLEMENT.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Pagan</b>: heathen, not yet converted to Christianity.</p> + +<p><b>King Alfred</b>, called the Great, was king of England from 871-901 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><b>Alderman</b> in early England meant the ruler of a large district, such as a shire +or kingdom. When Mercia became subject to Wessex it was ruled by an +alderman.</p> + +<p><b>Benfleet</b>: a place in Essex, on the north bank of the Thames, not far from +Southend.</p> + +<p><b>Brunanburgh</b> was the scene of a defeat of the Danes by Athelstan in 937 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>; +the place cannot now be identified.</p> + +<p><b>Sweyn</b>, King of Denmark, invaded England with his son Canute in 1013 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><b>Redriff</b> is now called Rotherhithe, south of the Thames.</p> + +<p><b>King Ethelred II.</b>, called the Unredig, or lacking in counsel, reigned 979-1013 +<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><b>Olave</b> or <b>Olaf</b> and <b>Magnus</b> are Scandinavian names: there were early kings +of Norway so called.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">{239}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>The Portreeve</b>: the reeve or governor of London was a chief magistrate or +mayor of the City.</p> + +<p><b>The 'Staller'</b> or <b>Marshal</b> led the men of London to battle.</p> + +<p><b>The Knighten Guild</b> was the ruling council of London: they were not chosen +by election, but were the chief owners of property, and, like their land, the +office was handed down from father to son.</p> + +<p><b>mote</b>: meeting.</p> + +<p><b>hustings</b>: a general meeting of the citizens held every week; later on the word +came to mean the platform whence candidates for parliament addressed +their constituents.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_10_THE_ANGLO-SAXON_CITIZEN">10. THE ANGLO-SAXON CITIZEN.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Athelstan</b> (925-940), the grandson of Alfred the Great, and <b>Etheldred II.</b> +(979-1013) were kings of England.</p> + +<p><b>earl</b> or <b>eorl</b> was what we should now call a gentleman of good family; <b>thanes</b>: +nobles who for the most part acquired their titles from the king as rewards +for services.</p> + +<p><b>municipal</b>: having to do with the municipality or city.</p> + +<p><b>French</b>: Norman-French was the language spoken by the Normans.</p> + +<p><b>the meat and fish were salted</b>: in the absence of root-crops it was found +difficult to keep animals through the winter. Hence much salt meat and +fish were stored up.</p> + +<p><b>embroidery</b>: the art of working designs on cloth in needlework.</p> + +<p><b>spinster</b>: an unmarried woman; so called because unmarried daughters +worked at spinning and weaving for the household, making 'homespun' +cloth for them.</p> + +<p><b>marauding</b>: roving about for plunder.</p> + +<p><b>solar</b>: in early houses the chamber over the hall, used as the bedroom for the +master and mistress of the house. (See picture on p. <a href="#Page_74">73</a>.)</p> + +<p><b>tapestry</b>: thick hangings or curtains with figures worked on them.</p> + +<p><b>mead</b>: a fermented drink made of honey: metheglin is another form of the +word.</p> + +<p><b>wattle</b>: flexible twigs, withies, or osier rods: <b>daub</b>, mud.</p> + +<p><b>turbulent</b>: disorderly, riotous.</p> + +<p><b>Thames Street</b>: a very narrow street running along the bank of the Thames +between Blackfriars and the Tower.</p> + +<p><b>ward</b>: a division of the City. The <b>ward mote</b> or ward meeting still exists, and +elects the alderman or representative of the ward on the City Council.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_11_THE_WALL_OF_LONDON">11. THE WALL OF LONDON.</a></h3> + +<p>The <b>White Tower</b> is the 'keep' or central part of the Tower of London, begun +by William the Conqueror and finished by the Red King. It is 92 feet +high and the walls are 17 feet thick.</p> + +<p><b>Dowgate</b>: the site of one of the gates of Old London Wall is near where +Cannon Street Railway Station now stands: here the Walbrook fell into +the Thames.</p> + +<p><b>Queen Hithe</b>: 'The Queen's Landing Place.' Merchants were compelled to +land their goods here so that the dues paid should go to the Queen.</p> + +<p><b>confluence</b>: a flowing together, the place where two rivers meet. The Fleet +fell into the Thames at Blackfriars. (Latin <i>cum</i>, with, together; <i>fluo</i>, to flow. +Compare, <i>fluid</i>, <i>fluent</i>.)</p> + +<p><b>Montfichet's Tower</b> was near Baynard's Castle, at the south-west corner of +the old walls in Blackfriars. Both were named after the Norman tenants +who occupied them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">{240}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Houndsditch</b> is now a cross street joining Bishopgate Street and Aldgate, +with a Church of St. Botolph at each end of it. It adjoined the moat or +ditch round the City wall.</p> + +<p><b>Allhallows</b>: the same as All Saints—all the saints to whom churches were +often dedicated, and whose memory is celebrated on November 1, which is +All Saints' Day.</p> + +<p><b>St. Giles, Cripplegate</b>, contains in its churchyard part of London Wall. +Milton was buried here in 1674.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_12_NORMAN_LONDON">12. NORMAN LONDON.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Bishop and Portreeve</b>: the two chief officers of the City, one ruling for the +Church, the other a civil ruler.</p> + +<p><b>charter</b>: a writing confirming or granting privileges.</p> + +<p><b>burghers</b> or burgesses: citizens of a borough.</p> + +<p><b>Guildhall</b> contains the necessary offices and accommodation for the guild or +corporation, town clerk, &c., the City library, museum and law courts, and +a great hall that will hold 7,000 persons.</p> + +<p><b>feudal claims</b>: demands made on their tenants by owners under the feudal +system. Such demands were usually for military service or something +equivalent.</p> + +<p><b>Matilda</b>, daughter of Henry I., and mother of Henry II., and widow of the +Emperor Henry V. of Germany, was the opponent of Stephen (1100-1135) +in the civil war of his reign. She gave London as 'a demesne' to the Earl +of Essex, with the Tower as his castle.</p> + +<p><b>Danegeld</b>, or Dane money: a tax raised to buy off the Danes.</p> + +<p><b>Sheriff</b>, or shire-reeve, governor of a shire, was the king's representative in +each shire: he collected the revenue, called out and led the soldiers, and +administered justice.</p> + +<p><b>Justiciar</b>: judge. It was one of the privileges of the City to have a judge +of its own to try cases within its own limits.</p> + +<p><b>stipulated</b>: bargained for.</p> + +<p><b>constitution</b>: form of government.</p> + +<p><b>priory</b>: a house for monks or nuns under the rule of a prior or prioress.</p> + +<p><b>St. Katherine Cree</b>: this church is in Leadenhall Street, near Aldgate. +Cree in this name is for Christ.</p> + +<p><b>Portsoken</b> is one of the City wards near Aldgate and the Minories.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_13_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY">13. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>St. Bartholomew the Great</b> in Smithfield is part of St. Bartholomew's +Hospital.</p> + +<p><b>St. Ethelburga</b> is in Bishopsgate Street, not far from Liverpool Street Railway +Station.</p> + +<p><b>crypt</b> is a chapel or vault underground.</p> + +<p><b>St. Swithin's Church</b> is near Cannon Street Railway Station. 'London Stone,' +supposed to be a Roman milestone, is let into the wall of this church. St. +Swithin, to whom the church is dedicated, was a Saxon Bishop of +Winchester, under whose care the youth of Alfred was spent at Winchester.</p> + +<p><b>Thomas Becket</b>, Archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in his own +cathedral by four knights, who thought they were executing the wishes of +Henry II. (1170 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>).</p> + +<p><b>conventual</b>: attached to convents.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">{241}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Palatine</b> usually means 'held by a nobleman who has had royal powers given +him.'</p> + +<p><b>Westminster</b> is named after a minster first erected there of wood about +604 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>: it was thus distinguished from St. Paul's, which was the 'East +Minster.' The site was a marshy spot, then called Thorney, or Thorn Island.</p> + +<p><b>Charing Cross</b> is named from the memorial cross built there by Edward I. in +1294 in honour of his queen, Eleanor, who was brought for burial from +Lincoln to Westminster, and each place (nine) where her body rested was +marked by a similar cross. ('Charing' is a corruption of the French +<i>chère reine</i>, dear queen.)</p> + +<p><b>Cheapside</b>: the important street running between St. Paul's and the Mansion +House is so called because its site was the side—the south side—of the +Chepe, or old London market.</p> + +<p><b>East Chepe</b>, or the East Market, has given its name to Eastcheap, a street +running from the City towards the Tower.</p> + +<p><b>mercer</b>: a merchant selling woollens and silks.</p> + +<p><b>folkmotes</b>: the meetings of the folk or tribe: they met in arms in the Saxon +times, and were presided over by the alderman.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_14_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY">14. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Tyburn</b>: a brook which gave its name to the place Tyburn, where the Marble +Arch now stands.</p> + +<p><b>Westbourne</b>: this brook has given its name to Westbourne Park, in Paddington.</p> + +<p><b>Holywell</b> may be remembered by Holywell Street, in the Strand.</p> + +<p><b>Clerkenwell</b> is named after the Parish Clerks' Well, round which they used +to perform their 'mysteries.'</p> + +<p><b>quarterstaff</b>: a long staff used as a weapon of defence, and held in the middle +and also one quarter way from the end.</p> + +<p><b>tabor</b>: a kind of small drum beaten with one drumstick.</p> + +<p><b>consuls</b>: the chief magistrates of Rome: two of them with equal power came +into office every year.</p> + +<p><b>senatorial</b>: appointed and controlled by the senate or governing council of +Rome.</p> + +<p><b>venison</b> (pronounced <i>ven´-zon</i>): the flesh of deer.</p> + +<p><b>cleric</b>: a clergyman.</p> + +<p><b>abbot</b>: the head of an abbey or monastery.</p> + +<p><b>magnate</b>: a great man, a man of great wealth and rank. (Latin <i>magnus</i>, +great.)</p> + +<p><b>metropolitan</b>: the bishop of a metropolis or chief cathedral city, as Canterbury +is the metropolis of England in this sense.</p> + +<p><b>ordinances</b>: laws, commands.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_15_LONDON_BRIDGE">15. LONDON BRIDGE. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Architect</b>: one who designs buildings and superintends the building of them.</p> + +<p><b>Jewry</b>: the district in a town inhabited by the Jews; for in early times the +Jews were not allowed to live where they liked, but only in quarters assigned +to them. The street now called Old Jewry turns out of the Poultry, on the +north side.</p> + +<p><b>essential</b>: something very important and that cannot be done without.</p> + +<p><b>intercommunication</b>: intercourse; dealings between people which are made +much easier by having good roads and bridges to travel on.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">{242}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>La Rochelle</b>: a seaport in France on the Atlantic, some distance north of +Bordeaux.</p> + +<p><b>Saintes</b>: a French town about thirty-eight miles from La Rochelle.</p> + +<p><b>St. Thomas Becket</b>, the murdered Archbishop of Canterbury, who was +canonised, that is, named a saint after his death.</p> + +<p><b>titular</b>: giving his name to the bridge.</p> + +<p><b>crypt</b>: an underground or lower room used as a chapel or burying-place.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_16_LONDON_BRIDGE">16. LONDON BRIDGE. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>King Edward I</b>: 1272-1307 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><b>haberdashers</b>: dealers in 'small wares' such as cotton, tape, needles, and +pins.</p> + +<p><b>Hans Holbein</b>: a celebrated German painter who came to live in England +and was introduced to Henry VIII.</p> + +<p><b>marine painters</b>: artists who excel in painting boats, ships, and sea scenes. +(Latin <i>mare</i>, the sea.)</p> + +<p><b>'shooting' the bridge</b>: passing through the arches in a boat.</p> + +<p><b>Queen Henrietta</b> was the queen of Charles I. of England. After the Civil +War she withdrew to France, where she died in 1669.</p> + +<p><b>Rubens</b>: a very celebrated Flemish painter, born in 1577, died at Antwerp in +1640.</p> + +<p><b>Sir Thomas Wyatt</b> headed a rebellion in Kent, which was provoked by Mary's +marriage with Philip of Spain and the restoration of Roman Catholicism. +He was about to cross London Bridge, but finding this impossible crossed +the Thames at Kingston. The rising was a failure, and Wyatt was executed, +1554.</p> + +<p><b>Sir William Wallace</b>: a brave Scotch gentleman who led the Scotch against +Edward I., who was trying to deprive Scotland of its independence. Wallace +was finally taken and executed as a traitor at Tyburn, 1305.</p> + +<p><b>Jack Cade</b> headed a rebellion in Kent in 1450 through dissatisfaction with the +government of Henry VI.: 30,000 rebels gathered on Blackheath, but the +movement ended in failure and Cade was slain.</p> + +<p><b>Sir Thomas More</b>: the good and learned chancellor of Henry VIII., and +author of a famous book called 'Utopia.' He was executed as a traitor in +1535.</p> + +<p><b>St. Thomas-on-the-Bridge</b>: that is, Thomas Becket, to whom the bridge was +dedicated.</p> + +<p><b>pageant</b>: a splendid show or procession.</p> + +<p><b>ex-apprentice</b>: one who has been once an apprentice.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_17_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON">17. THE TOWER OF LONDON. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Dominate</b>: to lord over, to overawe, to be master of. (Latin <i>dominus</i>, a master, +lord.)</p> + +<p><b>Crusade</b>: an expedition under the banner of the <i>Cross</i> to recover the Holy +Land from the Turks. Richard I. went on the third Crusade in 1191.</p> + +<p><b>antiquaries</b>: people who study ancient things.</p> + +<p><b>mediæval</b>: made during the middle ages; the period, roughly speaking, +between the time of the Romans and the reign of Henry VII. (400-1485).</p> + +<p><b>lieutenant</b>: an officer in command of the Tower.</p> + +<p><b>keep</b>: the strongest part of a fortress or castle.</p> + +<p><b>insignia</b>: the badges of any office.</p> + +<p><b>menagerie</b>: a collection of wild animals.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">{243}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Queen Anne Boleyn</b>, to marry whom, Henry VIII. divorced Catherine of +Aragon. She was the mother of Queen Elizabeth.</p> + +<p><b>Lady Jane Grey</b> was proclaimed Queen by the Duke of Northumberland on the +death of Edward VI., but the attempt to prevent Mary's accession was a +failure, and Lady Jane Grey was executed in 1554.</p> + +<p><b>Guy Fawkes</b>: a conspirator who tried to blow up the King and Parliament +in 1605.</p> + +<p><b>The unfortunate princes</b> were Edward V., son of Edward IV., and the rightful +king, and Richard Duke of York, his younger brother, murdered in the +Tower by the usurper Richard III., 1483.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_18_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON">18. THE TOWER OF LONDON. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Allegiance</b>: the duty due from a subject to his liege the sovereign.</p> + +<p><b>Lord Hastings</b> was executed by order of the Duke of Gloucester, afterwards +Richard III., in 1483 for supporting the side of Edward V. and his relations.</p> + +<p><b>ordnance</b>: artillery, cannon, big guns.</p> + +<p><b>antipast</b>: aftertaste.</p> + +<p><b>clerk</b>: a clergyman, a scholar, because in early times all learning was confined +to the clergy.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_19_THE_PILGRIMS">19. THE PILGRIMS.</a></h3> + +<p><b>ague</b>: a fever coming on at intervals, with fits of shivering.</p> + +<p><b>isolation</b>: living away from outside communication, a lonely position like that +of men on an <i>island</i> cut off from the rest of the world.</p> + +<p><b>Flemings</b>: the people of Flanders, a district now comprising parts of Belgium, +South Holland, and North France.</p> + +<p><b>Walsingham</b>: a place in the north of Norfolk, where was a famous shrine.</p> + +<p><b>Glastonbury</b>: a small town near Wells, in Somersetshire.</p> + +<p><b>Compostella</b>: a place in Spain where is the shrine of St. James, the patron +saint of Spain.</p> + +<p><b>Chaucer</b>: the great early English poet, born in London 1328, died 1400.</p> + +<p><b>expiation</b>: making amends for, atonement.</p> + +<p><b>Holy Sepulchre</b>: the burial place of our Lord at Jerusalem, to rescue which +from the Turks was the object of the Crusades.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_20_ST_BARTHOLOMEWS_HOSPITAL">20. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Endowment</b>: money given for the permanent support of an institution, such +as a church, hospital, or school.</p> + +<p><b>Hospitaller</b>: one in charge of a hospital. The term is generally applied to the +Knights of St. John, who built a hospital for sick Crusaders at Jerusalem.</p> + +<p><b>shambles</b>: a slaughter-house.</p> + +<p><b>Whittington</b>, originally an apprentice in London, became a wealthy mercer, +thrice Lord Mayor, and knighted. He died in 1423, without children, and +left his wealth for public objects, such as the one in the text.</p> + +<p><b>Dissolution of the religious houses</b>, carried out by Henry VIII. in 1536-1540 +for the sake of the plunder they afforded.</p> + +<p><b>Chloroform</b>: a colourless liquid which when inhaled produces complete insensibility +to pain.</p> + +<p><b>Norman windows</b>: that is, built in a style introduced by the Normans. The +rounded tops of doors and windows maybe seen in the illustration on p. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p> + +<p><b>lanthorn</b>: a raised construction on the roof, with horn or glass sides to give +light.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">{244}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>clinical</b>: in attendance at the bedside of patients.</p> + +<p><b>residential college</b>: where they reside or dwell.</p> + +<p><b>convalescent hospital</b>: where those who have had some illness may get quite +well and strong again.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_21_THE_TERROR_OF_LEPROSY">21. THE TERROR OF LEPROSY.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Leprosy</b>: a terrible disease of the skin and blood, once prevalent in Europe, +now mostly confined to the East.</p> + +<p><b>lazar</b>: a leper; one suffering from a foul disease like Lazarus in St. Luke xvi.</p> + +<p><b>congregate</b>: flock together, crowd with.</p> + +<p><b>stringent</b>: strict.</p> + +<p><b>statutes</b>: rules or laws.</p> + +<p><b>Book of the Jewish Law</b>: that is, the book Leviticus.</p> + +<p><b>ulcerates</b>: is afflicted with ulcers or sores.</p> + +<p><b>Mass</b>: the celebration of the Lord's Supper in the Roman Catholic Church.</p> + +<p><b>Burton Lazars</b>: a village one mile from Melton Mowbray, in Leicestershire. +Here, on account of its excellent sulphur springs, the chief leper-hospital +was established in the reign of Stephen.</p> + +<p><b>hereditary</b>: transmitted from parents to children.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a name="chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE_NOTE" id="chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE_NOTE"></a><a href="#chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE">22. THE TERROR OF FAMINE.</a></h3> + +<p><b>24 shillings a quarter</b>: this is not far from the present price of wheat, which +gives us cheap bread. But in 1257 24<i>s.</i> would be equivalent to at least 20<i>l.</i> +in our money.</p> + +<p><b>retainers</b>: those in the service of a nobleman and wearing his livery and +badge.</p> + +<p><b>Hanseatic merchants</b>: merchants trading with the Hanse cities in Germany +(among which was Hamburg) who had formed a league for self-protection +about the twelfth century.</p> + +<p><b>granary</b>: a place for storing up grain or corn.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_23_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL">23. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>460 feet</b>: the loftiest spire in England, that of Salisbury Cathedral, is about +404 feet.</p> + +<p><b>its length was at least 600 feet</b>: the present cathedral, the third on the site, +is 500 feet long.</p> + +<p><b>shrine</b>: a receptacle for relics and other sacred things. (The word means a +'chest.')</p> + +<p><b>aisle</b> (pronounced <i>īle</i>) is the side or wing of a church.</p> + +<p><b>scribe</b>: a writer. In those early times so few people could read or write that +men often had to have recourse to professional writers.</p> + +<p><b>deed</b>: a written document relating to some legal transaction.</p> + +<p><b>conveyance</b>: a writing legally transferring from one person to another +property, especially houses and land.</p> + +<p><b>Humphrey Duke of Gloucester</b> was the youngest brother of Henry V., on +whose death he was made regent in England in 1422. He died in 1447.</p> + +<p><b>St. Cuthbert</b> was a monk, missionary, and bishop of Lindesfarne, an island off +the coast of Northumberland, where he died in 687 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>, and was buried in +Durham Cathedral.</p> + +<p><b>sacristy</b>: a room adjoining a church where sacred vessels, vestments, &c. are +kept.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">{245}</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_24_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL">24. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Inigo Jones</b> (born 1572, died 1652) was a celebrated architect.</p> + +<p><b>Portico</b>: a row of columns in front of a building.</p> + +<p><b>Exchange</b>: a building where merchants meet to transact business.</p> + +<p><b>nave</b>: the main body of a church, the aisles being on each side of the nave.</p> + +<p><b>King Charles II. returned</b> at the Restoration in 1660.</p> + +<p><b>Sir Christopher Wren</b> (born 1632, died 1723): the greatest English architect. +After the great fire he rebuilt St. Paul's Cathedral, fifty London churches, +and many public buildings. Over his tomb in St. Paul's is the inscription +in Latin: 'If you seek for his monument, look round about you.'</p> + +<p><b>The Peace of Ryswick</b>, 1697, made by England, Spain, and Holland with +Louis XIV. of France.</p> + +<p><b>Dr. Johnson</b> (born 1709, died 1784): one of the great names in English +literature, and author of a celebrated dictionary.</p> + +<p><b>oriental scholar</b>, or <b>orientalist</b>, is a man who studies Eastern or Indian +languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Hindi, Sanskrit, &c.</p> + +<p><b>sarcophagus</b>: a stone chest for holding a corpse.</p> + +<p><b>porphyry</b>: a hard kind of stone coloured purple and white.</p> + +<p><b>Battle of the Nile</b>, 1798; <b>Cape St. Vincent</b>, 1797; <b>Camperdown</b>, 1797.</p> + +<p><b>Lord Almoner</b>: the official who dispenses the royal charities and bounties.</p> + +<p><b>Slavonic</b>: a group of kindred languages, including Russian, Polish, and +Bulgarian.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_25_PAULS_CHURCHYARD">25. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Embattled</b>: built with battlements.</p> + +<p><b>minor canons</b>: clergy of the cathedral who intone the services and look after +the music.</p> + +<p><b>charnel</b>: containing the bones of the dead.</p> + +<p><b>Finsbury Fields</b>: the <i>fenny</i> or marshy ground lying north of the Moorgate +of the old City walls.</p> + +<p><b>Papal Bulls</b>: decrees and orders issued by the Pope, so called from the seal +attached to them.</p> + +<p><b>Latimer</b> (born 1470, died 1555), Bishop of Worcester, burnt at the stake for +his Protestant opinions together with Ridley, Bishop of London.</p> + +<p><b>chapter house</b>: the building where the chapter or clergy belonging to the +cathedral meet.</p> + +<p><b>Sacrist</b>: the official in a cathedral who copied and took care of the music +and books.</p> + +<p><b>Paul's Chain</b>: so called because traffic was stopped by a chain during the +hours of service.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_26_THE_RELIGIOUS_HOUSES">26. THE RELIGIOUS HOUSES.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Forester</b>: one who has charge of a forest to cut wood, plant new trees, &c.</p> + +<p><b>vicar</b>: one who acts in place of another; hence a priest who on behalf of +his monastery conducted services in a parish church.</p> + +<p><b>orders</b>: the different brotherhoods into which monks were divided.</p> + +<p><b>indiscriminate charity</b>: giving without thinking, whether the charity is well +or ill bestowed.</p> + +<p><b>Minorites</b>: monks or nuns belonging to the Franciscan Order, who in their +humility called themselves the 'lesser' (<i>minores</i>) brethren, or sisters.</p> + +<p><b>Blackfriars</b> were the Dominicans; <b>Whitefriars</b> were the Carmelites; +<b>Greyfriars</b> were Franciscans, from the colour of their respective dresses.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">{246}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Charter House</b>: the house of the Carthusian monks.</p> + +<p><b>Temple</b>: once the house of the <b>Templars</b>, an order of knights whose duty +it was to protect the Holy Sepulchre.</p> + +<p><b>part of the church ... still to be seen</b>: at Clerkenwell the gate of the +priory of St. John's is still standing.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_27_MONKS_FRIARS_AND_NUNS">27. MONKS, FRIARS, AND NUNS.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Indiscriminately</b>: without making any distinctions between them.</p> + +<p><b>hermit</b>, from the Greek, and <b>solitary</b>, from the Latin, mean the same thing—one +who retires from the world and lives in a lonely place.</p> + +<p><b>Monte Casino</b>, in Campania, near Naples, where St. Benedict established +his monastery in 529 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><b>St. Benedict</b> is often shortened to Benet, as in the name of several London +churches.</p> + +<p><b>austerities</b>: severe rules of life and conduct.</p> + +<p><b>Friars</b>, or brethren (French <i>frères</i>, Latin <i>fratres</i>): those orders that went +forth to the people.</p> + +<p><b>Assisi</b>: a town in Central Italy where St. Francis was born.</p> + +<p><b>St. Dominic</b>: born in Castile, in Spain, 1170, died 1221; founded his order to +convert 'heretics,' and procured the establishment of the <b>Inquisition</b>, or +court for punishing heretics.</p> + +<p><b>Sanctuary</b>: a refuge where criminals were safe from the law. Sir W. Scott in +the 'Fortunes of Nigel' well describes the lawless character of this +district in the reign of James I.</p> + +<p><b>St. Bernard</b>: a celebrated brother of the Cistercian Order (born 1091, died +1153).</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_28_THE_LONDON_CHURCHES">28. THE LONDON CHURCHES.</a></h3> + +<p><b>St. Augustine</b> was sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 597 to convert the +heathen English: he was the 'Apostle of the English,' and first Archbishop +of Canterbury.</p> + +<p><b>St. Dunstan</b>, who became Archbishop of Canterbury and died in 988, was not +only a zealous priest but a great statesman and ruler.</p> + +<p><b>St. Alphege</b>: an Archbishop of Canterbury murdered by the Danes in +1012 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><b>Sise Lane</b>: a lane in the City, near Cannon Street.</p> + +<p><b>The Basings</b>: an old City family whose name also survives in the 'Bassishaw' +ward of the City, and in Basinghall Street.</p> + +<p><b>Bread Street</b>, turning out of Cheapside, shows where the bakers chiefly dwelt +in Old London.</p> + +<p><b>John Milton</b> (born 1608, died 1674) wrote 'Paradise Lost,' 'Paradise +Regained,' and some beautiful shorter pieces.</p> + +<p><b>Three Poets</b>: i. the Greek Homer, reputed author of those noble epics the +'Iliad' and 'Odyssey' (about 1000 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>); ii. the Roman Virgil, who wrote the +'Æneid' (born 70 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>); iii. the English Milton. The famous epitaph was +written by John Dryden.</p> + +<p><b>William Tyndal</b> assisted the Reformation by translating the New Testament +into English (1526), and part of the Old Testament. He was burnt as a +heretic at Vilvoorde, near Brussels, in 1536.</p> + +<p><b>William Cowper</b> (born 1731, died 1800), the author of 'The Task' and other +beautiful poems.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">{247}</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_29_THE_STREETS">29. THE STREETS.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Plantagenet</b>: Henry II., 1154-1189, was the first of the line of kings bearing +this name, so called from the badge worn by Henry's father, a sprig of +broom.</p> + +<p><b>Chesel</b> was the Anglo-Saxon for pebble, and Kiesel is the German for the +same. The <b>Chesil Beach</b>, near Weymouth, is a remarkable bank of shingle +joining Portland Bill to the mainland.</p> + +<p><b>Somerset House</b>, in the Strand: the palace of the Protector Somerset has +been pulled down, and public offices erected on its site.</p> + +<p><b>Northumberland House</b>, now demolished, has given its name to Northumberland +Avenue, near Charing Cross.</p> + +<p><b>Southwark ... many Inns</b>: in particular the Tabard, where Chaucer's +pilgrims assembled.</p> + +<p><b>mediæval</b>: living in the middle ages, that is, some time before about 1500 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><b>ironmongers in their Lane</b>: that is, Ironmonger Lane, turning out of +Cheapside.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_30_WHITTINGTON">30. WHITTINGTON. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Mercer</b>: a merchant who sells silken or woollen goods.</p> + +<p><b>executors</b>: those who are appointed to carry out the last will and testament +of a dead man.</p> + +<p><b>Levantine</b>, in the Levant, or eastern part of the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p><b>Guinea</b>, on the west coast of Africa.</p> + +<p><b>Pizarro</b>: a Spanish adventurer who conquered Peru from its native rulers or +Incas, and was murdered in his palace at Lima in 1541.</p> + +<p><b>a piece of eight</b> (dollars), that is, about 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p><b>assessment</b>: the value put upon house or property in order to fix the amount +of taxes to be paid.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_31_WHITTINGTON">31. WHITTINGTON. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Vintner</b>: a wine-seller.</p> + +<p><b>Wycliffe</b>, born about 1324, was a learned theologian and rector of Lutterworth, +in Leicestershire. For preaching Protestant doctrines he was summoned +to appear at St. Paul's to answer a charge of heresy in 1377.</p> + +<p><b>John of Gaunt</b> thus made the second attempt to deprive London of its +liberties and charter; Matilda, the opponent of Stephen, had tried long +before, but it ended in her overthrow (<i>see</i> p. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>).</p> + +<p><b>The Marshal</b> was the commander of the Royal forces. To put London +under him was to destroy its liberty. This office is hereditary in the family +of the Duke of Norfolk, and like other royal offices became unimportant +when it became hereditary.</p> + +<p><b>rebellion of the peasants, 1381</b>, against over-taxation and being bound to +the soil as serfs by their landlords. <b>John Ball</b>, the popular preacher, used +to ask:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'When Adam delved and Eve span,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Who was then a gentleman?'<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p><b>The Archbishop of Canterbury</b>, Simon of Sudbury, had as chancellor proposed +the taxes complained of; therefore the peasants murdered him.</p> + +<p><b>rescinding</b>: repealing of a law.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">{248}</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_32_WHITTINGTON">32. WHITTINGTON. PART III.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Burning of heretics and Lollards</b>: in 1401, in the reign of Henry IV., an +Act of Parliament was passed for burning heretics.</p> + +<p><b>Lollards</b> were those who differed from the Church before the Reformation. +The name comes from a German word <i>lollen</i>, to sing—from the custom of +these reformers.</p> + +<p><b>Mansion House</b>: the official home of the Lord Mayor. The present building +was begun in 1739; previously a house in Cheapside was used for the purpose.</p> + +<p><b>bond</b>: a written obligation binding someone to pay a sum of money. When +money was needed the King used to borrow from wealthy citizens and give a +bond or promise to repay.</p> + +<p><b>St. Michael's Paternoster Royal</b> is in College Hill, near Cannon Street. The +church was so called from the Tower Royal given by Edward III. in 1331 +to his queen, Philippa, for her wardrobe.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_33_GIFTS_AND_BEQUESTS">33. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Mark</b>: a coin, now obsolete, worth 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i></p> + +<p><b>interdicted</b>: forbidden, prevented.</p> + +<p><b>technical school</b>: where useful and practical arts and trades are taught.</p> + +<p><b>aqueduct</b>: an artificial channel for water.</p> + +<p><b>Sevenoaks</b>, in Kent.</p> + +<p><b>Higham Ferrers</b> is a small town in Northamptonshire.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_34_THE_PALACES_AND_GREAT_HOUSES">34. THE PALACES AND GREAT HOUSES.</a></h3> + +<p><b>The King Maker</b>: Warwick was so called because he helped Edward IV. to +become king in 1461, and restored Henry VI. for a time in 1470. He was +slain at the battle of Barnet, 1471.</p> + +<p><b>quadrangle</b>: an open court, square, with buildings all round it.</p> + +<p><b>College of Heralds</b>: a Government office under the Earl Marshal which looks +after pedigrees and armorial bearings.</p> + +<p><b>Hampton Court</b>: a Royal palace begun by Cardinal Wolsey.</p> + +<p><b>St. James's Palace</b>: the official residence of the Queen in London, Buckingham +Palace being her private residence.</p> + +<p><b>buttery</b>: a storeroom where liquors and other provisions were kept.</p> + +<p><b>Baynard's Castle</b> has given its name to one of the City wards.</p> + +<p><b>The Duke of Buckingham</b> secured the crown for Richard III., and then being +insufficiently rewarded rebelled against him, and was executed in 1483.</p> + +<p><b>George, Duke of Clarence</b>, brother of Edward IV., first sided with his +father-in-law, the Earl of Warwick, then joined his brother in 1471. With +justice, therefore, Shakespeare called him 'false, fleeting, perjured Clarence.' +He was accused of treason and found dead in the Tower in 1478.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_35_AMUSEMENTS">35. AMUSEMENTS.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Tournament</b>: a sham fight at which knights, mostly on horseback, used to +show their skill.</p> + +<p><b>Twelfth Day</b>: twelve days after Christmas, formerly an occasion of great +festivities, which have now nearly died out.</p> + +<p><b>Morris-dance</b>: a <i>Moorish</i> dance to an accompaniment of bells and tambourines.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">{249}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>cresset</b>: a kind of lantern formed of an open brazier filled with combustible +materials.</p> + +<p><b>demilance</b>: a kind of horse-soldier armed with a short lance.</p> + +<p><b>mummeries</b>: entertainments performed by men in masks.</p> + +<p><b>Curfew</b>: the bell rung at eight o'clock at night as a sign to put out all lights. +Ancient towns having much wood were liable to serious fires.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_36_WESTMINSTER_ABBEY">36. WESTMINSTER ABBEY.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Thorney</b>, Isle of Thorns; <i>ey</i> and <i>ea</i> meaning island, as in Anglesey, Chelsea, +Winchelsea.</p> + +<p><b>precinct</b>: the limit of the ground belonging to a church or other institution.</p> + +<p><b>commissioner</b>: appointed to see that the work was carried out.</p> + +<p><b>Sir G. Gilbert Scott</b>, born 1811, died 1878, was the greatest modern English +architect.</p> + +<p><b>took sanctuary</b>: fled for shelter to the abbey, whence she could not be +taken without violating the privileges of the Church.</p> + +<p><b>William Caxton</b> set up in 1476 the first printing press in England.</p> + +<p><b>coronation chair</b>: under this is the famous stone brought from Scone by +Edward I., over which all the Scottish kings had been crowned since about +800 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_37_THE_COURT_AT_WESTMINSTER">37. THE COURT AT WESTMINSTER.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Star Chamber Court</b>, in which cases were tried before some members of the +Privy Council and two judges without a jury. This was established in +1487 to restore order because great lords and landowners used to frighten +juries from giving true verdicts.</p> + +<p><b>bear and ragged staff</b>: the arms of the Earl of Warwick consisted of a bear +erect and hugging a rough stake. (See pictures on pp. <a href="#Page_110">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.)</p> + +<p><b>arras</b>: tapestry for hanging; so called from Arras, in the north of France, +where it was made.</p> + +<p><b>refectory</b>: the hall where the monks or nuns took their meals.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_38_JUSTICE_AND_PUNISHMENTS">38. JUSTICE AND PUNISHMENTS.</a></h3> + +<p><b>executive officers</b>: those whose duty it is to enforce the law.</p> + +<p><b>contrition</b>: repentance.</p> + +<p><b>securities</b>: stocks and shares; papers which can be of no use to the ordinary +thief.</p> + +<p><b>Bridewell</b>: the site of a prison, now demolished. It adjoined Whitefriars, +and may be seen in the map to the west of Blackfriars.</p> + +<p><b>amende honorable</b> (French): when one who has done wrong gives satisfaction +without loss of honour.</p> + +<p><b>pillory</b>: a framework supported by an upright pillar. In it were holes through +which the head and hands of offenders were thrust. In this uncomfortable +position they had to stand exposed to the insults of the mob.</p> + +<p><b>cogged</b>: loaded so as always to fall in a certain way.</p> + +<p><b>title deeds</b>: writings drawn up in proper legal form to prove the possession +of property.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_39_THE_POLITICAL_POWER_OF_LONDON">39. THE POLITICAL POWER OF LONDON.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Froissart</b>: an early French chronicler or historian who visited England in +the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II., and died in 1401.</p> + +<p><b>besotted with</b>: stupidly and excessively fond of.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">{250}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>commonalty</b>: the common people.</p> + +<p><b>Berkeley Castle</b>, in Gloucestershire, where Edward II. was murdered in 1327.</p> + +<p><b>a son was born</b>: Edward, Prince of Wales, born in 1453. After the Yorkist +victory of Northampton in 1460 Edward's claim to the throne was set aside +in favour of Richard, Duke of York, father of Edward IV. The Prince was +slain at the battle of Tewkesbury, 1471.</p> + +<p><b>benevolences</b>: loans of money, supposed to be voluntary, really compulsory, +made by merchants and other rich men to the king.</p> + +<p><b>charts</b>: papers; <b>blank cheques</b>: orders on the bank for money with all except +the amount required filled up and properly signed.</p> + +<p><b>factor</b>: if 2 × 3 makes six, 2 and 3 are each factors of 6; hence it is something +which helps to bring about some result.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_40_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">40. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Stow</b> (born 1525, died 1605): a famous writer in Queen Elizabeth's reign on +the antiquities of London and other places.</p> + +<p><b>Whitechapel</b> takes its name from a white chapel-of-ease built to relieve +Stepney, in which parish this district was till 1763.</p> + +<p><b>tenters</b>: pegs for stretching cloth. Sometimes hooks were used, from which +we get the phrase 'to be on tenter hooks'—to be on a stretch with anxiety.</p> + +<p><b>St. Katharine's</b> has given its name to the great docks east of the Tower.</p> + +<p><b>bull-, bear-baiting</b>: the sport of setting dogs to worry bulls or bears.</p> + +<p><b>Alsatia</b>: for a vivid picture of this haunt of rogues in the reign of James I. +the reader is referred to Sir W. Scott's 'Fortunes of Nigel.'</p> + +<p><b>Austin Friars</b>: the space known as Drapers' Gardens (because the hall of +the Drapers' Company is adjoining) in Throgmorton Street is on the site of +this monastery.</p> + +<p><b>Canwicke (now Cannon) Street</b> was so called because the wax-chandlers and +candle-makers lived in that part.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_41_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">41. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>William Shakespeare</b> (born 1564, died 1616): the prince of poets, who lived +in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.</p> + +<p><b>ruins of the monasteries</b> which had been suppressed by Henry <span class="smcap">VIII.</span> in +1536-1540.</p> + +<p><b>Cold Harbour</b>: a merchant's mansion once standing on the bank of the Thames +in Thames Street.</p> + +<p><b>Genevan bands</b>: a kind of collar worn by Protestant clergymen, so called +because Geneva, the home of Calvin, was the centre of Protestantism.</p> + +<p><b>palaces along the Strand</b>: if you walk along the Strand you will notice that +many of the short streets leading down to the river bear the names of noblemen, +such as Arundel Street, Norfolk Street, Salisbury Street, &c. from +the old palaces which once stood there.</p> + +<p><b>Staples Inn</b>: a picturesque group of old houses in Holborn was formerly a +wool-market (<i>staple</i> means a fixed market). <b>Wych Street</b> is near Holywell +Street in the Strand.</p> + +<p><b>Cloth Fair</b> is now a poor neighbourhood near Smithfield.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_42_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">42. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART III.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Impressment</b>: in the absence of some orderly arrangement, such as conscription +(where all serve) or a voluntary system (like our own), the +press-gang +used to kidnap people and force them to serve.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">{251}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>animosity</b>: anger, ill feeling against.</p> + +<p><b>The Steelyard</b>, on the site of which Cannon Street railway station now stands, +was the house of the Hanse merchants (<i>see</i> <a href="#chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE_NOTE">note on Chapter XXII</a>.).</p> + +<p><b>John Colet</b>, Dean of St. Paul's (born 1466, died 1519), was one of the leaders +of the revival of learning in England. St. Paul's School, which he founded +in 1512, has been moved to Hammersmith.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_43_TRADE">43. TRADE. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Forestall their market</b>: that is, to buy things before they arrived at the +market, so as to sell them at a higher price.</p> + +<p><b>Lübeck</b>: a large port in north Germany in the Baltic.</p> + +<p><b>staples</b>, originally all kinds of raw produce, came to be applied only to wool. +Staples Inn was once a wool-market.</p> + +<p><b>instead of selling our wool</b>: Edward III. brought Flemish weavers into +England to encourage manufactures. Till then England produced and exported +wool to Antwerp and other manufacturing centres, but did not make +it into cloth.</p> + +<p><b>Hamburg</b> was a member of the Hanseatic League.</p> + +<p><b>The screen</b> was presented to the Church of All Hallows the Great, Thames +Street, in 1710, by the Hanseatic merchants.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_44_TRADE">44. TRADE. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Incubus</b>: something that weighs down and hinders.</p> + +<p><b>religious wars in the Netherlands</b>: between the Protestant Dutch and the +Catholic Spaniards, who were oppressing the country through great part of +the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p><b>Bourse</b>: the same as <b>Exchange</b>, where merchants meet to transact their +business.</p> + +<p><b>English wool</b> in Bruges, because it was much exported thither from England +before the growth of home manufactures.</p> + +<p><b>Flemings</b>: the natives of Flanders; who were the chief manufacturers of +Europe long before England took the lead.</p> + +<p><b>14 per cent.</b>: the height of this rate may be seen by comparing it with the +2½ per cent., which is all England now pays as interest upon her debt.</p> + +<p><b>Bethlehem Hospital</b>, corrupted into Bedlam, is still a hospital, but only for +the insane.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_45_TRADE">45. TRADE. PART III.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Bruges ... civil wars</b>: that is, the religious wars referred to in <a href="#chap_44_TRADE">Chapter XLIV</a>.</p> + +<p><b>Venetians</b>: before the discovery of the sea route to India and the East +Venice was the first maritime and commercial power in the world. The +route round the Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco de Gama in +1497.</p> + +<p><b>Moluccas</b>: a group of tropical islands between Celebes and New Guinea, +rich in pearls, spices, and precious woods.</p> + +<p><b>Calicut</b>: the port in Madras, where Vasco de Gama first landed in May 1498. +The cotton cloth called <i>calico</i> was first brought thence.</p> + +<p><b>Moorish pirates</b>: North Africa has always been a haunt of pirates. In 1816 +Lord Exmouth had to bombard Algiers, and even as late as 1860 the +European Powers had to suppress piracy in Morocco.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">{252}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Dordrecht</b>: a commercial town in the south of Holland, near Rotterdam.</p> + +<p><b>The South Sea Company</b> is celebrated above the other trading companies for +the great speculation in its shares called the <b>South Sea bubble</b> in 1720.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_46_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">46. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Mummers</b>: men who played in entertainments masked and in various +disguises.</p> + +<p><b>masque</b>: a kind of play in which the actors wore masks. Milton's 'Comus' is +a well-known masque of high character.</p> + +<p><b>mystery</b>: a name for a religious play representing some scene from the Bible +or scenes from the life of a saint.</p> + +<p><b>admonition</b>: warning.</p> + +<p><b>frescoes</b>: paintings on a wall covered with plaster—done while the plaster +is still wet or <i>fresh</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sequence</b>: that is, the connection of one event with another.</p> + +<p><b>properties</b>: the articles used in the play, scenery, dress, &c.</p> + +<p><b>realistic</b>: looking as though they really were the persons represented.</p> + +<p><b>tableau</b>: scene.</p> + +<p><b>lessee</b>: one who rents a theatre or holds it on a lease from the owner.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_47_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">47. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Pageants</b>: grand shows, processions.</p> + +<p><b>censers</b>: vessels for burning incense.</p> + +<p><b>conduit</b>: a pipe or channel for leading or <i>conducting</i> water.</p> + +<p><b>Cross of Chepe</b>: a memorial erected in the centre of the chepe, or market, +in memory of Queen Eleanor.</p> + +<p><b>jerkins</b>: a kind of jacket often made of leather.</p> + +<p><b>panoply</b>: full armour.</p> + +<p><b>banneret</b>: a little banner.</p> + +<p><b>blackjacks</b>: leather vessels for holding liquor.</p> + +<p><b>malmsey</b>: a strong sweet wine.</p> + +<p><b>marshal</b>: draw up and arrange.</p> + +<p><b>Lord Mayor's Show</b>: on November 9—when the people have an opportunity +of welcoming the new Lord Mayor on his entering into office.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_48_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">48. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART III.</a></h3> + +<p><b>libretto</b>: the words of a masque or play set to music.</p> + +<p><b>scenic</b>: on the stage.</p> + +<p><b>Ben Jonson</b> (born 1574, died 1637): a great English play writer and poet, +and a friend of Shakespeare.</p> + +<p><b>Francis Bacon</b>, Lord Verulam (born 1561, died 1626), was Lord Chancellor +and a great writer on philosophical subjects.</p> + +<p><b>Oberon</b>: the king of the fairies and husband of Titania, as in Shakespeare's +'Midsummer Night's Dream.'</p> + +<p><b>save James</b>: that is, King James I.; a piece of courtly flattery due to Jonson's +connection with the court.</p> + +<p><b>Prince Henry</b>, who is meant by Oberon in the masque, died in 1612, to the +great regret of the people.</p> + +<p><b>Phosphorus</b>: Lucifer, the morning star that brings the day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">{253}</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_49_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">49. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART IV.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Gammer (i.e. Old Mother) Gurton's Needle</b> is a very rough old play about +an old woman who lost her needle while mending a pair of breeches, and, +after accusing everyone of stealing it, finds it after all in the garment itself. +It was written some time before 1560. ('Gammer,' the French <i>grand'-mère</i>, +grandmother, contracted into 'ganmer,' and then 'gammer.')</p> + +<p><b>contortionist</b>: one who twists himself into extraordinary attitudes to amuse +the public.</p> + +<p><b>octagonal</b>: with eight sides.</p> + +<p><b>prologue</b>: the verses spoken before a play to introduce it to the audience.</p> + +<p><b>Golden Lane</b>: a street near the Barbican, turning out of Aldersgate Street.</p> + +<p><b>Bankside</b>, in Southwark, on the southern side of the Thames.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_50_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE">50. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Pretensions</b>: ambitious claims.</p> + +<p><b>Wars of the Roses</b>: a civil war lasting 1455-1485. In thinking of the loss +of life occasioned by this war, it must be remembered that such loss fell +most heavily on the noble families; the mass of the population was not so +much disturbed by it.</p> + +<p><b>Long Acre</b>: a street near Drury Lane, now chiefly occupied by carriage-makers.</p> + +<p><b>delirium</b>: a wandering in the mind caused by fever.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_51_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE">51. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Registers</b>: a record of names of persons who have died. Such records are +now accurately kept by the registrars of births, deaths, and marriages.</p> + +<p><b>The King</b>: Charles II., who, whatever his faults may have been, was at least +good-natured and averse to suffering.</p> + +<p><b>Samuel Pepys</b> (born 1632, died 1703) was Secretary to the Admiralty in the +reigns of Charles II. and James II. His famous diary gives a graphic +picture of life during these reigns.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_52_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE">52. THE TERROR OF FIRE. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Coleman Street</b> runs northward from Lothbury (behind the Bank of England) +to Moorgate. The name goes back even to Saxon times, and probably comes +from one Ceolmund, who had a farm near.</p> + +<p><b>St. Erkinwald</b>: an early Saxon Bishop of London, who encouraged the citizens +to restore their ruined city, and himself built the Bishop's Gate (named +after him). His shrine in St. Paul's was long an object of reverence.</p> + +<p><b>Paternoster Row</b>: always a great centre of the book trade: it was a row immediately +adjoining the precincts of the Cathedral before encroachments +were made. Naturally much of the booksellers' wares was religious—paternosters, +aves, credos, &c.</p> + +<p><b>chancel</b>: the east end of a church in which is the altar, separated from the +rest of the church by a screen or railings. (Latin <i>cancelli</i>, a grating.)</p> + +<p><b>transept</b>: the part of a cathedral projecting on either side. Cathedrals are +generally built in the shape of a cross; the transept is the arms of the cross +in the ground plan.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">{254}</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_53_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE">53. THE TERROR OF FIRE. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Astronomer</b>: one who studies the stars or heavenly bodies.</p> + +<p><b>John Evelyn</b> (born 1620, died 1706), a gentleman of the reign of Charles II., +was made one of the commissioners for the restoration of London after the +Great Fire. He wrote a diary, which is not so amusing as that of Pepys +(<i>see</i> <a href="#chap_51_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE">Chapter LI</a>.)</p> + +<p><b>St. Dunstan-in-the-East</b>, in Tower Street, was the first church restored by +Wren after the fire.</p> + +<p><b>John Dryden</b> (born 1631, died 1700): one of the greatest English poets. He +was a supporter of the house of Stuart, and was made poet laureate.</p> + +<p><b>obnoxious</b>: exposed to.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_54_ROGUES_AND_VAGABONDS">54. ROGUES AND VAGABONDS.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Vagabonds</b>: wanderers who have no settled home.</p> + +<p><b>Wapping</b>: called Wapping Wash (or Marsh) in the time of Queen Elizabeth, +when it was first drained and banked in, lies on the north bank of the +Thames, in Middlesex, near the Thames Tunnel.</p> + +<p><b>Lambeth</b>, facing Westminster, on the south bank of the river, is low-lying, +and was called in Saxon times Lambhythe, meaning loamy or muddy landing +place.</p> + +<p><b>Bermondsey</b> (<i>ey</i>—island), on the south bank of the Thames, one mile S.E. of +St. Paul's, is a centre of the leather and wool trade.</p> + +<p><b>Rotherhithe</b> (or Redriff), on the south bank of the Thames, lies east of +Bermondsey and faces Wapping. The south end of the Thames Tunnel is +in Rotherhithe.</p> + +<p><b>stringent</b>: strict.</p> + +<p><b>impotent</b>: powerless, unable to work.</p> + +<p><b>stocks</b>: a wooden frame in which the legs of criminals were confined.</p> + +<p><b>The Barbican</b>: a street near the site of the old Aldersgate. Barbican means +defensive works for a gate. <b>Turnmill Street</b> is near Farringdon railway +station.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_55_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">55. UNDER GEORGE II. PART I. THE WEALTH OF LONDON.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Essayists</b>: people who write essays; that is, short compositions on any +subject.</p> + +<p><b>picturesqueness</b>: beauty and grace; qualities which might be supposed to +make anything a good subject for a <i>picture</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ruffles</b>: pieces of some white material plaited and attached as a frill to the +collar and sleeves of garments.</p> + +<p><b>ostentation</b>: making a great show.</p> + +<p><b>Puritanism</b>: the more sober style of life and thought introduced by the +Puritans, who were a religious party in the times of Elizabeth and the +Stuarts, and were desirous of a purer and simpler doctrine and mode of +living.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_56_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">56. UNDER GEORGE II. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Predecessors</b>: those that went before them.</p> + +<p><b>cruciform</b>: in the form of a cross. The ground plan of many churches is +shaped like a cross.</p> + +<p><b>St. Stephen's, Walbrook</b>, stands behind the Mansion House, where the +Walbrook used to flow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">{255}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>lectureship</b>: the office of a lecturer, one who gives lectures, discourses, or (as +in this case) sermons. Money was left to pay for these sermons, that is, the +lectureships were <b>endowed</b>.</p> + +<p><b>harbouring</b>: sheltering.</p> + +<p><b>organisers</b>: those who get up and arrange anything.</p> + +<p><b>Haymarket</b> (obviously once a hay market) is near Trafalgar Square, and +<b>Coventry Street</b> near Leicester Square.</p> + +<p><b>innovations</b>: novelties, new things.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_57_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">57. UNDER GEORGE II. PART III.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Broad Street</b>: between the Royal Exchange and Liverpool Street.</p> + +<p><b>Whitecross Street</b> is near the Barbican, Aldersgate Street; <b>Whitechapel</b>, +in which is <b>Middlesex Street</b> (commonly known as Petticoat Lane), is +reached through Aldgate.</p> + +<p><b>Hogarth</b> (born 1697, died 1764): a celebrated English painter, chiefly +famous for moral, satirical and humorous pictures drawn from everyday +life.</p> + +<p><b>asphalt</b>: a kind of mineral pitchy substance which melts in heat and can be +laid down so as to form a hard, smooth roadway.</p> + +<p><b>Vauxhall</b>: in Surrey, in the parish of Lambeth, on the south of the Thames. +There was once an old manor house here called Faukes or Fox Hall.</p> + +<p><b>Bermondsey Spa</b>: so called from a mineral spring discovered there in 1770. +(Spa, a place where there is a mineral spring, gets its name from a celebrated +watering-place in Belgium of that name.)</p> + +<p><b>punch</b>: a drink containing five ingredients—water, spirits, sugar, lemon-juice, +spice.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_58_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">58. UNDER GEORGE II. PART IV.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Decorous</b>: behaving in a decent and respectable way.</p> + +<p><b>appreciation</b>: estimate, judgment about.</p> + +<p><b>congregation</b>: gathering together.</p> + +<p><b>Benjamin Franklin</b> (born 1706, died 1790): a native of Boston, U.S.A., who +lived for some time in England. As a scientist he is famous for electrical +experiments; as a politician, for the share he took in upholding the independence +of the American States.</p> + +<p><b>transmission</b>: handing down from father to son.</p> + +<p><b>externally</b>: outwardly.</p> + +<p><b>St. Katharine's</b>, <b>Ratcliff</b>, <b>Shadwell</b>, <b>Stepney</b>, are all in the East End of +London.</p> + +<p><b>jurisdiction</b>: legal authority.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_59_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">59. UNDER GEORGE II. PART V.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Lighters</b>: large boats or barges used in unloading ships.</p> + +<p><b>bleaching-grounds</b>: where cloth was laid out to be bleached or whitened by +the wind and sun.</p> + +<p><b>hopbines</b>: the stalks of hop plants.</p> + +<p><b>transportation</b>: conveying convicted criminals abroad. Till 1869 convicts +were sent to Australia; now they are kept in convict prisons at home.</p> + +<p><b>classification</b>: dividing and arranging into classes.</p> + +<p><b>embezzle</b>: to steal something entrusted to one's care.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">{256}</a></span></p> + +<p><b>press-gang</b>: a party of sailors under an officer who forcibly took men to serve +in the Royal Navy.</p> + +<p><b>anarchy</b>: absence of rule, disorder.</p> + +<p><b>Gordon Riots</b>: in 1780, led by the fanatic Lord George Gordon. The mob +raised the cry of 'No Popery' on account of a law then proposing to remove +hardships from Roman Catholics. Riot and plunder were the real object of +the mob. The disorder had to be suppressed by military force.</p> + +<p><b>Police</b>: organised in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel, after whom the members of +the force were called 'bobbies' and 'peelers.'</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_60_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">60. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART I.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Denominations</b>: religious bodies or sects, the members of which are all called +by the same name. (Latin <i>nomen</i>, a name.)</p> + +<p><b>every conceivable topic</b>: every subject you can think of.</p> + +<p><b>community</b>: a people, the public.</p> + +<p><b>achieved</b>: won by effort.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_61_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">61. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART II.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Symbol of</b>: the representative of; the presence of a policeman is the outward +form taken by the law in the eyes of the people.</p> + +<p><b>mote</b>: meeting; hence <b>folks' mote</b>, meeting of the folk or people; <b>ward +mote</b>, meeting of those living in the same ward or city division.</p> + +<p><b>The Companies</b>: such as those of the Goldsmiths, Merchant Taylors, +Drapers, &c.</p> + +<p><b>Quarter Sessions</b>: the sessions or sittings of the Law Courts in a county or +city held every quarter.</p> + +<p><b>archives</b>: public records.</p> + +<p><b>sergeant</b> means 'servant,' 'officer'—here of the law. Ordinarily it is a rank +in the army.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_62_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">62. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART III.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Advocate</b>: argue in favour of.</p> + +<p><b>tenacity</b>: perseverance, holding on. (Latin <i>teneo</i>, to hold.)</p> + +<p><b>livery</b>: because the members of the different trade companies used to wear a +distinguishing uniform or livery.</p> + +<p><b>fletchers</b>: arrow-makers. (French <i>flèche</i>, an arrow.)</p> + +<p><b>trust-money</b>: money entrusted for a certain purpose for which alone it can +be used.</p> + +<p><b>technical</b>: where useful trades and sciences are taught.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><a href="#chap_63_LONDON">63. LONDON. GREATER LONDON.</a></h3> + +<p><b>Conservative</b>: preserving, so far as convenient, the present state of things.</p> + +<p><b>functions</b>: powers and duties.</p> + +<p><b>reformatory schools</b>: where boys and girls who have committed some crime +are sent to be reformed to better ways.</p> + +<p><b>assets</b>: property actually held, so that it can be set off against a debt.</p> + +<p><b>democratic</b>: giving power and influence to the people.</p> + +<p><b>oligarchic</b>: giving power and influence to the few.</p> + +<p><b>'law worthiness'</b>: right to assist in the making of laws.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p class='center'><i>Spottiswoode & Co. Printers, New-street Square, London</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p>[Transcriber's Note: The following errors have been corrected in this text:</p> + +<p>Page 6: Fitzstephen's to FitzStephen's</p> + +<p>Page 68: fiteenth to fifteenth</p> + +<p>Page 108: SEVENTEENTH to FIFTEENTH</p> + +<p>Page 135: Westminter to Westminster</p> + +<p>Page 223: alway to always</p> + +<p>Page 246: Archishop to Archbishop</p> + +<p>Page 256: supressed to suppressed</p> + +<p>The following words are inconsistently hyphenated in the original text: +folk-mote, folkmote; Lud-gate, Ludgate; pack-horse, packhorse; +river-side, riverside.]</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of London, by Walter Besant + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF LONDON *** + +***** This file should be named 27995-h.htm or 27995-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/7/9/9/27995/ + +Produced by Susan Skinner and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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