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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of London, by Walter Besant
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The History of London
+
+Author: Walter Besant
+
+Release Date: February 4, 2009 [EBook #27995]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF LONDON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Susan Skinner and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The following conventions are used in this text:
+~bold text~, _italic text_, [=i]--i with a macron over it.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Illustration: THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT: DESIGNED BY BARRY, OPENED
+1852.]
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+HISTORY OF LONDON
+
+
+BY
+
+WALTER BESANT
+
+AUTHOR OF 'LONDON' 'CHILDREN OF GIBEON' ETC.
+
+
+_SECOND EDITION_
+
+
+LONDON
+LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+
+1894
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+LESSON                                                              PAGE
+
+ 1. The Foundation of London (I)                                       7
+
+ 2. The Foundation of London (II)                                     10
+
+ 3. Roman London (I)                                                  13
+
+ 4. "     "    (II)                                                   16
+
+ 5. After the Romans (I)                                              19
+
+ 6. "     "   "     (II)                                              23
+
+ 7. "     "   "     (III)                                             26
+
+ 8. The First Saxon Settlement                                        29
+
+ 9. The Second Saxon Settlement                                       32
+
+10. The Anglo-Saxon Citizen                                           34
+
+11. The Wall of London                                                38
+
+12. Norman London                                                     42
+
+13. FitzStephen's Account of the City (I)                             45
+
+14. FitzStephen's Account of the City (II)                            50
+
+15. London Bridge (I)                                                 54
+
+16. "       "    (II)                                                 57
+
+17. The Tower of London (I)                                           60
+
+18. "    "        "    (II)                                           63
+
+19. The Pilgrims                                                      67
+
+20. St. Bartholomew's Hospital                                        70
+
+21. The Terror of Leprosy                                             74
+
+22. The Terror of Famine                                              78
+
+23. St. Paul's Cathedral (I)                                          82
+
+24. "    "         "    (II)                                          86
+
+25. Paul's Churchyard                                                 91
+
+26. The Religious Houses                                              95
+
+27. Monks, Friars, and Nuns                                          100
+
+28. The London Churches                                              103
+
+29. The Streets                                                      106
+
+30. Whittington (I)                                                  110
+
+31. "      (II)                                                      115
+
+32. "      (III)                                                     118
+
+33. Gifts and Bequests                                               121
+
+34. The Palaces and Great Houses                                     124
+
+35. Amusements                                                       127
+
+36. Westminster Abbey                                                131
+
+37. The Court at Westminster                                         134
+
+38. Justice and Punishments                                        137
+
+39. The Political Power of London                                    140
+
+40. Elizabethan London (I)                                           144
+
+41. "        "    (II)                                               147
+
+42. "        "    (III)                                              151
+
+43. Trade (I)                                                        155
+
+44. "    (II)                                                        158
+
+45. "    (III)                                                       164
+
+46. Plays and Pageants (I)                                           168
+
+47. "    "     "     (II)                                            170
+
+48. "    "     "     (III)                                           173
+
+49. "    "     "     (IV)                                            177
+
+50. The Terror of the Plague (I)                                     180
+
+51. The Terror of the Plague (II)                                    183
+
+52. The Terror of Fire (I)                                           187
+
+53. "   "        "   (II)                                            192
+
+54. Rogues and Vagabonds                                             197
+
+55. Under George the Second (I)                                      201
+
+56. Under George the Second (II)                                     206
+
+57. Under George the Second (III)                                    210
+
+58. Under George the Second (IV)                                     214
+
+59. Under George the Second (V)                                      218
+
+60. The Government of the City (I)                                   222
+
+61. The Government of the City (II)                                  226
+
+62. The Government of the City (III)                                 228
+
+63. London                                                           230
+
+Notes                                                                235
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+ 1. The New Houses of Parliament: designed by Barry, opened 1852  _Frontispiece_
+
+ 2. Early British Pottery                                              9
+
+ 3. Roman London                                                      15
+
+ 4. Remains of a Viking Ship, from a Cairn at Gokstad                 22
+
+ 5. Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes                              31
+
+ 6. Saxon Horsemen                                                    33
+
+ 7. Saxon Church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts                           36
+
+ 8. City Gates                                                        39
+
+ 9. Remains of the Wall                                               40
+
+10. Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester                               41
+
+11. Tower in the Earlier Style. Church at Earl's Barton               44
+
+12. A Norman Ship                                                     46
+
+13. Building a Church in the later Style                              47
+
+14. Lay Costumes in the Twelfth Century                               50
+
+15. Costume of Shepherds in the Twelfth Century                       51
+
+16. Ecclesiastical Costume in the Twelfth Century                     52
+
+17. Royal Arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III. 54
+
+18. Old London Bridge                                                 57
+
+19. The Tower of London                                           61, 64
+
+20. A Bed in the Reign of Henry III. 67
+
+21. Interior of the Hall at Penshurst, Kent                           71
+
+22. The Upper Chamber or Solar at Sutton Courtenay Manor-house        73
+
+23. The Lepers Begging                                                77
+
+24. London before the Spire of St. Paul's was burned; showing
+    the Bridge, Tower, Shipping, &c. 83
+
+25. Old St. Paul's, from the East                                     85
+
+26. Old St. Paul's on Fire                                            87
+
+27. West Front of St. Paul's Cathedral
+    Church. (Built by Sir Christopher Wren)                           89
+
+28. Paul's Cross                                                      92
+
+29. Bermondsey Abbey                                                  96
+
+30. Ruins of Gateway of Bermondsey Abbey                              97
+
+31. Christ's Hospital                                                 99
+
+32. Chepe in the Fifteenth Century                                   108
+
+33. Large Ship and Boat of the Fifteenth Century                     111
+
+34. A Sea-Fight                                                      113
+
+35. Durham, Salisbury, and Worcester Houses                          125
+
+36. Bear-baiting                                                     128
+
+37. Shooting at the Butts with the Long-bow                          129
+
+38. Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster Abbey                         132
+
+39. The Embarkation of Henry VIII. from Dover, 1520                  141
+
+40. Coaches in the Reign of Elizabeth                                148
+
+41. The City from Southwark                                          150
+
+42. South-east Part of London in the Fifteenth Century,
+    showing the Tower and Wall                                       153
+
+43. King Edward VI. 159
+
+44. Sir Thomas Gresham                                               161
+
+45. First Royal Exchange                                             162
+
+46. Shipping in the Thames, _circa_ 1660                        166
+
+47. Sir Francis Drake, in his Forty-third Year                       167
+
+48. The Globe Theatre                                                179
+
+49. Civil Costume about 1620                                         181
+
+50. Costume of a Lawyer                                              181
+
+    Ordinary Civil Costume; _temp._ Charles I.:
+
+51. A Countryman                                                     185
+
+52. A Countrywoman                                                   185
+
+53. A Citizen                                                        187
+
+54. A Citizen's Wife                                                 187
+
+55. A Gentleman                                                      189
+
+56. A Gentlewoman                                                    189
+
+57. Lud-gate on Fire                                                 190
+
+58. Paul Pindar's House                                              191
+
+59. London, as Rebuilt after the Fire                                193
+
+60. Coach of the latter half of the Seventeenth Century              195
+
+61. Waggon of the second half of the Seventeenth Century             195
+
+62. Ordinary Dress of Gentlemen in 1675                              197
+
+63. Dress of Ladies of Quality                                       199
+
+64. Ordinary Attire of Women of the Lower Classes                    199
+
+65. Group showing Costumes and Sedan Chair, about 1720               202
+
+66. Temple Bar, London                                               203
+
+67. Fleet Street and Temple Bar                                      205
+
+68. A Coach of the Middle of the Seventeenth Century                 207
+
+69. View of School connected with Bunyan's Meeting House             209
+
+70. Grenadier in the time of the Peninsular War                      211
+
+71. Uniform of Sailors, about 1790                                   213
+
+72. Costumes of Gentlefolk, about 1784                               215
+
+73. Vessels unloading at the Customs House, at the beginning
+    of the Eighteenth Century                                        217
+
+74. The Old Houses of Parliament and Westminster Abbey, 1803         221
+
+
+
+
+LONDON
+
+
+
+
+1. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+'In the year 1108 B.C., Brutus, a descendant of Æneas, who was the son
+of Venus, came to England with his companions, after the taking of Troy,
+and founded the City of Troynovant, which is now called London. After a
+thousand years, during which the City grew and flourished exceedingly,
+one Lud became its king. He built walls and towers, and, among other
+things, the famous gate whose name still survives in the street called
+Ludgate. King Lud was succeeded by his brother Cassivelaunus, in whose
+time happened the invasion of the Romans under Julius Cæsar. Troynovant,
+or London, then became a Roman city. It was newly fortified by Helena,
+mother of Constantine the Great.'
+
+This is the legend invented or copied by Geoffrey of Monmouth, and
+continued to be copied, and perhaps believed, almost to the present day.
+Having paid this tribute to old tradition, let us relate the true early
+history of the City, as it can be recovered from such documents as
+remain, from discoveries made in excavation, from fragments of
+architecture, and from the lie of the ground. The testimony derived
+from the lie of the ground is more important than any other, for several
+reasons. First, an historical document may be false, or inexact; for
+instance, the invention of a Brutus, son of Æneas, is false and absurd
+on the face of it. Or a document may be wrongly interpreted. Thus, a
+fragment of architecture may through ignorance be ascribed to the Roman,
+when it belongs to the Norman, period--one needs to be a profound
+student of architecture before an opinion of value can be pronounced
+upon the age of any monument: or it may be taken to mean something quite
+apart from the truth, as if a bastion of the old Roman fort, such as has
+been discovered on Cornhill, should be taken for part of the Roman wall.
+But the lie of the ground cannot deceive, and, in competent hands,
+cannot well be misunderstood. If we know the course of streams, the
+height and position of hills, the run of valleys, the site of marshes,
+the former extent of forests, the safety of harbours, the existence of
+fords, we have in our hands a guide-book to history. We can then
+understand why towns were built in certain positions, why trade sprang
+up, why invading armies landed at certain places, what course was taken
+by armies, and why battles have been fought on certain spots. For these
+things are not the result of chance, they are necessitated by the
+geographical position of the place, and by the lie of the ground. Why,
+for instance, is Dover one of the oldest towns in the country? Because
+it is the nearest landing ground for the continent, and because its hill
+forms a natural fortress for protecting that landing ground. Why was
+there a Roman station at Portsmouth? On account of the great and
+landlocked harbour. Why is Durham an ancient city? Because the steep
+hill made it almost impregnable. Why is Chester so called? Because it
+was from very ancient times a fort, or stationary camp (L. _castra_),
+against the wild Welsh.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY BRITISH POTTERY.]
+
+Let us consider this question as regards London. Look at the map called
+'Roman London' (p. 15). You will there see flowing into the river Thames
+two little streams, one called Walbrook, and the other called the Fleet
+River. You will see a steep slope, or cliff, indicated along the river
+side. Anciently, before any buildings stood along the bank, this cliff,
+about 30 feet high, rose over an immense marsh which covered all the
+ground on the south, the east, and the west. The cliff receded from the
+river on the east and on the west at this point: on either side of the
+Walbrook it rose out of the marsh at the very edge of the river at high
+tide. There was thus a double hill, one on the east with the Walbrook on
+one side of it, the Thames on a second side, and a marsh on a third
+side, and the Fleet River on the west. It was thus bounded on east,
+south, and west, by streams. On the north was a wild moor (hence the
+name Moorfields) and beyond the moor stretched away northwards a vast
+forest, afterwards called the Middlesex forest. This forest covered,
+indeed, the greater part of the island, save where marshes and stagnant
+lakes lay extended, the haunt of countless wild birds. You may see
+portions and fragments of this forest even now; some of it lies in Ken
+Wood, Hampstead; some in the last bit left of Hainault Forest; some at
+Epping.
+
+The river Thames ran through this marsh. It was then much broader than
+at present, because there were no banks or quays to keep it within
+limits: at high tide it overflowed the whole of the marsh and lay in an
+immense lake, bounded on the north by this low cliff of clay, and on the
+south by the rising ground of what we now call the Surrey Hills, which
+begin between Kennington and Clapham, as is shown by the name of Clapham
+Rise. In this marsh were a few low islets, always above water save at
+very high tides. The memory of these islands is preserved in the names
+ending with _ea_ or _ey_, as Chelsea, Battersea, Bermondsey. And
+Westminster Abbey was built upon the Isle of Thorns or Thorney. The
+marsh, south of the river, remained a marsh, undrained and neglected for
+many centuries. Almost within the memory of living men Southwark
+contained stagnant ponds, while Bermondsey is still flooded when the
+tide is higher than is customary.
+
+
+
+
+2. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+On these low hillocks marked on the map London was first founded. The
+site had many advantages: it was raised above the malarious marsh, it
+overlooked the river, which here was at its narrowest, it was protected
+by two other streams and by the steepness of the cliff, and it was over
+the little port formed by the fall of one stream into the river. Here,
+on the western hill, the Britons formed their first settlement; there
+were as yet no ships on the silent river where they fished; there was no
+ferry, no bridge, no communication with the outer world; the woods
+provided the first Londoners with game and skins; the river gave them
+fish; they lived in round huts formed of clay and branches with thatched
+roofs. If you desire to understand how the Britons fortified themselves,
+you may see an excellent example not very far from London. It is the
+place called St. George's Hill, near Weybridge. They wanted a hill--the
+steeper the side the better: they made it steeper by entrenching it;
+they sometimes surrounded it with a high earthwork and sometimes with a
+stockade: the great thing being to put the assailing force under the
+disadvantage of having to climb. The three river sides of the London
+fort presented a perpendicular cliff surmounted by a stockade, the other
+side, on which lay the forest, probably had an earthwork also surmounted
+by a stockade. There were no buildings and there was no trade; the
+people belonged to a tribe and had to go out and fight when war was
+carried on with another tribe.
+
+The fort was called Llyn-din--the Lake Fort. When the Romans came they
+could not pronounce the word Llyn--Thlin in the British way--and called
+it Lon--hence their word Londinium. Presently adventurous merchants from
+Gaul pushed across to Dover, and sailed along the coast of Kent past
+Sandwich and through the open channel which then separated the island of
+Thanet from the main land, into the broad Thames, and, sailing up with
+the tide, dropped anchor off the fishing villages which lay along the
+river and began to trade. What did they offer? What Captain Cook offered
+the Polynesians: weapons, clothes, adornments. What did they take away?
+Skins and slaves at first; skins and slaves, and tin and iron, after the
+country became better known and its resources were understood. The taste
+for trading once acquired rapidly grows; it is a delightful thing to
+exchange what you do not want for what you do want, and it is so very
+easy to extend one's wants. So that when the Romans first saw London it
+was already a flourishing town with a great concourse of merchants.
+
+How long a period elapsed between the foundation of London and the
+arrival of the Romans? How long between the foundation and the
+beginnings of trade? It is quite impossible even to guess. When Cæsar
+landed Gauls and Belgians were already here before him. As for the
+Britons themselves they were Celts, as were the Gauls and the Belgians,
+but of what is called the Brythonic branch, represented in speech by the
+Welsh, Breton and Cornish languages (the last is now extinct). There
+were also lingering among them the surviving families of an earlier and
+a conquered race, perhaps Basques or Finns. When the country was
+conquered by the Celts we do not know. Nor is there any record at all of
+the people they found here unless the caves, full of the bones which
+they gnawed and cut in two for the marrow, were the homes of these
+earlier occupants.
+
+When the Romans came they found the town prosperous. That is all we
+know. What the town was like we do not know. It is, however, probable
+that the requirements of trade had already necessitated some form of
+embankment and some kind of quay; also, if trade were of long standing,
+some improvement in the huts, the manner of living, the wants, and the
+dress of the people would certainly have been introduced.
+
+Such was the beginning of London. Let us repeat.
+
+It was a small fortress defended on three sides by earthworks, by
+stockades, by a cliff or steeply sloping bank, and by streams; on the
+fourth side by an earthwork, stockade, and trench. The ground was
+slightly irregular, rising from 30 to 60 feet. An open moor full of
+quagmires and ponds also protected it on the north. On the east on the
+other side of the stream rose another low hill. The extent of this
+British fort of Llyn-din may be easily estimated. The distance from
+Walbrook to the Fleet is very nearly 900 yards; supposing the fort was
+500 yards in depth from south to north we have an area of 450,000 square
+yards, i.e. about 100 acres was occupied by the first London, the
+Fortress on the Lake. What this town was like in its later days when the
+Romans found it; what buildings stood upon it; how the people lived, we
+know very little indeed. They went out to fight, we know so much; and if
+you visit Hampstead Heath you may look at a barrow on the top of a hill
+which probably contains the bones of those citizens of London who fell
+in the victory which they achieved over the citizens of Verulam when
+they fought it out in the valley below that hill.
+
+
+
+
+3. ROMAN LONDON.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+The Romans, when they resolved to settle in England, established
+themselves on the opposite hillock, the eastern bank of the Walbrook.
+The situation was not so strong as that of the British town, because it
+was protected by cliff and river on two sides only instead of three. But
+the Romans depended on their walls and their arms rather than the
+position of their town. As was their habit they erected here a strong
+fortress or a stationary camp, such as others which remain in the
+country. Perhaps the Roman building which most resembles this fort is
+the walled enclosure called Porchester, which stands at the head of
+Portsmouth Harbour. This is rectangular in shape and is contained by a
+high wall built of rubble stone and narrow bricks, with round, hollow
+bastions at intervals. One may also see such a stationary camp at
+Richborough, near Sandwich; and at Pevensey, in Sussex; and at
+Silchester, near Reading, but the two latter are not rectangular. One
+end of this fort was on the top of the Walbrook bank and the other, if
+you look in your map, on the site of Mincing Lane. This gives a length
+of about 700 yards by a breadth of 350, which means an enclosure of
+about 50 acres. This is a large area: it was at once the barrack, the
+arsenal, and the treasury of the station; it contained the residences of
+the officers, the offices of the station, the law court and tribunals,
+and the prisons; it was the official residence. Outside the fort on the
+north was the burial place. If we desire to know the character of the
+buildings we may assure ourselves that they were not mean or ignoble by
+visiting the Roman town of Silchester. Here we find that the great Hall
+of Justice was a hall more spacious than Westminster Hall, though
+doubtless not so lofty or so fine. Attached to this hall were other
+smaller rooms for the administration of justice; on one side was an open
+court with a cloister or corridor running all round it and shops at the
+back for the sale of everything. This was the centre of the city: here
+the courts were held; this was the Exchange; here were the baths; this
+was the place where the people resorted in the morning and lounged about
+to hear the news; here the jugglers and the minstrels and the acrobats
+came to perform; it was the very centre of the life of the city--as was
+Silchester so was London.
+
+[Illustration: _Walker & Boutallse._
+
+ROMAN LONDON.]
+
+Outside the Citadel the rude British town--if it was still a rude
+town--disappeared rapidly. The security of the place, strongly
+garrisoned, the extension of Roman manners, the introduction of Roman
+customs, dress, and luxuries gave a great impetus to the development of
+the City. The little ports of the rivers Walbrook and Fleet no longer
+sufficed for the shipping which now came up the river; if there were as
+yet no quays or embankments they were begun to be erected; behind them
+rose warehouses and wharves. The cliff began to be cut away; a steep
+slope took its place; its very existence was forgotten. The same thing
+has happened at Brighton, where, almost within the memory of living man,
+a low cliff ran along the beach. This embankment extended east and
+west--as far as the Fleet River, which is now Blackfriars, on the west,
+and what is now Tower Hill on the east. Then, the trade still
+increasing, the belt of ground behind the embankment became filled with
+a dense population of riverside people--boatmen, sailors, boat-builders,
+store-keepers, bargemen, stevedores, porters--all the people who belong
+to a busy mercantile port. As for the better sort, they lived round the
+Citadel, protected by its presence, in villas, remains of which have
+been found in many places.
+
+The two things which most marked the Roman occupation were London Wall
+and Bridge. Of the latter we will speak in another place. The wall was
+erected at a time between A.D. 350 and A.D. 369--very near the end of
+the Roman occupation. This wall remained the City wall for more than a
+thousand years; it was rebuilt, repaired, restored; the scanty remains
+of it--a few fragments here and there--contain very little of the
+original wall; but the course of the wall was never altered, and we know
+exactly how it ran. There was first a strong river wall along the
+northern bank. There were three water gates and the Bridge gate; there
+were two land gates at Newgate and Bishopsgate. The wall was 3 miles and
+205 yards long; the area enclosed was 380 acres. This shows that the
+population must have been already very large, for the Romans were not
+accustomed to erect walls longer than they could defend.
+
+
+
+
+4. ROMAN LONDON.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+We must think of Roman London as of a small stronghold on a low hill
+rising out of the river. It is a strongly-walled place, within which is
+a garrison of soldiers; outside its walls stretch gardens and villas,
+many of them rich and beautiful, filled with costly things. Below the
+fort is a long river wall or quay covered with warehouses, bales of
+goods, and a busy multitude of men at work. Some are slaves--perhaps
+all. Would you like to know what a Roman villa was like? It was in plan
+a small, square court, surrounded on three sides by a cloister or
+corridor with pillars, and behind the cloister the rooms of the house;
+the middle part of the court was a garden, and in front was another and
+a larger garden. The house was of one storey, the number and size of the
+rooms varying according to the size of the house. On one side were the
+winter divisions, on the other were the summer rooms. The former part
+was kept warm by means of a furnace constructed below the house, which
+supplied hot-air pipes running up all the walls. At the back of the
+house were the kitchen, stables, and sleeping quarters of the servants.
+Tesselated pavements, statues, pictures, carvings, hangings, pillows,
+and fine glass adorned the house. There was not in London the enormous
+wealth which enabled some of the Romans to live in palaces, but there
+was comparative wealth--the wealth which enables a man to procure for
+himself in reason all the things that he desires.
+
+The City as it grew in prosperity was honoured by receiving the name of
+Augusta. It remained in Roman hands for nearly four hundred years. The
+Citadel, which marks the first occupation by the Romans, was probably
+built about A.D. 43. The Romans went away in A.D. 410. During these four
+centuries the people became entirely Romanised. Add to this that they
+became Christians. Augusta was a Christian city; the churches which
+stand--or stood, because three at least have been removed--along Thames
+Street, probably occupied the sites of older Roman churches. In this
+part of the City the people were thickest; in this quarter, therefore,
+stood the greater number of churches: the fact that they were mostly
+dedicated to the apostles instead of to later Saxon saints seems to show
+that they stood on the sites of Roman churches. It has been asked why
+there has never been found any heathen temple in London; the answer is
+that London under the Romans very early became Christian; if there had
+been a temple of Diana or Apollo it would have been destroyed or
+converted into a church. Such remains of Augusta as have been found are
+inconsiderable: they are nearly all in the museum of the Guildhall,
+where they should be visited and examined.
+
+The history of Roman London is meagre. Seventeen years after the
+building of the Citadel, on the rebellion of Boadicea, the Roman general
+Suetonius abandoned the place, as unable to defend it. All those who
+remained were massacred by the insurgents. After this, so far as we
+know, for history is silent, there was peace in London for 200 years.
+Then one Carausius, an officer in command of the fleet stationed in the
+Channel for the suppression of piracies, assumed the title of emperor.
+He continued undisturbed for some years, his soldiers remaining faithful
+to him on account of his wealth: he established a Mint at London and
+struck a large amount of money there. He was murdered by one of his
+officers, Allectus, who called himself emperor in turn and continued to
+rule in Britain for three years. Then the end came for him as well. The
+Roman general landing with a large force marched upon London where
+Allectus lay. A battle fought in the south of London resulted in the
+overthrow and death of the usurper. His soldiers taking advantage of the
+confusion began to plunder and murder in the town, but were stopped and
+killed by the victors.
+
+Constantine, who became emperor in 306, was then in Britain, but his
+name is not connected with London except by coins bearing his name.
+
+Tradition connects the name of Helena, Constantine's mother, with
+London, but there is nothing to prove that she was ever in the island at
+all.
+
+Late in the fourth century troubles began to fall thick upon the
+country. The Picts and the Scots overran the northern parts and
+penetrated to the very walls of London. The general Theodosius, whose
+son became the emperor of that name, drove them back. About this time
+the wall of London was built; not the wall of the Roman fort, but that
+of the whole City. From the year 369, when Theodosius the general landed
+in Britain, to the year 609 we see nothing of London except one brief
+glimpse of fugitives flying for their lives across London Bridge. Of
+this interval we shall speak in the next chapter. Meanwhile it is
+sufficient to say that the decay of the Roman power made it necessary to
+withdraw the legions from the outlying and distant portions of the
+Empire. Britain had to be abandoned. It was as if England were to give
+up Hong Kong and Singapore and the West Indies because she could no
+longer spare the ships and regiments to defend them. The nation which
+abandons her possessions is not far from downfall. Remember, when you
+listen to those who advocate abandonment of our colonies, the example of
+Rome.
+
+
+
+
+5. AFTER THE ROMANS.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+The Romans left London. That was early in the fifth century; probably in
+the year 410.
+
+Two hundred years later we find the East Saxons in London.
+
+What happened during this long interval of seven generations? Not a word
+reaches us of London for two hundred years except once when, after a
+defeat of the British by the Saxons at Crayford in the year 457, we read
+that the fugitives crossed over London Bridge to take refuge within the
+walls of the City. What happened during this two hundred years?[1]
+
+We know what happened with other cities. Anderida, now called Pevensey,
+was taken by the Saxons, and all its inhabitants, man, woman and child,
+were slaughtered, so that it became a waste until the Normans built a
+castle within the old walls. Canterbury, Silchester, Porchester,
+Colchester--all were taken, their people massacred, the walls left
+standing, the streets left desolate. For the English--the Saxons--loved
+not city walls. Therefore, we might reasonably conclude that the same
+thing happened to London. But if it be worthy of the chronicler to note
+the massacre of Anderida, a small seaport, why should he omit the far
+more important capture of Augusta?
+
+[1] On this subject, see the author's book _London_ (Chatto & Windus).
+
+Let us hear what history has to tell. Times full of trouble fell upon
+the country. Long before the Romans went away the Picts and Scots were
+pouring their wild hordes over the north and west, sometimes getting as
+far south as the Middlesex Forest, murdering and destroying. As early as
+the year 368, forty years before they left the country, the Romans sent
+an expedition north to drive back these savages. Already the Saxons, the
+Jutes and the Angles were sending piratical expeditions to harry the
+coast and even to make settlements. The arm of the Roman was growing
+weak, it could not stretch out so far: the fleets of the Romans, under
+the officer called the 'Count of the Saxon Shore'--whose duty was to
+guard the eastern and southern coasts--were destroyed and their
+commander slain. So that, with foes on the eastern seaboard, foes in the
+Channel, foes in the river, foes in the north and west, it is certain
+that the trade of Augusta was declining long before the City was left to
+defend itself.
+
+What sort of defence were the people likely to offer? For nearly four
+hundred years they had lived at peace, free to grow rich and luxurious,
+with mercenaries to fight for them. Between the taking of the City by
+Boadicea and the departure of the Romans, a space of three hundred and
+fifty years, the peace of the City was only disturbed by the lawlessness
+of Allectus's mercenaries. Their attempt to sack the City was put down,
+it is significant to note, not by the citizens but by the Roman soldiers
+who entered the City in time. The citizens were mostly merchants: they
+were Christians in name and in form of worship, they were superstitious,
+they were luxurious, they were unwarlike. Many of them were not Britons
+at all, but foreigners settled in the City for trade. Moreover, for it
+is not true that the whole British people had grown unfit for war, a
+revolt of the Roman legions in the year 407 drew a large number of the
+young men into their ranks, and when Constantine the usurper took them
+over into Gaul for the four years' fighting which followed, the country
+was drained of its best fighting material. The City, then, contained a
+large number of wealthy merchants, native and foreign; it also contained
+a great many slaves who were occupied in the conduct of the trade, and
+few, since the young men went away with Constantine, who could be relied
+upon to fight.
+
+One more point may be made out from history. Since London was a town
+which then, as now, lived entirely by its trade and was the centre of
+the export and import trade of the whole country, the merchants, as we
+have seen, must have suffered most severely long before the Romans went
+away. We are, therefore, in the year 410, facing a situation full of
+menace. The Picts and Scots are overrunning the whole of the north, the
+Saxons are harrying the east and the south-east, trade is dying, there
+is little demand for imports, there are few exports, it is useless for
+ships to wait cargoes which never arrive, it is useless for ships to
+bring cargoes for which there is no demand.
+
+[Illustration: REMAINS OF A VIKING SHIP, FROM A CAIRN AT GOKSTAD.
+
+(_Now in the University at Christiania._)]
+
+A declining city, a dying trade, enemies in all directions, an unwarlike
+population. When the curtain falls upon the scene in the year 410 that
+is what we see.
+
+
+
+
+6. AFTER THE ROMANS.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Consider, again, the position of London. It stood, as you have seen,
+originally on two low hills overlooking the river. A strong wall built
+all along the bank from Blackfriars (now so called) to the present site
+of the Tower kept the river from swamping the houses and wharves which
+sprang up behind this wall. The walls of the City later on, but only
+about fifty years before the Romans went away, enclosed a large area
+covered over with streets, narrow near the river and broad farther
+north, and with residences, warehouses, villas, and workshops. There was
+probably a population of 70,000 or even more. On the west, in the
+direction of Westminster, the City wall overlooked an immense marsh: on
+the south across the river there was a still broader and longer marsh:
+on the east there was another great marsh with the sea overflowing the
+sedgy meadows at every high tide: on the north there was a wild moor and
+beyond the moor there was an immense forest. Four roads not counting the
+river-way kept the City in communication with the rest of the island.
+The most important of these roads was that afterwards called Watling
+Street, which passed out at Newgate and led across the heart of the
+country to Chester and Wales, to York and the north. The second,
+afterwards called Ermyn Street, left the City at Bishopsgate and ran
+through Lincoln to York, a third road called the Vicinal Way ran into
+the eastern counties, and by way of London Bridge Watling Street was
+connected with Dover.
+
+London, therefore, standing in its marshes had no means of providing for
+itself. All the food for its great population was imported. It was
+brought on pack asses along these roads. It came from the farms and
+gardens of the country inland by means of these high roads, strong,
+broad, and splendid roads, as good as any we have since succeeded in
+making. In peaceful times these roads were crowded all the way from
+Chester and Lincoln and Dover with long trains of animals laden with
+provisions for the people of London, as well as with goods for export
+from the Port of London. They were met by long trains of animals laden
+with imports being carried to their destination. The Thames in the same
+way was filled with barges laden with provisions as well as with goods
+going down the river to the people and the Port of London. Below Bridge
+the river was filled with merchant ships bringing cargoes of wine and
+spices and costly things to be exchanged for skins and slaves and
+metals. Let us remember that the daily victualling of 70,000 people
+means an immense service. We are so accustomed to find everything ready
+to hand in cities containing millions as well as in villages of
+hundreds, that we forget the magnitude of this service. No mind can
+conceive the magnitude of the food supply of modern London, Paris, New
+York, or even such towns as Portsmouth, Plymouth, Bristol. Yet try to
+understand what it means to feed every day, without interruption, only a
+small town of 70,000 people. So much bread for every day, so much meat,
+so much fish, so much wine, beer, mead, or cider--because at no time did
+people drink water if they could get anything else--so much milk, honey,
+butter, cheese, eggs, poultry, geese and ducks, so much beans, pease,
+salad, fruit. All this had to be brought in regularly--daily. There was
+salted meat for winter; there was dried fish when fresh could not be
+procured; there were granaries of wheat to provide for emergencies. All
+the rest had to be provided day by day.
+
+First, the East Saxons, settling in Essex and spreading over the whole
+of that county, stopped the supplies and the trade over all the eastern
+counties; then the Jutes, landing on the Isle of Thanet, stopped the
+ships that went up and down the river; they also spread over the south
+country and stopped the supplies that formerly came over London Bridge.
+Then the Picts and Scots, followed by more Saxons, harassed the north
+and middle of the island, and no more supplies came down Watling Street.
+Lastly, the enemy, pressing northward from the south shore, gained the
+middle reaches of the Thames, and no more supplies came down the river.
+
+London was thus deprived of food as well as of trade.
+
+This slowly, not suddenly, came to pass. First, one source of supply was
+cut off, then another. First, trade declined in one quarter, then it
+ceased in that quarter altogether. Next, another quarter was attacked.
+The foreign merchants, since there was no trade left, went on board
+their own ships and disappeared. Whether they succeeded in passing
+through the pirate craft that crowded the mouth of the river, one knows
+not. The bones of many lie at the bottom of the sea off the Nore. They
+vanished from hapless Augusta; they came back no more.
+
+Who were left? The native merchants. Despair was in their hearts;
+starvation threatened them, even amid the dainty appointments of their
+luxurious villas; what is the use of marble baths and silken hangings,
+tesselated pavements, and pictures, and books, and statues, if there is
+no food to be had, though one bid for it all the pictures in the house?
+With the merchants, there were the priests, the physicians, the lawyers,
+the actors and mimics, the artists, the teachers, all who minister to
+religion, luxury, and culture. There were next the great mass of the
+people, the clerks and scribes, the craftsmen, the salesmen, the
+lightermen, stevedores, boatmen, marine store keepers, makers of ships'
+gear, porters--slaves for the most part--all from highest to lowest,
+plunged into helplessness. Whither could they fly for refuge? Upon whom
+could they call for help?
+
+
+
+
+7. AFTER THE ROMANS.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+Abroad, the Roman Empire was breaking up. The whole of Europe was
+covered with war. Revolts of conquered tribes, rebellions of successful
+generals, invasions of savages, the murders of usurpers, the sacking of
+cities. Rome itself was sacked by Alaric; the conquest of one country
+after another made of this period the darkest in the history of the
+world. From over the seas no help, the enemy blocking the mouth of the
+river, all the roads closed and all the farms destroyed.
+
+There came a day at length when it was at last apparent that no more
+supplies would reach the City. Then the people began to leave the place:
+better to fight their way across the country to the west where the
+Britons still held their own, than to stay and starve. The men took
+their arms--they carried little treasure with them, because treasure
+would be of no use to them on their way--their wives and children,
+ladies as delicate and as helpless as any of our own time--children as
+unfit as our own to face the miseries of cold and hunger and
+nakedness--and they went out by the gate of Watling Street, not
+altogether, not the whole population, but in small companies, for
+greater safety. They left the City by the gate; they did not journey
+along the road, but for safety turned aside into the great forest, and
+so marching across moors and marshes, past burned homesteads, and
+ruined villages, and farm buildings thrown down, those of them who did
+not perish by the way under the enemies' sword or by malarious fever, or
+by starvation, reached the Severn and the border of the mountains where
+the Saxon could not penetrate.
+
+There was left behind a remnant--after every massacre or exodus there is
+always left a remnant. The people who stayed in the City were only a few
+and those of the baser sort, protected by their wretchedness and
+poverty. No one would kill those who offer no defence and have no
+treasures; and their condition under any new masters would be no worse.
+They shut the gates and barred them: they closed and barred the Bridge:
+they took out of the houses anything that they wanted--the soft warm
+mantles, the woollen garments, the coverlets, the pillows and hangings,
+but they abode in their hovels near the river banks; as for the works of
+art, the pictures, statues, and tesselated pavements, these they left
+where they found them or for wantonness destroyed them. They fished in
+the river for their food: they hunted over the marshes where are now
+Westminster, Battersea, and Lambeth: the years passed by and no one
+disturbed them: they still crouched in their huts while the thin veneer
+of civilisation was gradually lost with whatever arts they had learned
+and all their religion except the terror of the Unknown.
+
+Meanwhile the roofs of the villas and churches fell in, the walls
+decayed, the gardens were overgrown. Augusta--the proud and stately
+Augusta--was reduced to a wall enclosing a heap of ruins with a few
+savages huddled together in hovels by the riverside.
+
+For the East Saxon had overrun Essex, the Jute covered Kent and Surrey,
+the South Saxon held Sussex, the West Saxon held Wessex. All around--on
+every side--London was surrounded by the Conqueror of the Land. Why,
+then, did they not take London? Because London was deserted; there was
+nothing to take: London was silent. No ships going up or down the river
+reminded the Saxon of the City. It lay amid its marshes and its moors,
+the old roads choked and overgrown; it was forgotten; it was what the
+Saxons had already made of Canterbury and Anderida, a 'Waste Chester,'
+that is, a desolated stronghold.
+
+Augusta was forgotten.
+
+This is the story that we learn from the actual site of London--its
+position among marshes, the conditions under which alone the people
+could be maintained.
+
+How long did this oblivion continue? No one knows when it began or when
+it ended. As I read the story of the past, I find a day towards the
+close of the sixth century when there appeared within sight of the
+deserted walls a company of East Saxons. They were hunting: they were
+armed with spears: they followed the chase through the great forest
+afterwards called the Middlesex Forest, Epping Forest, Hainault Forest,
+and across the marshes of the river Lea, full of sedge and reed and
+treacherous quagmires. And they saw before them the gray walls of a
+great city of which they had never heard.
+
+They advanced cautiously: they found themselves on a firm road, the
+Vicinal Way, covered with grass: they expected the sight of an enemy on
+the wall: none appeared. The gates were closed, the timbers were rotten
+and fell down at a touch: the men broke through and found themselves
+among the streets of a city all in ruins. They ran about--shouting--no
+one appeared: the City was deserted.
+
+They went away and told what they had found.
+
+But Augusta had perished. When the City appears again it is under its
+more ancient name--it is again London.
+
+
+
+
+8. THE FIRST SAXON SETTLEMENT.
+
+
+A hundred and fifty years passed away between the landing of the East
+Saxons and their recorded occupation of the City. This long period made
+a great difference in the fierce savage who followed the standard of the
+White Horse and landed on the coast of Essex. He became more peaceful:
+he settled down contentedly to periods of tranquillity. Certain arts he
+acquired, and he learned to live in towns: as yet he was not a
+Christian. This means that the influence of Rome with its religion, its
+learning and its arts had not yet touched him.
+
+But he had begun to live in towns; and he lived in London.
+
+Perhaps the first of the new settlers were the foreign merchants
+returning, as soon as more settled times allowed, with their cargoes.
+London has always been a place of trade. But for trade no one would have
+settled in it. Therefore, either the men of Essex invited the foreign
+merchants to return; or the foreign merchants returned and invited the
+men of Essex to come into the City and to bring with them what they had
+to exchange.
+
+In the year 597 Augustine, prior of a Roman monastery, was sent by Pope
+Gregory the Great with forty monks, to convert the English. Ethelbert,
+King of Kent, and most powerful of the English kinglets, was married to
+Bertha, a Christian princess. She had brought with her a chaplain and it
+was probably at her invitation or through her influence, that the monks
+were sent. They landed at Thanet. They obtained permission to meet the
+King in the open air. They appeared wearing their robes, carrying a
+crucifix, and chanting Psalms. It is probable that the conversion of the
+King had been arranged beforehand; for without any difficulty or delay
+the King and all his Court, and, following the King's example, all the
+people were baptised.
+
+Augustine returned to Rome where he was consecrated Archbishop of the
+English nation. A church was built at Canterbury, and the work of
+preaching the Faith went on vigorously. The East Saxons made no more
+hesitation at being baptised than the men of Kent. Ethelbert, indeed,
+could command obedience; he was Over Lord of all the nations south of
+the Humber. He it was, according to Bede, who built the first church of
+St. Paul in London, a fact which proves his authority and influence in
+London, and his sincere desire that the East Saxons should become
+Christians.
+
+They did, in a way. But when King Siebehrt died, they relapsed and drove
+their Bishop into exile.
+
+Then--Bede says that they were punished for this sin--the East Saxons
+fell into trouble. They went to war with the men of Wessex and were
+defeated by them. After this, we find London in the hands of the
+Northumbrians and the Mercians--that is to say--these nations one after
+the other obtained the supremacy. It was in the year 616 or thereabouts,
+that Bishop Mellitus had to leave his diocese. Forty years later another
+conversion of London took place under Bishop Cedd, consecrated at
+Lindisfarne. The new faith was not strong enough to stand against a
+plague, and the East Saxons of London went back once more to their old
+gods. After another thirty years, before the close of the seventh
+century, London was again converted: and this time for good.
+
+In the eighth century London passed again out of the hands of the East
+Saxon kings into those of the Mercians. The earliest extant document
+concerning London is one dated 734, in which King Ethelbald grants to
+the Bishop of Rochester leave to send one ship without tax in or out of
+London Port.
+
+A witan--i.e. a national council--was held in London in 811. It is then
+spoken of as an illustrious place and royal city. The supremacy of
+Mercia passed to that of Wessex--London went with the supremacy. In 833
+Egbert, King of Wessex, held a witan in London.
+
+[Illustration: MARTYRDOM OF ST. EDMUND BY THE DANES.
+
+(_From a drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries._)]
+
+When Egbert died the supremacy of Wessex fell with him. Then the Danish
+troubles fell thick and disastrous upon the country. When Alfred
+succeeded to the Crown the Danes held the Isle of Thanet, which
+commanded the river; they had conquered the north country from the Tweed
+to the Humber; they had overrun all the eastern counties twice--viz., in
+839 and in 852: they had pillaged London, which they presently occupied,
+making it their headquarters. With this Danish occupation ends the first
+Saxon settlement of the City.
+
+
+
+
+9. THE SECOND SAXON SETTLEMENT.
+
+
+The Danes held the City for twelve years at least. One cannot believe
+that these fierce warriors, who were exactly what the Saxons and Jutes
+had been four hundred years before--as fierce, as rude, as
+pagan--suffered any of the inhabitants, except the slaves, to remain.
+Massacre and pillage--or the fear of both--drove away all the residents.
+But the City was the headquarters of the Danes. Alfred recovered it in
+the year 884.
+
+He found it as the East Saxons had found it three hundred years before,
+a city of ruins; the wall a ruin; the churches destroyed.
+
+King Alfred has left many imperishable monuments of his reign. One of
+the greatest is the City of London, which he rebuilt. A recent historian
+(Loftie, _Historic Towns_, 'London') says that it would hardly be wrong
+to write, 'London was founded, rather more than a thousand years ago, by
+King Alfred--who chose for the site of his city a place formerly
+fortified by the Romans but desolated successively by the Saxons and the
+Danes.'
+
+The first thing he did was to rebuild the wall. This work re-established
+confidence in the minds of the citizens. Alfred placed his son-in-law
+Ethelred, afterwards Alderman (i.e. Chief man--Governor) of the
+Mercians, in command of the City, which seems to have been immediately
+filled with people. The London citizens went out with Ethelred to defeat
+the Danes at Benfleet, and with Alfred to defeat the Danes at the mouth
+of the river Lea; they went out with Athelstan to fight at Brunanburgh.
+London was never again taken by the Danes. Twice Sweyn endeavoured to
+take the City but was repulsed. Nor did London open her gates to him
+until the King had left the City. And when the Danes again entered the
+City there was no more pillage or massacre; London was too strong to be
+pillaged or massacred, and too rich to be abandoned to the army.
+
+King Ethelred came back and died, and was buried in St. Paul's; the old
+St. Paul's--that of King Ethelbert or that of Bishop Cedd--was burned
+down and the Londoners were building a new cathedral.
+
+Edmund Ironside was elected and crowned within the City walls. Then
+followed a siege of London by Canute. He dug a canal through the swamps,
+and dragged his ships by its means from Redriff to Lambeth. But he could
+not take the City. But the Treaty of Partition between Edmund and
+himself was agreed upon and the Dane once more obtained the City. He has
+left one or two names behind him. The church of St. Olave's in Hart
+Street, and that in 'Tooley,' or St. Olave's Street, Southwark, and the
+Church of St. Magnus, attest to the sovereignty of the Dane.
+
+[Illustration: SAXON HORSEMEN.
+
+(_Harl. MS. 603._)]
+
+At this time the two principal officers of the City were the Bishop and
+the Portreeve: there was also the 'Staller' or Marshal. The principal
+governing body was the 'Knighten Guild,' which was largely composed of
+the City aldermen. But these aldermen were not like those of the present
+day, an elected body: they were hereditary: they were aldermen in right
+of their estates within the City. What powers the Knighten Guild
+possessed is not easy to define. Besides this, the aristocracy of the
+City, there were already trade guilds for religious purposes and for
+feasting--but, as yet, with no powers. The people had their folk mote,
+or general gathering: their ward mote: and their weekly hustings. We
+must not seek to define the powers of all these bodies and corporations.
+They overlapped each other: the aristocratic party was continually
+innovating while the popular party as continually resisted. In many ways
+what we call the government of the City had not begun to be understood.
+That there was order of a kind is shown by the strict regulations, as
+strictly enforced, of the dues and tolls for ships that came up the
+river to the Port of London.
+
+
+
+
+10. THE ANGLO-SAXON CITIZEN.
+
+
+The Londoner of Athelstan and Ethelred was an Anglo-Saxon of a type far
+in advance of his fierce ancestor who swept the narrow seas and harried
+the eastern coasts. He had learned many arts: he had become a Christian:
+he wanted many luxuries. But the solid things which he inherited from
+his rude forefathers he passed on to his children. And they remain an
+inheritance for us to this day. For instance, our form of monarchy,
+limited in power, comes straight down to us from Alfred and Athelstan.
+Our nobility is a survival and a development of the Saxon earls and
+thanes; our forms of justice, trial by jury, magistrates--all come from
+the Saxons; the divisions of our country are Saxon, our municipal
+institutions are Saxon, our parliaments and councils are Saxon in
+origin. We owe our language to the Anglo-Saxon, small additions from
+Latin, French, and other sources have been made, but the bulk of our
+language is Saxon. Three-fourths of us are Anglo-Saxon by descent.
+Whatever there is in the English character of persistence, obstinacy,
+patience, industry, sobriety, love of freedom, we are accustomed to
+attribute to our Anglo-Saxon descent. In religion, arts, learning,
+literature, culture, we owe little or nothing to the Anglo-Saxon. In all
+these things we are indebted to the South.
+
+Let us see how the Anglo-Saxon Londoner lived.
+
+He was a trader or a craftsman. As a trader he received from the country
+inland whatever it had to produce. Slaves, who were bred like cattle on
+the farms, formed a large part of the exports; hides, wool, iron, tin,
+the English merchant had these things, and nothing more, to offer the
+foreigner who brought in exchange wine, spices, silk, incense, vestments
+and pictures for the churches and monasteries, books, and other
+luxuries. The ships at first belonged to the foreign merchants: they
+traded not only at London, but also at Bristol, Canterbury, Dover,
+Arundel, and other towns. Before the Conquest, however, English-built
+ships and English-manned fleets had already entered upon the trade.
+
+The trader, already wealthy, lived in great comfort. He was absolute
+master in his own house, but the household was directed or ruled by his
+wife. Everything was made in the house: the flour was ground, the bread
+was baked, the meat and fish were salted; the linen was woven, the
+garments were made by the wife, the daughters, and the women servants.
+The Anglo-Saxon ladies were remarkable for their skill in embroidery;
+they excelled all other women in this beautiful art.
+
+The Anglo-Saxon house developed out of the common hall. Those who know
+the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge can trace the growth of the house
+in any of them. First there is the Common Hall. In this room, formerly,
+the whole family, with the serving men and women, lived and slept. There
+still exists at Higham Ferrars, in Northampton, such a hall, built as an
+almshouse. It is a long room: at the east end, raised a foot, is a
+little chapel; on the south side is a long open stove; the almsmen slept
+on the floor on reeds, each man wrapped in his blanket.
+
+[Illustration: SAXON CHURCH AT BRADFORD-ON-AVON, WILTS.]
+
+Everybody lived and slept in the Common Hall. All day long the women
+worked at the spinning and weaving and sewing and embroidery. Women were
+defined by this kind of work--we still speak of spinsters. Formerly
+relationship through the mother was called 'on the spindle side,' while,
+long after the men had to fight every day against marauding tribes,
+relationship through the father was called 'on the spear side.' All day
+long the men worked outside in the fields, or in the warehouse, and on
+the quays or at their craft. In the evening they sat about the fire and
+listened to stories, or to songs with the accompaniment of the harp.
+
+The first improvement was the separation of the kitchen from the hall:
+in the Cambridge College you see the hall on one side and the kitchen
+the other, separated by a passage. The second step was the construction
+of the 'Solar,' or chamber over the kitchen, which became the bedroom of
+the master and the mistress of the house. Then they built a room behind
+the solar for the daughters and the maidservants; the sons and the
+menservants still sleeping in the Hall. Presumably the house was at this
+stage in the time of King Ethelred, just before the Norman Conquest. The
+ladies' 'bower' followed, and after that the sleeping rooms for the men.
+
+There was no furniture, as we understand it. Benches there were, and
+trestles for the tables, which were literally laid at every meal: a
+great chair was provided for the Lord and Lady: tapestry kept out the
+draughts: weapons, musical instruments, and other things hung upon the
+walls. Dinner was at noon: supper in the evening when work was over:
+they made great use of vegetables and they had nearly all our modern
+fruits: they drank, as the national beverage, beer or mead.
+
+But everybody was not a wealthy merchant: most of the citizens were
+craftsmen of some kind. These lived in small wooden houses of two rooms,
+one above the other: those who were not able to afford so much slept in
+hovels, consisting of four uprights with 'wattle and daub' for the
+sides, a roof of thatch, no window, and a fire in the middle of the
+floor. They lived very roughly: they endured many hardships: but they
+were a well-fed people, turbulent and independent: their houses were
+crowded in narrow lanes--how narrow may be understood by a walk along
+Thames Street; they were always in danger of fire--in 962, in 1087, in
+1135, the greater part of the City was burned to the ground. They lived
+in plenty: there was work for all: they had their folk mote--their City
+parliament--and their ward mote--which still exists: they had no feudal
+lord to harass them: as for the dirt and mud and stench of the narrow
+City streets, they cared nothing for such things. They were free: and
+they were well fed: and they were cheerful and contented.
+
+
+
+
+11. THE WALL OF LONDON.
+
+
+Let us examine into the history and the course of the Wall of London, if
+only for the very remarkable facts that the boundary of the City was
+determined for fifteen hundred years by the erection of this Wall; that
+for some purposes the course of the Wall still affects the government of
+London; and that it was only pulled down bit by bit in the course of the
+last century.
+
+You will see by reference to the map what was the course of the Wall. It
+began, starting from the east where the White Tower now stands. Part of
+the foundation of the Tower consists of a bastion of the Roman wall. It
+followed a line nearly north as far as Aldgate. Then it turned in a N.W.
+direction just north of Camomile Street and Bevis Marks to Bishopsgate.
+Thence it ran nearly due W., north of the street called London Wall,
+turning S. at Monkwell Street. At Aldersgate it turned W. until it
+reached Newgate, where it turned nearly S. again and so to the river, a
+little east of the present Blackfriars Bridge. It ran, lastly, along the
+river bank to join its eastern extremity. The river wall had openings or
+gates at Dowgate and Bishopsgate, and probably at Queen Hithe. The
+length of the Wall, without counting the river side, was 2 miles and 608
+feet.
+
+This formidable Wall was originally about 12 feet thick made of rubble
+and mortar, the latter very hard, and faced with stone. You may know
+Roman work by the courses of tiles or bricks. They are arranged in
+double layers about 2 feet apart. The so-called bricks are not in the
+least like our bricks, being 6 inches long, 12 inches wide and 1½ inch
+thick. The Wall was 20 feet high, with towers and bastions at intervals
+about 50 feet high. At first there was no moat or ditch, and it will be
+understood that in order to protect the City from an attack of
+barbarians--Picts or Scots--it was enough to close the gates and to man
+the towers. The invaders had no ladders.
+
+[Illustration: CITY GATES.]
+
+In the course of centuries a great many repairs and rebuildings of the
+Wall took place. The Saxons allowed it to fall into a ruinous condition.
+Alfred rebuilt it and strengthened it. The next important repairs were
+made in the reign of King John in 1215, by Henry III., Edward I.,
+Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Edward IV. After these various
+rebuildings there would seem to be little left of the original Wall.
+That, however, a great part of it continued to be the hard rubble core
+of the Roman work seems evident from the fact that the course of the
+Wall was never altered. The only alteration was when they turned the
+Wall west at Ludgate down to the Fleet River and so to the confluence of
+the Fleet and the Thames. The river side of the Wall was also allowed to
+be removed.
+
+[Illustration: REMAINS OF THE WALL.]
+
+The City was thus protected by a great wall pierced by a few gates, with
+bastions and towers. At the East End after the Norman Conquest rose the
+Great White Tower still standing. At the West End was a tower called
+Montfichet's Tower.
+
+[Illustration: PART OF THE ROMAN WALL AT LEICESTER.]
+
+But a wall without a ditch, where a ditch was possible, became of
+little use as soon as scaling ladders were invented with wooden movable
+towers and other devices. A ditch was accordingly constructed in the
+year 1211 in the reign of King John. It appears to have been from the
+very first neglected by the citizens, who trusted more to their own
+bravery than to the protection of a ditch. It was frequently ordered to
+be cleansed and repaired: it abounded, when it was clean, with good fish
+of various kinds: but it was gradually allowed to dry up until, in the
+reign of Queen Elizabeth, nothing was left but a narrow channel or no
+channel at all but a few scattered ponds, with market gardens planted in
+the ditch itself. In Agas's map of London these gardens are figured,
+with summer houses and cottages for the gardeners and cattle grazing. On
+the west side north of Ludgate the ditch has entirely disappeared and
+houses are built against the Wall on the outside. Houndsditch is a row
+of mean houses facing the moat. Fore Street is also built over against
+the moat. Within and without the Wall they placed churchyards--those of
+St. Alphege, Allhallows, and St. Martin's Outwich, you may still see for
+yourselves within the Wall: that of St. Augustine's at the north end of
+St. Mary Axe, has vanished. Those of the three churches of St. Botolph,
+Bishopsgate, Aldgate, Aldersgate, and that of St. Giles are churchyards
+without the Wall. Then the ditch became filled up and houses were built
+all along the Wall within and without. Thus began unchecked, perhaps
+openly encouraged, the gradual demolition of the Wall. It takes a long
+time to tear down a wall of solid rubble twelve feet thick. It took the
+Londoners about 160 years. In the year 1760 they finally removed the
+gates. Most of the Wall was gone by this time but large fragments
+remained here and there. You may still see a considerable piece, part of
+a bastion in the churchyard of St. Giles, and the vestry of All Hallows
+on the Wall is built upon a bastion. In Camomile Street and in other
+places portions of the Wall have been discovered where excavations have
+been made: and, of course, the foundation of the Wall exists still, from
+end to end.
+
+
+
+
+12. NORMAN LONDON.
+
+
+When William the Conqueror received the submission of the City he gave
+the citizens a Charter--their first Charter--of freedom. There can be no
+doubt that the Charter was the price demanded by the citizens and
+willingly paid by the Conqueror in return for their submission. The
+following is the document. Short as it is, the whole future of the City
+is founded upon these few words:--
+
+'William King greets William Bishop and Gosfrith Portreeve and all the
+burghers within London, French and English, friendly.
+
+'I do you to wit that I will that ye be all law worthy that were in King
+Edward's day, and I will that every child be his father's heir after his
+father's day: and I will not endure that any man offer any wrong to you.
+
+'God keep you.'
+
+The ancient Charter itself is preserved at Guildhall. Many copies of it
+and translations of it were made from time to time. Let us see what it
+means.
+
+The citizens were to be 'law worthy' as they had been in the days of
+King Edward. This meant that they were to be free men in the courts of
+justice, with the right to be tried by their equals, that is, by jury.
+'All who were law worthy in King Edward's day.' Serfs were not law
+worthy, for instance. That the children should inherit their father's
+property was, as much as the preceding clause, great security to the
+freedom of the City, for it protected the people from any feudal claims
+that might arise. Next, observe that there was never any Earl of London:
+the City had no Lord but the King: it never would endure any Lord but
+the King. An attempt was made, but only one, and that was followed by
+the downfall of the Queen--Matilda--who tried it. Feudal customs arose
+and flourished and died, but they were unknown in this free city.
+
+But the City with its strong walls, its great multitude of people, and
+its resources, might prove so independent as to lock out the King.
+William therefore began to build the Tower, by means of which he could
+not only keep the enemy out of London but could keep his own strong hand
+upon the burghers. He took down a piece of the wall and enclosed twelve
+acres of ground, in which he built his stronghold, within a deep and
+broad ditch. The work was entrusted to Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester,
+who left it unfinished when he died thirty years after.
+
+The next great Charter of the City was granted by Henry the First. He
+remitted the payment of the levies for feudal service, of tax called
+Danegeld, originally imposed for buying off the Danes: of the murder
+tax: of wager of battle, that is, that form of trial in which the
+accused and the accuser fought it out, and from certain tolls. He also
+gave the citizens the county of Middlesex to farm on payment to the
+Crown of 300_l._ a year--a payment still made: they were to appoint a
+Sheriff for the county: and they were to have leave to hunt in the
+forests of Middlesex, Surrey, and the Chiltern Hills. They were also
+empowered to elect their own justiciar and allowed to try their own
+cases within their own limits.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER IN THE EARLIER STYLE. CHURCH AT EARL'S BARTON.
+
+(_The battlements are much later._)]
+
+This was a very important Charter. No doubt, like the first, it was
+stipulated as a price for the support of the City. William Rufus was
+killed on Thursday--Henry was in London on Saturday. He must therefore
+have ridden hard to get over the hundred and twenty miles of rough
+bridle track between the New Forest and London. But the City supported
+him and this was their reward.
+
+We are gradually approaching the modern constitution of the City. The
+Portreeve or first Magistrate, in the year 1189, in the person of Henry
+Fitz Aylwin, assumed the title of Mayor--not Lord Mayor: the title came
+later, a habit or style, never a rank conferred. With him were two
+Sheriffs, the Sheriff of the City and the Sheriff of the County. There
+was the Bishop: there was the City Justiciar with his courts. There were
+also the Aldermen, not yet an elected body.
+
+The Londoners elected Stephen King, and stood by him through all the
+troubles that followed. The plainest proof of the strength and
+importance of the City is shown in the fact that when Matilda took
+revenge on London by depriving the City of its Charters the citizens
+rose and drove her out of London and made her cause hopeless.
+
+
+
+
+13. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+The White Tower is the only building in modern London which belongs to
+Norman London. Portions remain--fragments--a part of the church of St.
+Bartholomew the Great, a part of the church of St. Ethelburga, the crypt
+of Bow Church: very little else. All the rest has been destroyed by
+time, by 'improvements,' or by fire, the greatest enemy to cities in
+every country and every age. Thus, three great fires in the tenth and
+eleventh century swept London from end to end. No need to ask if
+anything remains of the Roman or the Saxon City. Not a vestige is
+left--except the little fragment, known as the London Stone, now lying
+behind iron bars in the wall of St. Swithin's Church. Churches, Palaces,
+Monasteries, Castles--all perished in those three fires. The City, no
+doubt, speedily sprang again from its ashes, but of its rebuilding on
+each occasion we have no details at all.
+
+Most fortunately, there exists a document priceless and unique, short as
+it is and meagre in many of its details, which describes London as it
+was in the reign of Henry II. It is written by one FitzStephen, Chaplain
+to Thomas Becket. He was present at the murder of the Archbishop and
+wrote his life, to which this account is an introduction.
+
+[Illustration: A NORMAN SHIP.
+
+(_From the Bayeux Tapestry._)]
+
+He says, first of all, that the City contained thirteen larger
+conventual churches and a hundred and twenty-six parish churches. He
+writes only fifty years after the Great Fire, so that it is not likely
+that new parishes had been erected. All the churches which had been
+destroyed were rebuilt. Most of them were very small parishes, with,
+doubtless, very small churches. We shall return presently to the
+question of the churches.
+
+[Illustration: BUILDING A CHURCH IN THE LATER STYLE.
+
+(_From a drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries._)]
+
+On the east was the White Tower which he calls the 'Palatine Castle:'
+on the west there were two towers--there was the Tower called
+Montfichet, where is now Blackfriars station, and Baynard's Castle,
+close beside it. The walls of the City had seven double gates. The river
+wall had by this time been taken down. Two miles from the City, on the
+west, was the Royal Palace (Westminster), fortified with ramparts and
+connected with the City by a populous suburb. Already, therefore, the
+Strand and Charing Cross were settled. The gates were Aldgate,
+Bishopsgate, Cripplegate, Aldersgate, Newgate, Ludgate, and the Bridge.
+
+FitzStephen says that the citizens were so powerful that they could
+furnish the King with 20,000 horsemen and 60,000 foot. This is clearly
+gross exaggeration. If we allow 500 for each parish, we get a population
+of only 63,000 in all, and in the enumeration later on, for the poll tax
+by Richard the Second, there were no more than 48,000. This, however,
+was shortly after a great Plague had ravaged the City.
+
+But the writer tells us that the citizens excelled those of any other
+city in the world in 'handsomeness of manners and of dress, at table,
+and in way of speaking.' There were three principal schools, the
+scholars of which rivalled each other, and engaged in public contests of
+rhetoric and grammar.
+
+Those who worked at trades and sold wares of any kind were assigned
+their proper place whither they repaired every morning. It is easy to
+make out from the surviving names where the trades were placed. The
+names of Bread Street, Fish Street, Milk Street, Honey Lane, Wood
+Street, Soapers' Lane, the Poultry, for instance, indicate what trades
+were carried on there. Friday Street shows that the food proper for fast
+days was sold there--namely, dried fish. Cheapside preserves the name
+of the Chepe, the most important of all the old streets. Here, every
+day, all the year round, was a market held at which everything
+conceivable was sold, not in shops, but in _selds_, that is, covered
+wooden sheds, which could be taken down on occasion. Do not think that
+'Chepe' was a narrow street: it was a great open space lying between St.
+Paul's and what is now the Royal Exchange, with streets north and south
+formed by rows of these _selds_ or sheds. Presently the sheds became
+houses with shops in front and gardens behind. The roadway on the south
+side of this open space was called the Side of Chepe. There was another
+open space for salesmen called East Chepe, another at Billingsgate,
+called Roome Lane, another at Dowgate--both for purposes of exposing for
+sale imports landed on the Quays and the ports of Queenhithe and
+Billingsgate. Those who have seen a market-place in a French town will
+understand what these places were like. A large irregular area. On every
+side sheds with wares for sale: at first all seems confusion and noise:
+presently one makes out that there are streets in orderly array, in
+which those who know can find what they want. Here are mercers; here
+goldsmiths; here armourers; here glovers; here pepperers or grocers; and
+so forth. West Chepe is the place of shops where they sell the things
+made in the City and all things wanted for the daily life.
+
+On the other side of the Walbrook, across which there is a bridge where
+is now the Poultry, is East Chepe, whither they bring all kinds of
+imported goods and sell them to the retailers: and by the river side the
+merchants assemble in the open places beside Queenhithe and Billingsgate
+to receive or to buy the cargoes sent over from France, Spain, and the
+Low Countries. One more open space there was, that round St. Paul's,
+the place where the people held their folkmotes. But London was not, as
+yet, by any means built over. Its northern parts were covered with
+gardens. It was here, as we shall see, that the great monasteries were
+shortly to be built.
+
+[Illustration: LAY COSTUMES IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.]
+
+
+
+
+
+14. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Outside the walls, he says, there were many places of pleasant resort,
+streams and springs among them. He means the Fleet River winding at the
+bottom of its broad valley: farther west Tyburn and Westbourne: on the
+south the Wandle, the Effra, the Ravensbourne. There was a well at
+Holywell in the Strand--it lies under the site of the present Opéra
+Comique Theatre: and at Clerkenwell: these wells had medicinal or
+miraculous properties and there were, no doubt, taverns and places of
+amusement about there. At Smithfield--or Smooth Field--just outside the
+City walls, there was held once a week--on Friday--a horse fair.
+Business over, horse racing followed. Then the river was full of fish:
+some went fishing for their livelihood: some for amusement: salmon were
+plentiful and great fish such as porpoises sometimes found their way
+above Bridge.
+
+Then there were the sports of the young men and the boys. They played at
+ball--when have not young men played at ball? The young Londoners
+practised some form of hockey out of which have grown the two noble
+games of cricket and golf. They wrestled and leaped. Nothing is said
+about boxing and quarterstaff. But perhaps these belonged to the
+practice of arms and archery, which were never neglected, because at any
+moment the London craftsman might have to become a soldier. They had
+cock fighting, a sport to which the Londoner was always greatly
+addicted. And they loved dancing with the girls to the music of pipe and
+tabor. In the winter, when the broad fens north of the walls were
+frozen, they skated. And they hunted with hawk and hound in the Forest
+of Middlesex, which belonged to the City.
+
+[Illustration: COSTUME OF SHEPHERDS IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.]
+
+The City, he tells us, is governed by the same laws as those of Rome.
+Like Rome, London is divided into wards: like Rome the City has annually
+elected magistrates who are called Sheriffs instead of Consuls: like
+Rome it has senatorial and inferior magistrates: like Rome it has
+separate Courts and proper places for law suits, and like Rome the City
+holds assemblies on ordered days. The writer is carried away by his
+enthusiasm for Rome. As we have seen, the government, laws, and customs
+of London owed nothing at all, in any single respect, to Rome.
+Everything grew out of the Anglo-Saxon laws and customs.
+
+[Illustration: ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUME IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.]
+
+By his loud praise of the great plenty of food of every kind which could
+be found in London, FitzStephen reminds us that he has lived in other
+towns, and especially in Canterbury, when he was in the service of the
+Archbishop. We see, though he does not mention it, the comparison in his
+mind between the plentiful market of London and the meagre market of
+Canterbury. Everything, he says, was on sale. All the roasted meats and
+boiled that one can ask for; all the fish, poultry, and game in season,
+could every day be bought in London: there were cookshops where dinners
+and suppers could be had by paying for them. He dwells at length upon
+this abundance. Now in the country towns and the villages the supplies
+were a matter of uncertainty and anxiety: a housewife had to keep her
+pantry and her larder well victualled in advance: salt meat and salt
+fish were the staple of food. Beef and mutton were scarce: game there
+was in plenty if it could be taken; but game laws were strict; very
+little venison would find its way into Canterbury market. To this cleric
+who knew the country markets, the profusion of everything in London was
+amazing.
+
+Another thing he notices--'Nearly all the Bishops, Abbots, and Magnates
+of England are, as it were, citizens and freemen of London; having their
+own splendid houses to which they resort, where they spend largely when
+summoned to great Councils by the King, or by their Metropolitan, or
+drawn thither by their own private affairs.'
+
+In another century or two London will become, as you shall see, a City
+of Palaces. Observe that the palaces are already beginning. Observe,
+also, that London is already being enriched by the visits and residence
+of great lords who, with their retinues, spend 'largely.' Down to the
+present day the same thing has always gone on. The wealthy people who
+have their town houses in the West End of London and the thousands of
+country people and foreigners who now flock to the London hotels are the
+successors of the great men and their following who came up to London in
+the twelfth century and spent 'largely.'
+
+'I do not think,' says FitzStephen, 'that there is any city with more
+commendable customs of church attendance, honour to God's ordinances,
+keeping sacred festivals, almsgiving, hospitality, confirming,
+betrothals, contracting marriages, celebration of nuptials, preparing
+feasts, cheering the guests, and also in care for funerals and the
+interment of the dead. The only pests of London are the immoderate
+drinking of fools and the frequency of fires.'
+
+
+
+
+15. LONDON BRIDGE.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+Nobody knows who built the first Bridge. It was there in the fourth
+century--a bridge of timber provided with a fortified gate, one of the
+gates of the City. Who put it up, and when--how long it stood--what
+space there was between the piers--how broad it was--we do not know.
+Probably it was quite a narrow bridge consisting of beams laid across
+side by side and a railing at the side. That these beams were not close
+together is known by the fact that so many coins have been found in the
+bed of the river beneath the old Bridge.
+
+[Illustration: ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND FROM RICHARD I. TO EDWARD III.
+
+(_From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave, Westminster Abbey._)]
+
+Besides the Bridge there were ferries across the river, especially
+between Dowgate and the opposite bank called St. Mary Overies Dock,
+where was afterwards erected St. Mary Overies Priory, to which belonged
+the church now called St. Saviour's, Southwark. The docks at either end
+of the old ferry still remain.
+
+The Bridge had many misfortunes: it is said to have been destroyed by
+the Danes in 1013. Perhaps for 'destruction' we should read 'damage.' It
+was, however, certainly burned down in the Great Fire of 1136. Another,
+also of wood, was built in its place and, in the year 1176, a bridge of
+stone was commenced, which took thirty years to build and remained
+standing till the year 1831, when the present Bridge was completed and
+the old one pulled down.
+
+The Architect of this stone Bridge, destined to stand for six hundred
+and fifty years, was one Peter, Chaplain of St. Mary Colechurch in the
+Old Jewry (the church was destroyed in the Great Fire and not rebuilt).
+
+Now the building of bridges was regarded, at this time, as a work of
+piety. If we consider how a bridge helps the people we shall agree with
+our forefathers. Without a bridge, those living on one side of a river
+can only carry on intercourse with those on the other side by means of
+boats. Merchants cannot carry their wares about: farmers cannot get
+their produce to market: wayfarers can only get across by ferry: armies
+cannot march--if you wish to follow an army across a country where there
+are no bridges you must look for fords. Roads are useless unless bridges
+cross the rivers. The first essential to the union of a nation is the
+possibility of intercommunication: without roads and bridges the man of
+Devon is a stranger and an enemy to the man of Somerset. We who have
+bridges over every river: who need never even ford a stream: who hardly
+know what a ferry means: easily forget that these bridges did not grow
+like the oaks and the elms: but were built after long study of the
+subject by men who were trained for the work just as other men were
+trained and taught to build cathedrals and churches. A religious order
+was founded in France in the twelfth century: it was called the Order of
+the 'Pontife' Brethren--_Pontife_ is Pontifex--that is--Bridge Builder.
+The Bridge Building Brothers constructed many bridges in France of
+which several still remain. It is not certain that Peter of Colechurch
+was one of this Brotherhood, perhaps not. When he died, in 1205, before
+the Bridge was completed, King John called over a French 'Pontife' named
+Isembert who had built bridges at La Rochelle and Saintes. But the
+principal builders are said to have been three merchants of London named
+Serle Mercer, William Almain, and Benedict Botewrite. The building of
+the Bridge was regarded as a national work: the King: the great Lords:
+the Bishops: as well as the London Citizens, gave money to hasten its
+completion. The list of donors was preserved on 'a table fair written
+for posterity' in the Chapel on the Bridge. It was unhappily destroyed
+in the Great Fire.
+
+It must not be supposed that the Bridge of Peter Colechurch was like the
+present stately Bridge of broad arches. It contained twenty arches of
+irregular breadth: only two or three being the same: they varied from 10
+feet to 32 feet: some of them therefore were very narrow: the piers were
+also of different lengths. These irregularities were certainly
+intentional and were based upon some observations on the rise and fall
+of the tide. No other great Bridge had yet been constructed across a
+tidal river.
+
+When the Bridge was built it was thought necessary to consecrate it to
+some saint. The latest saint, St. Thomas Becket, was chosen as the
+titular saint of this Bridge. A chapel, dedicated to him, was built in
+the centre pier of the Bridge: it was, in fact, a double chapel: in the
+lower part, the crypt, was buried Peter of Colechurch himself: the upper
+part, which escaped the Great Fire, became, after the Reformation, a
+warehouse.
+
+
+
+
+16. LONDON BRIDGE.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Houses were erected in course of time along the Bridge on either side
+like a street, but with intervals; and along the roadway in the middle
+were chain posts to protect the passengers. As the Bridge was only 40
+feet wide the houses must have been small. But they were built out at
+the back overhanging the river, and the roadway itself was not intended
+for carts or wheeled vehicles. Remember that everything was brought to
+the City on pack horse or pack ass. The table of Tolls sanctioned by
+King Edward I. makes no mention of cart or waggon at all. Men on
+horseback and loaded horses can get along with a very narrow road.
+Perhaps we may allow twelve feet for the road which gives for the houses
+on either side a depth of 14 feet each.
+
+[Illustration: OLD LONDON BRIDGE.]
+
+These houses were occupied chiefly by shops, most of which were
+'haberdashers and traders in small wares.' Later on there were many
+booksellers. Paper merchants and stationers, after the Reformation,
+occupied the chapel. The great painter Hans Holbein lived on the Bridge
+and the two marine painters Peter Monamy and Dominic Serres also lived
+here.
+
+The narrowness of the arches and the rush of the flowing or the ebbing
+tide made the 'shooting' of the Bridge a matter of great danger. The
+Duke of Norfolk in 1429 was thrown into the water by the capsizing of
+his boat and narrowly escaped with his life. Queen Henrietta, in 1628,
+was nearly wrecked in the same way by running into the piers while
+shooting the Bridge. Rubens the painter was thrown into the water in the
+same way.
+
+One of the twenty arches formed a drawbridge which allowed vessels of
+larger size than barges to pass up the river and could be used to keep
+back an enemy. In this way Sir Thomas Wyatt in 1557 was kept out of
+London. Before this drawbridge stood a tower on the battlements of which
+were placed the heads of traitors and criminals. The heads of Sir
+William Wallace, Jack Cade, Sir Thomas More and many others were stuck
+up here. On the Southwark side was another tower.
+
+The Bridge, which was the pride and boast of London, was endowed with
+lands for its maintenance: the rents of the houses were also collected
+for the same purpose: a toll was imposed on all merchandise carried
+across, and a Brotherhood was formed, called the Brothers of St. Thomas
+on the Bridge, whose duty it was to perform service in the chapel and to
+keep the Bridge in repair.
+
+Repairs were always wanting: to keep some of the force of the water off
+the piers these were furnished with 'starlings,' i.e. at first piles
+driven down in front of the piers, afterwards turned into projecting
+buttresses of stone. Then corn mills were built in some of the openings,
+and in the year 1582 great waterworks were constructed at the southern
+end. The tower before the drawbridge was by Queen Elizabeth rebuilt and
+made a very splendid house--called Nonesuch House. The Fire destroyed
+the houses on the Bridge, some of which were not rebuilt: and in the
+year 1757 all the houses were removed from the Bridge.
+
+The New Bridge was finished and opened in 1831--it stands 180 feet west
+of its predecessor. Then the Old Bridge was pulled down. The work of
+Peter Colechurch lasted from 1209 to 1831 or 622 years. The Pontife
+Brothers, therefore, knew how to put in good and lasting work.
+
+This is the history of London Bridge. First a narrow wooden gangway of
+beams lying on timber piles with a fortified gate; then a stone
+structure of twenty irregular arches, the Bridge broad but the roadway
+still narrow with houses on either side and a fortress and a chapel upon
+it--in those times there was always a fortress, and there was always a
+chapel. It must have been a pleasant place of residence: the air fresh
+and clear: the supply of water unlimited--one drew it up in a bucket:
+always something going on: the entrance of a foreign ambassador, a
+religious procession, a riding of the Lord Mayor, a pageant, a nobleman
+with his livery, a Bishop or a Prior with his servants, a pilgrimage, a
+string of pack horses out of Kent bringing fruit for the City: always
+something to see. Then there were the stories and traditions of the
+place, with the songs which the children sang about the Bridge.
+Especially there was the story of Edward Osborne. He was the son of one
+Richard Osborne, a gentleman of Kent. Like many sons of the poor country
+gentlemen, he was sent up to London and apprenticed to Sir William
+Hewitt a cloth worker who lived on London Bridge. His master had a
+daughter named Anne, a little girl who one day, while playing with her
+nurse at an open window overhanging the river, fell out into the rushing
+water sixty feet below. The apprentice, young Osborne, leaped into the
+river after her and succeeded in saving her. When the girl was grown up
+her father gave her to his ex-apprentice, Edward Osborne, to wife.
+Edward Osborne became Lord Mayor. His descendant is now Duke of Leeds.
+So that the Dukedom of Leeds sprang from that gallant leap out of the
+window overhanging the river Thames from London Bridge.
+
+
+
+
+17. THE TOWER OF LONDON.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+In an age when every noble's house was a castle, and when every castle
+was erected in order to dominate, as well as to defend, the town and the
+district in which it stood, the Tower of London was erected. The builder
+of the White Tower was William the Conqueror, who gave the City its
+Charter but had no intention of giving up his own sovereignty; the
+architect, as has been already said, was one Gundulph, Bishop of
+Rochester. Part of the City wall was pulled down to make room for it,
+and it was intended at once for the King's Palace, the King's Castle,
+and the King's Prison. It was also the key of London--who held the
+Tower, held the City.
+
+William Rufus built a wall round the Tower so as to separate it entirely
+from the City and to prevent the danger of a hasty rising of the
+people: with the same object he gave it a water gate.
+
+A hundred years later, while Richard Coeur de Lion was on his Crusade,
+the moat was constructed. Henry III. and his son Edward I. added to the
+outer walls and strengthened them.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER OF LONDON.]
+
+There is a plan of the Tower made from a survey of the year 1597 and
+published by the Society of Antiquaries. A study of the plan should be
+made before visiting the place. Remark first of all that the fortress
+has three entrances only: one at the S.W. angle to the City; one to the
+river now called Traitors' Gate; and one on the S.E. angle called the
+Irongate: that it is surrounded by a broad and deep moat which could be
+filled at every high tide: that from the moat rises a battlemented wall,
+and that within this first wall is another, flanked with protecting
+towers; that the City entrance is most jealously guarded by a strong
+gate first: then by a narrow way passing under a tower: then over a
+bridge. In all mediæval castles the first thought was to make it
+impossible to carry the place by a rush. If we would restore the Tower
+of Queen Elizabeth to the Tower of Edward III. we must abolish all those
+buildings which stand on the north and east sides, with those called
+'Lieutenants' Lodgings' on the south. The space on the north side of the
+Keep was the exercising ground: stables there must have been somewhere
+in this great area; the men at arms would live in the smaller towers. If
+you will study this plan carefully, you will understand the general
+arrangement of a mediæval castle.
+
+In the sixteenth century the place was no longer regarded as a fortress
+for the defence or the domination of the City. But the old forms were
+kept up: nobody was admitted who carried arms: the guard kept the gate:
+a garrison was maintained. Within, there was an armoury, the beginning
+of the splendid collection which is now shown: there was a Mint for the
+coining of money: there were collections of tapestry, saddles, bed
+furniture and robes belonging to the Crown: here were kept the Crown and
+sceptre and insignia: here was the Royal menagerie. Here were the rooms
+reserved for state criminals. It was no longer the Royal Palace but the
+sovereign sometimes occupied the Tower. James the First was here, for
+instance, in 1604.
+
+Near the outer gate where is now the Refreshment Room were kept the
+King's lions. Henry I. began this menagerie which was continued until
+the year 1834. At the entrance of the fortress is the Bell Tower where
+Queen Elizabeth was once confined. The Water Gate called Traitors' Gate
+is under St. Thomas's Tower. The Beauchamp Tower has been the prison of,
+among others, Queen Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane Grey. In the Great White
+Tower Richard II. abdicated in favour of Henry IV. In the vaults are
+dungeons, once the prison of Guy Fawkes. In the Chapel the newly made
+Knights of the Bath watched their armour all night long. The collection
+of arms contains examples of weapons and armour of every age. In the
+Church of St. Peter ad Vincula you will find the graves of the
+unfortunate Princes, Queens, and nobles who have been executed for State
+offences. Nothing, except the Royal tombs of Westminster, so much helps
+to prove the reality of History, as this collection of graves and slabs
+and tablets in this little church. And here were kept the Crown jewels
+about which many a chapter might be written.
+
+But to study the Tower of London one must visit it with the History of
+England in hand. Hither were brought all the State prisoners: here they
+were confined: here they were executed. Every tower, every stone reminds
+one of sufferers and criminals and traitors and innocent victims. Do
+not, however, forget that this Tower was built for the restriction of
+the liberties of the people. That purpose has been defeated. The
+liberties have grown beyond what could ever have been hoped while the
+privileges of the Crown, which this Tower was built to protect and to
+enlarge, have been restricted beyond the greatest fears of the mediæval
+kings.
+
+
+
+
+18. THE TOWER OF LONDON.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Of all the prisoners who suffered death at the termination of their
+captivity in the Tower, there is none whose fate was so cruel as that of
+Lady Jane Grey. Her story belongs to English history. Recall, when next
+you visit the Tower, the short and tragic life of this young Queen of a
+nine days' reign.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+She was not yet eighteen when she was beheaded, not through any fault of
+her own, but solely because her relationship to the Crown placed her in
+the hands of men who used her for their own political purposes. She was
+the second cousin of Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Her grandmother
+was the sister of Henry VIII., widow of Louis XII. of France, and wife
+of Charles, Duke of Suffolk. The young King on his deathbed was
+persuaded to name her as his successor. She was sixteen years of age:
+she was already married to Lord Guilford Dudley, son of the Duke of
+Northumberland: when she was proclaimed Queen. Nine days after the
+proclamation she was a prisoner. On the 8th of July she was
+acknowledged Queen by the Lord Mayor and Aldermen: on the 10th she was
+taken by water from Greenwich to the Tower, and proclaimed Queen in the
+City: on the 17th another proclamation was made of Queen Mary, and her
+reign was over. But the Tower she was never more to leave.
+
+On the 13th of November--after five months of suspense--she was tried
+for high treason with Cranmer, her husband Lord Guilford, and her
+husband's brother, Lord Ambrose. They were all four found guilty, and
+condemned to death--their judges being the very men who had sworn
+allegiance to her as Queen. It would seem that Mary had no desire to
+carry out the sentence: Cranmer she reserved for a more cruel death than
+that of beheading--he was to be burned as a heretic. The other three,
+two boys and a girl, it would be dangerous to execute on account of the
+popular sympathy their death would awaken. They were therefore sent back
+to the Tower. Probably it was intended that Lady Jane, at least, should
+pass the rest of her life in honourable captivity, as happened later on
+to Arabella Stuart. But the rebellion of Wyatt showed that her name
+could still be used as a cry in favour of a Protestant succession. It
+was therefore resolved to put both husband and wife to death. What
+further harm the young Lord Guilford Dudley could do is not apparent.
+Even then the Queen's advisers shrank from exhibiting on Tower Hill the
+spectacle of a young and beautiful girl, taken forth to be beheaded
+because certain hot-headed partizans had used her name. She was executed
+therefore within the verge of the Tower itself, on the so-called
+'Green.'
+
+'The Green' is a place where no grass will grow--it used to be said--on
+account of the blood that had been shed upon it. Among the sufferers
+here was Hastings, executed by order of King Richard: Anne Boleyn:
+Katharine Howard: and Lady Jane Grey. A stone marks the spot on which
+the scaffold was set up.
+
+It was on the morning of the 12th of February that Lady Jane Grey was
+put to death. She was then confined in the 'Brick' Tower, the residence
+of the Master of the Ordnance. From her window she saw the headless body
+of her husband brought back from Tower Hill in a cart. She looked upon
+it without shrinking. 'Oh! Guilford,' she said, 'the antipast is not so
+bitter after thou hast tasted, and which I shall soon taste, as to make
+my flesh tremble: it is nothing compared to the feast of which we shall
+partake this day in Heaven.' So she went forth with her two gentlewomen,
+Elizabeth Tylney and Mistress Helen, but she shed no tears. When she was
+on the scaffold she spoke to the officers of the Tower and the soldiers
+that stood around. No man or woman, however wise and dignified, could
+speak more clearly and with greater dignity than this girl of sixteen.
+They had been trying to make her a Catholic. Therefore, she made
+confession of the Protestant Faith: 'Good Christian people, bear witness
+that I die a true Christian woman and that I do look to be saved by no
+other means but only by the mercy of God, in the blood of his only son,
+Jesus Christ.'
+
+So she made her gentlewomen bare her neck and bind her eyes and kneeling
+down laid her head upon the block, and while she was saying, 'Lord, into
+Thy hands I commend my spirit,' the axe fell and she was dead.
+
+She lies buried before the altar of St. Peter's Church, near the bodies
+of the Queens Anne Boleyn and Katharine Howard.
+
+So she died, this poor innocent child of whom all we know is that she
+was so scholarly that she could read Greek in the original: that she
+was beautiful: of a grave and sweet disposition: and raised far above
+the voice of calumny. She had, says Foxe, 'the innocency of childhood,
+the beauty of youth, the gravity of age: she had the birth of a
+princess, the learning of a clerk, the life of a saint, and the death of
+a malefactor for her parents' offences.'
+
+[Illustration: A BED IN THE REIGN OF HENRY III.]
+
+
+
+
+19. THE PILGRIMS.
+
+
+In the time when the road connecting village with village and town with
+town was but an uncertain bridle path through woods and over waste
+places, where in winter horse, man, and wayfarer struggled with bog and
+quagmire, where robbers lurked in the thickets, and fevers and agues
+haunted the marsh, where men went armed and every stranger was a foe: it
+would seem as if most men stayed where they were born and desired not to
+court the dangers of the unknown world. In many villages, especially in
+the remote places of the country, this was the case. The men of Somerset
+abode where they were born, speaking their own language, a race apart:
+the men of Norfolk abode in their county cut off from the rest of the
+world by fens in the west and sea on the north and east: their language
+was not understood by the men of the west or the south country. Had the
+other conditions of life allowed this isolation to continue
+undisturbed, the nation could never have been created: we should have
+remained a scattered collection of tribes speaking each its own language
+and developing its own customs.
+
+There were three causes which stirred the stagnant waters. The first was
+War. The Baron, or Feudal Lord, carried off the young men of the village
+to fight: those of them who returned had things to tell of the outside
+world. They fired the imagination and awakened the enterprise of the
+lads. The second was Trade at the trading ports: the lads saw, and
+continued to talk with, the foreign sailors--the Fleming, the German,
+the man of Rouen or Bordeaux: some of them went on board the ships of
+the merchant adventurers and sailed to foreign lands. Lastly, there were
+the Pilgrimages.
+
+From the tenth to the fifteenth century there was a rage for pilgrimage.
+Everybody wanted to become a pilgrim. No money was wanted: there would
+certainly be found every day some monastery at which bed and a supper
+would be provided for the pilgrim: it was a joyous company which fared
+along the road, some riding, some on foot, travelling together for
+safety, all bound to the same shrine where they would hear the masses
+and make their vows and so return, light-hearted: it was, in fact, the
+mediæval way of taking a holiday. Sometimes it was to Canterbury, where
+was the shrine of Thomas Becket, that the pilgrims were bound: sometimes
+to Walsingham, where was the miraculous image of the Virgin: sometimes
+to Glastonbury, hallowed by the thorn miraculously flowering every year
+on Christmas Day, planted by Joseph of Arimathea himself: sometimes it
+was farther afield--to Compostella in Spain, Rome, or even
+Jerusalem--that the pilgrims proposed to go. Chaucer describes such a
+company all starting together, riding from London to Canterbury on
+pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas Becket. They are pilgrims, but there
+is very little piety in their discourse: one can see that, whatever the
+motive, whether for the expiation of sin, or any other cause, the
+journey is full of cheerfulness and enjoyment. The Crusades were one
+outcome of this passion for pilgrimage. Nay, the first Crusade itself
+was little better than a great pilgrimage of the common people, so
+ignorant that they asked at the sight of every walled town if that was
+Jerusalem. It was a pilgrimage from which few, indeed, returned.
+
+In England, the chief gain from pilgrimage was the bringing together of
+men from the different parts of the country. Remember that the men of
+the North could not understand the speech of the men of the South: a
+Norfolk rustic at the present day would hardly understand a man of
+Devon: there was always danger of forgetting that they all belonged to
+the same realm, the same nation, and the same race.
+
+But the love of pilgrimage spread so wide that it became a danger. The
+rustic left the plough: the blacksmith his anvil: the carpenter his
+bench: all left their wives and their children in order to tramp across
+the country on pilgrimage to some shrine. By day they marched together:
+at night they sat round the fire in the strangers' room of the
+monastery, and took their supper and slept on the reeds. A delightful
+change from the monotony and hard work of the village! But the Bishops
+interposed. Let no one go on pilgrimage without his Bishop's license.
+Let not the monasteries give a bed and supper to any pilgrim who could
+not show his Bishop's license. Then the rustics and the craftsmen had to
+remain at home where they have stayed, except when they went out to
+fight, ever since.
+
+When the pilgrim--especially the pilgrim who had been over the
+seas--came home, he was able to entertain his friends with stories he
+had seen all the rest of his life. Thus, the earliest plan of the Holy
+Sepulchre is one drawn by a pilgrim for the instruction of certain monks
+who entertained him. The pilgrims were the travellers of the time. They
+observed foreign manners and customs: they brought home seeds and told
+of strange food: they extended the boundaries of the world: they
+prevented the native village from becoming the whole world: they taught
+and encouraged men to cease from regarding a stranger as an enemy. The
+world was thus opened out by War, Trade, and Pilgrimage, but most of all
+by Pilgrimage.
+
+
+
+
+20. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL.
+
+
+The oldest of the City Hospitals is that great and splendid Foundation
+which stands in Smithfield--the Smooth Field. It was first founded by
+one Rahere, of whom we know little or nothing except that he lived in
+the reign of Henry I., and that he founded the Priory and Monastery of
+St. Bartholomew. In the church of St. Bartholomew the Great you may see
+a very beautiful tomb said to be his, but the work is of a later date.
+It is related that while on a pilgrimage to Rome he fell ill and was
+like to die. And he vowed that if he were restored to health he would
+erect and establish a hospital for poor sick people. He did recover and
+he fulfilled his vow. He built the Priory of St. Bartholomew, whose
+church still stands in part and beside it established his hospital. The
+place called Smithfield was then a swampy field used for a horse fair:
+it was also a place of execution without the City wall. At first the
+hospital was a very small place. It consisted probably of two large
+rooms or halls, one for men and one for women--with a chapel. If it had
+any endowment at all it must have been very small, because the Master or
+Hospitaller had to go every morning to the Shambles, Newgate, in order
+to beg meat for the maintenance of the sick. Two hundred years later the
+hospital was taken in hand by Edward IV. and provided with an
+establishment of Master, eight brethren, priests, and four sisters, who
+served the sick. They were all subject to the Rule of St. Austin. After
+the death of Whittington, the hospital buildings were repaired by his
+bequests. On the dissolution of the religious houses, the Priory and
+Hospital of Bartholomew fell with the rest, but five years later the
+hospital was refounded and endowed by the King and the City.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE HALL AT PENSHURST, KENT.
+
+(_Showing the screen with minstrels' gallery over it, and the brazier
+for fire in the middle; built about 1340._)]
+
+If you visit a hospital and are taken into a ward, you see a row of
+clean white beds arranged in orderly position on either side of the long
+room: the temperature is regulated: the ventilation is perfect: there
+are means by which the patient can be examined in private: the diseases
+are apportioned to separate wards: every thing is managed with the
+greatest cleanliness and order: if an operation is performed the patient
+is kept under chloroform and feels nothing. The physicians are men of
+the highest scientific reputation: the nurses are trained assistants:
+the food is the best that can be procured. The poorest man brought to
+the hospital is treated with the same care, the same science, the same
+luxuries as the richest.
+
+Look, however, at the hospital as founded by Rahere.
+
+There is a great hall with a chapel at one end: at which mass is daily
+sung. The room is narrow and lofty, lit by Norman windows, two or three
+on a side: there is a lanthorn in the roof: under the lanthorn a fire is
+burning every day, the smoke rising to the roof: the hall is dark and
+ill ventilated, the air foul and heavy with the breath of sixty or
+seventy sick men lying in beds arranged in rows along the wall. There
+are not separate beds for each patient, but as the sick are brought in
+they are laid together side by side, in the same bed, whatever the
+disease, so that he who suffers from fever is placed beside another who
+suffers from palsy. There are four in a bed, and in times of pressure
+even more. Sometimes one arrives who develops the plague, when the
+whole of the patients in the hospital catch the infection and all die
+together. The surgeons are especially skilled in the dressing of wounds
+received in battle or in fray: the sisters can tie up a broken limb and
+stop a bleeding wound. The brethren go about the beds administering the
+last offices of the Church to the dying. The food is scanty: the
+appliances are rude: there is small hope of recovery: yet to die in
+hospital tended and consoled instead of in the hut where life has been
+passed is something for which to be grateful.
+
+[Illustration: THE UPPER CHAMBER OR SOLAR AT SUTTON COURTENAY
+MANOR-HOUSE.
+
+(_Date, about 1350._)]
+
+Consider into how great, how noble a Foundation the little hospital of
+Rahere has grown. The modern hospital contains 676 beds: it receives
+about 150,000 patients every year, of whom 7,000 are inpatients, 18,000
+out patients, and 130,000 casuals. The eight brethren have become 30
+physicians and surgeons besides the assistants called clinical clerks
+and dressers. The four sisters are now 159 sisters and nurses. There is
+a noble school of medicine: there are museums, libraries, lecture rooms,
+and there is a residential college for medical students: there is a
+convalescent hospital in the country. No hospital in the world has a
+larger or a more noble record than this of St. Bartholomew. And it all
+sprang from the resolution of one man, who started a humble house for
+the reception of the sick in a poor and despised place outside the City
+wall, but near to the Shambles where one could beg for broken victuals
+and for the pieces of meat that the butchers could not sell. Thus out of
+one good deed, apparently of small importance, has grown a never-ending
+stream of refreshment and healing. It has lasted for 700 years already:
+there seems no reason why it should ever stop.
+
+
+
+
+21. THE TERROR OF LEPROSY.
+
+
+One mile outside the City walls, on the west, stood for four hundred
+years the Hospital of St. Giles in the Fields.
+
+Here was a Lazar House, i.e. a Hospital for Lepers. It was founded by
+Maud, Queen of Henry I. It was dedicated to St. Giles because this saint
+was considered the protector of cripples. Hence the name Cripplegate,
+which really means the Little Gate, was applied to the church of St.
+Giles, and supposed to mean the gate near the church dedicated to the
+Patron Saint of Cripples. A common result of leprosy was to make the
+sufferer lame and crippled. Hence the connection. Generally, however,
+Lazarus, whom our Lord raised from the dead, was esteemed the Saint of
+Lepers, whence a Leper's Hospital was always called a Lazar House.
+
+In the middle ages the mysterious disease called leprosy was an ever
+present terror. Other plagues appeared at intervals and disappeared.
+Leprosy remained. It never left the land. It struck the King on his
+Throne, the Bishop in his Cathedral, the Abbess in her Nunnery, the
+soldier in camp, the merchant in his counting house, the sailor at sea.
+No class could escape it. Robert Bruce died of it; Orivalle, Bishop of
+London, died of it; Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, died of it. To this day
+it prevails in India, at the Cape, in the Pacific Islands, while there
+are occasional cases found in our own hospitals. The disease was
+incurable: the man, woman, or child, attacked by it would surely and
+slowly die of it. The leper was unclean: he was thrust out of the town:
+he had to live apart, or congregated in hospitals with other wretches
+similarly afflicted: if he walked abroad he wore a grey gown for
+distinction and carried a clapper as he went along, crying 'Unclean,
+Unclean,' so that the people might stand aside and not so much as touch
+his garments. And since he could not work with his hands, he was
+permitted to carry into the market a 'clap dish,' that is to say, a bowl
+or basin in which to receive food and alms.[2]
+
+[2] Lacroix, _Science_, p. 146.
+
+Leprosy is supposed to have had its origin in Egypt: the laws laid down
+in the Book of Leviticus for the separation of lepers are stringent and
+precise: it was believed, partly, no doubt, on account of these statutes
+in the Book of the Jewish Law, that the disease was brought into Western
+Europe by the Crusaders; but this was erroneous, because it was in this
+country before the Crusaders. Thus the Palace of St. James stands upon
+the site of a lazar house founded before the Conquest for fourteen
+leprous maidens.
+
+This is not the place to describe the symptoms and the results of this
+dreadful disease. Suffice it to say that the skin thickens, is
+discoloured and ulcerates: that the limbs swell: that the fingers and
+toes drop off: that the voice sinks to a whisper: and that the
+sufferer's mind is weakened by his malady.
+
+The fearful scourge was so prevalent that there was not a town, hardly a
+village, in any country of Europe which had not, in those centuries, its
+lepers and its lazar house, great or small. Every effort was made to
+isolate them: they were not allowed to worship with the rest of the
+people: they were provided with a separate building or chapel where,
+through a hole in the wall, they could look on at the performance of
+mass. And in addition, as you have seen, they lived apart and took their
+food apart.
+
+As for their houses--the lazar houses--the chief of them all, the place
+where Abbot possessed some kind of authority over the others, was one
+built in a village near Melton Mowbray called Burton Lazars. The
+Hospital of St. Giles, for instance, became shortly after its foundation
+a 'cell,' or dependency, of this House.
+
+Whatever the cause of this malady, whether it be contagious, i.e.
+communicated by touch; or infectious, that is, communicated by breathing
+the same air; or hereditary; it is quite certain that it was greatly
+aggravated by the habits of the time. Bad food, uncleanly habits, bad
+air, all contributed to the spread of leprosy. Especially it has been
+considered that the long fasts during which meat was prohibited
+encouraged the disease: not because abstinence from meat is in itself a
+bad thing, but because the people had to eat fish imperfectly cured or
+kept too long, and unwholesome. Fresh-water fish could not be procured
+in sufficient quantities and it was impossible to convey fish from the
+sea more than a certain distance inland.
+
+[Illustration: THE LEPERS BEGGING.]
+
+The dreadful appearance of the lepers, their horrible sufferings,
+produced loathing more than pity. People were horror stricken at the
+sight of them: they drove them out of their sight: they punished them
+cruelly if they broke the rules of separation: they imprisoned any
+citizen who should harbour a leper: they kept bailiffs at the City gates
+to keep them from entering. Fourteen of these afflicted persons were
+required to be maintained in accordance with Queen Maud's Foundation by
+the Hospital of St. Giles: there was also a lazar house in the Old Kent
+Road, Southwark: one between Mile End and Bow: one at Kingsland between
+Shoreditch and Stoke Newington: one at Knightsbridge, west of Charing
+Cross, and one at Holloway.
+
+On the Dissolution of the Monasteries, all these lazar houses were
+suppressed. Now, since we hear very little more about lepers, and since
+no new lazar houses were built, and since the prohibitions to enter
+churches, towns, &c., are no more renewed, it is tolerably certain that
+leprosy by the middle of the sixteenth century had practically
+disappeared. The above will show, however, how great and terrible a
+thing it was between the ninth and the sixteenth centuries.
+
+
+
+
+22. THE TERROR OF FAMINE.
+
+
+Suppose that all the ocean traffic were stopped; that there was no
+communication, or exchange of commodities, between our country and
+another; suppose that the people of this island depended entirely on
+their own harvests and their own cattle for their support. You would
+then easily understand how a single bad year might produce scarcity of
+food, and a very bad year might produce a famine. That was our condition
+down to the fifteenth century. Some corn may have been brought over from
+Prussia or from Hamburg; but there was no regular supply; the country
+depended on its own harvests. Therefore, the fear of a famine--or of
+scarcity--was ever present to the people.
+
+Many of these famines are on record. In the year 990 a famine raged over
+the whole of England; in 1126 there was a terrible scarcity. Wheat was
+sold at 6_s._ a horseload. Now, in the twelfth century a shilling meant
+more than a pound of our money, in purchasing power. It is not stated
+how much constituted a horseload. It would probably mean the filling of
+the two baskets hanging on either side of the packhorse. In 1257, after
+a wet season and a bad harvest, wheat rose to 24_s._ a quarter, a price
+which prohibited all but the richest from eating wheaten bread. It is
+said that 20,000 perished of starvation. In 1316, after the same cause,
+wheat became so scarce that its price rose to 4_l._ a quarter. So great
+was the distress this year, that great nobles had to dismiss their
+retainers; the roads in the country were crowded with robbers. Robberies
+were openly committed in the streets for the sake of food: in the
+prisons the unfortunate criminals, left to starve, murdered and devoured
+each other. The people ate carrion and dead dogs. In 1335 there was
+another time of scarcity and suffering; in 1439, the distress was so
+great that the people made bread of fern roots and ivy berries. Then,
+for the first time, we read of the famine being assuaged by the arrival
+of rye from Prussia. In 1527 a threatened famine was checked by the
+Hanseatic merchants who gave, or sold, a hundred quarters of wheat to
+the City and sent three ships to Dantzig for more. In 1593 and in 1597
+wheat rose to an enormous price. The last time of scarcity was during
+the long war with France, which lasted, from 1792 to 1815, nearly a
+quarter of a century. We were then compelled to depend almost entirely
+upon our own harvests. Wheat went up as high as 103_s._ a quarter.
+
+At no time did the poorer classes depend much upon wheat. Rye and oats
+made the bread of the working people. But bad harvests affected rye and
+oats as much as wheat.
+
+The famine prices of wheat may be explained by the following facts. In
+the reign of Henry I., at ordinary prices, bread enough for one meal for
+100 men could be bought for a shilling and a whole sheep cost fourpence.
+In the next century, when wheat was at 6_s._ a quarter, a farthing loaf
+was to weigh 24 oz. whole meal and 16 oz. white. When it was at 1_s._
+6_d._ a quarter the farthing loaf was to weigh 96 oz. whole grain and 64
+oz. white. The quartern loaf of 4 lb. or 64 oz. now costs 5_d._, wheat
+being very cheap. So that prices in time of plenty being supposed the
+same, money was worth twenty times in that century as much as it is
+worth now. In the reign of Edward I. wheat went down to 1_s._ a quarter.
+
+The food of the craftsmen in London was, in ordinary times, plentiful
+and cheap. The City, as we have seen, was always remarkable for the
+great abundance of provision which was brought there. And there is every
+reason to believe that while the rustic fared poorly and was underfed,
+the craftsman of the towns always enjoyed good food and enough of it.
+This made a time of scarcity hard to bear for one who habitually lived
+well.
+
+Once or twice an attempt was made to provide the City with granaries in
+case of famine. Thus the origin of Leadenhall, the great City market,
+was the erecting of a public granary here by Sir Simon Eyre in 1419.
+Attached to the Hall, after the manner of the time, was a chapel
+dedicated to the Holy Trinity, which the founder endowed for 60 priests
+who were to prepare service every day for those who frequented the
+market.
+
+Another public granary was established in 1610 at Bridewell Palace. This
+was built to contain 6,000 quarters of wheat.
+
+Nothing more is heard about these public granaries. Probably the public
+mind grew more assured on the subject of famine as it became better
+understood that the loss of one country might be made up from the
+superfluous harvests of another. The lesson taught by the Hanseatic
+merchants in sending to Prussia for corn was not likely to be lost.
+
+At the present moment, with means of transport always in readiness and
+the electric wire joining the most distant countries, it might seem that
+famine was a thing no longer to be feared. There cannot be bad harvests
+all over the world. Not only can we every year import so much wheat that
+we need grow little in this country, but we import frozen meat in vast
+quantities: we bring fruit of all kinds from the most distant countries,
+insomuch that there are some fruits, such as apples, oranges, grapes,
+bananas, which we can enjoy the whole year round. But famine may yet
+play a great and a disastrous part in our history. We must not forget
+that we enjoy our present abundance of all things on one of two
+conditions; first, that we are strong enough to protect the waterway and
+keep it open, or, secondly, that we remain at peace. The latter we
+cannot hope to do always. Therefore it is of vital importance that we
+maintain a strong fleet, well equipped, ready to fight, at all times and
+at the shortest notice, superior to any likely combination that may be
+brought against us. Therefore, again, it behoves every man in these
+Isles to be jealous of the fleet, for a time may come when the way of
+the ocean may be closed and when Great Britain, through the neglect of
+her rulers, may be starved into a shameful and ruinous surrender.
+
+
+
+
+23. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+When London was converted to Christianity, in the year 610, the first
+Bishop of London, Mellitus, built a church on the highest ground within
+the walls of the City. This church he dedicated to St. Paul the Apostle
+who first preached to the Gentiles. What kind of church this
+was--whether great or small--whether of wood or of stone--how often
+rebuilt or repaired--we know not. Probably it was quite a small church
+at first. This church, or its successor, was taken down in the year 1087
+when Bishop Maurice began to build a new and far more stately Cathedral.
+Fifty years later most of the church, not yet completed, was burned
+down. Its building, thus delayed, was continued for nearly two
+centuries. The steeple was not completed, for instance, till a hundred
+and fifty years after the commencement of the building. The drawing
+shows the church as it was in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
+Old St. Paul's was one of the largest churches in Europe: its length was
+at least 600 feet; the spire reached the height of 460 feet. The church
+stood in a large walled enclosure, still kept partly open, though the
+wall has long since been pulled down and there have been encroachments
+on the north side.
+
+[Illustration: LONDON BEFORE THE SPIRE OF ST. PAUL'S WAS BURNED: SHOWING
+ALSO THE BRIDGE, THE TOWER, SHIPPING, ETC.]
+
+The church in the fourteenth century was not regarded only as a place
+for public worship. Masses and services of all kinds were going on all
+day long: the place was bright, not only with the sunlight streaming
+through the painted glass, but with wax tapers burning before many a
+shrine--at some, all day and all night. People came to the church to
+walk about, for rest, for conversation, for the transaction of
+business--to make or receive payments: to hire servants. The middle
+aisle of the church where all this was done was called Paul's Walk or
+Duke Humphrey's Walk. Here were tables where twelve licensed scribes sat
+writing letters for those who wanted their services. They would also
+prepare a lease, a deed, a conveyance--any legal document. The church
+was filled with tombs and monuments, some of these very ancient, some of
+the greatest interest. Here was one called the tomb of Duke
+Humphrey--Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, who was really buried at St.
+Alban's. On May Day the watermen used to come to St. Paul's in order to
+sprinkle water and strew herbs upon this tomb--I know not why. Those who
+were out of work and went dinnerless were said to dine with Duke
+Humphrey: and there was a proverb--'Trash and trumpery is the way to
+Duke Humphrey.' Trumpery being used in its original
+meaning--_tromperie_--_deceit_. Among other tombs there were those of
+the Saxon Kings Sebbi and Ethelred. The first of these was King of the
+East Saxons. He was converted by Bishop Erkenwald. The second was the
+elder brother of King Alfred. There were tombs or shrines to many saints
+now forgotten--that of St. Erkenwald, whose fame rivalled that of Edward
+the Confessor at Westminster, St. Cuthbert at Durham, and St. Thomas à
+Becket at Canterbury: that of St. Ethelbert: that of St. Roger, Bishop
+of London--a cope which St. Roger wore is still preserved in the
+Sacristy: and that of St. Wilford. At every one of these shrines
+miracles were wrought--or believed to be wrought. There was also a
+miraculous crucifix said to have been discovered by Lucius, the first
+Christian King of ancient Britain in the year 140. Great gifts were
+constantly made to this crucifix.
+
+Under the Cathedral, in the crypt, was a parish church--that of St.
+Faith's--it is now united with the parish church of St. Augustine's in
+Watling Street.
+
+[Illustration: OLD ST. PAUL'S, FROM THE EAST.
+
+(_Showing its condition just before the Great Fire; from an engraving by
+Hollar._)]
+
+Outside the church, almost against the south wall, was the parish church
+of St. Gregory. In the same way the parish church of St. Margaret's
+stands outside Westminster Abbey. Within, we can see, in imagination,
+the people walking about--they have not yet begun to stand bareheaded in
+church--some dictating to the scribes: some leaning against the tombs:
+some sitting on the bases of the great round pillars--there were no
+pews, benches, or chairs in the Cathedral: the chantry priests are
+saying masses in the chapels: the people are kneeling before the golden
+shrine of St. Erkenwald, resplendent with lights, jewels, gold, and
+silver: women lay their offerings before the miraculous crucifix praying
+for the restoration to health of son or husband: a wedding is celebrated
+in one chapel: a funeral mass is being said in another: servants gather
+about a certain pillar waiting to be hired: porters carrying baskets on
+their heads enter at the north door and tramp through, going out of the
+south: processions of priests and choir pass up and down the aisles: the
+organ peals and echoes along the long and lofty roof. See; here comes a
+troop of men. They carry instruments of music: they are dressed in a
+livery, a cloak of green: they march together entering at the western
+doors and tramping through the whole length of the church to the chapel
+of Our Lady in the East. This is the Guild of the Minstrels. There were
+many other guilds attached to the Cathedral. You shall learn presently
+what was the meaning of these guilds.
+
+
+
+
+24. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Such was Paul's in the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth the
+Reformation came. The candles were all put out; the shrines were
+destroyed; the altars were taken out of the chapels: the miraculous
+images were taken away: the church, compared with its previous
+condition, became a shell. The choir was walled off for public worship:
+the rest of the church became a place of public resort: the poets of the
+time are full of allusions to Paul's Walk. It was a common thoroughfare
+even for men leading pack horses and asses. The Cathedral, left to
+neglect, began to fall into a ruinous condition. An attempt was made at
+restoration: funds were collected, but they came in slowly. Laud, who
+became Bishop of London in 1631, gave an impetus to the work: the
+celebrated Inigo Jones was appointed architect: in order to prevent the
+church from being turned into an Exchange, he built a West Porch, which
+is shown in some of the pictures of St. Paul's. In the time of the
+Commonwealth this portico was let off in shops and stalls: the nave of
+the church actually became a cavalry barrack.
+
+[Illustration: OLD ST. PAUL'S ON FIRE.
+
+(_From Longman's 'A History of the Three Cathedrals of St. Paul's.'_)]
+
+When King Charles returned it was resolved to repair and restore the
+cathedral, by this time almost in ruins: but while the citizens were
+considering what should be done, the Great Fire of London settled the
+question by burning down all that was left.
+
+Then Christopher Wren began the present building. The first stone was
+laid on June 21, 1675, nine years after the Fire. Divine service was
+performed on December 2, 1697, the day of thanksgiving for the Peace of
+Ryswick. The work was completed in 1710, thirty-five years after its
+commencement. The present church is 100 feet shorter than its
+predecessor: its dome is also 100 feet lower than the former spire. The
+grandeur of the building cannot be appreciated by any near view, because
+the houses block it in on all sides, and the former view from the bottom
+of Ludgate Hill is now spoiled by the railway bridge. Those who wish to
+see what St. Paul's really is--how splendid a church it is--how grandly
+it stands above the whole City--must cross the river and look at it from
+Bankside, Southwark.
+
+The dome is three fold: it consists of an outer casing of wood covered
+with lead: a cone of bricks which supports the lantern and cross: and an
+inner cupola of brick which supports nothing. The towers at the west end
+are 222 feet in height.
+
+St. Paul's, especially since the crowding at Westminster Abbey, is
+becoming the National Burial Church. It is already well filled with
+monuments of British worthies and heroes of this and the last century.
+Of men distinguished in Literature, Art, and Science, there are buried
+here Dr. Johnson, Hallam the historian, Sir Joshua Reynolds the painter,
+Turner the painter, Rennie the engineer who built Waterloo Bridge, Sir
+William Jones, the great Oriental scholar, and Sir Astley Cooper, the
+great surgeon. There is also buried here, as he should be, Sir
+Christopher Wren himself. But those who visit the Cathedral desire most
+to see the tombs of Wellington and Nelson. The remains of the former lie
+in a great sarcophagus worked out of a single piece of Cornish porphyry.
+Those of the Admiral were placed first in a coffin made from the main
+mast of the French ship _Orient_, taken at the Battle of the Nile.
+This was deposited in a sarcophagus made by Cardinal Wolsey and intended
+for the burial of King Henry the Eighth. In the Cathedral, too, you will
+find the monuments of those splendid fighting men, Lord Collingwood,
+Nelson's friend: Howe and Rodney: Earl St. Vincent, who won the battle
+of Cape St. Vincent: Lord Duncan of Camperdown, and many others.
+
+[Illustration: WEST FRONT OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
+
+(_Built by Sir Christopher Wren._)]
+
+In the crypt you will find, if you look for it, the brass tablet which
+marks the spot where lie the remains of a man whose history should be an
+encouragement to every boy who reads this book. His name was Edward
+Palmer. Born without family influence, plainly educated at the grammar
+school of his town, he taught himself in the teeth of all
+difficulties--that of bad health especially--Arabic, Persian, and all
+the languages which belong to that group: at the age of twenty-four he
+was so splendid an Oriental scholar that the greatest Orientalist at
+Cambridge declared that he could teach him nothing. He was elected to a
+Fellowship at St. John's College and became the Lord Almoner's Professor
+of Arabic. He mastered, in addition to his Oriental studies, all the
+European languages except Russian and the Slavonic group. He explored
+the Desert of the Exodus and the Peninsula of Sinai. He did a great deal
+of literary work. But he was not buried in St. Paul's Cathedral for
+these studies. In the year 1882, when the Egyptian War broke out, he was
+sent on a secret mission to the tribes of the Desert. He knew them all:
+he could talk their language as well as his own: he was the equal of any
+one in his knowledge of Arabic poetry and his power of telling stories:
+they welcomed him with open arms: the service that he rendered to his
+country for which he was honoured with a funeral at St. Paul's, was that
+he prevented these tribes from destroying the Suez Canal. He succeeded
+in reaching the British camp at Suez in safety, his task accomplished,
+the safety of the Canal assured. He was murdered in return by a party of
+Egyptian Arabs sent from Cairo. His bones were recovered by Sir Charles
+Warren--who further tracked down and hanged every man connected with the
+murder. The road to possible greatness lies open to all, but the way
+leads through a difficult and thorny way only to be passed, as Palmer
+found, by resolution invincible and by long patient industry.
+
+
+
+
+25. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD.
+
+
+St. Paul's Cathedral stood in the centre of an oval-shaped enclosure
+very much like the present St. Paul's Churchyard, save that the houses
+now in the north are an encroachment. This open space was surrounded by
+a wall, in which were six gates embattled. The first was the Great
+Western Gate, facing Ludgate Hill: the second in Paul's Alley in
+Paternoster Row: the third at Canon Alley: the fourth, or Little Gate,
+where is now the entrance into Cheapside: the fifth, St. Augustine's
+Gate, Watling Street: the sixth at Paul's Chain.
+
+[Illustration: PAUL'S CROSS.]
+
+Walking round this enclosure we come first upon the Bishop's Palace,
+standing on the north side of the Nave. The Palace was provided with a
+private entrance into the Cathedral. Beyond the Palace was a very
+beautiful cloister called Pardon Church Haugh. In this cloister stood a
+chapel built by Gilbert, father of Thomas à Becket. Many monuments and
+tombs of great persons stood within this cloister, which was also
+remarkable for its 'Dances of Death.' This was a series of paintings
+representing Death as a skeleton armed with a dart, leading by the hand
+men and women of every degree, from the highest to the lowest. There
+were formerly many examples of such dances. Next to the cloister was
+the library, the catalogue of which still exists to show what a
+scholar's collection of books then meant. Next to the library stood the
+College of the Minor Canons: then came Charnel Chapel, beneath which was
+a crypt filled with human bones taken from the churchyard. Remember that
+this has been a burial place ever since the year 610, when a church was
+first built here. From the year 610 till the year 1840, or for a period
+of 1,200 years, new graves were continually made in this ground. Who can
+guess how many thousands lie buried here? Every handful of the dust is a
+handful of human remains. From time to time, however, the bones were
+collected and placed in this crypt of Charnel Chapel. The chapel itself
+was apparently a large building, for when it was pulled down the
+materials were used by the Duke of Somerset at the Reformation in
+building Somerset House in the Strand. There are yet standing some
+portions of the original house, so that the stones of Charnel Chapel may
+still be seen. As for the crypt, they carried away the bones, which made
+a thousand cartloads, and laid them over Finsbury Fields, covering them
+with ground, on which were erected three windmills. The site is marked
+by the street called Windmill Street.
+
+Next to Charnel Chapel stood the famous Paul's Cross.
+
+This famous place was a Pulpit Cross, from which sermons might be
+preached in the open air. Several London churches had their open-air
+pulpits: notably St. Michael's, Cornhill; St. Mary's Spital, without
+Bishopsgate--at this Cross a sermon was preached every Easter to the
+Lord Mayor and aldermen. When Paul's Cross was erected is not known: it
+probably stood on the site of some scaffold or steps, from which the
+people were anciently harangued, for this was the place of the
+folk-mote, or meeting of the people. Here were read aloud, and
+proclaimed, the King's Laws and Orders: here the people were informed of
+War and Peace: here Papal Bulls were read. There was a cross standing
+here in the year 1256--very likely it was already ancient. In the year
+1387 it was ruinous and had to be repaired. It was again repaired or
+rebuilt in 1480. Paul's Cross played a very important part in the
+Reformation. Here the 'Rood' of Bexley, which was a crucifix where the
+eyes and lips were made to move and the people were taught that it was
+miraculous, was exposed and broken to pieces: here the famous images of
+Walsingham and Ipswich, the object of so many pilgrimages, were brought
+to be broken to pieces before the eyes of the people. Here Latimer
+preached, a man of the people who could speak to them in a way to make
+them understand. Had it not been for the preaching of Latimer and others
+like him in plain language, the Reformation would have been an attempt,
+and probably a failure, to enforce upon the people the opinions of
+certain scholars. Paul's Cross did not perish in the Fire: it was taken
+down in the year 1643, or thereabouts, in order to be rebuilt; but this
+was not done, and when the Fire destroyed the Cathedral Paul's Cross was
+forgotten. Its site may be seen in the churchyard at the N.E. corner of
+the choir, marked by a flat stone, but it must be remembered that the
+old church was wider but farther south.
+
+On the south side of Paul's Churchyard we pass in succession the
+beautiful Chapter House: the Church of St. Gregory and the Deanery.
+Close to the western gate are residences for the Canons, south of the
+enclosure are the Cathedral Brewhouse and Bakehouse.
+
+Such are some of the buildings in Paul's Churchyard. The Cathedral
+establishment supported a great army of priests and people. For many of
+them, perhaps for most, there were residences of some kind either within
+the enclosure or close beside it. Thus the priests, including Bishop,
+Dean, Archdeacons and Canons, a hundred and thirty in number: then there
+were the inferior officers: yet persons of consideration and authority,
+such as Sacrist, Almoner, Bookbinder, Chief Brewer, Chief Baker, with
+all their servants: scribes, messengers, bookbinders, illuminators and
+copyists: singing-men and choir boys, and women to keep the church
+clean. When we add that the Brewer had to provide 200 gallons of beer a
+day, it is obvious that there must have been a good many people
+belonging to the Cathedral who lived in the enclosure called the
+Churchyard.
+
+
+
+
+26. THE RELIGIOUS HOUSES.
+
+
+If we take a map of London in the fourteenth century and lay down upon
+it all the monasteries and religious Houses that then existed we shall
+find twenty, all rich and splendid Foundations, without counting those
+of Westminster and the villages within a few miles of London Stone.
+These were built for the most part either just within or just without
+the City wall. The reason was that the City was less densely populated
+near the wall than lower down along the river-side. Every one of these
+Societies was possessed of estates in the country and streets and houses
+in the City. Every one then retained, besides the monks or friars and
+nuns, a whole army of officers and servants. A great monastery provided
+employment for a very large number of people. In every separate estate
+which belonged to it, the monastery wanted tenant farmers, foresters and
+hunters, labourers, stewards and bailiffs, a curate or vicar in charge
+of the church and all the officers who are required for the management
+of an estate. For the House itself there were wanted first, the service
+of the chapel, apart from the singing which was done by the brethren:
+the school: the library: lawyers and clerks to administer the estates
+and guard the rights and privileges of the House: the brewhouse,
+bakehouse, kitchen, cellar, stables, with all the officers and servants
+required in a place where everything was made in the house; the
+architects, surveyors, carpenters and people wanted to maintain the
+buildings. It is not too much to reckon that a fourth part of the
+population of London belonged in some way or other to the monasteries,
+while these Houses were certainly the best customers for the wines,
+silks and spices which were brought to the quays of Queenhithe and
+Billingsgate.
+
+[Illustration: BERMONDSEY ABBEY.]
+
+It is generally believed that the monasteries, besides relieving the
+sick and poor and teaching the boys and girls, threw open their doors
+readily to any poor lad who desired to take the vows of the Order.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF GATEWAY OF BERMONDSEY ABBEY.]
+
+All this is a misconception: there were the same difficulties about
+relieving the poor as there are with us at the present moment. That is
+to say, indiscriminate charity then, as now, turned honest working men
+into paupers. This the monks and friars understood very well. They were
+therefore careful about their charities. Also in many Houses the school
+was allowed to drop into disuse. And as regards the admission of poor
+boys it was done only in cases where a boy showed himself quick and
+studious. It has been the glory of the Church in all ages that she has
+refused to recognise any barrier of birth: but she has also been careful
+to preserve her distinctions for those who deserve them. Most of the
+brethren in a rich Foundation were of gentle birth and good family. If a
+poor boy asked to join a monastery he was lucky if he was allowed to
+become one of its servants and to wear its livery. Then his livelihood
+was assured. There is every reason to believe that the rule of the
+brethren, strict for themselves, was light and easy for their servants.
+You may find out for yourselves where the London monasteries were, by
+the names of streets now standing on their sites. Thus, following the
+line of the wall from the Tower north and west you find St. Katharine's
+Dock where stood St. Katharine's Hospital: the Minories marks the House
+of the Minorites or Sisters of St. Clare; Great St. Helens is on the
+site of St. Helen's Nunnery: Spital Square stands where St. Mary's
+Spital formerly received the sick: Blackfriars, Charter House and
+Bartholomew's still keep their name: Austin Friars is the name of a
+court and the Friars' Church still stands: Whitefriars is still the name
+of a street: Grey Friars is Christ's Hospital: the Temple is now the
+lawyer's home; part of the Church of the Knights Hospitallers is still
+to be seen. Three great Houses, it is true, have left no trace or memory
+behind. Eastminster or the Cistercian Abbey of St. Mary of Grace, which
+stood north of St. Katharine's, and was a very great and stately place
+indeed: the Priory of the Holy Trinity, which stood where is now Duke's
+Place, north of the church of St. Catharine Cree: and St. Mary of
+Bethlehem, which stood just outside Bishopsgate. The memory of
+Bermondsey Abbey and St. Mary Overy on the south side of the river has
+also departed, but the church of the latter still stands, the most
+beautiful church in London next to Westminster Abbey.
+
+[Illustration: Christ's Hospital]
+
+But besides all these religious Houses employing thousands of people,
+there were in the City of London no fewer than 126 parish churches. Many
+of the parishes were extremely small--a single street--or half a street:
+many of the churches were insignificant: but many were rich and costly
+structures, adorned and beautified by the piety of many generations: all
+were endowed with funds for the saying of masses for the dead, so that
+there were many priests to every parish. Consider these things and you
+will understand that the City was filled with ecclesiastics--priests,
+friars, servants of the Church: at every corner rose a church: to one
+standing on the other bank of the river the City presented a forest of
+spires and towers. The church then occupied a far larger part of the
+daily life than is now the case even with Catholic countries. All were
+expected to attend a daily service: the trade companies went to church
+in state: young men belonged to a guild: the ringing of the bells was
+never silent: no one could escape, if he desired, from the Church. No
+one did desire to escape, because every one belonged to the Church. You
+must understand, not only that the Church was so great and rich that it
+owned and ruled a very large part of the country, but also that the
+people all belonged to the Church: it was part of their life as much as
+their daily work, their daily food, their daily rest.
+
+
+
+
+27. MONKS, FRIARS, AND NUNS.
+
+
+We must not speak of monks indiscriminately as if they were all the
+same. There were as many varieties among the Orders as there are sects
+among Protestants and as much rivalry and even hatred of one with the
+other. Let us learn some of the distinctions among them.
+
+Monks were first introduced into Western Europe in the year 529. There
+had long been brotherhoods, hermits, and solitaries in the East, where
+they existed before the Christian age. St. Benedict founded at Monte
+Casino in Campania a monastery for twelve brethren in that year. The
+Benedictines are the most ancient Order: they have also been always the
+most learned. The Priory of the Holy Trinity in London was Benedictine.
+Several branches sprang out of this Order, mostly founded with the view
+of practising greater austerities. Among them were the Carthusians, a
+very strict Order--in London they had the Charter House, a name which is
+a corruption of Chartreuse, their original House: and the Cistercians,
+founded at Citeaux in France--they had Eastminster, or the Abbey of St.
+Mary of Grace. All these were monks.
+
+The Augustine, or Austin Friars, pretended to have been founded by
+Augustine, but were not constituted until the year 1256. They had the
+monastery of Austin Friars in London. There were several branches of
+this Order.
+
+There were next the three great Mendicant Orders, Franciscans,
+Dominicans, and Carmelites. These were the popular Orders. The monks
+remained in their Houses alone, separated from the world. The friars
+went about among the people. By their vows they were to possess nothing
+of their own: they were to sleep where they could: they were to beg
+their food and raiment: they were to preach to the people in the streets
+and in their houses: they were to bring the rites of the Church to those
+who would not enter the doors of the Church. None were to be too poor or
+too miserable for them. In their humility they would not be called
+fathers but brothers--fratres--friars. In their preaching they used
+every way by which they could move the hearts of the people; some
+thundered, some wept, some made jokes. They preached in the midst of the
+markets, among the sports of the Fair, wherever they could get an
+audience together.
+
+The Franciscans, who had Grey Friars House, now the Bluecoat School,
+were founded by St. Francis of Assisi in the beginning of the thirteenth
+century. They came over to England and appeared in London a few years
+later. On account of their austerities and the faithfulness with which
+the earlier Franciscans kept their vows and the earnestness of their
+preaching they became very popular in this country. Their name--Grey
+Friars--denotes the colour of their dress. The old simplicity and
+poverty did not last long. It must, however, be acknowledged that wealth
+was forced upon them.
+
+The Dominicans were founded by St. Dominic about the year 1215. Sixty
+years later they came to London and established themselves in the place
+still known by their name--Blackfriars. Their dress was white with a
+black cloak. They were never so popular as the Franciscans perhaps
+because they insisted more on doctrine, and were associated with the
+Inquisition.
+
+The third of the Mendicant Orders was the Carmelite. They were the
+Whitefriars, their dress being white with a black hood. Their House was
+in Fleet Street. Here was a sanctuary whose privileges were not
+abolished till the year 1697.
+
+Other Orders represented in London were the Cluniacs, a branch of
+Benedictines--they had the Abbey of St. Saviour in Bermondsey; the Black
+Canons, established at St. Bartholomew's: the Canons Regular of St.
+Augustin--who had the Southwark Priory of St. Mary Overie: the Knights
+Templars; and the Knights of St. John.
+
+As a general rule it is enough to remember that the monks were
+Benedictines with their principal branches of Carthusians, Cistercians,
+and Cluniacs: that the friars were those named after Augustine, Dominic,
+Francis, and Mount Carmel; that the monks remained in their Houses,
+practising a life of austerity and prayer--so long as they were faithful
+to their vows: and that the friars went about among the people,
+preaching and exhorting them.
+
+Of the nunneries some were Benedictine, some Franciscan: that of the
+Minorites belonged to the latter Order: that of St. Helen's, to the
+former.
+
+The Religious Houses were dissolved at the Reformation. You must
+remember that if it had not been for the existence of these Houses, most
+of the arts, science, and scholarship of the world would have perished
+utterly. The monks kept alive learning of all kinds: they encouraged
+painting: they were discoverers and inventors in science: they were the
+chief agriculturists and gardeners: they offered an asylum to the poor
+and the oppressed. 'The friendship of the poor,' said Bernard, 'makes
+us the friends of Kings.' And in an age of unrestrained passions they
+showed an example of self-restraint and austerity. The friars did more:
+they were poor among the poor: no one was below their care and
+affection: they had nothing--they would take nothing--at first: till the
+love and gratitude of the people showered gifts upon them and even
+against their will, if they still retained any love for poverty, they
+became rich.
+
+
+
+
+28. THE LONDON CHURCHES.
+
+
+Before the Great Fire of London there were 126 churches and parishes in
+the City. Most of these were destroyed by the Fire, and many were never
+rebuilt at all. Two or even three and four parishes were united in one
+church. Of late years there has been a destruction of City churches
+almost as disastrous as that of the Fire. Those who have learned from
+this book, and elsewhere, to respect the monuments of the past and to
+desire their preservation, should do their utmost to prevent the
+demolition of these churches, in consideration of their history and
+their association with the past.
+
+Looking at a picture of London after the Fire, you will certainly remark
+the great number of spires and towers. London, in fact, was then, and
+much more so before the Fire, a city of churches. Those which are here
+represented and those which now remain are nearly all the work of
+Christopher Wren, the architect of St. Paul's. Many of them are very
+beautiful internally; many have been decorated and adorned with the most
+splendid carved woodwork. About many there cling the memories of dead
+men and great men who worshipped here and made gifts to the church and
+were buried here.
+
+Let us show, by a few examples, how worthy these City churches are of
+preservation and respect.
+
+First, many of them stand on the sites of the most ancient churches in
+the history of London. Those about Thames Street, dedicated to St.
+Peter, St. Paul (the Cathedral), St. James, probably represent Christian
+temples of Roman London. The church of St. Martin's, Ludgate Hill, was
+traditionally built by a British prince: that of St. Peter, Cornhill, by
+a Roman general. The tradition proves at least the antiquity of the
+churches. St. Augustine's preserves the memory of the preacher who
+converted the Saxons. St. Olave's and St. Magnus mark the Danish rule:
+St. Dunstan's, St. Alphege, St. Ethelburga, St. Swithin, St. Botolph,
+commemorate Saxon saints. Why, for instance, are there three churches
+all dedicated to St. Botolph just outside City gates? Because this
+saint--after whom the Lincolnshire town of Icanhoe changed its name to
+Botolph's town, now Boston--was considered the special protector of
+travellers. Then the names of churches still commemorate some fact in
+history. St. Mary Woolnoth, marks the wool market: St. Osyth's--the name
+exists in Sise Lane, was changed into St. Bene't Shere Hog--or
+Skin-the-Pig--because the stream called Walbrook which ran close by was
+used for the purpose of assisting this operation. St. Austin's was the
+chapel of Austin Friars Monastery. St. Andrew's Undershaft tells that
+the City May Pole was hung up along its wall. St.
+Andrew's-by-the-Wardrobe commemorates the existence of the Palace
+formerly called the King's Wardrobe. In St. Michael's Bassishaw survives
+the name of an old City family--the Basings. In St. Martin Orgar's--now
+destroyed--we have another old City name--Orgar.
+
+Or, again, there are the people who are buried or were baptised in these
+churches.
+
+In All Hallows, Bread Street, now pulled down, was baptised the greatest
+poet of our country, John Milton. For this cause alone the church should
+never have been suffered to fall into decay. It was wickedly and
+wantonly destroyed for the sake of the money its site would fetch in the
+year 1877. When you visit Bow Church, Cheapside, look for the tablet to
+the memory of Milton, now fixed in that church. It belonged to All
+Hallows, Bread Street.
+
+    Three poets in three distant ages born,
+    Greece, Italy, and England did adorn:
+    The first in loftiness of thought surpassed,
+    The next in majesty--in both the last.
+    The force of Nature could no further go;
+    To make a third she joined the other two.
+
+Christ Church, Newgate, stands on part of the site once occupied by the
+splendid church of the Grey Friars. Four Queens lie buried here, and an
+immense number of princes and great soldiers and nobles.
+
+Very few people, of the thousands who daily walk up and down Fleet
+Street, know anything about the statue in the wall of St. Dunstan's
+Church. This is the statue of Queen Elizabeth which formerly stood on
+the west side of Lud Gate. This gate was taken down in the year 1760,
+and some time after the statue was placed here. One of the sights of
+London before the old church was pulled down was a clock with the figure
+of a savage on each side who struck the hours and the quarters on a bell
+with clubs. London has seldom been without some such show. As long ago
+as the fifteenth century there was a clock with figures in Fleet Street.
+Tyndal the Reformer, and Baxter the famous Nonconformist were preachers
+in this church.
+
+St. Mary le Bow, was so called because it was the first church in the
+City built on arches--bows--of stone. The church is most intimately
+connected with the life and history of the City. Bow Bell rang for the
+closing of the shops. If the ringer was late the prentice boys reminded
+him pretty plainly.
+
+    'Clarke of the Bow Bell with thy yellow lockes:
+    In thy late ringing, thy head shall have knockes.'
+
+To which the clerk replied:
+
+    'Children of Chepe, hold you all stille:
+    For you shall have Bow Bell ring at your will.'
+
+St. Mary's Woolnoth was for many years the church of the Rev. John
+Newton, once the poet Cowper's friend. He began his life in the merchant
+service and was for many years engaged in the slave trade.
+
+For these reasons--their antiquity, their history, their
+associations--the destruction of the City churches ought to be resisted
+with the utmost determination. You who read this page may very possibly
+become parishioners of such a church. Learn that, without the consent of
+the parishioners, no church can be destroyed. A meeting of parishioners
+must be called: they must vote and decide. Do not forget this privilege.
+The time may come when your vote and your's alone, may retain for your
+posterity a church rich in history and venerable with the traditions of
+the past.
+
+
+
+
+29. THE STREETS.
+
+
+You have seen how the wall surrounded Roman London. The same wall which
+defended and limited Augusta defended and limited Plantagenet London.
+Outside the wall on the east there continued to extend wide marshes
+along the river; moorlands and forest on the north; marshes with rising
+ground on the west; marshes on the south. Wapping was called Wapping in
+the Wose (Wash or Ouze), meaning in the Marsh: Bermondsey was Bermond's
+Island, standing in the marsh: Battersea was Batter's Island, or perhaps
+Island of Boats: Chelsea was the Island of Chesel or Shingle:
+Westminster Abbey was built on the Isle of Thorns. The monasteries
+standing outside the wall attracted a certain number of serving people
+who built houses round them: some of the riverside folk--boat-builders,
+lightermen, and so forth--were living in the precinct of St. Katharine,
+just outside the Tower: all along the Strand were great men's houses,
+one of which, the Somerset House, still stands in altered form, and
+another, Northumberland House, was only pulled down a few years ago.
+Southwark had a single main street with a few branches east and west: it
+also contained several great houses, and was provided with many Inns for
+the use of those who brought their goods from Kent and Surrey to London
+Market. It was also admitted as a ward. On either side of the High
+Street lay marshes. The river was banked--hence the name Bank Side--but
+it is not known at what time.
+
+That part of the wall fronting the river had long been pulled down, but
+the stairs were guarded with iron chains, and there was a river police
+which rowed about among the shipping at night.
+
+[Illustration: CHEPE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+The streets and lanes of London within the walls were very nearly the
+same as they are at present, except for the great thoroughfares
+constructed within the last thirty years. That is to say, when one
+entered at Lud Gate and passed through Paul's Churchyard, he found
+himself in the broad street, the market place of the City, known as
+Chepe. This continued to the place where the Royal Exchange now stands,
+where it broke off into two branches, Cornhill and Lombard Street.
+These respectively led into Leadenhall Street and Fenchurch Street,
+which united again before Aldgate. Another leading thoroughfare crossed
+the City from London Bridge to Bishopsgate, and another, Thames Street,
+by far the most important, because here the merchant adventurers--those
+who had ships and imported goods--met for the transaction of business.
+The rough cobbled pavement of Thames Street was the Exchange of
+Whittington and the merchants of his time, who all had their houses on
+the rising ground, among the narrow lanes north of the street. You have
+seen what splendid houses a London merchant loved to build. What kind of
+house did the retailer and the craftsman occupy? It was of stone in the
+lower parts, but the upper storey was generally of wood, and the roof
+was too often thatched. The window was glazed in the upper part, but had
+open work and shutter for the lower half: this half, with the door,
+stood open during the greater part of the year. The lower room was the
+living room, and sometimes the work room of the occupant. The upper
+floor contained the bed rooms. There was but one fireplace in the
+house--that in the living room. At the back of the house was generally a
+small garden. But, besides these houses, there were courts dark, narrow,
+noisome, where the huts were still 'wattle and daub,' that is, built
+with posts, the sides filled in with branches or sticks and clay or mud,
+the fire in the middle of the floor, the chimney overhead. And still, as
+in Saxon times, the great danger to the City was from fire.
+
+Men of the same trade still congregated together for convenience. When
+all lived together the output would be regulated, prices maintained, and
+wages agreed upon. Nothing was more hateful to the mediæval trader than
+forestalling and regrating. To forestall was to buy things before they
+arrived at market with intent to sell at a higher price. To regrate was
+to buy up in the market and sell again in the same market at an advanced
+price. To undersell your neighbour was then also an unpardonable crime.
+You discover, therefore, that trade in Plantagenet London was not like
+trade in Victorian London. Then, all men of the same trade stood by each
+other and were brothers: now, too often, men of the same trade are
+enemies.
+
+The names of streets show the nature of the trades carried on in them.
+Turners and makers of wooden cups and platters, Wood Street:
+ironmongers, in their Lane: poultry sellers, the Poultry: bakers, Bread
+Street: and so on. Chepe was the great retail market of the City. It was
+built over gradually, but in early times it was a broad market covered
+with stalls, like the market-place of Norwich, for instance; these
+stalls were ranged in lines and streets: churches stood about among the
+lines. Then the stalls, which had been temporary wooden structures, were
+changed into permanent shops, which were also the houses of the tenants:
+the living room and kitchen were behind the shop: the master and his
+family slept above, and the prentices slept under the counter.
+
+[Illustration: LARGE SHIP AND BOAT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_The mainsail of the ship has the Beauchamp arms, and the streamer the
+bear and ragged staff. From the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of
+Warwick,' by John Rous; drawn about 1485._)]
+
+
+
+
+30 WHITTINGTON.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+The story of Dick Whittington has been a favourite legend for many
+generations. The boy coming up to London poor and friendless; lying
+despairing on the green slope of Highgate; resolved to return to the
+country since he can find no work in London: the falling upon his ears
+of the bells of Bow, wafted across the fields by the south wind--every
+child knows all this. What did the bells say to him--the soft and
+mellow bells, calling to him across four miles of fields? 'Turn again,
+Whittington--Turn again, Whittington--Lord Mayor of London--Turn again,
+Whittington.' He did turn, as we know, and became not once, but four
+times Lord Mayor of London and entertained kings, and was the richest
+merchant of his time. And all through a cat--we know how the cat began
+his fortune.
+
+That is the familiar legend. Now you shall learn the truth.
+
+There was a Dick Whittington: and he was Lord Mayor of London--to be
+accurate, he was Mayor of London, for the title of Lord Mayor did not
+yet exist.
+
+He was not a poor and friendless lad by any means. He belonged to a good
+family, his father, Sir William Whittington, Knight, being owner of an
+estate in Herefordshire called Soler's Hope, and one in Gloucestershire
+called Pauntley. The father was buried at Pauntley Church, where his
+shield may still be seen. Richard was the youngest of three sons of whom
+the eldest, William, died without children: and the second, Robert, had
+sons of whom one, Guy, fought at Agincourt. From the second son there
+are descendants to this day.
+
+Richard, at the age of fourteen, was sent to London, where he had
+connections. Many country people had connections in London who were
+merchants. Remember that in those days it would be impossible for a boy
+to rise from poverty to wealth and distinction by trade. Such a lad
+might rise in the church, or even, but I know not of any instance, by
+distinguished valour on the field of battle. Most certainly, he would be
+prenticed to a craft and a craftsman he would remain all his life.
+Whittington was a gentleman: that was the first and necessary condition
+to promotion: he came to London, not to learn a craft at all, but to be
+apprenticed to his cousin Sir John Fitzwarren, Mercer and Merchant
+Adventurer. The Mercers were the richest and most important company in
+London: the merchant adventurers were those--the foremost among the
+Mercers--who owned ships which they despatched abroad with exports and
+with which they imported stuffs and merchandise to the Port of London.
+Whittington's master may have had a shop or stall in Chepe--but he was a
+great importer of silks, satins, cloth of gold, velvets, embroideries,
+precious stones, and all splendid materials required for an age of
+splendid costume.
+
+[Illustration: A SEA-FIGHT.
+
+(_From the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick'; drawn by John
+Rous about 1485._)]
+
+What is the meaning of the 'cat' story? Immediately after Whittington's
+death the story was spread about. When his executors repaired Newgate
+they placed a carven cat on the outside: when Whittington's nephews, a
+few years later, built a house in Gloucester they placed a carven cat
+over the door in recognition of the story. All sorts of explanations
+have been offered. First, that there never was any cat at all. Next,
+that by a 'cat' is meant a kind of ship, a collier. Thirdly, that the
+cat is symbolical and means something else. Why need we go out of our
+way at all? A cat at that time was a valuable animal: not by any means
+common: in certain countries where rats were a nuisance a cat was very
+valuable indeed. Why should not the lad entrust a kitten to one of his
+master's skippers with instructions to sell it for him in any Levantine
+port at which the vessel might touch? Then he would naturally ever
+afterwards refer to the sale of the cat, the first venture of his own,
+as the beginning and foundation of his fortune. But you must believe
+about the cat whatever you please. The story has been told of other men.
+There was a Portuguese sailor, named Alphonso, who was wrecked on the
+Coast of Guinea. He carried a cat safely ashore and sold her to the
+King for her weight in gold: with this for his first capital he rapidly
+made a large fortune. Again, one Diego Almagro, a companion of Pizarro,
+bought the first cat ever taken to South America for 600 pieces of
+eight. And the story is found in Persia and in Denmark, and I dare say
+all over the world. Yet I believe in its literal truth.
+
+In the year 1378 Whittington's name first appears in the City papers. He
+was then perhaps twenty-one--but the date of his birth is uncertain--and
+was already in trade, not, as yet, very far advanced, for his assessment
+shows that as yet he was in the lowest and poorest class of the
+wholesale Mercers.
+
+
+
+
+31. WHITTINGTON.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+For nearly fifty years after this Whittington leads an active, busy,
+prosperous life. It was a distracted time, full of troubles and
+anxieties. A Charter obtained in 1376, two or three years before he
+began business, was probably the real foundation of Whittington's
+fortune. For it forbade foreign merchants to sell by retail. This meant
+that a foreign ship bringing wine to the port of London could only
+dispose of her merchandise to the wholesale vintners: or one bringing
+silk could only sell it to wholesale mercers. The merchants, no doubt,
+intended to use this Charter for the furtherance of their own shipping
+interests.
+
+This important Charter, presented by the King, was nearly lost a little
+after, when there was trouble about Wycliffe. The great scholar was
+ordered to appear at St. Paul's Cathedral before the Archbishop of
+Canterbury and the Bishop of London, to answer charges of heresy. He
+was not an unprotected and friendless man, and he appeared at the
+Cathedral under the protection of the powerful John of Gaunt, Duke of
+Lancaster, son of King Edward III. The Bishop of London rebuked the Duke
+for protecting heretics, so the Duke, enraged, threatened to pull the
+Bishop out of his own church by the hair of his head. The people outside
+shouted that they would all die before the Bishop should suffer
+indignity. John of Gaunt rode off to Westminster and proposed that the
+office of Mayor should be abolished and that the Marshal of England
+should hold his court in the City--in other words, that even the
+liberties and Charters of the City should be swept clean away. Then the
+Londoners rushed to the Savoy, the Duke's palace, and would have sacked
+and destroyed it but for the Bishop. This story indicates the kind of
+danger to which, in those ages, the City was liable. There were no
+police; a popular tumult easily and suddenly became a rebellion: no one
+knew what might happen when the folk met together and wild passions of
+unreasoning fury were aroused.
+
+Another danger of the time for the peaceful merchant. For some years the
+navigation of the North Sea and the Channel was greatly impeded by a
+Scottish privateer or pirate named Mercer. In vain had the City made
+representations to the King. Nothing was done, and the pirate grew daily
+stronger and bolder. Then Sir John Philpot, the Mayor, did a very
+patriotic thing. He built certain ships of his own, equipped them with
+arms, went on board as captain or admiral, and manned them with a
+thousand stout fellows. He found the pirate off Scarborough, fell upon
+him, slew him with all his men and returned to London Port with all his
+own ships and all the pirate's ships--including fifteen Spanish vessels
+which had joined Mercer.
+
+The King pretended to be angry with this private mode of carrying on
+war, but the thing was done, and it was a very good thing, and
+profitable to London and to the King himself, therefore when Sir John
+Philpot gave the King the arms and armour of a thousand men and all his
+own ships and prize ships, the Royal clemency was not difficult to
+obtain. I wish that I could state that Whittington had sailed with Sir
+John on this gallant expedition.
+
+A third trouble arose in the year 1381 on the rebellion of the peasants
+under John Ball, Wat Tyler, Jack the Miller, Jack the Carter, and Jack
+Trewman. The rebels held possession of the City for awhile. They
+destroyed the Savoy, the Temple and the houses of the foreign merchants
+(this shows that they had been joined by some of the London people).
+They murdered the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Prior of St. John's
+Hospital. Then the citizens roused themselves and with an army of 6,000
+men stood in ranks to defend the King.
+
+Then there happened the troubles of John of Northampton, Mayor in 1382.
+You have learned how trades of all kinds were banded together each in
+its own Company. Every Company had the right of regulating prices. Thus
+the Fishmongers sold their fish at a price ordered by the Warden or
+Master of the Company. It is easy to understand that this might lead to
+murmurs against the high price of fish or of anything else. This, in
+fact, really happened. It was a time of great questioning and doubt; the
+rising of Wat Tyler shows that this spirit was abroad. The craftsmen of
+London, those who made things, grumbled loudly at the price of
+provisions. They asked why the City should not take over the trade in
+food of all kinds and sell it to the people at lower prices. John of
+Northampton being Mayor, took the popular view. He did not exactly make
+over the provisioning of the City to the Corporation, but he first
+obtained an Act of Parliament throwing open the calling of fishmonger to
+all comers; and then another which practically abolished the trade of
+grocers, pepperers, fruiterers, butchers, and bakers. Imagine the rage
+with which such an Act would now be received by London tradesmen!
+
+The next Mayor, however, obtained the rescinding of these Acts. In
+consequence, fish went up in price and there was a popular tumult, upon
+which one man was hanged and John of Northampton was sent to the Castle
+of Tintagel on the Cornish Coast, where he remained for the rest of his
+life.
+
+
+
+
+32. WHITTINGTON.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+In the year 1384, being then about twenty-six years of age, Whittington
+was elected a member of the Common Council. In the year 1389 he was
+assessed at the same sum as the richest citizen. So that these ten years
+of his life were evidently very prosperous. In the year 1393 he was made
+Alderman for Broad Street Ward. In the same year he was made Sheriff. In
+the year 1396, the Mayor, Adam Bamme, dying in office, Whittington
+succeeded him. The following year he was elected Mayor.
+
+In the year 1401, water was brought from Tyburn (now the N.E. corner of
+Hyde Park) to Cornhill in pipes, a great and important boon to the City.
+
+In the year 1406 he was again elected Mayor. The manner of his election
+is described in the contemporary records. After service in the chapel
+of the Guildhall, the outgoing Mayor, with all the Aldermen and as many
+as possible of the wealthier and more substantial Commoners of the City,
+met in the Guildhall and chose two of their number, viz., Richard
+Whittington and Drew Barentyn. Then the Mayor receiving this nomination
+retired into a closed chamber with the Aldermen and made choice of
+Whittington.
+
+In the year 1419 he was elected Mayor for the third and last time, but,
+counting his succession to Bamme, he was actually four times Mayor. In
+1416 he was returned Member of Parliament for the City.
+
+It was not a new thing for a citizen to be made Mayor more than once.
+Three during the reign of Edward III. were Mayor four times; two, three
+times; seven, twice.
+
+In Whittington's later years began the burning of heretics and Lollards.
+It is certain that Lollardism had some hold in the City, but one knows
+not how great was the hold. A priest, William Sawtre, was the first who
+suffered. Two men of the lower class followed. There is nothing to show
+that Whittington ever swerved from orthodox opinions.
+
+In 1416, the City was first lighted at night: all citizens were ordered
+to hang lanterns over their doors. How far the order was obeyed,
+especially in the poorer parts of the City, is not known.
+
+In 1407 a plague carried off 30,000 persons in London alone. If this
+number is correctly stated it must have taken half the population.
+
+Many improvements were effected in the City during these years: it is
+reasonable to suppose that Whittington had a hand in bringing these
+about. Fresh water brought in pipes: lights hung out after dark: the
+erection of a house--Bakewell Hall--for the storage and sale of
+broadcloth: the erection of a store for the reception of grain, in case
+of famine--this was the beginning of Leadenhall--the building of a new
+Guildhall: and an attempt to reform the prisons--an attempt which
+failed.
+
+In his last year of office Whittington entertained the King, Henry V.
+and his Queen.
+
+There was as yet no Mansion House: every Mayor made use of his own
+private house.
+
+The magnificence of the entertainment amazed the King. Even the fires
+were fed with cedar and perfumed wood. When the Queen spoke of this
+costly gift the Mayor proposed to feed the fire with something more
+precious still. He then produced the King's bonds to the value of
+60,000_l._ which he threw into the fire and burned. This great sum would
+be a very considerable gift even now. In that time it represented at
+least six times its present value. The Mayor therefore gave the King the
+sum of 360,000_l._
+
+This is, very shortly, an account of Whittington's public life.
+
+He lived, I believe, on the north side of St. Michael's Paternoster
+Royal. I think so because his College was established there after his
+death, and as he had no children it is reasonable to suppose that his
+house would be assigned to the College. There is nothing to show what
+kind of house it was, but we may rest assured that the man who could
+entertain the King and Queen in such a manner was at least well housed.
+There is a little court on this spot which is, I believe, on the site of
+Whittington's house. They used to show a house in Hart Street as
+Whittington's, but there was no ground for the tradition except that it
+was a very old house.
+
+Whittington married his master's daughter, Alice Fitzwarren. He had no
+children, and he died in 1423 when he was sixty-five years of age.
+
+Such was the real Whittington. A gentleman by birth, a rich and
+successful man, happy in his private life, a great stickler for justice,
+as a magistrate severe upon those who cheat and adulterate, a loyal and
+patriotic man, and always filled with the desire to promote the
+interests of the City which had received him and made him rich.
+
+
+
+
+33. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS.
+
+
+The stream of charity which has so largely enriched and endowed the City
+of London began very early. You have seen how Rahere built and endowed
+Bartholomew's, and how Queen Maud founded the Lazar House of St. Giles.
+The fourteenth century furnishes many more instances. Thus William
+Elsinge founded in 1332 a hospital for a hundred poor blind men: in 1371
+John Barnes gave a chest containing 1,000 marks to be lent by the City
+to young men beginning trade. You have heard how one Mayor went out to
+fight a pirate and slew him and made prizes of his vessels. Another when
+corn was very dear imported at his own expense a great quantity from
+Germany. Another gave money to relieve poor prisoners: another left
+money for the help of poor householders: another provided that on his
+commemoration day in the year 2,400 poor householders, of the City
+should have a dinner and every man two pence. This means in present
+money about £600 a year, or an estate worth £20,000: another left money
+to pay the tax called the Fifteenth, for three parishes: another brought
+water in a conduit from Highbury to Cripplegate.
+
+But the greatest and wisest benefactor of his time was Whittington. In
+his own words: 'The fervent desire and busy intention of a prudent,
+wise, and devout man, should be to cast before and make secure the state
+and the end of this short life with deeds of mercy and pity, and
+especially to provide for those miserable persons whom the penury of
+poverty insulteth, and to whom the power of seeking the necessaries of
+life by act or bodily labour is interdicted.'
+
+With these grave words, which should be a lesson to all men, rich or
+poor, Whittington begins the foundation of his College. If a man were in
+these days to found a College he would make it either a school for boys
+or a technical school--in any case a place which should be always
+_working_ for the world. In those days, when it was universally believed
+that the saying of masses was able to lift souls out of punishment, a
+man founded a College which should _pray_ for the world. Whittington's
+College was to consist of a Master and four Fellows--who were to be
+Masters of Arts--with clerks, choristers, and servants. They were every
+day to say mass for the souls of Richard and Alice Whittington in the
+church of St. Michael's Paternoster Royal--which church Whittington
+himself had rebuilt. Behind the church he founded and built an almshouse
+for thirteen poor men, who were to have 16_d._ each per week, about
+7_s._ of our money, with clothing and rooms on the condition of praying
+daily for their founder and his wife. Part of the ground for the
+building was granted by the Mayor and Corporation.
+
+The College continued until the Dissolution of the Religious
+Houses--that is, for one hundred and fifty years: the almshouse
+continues to this day: but it has been removed to Highgate: on its site
+the Mercers' Company has established a school.
+
+Whittington, further, built a library for the Franciscan House; part of
+the building still remains at Christ's Hospital. It was 129 feet long
+and 31 feet broad. He also gave the friars 400_l._ to buy books. He
+restored and repaired the Hospital of St. Bartholomew's, to which he
+gave a library. He paved and glazed the new building of Guildhall: he
+gave large sums for the bridge--and the chapel on the bridge--at
+Rochester--as a merchant he was greatly interested in keeping this
+important bridge in order: he repaired Gloucester Cathedral--the
+cathedral church of his native diocese: he made 'bosses,' i.e. taps of
+water, to the great aqueduct: he rebuilt and enlarged Newgate Prison;
+and he founded a library at Guildhall.
+
+Many of these things were done after his death by his executors.
+
+Such were the gifts by which a City merchant of the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries sought to advance the prosperity of the citizens.
+Fresh water in plenty by 'bosses' here and there: the light of learning
+by means of libraries: almshouses for the poor: mercy and charity for
+the prisoners: hospitals for the sick: help for the young: prayers for
+the dead. These things he understood.
+
+We cannot expect any man to be greatly in advance of his age. Otherwise
+we should find a Whittington insisting upon cleanliness of streets:
+fresh air in the house: burial outside the City: the abolition of the
+long fasts which made people eat stinking fish and so gave them leprosy:
+the education of the craftsmen in something besides their trade: the
+establishment of a patrol by police: and the freedom of trade.
+
+He did not found any school. That is a remarkable omission. One of his
+successors, Sir William Sevenoke, founded a school for lads of his
+native town Sevenoaks: another, Sir Robert Chichele, founded a school,
+an almshouse, and a college in his native town of Higham Ferrers. A
+friend of his own, Sir John Niel, proposed to establish four new grammar
+schools in the City. And yet Whittington left no money for a school. We
+may be quite sure that there was a reason for the omission. Perhaps he
+was afraid of the growing spirit of doubt and inquiry. Boys who learn
+grammar and rhetoric may grow into men who question and argue; and so,
+easily and naturally, get bound to the stake and are consumed with the
+pile of faggots. Everything was provided except a school for boys.
+Libraries for men; but not a school for boys. The City of London School
+was founded by Whittington's executor, John Carpenter. There must have
+been reasons in Whittington's mind for omitting any endowment of
+schools. What those reasons were I cannot even guess.
+
+
+
+
+34. THE PALACES AND GREAT HOUSES.
+
+
+When you think of a great city of the thirteenth or fourteenth century
+you must remember two things. First, that the streets were mostly very
+narrow--if you walk down Thames Street and note the streets running
+north and south you will be able to understand how narrow the City
+streets were. Second, that the great houses of the nobles and the rich
+merchants stood in these narrow streets, shut in on all sides though
+they often contained spacious courts and gardens. No attempt was made to
+group the houses or to arrange them with any view to picturesque effect.
+
+It has been the fashion to speak of mediæval London as if it were a city
+of hovels grouped together along dark and foul lanes. This was by no
+means the case. On the contrary, it was a city of splendid palaces and
+houses nearly all of which were destroyed by the Great Fire. You have
+seen how the City was covered with magnificent buildings of monasteries
+and churches. Do not believe that the nobles and rich merchants who
+endowed and built these places would be content to live in hovels.
+
+[Illustration: DURHAM, SALISBURY, AND WORCESTER HOUSES.]
+
+The nobles indeed wanted barracks. A great Lord never moved anywhere
+without his following. The Earl of Warwick, called the King Maker, when
+he rode into London was followed by five hundred men, wearing his
+colours: all of these had to find accommodation in his town house. This
+was always built in the form of a court or quadrangle. The modern
+Somerset House, which is built on the foundations of the old house,
+shows us what a great man's house was like: and the College of Heralds
+in Queen Victoria Street, is another illustration, for this was Lord
+Derby's town house. Hampton Court and St. James's, are illustrations of
+a great house with more than one court. Any one who knows the colleges
+of Oxford and Cambridge will understand the arrangement of the great
+noble's town house in the reign of Richard II. On one side was the hall
+in which the banquets took place and all affairs of importance were
+discussed. The kitchen, butteries and cellars stood opposite the doors
+of the hall; at the back of the hall with a private entrance were the
+rooms of the owner and his family: the rest of the rooms on the
+quadrangle were given up to the use of his followers.
+
+Baynard's Castle--the name yet survives--stood on the river bank not far
+from Blackfriars. It was a huge house with towers and turrets and a
+water gate with stairs. It contained two courts. It was at last, after
+standing for six hundred years, destroyed in the Great Fire, and was one
+of the most lamentable of the losses caused by that disaster. The house
+had been twice before burned down, and that which finally perished was
+built in 1428. Here Edward IV. assumed the Crown: here he placed his
+wife and children for safety before going forth to the Battle of Barnet.
+Here Buckingham offered the Crown to Richard. Here Henry VIII. lived.
+Here Charles II. was entertained.
+
+Eastward, also on the river bank and near the old Swan Stairs, stood
+another great house called Cold Harbour. It belonged to Holland, Dukes
+of Exeter, to Richard III. and to Margaret, Countess of Richmond.
+
+North of Thames Street near College Hill was the Erber, another great
+house which belonged successively to the Scropes and the Nevilles. Here
+lived the King-maker Earl of Warwick. His following was so numerous that
+every day six oxen were consumed for breakfast alone. His son-in-law,
+who had the house afterwards, was the Duke of Clarence--'false,
+fleeting, perjured Clarence.'
+
+If you would know how a great merchant of the fifteenth century loved to
+be housed, go visit Crosby Hall. It is the only specimen left of the
+ancient wealth and splendour of a City merchant. But as one man lived so
+did many. We cannot believe that Crosby was singular in his building a
+palace for himself.
+
+London with its narrow streets, its crowded courts, and the corners
+where the huts and hovels of wood and daub and thatch stood among their
+foul surroundings, a constant danger to the great houses of fire and
+plague, was a city of great houses and palaces, with which no other city
+in Europe could compare. Venice and Genoa had their Crosby Halls--their
+merchants' palaces; but London had in addition, the town houses of all
+the nobles of the land. In the City alone, without counting the Strand
+and Westminster, there were houses of the Earls of Arundel,
+Northumberland, Worcester, Berkeley, Oxford, Essex, Thanet, Suffolk,
+Richmond, Pembroke, Abergavenny, Warwick, Leicester, Westmoreland. Then
+there were the houses of the Bishops and the Abbots. All these before we
+come to the houses of the rich merchants. Let your vision of London
+under the Plantagenets be that of a city all spires and towers, great
+churches and stately convents, with noble houses as great and splendid
+as Crosby Hall scattered all about the City within the walls and lining
+the river bank from Ludgate to Westminster.
+
+
+
+
+35. AMUSEMENTS.
+
+
+We have heard so much of the religious Houses, Companies, Hospitals,
+quarrels and struggles that we may have forgotten a very important
+element in the life of the City--the amusements and pastimes of the
+citizens. Never was there a time when the City had more amusements than
+in these centuries. You have seen that it was always a rich town: its
+craftsmen were well paid: food was abundant: the people were well fed
+always, except in times of famine, which were rare. There were taverns
+with music and singing: there were pageants, wonderful processions
+representing all kinds of marvels, devised by the citizens to please the
+King or to please themselves: there were plays representing scenes from
+the Bible and from the Lives of the Saints: there were tournaments to
+look at. Then there were the Festivals of the year, Christmas Day,
+Twelfth Day, Easter, the Day of St. John the Baptist, Shrove Tuesday,
+the Day of the Company, May Day, at all of which feasting and merriment
+were the rule. The young men, in winter, played at football, hockey,
+quarterstaff, and single stick. They had cock fighting, boar fights, and
+the baiting of bulls and bears. On May Day they erected a May-pole in
+every parish: they chose a May Queen: and they had morris-dancing with
+the lads dressed up as Robin Hood, Friar Tuck, Little John, Tom the
+Piper, and other famous characters.
+
+[Illustration: BEAR-BAITING.
+
+(_From the Luttrell Psalter._)]
+
+Then they shot with the bow and the cross-bow for prizes: they had
+wrestlings and they had foot races.
+
+The two great festivals of the year were the Eve of St. John the Baptist
+and the Day of the Company.
+
+[Illustration: SHOOTING AT THE BUTTS WITH THE LONG-BOW.]
+
+On the former there took place the March of the Watch. Bonfires were lit
+in the streets, not for warmth but in order to purge and cleanse the air
+of the narrow streets: at the open doors stood tables with meat and
+drink, neighbour inviting neighbour to hospitality. Then the doors were
+wreathed with green branches, leaves, and flowers: lamps of glass were
+hanging over them with oil burning all the night: some hung out branches
+of iron curiously wrought with hundreds of hanging lights. And
+everywhere the cheerful sounds of music and singing and the dancing of
+the prentice lads and girls in the open street. Through the midst of
+this joyousness filed the Watch. Four thousand men took part in this
+procession which was certainly the finest thing that Mediæval London had
+to show. To light the procession on its way the City found two hundred
+cressets or lanterns, the Companies found five hundred and the
+constables of London, two hundred and fifty in number, each carried one.
+The number of men who carried and attended to the cressets was two
+thousand. Then followed the Watch itself, consisting of two thousand
+captains, lieutenants, sergeants, drummers and fifers, standard bearers,
+trumpeters, demilances on great horses, bowmen, pikemen, with
+morris-dancers and minstrels--their armour all polished bright and some
+even gilded. No painter has ever painted this March: yet of all things,
+mediæval, it was the most beautiful and the most mediæval.
+
+On the day of the Company, i.e. the Company's Saint's Day, all the
+members assembled in the Hall, every man in a new livery, in the
+morning. First they formed in procession and marched to church, headed
+by priests and singing boys, in surplices: after these walked the
+servants, clerks, assistants, the chaplain, the Mayor's sergeants, often
+the Lord Mayor himself. Lastly came the Court with the Master and
+Wardens followed by the Livery, i.e. the members.
+
+After church they returned in like manner to the Hall, where a great
+banquet awaited them, music played in the gallery: the banners of the
+Company were hung over their heads: they burned scented wood: they sat
+in order, Master and Wardens and illustrious guests at the high table:
+and the freemen below, every man with his wife or some maiden if he were
+unmarried. After dinner the loving cup went round: the minstrels led in
+the players: and they had dramatic shows, songs, dances and 'mummeries'
+for the rest of the day.
+
+Do not think of mediæval London as a dull place--it was full of life and
+of brightness: the streets were narrow perhaps, but they were full of
+colour from the bright dresses of all--the liveries of the
+Companies--the liveries of the great nobles--the splendid costume of the
+knights and richer class. The craftsman worked from daylight till curfew
+in the winter: from five or six in the summer: he had a long day: but he
+had three holidays: he had his evenings: and his Sundays. A dull time
+was going to fall upon the Londoners, but not yet for two hundred years.
+
+
+
+
+36. WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
+
+
+Hitherto our attention has been confined to the City within the walls.
+It is time to step outside the walls.
+
+All this time, i.e. ever since peaceful occupation became possible, a
+town had been growing up on the west side of London. You have seen that
+formerly there spread a broad marsh over this part. Some rising ground
+kept what is now the Strand above the river, but Westminster, except for
+certain reed-grown islets, was nothing but a marsh covered over twice in
+the day by the tide. The river thus spreading out over marshes on either
+bank was quite shallow, and could in certain places be forded. The spot
+where any ford existed afterwards became a ferry. Lambeth Bridge spans
+the river at one such place, the memory of which is now maintained in
+the name of the Horseferry Road. The largest of these islets was once
+called Thorney, i.e. the Isle of Thorns. If you will take a map of
+Westminster, shift the bank of the river so as to make it flow along
+Abingdon Street, draw a stream running down College Street into the
+Thames; another running into the Thames across King Street, and draw a
+ditch or moat connecting the two streams along Delahaye Street and
+Princes Street you will have Thorney, about a quarter of a mile long,
+and not quite so much broad, standing just above high water level. This
+was the original Precinct of Westminster.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB OF EDWARD III. IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+The Abbey of St. Peter's, Westminster, is said to have been founded on
+the first conversion of the East Saxons, and at the same time as the
+Foundation of St. Paul's. We know nothing about the foundation of the
+church. During the Danish troubles the Abbey was deserted. It was
+refounded by Dunstan. It was, however, rebuilt in much greater splendour
+by Edward the Confessor. Of his work something still remains, and can be
+pointed out to the visitor. But the present Abbey contains work by Henry
+III., Edward I., Richard II.--Whittington being commissioner for the
+work--Henry VII. and Wren, Hawksmoor and Gilbert Scott the architects.
+
+There is no monument on British soil more venerable than Westminster
+Abbey. You must not think that you know the place when you have visited
+it once or twice. You must go there again and again. Every visit should
+teach you something of your country and its history. The building itself
+betraying to those who can read architecture the various periods at
+which its builders lived: the beauty of the building, the solemnity of
+the services--these are things which one must visit the Abbey often in
+order to understand. Then there are the associations of the Abbey; the
+things that have been done in the Abbey: the crowning of the Kings, in a
+long line from Edward the Confessor downwards. Here Edward the Fourth's
+Queen, Elizabeth Woodville, took sanctuary when her husband suffered
+reverse: here the unfortunate Edward V. was born. Here the same unhappy
+Queen brought her two boys when her husband died. Here Caxton set up his
+first printing press: here is the coronation chair. Here is the shrine
+of the sainted Edward the Confessor. It is robbed of its precious stones
+and its gold: but the shrine is the same as that before which for five
+hundred years people knelt as to the protector saint of England. This is
+the burial-place of no fewer than twenty-six of our Kings and their
+Queens. This is the sacred spot where we have buried most of our great
+men. To name a few whose monuments you should look for, here are Sir
+William Temple, Lord Chatham, Fox and Wilberforce, among statesmen; of
+soldiers there are Prince Rupert and Monk; of Indian fame, here are Lord
+Lawrence and Lord Clyde; of sailors, Blake, Cloudesley Shovel, and Lord
+Dundonald. Of poets, Chaucer, Spenser, Beaumont, Ben Jonson, Dryden,
+Prior, Addison, Gay, Campbell. Of historians and prose writers, Samuel
+Johnson, Macaulay, Dickens, Livingston, Isaac Newton. Many others there
+are to look for, notably the great poet Tennyson, buried here in October
+1892.
+
+Read what was written by Jeremy Taylor, a great divine, on Westminster
+Abbey:--
+
+'A man may read a sermon, the best and most passionate that ever man
+preached, if he shall but enter into the sepulchre of Kings.... There
+the warlike and the peaceful, the fortunate and the miserable, the
+beloved and the despised princes mingle their dust and pay down their
+symbol of mortality; and tell all the world that when we die our ashes
+shall be equal to kings, and our accounts easier, and our pains or our
+crowns shall be less.'
+
+
+
+
+37. THE COURT AT WESTMINSTER.
+
+
+Although the Kings of England have occasionally lodged in the Tower and
+even at Baynard's Castle, and other places in the City, the permanent
+home of the Court was always from Edward the Confessor to Henry VIII. at
+the Royal Palace of Westminster. Of this building, large, rambling,
+picturesque, only two parts are left, Westminster Hall and the crypt of
+St. Stephen's Chapel. When King Henry VIII. exchanged Westminster for
+Whitehall the rooms of the old Palace were given over to various
+purposes. One of them was the Star Chamber, in which the Star Chamber
+Court was held: one was the Exchequer Chamber: St. Stephen's Chapel was
+the House of Commons; and the House of Lords sat in the Old Court of
+Bequests. All that was left of the Palace except the Great Hall, was
+destroyed in the fire of 1834. Very fortunately the Hall was saved. This
+magnificent structure, one of the largest rooms in the world not
+supported by pillars, was built by William Rufus, and altered by Richard
+II. Here have been held Parliaments and Grand Councils. Here have been
+many State trials. Sir William Wallace was condemned in this Hall. Sir
+Thomas More; the Protector Somerset; Lady Jane Grey; Anne Boleyn; King
+Charles I.; the rebels of 1745, Lords Kilmarnock, Balmerino and Lovat:
+Earl Ferrers, for murdering his steward; all these were condemned. One
+or two have been acquitted, Lord Byron--cousin of the poet--for killing
+Mr. Chaworth: and Warren Hastings, the great Indian statesman. In
+Westminster Hall used to be held the Coronation Banquets at which the
+hereditary champion rode into the Hall in full armour and threw down a
+glove.
+
+After the removal of the Court the Hall became the Law Courts. It is
+almost incredible that three Courts sat in this Hall, cases being heard
+before three Judges at the same time. In addition to the Courts, shops
+or stalls were ranged along the walls where dealers in toys, milliners,
+sempstresses, stationers and booksellers sold their wares. A picture
+exists showing this extraordinary use of the Hall.
+
+It is more difficult to restore ancient Westminster than any part of the
+City. We must remember that the great Hall formed part of a square or
+quadrangle on which were the private rooms of the Sovereign, the State
+rooms of audience and banquet, the official rooms of the King's
+ministers and servants; this court led into others--one knows not how
+many--but certainly as many as belong to the older part of Hampton
+Court, which may be taken as resembling Westminster Palace in its
+leading features. The courts were filled with men-at-arms, serving men,
+pages, and minstrels. They went backwards and forwards on their business
+or they lay about in the sun and gambled. Sometimes there crossed the
+court some great noble followed by two or three of his servants on his
+way to a Council: or a bishop with his chaplain, to have speech with the
+King: or a group of townsmen after a brawl, who had been brought here
+with ropes about their necks, uncertain whether all would be pardoned or
+half a dozen hanged, the uncertainty lending a very repentant and
+anxious look to their faces. Or it would be the Queen's most Excellent
+Highness herself with her ladies riding forth to see the hunt. This was
+the daily life of the Court: we read the dry history of what happened
+but we forget the scenery in which it happened--the crowds of nobles,
+bishops, abbots, knights, men-at-arms, serving men, among whom all these
+things took place. We are apt to forget, as well, the extraordinary
+brightness, the colour, the glitter and gleam that belonged to those
+times when every man went dressed in some gay livery wearing the colours
+and the crest of his lord. Who rides there, the hart couchant--the deer
+at rest--upon his helm? A Knight belonging to the Court: one of the
+Knights of King Richard the Second. Who march with the bear and ragged
+staff upon their arms? They are the Livery of the Earl of Warwick. The
+clash and gleam of arms and armour everywhere: colour on the men as well
+as the women: colour on the trappings of the horses: colour on the
+hanging arras of the wall: colour on the cloth of scarlet which they
+hang out of the windows when the royal pageant rides along.
+
+Close to the Palace, the Abbey. That too belongs to the time. Within the
+Abbey precincts the people are almost as crowded as in the Palace. But
+it is a different crowd. There is not so much colour: no arms or armour:
+an orderly crowd: there are the Benedictine monks themselves, with their
+crowd of servants, cooks, and refectory men: brewers: bakers: clothiers:
+architects, builders and masons: scribes and lawyers: foresters and
+farmers from the estates: stewards: cellarers: singing boys:
+organists--for the Abbey Church of St. Peter is as great and as rich and
+maintains as large an army of servants as the Cathedral Church of St.
+Paul.
+
+
+
+
+38. JUSTICE AND PUNISHMENTS.
+
+
+In the time of the Plantagenets the punishments inflicted on wrongdoers
+were much more lenient than those which followed in later years. There
+is none of that brutal flogging which grew up in the last century, the
+worst time in the whole history of the country, for the people. This
+flogging not only in the army and navy but also for such offences as
+vagrancy, lasted even into the present century. In the year 1804 six
+women were publicly flogged at Gloucester for this offence. Under
+Whittington this barbarous cruelty would not have been done. There were,
+it is true, certain punishments which seem excessively cruel. If a man
+struck a sheriff or an alderman he was sentenced to have his right hand
+chopped off. That is, indeed, worse than hanging. But, consider, the
+whole strength of London lay in its power to act and its resolution
+always to act, as one man. This could only be effected by habitual
+obedience to law and the most profound respect to the executive
+officers. Therefore the worst penalty possible--that which deprived a
+man of his power to work and his power to fight--which reduced him to
+ruin--which made his innocent children beggars--which branded him till
+death as a malefactor of the most dangerous kind--was inflicted for such
+an offence. Here, again, mercy stepped in; for, when the criminal was
+brought out for execution, if he expressed contrition the offended
+officer, represented by the Alderman of the Ward--begged that he might
+be pardoned.
+
+For burglary criminals were ruthlessly hanged. This crime is bad enough
+now; it is a crime which ought at all times to be punished with the
+utmost rigour. But in these days what is it that a burglar can carry
+away from an ordinary house? A clock or two: a silver ring: a lady's
+watch and chain: a few trinkets: if any money, then only a purse with
+two or three pounds. The wealth of the family is invested in various
+securities: if the burglar takes the papers they are of no use to him:
+there is a current account at the bank; but that cannot be touched.
+Books, engravings, candlesticks, plated spoons--these are of little real
+value. Formerly, however, every man kept all his money--all his
+wealth--in his own house; if he was a rich merchant he had a stone safe
+or strong box constructed in the wall of his cellar or basement--I have
+seen such a safe in an old house pulled down about seven years ago. If
+he was only a small trader or craftsman he kept his money in a box: this
+he hid: there were various hiding places: behind the bed, under the
+hearthstone--but they were all known. A burglar, therefore, might, and
+very often did, take away the whole of a man's property and reduce him
+to ruin. For this reason it was very wisely ordered that a burglar
+should be hanged.
+
+They began in the reign of Henry IV. to burn heretics. Later on they
+burned witches and poisoners. As yet they had not begun to slice off
+ears and to slit noses: there was no rack: nobody was tortured: nobody
+was branded on the hand: there was no whipping of women in Bridewell as
+a public show--that came later: there was no flogging at the cart tail.
+
+Punishments were mild. Sometimes the criminal performed the _amende
+honorable_, marching along Chepe bareheaded and wearing nothing but a
+white shirt, carrying a great wax taper, escorted by the Mayor's
+sergeants. There was a ducking-stool on the other side of the river, at
+Bank Side, in which scolds were ducked. There was the thewe, which was a
+chair in which women were made to sit, lifted high above the crowd,
+exposed to their derision. There was the pillory, which served for
+almost all the cases which now come before a police
+magistrate--adulteration, false weights and measures, selling bad meat:
+pretending to be an officer of the Mayor: making and selling bad work:
+forging title deeds; stealing--all were punished in the same way. The
+offender was carried or led through the City--sometimes mounted with his
+head to the horse's tail--always with something about his neck to show
+the nature of his offence, and placed in pillory for a certain time.
+
+There was one punishment always in reserve--the worst of all. This was
+deprivation of the privileges of a freeman and banishment from the City.
+'Go,' said the Mayor. 'Thou shalt dwell with us; trade with us;
+converse with us; no more. Go.' And so that source of trouble was
+removed.
+
+We have seen how the trades formed companies--every trade having its own
+company. It must not, however, be understood that the working man gained
+much power by their unions. They were organised: they had to obey:
+obedience was very good for them as it is for all of us, always; but it
+must be obedience to a corporate body, not to a master. This they did
+not understand and they tried to form 'covins' or trades unions of their
+own. The City put down these attempts with a stern hand. The trade
+companies ruled hours of work, wages, and standard of work. Lastly,
+though there was no City police to guard the streets, there were certain
+laws for the maintenance of order. Nobody under the rank of knight was
+to carry arms in the streets: no one was to walk about the street after
+nine at night: houses were not to be built over streets. In a word,
+there were not many laws; but the people were law abiding. And this,
+perhaps, as much as anything else, explains the greatness of London.
+
+[Illustration: THE EMBARKATION OF HENRY VIII. FROM DOVER, 1520.
+
+(_From the original painting at Hampton Court._)]
+
+
+
+
+39. THE POLITICAL POWER OF LONDON.
+
+
+Until the rapid growth of the manufacturing interests created immense
+cities in the North, the wealth and prosperity and population of London
+gave it a consideration and power in the political situation which was
+unequalled by that of any other mediæval city. Even Paris, for instance,
+has never held an equal importance in the history of France. This power
+has been especially, and significantly, employed in the election and
+proclamation of Kings. It is not only that London has been the place
+of proclamation: it is that the Londoners themselves have repeatedly
+said, 'This shall be our King': and, as repeatedly, by that very act,
+have given him to understand that if he would not reign well he should,
+like some of his predecessors, be deposed. London chose Kings Edmund and
+Harold Harefoot, before the Conquest. After the Conquest, they elected
+Stephen at a folkmote, a gathering of all the citizens. They put him on
+the Throne and they kept him there. The power of the Londoners is very
+well put by Froissart, who wrote in the time of Richard II. and Henry
+IV., and was an eyewitness of many things which he relates. 'The
+English,' he says, 'are the worst people in the world: the most
+obstinate and the most presumptuous: and, of all England, the Londoners
+are the leaders; for, to say the truth, they are very powerful in men
+and in wealth. In the City there are 24,000 men completely armed from
+head to foot and full 30,000 archers. This is a great force and they are
+bold and courageous, and the more blood is spilled, the greater is their
+courage.'
+
+Take the deposition of Edward II., also described by Froissart. He says
+that when the Londoners found the King 'besotted' with his favourites,
+they sent word to Queen Isabella that if she could land in England with
+300 armed men she would find the citizens of London and the majority of
+the nobles and commonalty ready to join her and place her on the Throne.
+This the Queen effected: the citizens joined the little army thus
+collected--without their assistance, Froissart says, the thing could not
+have been done--and made Edward prisoner at Berkeley Castle.
+
+Or there was the capture of Richard II. This also was effected by an
+army composed entirely of Londoners 12,000 strong, led by Henry of
+Lancaster. Afterwards, when Henry of Lancaster was Henry IV., and a
+conspiracy was formed against him, the Lord Mayor said, 'Sire, King we
+have made you: King we will keep you.' The City played almost as great a
+part against Henry VI.--half-heartedly at first, because they thought
+that as he had no children there would be at some time or other an end.
+Moreover, they could not readily forget his grandfather, their own King;
+and his father, the hero of Agincourt. When, however, a son was born,
+the Londoners became openly and unreservedly Yorkists. And the Yorkists
+triumphed. The election of Richard III. was made in London. When Lady
+Jane Grey was proclaimed Queen, it was not by the Mayor and Aldermen,
+but by the Duke of Northumberland, and the City looked on in apathy,
+expecting trouble. The greatest strength of Elizabeth lay in the
+affection and support of London, which never wavered. Had Charles I.
+conciliated the City he might have died in his bed, still King of
+England. It was the City which forced James II. to fly and called over
+William Prince of Orange. It was, again, London which supported Pitt in
+his firm and uncompromising resistance to Napoleon. And in the end
+Napoleon was beaten. It cannot be too often repeated that two causes
+made the strength of London: the unity of the City, so that its vast
+population moved as one man: and its wealth. The King thought of the
+subsidies--under the names of loans, grants, benevolences--which he
+could extort from the merchants. We who enjoy the fruits of the long
+struggle maintained especially by London for the right of managing our
+own affairs, especially in the matter of taxation, cannot understand the
+tyrannies which the people of old had to endure from Kings and nobles.
+Richard II., for instance, forced the citizens to sign and seal blank
+'charts'--try to imagine the Prime Minister making the Lord Mayor, the
+Aldermen, the Common Council men, and all the more important merchants
+sign blank cheques to be filled in as he pleased! That, however, was the
+last exaction of Richard II. Henry of Lancaster went out with 12,000
+Londoners, and made him prisoner.
+
+Another factor, less generally understood, assisted and developed the
+power of London.
+
+It was also the position of the City as the centre of the country; not
+geographically, which would give Warwick that position, but from the
+construction of the roads and from its position on the Thames. But, to
+repeat, the use and wont of the City to act together by order of the
+Mayor, principally made it so great a power. Whatever troubles might
+arise, here was a solid body--'24,000 men at arms and 30,000 archers,'
+all acting on one side. The rest of the country was scattered,
+uncertain, inclined this way and that. The City, to use a modern phrase,
+'voted solid.' There were no differences of opinion in the City. And
+that, even more than its wealth, made London a far more important
+factor, politically, than the barons with all their following.
+
+
+
+
+40. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+A map of Elizabethan London, drawn by one Agas, which is almost a
+picture as well as a map, shows us very clearly the aspect of the City.
+Let us lay down the map before us. First of all, we observe the wall of
+the City; it is carefully drawn of uniform height, with battlements, and
+at regular intervals, bastions. Outside the wall there is the ditch, but
+it is now, as Stow describes it, laid out in gardens--cows are grazing
+in some parts of it--and there are mean houses built on the other side
+of it. There is a single street of houses with large gardens outside
+Aldgate, which is now Whitechapel. The north side of Houndsditch is
+already built. A street of houses runs north of Bishopsgate. No houses
+stand between this street and two or three streets outside Cripplegate.
+Moorfields are really fields. There are windmills, gardens with
+summer-houses, pasture-fields with cows, a large 'dogge house,' and
+fields where women appear to be laying out clothes to dry. Really, they
+are tenter fields, i.e. fields provided with 'tenters,' or pegs, by
+means of which cloth could be stretched. North of Moorfields is
+indicated rising ground with woods. There can be no doubt at all as to
+the course of the wall, which is here marked with the greatest
+clearness. On the east of the Tower there is already a crowded quarter
+in the Precinct of St. Katherine's: and a few buildings mark the former
+site of the great monastery of Eastminster. In the Minories a group of
+new houses marks the site of the nunnery which stood here. London Bridge
+is covered with houses: on Bank Side, Southwark, there are two round
+buildings, 'The Bearebayting' and 'The Bullebayting.' There is also,
+opposite to Blackfriars, Paris Garden, a very favourite place of resort
+for the citizens. But as yet there are no theatres. Along the river
+outside the walls we find, beyond Bridewell Palace, an open space where
+was formerly Whitefriars. Here presently grew up a curious colony called
+Alsatia, which claimed to retain the right of Sanctuary once belonging
+to the monastery. Arrests for debt could not be made within its limits.
+That is to say, it was so claimed by the residents, who resisted any
+attempt to violate this privilege by force of arms. It was a notorious
+place in the seventeenth century, filled with rogues and broken-down
+gamblers, spendthrifts and profligates. As yet (when this map was drawn)
+there are very few houses between Whitefriars and the Temple. Beyond the
+Temple there are marked Arundel Place, Paget Place, Somerset Place, the
+Savoy, York Place. Duresme--i.e. Durham--Place, and 'the Court'--i.e.
+Whitehall--of which the map gives a plan, which gives us a clear idea of
+the plan and appearance of this palace, of which only the Banqueting
+Hall remains. The Savoy, at the time (1561) was a hospital. Henry VII.
+made a hospital of it, dedicated to St. John the Baptist, receiving 100
+poor people. At the Dissolution of the Monasteries it was suppressed.
+Queen Mary restored it, and it continued as a hospital till the year
+1702, when it was finally suppressed. Like Whitefriars, and for the same
+reason, it claimed the right of Sanctuary: therefore it became the
+harbour of people described as 'rogues and masterless men.' In the City
+itself there are many large gardens and open spaces. The courts of the
+Grey Friars, now a school, are still standing: there are gardens on the
+site of the Austin Friars' monastery and gardens between Broad Street
+and Bishopsgate Street. We must not think of London as a city crowded
+with narrow lanes and courts, the houses almost touching their opposite
+neighbours. Such courts were only found beside the river: many streets,
+it is true, were narrow, but there were broad thoroughfares like
+Cheapside, Gracechurch Street, Canwicke (now Cannon Street) Tower
+Street, and Fenchurch Street. The river is covered with boats: one of
+them is a barge filled with soldiers, which is being tugged by a
+four-oared boat: packhorses are being taken to the river to drink: below
+bridge the lighters begin: two or three vessels are moored at
+Billingsgate: the ships begin opposite the Tower: two or three great
+three-masted vessels are shown: and two or three smaller ships of the
+kind called ketch, sloop, or hoy. Along the river front of the Tower are
+mounted cannon. The ditch of the Tower is filled with water. On Tower
+Hill there stands a permanent gallows: beside it is some small
+structure, which is probably a pillory with the stocks.
+
+Such is a brief account of London from this map. The original is the
+property of the Corporation and is kept in the Guildhall Library. A
+facsimile reprint has been made.
+
+
+
+
+41. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+We have passed over two hundred years. We left London under the Three
+Edwards. We find it under Elizabeth. It was a City of
+Palaces--monasteries, with splendid churches and stately buildings: town
+houses of bishops, abbots, and noble lords, every one able to
+accommodate a goodly following of liveried retainers and servants: the
+mansions of rich City merchants, sometimes as splendid as those of the
+lords: the halls of the City Companies: the hundred and twenty City
+churches. Look at London as Shakespeare saw it. Everywhere there are the
+ruins of the monasteries: some of the buildings have been destroyed with
+gunpowder: some have been pulled down: where it has been too costly to
+destroy the monastic chapels they are used as storehouses or workshops:
+the marble monuments of the buried Kings and Queens have been broken up
+and carried off: the ruins of refectory, dormitory, library, chapter
+house stand still, being taken down little by little as stones are
+wanted for building purposes: some of the ruins, indeed, lasted till
+this very century, notably a gateway of the Holy Trinity Priory, at the
+back of St. Catharine Cree, Leadenhall Street, and some of the buildings
+of St. Helen's Nunnery, beside the church of Great St. Helen's. One
+would think that the presence of all these ruins would have saddened the
+City. Not so. The people were so thoroughly Protestant that they
+regarded the ruins with the utmost satisfaction. They were a sign of
+deliverance from what their new preachers taught them was false
+doctrine. Moreover, there were other reasons why the citizens under
+Queen Elizabeth could not regret the past.
+
+[Illustration: COACHES IN THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH.
+
+(_From 'Archcæologia.'_)]
+
+The parish churches were changed. The walls, once covered with paintings
+of saints and angels, were now scraped or whitewashed: instead of altars
+with blazing lights, there was a plain table: there were no more
+watching candles: there were no more splendid robes for the priest and
+the altar boys: the priest was transformed into a preacher: the service
+consisted of plain prayers, the reading of the Bible, and a sermon. In
+very few churches was there an organ. There was no external beauty in
+religion. Therefore external beauty in the church itself ceased for
+three hundred years to be desired. What was required was neatness, with
+ample space for all to be seated, so arranged that all might hear the
+sermon. And whereas under the Plantagenets every other man was a priest,
+a friar, or some officer or servant of a monastery, one only met here
+and there a clergyman with black gown and Genevan bands.
+
+This change alone transformed London. But there were other changes. Most
+of the great nobles had left the City. Long before they went away their
+following had been cut down to modest numbers: their great barracks had
+become useless: they were let out in tenements, and were falling into
+decay: some of them had been removed to make way for warehouses and
+offices: one or two remained till the Great Fire of 1666. Among them
+were Baynard's Castle, close to Blackfriars, and Cold Harbour. A few
+nobles continued to have houses in the City. In the time of Charles II.,
+the Duke of Buckingham had a house on College Hill, and the palaces
+along the Strand still remained.
+
+[Illustration: THE CITY FROM SOUTHWARK.]
+
+The merchants' houses took the place of these palaces. They were built
+either in the form of a quadrangle, standing round a garden, with a
+cloister or covered way running round, of which Gresham House, pulled
+down in the last century, was a very fine example. But, since few
+merchants could afford to build over so large a piece of ground and land
+was too valuable to be wasted on broad lawns and open courts, the houses
+were built in four or five stories, with rich carvings all over the
+front. The house called Sir Paul Pinder's House in Bishopsgate Street,
+pulled down only a year or two ago, was a very fine example of such a
+house. The great hall was henceforth only built in great country houses:
+in the City the following of the richest merchants, in his private
+house, consisted of a few servants only; small rooms henceforward became
+the rule: when entertainments and festivities on a large scale are held,
+the Companies' Halls may be used. The inferior kind of Elizabethan house
+may still be seen in Holborn--outside of Staple Inn: in Wych Street: in
+Cloth Fair: and one or two other places. They were narrow: three or
+four stories high: each story projected beyond the one below: they were
+gabled: the windows were latticed, with small diamond panes of glass:
+they were built of plaster and timber. Building with brick only began in
+the reign of James the First. Before every house hung a sign, on which
+was painted the figure by which the house was known: some of these signs
+may still be seen: there is one in Holywell Street: one in Ivy Lane: and
+there are many old Inns which still keep their ancient signs.
+
+
+
+
+42. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+The population of London at this time was perhaps, for it is not
+certain, 150,000. There were no suburbs, unless we call the Strand and
+Smithfield suburbs; the London citizen stepped outside the gates into
+the open country. This fact must be remembered when we think of the
+narrow lanes. The great danger of the City still remained, that of fire,
+for though the better houses were built of stone, the inferior sort, as
+was stated above, continued to be built of timber and plaster. There
+were no vehicles in the streets except carts, and the number of these
+was restricted to 420. When you think of London streets at this time
+remember that in most of them, in all except the busy streets and the
+chief thoroughfares, there was hardly ever any noise of rumbling wheels.
+The packhorses followed each other in long procession, laden with
+everything; there were doubtless wheelbarrows and hand carts; but the
+rumbling of the wheels was not yet a part of the daily noise.
+
+The Lord Mayor was directed by Elizabeth always to keep a certain number
+of the citizens drilled and instructed in the use of arms. When the
+Spanish invasion was threatened, the Queen ordered a body of troops to
+be raised instantly. In a single day 1,000 men, fully equipped, were
+marched off to camp. Afterwards 10,000 men were sent off, and
+thirty-eight ships were supplied. Both men and sailors were raised by
+impressment. A constant danger to the peace of the City was the
+turbulence of the prentices, these lads were always ready to rush into
+the streets, shouting, ready to attack or destroy whatever was unpopular
+at the moment. Thus, early in the reign of Henry VIII., at a time when
+there was great animosity against foreign merchants, of whom there were
+a great many beside the Hanse merchants of the Steelyard, there was a
+riot in which a great many houses of foreigners were destroyed, many
+persons were killed, Newgate was assailed and taken, eleven rioters
+hanged and 400 more taken before the King with halters round their necks
+to receive his pardon. This was called 'Evil May Day.' The disorderly
+conduct of the prentices continued during Elizabeth's reign, she ordered
+the Provost-Marshal in order to put an end to this trouble, to hang all
+disorderly persons so convicted by any Justice of the Peace.
+
+There was much complaint of extravagance in dress: rules were passed by
+the Common Council on the subject. Prentices especially were forbidden
+to dress in any but the warmest and plainest materials. The dress of the
+Blue Coat boy is exactly the dress of the prentice of the period,
+including the flat cap which the modern wearer of the dress carries in
+his pocket.
+
+[Illustration: SOUTH-EAST PART OF LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY,
+SHOWING THE TOWER AND WALL.]
+
+The punishments of this time are much more severe than had been found
+necessary in the Plantagenet period. They not only carried criminals in
+shameful procession through the City, but they flogged girls for
+idleness, apprentices for immorality, and rogues for selling goods
+falsely described. A 'pillar of reformation' was set up at the Standard
+in Cheap; here on Sunday morning the mayor superintended the flogging of
+young servants. When Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed Queen a young fellow,
+for speaking slightingly of her title, had his ears nailed to the
+pillory and afterwards cut off, heretics were burned, traitors were
+hanged first for a few minutes and then taken down and cut open--one of
+the most horrible punishments ever inflicted.
+
+The Reformation, which suppressed the religious Houses, at the same time
+suppressed the hospitals which were all religious Houses and the schools
+which belonged to the religious Houses. St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's,
+St. Mary's, St. Mary of Bethlehem, besides the smaller houses, were all
+suppressed. The sick people were sent back to their own houses; the
+brethren and sisters were dispersed. One House contained one hundred
+blind men, all these were cast adrift; another contained a number of
+aged priests--these were turned into the streets. Eight schools perished
+at the Dissolution. For a time London had neither schools nor hospitals.
+
+This could not continue. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, Bethlehem, and,
+under Queen Mary, the Savoy were refounded under new statutes as
+hospitals. For schools, St. Paul's which was never closed, was endowed
+by Dean Colet; St. Anthony's continued, the Blue Coat School was founded
+on the site of the Franciscan House. The Mercers took over the school of
+St. Thomas. The Merchant Taylors founded their school. In Southwark,
+schools were founded at St. Olave's and St. Saviour's. A few years later
+Charterhouse was converted into an almshouse and a school.
+
+
+
+
+43. TRADE.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+London was anciently the resort of 'foreign' merchants. It was rich
+because 'foreign' merchants brought and exchanged their goods at this
+port. There were no ships built in England until the reign of King
+Alfred. When the kingdom became tranquil he is said to have hired out
+his ships to foreign merchants. A list of tolls paid by foreign ships in
+the reign of King Ethelred II. shows that the imports were considerable.
+The foreign merchants, however, were not to 'forestall their markets
+from the burghers of London,' so that the retail trade was kept in
+native hands. When retail trade was separated from wholesale trade all
+that the London merchants had was the collection, the warehousing, and
+the sale of the exports. It is reasonable to suppose that foreign
+merchants coming to the City year after year would find it useful to
+have a permanent settlement--a wharf with officers and servants of their
+own. Such a settlement was, no doubt, permitted from very early times.
+But in the year 1169 was founded a trade association which, for wealth,
+success, and importance, might compare with our East India Company. This
+was the Hanseatic League (so called from the word _Hansa_, a
+convention). In the League were confederated: first, twelve towns in the
+Baltic, Lübeck at the head; next, sixty-four--and even eighty--German
+towns. They were first associated for protection against pirates: they
+speedily became the greatest trading company of the period. In the reign
+of Henry III. the League obtained a Royal Charter granting them liberty
+of constant residence at a place in London. They were permitted to have
+a permanent establishment at a place called the Steelyard--i.e. the
+place where the Steelyard or Scales had formerly been kept--under
+certain conditions, including the payment of custom dues. They were
+called the Merchants of the Steelyard: they at once drew to themselves
+the whole trade of England with the northern ports: and they remained
+there for nearly 400 years.
+
+There was another association of foreigners called the Merchants of the
+Staple. That is to say, they dealed in what was called the 'staples' of
+England--in the raw produce, as lead, tin, wool, &c. Gradually, however,
+the word Staple came to be applied solely to wool as the most important
+export. The Lord Chancellor, to this day, is seated on a Woolsack. The
+Merchants of the Staple became merged in the Merchants of the Steelyard.
+
+These foreign merchants were at all times extremely unpopular with the
+Londoners, who envied their wealth, which they thought was made at the
+expense of the City, not understanding, for a long time, that the same
+way of wealth was open to themselves. When they began to put forth
+merchant ships on their own account, they at first sought the southern
+ports, sailing to Dunquerque, Sluys, Rouen, Havre, Bordeaux, Lisbon, and
+even to the Mediterranean ports. Whittington's trade was entirely with
+the South. It was not at Lübeck or on the shores of the Baltic that he
+found his cloth of gold, his rich velvets, his silks, his gold
+embroidery, his scented wood, his wines, his precious stones. And the
+reason why he sent his ships to the South was that the trade of the
+North was in the hands of the Steelyard.
+
+Edward III. seems first of our kings to have understood the value of
+manufactures and of foreign trade. He first passed laws for the repair
+of the highways: under his reign the Merchant Adventurers were
+encouraged and assisted: he first stimulated the making of English
+cloth instead of selling our wool: under him the shipping of the London
+merchants began to increase and to develop. Still the foreign merchants
+continued to occupy the Steelyard: still our merchants were shut out of
+the northern ports: still other foreigners received permission to
+settle: even craftsmen came over from Germany and the Low Countries and
+followed their trade in London. Richard III., in order to please the
+citizens, ordered their expulsion, but it does not appear that the order
+was obeyed. Henry VII., on the other hand, persuaded many Flemish
+woollen manufacturers to come over to this country.
+
+Early in the sixteenth century the exports of English cloth by the
+foreign merchants amounted to 44,000 pieces, while the English ships
+took away no more than 1,000 pieces. When our own merchants were
+prepared with ships and had what may be called the machinery of trade;
+as a market, wharves, permission to buy and sell; it is obvious that the
+old state of things could no longer continue. It was not, however, until
+the reign of Edward VI. that the foreign merchants were finally deprived
+of all their privileges and charters.
+
+These rivals, with their powerful organisations and their hold over all
+the northern ports, once out of the way the English merchants began to
+push out their enterprises in all directions. You shall see immediately
+how they prospered.
+
+Meantime there remains a monument erected in memory of the Hanseatic
+League. In the reign of Queen Anne the merchants of Hamburg presented to
+the church where the merchants of the Steelyard had worshipped for 400
+years, a splendid screen of carved wood. Unless the church, which is
+already threatened with destruction, is pulled down, you should go to
+see that screen, and remember all that it means and commemorates.
+
+
+
+
+44. TRADE.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+English trade, that is to say, trade in English hands, practically began
+with Edward III. and, slowly increasing under his successors, gained an
+enormous development under Elizabeth. Several causes operated to produce
+this increase. In the first place the abolition of the Steelyard, though
+ordered by Edward VI., was not completely carried out till many years
+afterwards. During this period the merchants were learning the immense
+possibilities open to them when this incubus should be removed. Next,
+the great rival of London, Antwerp, suffered, like the rest of the
+Netherlands, from the religious wars. Thirdly, the wise and farseeing
+action of Gresham transferred the commercial centre of the northern
+world from that town to London.
+
+Antwerp in the fifteenth century was the richest and most prosperous
+city in western Europe. There were 200,000 inhabitants, a great many
+more than could be counted in London: 5,000 merchants met every day in
+the Bourse for the transaction of business: 2,500 vessels might be
+counted in the river: 500 loaded waggons entered every day from the
+country. It was the port of the great and rich manufacturing towns of
+Bruges and Ghent. In the latter town there were 40,000 weavers, and an
+army of 80,000 men fully armed and equipped, could be raised at any
+moment. The former town, Bruges, was the Market--the actual commercial
+centre--of the world. Hither came the merchants of Venice and Genoa,
+bringing the silks, velvets, cloth of gold, spices and precious stones
+from the East to exchange for the English wool and the produce of
+Germany and the Baltic.
+
+[Illustration: KING EDWARD VI.
+
+(_From a picture belonging to H. Hucks Gibbs, Esq._)]
+
+The Religious Wars of the sixteenth century: the ferocities, cruelties,
+and savagery of those wars: depopulated and ruined this rich and
+flourishing country: the Inquisition drove thousands of Flemings, an
+industrious and orderly folk, to England, where they established silk
+manufactures: and the carrying trade which had been wholly in the hands
+of the Antwerp shipowners was diverted and went across the narrow seas
+to London, where it has ever since remained.
+
+Before the ruin of Antwerp, Bruges, and Ghent, it was of these towns
+that the Kings of England obtained their loans. They were taken up by
+the merchants of the Low Countries at an interest of 14 per cent. This
+enormous interest, then thought quite moderate and reasonable, explains
+how the merchants of that time grew so wealthy. Part of the loans, also,
+often had to be taken in jewels. In order to negotiate these loans and
+to pay the interest an agent of the English Sovereign was kept at
+Antwerp, called the Royal Agent. Very fortunately for London, the Royal
+Agent under Edward VI., Mary, and the early years of Elizabeth, was Sir
+Thomas Gresham.
+
+You must learn something about this great man. He was the son of Sir
+Richard Gresham, formerly Lord Mayor: nephew of Sir John Gresham, also
+Lord Mayor (who preserved Bethlehem Hospital on the Dissolution of the
+Religious Houses): he came of a Norfolk family originally of the village
+of Gresham: like Whittington he was of gentle birth. He was educated at
+Cambridge: he was apprenticed to his uncle after taking his degree: and
+he was received into the Mercers' Company at the age of twenty-four. It
+must be observed that from the outset the young man had every
+advantage--good birth, good education, good society, and wealth.
+
+[Illustration: SIR THOMAS GRESHAM.]
+
+At the age of thirty-two he was appointed Royal Agent at Antwerp. At
+this time the City was at the height of its splendour and prosperity.
+Gresham walked upon the long quays, gazed at the lines of ships, saw
+the river alive with boats and barges, loading and unloading, watched
+the throng of merchants in the Bourse, saw the palaces, the rows and
+streets of palaces in which they lived, thought of London which he had
+formerly regarded with so much pride though he now perceived that it was
+even poor and quiet compared with this crowded centre of an enormous
+trade--why, the city which he had thought the envy of the whole world
+could show no more than 317 merchants in all, against Antwerp's 5,000:
+and these, though there were some esteemed wealthy, could not between
+them all raise a loan of even 10,000_l._ The King had to go abroad for
+the money and to pay 14 per cent. for it. Then he began to ask himself
+whether something could not be done to divert some of this trade to his
+native town.
+
+[Illustration: FIRST ROYAL EXCHANGE.]
+
+First of all, he applied himself to the reduction of the interest. This
+he managed to lower from fourteen per cent. to twelve and even to ten. A
+gain of four per cent. on a loan of, say, 60,000_l._ meant a saving of
+2,400_l._ a year.
+
+When he came back to England he brought with him a discovery which seems
+simple. It is, however, the most difficult thing in the world for people
+to understand: we are always discovering it, over and over again.
+
+His discovery was this--it applies to every kind of business or
+enterprise--It is that union will effect what single effort is powerless
+to attempt. The City had for centuries understood this in matters of
+government: they were now to learn the same thing in matters of trade.
+The merchants of Antwerp had a central place where they could meet for
+purposes of union and combination. Those of London had none. As yet
+union had only been practised for the regulation of trade prices and
+work. True, the merchant adventurers existed, but the spirit of
+enterprise had as yet spread a very little way.
+
+Gresham determined to present to his fellow citizens such a Bourse as
+the merchants of Antwerp had enjoyed for centuries. He built his Bourse;
+he gave it to the City: he gave it as a place of meeting for the
+merchants: he gave it for the advance of enterprise. The Queen opened it
+with great State, and called it the Royal Exchange. It stood exactly
+where the present Royal Exchange stands, but its entrance was on the
+south side, not the west. And no gift has ever been made to any city
+more noble, more farseeing, more wise, or productive of greater
+benefits.
+
+
+
+
+45. TRADE.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+The merchants got their Exchange. What did they do in it? They did most
+wonderful things with it. Greater things were never done in any
+Exchange. For the first time they were enabled to act together: and it
+was the most favourable opportunity that ever happened to any trading
+community. The charters of the foreigners were abolished: the markets of
+Bruges were depressed in consequence of the civil wars already
+beginning: that city itself, with Antwerp and Ghent, was on the point of
+ruin. The way was open, and the spirit of enterprise was awakened. In
+ordinary times it would have been the love of gain alone that awakened
+this spirit. But these were not ordinary times. The people of Western
+Europe took a hundred years to discover that Columbus had doubled the
+world: that there was a new continent across the ocean. They began to
+send their ships across: nobody as yet knew the possibilities of that
+continent with its islands: the Spaniards had the first run, but the
+French and the English were beginning to claim their share. Then a way
+to India and the East had been found out: we were no longer going to be
+dependent on the Venetians for the products of Persia, India, the
+Moluccas, China. All those turbulent and restless spirits who could not
+settle down to peaceful crafts or the dull life of the desk, longed to
+be on board ship sailing Westward Ho. Fortune was waiting for them
+there: fortune with fighting, privation, endurance--perhaps death by
+fever or by battle: yet a glorious life. Or they might sail southwards
+and so round the Cape of Good Hope--called at first the Cape of
+Storms--and across the Indian Ocean to the port of Calicut, there to
+trade. There were dangers enough even on that voyage to tempt the most
+adventurous: Moorish pirates off the coast of Morocco: European
+pirates--English pirates--coming out of the rivers and ports of Western
+Africa: storms off the Cape: hurricanes in the Indian Ocean: the rocks
+and reefs of seas as yet unsurveyed: treachery of natives. Yet there
+were never wanting men in plenty to volunteer for these long and
+perilous voyages. At home, then, the spirit of enterprise, joined with
+the spirit of adventure, achieved mighty things. The merchant
+adventurers succeeding to some of the trade of the Hanseatic League,
+established 'courts,' i.e. branches at Antwerp, Hamburg, and Dordrecht:
+they had also courts at York, Hull, and Newcastle. Many other companies
+were founded. There was the Eastland Company or merchants of Ebbing.
+Their trade was with the Baltic. There was the 'Merchant Adventurers for
+the discovery of Lands, not before known to, or frequented by, the
+English.' This afterwards became the Russian Company. They sent out Sir
+Hugh Willoughby with three ships to find a North-East passage to China.
+He and all his men were frozen to death on the shores of Russian
+Lapland. The Company afterwards took to whaling. There was also the
+Turkey Company, which lasted to well into the present century. There was
+the Royal African Company, which has been revived. There were the
+Merchants of Spain: the Merchants of France: the Merchants of Virginia:
+the East India Company: the Hudson's Bay Company: the South Sea Company:
+the Guinea Company: the Canary Company. Some of these companies were
+founded later, but they are all sprung from the spirit of enterprise,
+first called into existence by Gresham when he built his Exchange and
+brought the merchants together.
+
+[Illustration: SHIPPING IN THE THAMES, CIRCA 1660.
+
+(_From Pricke's 'South Prospect of London.'_)]
+
+By leaps and bounds the prosperity of the City increased, and has still
+continued to increase, for the three hundred years that have passed
+since Queen Elizabeth opened the Royal Exchange. Whether this prosperity
+will still further advance; whether forces, as yet unnoticed, will bring
+about the decay of London, no one can venture to prophecy. Antwerp may
+again become her rival: may perhaps surpass her; the port of Antwerp is
+rising yearly in importance: and that of Hamburg further north, has,
+like Liverpool, its miles of quays and wharves and its hundreds of
+vessels. But the trade of London is still far greater than that of any
+other port in the world, and for its three hundred years of prosperity
+we must thank, above all men, that wise merchant Sir Thomas Gresham.
+
+[Illustration: SIR FRANCIS DRAKE, IN HIS FORTY-THIRD YEAR.
+
+(_From the engraving by Elstracke._)]
+
+He did more than give an Exchange to the City. He gave a college: he
+gave his own house in Broad Street for a college: he endowed it with
+professorships: he intended it to become for London what Christ Church
+was to Oxford, or Trinity to Cambridge. It has been converted into a
+place for the delivery of lectures, but there are signs that the City
+will once more have such a college as Gresham intended.
+
+
+
+
+46. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+There were no theatres in England, nor any Plays, before the reign of
+Queen Elizabeth. This is a statement which is true, but needs
+explanation. It is not the case that there was no acting. On the
+contrary, there has always been acting of some kind or other. There was
+acting at the fairs, where the Cheap Jack and the Quack had their
+tumbling boys and clowns to attract the crowd. There were always
+minstrels and tumblers, men and women who played, sang, danced, and
+tumbled in the hall for the amusement of the great people in the long
+winter evenings. Not including the wandering mummers, the Theatre was
+preceded by the Religious Drama, the Pageant, and the Masque.
+
+The Religious Drama was usually performed in churches, but sometimes in
+market-places and in front of churches. They represented scenes from the
+Bible and acts of saints. In a time when the people could not read, such
+shows presented Sacred History in a most vivid form. No one could
+possibly forget any detail in the Passion of Our Lord who had once seen
+it performed in a Mystery, with the dresses complete, with appropriate
+words and action, and with music. In the year 1409 there was a play
+representing the Creation of the World performed at Clerkenwell. It
+lasted eight days, and was witnessed by a vast concourse of all ranks.
+Here were shown Paradise, our first parents, the admonition of the
+Creator, the Fall, and the expulsion. Such a sight was better than a
+hundred sermons for teaching the people.
+
+The plays were not generally so long and so ambitious. They acted
+detached scenes: the two men of Emmaus meeting the Risen Lord: the
+Raising of Lazarus: the Birth of Christ: the Flood: the Fall of Lucifer:
+the Shepherds of Bethlehem: and other scenes. The Mystery or Sacred Play
+was the Sunday school of the middle ages. By those plays they learned
+the whole of Scripture History. The churches taught detached portions by
+the frescoes on the wall, the painted windows and the carvings: but the
+history in its sequence was taught by the Sacred Dramas.
+
+We have very full accounts of one Miracle Play, that which was annually
+performed by the Guilds of the City of Chester. It was performed at
+Whitsuntide and lasted three days. The play began with the 'Fall of
+Lucifer' performed by the tanners: went on to the 'Creation,' by the
+drapers: then to the 'Flood,' and so on. Nine plays were performed on
+the first day; nine on the second; and seven on the third. Each Guild
+provided a scaffold on wheels. The scaffold was provided with a canopy
+which would represent the sky, or the roof of a house, or a tent, or a
+cave, as the play demanded: the performers were properly dressed for
+their parts: there was music, and in some cases there were songs. Under
+the scaffold was the room where the actors dressed and where the
+'properties' were kept. Every play was performed in every principal
+street. When one was finished the scaffold was rolled to another station
+and the play was repeated. This method prevented crowding. The most
+sacred Persons were exhibited at these plays, and nothing was spared to
+make them realistic to the last degree. Sometimes devils were put upon
+the stage: flames issued from their mouths: they performed tricks of
+buffoonery: they dragged off sinners to their doom. Sometimes comic
+scenes were introduced, as in the play of the 'Flood,' where it was
+common to represent Noah's wife as a shrew who beats her husband and
+refuses to go into the Ark.
+
+These plays were swept away by the Reformation. They had been productive
+for a long time of mischief rather than of instruction. The profanity of
+the comic scenes increased: and reverence was destroyed when in the same
+tableau which presented the most sacred of events appeared the most
+unbridled buffoons. Religious plays have never been allowed since the
+Reformation. Should they again be put upon the stage it must be under
+the safeguard of those who can be trusted to admit of no other
+consideration than the presentation in the most reverent manner of
+sacred subjects. There must be no thought of gain for those who manage,
+or those who act, such plays. Many scenes and events of the Bible would
+lend themselves wonderfully to dramatic rendering. But the choice of
+these must not be left to the lessee of a theatre: nor must the acting
+of such plays be permitted to those who live by making the people laugh.
+
+
+
+
+47. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+After the religious dramas, the Pageants gratified the desire for
+spectacle and show. Pageants were held on every grand occasion: to
+welcome the sovereign: to honour the new Lord Mayor: to celebrate a
+victory. Then they erected triumphal arches adorned with pasteboard
+castles, ships, houses, caves--all kinds of things. They either carried
+with them, as part of the procession, or they stationed at some point,
+the City Giants. London was not alone in having giants. York, Norwich,
+Chester, possessed city giants. In Belgium the city giant is still
+carried in procession in Antwerp, Douai, and other towns. The figure of
+the giant symbolised the strength and power of the city. After Agincourt
+Henry V. was welcomed at the south gate of London Bridge by two giants:
+his son, Henry VI., was also received by a giant seventeen years later.
+Two giants stood on London Bridge to welcome Philip and Mary: the same
+two, at Temple Bar, afterwards welcomed Elizabeth. The pair of giants
+now in Guildhall were carved in 1707. The names Gog and Magog are wrong.
+The original names were Gogmagog and Corineus.
+
+The following account of the Pageant to celebrate the return of the
+victor Henry V. after Agincourt is preserved in Stow's 'London.'
+
+The Mayor and Aldermen, dressed in scarlet, with collars and chains,
+with 400 citizens in 'murrey,' all well mounted, rode out to meet the
+King at Blackheath. Then, after formal greetings, they all rode to
+London. In Southwark the King was met by all the London clergy in their
+most sumptuous robes, with crosses and censers. At the entrance of
+London Bridge, on the top of the tower, stood a pair of giants, male and
+female, the former bearing in his right hand an axe, and in his left
+hand the keys of the City. Around them stood a band of trumpeters.
+
+On the drawbridge were two lofty columns, on one of which stood an
+antelope and on the other a lion--both the King's crests.
+
+At the other end of the Bridge was another tower, and within it an image
+of St. George, with a great number of boys representing angels. These
+sang an anthem, 'Give thanks, O England, to God for victory.' This is
+supposed to be preserved in the song 'Our King went forth to Normandy.'
+
+On Cornhill there was erected a tent of crimson cloth ornamented with
+the King's arms. Within it was a company of 'prophets' in golden coats.
+As the King approached they set loose a great number of small birds,
+which fluttered about while the 'prophets' sung 'Cantate Domino canticum
+novum'--'Sing unto the Lord a new song.'
+
+In Cheapside the conduit was hung with green. Here sat the twelve
+Apostles and the twelve Kings, Martyrs and Confessors of England. They
+also sung a chant and made the conduit run with wine. This represented
+the reception of Abraham by Melchisedek.
+
+The Cross of Chepe was built over by a high tower of wood covered all
+over with splendid coats of arms. There was a stage in front, on which a
+crowd of girls came with timbrels dancing and singing. Thus the maidens
+welcomed David when he returned from the slaughter of Goliath. And all
+about the building were crowds of boys, representing the Heavenly Host,
+who showered down coins resembling gold, and boughs of laurel, and sang
+'Te Deum Laudamus.'
+
+Lastly, there was another tower at the west end of Chepe. In each corner
+of this stood a girl, who out of a cup strewed golden leaves before the
+feet of the King. And there was a high canopy painted with blue and
+stars, and beneath a figure all gold, to represent the sun surrounded by
+angels singing and playing all kinds of musical instruments.
+
+This witnessed, the King went on to St. Paul's to pay his devotions.
+
+When you read this bald account of one of the greatest Pageants ever
+celebrated in the City, you must fill it up by imagining the long
+procession, every one in his place. Trumpeters, bowmen in leather
+jerkins, men-at-arms in shining helmet and cuirass, horsemen in full
+armour, knights, nobles, heralds all in full panoply, banners and
+bannerets, the Bishop and all the clergy, the King and his retinue, the
+Lord Mayor and his four hundred followers. Imagine the blare of the
+trumpets, the singing of the chants, the roaring of the people, the
+crimson hangings all along the line of march at every window. There were
+no police to keep the line: you might see the burgesses running out of
+the taverns on their way with blackjacks of Malmsey to regale the
+gallant soldiers who had fought and won the victory. You would see the
+King bareheaded. Why was he bareheaded? Because he was so modest--this
+brave King. Because he would not let the people see his helmet dinted
+and misshapen with the signs and scars of hard battle in which he had
+played his part as well as any humble leather-jerkined bowman in his
+array. Your ancestors, these soldiers and these citizens: your
+forefathers. They knew, far better than you will ever know, how to
+marshal a gallant show. We have lost the art of making a Pageant. It
+remains with us--once a year--in the Lord Mayor's Show. But think of
+Henry's Riding into London compared with the Lord Mayor's Show!
+
+
+
+
+48. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+Between the Pageant and the Play stands the Masque, a form of
+entertainment which achieved its greatest splendour both in stage
+mounting and in the words and songs in the reigns of Elizabeth and
+James I. Nowhere was the Masque more carefully studied and more
+magnificently presented than in London. The scenic display which in the
+early theatre was so meagre was carried in the Masque to a height never
+surpassed until the splendid shows of the present day. Nor did the
+greatest poets disdain to write words for the Masque. The most beautiful
+of those which remain are to be found in Ben Jonson's works. Every great
+man's house had a hall which was used for the Masque. Bacon, who gives
+directions for building a house, orders that there must be a room built
+on purpose for these performances. Under it is to be another room for
+the actors to dress and for the 'properties'--i.e. the things requisite
+for the presentation of the Masque, such as scenery, the woods,
+fountains, rocks, palaces, &c.--that might be required. Let us show what
+a Masque was like by describing one of Ben Jonson's. It is called the
+Masque of Oberon, and was performed before Prince Henry, the eldest son
+of James I., who died in youth.
+
+The scene presents a rock with trees beyond it and 'all the wildness
+that can be presented.' All is dark. Presently the moon rising shows a
+Satyr, one of the beings with whom the ancients peopled the forests and
+wild places. They were drawn with the feet and legs of goats, short
+horns on the head, and the body covered with thick hair. This Satyr
+lifts his head and calls his companions. There is no answer. He blows
+his cornet. Echo answers him. He blows again, and is again mocked by the
+Echo. A third time he blows, and other Satyrs come leaping and dancing
+upon the stage. Silenus, their leader, bids them prepare to see the
+young Prince Oberon.
+
+The scene opens: the rocks and forests disappear: there is shown a
+glorious palace whose walls and gates are transparent. Before the gates
+lie asleep two 'Sylvans'--i.e. men of the woods. The Satyrs gather round
+these sleeping sentinels and wake them up with singing:
+
+    Buzz, quoth the blue fly:
+      Hum, quoth the bee:
+    Buzz and hum they cry
+      And so do we.
+    In his ear, in his nose,
+      Thus do you see? [They tickle them.]
+    He ate the dormouse
+      Else it was he.
+
+The Sylvans wake: they explain that it is yet too early for the gates to
+open. Meantime let them sing and dance to while away the time. One of
+them sings therefore. After the song they fall into an 'antick dance
+full of gesture and swift motion' and thus continue till the crowing of
+a cock gives the signal for the whole palace to open. It is like a
+transformation scene at a pantomime. There is the palace with all its
+occupants--the 'whole nation of Fays' or Fairies. Some are playing
+instruments of music; some are singing: some are bearing lights: at the
+back of the stage sit the 'Knights masquers.' With them Oberon in his
+chariot. And then, drawn by two white bears, guarded by three Sylvans on
+each side, the chariot moves down the stage. Observe that to produce all
+these effects the stage must have been very deep. The song they sing is
+in praise of the King:
+
+        Melt earth to sea, sea flow to air,
+          And air fly into fire,
+        Whilst we in tunes to Arthur's chair
+          Bear Oberon's desire:
+    Than which there's nothing can be higher
+      Save James to whom it flies:
+    But he the wonder is of tongues and ears and eyes--
+
+The Satyrs leap and dance again for joy at so splendid a sight.
+
+Then Silenus speaks in praise of Prince Oberon, who is, of course,
+Prince Henry, the elder son of James, who died young. The flattery is no
+worse than was usual in Masques. Silenus says that the Prince--
+
+            Stays the time from turning old,
+    And keeps the age up in a head of gold.
+    He makes it ever day and ever spring
+    When he doth shine, and quickens everything.
+
+Then two Fays sing a song and all the Fays together dance, after which
+all together sing. Then Oberon and his knights dance. Another song
+follows. Then they all together dance 'measures, corantos, and
+galliards,' till Phosphorus the day star appears and calls them away--
+
+    To rest! To rest! The herald of the day,
+    Bright Phosphorus commands you hence. Obey.
+
+They quickly dance their last dance, one by one getting into the Palace.
+Then the Star vanishes, the day breaks, and while the last song is sung
+the 'machine closes'--i.e. the Palace becomes a wall of the room and the
+show is over. This is the pretty song which ends the Masque:
+
+        O yet how early and before her time,
+        The envious morning up doth climb,
+          Though she not love her bed!
+        What haste the jealous sun doth make
+        His fiery horses up to take
+          And once more show his head!
+        Lest, taken with the brightness of this night,
+    The world should wish it last and never miss his light.
+
+
+
+
+49. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.
+
+PART IV.
+
+
+Through the Religious Drama, the Pageant, the Masque, we work our way to
+the Play itself. The first beginnings of the modern Drama must here be
+passed over: there were the rough and unformed comedies such as 'Gammer
+Gurton's Needle,' performed in a college hall: or the tragedy played on
+boards spread over a waggon in the courtyard of an inn. Let us suppose
+that we are past the beginnings and are in Shakespeare's time--i.e. the
+end of Queen Elizabeth and the whole reign of James I.
+
+The first theatre was built in 1570. Thirty years after there were
+seven. The Queen had companies of children to play before her. They were
+the boys of the choirs of St. Paul's, Westminster, Whitehall, and
+Windsor. The actors called themselves the servants of some great lord.
+Lord Leicester, Lord Warwick, Lord Pembroke, Lord Howard, the Earl of
+Essex, and others all had their company of actors--not all at the same
+time. The principal Houses were those at Southwark, and especially at
+Bank Side, where there were three, including the famous Globe: the
+Blackfriars Playhouse: the Fortune in Golden Lane, and the Curtain at
+Shoreditch. If you will look at the map you will observe that not one of
+these theatres is within the City--that at Blackfriars was in the former
+precinct of the Dominicans and outside the City. No theatre was allowed
+in the City. Thus early sprang up the prejudice against actors. Probably
+this was of old standing, and first belonged to the time when the
+minstrel and the tumbler, the musician and the dancing girl, the buffoon
+and the contortionist, wandered about the country free of rule and
+discipline, leading careless and lawless lives.
+
+The theatre was octagonal in shape but circular within. What we call the
+pit was called the 'yarde.' The stage projected into the 'yarde,' about
+three or four feet high. The people who filled the 'yarde' were called
+groundlings. Round the house were three galleries, the lowest of which
+contained 'rooms' or private boxes: what we call the upper circle and
+the gallery were above. There were no seats in the pit, nor apparently
+in the upper circles. On either side of the stage sat or lay gentlemen,
+chiefly of the younger kind, who smoked pipes of tobacco and talked
+loudly, disturbing the performance. At the back of the stage was a kind
+of upper stage, supported on columns, which gave the players a tower,
+gallery, wall, a town, or an upper story of a house, or anything of the
+kind that they wanted. There was a great sale of apples, nuts, and ale
+before the play began and between the acts: boys hawked the newest books
+about the 'rooms': the people while they waited smoked pipes, played
+cards. Above the stage on one side was the 'music.' Three times the
+trumpets sounded. At the first, those who were outside hurried in to get
+a place: at the second, the card-players left off their games: at the
+third, those who bawled apples and ale and shouted the name of the new
+book became silent: the audience settled down: the Play began. Not much
+costume was wanted: that of the Elizabethan--noble--courtier--young
+knight--clown--fitted any and every age. There was little scenery
+required: blue hangings above meant day: black hangings night: the
+actors came out upon the advanced stage and played their parts. No doubt
+the illusion was as complete as we can contrive with all our scenery,
+mounting, and correctness of costume.
+
+[Illustration: THE GLOBE THEATRE.]
+
+The parts of women were taken by boys. No women appeared on the stage
+until the reign of Charles II. The Play began with the Prologue, spoken
+by an actor dressed in a long black velvet coat bowing very humbly to
+the audience. After the Play was over the clowns began to tumble and to
+sing. In short, a farce succeeded a tragedy. The time of performance was
+one o'clock, and the performance lasted until five.
+
+In the year 1610 the Lord Mayor and Aldermen being alarmed at the
+increasing popularity of the Play, ordered that there should be only two
+theatres, the Fortune in Golden Lane and the Globe at Bankside. This
+order, however, like so many other laws, was only passed to satisfy a
+passing scare and does not seem to have been carried into effect. It was
+in such a theatre as this and with such scenery that the immortal plays
+of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson were acted. When next you read a play of
+Shakespeare, remember the stage projecting into the pit; the people in
+the pit all standing, the gallants on the stage talking and smoking, the
+ladies in the boxes, the boys enjoying apples and nuts and ale and new
+books, and the actors playing partly on the stage advanced and partly on
+the stage behind.
+
+
+
+
+50. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+You have seen the City as it appeared to one who walked about its
+streets and watched the people. It was free, busy and prosperous, except
+at rare intervals, when its own internal dissensions, or the civil wars
+of the country, or the pretensions of the Sovereign, disturbed the peace
+of the City. Behind this prosperity, however, lay hid all through the
+middle ages, and down to two hundred years ago, four great and
+ever-present terrors. The first was the Terror of Leprosy: the second
+the Terror of Famine: the third was the Terror of Plague: the last was
+the Terror of Fire.
+
+[Illustration: CIVIL COSTUME ABOUT 1620.
+
+(_From a contemporary broadside._)]
+
+[Illustration: COSTUME OF A LAWYER.
+
+(_From a broadside, dated 1623._)]
+
+As for the first two, we have seen how lazar houses were established
+outside every town, and how public granaries were built. Let us consider
+the third. The Plague broke out so often that there was hardly any time
+between the tenth and the seventeenth century when some living person
+could not remember a visitation of this awful scourge. It appeared in
+London first--i.e. the first mention of it occurs in history--in the
+year 962: again in 1094: again in 1111: then there seems to have been a
+respite for 250 years. In the year 1348 the Plague carried off many
+thousands: in 1361 it appeared again: in 1367 and in 1369. In 1407
+30,000 were carried off in London alone by the Plague. In 1478 a plague
+raged throughout the country, which was said to have destroyed more
+people than the Wars of the Roses. But we must accept all mediæval
+estimates of numbers as indicating no more than great mortality. With
+the sixteenth century began a period of a hundred and sixty years,
+marked with attacks of the Plague constantly recurring, and every time
+more fatal and more widespread. Nothing teaches the conditions of human
+life more plainly than the history of the Plague in London. We are
+placed in the world in the midst of dangers, and we have to find out for
+ourselves how to meet those dangers and to protect ourselves. Thus a
+vast number of persons were crowded together within the walls of the
+City. The streets were all narrow: the houses were generally of three or
+more stories, built out in front so as to obstruct the light and air;
+there were many courts, in which the houses were mere hovels: there was
+no drainage: refuse of all kinds lay about the streets: everything that
+was required for the daily life was made in the City, which added a
+thousand noisome smells and noxious refuse. Then the Plague came and
+carried off its thousands and disappeared. Then the survivors went on
+their usual course. Nothing was changed. Yet the Plague was a voice
+which spoke loudly. It said 'Clean yourselves: cease to defile the soil
+of the City with your decaying matter: build your houses in wider
+streets: do not shut out the sunshine--which is a splendid purifier--or
+light and air. Keep yourselves clean--body and raiment, and house and
+street.' The voice spoke, but no one heard. Then came the Plague again.
+Still no one heard the voice. It came again and again. It came in 1500,
+in 1525, in 1543, in 1563, in 1569, in 1574, in 1592, in 1603 (when
+30,575 died), in 1625 (when 35,470 died), in 1635 (when 10,400 died),
+and lastly, in 1665. And in all that time no one understood that voice,
+and the City was never cleansed. All that was done was to light bonfires
+in the street in order to increase the circulation of the air. After the
+last, and worst attack, in 1666 the City was burned, and in the
+purification of the flames it emerged clean, and the Plague has never
+since appeared. The same voice speaks to mankind still in every
+visitation of every new pestilence. It used to cry aloud in time of
+Plague: it cries aloud now in time of typhoid, diphtheria, and cholera.
+Diseases spring from ignorance and from vice. Physicians cannot cure
+them: but they can learn their cause and they can prevent.
+
+The Plague of 1665 began in the autumn of the year before. It had been
+raging in Amsterdam and Hamburg in 1663. Precautions were taken to keep
+it out by stopping the importation of goods from these towns. But these
+proved ineffectual. Certain bales from Holland were landed and taken to
+a house in Long Acre, Drury Lane. Here they were opened by two
+Frenchmen, both of whom caught the disease and died. A third Frenchman
+who was seized in the same house was removed to Bearbinder Lane, St.
+Swithin's Lane, where he, too, died. And then the disease began to
+spread. A severe frost checked it for a time. But in March, when milder
+weather returned, it broke out again.
+
+The disease, when it seized upon a person, brought upon him a most
+distressing horror of mind. This was followed by fever and delirium. But
+the certain signs of the plague were spots, pustules, and swellings,
+which spread over the whole body. Death in most cases rapidly followed.
+Some there were who recovered, but the majority gave themselves over for
+lost on the first appearance. Many of the physicians ran away from the
+infected City: many of the parish clergy deserted their churches. The
+Lord Mayor and Aldermen, however, remained, by their presence giving
+heart to those of the clergy and physicians who stayed, and by their
+prudent measures preventing a vast amount of additional suffering which
+would otherwise have fallen upon the unhappy people.
+
+
+
+
+51. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+In the month of May it was found that twenty City parishes were
+infected. Certain preventions, rather than remedies, of which there were
+none, were now employed by the Mayor. Infected houses were shut up: no
+one was allowed to go in or to come out: food was conveyed by buckets
+let down from an upper window: the dead bodies were lowered in the same
+way, from the windows: on the doors were painted red crosses with the
+words, 'Lord, have mercy upon us!' Watchmen were placed at the doors to
+prevent the unhappy prisoners from coming out. All the dogs and cats in
+the City, being supposed to carry about infection in their fur or hair,
+were slaughtered--40,000 dogs, it is stated, and 200,000 cats, which
+seems an impossible number, were killed. They also tried, but without
+success, to kill the rats and mice. Everything was tried except the one
+thing wanted--air and cleanliness. At the outset a great many of the
+better sort left the City and stayed in the country till the danger was
+over: others would have followed but the country people would not suffer
+their presence and drove them back with clubs and pikes. So they had to
+come back and die in the City. Then all the shops closed: all industries
+were stopped: men could no longer sit beside each other: the masters
+dismissed their apprentices and their workmen and their servants. In the
+river the ships lay with their cargoes half discharged: on the quays
+stood the bales, unopened. In the churches there were no services except
+where the scanty congregation sat singly and apart. The Courts of
+Justice were empty: there were no crimes to try: in the streets the
+passengers avoided each other. In the markets which had to be kept open,
+the buyer lifted down his purchase with a hook and dropped the money
+into a bowl of vinegar. Many families voluntarily shut their houses and
+would neither go in or out. Some of these escaped the infection; the
+history of one such family during their six months' imprisonment has
+been preserved. They thanked God solemnly every morning for continued
+health: they prayed three times a day for safety. Some went on board
+ship and, as the Plague increased, dropped down the river.
+
+[Illustration: A COUNTRYMAN. A COUNTRYWOMAN.
+
+ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; _temp._ CHARLES I.
+
+(_From Speed's map of 'The Kingdom of England,' 1646._)]
+
+The deaths, which in the four weeks of July numbered 725, 1,089, 1,843,
+and 2,010, respectively, rose in August and September to three, four,
+five, and even eight thousand a week: but it was believed that the
+registers were badly kept and that the numbers were greater than
+appeared. Every evening carts were sent round, the drivers who smoked
+tobacco as a disinfectant, crying out, 'Bring out your Dead. Bring out
+your Dead,' and ringing a bell. The churchyards were filled and pits
+were dug outside the City into which the bodies were thrown without
+coffins. When the pestilence ceased the churchyards were covered with a
+thick deposit of fresh mould to prevent ill consequences. It was
+observed that during the prevalence of the disease there was an
+extraordinary continuance of calm and serene sunshine. For many weeks
+together not the least breath of wind could be perceived.
+
+When the summer was over and the autumn came on, the disease became
+milder in its form: it lasted longer: and whereas, at the first, not one
+in five recovered, now not two in five died. Presently the cold weather
+returned and the Plague was stayed. They burned or washed all the linen,
+flannel, clothes, bedding, tapestry and curtains belonging to the
+infected houses: and they whitewashed the rooms in which the disease had
+appeared. But they did not take steps for the cleansing of the City. The
+voice had spoken in vain. The number of deaths during the year was
+registered as 97,306 of which 68,596 were attributed to the Plague. But
+there seems little doubt that the registers were inefficiently kept. It
+was believed that the number who perished by Plague alone was at least
+100,000.
+
+It is easy to write down these figures. It is difficult to understand
+what they mean. Among them, a quarter at least, would be the
+breadwinners, the fathers of families. In many cases all perished
+together, parents and children: in others, the children were left
+destitute. Then there was no work. There were 100,000 working men out of
+employment. All these people had to be kept. The Lord Mayor, assisted by
+his Aldermen and two noble Lords, Albemarle and Craven, organised a
+service of relief. The King gave a thousand pounds a week: the City gave
+600_l._ a week: the merchants contributed thousands every week. And so
+the people were kept from starving.
+
+When it was all over Pepys, who kept his Diary through the time of the
+Plague but was not one of those who stayed in the infected City, notes
+the enormous number of beggars. Who should they be but the poor
+creatures, the women and the children, the old and the infirm who had
+lost their breadwinners, the men who loved them and worked for them? The
+history is full of dreadful things: but this amazing crowd of beggars is
+the most dreadful.
+
+
+
+
+52. THE TERROR OF FIRE.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+[Illustration: A CITIZEN. A CITIZEN'S WIFE.
+
+ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; _temp._ CHARLES I.
+
+(_From Speed's map of 'The Kingdom of England,' 1646._)]
+
+The City of London has suffered from fire more than any other great
+town. In the year 961 a large number of houses were destroyed: in 1077,
+1086, and 1093, a great part of the City was burned down. In 1136, a
+fire which broke out at London Stone, in the house of one Aylward,
+spread east and west as far as Aldgate on one side and St. Erkinwald's
+shrine in St. Paul's Cathedral on the other. London Bridge, then built
+of wood, perished in the fire, which for five hundred years was known
+as the Great Fire. In these successive fires every building of Saxon
+erection, to say nothing of the Roman period, must have perished.
+
+But the ravages of all the fires together did less harm than the
+terrible fire which laid the greater part of London in ashes in the year
+1666. If you will refer to the map of London you may mark off within the
+walls the North-East angle: that part contained by the wall and a
+straight line running from Coleman Street to Tower Hill. With the
+exception of that corner the whole of London within the walls, and
+beyond as far as the Temple, was entirely destroyed.
+
+The fire broke out at a baker's in Pudding Lane, Thames Street. It was
+early on Sunday morning on the second day of September, 1666. It was
+then, and is now, a place where the houses stood very thick and close
+together: all round were warehouses filled with oil, wine, tar, and
+every kind of inflammable stuff. The baker's shop contained a large
+quantity of faggots and brushwood, so that the flames caught and spread
+very rapidly. The people, for the most part, had time to remove their
+most valuable things, but their furniture, their clothes, the stock of
+their shops, the tools of their trade, they had to leave behind them.
+Some hurriedly placed their things in the churches for safety, as if the
+fire would respect the sanctity of these buildings. A stranger Sunday
+was never spent than this, when those who had escaped were asking where
+to go, and those upon whom the flames were advancing were tearing out of
+their houses whatever they could carry away, and the rest of the town
+were looking on and asking whether the flames would be stayed before
+they reached their houses.
+
+Among those who thought that a church would be a safe place were the
+booksellers of Paternoster Row. They carried all their books into St.
+Paul's Cathedral and retired--their stock in trade was safe. But the
+flames closed round upon the Cathedral: they seized on Paternoster Row,
+so that the booksellers like the rest were fain to fly: and presently
+towering to the sky flamed up the lofty roof of nave and chancel and
+tower. Then with an awful crash the flaming timbers fell down into the
+church below. Even the Cathedral was burned with the rest, and with it
+all the books.
+
+[Illustration: A GENTLEMAN. A GENTLEWOMAN.
+
+ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; _temp._ CHARLES I.
+
+(_From Speed's map of 'The Kingdom of England,' 1646._)]
+
+All Sunday, Monday, Tuesday and part of Wednesday, the fire raged, till
+it seemed as if there would be no end until the City was utterly
+destroyed. Happily a remnant was saved, as you have seen. The fire was
+stopped at last by blowing up houses everywhere to arrest its progress.
+Close by the Temple Church (which barely escaped) they stopped it in
+this way. At Aldersgate, Cripplegate, and Bishopsgate, they used the
+same means, and at Pye Corner, Smithfield. Nearly opposite Bartholomew's
+Hospital, you may still see the image of a boy set up to commemorate the
+stopping of the fire at that point. Had it gone further we should have
+lost St. Bartholomew the Great and the houses of Cloth Fair.
+
+[Illustration: LUD-GATE ON FIRE.]
+
+When the fire stopped the people sat down to consider the losses they
+had sustained and the best way out of them.
+
+St. Paul's Cathedral, that ancient and venerable edifice, with its thick
+walls and roof so lofty, that it seemed as if no fire but the fire from
+heaven could reach it, was a pile of ruins, the walls of the nave and
+transept standing, the choir fallen into the crypt below. The Parish
+churches to the number of 88 were burned: the Royal Exchange--Gresham's
+Exchange--was down and all the statues turned into lime, with the
+exception of Gresham's alone: nearly all the great houses left in the
+City, the great nobles' houses, such as Baynard's Castle, Coldharbour,
+Bridewell Palace, Derby House, were in ashes: all the Companies' Halls
+were gone: warehouses, shops, private residences, palaces and
+hovels--everything was levelled with the ground and burned to ashes.
+Five-sixths of the City were destroyed: an area of 436 acres was covered
+with the ruins: 13,200 houses were burned: it is said that 200,000
+persons were rendered homeless--an estimate which would give an average
+of 15 residents to each house. Probably this is an exaggeration. The
+houseless people, however, formed a kind of camp in Moorfields just
+outside the wall, where they lived in tents, and cottages hastily run
+up. The place now called Finsbury Square stands on the site of this
+curious camp.
+
+[Illustration: PAUL PINDAR'S HOUSE.]
+
+We ask ourselves in wonder how life was resumed after so great a
+calamity. The title deeds to houses and estates were burned--who would
+claim and prove the right to property? The account books were all
+lost--who could claim or prove a debt? The warehouses and shops with
+their contents were gone--who could carry on business? The craftsmen had
+lost their employment--how were they to live?
+
+Of debts and rents and mortgages and all such things, little could be
+said. It was not a time to speak of the past. They must think of the
+future: they must all begin the world anew.
+
+
+
+
+53. THE TERROR OF FIRE.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+They must begin the world anew. For most of the merchants nothing was
+left to them but their credit--their good name: try to imagine the havoc
+caused by burning all the docks, warehouses, wharves, quays, and shops
+in London at the present day with nothing at all insured!
+
+[Illustration: LONDON, AS REBUILT AFTER THE FIRE.]
+
+But the citizens of London were not the kind of people to sit down
+weeping. The first thing was to rebuild their houses. This done there
+would be time to consider the future. The Lord Mayor and the Aldermen
+took counsel together how to rebuild the City. They called in Sir
+Christopher Wren, lately become an architect after being astronomer at
+Cambridge, and Evelyn: they invited plans for laying out the City in a
+more uniform manner with wider streets and houses more protected from
+fire. Both Wren and Evelyn sent in plans. But while these were under
+consideration the citizens were rebuilding their houses.
+
+They did not wait for the ashes to get cool. As soon as the flames were
+extinct and the smoke had cleared: as soon as it was possible to make
+way among the ruined walls, every man sought out the site of his own
+house and began to build it up again. So that London, rebuilt, was
+almost--not quite, for some improvements were effected--laid out with
+the same streets and lanes as before the fire. It was two years,
+however, before the ruins were all cleared away and four years before
+the City was completely rebuilt. Ten thousand houses were erected during
+that period, and these were all of brick: the old timbered house with
+clay between the posts was gone: so was the thatched roof: the houses
+were all of brick: the roofs were tiled: the chief danger was gone. At
+this time, too, they introduced the plan of a pavement on either side of
+smooth flat stones with posts to keep carts and waggons from interfering
+with the comforts of the foot passengers. It took much longer than four
+years to erect the Companies' Halls. About thirty of the churches were
+never rebuilt at all, the parishes being merged in others. The first to
+be repaired, not rebuilt, was that of St. Dunstan's two years after the
+fire: in four years more, another church was finished. In every year
+after this one or two: and the last of the City churches was not rebuilt
+till thirty one years after the fire.
+
+[Illustration: COACH OF THE LATTER HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_From Loggan's 'Oxonia Illustrata.'_)]
+
+[Illustration: WAGGON OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_From Loggan's 'Oxonia Illustrata.'_)]
+
+It was at this time of universal poverty that the advantages of union
+was illustrated to those who had eyes to see. First of all, the
+Corporation had to find food--therefore work. Thousands were employed in
+clearing away the rubbish and carting it off so as to make the streets,
+at least, free for traffic. The craftsmen who had no work to do, were
+employed when this was done on the building operations. The quays were
+cleared, and the warehouses put up again, for the business of the Port
+continued. Ships came, discharged their cargoes, and waited for their
+freight outward bound. Then the houses arose and the shops began to open
+again. And the Companies stood by their members: they gave them credit:
+advanced loans: started them afresh in the world. Had it not been for
+the Companies, the fate of London after the fire would have been as the
+fate of Antwerp after the Religious Wars. But there must have been many
+who were ruined completely by this fearful calamity. Hundreds of
+merchants, and retailers, having lost their all must have been unable to
+face the stress and anxiety of making this fresh start. The men advanced
+in life; the men of anxious and timid mind; the incompetent and feeble:
+were crushed. They became bankrupt: they went under: in the great crowd
+no one heeded them: their sons and daughters took a lower place: perhaps
+they are still among the ranks into which it is easy to sink; out of
+which it is difficult to rise. The craftsmen were injured least: their
+Companies replaced their tools for them: work was presently resumed
+again: their houses were rebuilt and, as for their furniture, there was
+not much of it before the fire and there was not much of it after the
+fire.
+
+The poet Dryden thus writes of the people during and after the fire:
+
+    Those who have homes, when home they do repair,
+      To a last lodging call their wandering friends:
+    Their short uneasy sleeps are broke with care
+      To look how near their own destruction tends.
+
+    Those who have none sit round where once it was
+      And with full eyes each wonted room require:
+    Haunting the yet warm ashes of the place,
+      As murdered men walk where they did expire.
+
+    The most in fields like herded beasts lie down,
+      To dews obnoxious on the grassy floor:
+    And while the babes in sleep their sorrow drown,
+      Sad parents watch the remnant of their store.
+
+[Illustration: ORDINARY DRESS OF GENTLEMEN IN 1675.
+
+(_From Loggan's 'Oxonia Illustrata.'_)]
+
+
+
+
+54. ROGUES AND VAGABONDS.
+
+
+The aspect of the City varies from age to age: the streets and the
+houses, the costumes, the language, the manners, all change. In one
+respect however, there is no change: we have always with us the same
+rogues and the same roguery. We do not treat them quite after the manner
+followed by our forefathers: and, as their methods were incapable of
+putting a stop to the tricks of those who live by trickery, so are ours;
+therefore we must not pride ourselves on any superiority in this
+direction. A large and very interesting collection of books might be
+formed on the subject of rogues and vagabonds. The collection would
+begin with Elizabeth and could be carried on to the present day, new
+additions being made from year to year. But very few additions are ever
+made to the customs and the methods of the profession. For instance,
+there is the confidence trick, in which the rustic is beguiled by the
+honest stranger into trusting him. This trick was practised three
+hundred years ago. Or there is the ring-dropping trick, it is as old as
+the hills. Or there is the sham sailor--now very rarely met with. When
+we have another war he will come to the front again. We have still the
+cheating gambler, but he has always been with us. In King Charles the
+Second's time he was called a Ruffler, a Huff, or a Shabbaroon. The
+woman who now begs along the streets singing a hymn and leading borrowed
+children, did the same thing two hundred years ago and was called a
+clapperdozen. The man who pretends to be deaf and dumb went about then,
+and was known as the dummerer. The burglar was then the housebreaker.
+Burglary was formerly a far worse crime than it is now, because the
+people for the most part kept all their money in their houses, and a
+robbery might ruin them. The pickpocket plied his trade, only he was
+then a cutpurse. The footpad lay in wait on the lonely country road or
+among the bushes of the open fields at the back of Lincoln's Inn. The
+punishments, which seem so mild under the Plantagenets, increased in
+severity as the population outgrew the powers of the government. Instead
+of plain standing in pillory, ears were nailed to the post and even
+sliced off: whippings became more commonly administered, and were much
+more severe: heretics were burned by Elizabeth as well as by Mary,
+though not so often. After the civil wars we enter upon a period when
+punishment became savage in its cruelty, of which you will presently
+learn more. Meantime remark that when the City was less densely
+populated, and when none lived outside the wards and walls, the people
+were well under the control of the aldermen and their officers: they
+were also well known to each other: they exercised that
+self-government--the best of any--which consists in refusing to harbour
+a rogue among them. If in every London street the tenants would refuse
+to suffer any evildoer to lodge in their midst, the police of London
+might be almost abolished. But the City grew: the wards became densely
+populated: then houses and extensive suburbs sprang up at Whitechapel,
+Wapping, outside Cripplegate, at Smithfield north of Fleet Street,
+Lambeth, Bermondsey and Rotherhithe: the aldermen no longer knew their
+people: the men of a ward did not know each other: rogues were harboured
+about Smithfield and outside Aldgate: the simple machinery for enforcing
+order ceased to be of any use: and as yet the new police was not
+invented. Therefore the punishments became savage. Since the government
+could not prevent crime and compel order, they would deter.
+
+[Illustration: DRESS OF LADIES OF QUALITY.
+
+(_From Sandford's 'Coronation Procession of James II.'_)]
+
+[Illustration: ORDINARY ATTIRE OF WOMEN OF THE LOWER CLASSES.
+
+(_From Sandford's 'Coronation Procession of James II.'_)]
+
+Apart from active crime, vagrancy was a great scourge. Wars and civil
+wars left crowds of idle soldiers who had no taste for steady work: they
+became vagrants: there was also--and there is still--a certain
+proportion of men and women who will not work: they become vagrants by a
+kind of instinct: they are born vagabonds. Laws and proclamations were
+continually passed for the repression of vagrants. They were passed on
+to their native place: they were provided with passes on their way. But
+these laws were always being evaded, and vagrants increased in number.
+Under Henry VIII. a very stringent statute was passed by which old and
+impotent persons were provided with license to beg, and anybody begging
+without a license was whipped. But like all such acts it was imperfectly
+carried out. For one who received a whipping a dozen escaped. Stocks,
+pillory, bread and water, all were applied, but without visible effect,
+because so many escaped. London especially swarmed with beggars and
+pretended cripples. They lived about Turnmill Street, Houndsditch and
+the Barbican, outside the walls. From time to time a raid was carried on
+against them, and they dispersed, but only to collect again. In the year
+1575, for instance, it is reported that there were few or no rogues in
+the London prisons. But in the year 1581, the Queen observing a large
+number of sturdy rogues during a drive made complaint, with the result
+that the next day 74 were arrested: the day after 60, and so on, the
+catch on one day being a hundred, all of whom were 'soundly paid,' i.e.
+flogged and sent to their own homes. The statute ordering the whipping
+of vagabonds was enforced even in this present century, women being
+flogged as well as men. No statutes, however, can put down the curse of
+vagrancy and idleness. It can only be suppressed by the will and
+resolution of the people themselves. If for a single fortnight we should
+all refuse to give a single penny to beggars: if in every street we
+should all resolve upon having none but honest folk among us: then and
+only then, would the rogue find this island of Great Britain impossible
+to be longer inhabited by him and his tribe.
+
+
+
+
+55. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.
+
+PART I.
+
+THE WEALTH OF LONDON.
+
+
+If a new world was opened to the adventurous in the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth, this new world two hundred years later was only half explored
+and was constantly yielding up new treasures. The lion's share of these
+treasures came to Great Britain and was landed at the Port of London.
+The wealth and luxury of the merchants in the eighteenth century
+surpassed anything ever recorded or ever imagined. So great was their
+prosperity that historians and essayists predicted the speedy downfall
+of the City: the very greatness of their success frightened those who
+looked on and remembered the past.
+
+[Illustration: GROUP SHOWING COSTUMES AND SEDAN CHAIR, ABOUT 1720.
+
+(_From an engraving by Kip._)]
+
+Though the appearance of the City had changed, and its colour and
+picturesqueness were gone, at no time was London more powerful or more
+magnificent. There were no nobles living within the walls: only two or
+three of the riverside palaces remained along the Strand: there were no
+troops of retainers riding along the streets in the bright liveries of
+their masters: the picturesque gables, the latticed windows, the
+overhanging fronts--all these were gone: instead of the old churches
+rich with ancient carvings, frescoes in crimson and blue, marble
+monuments and painted glass, were the square halls--preaching halls--of
+Wren with their round windows, rich only in carved woodwork: the houses
+were square with sash windows: the shop fronts were glazed: the streets
+were filled with grave and sober merchants in great wigs and white
+ruffles. They lived in stately and commodious houses, many of which
+still survive--see the Square at the back of Austin Friars Church for a
+very fine example--they had their country houses: they drove in
+chariots: and they did a splendid business. Their ships went all over
+the world: they traded with India, not yet part of the Empire: with
+China, and the Far East: with the West Indies, with the Levant. They had
+Companies for carrying on trade in every part of the globe. The South
+Sea Company, the Hudson's Bay Company, the Turkey Company, the African
+Company, the Russian Company, the East India Company--are some. The
+ships lay moored below the Bridge in rows that reached a mile down the
+river.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE BAR, LONDON.
+
+(_Built by Sir Christopher Wren in 1670; taken down in 1878 and since
+rebuilt at Waltham Cross._)]
+
+All this prosperity grew in spite of the wars which we carried on during
+the whole of the last century. These wars, though they covered the
+Channel and the Bay of Biscay with privateers, had little effect to stay
+the increase of London trade. And as the merchants lived within the
+City, in sight of each other, their wealth was observed and known by
+all. At the present day, when London from nightfall till morning is a
+dead city, no one knows the wealth of the merchants and it is only by
+considering the extent of the suburbs that one can understand the
+enormous wealth possessed by those men who come up by train every day
+and without ostentation walk among their clerks to their offices in the
+City. A hundred and fifty years ago, one saw the rich men: sat in church
+with them: sat at dinner with them on Company feast days: knew them. The
+visible presence of so much wealth helped to make London great and
+proud. It would be interesting, if it were possible, to discover how
+many families now noble or gentle--county families--derive their origin
+or their wealth from the City merchants of the last century.
+
+In one thing there is a great change. Till the middle of the seventeenth
+century it was customary for the rank of trade to be recruited--in
+London, at least--from the younger sons. This fashion was now changed.
+The continual wars gave the younger sons another career: they entered
+the army and the navy. Hence arose the contempt for trade which existed
+in the country for about a hundred and fifty years. It is now fast dying
+out, but it is not yet dead. Younger sons are now going into the City
+again.
+
+[Illustration: FLEET STREET AND TEMPLE BAR.]
+
+The old exclusiveness was kept up jealously. No one must trade in the
+City who was not free of the City. But the freedom of the City was
+easily obtained. The craftsman and the clerk remained in their own
+places: they were taught to know their places: they were taught, which
+was a very fine thing, to think much of their own places and to take
+pride in the station to which they were called: to respect those in
+higher station and to receive respect from those lower than
+themselves. Though merchants had not, and have not, any rank assigned to
+them by the Court officials, there was as much difference of rank and
+place in the City as without. And in no time was there greater personal
+dignity than in this age when rank and station were so much regarded.
+But between the nobility and the City there was little intercourse and
+no sympathy. The manners, the morals, the dignity of the City ill
+assorted with those of the aristocracy at a time when drinking and
+gambling were ruining the old families and destroying the noblest names.
+There has always belonged to the London merchant a great respect for
+personal character and conduct. We are accustomed to regard this as a
+survival of Puritanism. This is not so: it existed before the arrival of
+Puritanism: it arose in the time when the men in the wards knew each
+other and when the master of many servants set the example, because his
+life was visible to all, of order, honour, and self-respect.
+
+[Illustration: A COACH OF THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_From an engraving by John Dunstall._)]
+
+
+
+
+56. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+After the Great Fire, the number of City churches was reduced from 126
+to 87. Those that were rebuilt were for the most part much larger and
+more capacious than their predecessors. In many cases, Wren, the great
+architect, who rebuilt St. Paul's Cathedral and all the churches, in
+order to get a larger church took in a part of the churchyard, which
+accounts for the fact that many of the City churchyards are now so
+small. Again, as the old churches had been built mainly for the purpose
+of saying and singing mass, the new churches were built mainly for the
+purpose of hearing sermons. They were therefore provided with pews for
+the accommodation of the hearers, and resembled, in their original
+design, a convenient square room, where the preacher might be seen and
+heard by all, rather than a cruciform church. Some of Wren's churches,
+however, though they may be described as square rooms, are exceedingly
+beautiful, for instance, St. Stephen's, Walbrook, while nearly all are
+enriched with woodwork of a beautiful description. It was the custom in
+the last century to attend frequent church services, and to hear many
+sermons. The parish church entered into the daily life much more under
+George the Second's reign than it does now, in spite of our improved
+services and our multiplication of services. In forty-four City churches
+there was service, sometimes twice, sometimes once, every day. In all
+of them there were evening services on Wednesday and Fridays: in many
+there were endowed lectureships, which gave an additional sermon once a
+week, or at stated times. Fast days were commonly observed, though it
+was not customary to close shops or suspend business on Good Friday or
+Ash Wednesday: not more than half of the City churches possessed an
+organ: on Sunday afternoons the children were duly catechised: if boys
+misbehaved, the beadle or sexton caned them in the churchyard: the laws
+were still in force which fined the parishioners for absence from church
+and for harbouring in their houses people who did not go to church.
+Except for Sunday services, sermons, and visitations of the sick, the
+clergy had nothing to do. What is now considered the work of the parish
+clergy--the work that occupies all their time--is entirely modern.
+Formerly this kind of work was not done at all; the people were left to
+themselves: the clergy were not the organisers of mothers' meetings,
+country jaunts, athletics, boys' clubs, and amusements. The
+Nonconformists still formed an important part of the City. They had many
+chapels, but their social influence in London, which was very great at
+the beginning of the century, declined steadily, until thirty or forty
+years ago it stood at a very low ebb indeed.
+
+In the streets the roads were paved with round pebbles--they were
+'cobbled': the footway was protected by posts placed at intervals: the
+paving stones, which only existed in the principal streets before the
+year 1766, were small, and badly laid: after a shower they splashed up
+mud and water when one stepped upon them. The signs which we have seen
+on the Elizabethan houses still hung out from every shop and every
+house: they had grown bigger: they were set in immense frames of
+ironwork, which creaked noisily, and sometimes tore out the front of a
+house by their enormous weight. The shop windows were now glazed with
+small panes, mostly oblong, and often in bow windows: you may find
+several such shops still remaining: one at the top of the Haymarket: one
+in Coventry Street: one in the Strand: there were no fronts of plate
+glass brilliantly illuminated to exhibit the contents exposed for sale:
+the old-fashioned shopkeeper prided himself on keeping within, and out
+of sight, his best and choicest goods. A few candles lit up the shop in
+the winter afternoons.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF SCHOOL CONNECTED WITH BUNYAN'S MEETING HOUSE.]
+
+To walk in the streets meant the encounter of roughness and rudeness
+which would now be thought intolerable. There were no police to keep
+order: if a man wanted order he might fight for it. Fights, indeed,
+were common in the streets: the waggoners, the hackney coachmen, the
+men with the wheelbarrows, the porters who carried things, were always
+fighting in the streets: gentlemen were hustled by bullies, and often
+had to fight them: most men carried a thick cudgel for self-protection.
+
+The streets were far noisier in the last century than ever they had been
+before. Chiefly, this was due to the enormous increase of wheeled
+vehicles. Formerly everything came into the City or went out of it on
+the backs of pack-horses and pack-asses. Now the roads were so much
+improved that waggons could be used for everything, and the long lines
+of pack-horses had disappeared from the main roads. In the country lanes
+the pack-horse was still employed. Everybody was able to ride, and the
+City apprentice, when he had a holiday, always spent it on horseback.
+But for everyday the hackney coach was used. Smaller carts were also
+coming into use. And for dragging about barrels of beer and heavy cases
+a dray of iron, without wheels, was used. All these innovations meant
+more noise and still more noise. Had Whittington, in the time of George
+II., sat down on Highgate Hill (still a grassy slope), he would have
+heard, loud above the sound of Bow Bells, the rumbling of the waggons on
+Cheapside.
+
+
+
+
+57. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+In walking through the City to-day, one may remark that there is very
+little crying of things to sell. In certain streets, as Broad Street,
+Whitecross Street, Whitechapel, or Middlesex Street, there is a kind of
+open street, fair, or market; but the street cries such as Hogarth
+depicted exist no longer. People used to sell a thousand things in the
+streets which are now sold in shops. All the little things--thread,
+string, pins, needles, small coal, ink, and straps--that are wanted in a
+house were sold by hawkers and bawled all day long in the streets: fruit
+of all kinds was sold from house to house: fish: milk: cakes and bread:
+herbs and drugs: brimstone matches: an endless procession passed along,
+all bawling their wares. Then there were the people who ground knives,
+mended chairs, soldered pots and pans: these bawled with the hawkers. We
+can no longer speak of the roar of London: there is no roar: the
+vehicles, nearly all provided with springs, roll smoothly over an even
+surface of asphalt: there are no more drays without wheels: there are no
+more street fights: there is comparatively little bawling of things to
+sell.
+
+[Illustration: GRENADIER IN THE TIME OF THE PENINSULAR WAR.]
+
+In those days people liked the noise. It was a part of the City life: it
+showed how big and busy the City was since it could make such a
+tremendous noise by the mere carrying on of the daily round. Could any
+other city--even Paris--boast of such a noise? People who came up from
+the country to visit London were invited to consider the noise of the
+City as a part of its magnificence and pride.
+
+What else had they to consider? What were the sights of London?
+
+First of all, St. Paul's and Westminster Abbey. Then the Tower and the
+Monument, the Royal Exchange and the Mansion House, Guildhall and the
+Bank of England, London Bridge, Newgate, St. James's and the Horse
+Guards. These were to be visited by day. In the evening there were the
+theatres, Drury Lane and Covent Garden: and there were the Gardens.
+
+The citizens were always fond of their Gardens. They were opened as soon
+as the weather would allow, and they continued open till the autumn
+chills made them impossible. The gardens were those of Vauxhall--still
+in existence as a small park: Ranelagh, at Chelsea: Marylebone, opposite
+the old Parish Church in High Street: Bagnigge Wells, which lay East of
+Gray's Inn Road: Belsize, near Hampstead: the White Conduit House in the
+fields near Islington: the Florida Gardens at Brompton: the Temple of
+Flora, the Apollo Gardens, and the Bermondsey Spa Gardens, all on the
+south side. These Gardens, now built over, were all alike. Every one of
+them had an ornamental water, walks and shrubs, a room for dancing and
+singing, and a stand for the band out of doors. People walked about,
+looked at each other, had supper, drank punch--and went home. If the
+Gardens were at any distance from the City they marched together for
+safety.
+
+The river was still the favourite highway--thousands of boats plied up
+and down: it was much safer, shorter, and more pleasant to take oars
+from Westminster to the City than to walk or to hire a coach.
+
+[Illustration: UNIFORM OF SAILORS ABOUT 1790.]
+
+The high roads of the country were rapidly improving. Stage coaches ran
+from London to all the principal towns. They started, for the most part,
+at eight in the evening. They charged fourpence a mile, and they
+pretended to accomplish the journey at the rate of seven miles an hour.
+You may easily compare the cost of travelling when you remember that you
+may now go anywhere for a penny a mile--one fourth the former charge at
+five or six times the rate. The 'short stages,' of which there were a
+great many, ran to and from the suburbs: they were like the omnibuses,
+but not so frequent, and they cost a great deal more. Threepence a mile
+was the usual charge. There was a penny post in London, first set up by
+a private person. A letter sent from London cost twopence the first
+stage: threepence for two stages: above 150 miles, sixpence: Ireland and
+Scotland, sixpence: any foreign country a shilling. There were no bank
+notes under the value of 20_l._: there were no postal orders or any
+conveniences of that kind. Money was remitted to London either by
+carrier or through some merchant. Banks there were by this time: but
+most people preferred keeping their own money in their own houses. Also
+banks being few everybody carried gold: this partly explains the
+prevalence of highway robbery: very likely the passengers on any long
+stage coach carried between them some hundreds of guineas: a whole
+railway train in these days would not yield so much: for people no
+longer carry with them more money than is wanted for the small
+expenditure of the day: tram, omnibus, cab, luncheon or dinner.
+
+
+
+
+58. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.
+
+PART IV.
+
+
+So far we understand that London about the year 1750 was a city filled
+with dignified merchants all getting rich, and with a decorous,
+self-respecting population of retail traders, clerks, craftsmen, and
+servants of all kinds, a noisy but a well-behaved people. A
+church-going, sermon-loving, and orderly people.
+
+This is in the main a fair and just appreciation of the City. But there
+is the other side which must not be overlooked--that side, namely, which
+presents the vice and sin and misery which always accompany the
+congregation of many people and the accumulation of wealth.
+
+[Illustration: COSTUMES OF GENTLEFOLK, ABOUT 1784.]
+
+The vice which has always been the father of most miseries is that of
+drink. In the middle of the last century, everybody drank too much. The
+dignity of the grave merchant was too often marred by indulgence in port
+and punch: the City clergy drank too much: even the ladies drank too
+much: it was hardly a reproach, in any class, to be overcome with
+liquor. As for the lower classes their habitual drink was beer--Franklin
+tells us that when he was a printer in London every man drank seven or
+eight pints of beer every day: nor was this small ale or porter: it was
+generally good strong beer: the beer would not perhaps hurt them so
+much--though the money spent on drink was enormous--but unfortunately
+they had now taken to gin as well--or instead. The drinking of gin at
+one time threatened, literally, to destroy the whole of the working
+classes of London. There were 10,000 houses--one in four--where gin was
+sold either secretly or openly. It was advertised that a man could get
+drunk for a penny and dead drunk for twopence. A check was placed upon
+this habit by imposing a tax of 5_s._ on every gallon of gin. This was
+in the year 1735 and in 1750 about 1,700 gin shops were closed. Since
+then the continual efforts made to stop the pernicious habit of dram
+drinking have greatly reduced the evil. But it was not only the drinking
+of gin: there was also the rum punch which formed so large a part in the
+life of the Georgian citizen. Every man had his club to which he
+resorted in the evening after the day's work. Here he sat and for the
+most part drank what he called a sober glass: that is to say, he did not
+go home drunk, but he drank every night more than was good for him. The
+results were the transmission of gout and other disorders to his
+children. It should be, indeed, a most serious thing to reflect that in
+every evil habit we are bringing misery and suffering upon our children
+as well as ourselves. The habits of drinking showed themselves
+externally in a bloated body; puffed and red cheeks; a large and swollen
+nose; trembling hands; fat lips and bleared eyes: in the case of gin
+drinkers it showed itself in a face literally blue. It is said that King
+George the Third was persuaded to a temperate life--in a time of
+universal intemperance, this King remained always temperate--by the
+example of his uncle the Duke of Cumberland, who at the age of
+forty-five in consequence of his excesses in drink exhibited a body
+swollen and bloated and tortured with disease.
+
+[Illustration: VESSELS UNLOADING AT THE CUSTOMS HOUSE, AT THE BEGINNING
+OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+If you look at a map of London of this time you will see that the city
+extended a long way up and down the river on either bank. Outside the
+walls there were the crowded districts of Whitechapel, Cripplegate,
+Bishopsgate, St. Katherine's, Wapping, Ratcliff, Shadwell, Stepney, and
+others. These places were not only outside the wards and the
+jurisdiction of the City, but they were outside any government whatever.
+They were growing up in some parts without schools, churches, or any
+rule, order, or discipline whatever. The people in many of these
+quarters were of the working classes, but too often of the criminal
+class. They were rude and rough and ignorant to an extraordinary degree.
+How could they be anything else, living as they did? They were so
+unruly, they were so numerous, they were so ready to break out, that
+they became a danger to the very existence of Order and Government. They
+were kept in some kind of order by the greatest severity of punishment.
+They were hanged for what we now call light offences: they were kept
+half starved in foul and filthy prisons: and they were mercilessly
+flogged. In the army it was not unknown for a man to receive 500 lashes:
+in the navy they were always flogging the men. Horrible as it is to read
+of these punishments we must remember that the men who received them
+were brutal and dead to any other kind of persuasion. Drink and
+ignorance and habitual vice had killed the sense of shame and stilled
+the voice of conscience. The only thing they would feel was the pain of
+the whip.
+
+
+
+
+59. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.
+
+PART V.
+
+
+It was estimated, some years later than the period we are considering,
+that there were then in London 3,000 receivers of stolen goods; that is
+to say, people who bought without question whatever was brought to them
+for sale: that the value of the goods stolen every year from the ships
+lying in the river--there were then no great Docks and the lading and
+unlading were carried on by lighters and barges--amounted to half a
+million sterling every year: that the value of the property annually
+stolen in and about London amounted to 700,000_l._: and that goods worth
+half a million at least were annually stolen from His Majesty's stores,
+dockyards, ships of war, &c. The moral principle, a writer states
+plainly, 'is totally destroyed among a vast body of the lower ranks of
+the people.' To meet this deplorable condition of things there were
+forty-eight different offences punishable by death: among them was
+shoplifting above five shillings: stealing linen from a bleaching
+ground: cutting hop bines and sending threatening letters. There were
+nineteen kinds of offences for which transportation, imprisonment,
+whipping, or pillory were provided: there were twenty-one kinds of
+offences punishable by whipping, pillory, fine and imprisonment. Among
+the last were 'combinations and conspiracies for raising the price of
+wages.' The classification seems to have been done at haphazard: for
+instance, to embezzle naval stores would seem as bad as to steal a
+master's goods: but the latter offence was capital and the former not.
+Again, it is surely a most abominable crime to set fire to a house, yet
+this is classed among the lighter offences. It was therefore a time when
+there was a large and constantly increasing criminal class: and, as a
+natural cause or a natural consequence, whichever we please, there was a
+very large class of people as ignorant, as rude, and as dangerous as
+could well be imagined. I do not think there was ever a time, not even
+in the most remote ages, when London contained savages more brutal and
+more ignorant than could be found in certain districts outside the City
+of the Second George. But these poor wretches had one great virtue--they
+were brave: they manned our ships for us and gave Britannia the command
+of the sea: they were knocked down, driven and dragged aboard the ships
+by the press-gang. Once there they fell into rank and order, carried a
+valiant pike, manned the guns with zeal, joined the boarding party with
+alacrity and carried their cutlasses into the forlorn hope with faces
+that showed no fear. They were so strong, so stubborn, and so brave,
+that one sighs to think of the lash that kept them in discipline and
+order. There is one more side of London that must not be forgotten. It
+was a great and prosperous city: we can never dwell too strongly on the
+prosperity of the city: but there were shipwrecks many and disastrous.
+And the fate of the man who could not pay his debts was well known to
+all and could be witnessed every day, as an example and a warning. For
+he went to prison and in prison he stopped. 'Pay what you owe,' they
+said to the debtor, 'or else stay where you are.' The debtor could not
+pay: in prison the debtor had no means of making any money: therefore he
+stayed where he was until he died. For the accommodation of these
+unhappy persons there were the King's Bench and the Marshalsea, both in
+Southwark: there were the two Compters, both in the City: and there was
+the Fleet Prison.
+
+The life in these prisons can be found described in many novels. It was
+a squalid and miserable life among ruined gamblers, spendthrifts,
+profligates, broken down merchants, bankrupt tradesmen, and helpless
+women of all classes. Unless one had allowances from friends, starvation
+might be the end. In one at least the common hall had shelves ranged
+round the walls for the reception of beds: everything was carried on in
+the same room, living, sleeping, eating, cooking. And into such a
+place as this the unhappy debtor was thrust, there to remain till death
+released him.
+
+[Illustration: THE OLD HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT AND WESTMINSTER ABBEY,
+1803.]
+
+This was the London of a hundred and fifty years ago. No longer
+picturesque as in the old days, but solidly constructed, handsome, and
+substantial. The merchants still lived in the city but the nobles had
+all gone. The Companies possessed the greater part of the City and still
+ruled though they no longer dictated the wages, hours, and prices.
+Within the walls there reigned comparative order: outside there was no
+government at all. The river below the Bridge was crowded with ships
+moored two and four together side by side with an open way in the
+middle. Thousands of barges and lighters were engaged upon the cargoes:
+every day the church bells rang for a large and orderly congregation:
+every day arose in every street such an uproar as we cannot even
+imagine: yet there were quiet spots in the City with shady gardens where
+one could sit at peace: wealth grew fast: but with it there grew up the
+mob with the fear of anarchy and license, a taste of which was afforded
+by the Gordon Riots. Yet it would be eighty years before the city should
+understand the necessity for a police.
+
+
+
+
+60. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+Let us walk into the streets. You will not observe, because you are used
+to these things, and have been brought up among them, and are accustomed
+to them, that all the men go about unarmed: that they do not carry even
+a stick for their protection: that they do not fight or quarrel with
+each other: that the strong do not knock down the weak but patiently
+wait for them and make room for them: that ladies walk about with no
+protection or escort: that things are exposed for sale with no other
+guard than a boy or a girl: that most valuable articles are hung up
+behind a thin pane of glass. You will further observe men in blue--you
+call them policemen--who stroll about in a leisurely manner looking on
+and taking no part in the bustle. What do these policemen do? In the
+roads the vehicles do not run into one another, but follow in rank and
+order, those going one way taking their own side. Everybody is orderly.
+Everything is arranged and disposed as if there was no such thing as
+violence, crime, or disorder. You think it has always been so? Nay:
+order in human affairs does not grow of its own accord. Disorder, if you
+please, grows like the weeds of the hedge side--but not order.
+
+Again, you always find the shops well provided and filled with goods.
+There are the food shops--those which offer meat, bread, fruit,
+vegetables, coffee, tea, sugar, butter, cheese. These shops are always
+full of these things. There is never a day in the whole year when the
+supply runs short. You think all these things come of their own accord?
+Not so: they come because their growth, importation, carriage, and
+distribution are so ordered by experience that has accumulated for
+centuries that there shall be no failure in the supply.
+
+Again, you find every kind of business and occupation carried on without
+hindrance. Nobody prevents a man from working at his trade; or from
+selling what he has made. One workman does not molest another though he
+is a rival. You think, perhaps, that this peacefulness has come by
+chance? Nay: strife comes to men left without rule--but not peace.
+
+You may observe further, that the streets are paved with broad stones
+convenient for walking and easy to be kept clean: that the roadways are
+asphalted or paved with wood, and are also clean: things that must be
+thrown away are not thrown into the streets: they are collected in carts
+and carried away. You think that the streets of cities are kept clean by
+the rain? Not so: if we had only the rain as a scavenger we should be in
+a sorry plight.
+
+You find that water is laid on in every house. How does that water come?
+That gas lights up houses and streets. How does the gas come? That drains
+carry off the rain and the liquid refuse. How did the drains come?
+
+You may see as you go along a man who walks from house to house
+delivering letters. Does he do this of his own accord? You know very
+well that he does not; that he is paid to do it: that he does his duty.
+What is the whole of his duty? Who gives him his orders?
+
+Or you may see another man going from house to house leaving a paper at
+each. He is a rate collector. What is a rate collector? Who gives him
+authority to take money from people? What does he do with the money?
+
+Or you may see placards on the walls asking people to vote for this man,
+or for that man, for the School Board, the County Council, the House of
+Commons, or the Vestry. Why does this man want to get elected to one of
+those Councils? What will he do when he is elected? What are all these
+Councils for?
+
+Again, the thing has never been otherwise in your recollection and you
+therefore do not observe it, but if you listen you will find that men
+talk with the greatest freedom as they walk with their friends: no one
+interferes with their conversation, no one interferes with their dress,
+no one asks them what they want or where they are going. Did this
+personal freedom always exist? Certainly not, for personal freedom does
+not grow of its own accord.
+
+You will also observe, as you walk along, churches--in every street, a
+church--of all denominations: you will find posted on the walls notices
+of public meetings for discussion or for lectures and addresses on every
+conceivable topic: you will see boys crying newspapers in which all
+subjects are treated with the utmost freedom. You suppose, perhaps, that
+freedom of thought, of speech, of discussion, of writing comes to a
+community like the rain and the wind? Not so. Slavery comes to a
+community if you please, but not freedom. That has to be achieved.
+
+You have seen the city growing larger and wealthier: the people getting
+into finer houses, wider streets, and more settled ways. Now, there is a
+thing which goes with the advance of a people: it is good government.
+Unless with advance of wealth there comes improved government, the
+people fall into decay. But, which is a remarkable thing, good
+government can only continue or advance as the people themselves advance
+in wisdom as well as in wealth. Such government as we have now would
+have been useless in the time of King Ethelred or King Edward I. Such
+government as we have now would be impossible had not the citizens of
+London continued to learn the lessons in order, in good laws, in respect
+to law, which for generation after generation were submitted to the
+people.
+
+
+
+
+61. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Since all these things do not grow of their own accord, by whom were
+they first introduced, planted, and developed? By whom are they now
+maintained? By the collection of powers and authorities which we call
+the Government of the City and County of London.
+
+Thus order reigns in the streets: in the rare cases where disorder
+breaks out the policeman is present to stop it. His presence stops it.
+Not because he is a strong man, but because he is irresistible: he is
+the servant of the Law: he represents Authority. Formerly the Alderman
+of the Ward walked about his own streets followed by two bailiffs. If
+any one dared to resist the Alderman he was liable to have his hand
+struck off by an axe. In this way people were taught to respect the Law.
+By such sharp lessons it was forced upon them that the Law must be
+obeyed. Thus there gradually grew up among them a desire for Order. The
+policeman appointed by the Chief Police Officer stands for a symbol and
+reminder of the Law.
+
+You have seen how the people of London had their Folks' Mote, their Ward
+Mote, and their Hustings. From the first of these has sprung the Common
+Council, which rules over the City of London within the old boundaries.
+The Folks' Mote was a Parliament of the People--a rude and tumultuous
+assembly, no doubt, but a free assembly. When the City grew great such a
+Parliament became impossible. It therefore became an elective
+Parliament. The election was--and is still--conducted at the Ward Motes,
+each Ward returning so many members in proportion to its population, for
+the Common Council. The Councillors are elected for one year only. If
+there is a vacancy an Alderman is also elected, but that is for life.
+
+Formerly every man in London followed a trade: he therefore belonged to
+a Company. And as the commonalty, all the men of London together
+assembled, i.e. all the members of all the companies, elected the Mayor,
+so to this day the electors of the Lord Mayor are the members of the
+Companies. None others have any voice in the election. The Companies no
+longer include all the citizens, and the craftsmen have nearly all left
+the City. But the power remains.
+
+The Lord Mayor is the chief magistrate. With him is the Court of
+Aldermen, also magistrates. He has with him the great officers of the
+City: the Recorder, or Chief Justice; the Town Clerk; the Chamberlain,
+who is the Treasurer; the Remembrancer; and the Common Sergeant.
+
+The education of the young, the maintenance of the old, the paving and
+cleansing of the streets, the lighting, the removal of waste, the
+engines for extinguishing fires, the regulation of the road traffic, the
+preservation of order, all these things are conducted by the various
+Councils and Courts of the City, and the cost is provided by that kind
+of taxation known as the rates. That is to say, every house is 'rated'
+or estimated as worth so much rent. The tenant who pays the rent has to
+pay, in addition, a charge of so much in the pound for this and that
+object. Thus for education, if the rate be 1_s._ in the pound, a man in
+a house whose rent is 100_l._ has to pay 5_l._ on that charge. He has to
+pay also for the Police, the Fire Brigade, the Poor, lighting and
+paving. His own water supply is managed by a private company, and
+another private company gives him his gas or his electricity. In the
+same way the food is provided by private persons and brought to the
+city by private companies. Thus you are governed by men whom you are
+supposed yourselves to elect: order is kept for you: education,
+protection, and conveniences are found for you: in a word, life is made
+tolerable for you by your own Government--elected by yourselves--and at
+your own cost.
+
+
+
+
+62. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+That is the best Government which gives the greatest possible liberty to
+its people: only that people can be happy which is capable of using
+their freedom aright. You have seen how your personal freedom from
+violence, robbery, and molestation in your work is secured for you: how
+you are enabled to live in comfort and cleanliness--by a vast machinery
+of Government whose growth has been gradual and which must always be
+ready to meet changes so as to suit the needs of the people. One point
+you must carefully remember, that your greatest liberty is liberty of
+speech and of thought and of the Press. It is not so very long since
+martyrs--Catholic as well as Protestant--were executed for their
+religious belief: Catholics and Jews until quite recently were excluded
+from Parliament. A hundred years ago the debates of Parliament could not
+be reported: one had to weigh his words very carefully in speaking of
+the Sovereign or the Ministers: certain forms of opinion were not
+allowed to be published. All that is altered. You can believe what you
+like and advocate what you like, so long as it is not against Divine Law
+or the Law of the Land. Thus, if one were to preach the duty of Murder
+he would be very properly stopped. Therefore, when you buy a daily
+paper: whenever you enter a church or chapel: whenever you hear an
+address or a lecture remember that you are enjoying the freedom won for
+you by the obstinacy and the tenacity of your ancestors.
+
+We have spoken of the City Companies. They still exist and though their
+former powers are gone and they no longer control the trades after which
+they are named, their power is still very great on account of the
+revenues which they possess and their administration of charities,
+institutions, &c., under their care. There were 109 in all, but many
+have been dissolved. There are still, however, 76. About half of these
+possess Halls which are now the Great Houses of the City. The number of
+livery men, i.e. members of the Companies, is 8,765. The Companies vary
+greatly in numbers: there are 448 Haberdashers, for instance: 380
+Fishmongers: and 356 Spectacle Makers: while there are only 16
+Fletchers, i.e. makers of arrows. Many of the trades are now extinct,
+such as the Fletchers above named, the Bowyers, the Girdlers, the
+Bowstring Makers and the Armourers.
+
+Some of these Companies are now very rich. One of them possesses an
+income, including Trust money, of 83,000_l._ a year. It must be
+acknowledged that the Companies carry on a great deal of good work with
+their money. Many of them, however, have little or nothing: the Basket
+Makers have only 102_l._ a year: the Glass Sellers only 21_l._ a year:
+the Tinplate Workers 7_l._ 7_s._ a year. If, therefore, you hear of the
+great riches of the City Companies remember (1) that 25 of them have
+less than 500_l._ a year each: and (2) that the rich Companies support
+Technical Colleges and Schools, grant scholarships, encourage trade,
+hold exhibitions, maintain almshouses, and make large grants to objects
+worthy of support. It is not likely that the privilege of electing the
+Lord Mayor will long continue to be in the hands of the Companies. It is
+not, indeed, worthy of a great City that its Chief Magistrate should be
+elected by so small a minority as 8,765 out of the hundreds of thousands
+who have their offices and transact their business in the City: but
+while this privilege will cease, the Companies may remain and continue
+to exercise a central influence, at the least in London, over the Crafts
+and Arts which they represent. Let us never destroy what has been
+useful: let us, on the other hand, preserve it, altered to meet changed
+circumstances. For an institution is not like a tree which grows and
+decays. If it is a good institution, built upon the needs and adapted to
+the circumstances of human nature, it will never decay but, like the
+Saxon form of popular election, live and develop and change as the
+people themselves change from age to age.
+
+
+
+
+63. LONDON.
+
+GREATER LONDON.
+
+
+It has been a great misfortune for London that, when its Wall ceased to
+be the true boundary of the town, and when the people began to spread in
+all directions outside the walls, no statesman arose with vision clear
+enough to perceive that the old system must be enlarged or abolished:
+that the City must cease to mean the City of the Edwards, and must
+include these new suburbs, from Richmond on the West to Poplar on the
+East, and from Hampstead on the North to Balham on the South. It is true
+that something was done: there are the Wards of Bridge Without, which is
+Southwark: and of Farringdon Without. There should have been provision
+for the creation of new Wards whenever the growth of a suburb warranted
+its addition. That, however, has not been done. The Old London remains
+as it was, and as we now see it, surrounded by another, and an immense
+City, or aggregate of cities, all placed under the rule of a Council.
+
+This was done by the Act of 1888, which created a County whose
+boundaries were the same as those of the former Metropolitan Board of
+Works; in other words, it embraces all the suburbs of London properly so
+called. This County extends from Putney and Hammersmith on the West to
+Plumstead on the East: on the North are Hampstead and Highgate; on the
+South are Tooting, Streatham, Lewisham and Eltham. There are 138
+Councillors, of whom 19 are Aldermen and one a Chairman. The
+conservative tendency of our people is shown in their retention of the
+old division of aldermen. It is, once more, Kings, Lords, and Commons.
+But the functions of the Aldermen do not differ from those of the
+Councillor. The Councillors are elected by the ratepayers for three
+years, the Aldermen for six; but there is a rule as to retiring by
+rotation.
+
+The powers of the County Council are enormous. It regulates the building
+of houses and streets: the drainage: places of amusement: it can close
+streets and pull down houses: it administers and makes regulations
+concerning parks, bridges, tunnels, subways, dairies, cattle diseases,
+explosives, lunatic asylums, reformatory schools, weights and measures.
+It grants licenses for music and dancing: it carries on, in fact, the
+whole administration of the greatest City in the world, and, in some
+respects, the best managed City.
+
+In order to carry out these works the Council expend about 600,000_l._ a
+year. It has a debt of 30,000,000_l._, against which are various assets,
+so that the real debt is no more than 18,000,000_l._ The rating outside
+the City was last year 12½_d._ in the pound. The first Chairman was Lord
+Rosebery. He has been succeeded by Sir John Lubbock and Mr. John
+Hutton. The list of County Councillors contains men of every rank and
+every opinion. Dukes, Earls and Barons, sit upon the Council beside
+plain working men--an excellent promise for the future.
+
+Such is the government of London. Within the City what was intended to
+be democratic has become oligarchic. The election by the whole people
+has become the election by 8,000 only. Without the City a great
+democratic Parliament attracts men whose historic names and titles
+belong to the aristocracy. In the London County Council the Peers may,
+if they are elected, sit beside the Commons.
+
+Lastly, what is the chief lesson for you to learn out of this history?
+It is short, and may be summed up in a few sentences.
+
+1. Consider how your liberties have grown silently and steadily out of
+the original free institutions of your Saxon ancestors. They have grown
+as the trunk, the tree, the leaves, the flower, the fruit, grow from the
+single seed. The Folk Mote, the 'Law worthiness' of every man, the
+absence of any Over Lord but the King, have kept London always free and
+ready for every expansion of her liberties. Respect, therefore, the
+ancient things which have made the City--and the country--what it is.
+Trust that the further natural growth of the old tree--still
+vigorous--will be safer for us than to cut it down and plant a sapling,
+which may prove a poison tree. And with the old institutions respect the
+old places. Never, if you can help it, suffer an old monument to be
+pulled down and destroyed. Keep before your eyes the things which remind
+you of the past. When you look on London Stone, remember that Henry of
+London Stone was one of the first Mayors. When you go up College Hill,
+remember Whittington who gave it that name. When you pass the Royal
+Exchange think of Gresham: when you go up Walbrook remember the stream
+beneath your feet, the Roman Fortress on your right, and the British
+town on your left. London is crammed full of associations for those who
+read and know and think. You will be better citizens of the present for
+knowing about the citizens of the past.
+
+2. The next lesson is your duty to your country. What does it mean, the
+right of the Folk Mote? The Mote has now become a House of Commons, a
+County Council, a School Board. You have the same rights that your
+ancestor had. He was jealous over them: he fought to the death to
+preserve them and to strengthen them. Be as jealous, for they are far
+more important to you than ever they were to him. You have a hundred
+times as much to defend: you have dangers which he did not know or fear.
+Show your jealousy by exercising your right as the most sacred duty you
+have to fulfil. Your vote is an inheritance and a trust. You have
+inherited it direct from the Angles and the Jutes: as you exercise that
+vote so it will be ill or well with you and your children. Be very
+jealous of the man you put in power: learn to distinguish the man who
+wants place from the man who wants justice: vote only for the right man:
+and do your best to find out the right man. It is difficult at all
+times. You may make it less difficult by sending to the various
+Parliaments of the country a man you know, who has lived among you,
+whose life, whose private character, whose previous record you know
+instead of the stranger who comes to court your vote. Above all things
+_vote always_ and let the first duty in your mind always be to protect
+your rights and your liberties.
+
+These are the two lessons that this book should teach you--the respect
+that is due to the past and the duty that is owed to the present.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+1. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON. PART I.
+
+~Æneas~: a Trojan prince who escaped from Troy when it was destroyed by
+the Greeks.
+
+~Venus~, the Roman Goddess of Love and Beauty, was the mother of Æneas.
+
+~Troy~: a famous city in the north-west corner of Asia Minor. It was
+destroyed by Greek invaders about 1,000 years before Christ, and the
+stories connected with it form one of the chief subjects of Greek and
+Latin poets.
+
+~Troynovant~ means New Troy.
+
+~Constantine the Great~ was Emperor of Rome, that is, of all the then
+known world from 305 to 337 A.D. He was the first Roman Emperor to adopt
+and favour Christianity. Constantinople is named after him, and was made
+by him the capital of the Empire.
+
+~Geoffrey of Monmouth~ was a British historian of the twelfth century.
+He was made Bishop of St. Asaph in 1152. His 'histories' are largely
+made up of stories, such as that about Brutus, which nobody believes
+now.
+
+~historical document~: a piece of writing that can be used to prove some
+event in the history of past times.
+
+~architecture~: the art of building; the style in which houses are
+built.
+
+~Cornhill~: a street in the City of London running west to east from the
+Royal Exchange into Leadenhall Street. It was probably named after a
+family of that name, and not from any corn market on the site.
+
+~bastion~: a strong turret or tower at the corner of a fortified
+building.
+
+~Walbrook~: a small stream that crossed the City from north to south. It
+flowed near where the Mansion House now stands (Walbrook is a street at
+the side of the Mansion House), and fell into the Thames at Dowgate,
+near where Cannon Street Railway Station now stands.
+
+~Fleet River~: a small stream which fell into the Thames near where
+Blackfriars Railway Station now stands.
+
+~Moorfields~ was a piece of moor land lying to the north of the City,
+outside the walls. The City gate which led to this district was the
+Moorgate, a name which still survives in Moorgate Street.
+
+~Ken Wood~, in Hampstead, ~Hainault Forest~, a small piece of wood in
+Essex, about eight miles north-east of London, and ~Epping Forest~, a
+larger portion, also in Essex, to the west of Hainault Forest, are all
+remaining portions of a great forest that once stretched away from
+London far into the country.
+
+~Chelsea, Bermondsey~: in all such words _ea_ or _ey_ is an old word for
+island. In this way are formed Winchelsea, Battersea, &c.; ~Thorney~
+(where Westminster is now) is the Island of Thorns; and ~Jersey~,
+Cæsar's Island.
+
+~Southwark~: a district of London opposite the City, on the south side
+of the Thames. It was the South work, or fort, and is spoken of as a
+village as late as 1327, the accession of Edward III.
+
+
+2. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON. PART II.
+
+~Malarious~: causing the air to be bad, and so giving rise to fevers;
+unhealthy. (Latin _malus_, bad; _aer_, air.)
+
+~Weybridge~, in Surrey, near where the river Wey, after flowing past
+Godalming and Guildford, falls into the Thames.
+
+~entrenching~: making a trench or ditch. The earth dug out was formed
+into a mound. The mound and ditch, together with the stockade, protected
+the place.
+
+~stockade~: a barrier made of _stakes_ stuck in the ground.
+
+~Gaul~: the old name for the country now called France--the land of the
+Galli, or Celts. _Gaelic_ is the language still spoken by the Celts in
+Scotland.
+
+~Thanet~: a district in the north-east of Kent, containing Ramsgate,
+Margate, and Broadstairs. The river Stour parts it from the rest of
+Kent, so that it is still an 'island,' though the channel was formerly
+much wider and deeper.
+
+~Captain Cook~: a famous sailor born 1728, murdered in the Sandwich
+Islands 1779. He was among the first to visit Australia and New Zealand,
+and made many discoveries in the Pacific.
+
+~Polynesians~: the natives of Polynesia, or the smaller islands in the
+South Pacific. They are brown-skinned, and akin in race to the Maories
+of New Zealand and the Malays.
+
+~Brythonic~: that portion of the Celts whose descendants are now the
+Welsh, Bretons: (in Bretagne, on the west coast of France), and
+Cornishmen.
+
+~Basques~: the natives of a part of northern Spain, near the Pyrenees.
+Their language is unconnected with any other, except perhaps that of the
+Finns. The Province and Bay of Biscay is named after them.
+
+~Finns~: the natives of Finland in Russia. Like the Basques, they are
+the remains of a nation which once spread over all Europe, and has now
+nearly disappeared.
+
+~barrow~: a mound raised over a grave.
+
+~Verulam~: an old British, and then a Roman town, on the site of which
+is now St. Albans, in Hertfordshire.
+
+
+3. ROMAN LONDON. PART I.
+
+~Stationary camp~: a fixed or permanent camp; a fort. A Roman army on
+the march constructed a camp if it only spent one night in a place. Such
+camps were not stationary.
+
+~Porchester~: a small town on the north side of Portsmouth Harbour.
+Chester is the Latin _castra_, a camp, and occurs in Leicester,
+Colchester, Chester, Silchester, &c.
+
+~rubble~: small rough stones often used inside piles of masonry.
+
+~Silchester~: a place near Reading at which remains of old Roman
+buildings have been dug out.
+
+~Mincing Lane~: a narrow street in the east part of the City.
+
+~tribunal~: the place where judges sit to administer justice.
+
+~Exchange~: the place where merchants meet and carry on their business.
+
+~stevedores~: those engaged in the work of loading and unloading ships.
+
+
+4. ROMAN LONDON. PART II.
+
+~Tesselated~: formed of small pieces of stone or tile of various colours
+arranged to form a pattern, like mosaic work.
+
+~Diana~: the Roman Goddess of Hunting; also of the Moon.
+
+~Apollo~: the Roman God of Poetry, Music, and Prophecy.
+
+~Guildhall~: the hall of the Guild or Corporation of the City of London,
+near Cheapside.
+
+~usurper~: one who by force seizes and holds a position which does not
+belong to him.
+
+~Picts~: wild savages from the country which we call Scotland; ~Scots~,
+also savage men, who, though they afterwards gave their name to
+Scotland, at that time came from Ireland.
+
+~Hong Kong~: an island off the coast of China; ~Singapore~, a large
+British seaport on an island of the same name off the south end of the
+Malay Peninsula; ~West Indies~, a number of islands to the east of
+Central America in the Atlantic: of those belonging to Great Britain
+Jamaica is the largest.
+
+
+5. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART I.
+
+~East Saxons~ were those who dwelt in Essex, the county named after
+them.
+
+~Crayford~: on the river Cray in north Kent. Here the Saxons under
+Hengist totally defeated the Britons under Vortimer in 457 A.D.
+
+~Canterbury~ is the burgh, borough, or fortified place of the men of
+Kent.
+
+~Pulborough~, in Sussex, gives us another form of the suffix.
+
+~chronicler~: a historian, particularly one living in early times.
+
+~Saxons~: German tribes from the district by the mouth of the Elbe;
+~Jutes~, from a part of Denmark which still preserves their name,
+Jutland; ~Angles~, from what is now Schleswig and Holstein.
+
+~Count of the Saxon Shore~: the Roman admiral set to defend the southern
+parts of the English coast, which were called 'Saxon Shore,' because
+most liable to attack from the Saxons.
+
+~mercenaries~: soldiers who do not fight for the safety and glory of
+their own country, but for hire.
+
+
+6. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART II.
+
+~Blackfriars~, at the eastern end of the Thames Embankment, derives its
+name from a monastery or house of Black Friars which stood there.
+
+~Watling Street~, ~Ermyn Street~, ~Vicinal Way~: made by the Romans, who
+were famous makers of high roads, many of which are still in use. (See
+map on p. 15.)
+
+~Newgate~ was a gate on the west of the walls which enclosed the City;
+~Bishopsgate~, on the north-east.
+
+~victualling~: providing food for.
+
+~emergencies~: times of difficulty and danger.
+
+~Isle of Thanet~: it must be remembered that the Stour, at the back of
+Thanet, was once much wider and deeper than it is now. In fact, it was
+the general route for vessels coming up the Thames.
+
+~appointments~: furniture, fittings.
+
+~mimics~: actors who played in farces, like our panto_mimes_.
+
+~scribes~: among the Romans, clerks in public offices.
+
+
+7. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART III.
+
+~Alaric~, king of a German tribe called the Visigoths (West Goths)
+invaded Greece and Italy, and after several defeats finally took and
+sacked Rome in 410 A.D. It was this state of thing which compelled the
+Romans to withdraw their troops from Britain.
+
+~The West where the Britons still held their own~: Wales and Cornwall
+were never occupied by the invading Saxons: Welsh and Cornishmen are
+Celts, with a language of their own in Wales, while the Cornish language
+has only disappeared during the last hundred years.
+
+~Wessex~: the land of the West Saxons corresponds roughly to England
+south of the Thames.
+
+~oblivion~: being forgotten.
+
+~The river Lea~ rises in Bedfordshire, near Luton, passes Hertford and
+Ware, forms the boundary between Middlesex and Essex, and falls into the
+Thames at Blackwall, after a course of forty miles.
+
+~quagmires~: marshy, boggy ground that _quakes_ under the feet (quake,
+mire).
+
+
+8. THE FIRST SAXON SETTLEMENT.
+
+~Ecclesiastic~: connected with the Church. For many centuries Rome was
+the centre of Christian influence, and is so still to all Roman
+Catholics.
+
+~ritual~: the customs and ceremonies employed in performing service in a
+church.
+
+~Gregory I.~ or ~the Great~ was Pope from 590-604 A.D. He it was who
+sent Augustine to attempt the conversion of the English in the year 597.
+
+~kinglet~: a petty king. England was then divided among many kings, so
+that the realm of each was necessarily very small.
+
+~crucifix~: a figure of Christ fixed to the cross.
+
+~Bede~: a monk and Church historian who lived and died at Jarrow in
+county Durham in 735 A.D.
+
+~Lindesfarne~, or Holy Island, off the coast of Northumberland.
+
+~Northumbrians~: the men of Northumbria--that is, Yorkshire, Durham, and
+Northumberland.
+
+~Mercians~: the men of Mercia, or land of the Middle English.
+
+~supremacy~: Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, were separate kingdoms which
+were successively, in the order in which they are given, strong enough
+to overawe or exercise supremacy over the others. The king of Wessex
+eventually became king of England.
+
+~Witan~, or in its fuller form ~wit-an-a-ge-mote~, the 'meeting of wise
+men,' was the national council which afterwards grew up into our modern
+parliament.
+
+
+9. THE SECOND SAXON SETTLEMENT.
+
+~Pagan~: heathen, not yet converted to Christianity.
+
+~King Alfred~, called the Great, was king of England from 871-901 A.D.
+
+~Alderman~ in early England meant the ruler of a large district, such as
+a shire or kingdom. When Mercia became subject to Wessex it was ruled by
+an alderman.
+
+~Benfleet~: a place in Essex, on the north bank of the Thames, not far
+from Southend.
+
+~Brunanburgh~ was the scene of a defeat of the Danes by Athelstan in 937
+A.D.; the place cannot now be identified.
+
+~Sweyn~, King of Denmark, invaded England with his son Canute in 1013
+A.D.
+
+~Redriff~ is now called Rotherhithe, south of the Thames.
+
+~King Ethelred II.~, called the Unredig, or lacking in counsel, reigned
+979-1013 A.D.
+
+~Olave~ or ~Olaf~ and ~Magnus~ are Scandinavian names: there were early
+kings of Norway so called.
+
+~The Portreeve~: the reeve or governor of London was a chief magistrate
+or mayor of the City.
+
+~The 'Staller'~ or ~Marshal~ led the men of London to battle.
+
+~The Knighten Guild~ was the ruling council of London: they were not
+chosen by election, but were the chief owners of property, and, like
+their land, the office was handed down from father to son.
+
+~mote~: meeting.
+
+~hustings~: a general meeting of the citizens held every week; later on
+the word came to mean the platform whence candidates for parliament
+addressed their constituents.
+
+
+10. THE ANGLO-SAXON CITIZEN.
+
+~Athelstan~ (925-940), the grandson of Alfred the Great, and ~Etheldred
+II.~ (979-1013) were kings of England.
+
+~earl~ or ~eorl~ was what we should now call a gentleman of good family;
+~thanes~: nobles who for the most part acquired their titles from the
+king as rewards for services.
+
+~municipal~: having to do with the municipality or city.
+
+~French~: Norman-French was the language spoken by the Normans.
+
+~the meat and fish were salted~: in the absence of root-crops it was
+found difficult to keep animals through the winter. Hence much salt meat
+and fish were stored up.
+
+~embroidery~: the art of working designs on cloth in needlework.
+
+~spinster~: an unmarried woman; so called because unmarried daughters
+worked at spinning and weaving for the household, making 'homespun'
+cloth for them.
+
+~marauding~: roving about for plunder.
+
+~solar~: in early houses the chamber over the hall, used as the bedroom
+for the master and mistress of the house. (See picture on p. 73.)
+
+~tapestry~: thick hangings or curtains with figures worked on them.
+
+~mead~: a fermented drink made of honey: metheglin is another form of
+the word.
+
+~wattle~: flexible twigs, withies, or osier rods: ~daub~, mud.
+
+~turbulent~: disorderly, riotous.
+
+~Thames Street~: a very narrow street running along the bank of the
+Thames between Blackfriars and the Tower.
+
+~ward~: a division of the City. The ~ward mote~ or ward meeting still
+exists, and elects the alderman or representative of the ward on the
+City Council.
+
+
+11. THE WALL OF LONDON.
+
+The ~White Tower~ is the 'keep' or central part of the Tower of London,
+begun by William the Conqueror and finished by the Red King. It is 92
+feet high and the walls are 17 feet thick.
+
+~Dowgate~: the site of one of the gates of Old London Wall is near where
+Cannon Street Railway Station now stands: here the Walbrook fell into
+the Thames.
+
+~Queen Hithe~: 'The Queen's Landing Place.' Merchants were compelled to
+land their goods here so that the dues paid should go to the Queen.
+
+~confluence~: a flowing together, the place where two rivers meet. The
+Fleet fell into the Thames at Blackfriars. (Latin _cum_, with, together;
+_fluo_, to flow. Compare, _fluid_, _fluent_.)
+
+~Montfichet's Tower~ was near Baynard's Castle, at the south-west corner
+of the old walls in Blackfriars. Both were named after the Norman
+tenants who occupied them.
+
+~Houndsditch~ is now a cross street joining Bishopgate Street and
+Aldgate, with a Church of St. Botolph at each end of it. It adjoined the
+moat or ditch round the City wall.
+
+~Allhallows~: the same as All Saints--all the saints to whom churches
+were often dedicated, and whose memory is celebrated on November 1,
+which is All Saints' Day.
+
+~St. Giles, Cripplegate~, contains in its churchyard part of London
+Wall. Milton was buried here in 1674.
+
+
+12. NORMAN LONDON.
+
+~Bishop and Portreeve~: the two chief officers of the City, one ruling
+for the Church, the other a civil ruler.
+
+~charter~: a writing confirming or granting privileges.
+
+~burghers~ or burgesses: citizens of a borough.
+
+~Guildhall~ contains the necessary offices and accommodation for the
+guild or corporation, town clerk, &c., the City library, museum and law
+courts, and a great hall that will hold 7,000 persons.
+
+~feudal claims~: demands made on their tenants by owners under the
+feudal system. Such demands were usually for military service or
+something equivalent.
+
+~Matilda~, daughter of Henry I., and mother of Henry II., and widow of
+the Emperor Henry V. of Germany, was the opponent of Stephen (1100-1135)
+in the civil war of his reign. She gave London as 'a demesne' to the
+Earl of Essex, with the Tower as his castle.
+
+~Danegeld~, or Dane money: a tax raised to buy off the Danes.
+
+~Sheriff~, or shire-reeve, governor of a shire, was the king's
+representative in each shire: he collected the revenue, called out and
+led the soldiers, and administered justice.
+
+~Justiciar~: judge. It was one of the privileges of the City to have a
+judge of its own to try cases within its own limits.
+
+~stipulated~: bargained for.
+
+~constitution~: form of government.
+
+~priory~: a house for monks or nuns under the rule of a prior or
+prioress.
+
+~St. Katherine Cree~: this church is in Leadenhall Street, near Aldgate.
+Cree in this name is for Christ.
+
+~Portsoken~ is one of the City wards near Aldgate and the Minories.
+
+
+13. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART I.
+
+~St. Bartholomew the Great~ in Smithfield is part of St. Bartholomew's
+Hospital.
+
+~St. Ethelburga~ is in Bishopsgate Street, not far from Liverpool Street
+Railway Station.
+
+~crypt~ is a chapel or vault underground.
+
+~St. Swithin's Church~ is near Cannon Street Railway Station. 'London
+Stone,' supposed to be a Roman milestone, is let into the wall of this
+church. St. Swithin, to whom the church is dedicated, was a Saxon Bishop
+of Winchester, under whose care the youth of Alfred was spent at
+Winchester.
+
+~Thomas Becket~, Archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in his own
+cathedral by four knights, who thought they were executing the wishes of
+Henry II. (1170 A.D.).
+
+~conventual~: attached to convents.
+
+~Palatine~ usually means 'held by a nobleman who has had royal powers
+given him.'
+
+~Westminster~ is named after a minster first erected there of wood about
+604 A.D.: it was thus distinguished from St. Paul's, which was the 'East
+Minster.' The site was a marshy spot, then called Thorney, or Thorn
+Island.
+
+~Charing Cross~ is named from the memorial cross built there by Edward
+I. in 1294 in honour of his queen, Eleanor, who was brought for burial
+from Lincoln to Westminster, and each place (nine) where her body rested
+was marked by a similar cross. ('Charing' is a corruption of the French
+_chère reine_, dear queen.)
+
+~Cheapside~: the important street running between St. Paul's and the
+Mansion House is so called because its site was the side--the south
+side--of the Chepe, or old London market.
+
+~East Chepe~, or the East Market, has given its name to Eastcheap, a
+street running from the City towards the Tower.
+
+~mercer~: a merchant selling woollens and silks.
+
+~folkmotes~: the meetings of the folk or tribe: they met in arms in the
+Saxon times, and were presided over by the alderman.
+
+
+14. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART II.
+
+~Tyburn~: a brook which gave its name to the place Tyburn, where the
+Marble Arch now stands.
+
+~Westbourne~: this brook has given its name to Westbourne Park, in
+Paddington.
+
+~Holywell~ may be remembered by Holywell Street, in the Strand.
+
+~Clerkenwell~ is named after the Parish Clerks' Well, round which they
+used to perform their 'mysteries.'
+
+~quarterstaff~: a long staff used as a weapon of defence, and held in
+the middle and also one quarter way from the end.
+
+~tabor~: a kind of small drum beaten with one drumstick.
+
+~consuls~: the chief magistrates of Rome: two of them with equal power
+came into office every year.
+
+~senatorial~: appointed and controlled by the senate or governing
+council of Rome.
+
+~venison~ (pronounced _ven´-zon_): the flesh of deer.
+
+~cleric~: a clergyman.
+
+~abbot~: the head of an abbey or monastery.
+
+~magnate~: a great man, a man of great wealth and rank. (Latin _magnus_,
+great.)
+
+~metropolitan~: the bishop of a metropolis or chief cathedral city, as
+Canterbury is the metropolis of England in this sense.
+
+~ordinances~: laws, commands.
+
+
+15. LONDON BRIDGE. PART I.
+
+~Architect~: one who designs buildings and superintends the building of
+them.
+
+~Jewry~: the district in a town inhabited by the Jews; for in early
+times the Jews were not allowed to live where they liked, but only in
+quarters assigned to them. The street now called Old Jewry turns out of
+the Poultry, on the north side.
+
+~essential~: something very important and that cannot be done without.
+
+~intercommunication~: intercourse; dealings between people which are
+made much easier by having good roads and bridges to travel on.
+
+~La Rochelle~: a seaport in France on the Atlantic, some distance north
+of Bordeaux.
+
+~Saintes~: a French town about thirty-eight miles from La Rochelle.
+
+~St. Thomas Becket~, the murdered Archbishop of Canterbury, who was
+canonised, that is, named a saint after his death.
+
+~titular~: giving his name to the bridge.
+
+~crypt~: an underground or lower room used as a chapel or burying-place.
+
+
+16. LONDON BRIDGE. PART II.
+
+~King Edward I~: 1272-1307 A.D.
+
+~haberdashers~: dealers in 'small wares' such as cotton, tape, needles,
+and pins.
+
+~Hans Holbein~: a celebrated German painter who came to live in England
+and was introduced to Henry VIII.
+
+~marine painters~: artists who excel in painting boats, ships, and sea
+scenes. (Latin _mare_, the sea.)
+
+~'shooting' the bridge~: passing through the arches in a boat.
+
+~Queen Henrietta~ was the queen of Charles I. of England. After the
+Civil War she withdrew to France, where she died in 1669.
+
+~Rubens~: a very celebrated Flemish painter, born in 1577, died at
+Antwerp in 1640.
+
+~Sir Thomas Wyatt~ headed a rebellion in Kent, which was provoked by
+Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain and the restoration of Roman
+Catholicism. He was about to cross London Bridge, but finding this
+impossible crossed the Thames at Kingston. The rising was a failure, and
+Wyatt was executed, 1554.
+
+~Sir William Wallace~: a brave Scotch gentleman who led the Scotch
+against Edward I., who was trying to deprive Scotland of its
+independence. Wallace was finally taken and executed as a traitor at
+Tyburn, 1305.
+
+~Jack Cade~ headed a rebellion in Kent in 1450 through dissatisfaction
+with the government of Henry VI.: 30,000 rebels gathered on Blackheath,
+but the movement ended in failure and Cade was slain.
+
+~Sir Thomas More~: the good and learned chancellor of Henry VIII., and
+author of a famous book called 'Utopia.' He was executed as a traitor in
+1535.
+
+~St. Thomas-on-the-Bridge~: that is, Thomas Becket, to whom the bridge
+was dedicated.
+
+~pageant~: a splendid show or procession.
+
+~ex-apprentice~: one who has been once an apprentice.
+
+
+17. THE TOWER OF LONDON. PART I.
+
+~Dominate~: to lord over, to overawe, to be master of. (Latin _dominus_,
+a master, lord.)
+
+~Crusade~: an expedition under the banner of the _Cross_ to recover the
+Holy Land from the Turks. Richard I. went on the third Crusade in 1191.
+
+~antiquaries~: people who study ancient things.
+
+~mediæval~: made during the middle ages; the period, roughly speaking,
+between the time of the Romans and the reign of Henry VII. (400-1485).
+
+~lieutenant~: an officer in command of the Tower.
+
+~keep~: the strongest part of a fortress or castle.
+
+~insignia~: the badges of any office.
+
+~menagerie~: a collection of wild animals.
+
+~Queen Anne Boleyn~, to marry whom, Henry VIII. divorced Catherine of
+Aragon. She was the mother of Queen Elizabeth.
+
+~Lady Jane Grey~ was proclaimed Queen by the Duke of Northumberland on
+the death of Edward VI., but the attempt to prevent Mary's accession was
+a failure, and Lady Jane Grey was executed in 1554.
+
+~Guy Fawkes~: a conspirator who tried to blow up the King and Parliament
+in 1605.
+
+~The unfortunate princes~ were Edward V., son of Edward IV., and the
+rightful king, and Richard Duke of York, his younger brother, murdered
+in the Tower by the usurper Richard III., 1483.
+
+
+18. THE TOWER OF LONDON. PART II.
+
+~Allegiance~: the duty due from a subject to his liege the sovereign.
+
+~Lord Hastings~ was executed by order of the Duke of Gloucester,
+afterwards Richard III., in 1483 for supporting the side of Edward V.
+and his relations.
+
+~ordnance~: artillery, cannon, big guns.
+
+~antipast~: aftertaste.
+
+~clerk~: a clergyman, a scholar, because in early times all learning was
+confined to the clergy.
+
+
+19. THE PILGRIMS.
+
+~ague~: a fever coming on at intervals, with fits of shivering.
+
+~isolation~: living away from outside communication, a lonely position
+like that of men on an _island_ cut off from the rest of the world.
+
+~Flemings~: the people of Flanders, a district now comprising parts of
+Belgium, South Holland, and North France.
+
+~Walsingham~: a place in the north of Norfolk, where was a famous
+shrine.
+
+~Glastonbury~: a small town near Wells, in Somersetshire.
+
+~Compostella~: a place in Spain where is the shrine of St. James, the
+patron saint of Spain.
+
+~Chaucer~: the great early English poet, born in London 1328, died 1400.
+
+~expiation~: making amends for, atonement.
+
+~Holy Sepulchre~: the burial place of our Lord at Jerusalem, to rescue
+which from the Turks was the object of the Crusades.
+
+
+20. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL.
+
+~Endowment~: money given for the permanent support of an institution,
+such as a church, hospital, or school.
+
+~Hospitaller~: one in charge of a hospital. The term is generally
+applied to the Knights of St. John, who built a hospital for sick
+Crusaders at Jerusalem.
+
+~shambles~: a slaughter-house.
+
+~Whittington~, originally an apprentice in London, became a wealthy
+mercer, thrice Lord Mayor, and knighted. He died in 1423, without
+children, and left his wealth for public objects, such as the one in the
+text.
+
+~Dissolution of the religious houses~, carried out by Henry VIII. in
+1536-1540 for the sake of the plunder they afforded.
+
+~Chloroform~: a colourless liquid which when inhaled produces complete
+insensibility to pain.
+
+~Norman windows~: that is, built in a style introduced by the Normans.
+The rounded tops of doors and windows maybe seen in the illustration on
+p. 44.
+
+~lanthorn~: a raised construction on the roof, with horn or glass sides
+to give light.
+
+~clinical~: in attendance at the bedside of patients.
+
+~residential college~: where they reside or dwell.
+
+~convalescent hospital~: where those who have had some illness may get
+quite well and strong again.
+
+
+21. THE TERROR OF LEPROSY.
+
+~Leprosy~: a terrible disease of the skin and blood, once prevalent in
+Europe, now mostly confined to the East.
+
+~lazar~: a leper; one suffering from a foul disease like Lazarus in St.
+Luke xvi.
+
+~congregate~: flock together, crowd with.
+
+~stringent~: strict.
+
+~statutes~: rules or laws.
+
+~Book of the Jewish Law~: that is, the book Leviticus.
+
+~ulcerates~: is afflicted with ulcers or sores.
+
+~Mass~: the celebration of the Lord's Supper in the Roman Catholic
+Church.
+
+~Burton Lazars~: a village one mile from Melton Mowbray, in
+Leicestershire. Here, on account of its excellent sulphur springs, the
+chief leper-hospital was established in the reign of Stephen.
+
+~hereditary~: transmitted from parents to children.
+
+
+22. THE TERROR OF FAMINE.
+
+~24 shillings a quarter~: this is not far from the present price of
+wheat, which gives us cheap bread. But in 1257 24_s._ would be
+equivalent to at least 20_l._ in our money.
+
+~retainers~: those in the service of a nobleman and wearing his livery
+and badge.
+
+~Hanseatic merchants~: merchants trading with the Hanse cities in
+Germany (among which was Hamburg) who had formed a league for
+self-protection about the twelfth century.
+
+~granary~: a place for storing up grain or corn.
+
+
+23. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. PART I.
+
+~460 feet~: the loftiest spire in England, that of Salisbury Cathedral,
+is about 404 feet.
+
+~its length was at least 600 feet~: the present cathedral, the third on
+the site, is 500 feet long.
+
+~shrine~: a receptacle for relics and other sacred things. (The word
+means a 'chest.')
+
+~aisle~ (pronounced _[=i]le_) is the side or wing of a church.
+
+~scribe~: a writer. In those early times so few people could read or
+write that men often had to have recourse to professional writers.
+
+~deed~: a written document relating to some legal transaction.
+
+~conveyance~: a writing legally transferring from one person to another
+property, especially houses and land.
+
+~Humphrey Duke of Gloucester~ was the youngest brother of Henry V., on
+whose death he was made regent in England in 1422. He died in 1447.
+
+~St. Cuthbert~ was a monk, missionary, and bishop of Lindesfarne, an
+island off the coast of Northumberland, where he died in 687 A.D., and
+was buried in Durham Cathedral.
+
+~sacristy~: a room adjoining a church where sacred vessels, vestments,
+&c. are kept.
+
+
+24. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. PART II.
+
+~Inigo Jones~ (born 1572, died 1652) was a celebrated architect.
+
+~Portico~: a row of columns in front of a building.
+
+~Exchange~: a building where merchants meet to transact business.
+
+~nave~: the main body of a church, the aisles being on each side of the
+nave.
+
+~King Charles II. returned~ at the Restoration in 1660.
+
+~Sir Christopher Wren~ (born 1632, died 1723): the greatest English
+architect. After the great fire he rebuilt St. Paul's Cathedral, fifty
+London churches, and many public buildings. Over his tomb in St. Paul's
+is the inscription in Latin: 'If you seek for his monument, look round
+about you.'
+
+~The Peace of Ryswick~, 1697, made by England, Spain, and Holland with
+Louis XIV. of France.
+
+~Dr. Johnson~ (born 1709, died 1784): one of the great names in English
+literature, and author of a celebrated dictionary.
+
+~oriental scholar~, or ~orientalist~, is a man who studies Eastern or
+Indian languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Hindi, Sanskrit, &c.
+
+~sarcophagus~: a stone chest for holding a corpse.
+
+~porphyry~: a hard kind of stone coloured purple and white.
+
+~Battle of the Nile~, 1798; ~Cape St. Vincent~, 1797; ~Camperdown~,
+1797.
+
+~Lord Almoner~: the official who dispenses the royal charities and
+bounties.
+
+~Slavonic~: a group of kindred languages, including Russian, Polish, and
+Bulgarian.
+
+
+25. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD.
+
+~Embattled~: built with battlements.
+
+~minor canons~: clergy of the cathedral who intone the services and look
+after the music.
+
+~charnel~: containing the bones of the dead.
+
+~Finsbury Fields~: the _fenny_ or marshy ground lying north of the
+Moorgate of the old City walls.
+
+~Papal Bulls~: decrees and orders issued by the Pope, so called from the
+seal attached to them.
+
+~Latimer~ (born 1470, died 1555), Bishop of Worcester, burnt at the
+stake for his Protestant opinions together with Ridley, Bishop of
+London.
+
+~chapter house~: the building where the chapter or clergy belonging to
+the cathedral meet.
+
+~Sacrist~: the official in a cathedral who copied and took care of the
+music and books.
+
+~Paul's Chain~: so called because traffic was stopped by a chain during
+the hours of service.
+
+
+26. THE RELIGIOUS HOUSES.
+
+~Forester~: one who has charge of a forest to cut wood, plant new trees,
+&c.
+
+~vicar~: one who acts in place of another; hence a priest who on behalf
+of his monastery conducted services in a parish church.
+
+~orders~: the different brotherhoods into which monks were divided.
+
+~indiscriminate charity~: giving without thinking, whether the charity
+is well or ill bestowed.
+
+~Minorites~: monks or nuns belonging to the Franciscan Order, who in
+their humility called themselves the 'lesser' (_minores_) brethren, or
+sisters.
+
+~Blackfriars~ were the Dominicans; ~Whitefriars~ were the Carmelites;
+~Greyfriars~ were Franciscans, from the colour of their respective
+dresses.
+
+~Charter House~: the house of the Carthusian monks.
+
+~Temple~: once the house of the ~Templars~, an order of knights whose
+duty it was to protect the Holy Sepulchre.
+
+~part of the church ... still to be seen~: at Clerkenwell the gate of
+the priory of St. John's is still standing.
+
+
+27. MONKS, FRIARS, AND NUNS.
+
+~Indiscriminately~: without making any distinctions between them.
+
+~hermit~, from the Greek, and ~solitary~, from the Latin, mean the same
+thing--one who retires from the world and lives in a lonely place.
+
+~Monte Casino~, in Campania, near Naples, where St. Benedict established
+his monastery in 529 A.D.
+
+~St. Benedict~ is often shortened to Benet, as in the name of several
+London churches.
+
+~austerities~: severe rules of life and conduct.
+
+~Friars~, or brethren (French _frères_, Latin _fratres_): those orders
+that went forth to the people.
+
+~Assisi~: a town in Central Italy where St. Francis was born.
+
+~St. Dominic~: born in Castile, in Spain, 1170, died 1221; founded his
+order to convert 'heretics,' and procured the establishment of the
+~Inquisition~, or court for punishing heretics.
+
+~Sanctuary~: a refuge where criminals were safe from the law. Sir W.
+Scott in the 'Fortunes of Nigel' well describes the lawless character of
+this district in the reign of James I.
+
+~St. Bernard~: a celebrated brother of the Cistercian Order (born 1091,
+died 1153).
+
+
+28. THE LONDON CHURCHES.
+
+~St. Augustine~ was sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 597 to convert the
+heathen English: he was the 'Apostle of the English,' and first
+Archbishop of Canterbury.
+
+~St. Dunstan~, who became Archbishop of Canterbury and died in 988, was
+not only a zealous priest but a great statesman and ruler.
+
+~St. Alphege~: an Archbishop of Canterbury murdered by the Danes in 1012
+A.D.
+
+~Sise Lane~: a lane in the City, near Cannon Street.
+
+~The Basings~: an old City family whose name also survives in the
+'Bassishaw' ward of the City, and in Basinghall Street.
+
+~Bread Street~, turning out of Cheapside, shows where the bakers chiefly
+dwelt in Old London.
+
+~John Milton~ (born 1608, died 1674) wrote 'Paradise Lost,' 'Paradise
+Regained,' and some beautiful shorter pieces.
+
+~Three Poets~: i. the Greek Homer, reputed author of those noble epics
+the 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey' (about 1000 B.C.); ii. the Roman Virgil, who
+wrote the 'Æneid' (born 70 B.C.); iii. the English Milton. The famous
+epitaph was written by John Dryden.
+
+~William Tyndal~ assisted the Reformation by translating the New
+Testament into English (1526), and part of the Old Testament. He was
+burnt as a heretic at Vilvoorde, near Brussels, in 1536.
+
+~William Cowper~ (born 1731, died 1800), the author of 'The Task' and
+other beautiful poems.
+
+
+29. THE STREETS.
+
+~Plantagenet~: Henry II., 1154-1189, was the first of the line of kings
+bearing this name, so called from the badge worn by Henry's father, a
+sprig of broom.
+
+~Chesel~ was the Anglo-Saxon for pebble, and Kiesel is the German for
+the same. The ~Chesil Beach~, near Weymouth, is a remarkable bank of
+shingle joining Portland Bill to the mainland.
+
+~Somerset House~, in the Strand: the palace of the Protector Somerset
+has been pulled down, and public offices erected on its site.
+
+~Northumberland House~, now demolished, has given its name to
+Northumberland Avenue, near Charing Cross.
+
+~Southwark ... many Inns~: in particular the Tabard, where Chaucer's
+pilgrims assembled.
+
+~mediæval~: living in the middle ages, that is, some time before about
+1500 A.D.
+
+~ironmongers in their Lane~: that is, Ironmonger Lane, turning out of
+Cheapside.
+
+
+30. WHITTINGTON. PART I.
+
+~Mercer~: a merchant who sells silken or woollen goods.
+
+~executors~: those who are appointed to carry out the last will and
+testament of a dead man.
+
+~Levantine~, in the Levant, or eastern part of the Mediterranean.
+
+~Guinea~, on the west coast of Africa.
+
+~Pizarro~: a Spanish adventurer who conquered Peru from its native
+rulers or Incas, and was murdered in his palace at Lima in 1541.
+
+~a piece of eight~ (dollars), that is, about 30_s._
+
+~assessment~: the value put upon house or property in order to fix the
+amount of taxes to be paid.
+
+
+31. WHITTINGTON. PART II.
+
+~Vintner~: a wine-seller.
+
+~Wycliffe~, born about 1324, was a learned theologian and rector of
+Lutterworth, in Leicestershire. For preaching Protestant doctrines he
+was summoned to appear at St. Paul's to answer a charge of heresy in
+1377.
+
+~John of Gaunt~ thus made the second attempt to deprive London of its
+liberties and charter; Matilda, the opponent of Stephen, had tried long
+before, but it ended in her overthrow (_see_ p. 45).
+
+~The Marshal~ was the commander of the Royal forces. To put London under
+him was to destroy its liberty. This office is hereditary in the family
+of the Duke of Norfolk, and like other royal offices became unimportant
+when it became hereditary.
+
+~rebellion of the peasants, 1381~, against over-taxation and being bound
+to the soil as serfs by their landlords. ~John Ball~, the popular
+preacher, used to ask:
+
+    'When Adam delved and Eve span,
+    Who was then a gentleman?'
+
+~The Archbishop of Canterbury~, Simon of Sudbury, had as chancellor
+proposed the taxes complained of; therefore the peasants murdered him.
+
+~rescinding~: repealing of a law.
+
+
+32. WHITTINGTON. PART III.
+
+~Burning of heretics and Lollards~: in 1401, in the reign of Henry IV.,
+an Act of Parliament was passed for burning heretics.
+
+~Lollards~ were those who differed from the Church before the
+Reformation. The name comes from a German word _lollen_, to sing--from
+the custom of these reformers.
+
+~Mansion House~: the official home of the Lord Mayor. The present
+building was begun in 1739; previously a house in Cheapside was used for
+the purpose.
+
+~bond~: a written obligation binding someone to pay a sum of money. When
+money was needed the King used to borrow from wealthy citizens and give
+a bond or promise to repay.
+
+~St. Michael's Paternoster Royal~ is in College Hill, near Cannon
+Street. The church was so called from the Tower Royal given by Edward
+III. in 1331 to his queen, Philippa, for her wardrobe.
+
+
+33. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS.
+
+~Mark~: a coin, now obsolete, worth 13_s._ 4_d._
+
+~interdicted~: forbidden, prevented.
+
+~technical school~: where useful and practical arts and trades are
+taught.
+
+~aqueduct~: an artificial channel for water.
+
+~Sevenoaks~, in Kent.
+
+~Higham Ferrers~ is a small town in Northamptonshire.
+
+
+34. THE PALACES AND GREAT HOUSES.
+
+~The King Maker~: Warwick was so called because he helped Edward IV. to
+become king in 1461, and restored Henry VI. for a time in 1470. He was
+slain at the battle of Barnet, 1471.
+
+~quadrangle~: an open court, square, with buildings all round it.
+
+~College of Heralds~: a Government office under the Earl Marshal which
+looks after pedigrees and armorial bearings.
+
+~Hampton Court~: a Royal palace begun by Cardinal Wolsey.
+
+~St. James's Palace~: the official residence of the Queen in London,
+Buckingham Palace being her private residence.
+
+~buttery~: a storeroom where liquors and other provisions were kept.
+
+~Baynard's Castle~ has given its name to one of the City wards.
+
+~The Duke of Buckingham~ secured the crown for Richard III., and then
+being insufficiently rewarded rebelled against him, and was executed in
+1483.
+
+~George, Duke of Clarence~, brother of Edward IV., first sided with his
+father-in-law, the Earl of Warwick, then joined his brother in 1471.
+With justice, therefore, Shakespeare called him 'false, fleeting,
+perjured Clarence. He was accused of treason and found dead in the Tower
+in 1478.
+
+
+35. AMUSEMENTS.
+
+~Tournament~: a sham fight at which knights, mostly on horseback, used
+to show their skill.
+
+~Twelfth Day~: twelve days after Christmas, formerly an occasion of
+great festivities, which have now nearly died out.
+
+~Morris-dance~: a _Moorish_ dance to an accompaniment of bells and
+tambourines.
+
+~cresset~: a kind of lantern formed of an open brazier filled with
+combustible materials.
+
+~demilance~: a kind of horse-soldier armed with a short lance.
+
+~mummeries~: entertainments performed by men in masks.
+
+~Curfew~: the bell rung at eight o'clock at night as a sign to put out
+all lights. Ancient towns having much wood were liable to serious fires.
+
+
+36. WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
+
+~Thorney~, Isle of Thorns; _ey_ and _ea_ meaning island, as in Anglesey,
+Chelsea, Winchelsea.
+
+~precinct~: the limit of the ground belonging to a church or other
+institution.
+
+~commissioner~: appointed to see that the work was carried out.
+
+~Sir G. Gilbert Scott~, born 1811, died 1878, was the greatest modern
+English architect.
+
+~took sanctuary~: fled for shelter to the abbey, whence she could not be
+taken without violating the privileges of the Church.
+
+~William Caxton~ set up in 1476 the first printing press in England.
+
+~coronation chair~: under this is the famous stone brought from Scone by
+Edward I., over which all the Scottish kings had been crowned since
+about 800 A.D.
+
+
+37. THE COURT AT WESTMINSTER.
+
+~Star Chamber Court~, in which cases were tried before some members of
+the Privy Council and two judges without a jury. This was established in
+1487 to restore order because great lords and landowners used to
+frighten juries from giving true verdicts.
+
+~bear and ragged staff~: the arms of the Earl of Warwick consisted of a
+bear erect and hugging a rough stake. (See pictures on pp. 111, 113.)
+
+~arras~: tapestry for hanging; so called from Arras, in the north of
+France, where it was made.
+
+~refectory~: the hall where the monks or nuns took their meals.
+
+
+38. JUSTICE AND PUNISHMENTS.
+
+~executive officers~: those whose duty it is to enforce the law.
+
+~contrition~: repentance.
+
+~securities~: stocks and shares; papers which can be of no use to the
+ordinary thief.
+
+~Bridewell~: the site of a prison, now demolished. It adjoined
+Whitefriars, and may be seen in the map to the west of Blackfriars.
+
+~amende honorable~ (French): when one who has done wrong gives
+satisfaction without loss of honour.
+
+~pillory~: a framework supported by an upright pillar. In it were holes
+through which the head and hands of offenders were thrust. In this
+uncomfortable position they had to stand exposed to the insults of the
+mob.
+
+~cogged~: loaded so as always to fall in a certain way.
+
+~title deeds~: writings drawn up in proper legal form to prove the
+possession of property.
+
+
+39. THE POLITICAL POWER OF LONDON.
+
+~Froissart~: an early French chronicler or historian who visited England
+in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II., and died in 1401.
+
+~besotted with~: stupidly and excessively fond of.
+
+~commonalty~: the common people.
+
+~Berkeley Castle~, in Gloucestershire, where Edward II. was murdered in
+1327.
+
+~a son was born~: Edward, Prince of Wales, born in 1453. After the
+Yorkist victory of Northampton in 1460 Edward's claim to the throne was
+set aside in favour of Richard, Duke of York, father of Edward IV. The
+Prince was slain at the battle of Tewkesbury, 1471.
+
+~benevolences~: loans of money, supposed to be voluntary, really
+compulsory, made by merchants and other rich men to the king.
+
+~charts~: papers; ~blank cheques~: orders on the bank for money with all
+except the amount required filled up and properly signed.
+
+~factor~: if 2 × 3 makes six, 2 and 3 are each factors of 6; hence it is
+something which helps to bring about some result.
+
+
+40. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART I.
+
+~Stow~ (born 1525, died 1605): a famous writer in Queen Elizabeth's
+reign on the antiquities of London and other places.
+
+~Whitechapel~ takes its name from a white chapel-of-ease built to
+relieve Stepney, in which parish this district was till 1763.
+
+~tenters~: pegs for stretching cloth. Sometimes hooks were used, from
+which we get the phrase 'to be on tenter hooks'--to be on a stretch with
+anxiety.
+
+~St. Katharine's~ has given its name to the great docks east of the
+Tower.
+
+~bull-, bear-baiting~: the sport of setting dogs to worry bulls or
+bears.
+
+~Alsatia~: for a vivid picture of this haunt of rogues in the reign of
+James I. the reader is referred to Sir W. Scott's 'Fortunes of Nigel.'
+
+~Austin Friars~: the space known as Drapers' Gardens (because the hall
+of the Drapers' Company is adjoining) in Throgmorton Street is on the
+site of this monastery.
+
+~Canwicke (now Cannon) Street~ was so called because the wax-chandlers
+and candle-makers lived in that part.
+
+
+41. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART II.
+
+~William Shakespeare~ (born 1564, died 1616): the prince of poets, who
+lived in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.
+
+~ruins of the monasteries~ which had been suppressed by Henry VIII. in
+1536-1540.
+
+~Cold Harbour~: a merchant's mansion once standing on the bank of the
+Thames in Thames Street.
+
+~Genevan bands~: a kind of collar worn by Protestant clergymen, so
+called because Geneva, the home of Calvin, was the centre of
+Protestantism.
+
+~palaces along the Strand~: if you walk along the Strand you will notice
+that many of the short streets leading down to the river bear the names
+of noblemen, such as Arundel Street, Norfolk Street, Salisbury Street,
+&c. from the old palaces which once stood there.
+
+~Staples Inn~: a picturesque group of old houses in Holborn was formerly
+a wool-market (_staple_ means a fixed market). ~Wych Street~ is near
+Holywell Street in the Strand.
+
+~Cloth Fair~ is now a poor neighbourhood near Smithfield.
+
+
+42. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART III.
+
+~Impressment~: in the absence of some orderly arrangement, such as
+conscription (where all serve) or a voluntary system (like our own), the
+press-gang used to kidnap people and force them to serve.
+
+~animosity~: anger, ill feeling against.
+
+~The Steelyard~, on the site of which Cannon Street railway station now
+stands, was the house of the Hanse merchants (_see_ note on Chapter
+XXII.).
+
+~John Colet~, Dean of St. Paul's (born 1466, died 1519), was one of the
+leaders of the revival of learning in England. St. Paul's School, which
+he founded in 1512, has been moved to Hammersmith.
+
+
+43. TRADE. PART I.
+
+~Forestall their market~: that is, to buy things before they arrived at
+the market, so as to sell them at a higher price.
+
+~Lübeck~: a large port in north Germany in the Baltic.
+
+~staples~, originally all kinds of raw produce, came to be applied only
+to wool. Staples Inn was once a wool-market.
+
+~instead of selling our wool~: Edward III. brought Flemish weavers into
+England to encourage manufactures. Till then England produced and
+exported wool to Antwerp and other manufacturing centres, but did not
+make it into cloth.
+
+~Hamburg~ was a member of the Hanseatic League.
+
+~The screen~ was presented to the Church of All Hallows the Great,
+Thames Street, in 1710, by the Hanseatic merchants.
+
+
+44. TRADE. PART II.
+
+~Incubus~: something that weighs down and hinders.
+
+~religious wars in the Netherlands~: between the Protestant Dutch and
+the Catholic Spaniards, who were oppressing the country through great
+part of the sixteenth century.
+
+~Bourse~: the same as ~Exchange~, where merchants meet to transact their
+business.
+
+~English wool~ in Bruges, because it was much exported thither from
+England before the growth of home manufactures.
+
+~Flemings~: the natives of Flanders; who were the chief manufacturers of
+Europe long before England took the lead.
+
+~14 per cent.~: the height of this rate may be seen by comparing it with
+the 2½ per cent., which is all England now pays as interest upon her
+debt.
+
+~Bethlehem Hospital~, corrupted into Bedlam, is still a hospital, but
+only for the insane.
+
+
+45. TRADE. PART III.
+
+~Bruges ... civil wars~: that is, the religious wars referred to in
+Chapter XLIV.
+
+~Venetians~: before the discovery of the sea route to India and the East
+Venice was the first maritime and commercial power in the world. The
+route round the Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco de Gama in
+1497.
+
+~Moluccas~: a group of tropical islands between Celebes and New Guinea,
+rich in pearls, spices, and precious woods.
+
+~Calicut~: the port in Madras, where Vasco de Gama first landed in May
+1498. The cotton cloth called _calico_ was first brought thence.
+
+~Moorish pirates~: North Africa has always been a haunt of pirates. In
+1816 Lord Exmouth had to bombard Algiers, and even as late as 1860 the
+European Powers had to suppress piracy in Morocco.
+
+~Dordrecht~: a commercial town in the south of Holland, near Rotterdam.
+
+~The South Sea Company~ is celebrated above the other trading companies
+for the great speculation in its shares called the ~South Sea bubble~ in
+1720.
+
+
+46. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART I.
+
+~Mummers~: men who played in entertainments masked and in various
+disguises.
+
+~masque~: a kind of play in which the actors wore masks. Milton's
+'Comus' is a well-known masque of high character.
+
+~mystery~: a name for a religious play representing some scene from the
+Bible or scenes from the life of a saint.
+
+~admonition~: warning.
+
+~frescoes~: paintings on a wall covered with plaster--done while the
+plaster is still wet or _fresh_.
+
+~sequence~: that is, the connection of one event with another.
+
+~properties~: the articles used in the play, scenery, dress, &c.
+
+~realistic~: looking as though they really were the persons represented.
+
+~tableau~: scene.
+
+~lessee~: one who rents a theatre or holds it on a lease from the owner.
+
+
+47. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART II.
+
+~Pageants~: grand shows, processions.
+
+~censers~: vessels for burning incense.
+
+~conduit~: a pipe or channel for leading or _conducting_ water.
+
+~Cross of Chepe~: a memorial erected in the centre of the chepe, or
+market, in memory of Queen Eleanor.
+
+~jerkins~: a kind of jacket often made of leather.
+
+~panoply~: full armour.
+
+~banneret~: a little banner.
+
+~blackjacks~: leather vessels for holding liquor.
+
+~malmsey~: a strong sweet wine.
+
+~marshal~: draw up and arrange.
+
+~Lord Mayor's Show~: on November 9--when the people have an opportunity
+of welcoming the new Lord Mayor on his entering into office.
+
+
+48. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART III.
+
+~libretto~: the words of a masque or play set to music.
+
+~scenic~: on the stage.
+
+~Ben Jonson~ (born 1574, died 1637): a great English play writer and
+poet, and a friend of Shakespeare.
+
+~Francis Bacon~, Lord Verulam (born 1561, died 1626), was Lord
+Chancellor and a great writer on philosophical subjects.
+
+~Oberon~: the king of the fairies and husband of Titania, as in
+Shakespeare's 'Midsummer Night's Dream.'
+
+~save James~: that is, King James I.; a piece of courtly flattery due to
+Jonson's connection with the court.
+
+~Prince Henry~, who is meant by Oberon in the masque, died in 1612, to
+the great regret of the people.
+
+~Phosphorus~: Lucifer, the morning star that brings the day.
+
+
+49. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART IV.
+
+~Gammer (i.e. Old Mother) Gurton's Needle~ is a very rough old play
+about an old woman who lost her needle while mending a pair of breeches,
+and, after accusing everyone of stealing it, finds it after all in the
+garment itself. It was written some time before 1560. ('Gammer,' the
+French _grand'-mère_, grandmother, contracted into 'ganmer,' and then
+'gammer.')
+
+~contortionist~: one who twists himself into extraordinary attitudes to
+amuse the public.
+
+~octagonal~: with eight sides.
+
+~prologue~: the verses spoken before a play to introduce it to the
+audience.
+
+~Golden Lane~: a street near the Barbican, turning out of Aldersgate
+Street.
+
+~Bankside~, in Southwark, on the southern side of the Thames.
+
+
+50. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE. PART I.
+
+~Pretensions~: ambitious claims.
+
+~Wars of the Roses~: a civil war lasting 1455-1485. In thinking of the
+loss of life occasioned by this war, it must be remembered that such
+loss fell most heavily on the noble families; the mass of the population
+was not so much disturbed by it.
+
+~Long Acre~: a street near Drury Lane, now chiefly occupied by
+carriage-makers.
+
+~delirium~: a wandering in the mind caused by fever.
+
+
+51. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE. PART II.
+
+~Registers~: a record of names of persons who have died. Such records
+are now accurately kept by the registrars of births, deaths, and
+marriages.
+
+~The King~: Charles II., who, whatever his faults may have been, was at
+least good-natured and averse to suffering.
+
+~Samuel Pepys~ (born 1632, died 1703) was Secretary to the Admiralty in
+the reigns of Charles II. and James II. His famous diary gives a graphic
+picture of life during these reigns.
+
+
+52. THE TERROR OF FIRE. PART I.
+
+~Coleman Street~ runs northward from Lothbury (behind the Bank of
+England) to Moorgate. The name goes back even to Saxon times, and
+probably comes from one Ceolmund, who had a farm near.
+
+~St. Erkinwald~: an early Saxon Bishop of London, who encouraged the
+citizens to restore their ruined city, and himself built the Bishop's
+Gate (named after him). His shrine in St. Paul's was long an object of
+reverence.
+
+~Paternoster Row~: always a great centre of the book trade: it was a row
+immediately adjoining the precincts of the Cathedral before
+encroachments were made. Naturally much of the booksellers' wares was
+religious--paternosters, aves, credos, &c.
+
+~chancel~: the east end of a church in which is the altar, separated
+from the rest of the church by a screen or railings. (Latin _cancelli_,
+a grating.)
+
+~transept~: the part of a cathedral projecting on either side.
+Cathedrals are generally built in the shape of a cross; the transept is
+the arms of the cross in the ground plan.
+
+
+53. THE TERROR OF FIRE. PART II.
+
+~Astronomer~: one who studies the stars or heavenly bodies.
+
+~John Evelyn~ (born 1620, died 1706), a gentleman of the reign of
+Charles II., was made one of the commissioners for the restoration of
+London after the Great Fire. He wrote a diary, which is not so amusing
+as that of Pepys (_see_ Chapter LI.)
+
+~St. Dunstan-in-the-East~, in Tower Street, was the first church
+restored by Wren after the fire.
+
+~John Dryden~ (born 1631, died 1700): one of the greatest English poets.
+He was a supporter of the house of Stuart, and was made poet laureate.
+
+~obnoxious~: exposed to.
+
+
+54. ROGUES AND VAGABONDS.
+
+~Vagabonds~: wanderers who have no settled home.
+
+~Wapping~: called Wapping Wash (or Marsh) in the time of Queen
+Elizabeth, when it was first drained and banked in, lies on the north
+bank of the Thames, in Middlesex, near the Thames Tunnel.
+
+~Lambeth~, facing Westminster, on the south bank of the river, is
+low-lying, and was called in Saxon times Lambhythe, meaning loamy or
+muddy landing place.
+
+~Bermondsey~ (_ey_--island), on the south bank of the Thames, one mile
+S.E. of St. Paul's, is a centre of the leather and wool trade.
+
+~Rotherhithe~ (or Redriff), on the south bank of the Thames, lies east
+of Bermondsey and faces Wapping. The south end of the Thames Tunnel is
+in Rotherhithe.
+
+~stringent~: strict.
+
+~impotent~: powerless, unable to work.
+
+~stocks~: a wooden frame in which the legs of criminals were confined.
+
+~The Barbican~: a street near the site of the old Aldersgate. Barbican
+means defensive works for a gate. ~Turnmill Street~ is near Farringdon
+railway station.
+
+
+55. UNDER GEORGE II. PART I. THE WEALTH OF LONDON.
+
+~Essayists~: people who write essays; that is, short compositions on any
+subject.
+
+~picturesqueness~: beauty and grace; qualities which might be supposed
+to make anything a good subject for a _picture_.
+
+~ruffles~: pieces of some white material plaited and attached as a frill
+to the collar and sleeves of garments.
+
+~ostentation~: making a great show.
+
+~Puritanism~: the more sober style of life and thought introduced by the
+Puritans, who were a religious party in the times of Elizabeth and the
+Stuarts, and were desirous of a purer and simpler doctrine and mode of
+living.
+
+
+56. UNDER GEORGE II. PART II.
+
+~Predecessors~: those that went before them.
+
+~cruciform~: in the form of a cross. The ground plan of many churches is
+shaped like a cross.
+
+~St. Stephen's, Walbrook~, stands behind the Mansion House, where the
+Walbrook used to flow.
+
+~lectureship~: the office of a lecturer, one who gives lectures,
+discourses, or (as in this case) sermons. Money was left to pay for
+these sermons, that is, the lectureships were ~endowed~.
+
+~harbouring~: sheltering.
+
+~organisers~: those who get up and arrange anything.
+
+~Haymarket~ (obviously once a hay market) is near Trafalgar Square, and
+~Coventry Street~ near Leicester Square.
+
+~innovations~: novelties, new things.
+
+
+57. UNDER GEORGE II. PART III.
+
+~Broad Street~: between the Royal Exchange and Liverpool Street.
+
+~Whitecross Street~ is near the Barbican, Aldersgate Street;
+~Whitechapel~, in which is ~Middlesex Street~ (commonly known as
+Petticoat Lane), is reached through Aldgate.
+
+~Hogarth~ (born 1697, died 1764): a celebrated English painter, chiefly
+famous for moral, satirical and humorous pictures drawn from everyday
+life.
+
+~asphalt~: a kind of mineral pitchy substance which melts in heat and
+can be laid down so as to form a hard, smooth roadway.
+
+~Vauxhall~: in Surrey, in the parish of Lambeth, on the south of the
+Thames. There was once an old manor house here called Faukes or Fox
+Hall.
+
+~Bermondsey Spa~: so called from a mineral spring discovered there in
+1770. (Spa, a place where there is a mineral spring, gets its name from
+a celebrated watering-place in Belgium of that name.)
+
+~punch~: a drink containing five ingredients--water, spirits, sugar,
+lemon-juice, spice.
+
+
+58. UNDER GEORGE II. PART IV.
+
+~Decorous~: behaving in a decent and respectable way.
+
+~appreciation~: estimate, judgment about.
+
+~congregation~: gathering together.
+
+~Benjamin Franklin~ (born 1706, died 1790): a native of Boston, U.S.A.,
+who lived for some time in England. As a scientist he is famous for
+electrical experiments; as a politician, for the share he took in
+upholding the independence of the American States.
+
+~transmission~: handing down from father to son.
+
+~externally~: outwardly.
+
+~St. Katharine's~, ~Ratcliff~, ~Shadwell~, ~Stepney~, are all in the
+East End of London.
+
+~jurisdiction~: legal authority.
+
+
+59. UNDER GEORGE II. PART V.
+
+~Lighters~: large boats or barges used in unloading ships.
+
+~bleaching-grounds~: where cloth was laid out to be bleached or whitened
+by the wind and sun.
+
+~hopbines~: the stalks of hop plants.
+
+~transportation~: conveying convicted criminals abroad. Till 1869
+convicts were sent to Australia; now they are kept in convict prisons at
+home.
+
+~classification~: dividing and arranging into classes.
+
+~embezzle~: to steal something entrusted to one's care.
+
+~press-gang~: a party of sailors under an officer who forcibly took men
+to serve in the Royal Navy.
+
+~anarchy~: absence of rule, disorder.
+
+~Gordon Riots~: in 1780, led by the fanatic Lord George Gordon. The mob
+raised the cry of 'No Popery' on account of a law then proposing to
+remove hardships from Roman Catholics. Riot and plunder were the real
+object of the mob. The disorder had to be suppressed by military force.
+
+~Police~: organised in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel, after whom the members
+of the force were called 'bobbies' and 'peelers.'
+
+
+60. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART I.
+
+~Denominations~: religious bodies or sects, the members of which are all
+called by the same name. (Latin _nomen_, a name.)
+
+~every conceivable topic~: every subject you can think of.
+
+~community~: a people, the public.
+
+~achieved~: won by effort.
+
+
+61. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART II.
+
+~Symbol of~: the representative of; the presence of a policeman is the
+outward form taken by the law in the eyes of the people.
+
+~mote~: meeting; hence ~folks' mote~, meeting of the folk or people;
+~ward mote~, meeting of those living in the same ward or city division.
+
+~The Companies~: such as those of the Goldsmiths, Merchant Taylors,
+Drapers, &c.
+
+~Quarter Sessions~: the sessions or sittings of the Law Courts in a
+county or city held every quarter.
+
+~archives~: public records.
+
+~sergeant~ means 'servant,' 'officer'--here of the law. Ordinarily it is
+a rank in the army.
+
+
+62. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART III.
+
+~Advocate~: argue in favour of.
+
+~tenacity~: perseverance, holding on. (Latin _teneo_, to hold.)
+
+~livery~: because the members of the different trade companies used to
+wear a distinguishing uniform or livery.
+
+~fletchers~: arrow-makers. (French _flèche_, an arrow.)
+
+~trust-money~: money entrusted for a certain purpose for which alone it
+can be used.
+
+~technical~: where useful trades and sciences are taught.
+
+
+63. LONDON. GREATER LONDON.
+
+~Conservative~: preserving, so far as convenient, the present state of
+things.
+
+~functions~: powers and duties.
+
+~reformatory schools~: where boys and girls who have committed some
+crime are sent to be reformed to better ways.
+
+~assets~: property actually held, so that it can be set off against a
+debt.
+
+~democratic~: giving power and influence to the people.
+
+~oligarchic~: giving power and influence to the few.
+
+~'law worthiness'~: right to assist in the making of laws.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Spottiswoode & Co. Printers, New-street Square, London_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The following errors have been corrected in this text:
+
+Page 6: Fitzstephen's to FitzStephen's
+
+Page 68: fiteenth to fifteenth
+
+Page 108: SEVENTEENTH to FIFTEENTH
+
+Page 135: Westminter to Westminster
+
+Page 223: alway to always
+
+Page 246: Archishop to Archbishop
+
+Page 256: supressed to suppressed
+
+The following words are inconsistently hyphenated in the original text:
+folk-mote, folkmote; Lud-gate, Ludgate; pack-horse, packhorse;
+river-side, riverside.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of London, by Walter Besant
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of London, by Walter Besant
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+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The History of London
+
+Author: Walter Besant
+
+Release Date: February 4, 2009 [EBook #27995]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF LONDON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Susan Skinner and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;">
+<img src="images/image_001.jpg" width="440" height="600" alt="Cover" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a>
+<img src="images/image_002.jpg" width="600" height="383" alt="THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT: DESIGNED BY BARRY, OPENED 1852." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT: DESIGNED BY BARRY, OPENED 1852.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h1><span style="font-size: 50%;">THE<br /></span>
+<br />
+HISTORY OF LONDON</h1>
+
+
+<p class='center'>BY<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-size: x-large;">WALTER BESANT</span></p>
+
+<p class='center'>AUTHOR OF 'LONDON' 'CHILDREN OF GIBEON' ETC.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>SECOND EDITION</i></p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>LONDON<br />
+LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.</p>
+
+<p class='center'>1894</p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>LESSON</td><td></td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_1_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON">The Foundation of London (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_2_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON">The Foundation of London (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_3_ROMAN_LONDON">Roman London (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_4_ROMAN_LONDON">Roman London (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_5_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">After the Romans (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_6_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">After the Romans (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>7.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_7_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">After the Romans (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>8.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_8_THE_FIRST_SAXON_SETTLEMENT">The First Saxon Settlement</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>9.</td><td align='left'><a href="#chap_9_THE_SECOND_SAXON_SETTLEMENT">The Second Saxon Settlement</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>10.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_10_THE_ANGLO-SAXON_CITIZEN">The Anglo-Saxon Citizen</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>11.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_11_THE_WALL_OF_LONDON">The Wall of London</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>12.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_12_NORMAN_LONDON">Norman London</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>13.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_13_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY">Fitzstephen's Account of the City (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>14.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_14_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY">Fitzstephen's Account of the City (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>15.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_15_LONDON_BRIDGE">London Bridge (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>16.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_16_LONDON_BRIDGE">London Bridge (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>17.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_17_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON">The Tower of London (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>18.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_18_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON">The Tower of London (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>19.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_19_THE_PILGRIMS">The Pilgrims</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>20.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_20_ST_BARTHOLOMEWS_HOSPITAL">St. Bartholomew's Hospital</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>21.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_21_THE_TERROR_OF_LEPROSY">The Terror of Leprosy</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>22.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE">The Terror of Famine</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>23.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_23_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL">St. Paul's Cathedral (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>24.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_24_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL">St. Paul's Cathedral (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>25.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_25_PAULS_CHURCHYARD">Paul's Churchyard</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>26.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_26_THE_RELIGIOUS_HOUSES">The Religious Houses</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>27.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_27_MONKS_FRIARS_AND_NUNS">Monks, Friars, and Nuns</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>28.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_28_THE_LONDON_CHURCHES">The London Churches</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>29.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_29_THE_STREETS">The Streets</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>30.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_30_WHITTINGTON">Whittington (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>31.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_31_WHITTINGTON">Whittington (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>32.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_32_WHITTINGTON">Whittington (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>33.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_33_GIFTS_AND_BEQUESTS">Gifts and Bequests</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>34.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_34_THE_PALACES_AND_GREAT_HOUSES">The Palaces and Great Houses</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>35.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_35_AMUSEMENTS">Amusements</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>36.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_36_WESTMINSTER_ABBEY">Westminster Abbey</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>37.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_37_THE_COURT_AT_WESTMINSTER">The Court at Westminster</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>38.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_38_JUSTICE_AND_PUNISHMENTS">Justice and Punishments</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>39.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_39_THE_POLITICAL_POWER_OF_LONDON">The Political Power of London</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>40.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_40_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">Elizabethan London (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>41.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_41_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">Elizabethan London (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>42.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_42_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">Elizabethan London (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>43.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_43_TRADE">Trade (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>44.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_44_TRADE">Trade (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>45.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_45_TRADE">Trade (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>46.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_46_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">Plays and Pageants (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>47.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_47_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">Plays and Pageants (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>48.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_48_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">Plays and Pageants (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>49.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_49_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">Plays and Pageants (IV)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>50.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_50_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE">The Terror of the Plague (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>51.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_51_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE">The Terror of the Plague (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>52.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_52_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE">The Terror of Fire (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>53.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_53_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE">The Terror of Fire (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>54.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_54_ROGUES_AND_VAGABONDS">Rogues and Vagabonds</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>55.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_55_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">Under George the Second (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>56.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_56_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">Under George the Second (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>57.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_57_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">Under George the Second (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>58.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_58_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">Under George the Second (IV)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>59.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_59_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">Under George the Second (V)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>60.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_60_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">The Government of the City (I)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>61.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_61_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">The Government of the City (II)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>62.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_62_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">The Government of the City (III)</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>63.</td><td align='left'> <a href="#chap_63_LONDON">London</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#NOTES">Notes</a></td><td></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>The New Houses of Parliament: designed by Barry, opened 1852</td><td align='right'><i><a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Early British Pottery</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Roman London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Remains of a Viking Ship, from a Cairn at Gokstad</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'>Saxon Horsemen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>7.</td><td align='left'>Saxon Church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>8.</td><td align='left'>City Gates</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>9.</td><td align='left'>Remains of the Wall</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>10.</td><td align='left'> Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_40">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>11.</td><td align='left'> Tower in the Earlier Style. Church at Earl's Barton</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>12.</td><td align='left'> A Norman Ship</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>13.</td><td align='left'> Building a Church in the later Style</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>14.</td><td align='left'> Lay Costumes in the Twelfth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>15.</td><td align='left'> Costume of Shepherds in the Twelfth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>16.</td><td align='left'> Ecclesiastical Costume in the Twelfth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>17.</td><td align='left'> Royal Arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>18.</td><td align='left'> Old London Bridge</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>19.</td><td align='left'> The Tower of London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>20.</td><td align='left'> A Bed in the Reign of Henry III.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>21.</td><td align='left'> Interior of the Hall at Penshurst, Kent</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_72">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>22.</td><td align='left'> The Upper Chamber or Solar at Sutton Courtenay Manor-house</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>23.</td><td align='left'> The Lepers Begging</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>24.</td><td align='left'> London before the Spire of St. Paul's was burned; showing
+the Bridge, Tower, Shipping, &amp;c.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>25.</td><td align='left'> Old St. Paul's, from the East</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>26.</td><td align='left'> Old St. Paul's on Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>27.</td><td align='left'> West Front of St. Paul's Cathedral
+Church. (Built by Sir Christopher Wren)</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>28.</td><td align='left'> Paul's Cross</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_91">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>29.</td><td align='left'> Bermondsey Abbey</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>30.</td><td align='left'> Ruins of Gateway of Bermondsey Abbey</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>31.</td><td align='left'> Christ's Hospital</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_98">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>32.</td><td align='left'> Chepe in the Fifteenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>33.</td><td align='left'> Large Ship and Boat of the Fifteenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_110">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>34.</td><td align='left'> A Sea-Fight</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>35.</td><td align='left'> Durham, Salisbury, and Worcester Houses</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>36.</td><td align='left'> Bear-baiting</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_129">128</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>37.</td><td align='left'> Shooting at the Butts with the Long-bow</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>38.</td><td align='left'> Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster Abbey</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>39.</td><td align='left'> The Embarkation of Henry VIII. from Dover, 1520</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>40.</td><td align='left'> Coaches in the Reign of Elizabeth</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>41.</td><td align='left'> The City from Southwark</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>42.</td><td align='left'> South-east Part of London in the Fifteenth Century,
+showing the Tower and Wall</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>43.</td><td align='left'> King Edward VI.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>44.</td><td align='left'> Sir Thomas Gresham</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>45.</td><td align='left'> First Royal Exchange</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>46.</td><td align='left'> Shipping in the Thames, <i>circa</i> 1660</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>47.</td><td align='left'> Sir Francis Drake, in his Forty-third Year</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>48.</td><td align='left'> The Globe Theatre</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>49.</td><td align='left'> Civil Costume about 1620</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_180">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>50.</td><td align='left'> Costume of a Lawyer</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_180">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='center'>Ordinary Civil Costume; <i>temp.</i> Charles I.:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>51.</td><td align='left'> A Countryman</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>52.</td><td align='left'> A Countrywoman</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>53.</td><td align='left'> A Citizen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>54.</td><td align='left'> A Citizen's Wife</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>55.</td><td align='left'> A Gentleman</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>56.</td><td align='left'> A Gentlewoman</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>57.</td><td align='left'> Lud-gate on Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>58.</td><td align='left'> Paul Pindar's House</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_192">191</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>59.</td><td align='left'> London, as Rebuilt after the Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>60.</td><td align='left'> Coach of the latter half of the Seventeenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>61.</td><td align='left'> Waggon of the second half of the Seventeenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>62.</td><td align='left'> Ordinary Dress of Gentlemen in 1675</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>63.</td><td align='left'> Dress of Ladies of Quality</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_200">199</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>64.</td><td align='left'> Ordinary Attire of Women of the Lower Classes</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_200">199</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>65.</td><td align='left'> Group showing Costumes and Sedan Chair, about 1720</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_201">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>66.</td><td align='left'> Temple Bar, London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>67.</td><td align='left'> Fleet Street and Temple Bar</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>68.</td><td align='left'> A Coach of the Middle of the Seventeenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_206">207</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>69.</td><td align='left'> View of School connected with Bunyan's Meeting House</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>70.</td><td align='left'> Grenadier in the time of the Peninsular War</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>71.</td><td align='left'> Uniform of Sailors, about 1790</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>72.</td><td align='left'> Costumes of Gentlefolk, about 1784</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_214">215</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>73.</td><td align='left'> Vessels unloading at the Customs House, at the beginning
+of the Eighteenth Century</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>74.</td><td align='left'> The Old Houses of Parliament and Westminster Abbey, 1803</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">{7}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="LONDON" id="LONDON"></a>LONDON</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_1_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON" id="chap_1_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON"></a>1. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>'In the year 1108 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, Brutus, a descendant of Æneas,
+who was the son of Venus, came to England with
+his companions, after the taking of Troy, and founded
+the City of Troynovant, which is now called London.
+After a thousand years, during which the City grew and
+flourished exceedingly, one Lud became its king. He
+built walls and towers, and, among other things, the
+famous gate whose name still survives in the street called
+Ludgate. King Lud was succeeded by his brother Cassivelaunus,
+in whose time happened the invasion of the
+Romans under Julius Cæsar. Troynovant, or London,
+then became a Roman city. It was newly fortified by
+Helena, mother of Constantine the Great.'</p>
+
+<p>This is the legend invented or copied by Geoffrey of
+Monmouth, and continued to be copied, and perhaps
+believed, almost to the present day. Having paid this
+tribute to old tradition, let us relate the true early
+history of the City, as it can be recovered from such
+documents as remain, from discoveries made in excavation,
+from fragments of architecture, and from the lie<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">{8}</a></span>
+of the ground. The testimony derived from the lie of
+the ground is more important than any other, for several
+reasons. First, an historical document may be false, or
+inexact; for instance, the invention of a Brutus, son of
+Æneas, is false and absurd on the face of it. Or a document
+may be wrongly interpreted. Thus, a fragment of
+architecture may through ignorance be ascribed to the
+Roman, when it belongs to the Norman, period&mdash;one needs
+to be a profound student of architecture before an opinion
+of value can be pronounced upon the age of any monument:
+or it may be taken to mean something quite apart
+from the truth, as if a bastion of the old Roman fort, such
+as has been discovered on Cornhill, should be taken for
+part of the Roman wall. But the lie of the ground cannot
+deceive, and, in competent hands, cannot well be
+misunderstood. If we know the course of streams, the
+height and position of hills, the run of valleys, the site
+of marshes, the former extent of forests, the safety of
+harbours, the existence of fords, we have in our hands a
+guide-book to history. We can then understand why
+towns were built in certain positions, why trade sprang
+up, why invading armies landed at certain places, what
+course was taken by armies, and why battles have been
+fought on certain spots. For these things are not the
+result of chance, they are necessitated by the geographical
+position of the place, and by the lie of the ground.
+Why, for instance, is Dover one of the oldest towns in
+the country? Because it is the nearest landing ground
+for the continent, and because its hill forms a natural
+fortress for protecting that landing ground. Why was
+there a Roman station at Portsmouth? On account of
+the great and landlocked harbour. Why is Durham an
+ancient city? Because the steep hill made it almost
+impregnable. Why is Chester so called? Because it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">{9}</a></span>
+was from very ancient times a fort, or stationary camp
+(L. <i>castra</i>), against the wild Welsh.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/image_003.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="EARLY BRITISH POTTERY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">EARLY BRITISH POTTERY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Let us consider this question as regards London.
+Look at the map called 'Roman London' (p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>). You
+will there see flowing into the river Thames two little
+streams, one called Walbrook, and the other called the
+Fleet River. You will see a steep slope, or cliff, indicated
+along the river
+side. Anciently,
+before any buildings
+stood along
+the bank, this cliff,
+about 30 feet high,
+rose over an immense
+marsh which
+covered all the
+ground on the
+south, the east,
+and the west. The
+cliff receded from
+the river on the
+east and on the
+west at this point:
+on either side of
+the Walbrook it
+rose out of the
+marsh at the very edge of the river at high tide. There
+was thus a double hill, one on the east with the Walbrook
+on one side of it, the Thames on a second side, and a
+marsh on a third side, and the Fleet River on the west.
+It was thus bounded on east, south, and west, by streams.
+On the north was a wild moor (hence the name Moorfields)
+and beyond the moor stretched away northwards a vast
+forest, afterwards called the Middlesex forest. This forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">{10}</a></span>
+covered, indeed, the greater part of the island, save
+where marshes and stagnant lakes lay extended, the
+haunt of countless wild birds. You may see portions and
+fragments of this forest even now; some of it lies in
+Ken Wood, Hampstead; some in the last bit left of
+Hainault Forest; some at Epping.</p>
+
+<p>The river Thames ran through this marsh. It was
+then much broader than at present, because there were
+no banks or quays to keep it within limits: at high tide it
+overflowed the whole of the marsh and lay in an immense
+lake, bounded on the north by this low cliff of clay, and
+on the south by the rising ground of what we now call
+the Surrey Hills, which begin between Kennington and
+Clapham, as is shown by the name of Clapham Rise.
+In this marsh were a few low islets, always above water
+save at very high tides. The memory of these islands is
+preserved in the names ending with <i>ea</i> or <i>ey</i>, as Chelsea,
+Battersea, Bermondsey. And Westminster Abbey was
+built upon the Isle of Thorns or Thorney. The marsh,
+south of the river, remained a marsh, undrained and
+neglected for many centuries. Almost within the
+memory of living men Southwark contained stagnant
+ponds, while Bermondsey is still flooded when the tide is
+higher than is customary.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_2_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON" id="chap_2_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON"></a>2. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>On these low hillocks marked on the map London was
+first founded. The site had many advantages: it was
+raised above the malarious marsh, it overlooked the
+river, which here was at its narrowest, it was protected by
+two other streams and by the steepness of the cliff, and it
+was over the little port formed by the fall of one stream<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">{11}</a></span>
+into the river. Here, on the western hill, the Britons
+formed their first settlement; there were as yet no ships
+on the silent river where they fished; there was no
+ferry, no bridge, no communication with the outer
+world; the woods provided the first Londoners with
+game and skins; the river gave them fish; they lived in
+round huts formed of clay and branches with thatched
+roofs. If you desire to understand how the Britons fortified
+themselves, you may see an excellent example not
+very far from London. It is the place called St. George's
+Hill, near Weybridge. They wanted a hill&mdash;the steeper
+the side the better: they made it steeper by entrenching
+it; they sometimes surrounded it with a high earthwork
+and sometimes with a stockade: the great thing being to
+put the assailing force under the disadvantage of having
+to climb. The three river sides of the London fort presented
+a perpendicular cliff surmounted by a stockade,
+the other side, on which lay the forest, probably had an
+earthwork also surmounted by a stockade. There were
+no buildings and there was no trade; the people belonged
+to a tribe and had to go out and fight when war was
+carried on with another tribe.</p>
+
+<p>The fort was called Llyn-din&mdash;the Lake Fort. When
+the Romans came they could not pronounce the word
+Llyn&mdash;Thlin in the British way&mdash;and called it Lon&mdash;hence
+their word Londinium. Presently adventurous
+merchants from Gaul pushed across to Dover, and sailed
+along the coast of Kent past Sandwich and through the
+open channel which then separated the island of Thanet
+from the main land, into the broad Thames, and, sailing
+up with the tide, dropped anchor off the fishing villages
+which lay along the river and began to trade. What did
+they offer? What Captain Cook offered the Polynesians:
+weapons, clothes, adornments. What did they take<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">{12}</a></span>
+away? Skins and slaves at first; skins and slaves, and
+tin and iron, after the country became better known and
+its resources were understood. The taste for trading
+once acquired rapidly grows; it is a delightful thing to
+exchange what you do not want for what you do want,
+and it is so very easy to extend one's wants. So that
+when the Romans first saw London it was already a
+flourishing town with a great concourse of merchants.</p>
+
+<p>How long a period elapsed between the foundation of
+London and the arrival of the Romans? How long
+between the foundation and the beginnings of trade? It
+is quite impossible even to guess. When Cæsar landed
+Gauls and Belgians were already here before him. As
+for the Britons themselves they were Celts, as were the
+Gauls and the Belgians, but of what is called the
+Brythonic branch, represented in speech by the Welsh,
+Breton and Cornish languages (the last is now extinct).
+There were also lingering among them the surviving
+families of an earlier and a conquered race, perhaps
+Basques or Finns. When the country was conquered by
+the Celts we do not know. Nor is there any record at
+all of the people they found here unless the caves, full of
+the bones which they gnawed and cut in two for the
+marrow, were the homes of these earlier occupants.</p>
+
+<p>When the Romans came they found the town prosperous.
+That is all we know. What the town was
+like we do not know. It is, however, probable that the
+requirements of trade had already necessitated some
+form of embankment and some kind of quay; also, if
+trade were of long standing, some improvement in the
+huts, the manner of living, the wants, and the dress of
+the people would certainly have been introduced.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the beginning of London. Let us repeat.</p>
+
+<p>It was a small fortress defended on three sides by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">{13}</a></span>
+earthworks, by stockades, by a cliff or steeply sloping
+bank, and by streams; on the fourth side by an earthwork,
+stockade, and trench. The ground was slightly
+irregular, rising from 30 to 60 feet. An open moor full
+of quagmires and ponds also protected it on the north.
+On the east on the other side of the stream rose another
+low hill. The extent of this British fort of Llyn-din
+may be easily estimated. The distance from Walbrook
+to the Fleet is very nearly 900 yards; supposing the
+fort was 500 yards in depth from south to north we
+have an area of 450,000 square yards, i.e. about 100
+acres was occupied by the first London, the Fortress on
+the Lake. What this town was like in its later days when
+the Romans found it; what buildings stood upon it; how
+the people lived, we know very little indeed. They went
+out to fight, we know so much; and if you visit Hampstead
+Heath you may look at a barrow on the top of a
+hill which probably contains the bones of those citizens
+of London who fell in the victory which they achieved
+over the citizens of Verulam when they fought it out in
+the valley below that hill.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_3_ROMAN_LONDON" id="chap_3_ROMAN_LONDON"></a>3. ROMAN LONDON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The Romans, when they resolved to settle in England,
+established themselves on the opposite hillock, the eastern
+bank of the Walbrook. The situation was not so strong
+as that of the British town, because it was protected by
+cliff and river on two sides only instead of three. But
+the Romans depended on their walls and their arms
+rather than the position of their town. As was their
+habit they erected here a strong fortress or a stationary
+camp, such as others which remain in the country.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">{14}</a></span>
+Perhaps the Roman building which most resembles this
+fort is the walled enclosure called Porchester, which
+stands at the head of Portsmouth Harbour. This is
+rectangular in shape and is contained by a high wall built
+of rubble stone and narrow bricks, with round, hollow
+bastions at intervals. One may also see such a stationary
+camp at Richborough, near Sandwich; and at Pevensey,
+in Sussex; and at Silchester, near Reading, but the two
+latter are not rectangular. One end of this fort was on
+the top of the Walbrook bank and the other, if you look
+in your map, on the site of Mincing Lane. This gives
+a length of about 700 yards by a breadth of 350,
+which means an enclosure of about 50 acres. This is a
+large area: it was at once the barrack, the arsenal, and
+the treasury of the station; it contained the residences
+of the officers, the offices of the station, the law court
+and tribunals, and the prisons; it was the official residence.
+Outside the fort on the north was the burial
+place. If we desire to know the character of the buildings
+we may assure ourselves that they were not mean
+or ignoble by visiting the Roman town of Silchester.
+Here we find that the great Hall of Justice was a hall
+more spacious than Westminster Hall, though doubtless
+not so lofty or so fine. Attached to this hall were other
+smaller rooms for the administration of justice; on one
+side was an open court with a cloister or corridor running
+all round it and shops at the back for the sale of
+everything. This was the centre of the city: here the
+courts were held; this was the Exchange; here were
+the baths; this was the place where the people resorted
+in the morning and lounged about to hear the news;
+here the jugglers and the minstrels and the acrobats came
+to perform; it was the very centre of the life of the city&mdash;as
+was Silchester so was London.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">{15}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_004.jpg" width="500" height="358" alt="Walker &amp; Boutallse.
+
+ROMAN LONDON." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ROMAN LONDON.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Outside the Citadel the rude British town&mdash;if it was
+still a rude town&mdash;disappeared rapidly. The security of
+the place, strongly garrisoned, the extension of Roman
+manners, the introduction of Roman customs, dress, and
+luxuries gave a great impetus to the development of the
+City. The little ports of the rivers Walbrook and Fleet
+no longer sufficed for the shipping which now came up
+the river; if there were as yet no quays or embankments
+they were begun to be erected; behind them rose warehouses
+and wharves. The cliff began to be cut away; a
+steep slope took its place; its very existence was forgotten.
+The same thing has happened at Brighton, where,
+almost within the memory of living man, a low cliff ran
+along the beach. This embankment extended east and
+west&mdash;as far as the Fleet River, which is now Blackfriars,
+on the west, and what is now Tower Hill on the
+east. Then, the trade still increasing, the belt of ground<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">{16}</a></span>
+behind the embankment became filled with a dense
+population of riverside people&mdash;boatmen, sailors, boat-builders,
+store-keepers, bargemen, stevedores, porters&mdash;all
+the people who belong to a busy mercantile port. As for
+the better sort, they lived round the Citadel, protected
+by its presence, in villas, remains of which have been
+found in many places.</p>
+
+<p>The two things which most marked the Roman occupation
+were London Wall and Bridge. Of the latter we will
+speak in another place. The wall was erected at a time
+between <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 350 and <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 369&mdash;very near the end of the
+Roman occupation. This wall remained the City wall
+for more than a thousand years; it was rebuilt, repaired,
+restored; the scanty remains of it&mdash;a few fragments
+here and there&mdash;contain very little of the original
+wall; but the course of the wall was never altered, and
+we know exactly how it ran. There was first a strong
+river wall along the northern bank. There were three
+water gates and the Bridge gate; there were two land
+gates at Newgate and Bishopsgate. The wall was 3 miles
+and 205 yards long; the area enclosed was 380 acres.
+This shows that the population must have been already
+very large, for the Romans were not accustomed to erect
+walls longer than they could defend.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_4_ROMAN_LONDON" id="chap_4_ROMAN_LONDON"></a>4. ROMAN LONDON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>We must think of Roman London as of a small stronghold
+on a low hill rising out of the river. It is a strongly-walled
+place, within which is a garrison of soldiers;
+outside its walls stretch gardens and villas, many of them
+rich and beautiful, filled with costly things. Below the fort
+is a long river wall or quay covered with warehouses, bales<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">{17}</a></span>
+of goods, and a busy multitude of men at work. Some
+are slaves&mdash;perhaps all. Would you like to know what
+a Roman villa was like? It was in plan a small, square
+court, surrounded on three sides by a cloister or corridor
+with pillars, and behind the cloister the rooms of the
+house; the middle part of the court was a garden, and
+in front was another and a larger garden. The house
+was of one storey, the number and size of the rooms
+varying according to the size of the house. On one side
+were the winter divisions, on the other were the summer
+rooms. The former part was kept warm by means of a
+furnace constructed below the house, which supplied hot-air
+pipes running up all the walls. At the back of the
+house were the kitchen, stables, and sleeping quarters of
+the servants. Tesselated pavements, statues, pictures,
+carvings, hangings, pillows, and fine glass adorned the
+house. There was not in London the enormous wealth
+which enabled some of the Romans to live in palaces,
+but there was comparative wealth&mdash;the wealth which
+enables a man to procure for himself in reason all the
+things that he desires.</p>
+
+<p>The City as it grew in prosperity was honoured by
+receiving the name of Augusta. It remained in Roman
+hands for nearly four hundred years. The Citadel, which
+marks the first occupation by the Romans, was probably
+built about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 43. The Romans went away in <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 410.
+During these four centuries the people became entirely
+Romanised. Add to this that they became Christians.
+Augusta was a Christian city; the churches which stand&mdash;or
+stood, because three at least have been removed&mdash;along
+Thames Street, probably occupied the sites of older
+Roman churches. In this part of the City the people
+were thickest; in this quarter, therefore, stood the greater
+number of churches: the fact that they were mostly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">{18}</a></span>
+dedicated to the apostles instead of to later Saxon saints
+seems to show that they stood on the sites of Roman
+churches. It has been asked why there has never been
+found any heathen temple in London; the answer is
+that London under the Romans very early became
+Christian; if there had been a temple of Diana or Apollo
+it would have been destroyed or converted into a church.
+Such remains of Augusta as have been found are inconsiderable:
+they are nearly all in the museum of
+the Guildhall, where they should be visited and
+examined.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Roman London is meagre. Seventeen
+years after the building of the Citadel, on the
+rebellion of Boadicea, the Roman general Suetonius
+abandoned the place, as unable to defend it. All those
+who remained were massacred by the insurgents.
+After this, so far as we know, for history is silent, there
+was peace in London for 200 years. Then one
+Carausius, an officer in command of the fleet stationed
+in the Channel for the suppression of piracies, assumed
+the title of emperor. He continued undisturbed for
+some years, his soldiers remaining faithful to him on
+account of his wealth: he established a Mint at London
+and struck a large amount of money there. He was murdered
+by one of his officers, Allectus, who called himself
+emperor in turn and continued to rule in Britain for three
+years. Then the end came for him as well. The Roman
+general landing with a large force marched upon London
+where Allectus lay. A battle fought in the south of
+London resulted in the overthrow and death of the
+usurper. His soldiers taking advantage of the confusion
+began to plunder and murder in the town, but were
+stopped and killed by the victors.</p>
+
+<p>Constantine, who became emperor in 306, was then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">{19}</a></span>
+in Britain, but his name is not connected with London
+except by coins bearing his name.</p>
+
+<p>Tradition connects the name of Helena, Constantine's
+mother, with London, but there is nothing to prove that
+she was ever in the island at all.</p>
+
+<p>Late in the fourth century troubles began to fall
+thick upon the country. The Picts and the Scots overran
+the northern parts and penetrated to the very walls of
+London. The general Theodosius, whose son became
+the emperor of that name, drove them back. About this
+time the wall of London was built; not the wall of the
+Roman fort, but that of the whole City. From the year
+369, when Theodosius the general landed in Britain, to
+the year 609 we see nothing of London except one brief
+glimpse of fugitives flying for their lives across London
+Bridge. Of this interval we shall speak in the next
+chapter. Meanwhile it is sufficient to say that the decay
+of the Roman power made it necessary to withdraw the
+legions from the outlying and distant portions of the
+Empire. Britain had to be abandoned. It was as if
+England were to give up Hong Kong and Singapore and
+the West Indies because she could no longer spare the
+ships and regiments to defend them. The nation which
+abandons her possessions is not far from downfall.
+Remember, when you listen to those who advocate abandonment
+of our colonies, the example of Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_5_AFTER_THE_ROMANS" id="chap_5_AFTER_THE_ROMANS"></a>5. AFTER THE ROMANS.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The Romans left London. That was early in the fifth
+century; probably in the year 410.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred years later we find the East Saxons in
+London.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">{20}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>What happened during this long interval of seven
+generations? Not a word reaches us of London for two
+hundred years except once when, after a defeat of the
+British by the Saxons at Crayford in the year 457, we
+read that the fugitives crossed over London Bridge to
+take refuge within the walls of the City. What happened
+during this two hundred years?<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> On this subject, see the author's book <i>London</i> (Chatto &amp; Windus).</p></div>
+
+<p>We know what happened with other cities. Anderida,
+now called Pevensey, was taken by the Saxons, and all
+its inhabitants, man, woman and child, were slaughtered,
+so that it became a waste until the Normans built a
+castle within the old walls. Canterbury, Silchester,
+Porchester, Colchester&mdash;all were taken, their people
+massacred, the walls left standing, the streets left
+desolate. For the English&mdash;the Saxons&mdash;loved not city
+walls. Therefore, we might reasonably conclude that
+the same thing happened to London. But if it be
+worthy of the chronicler to note the massacre of Anderida,
+a small seaport, why should he omit the far more important
+capture of Augusta?</p>
+
+<p>Let us hear what history has to tell. Times full of
+trouble fell upon the country. Long before the Romans
+went away the Picts and Scots were pouring their wild
+hordes over the north and west, sometimes getting as far
+south as the Middlesex Forest, murdering and destroying.
+As early as the year 368, forty years before they left the
+country, the Romans sent an expedition north to drive
+back these savages. Already the Saxons, the Jutes and
+the Angles were sending piratical expeditions to harry
+the coast and even to make settlements. The arm of
+the Roman was growing weak, it could not stretch out
+so far: the fleets of the Romans, under the officer called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">{21}</a></span>
+the 'Count of the Saxon Shore'&mdash;whose duty was to
+guard the eastern and southern coasts&mdash;were destroyed
+and their commander slain. So that, with foes on the
+eastern seaboard, foes in the Channel, foes in the river,
+foes in the north and west, it is certain that the trade of
+Augusta was declining long before the City was left to
+defend itself.</p>
+
+<p>What sort of defence were the people likely to offer?
+For nearly four hundred years they had lived at peace,
+free to grow rich and luxurious, with mercenaries to
+fight for them. Between the taking of the City by
+Boadicea and the departure of the Romans, a space of
+three hundred and fifty years, the peace of the City was
+only disturbed by the lawlessness of Allectus's mercenaries.
+Their attempt to sack the City was put down,
+it is significant to note, not by the citizens but by the
+Roman soldiers who entered the City in time. The
+citizens were mostly merchants: they were Christians
+in name and in form of worship, they were superstitious,
+they were luxurious, they were unwarlike. Many of
+them were not Britons at all, but foreigners settled in the
+City for trade. Moreover, for it is not true that the
+whole British people had grown unfit for war, a revolt
+of the Roman legions in the year 407 drew a large
+number of the young men into their ranks, and when
+Constantine the usurper took them over into Gaul for
+the four years' fighting which followed, the country
+was drained of its best fighting material. The City,
+then, contained a large number of wealthy merchants,
+native and foreign; it also contained a great many slaves
+who were occupied in the conduct of the trade, and few,
+since the young men went away with Constantine, who
+could be relied upon to fight.</p>
+
+<p>One more point may be made out from history.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">{22}</a></span>
+Since London was a town which then, as now, lived
+entirely by its trade and was the centre of the export
+and import trade of the whole country, the merchants,
+as we have seen, must have suffered most severely long
+before the Romans went away. We are, therefore, in
+the year 410, facing a situation full of menace. The
+Picts and Scots are overrunning the whole of the north,
+the Saxons are harrying the east and the south-east, trade
+is dying, there is little demand for imports, there are
+few exports, it is useless for ships to wait cargoes which
+never arrive, it is useless for ships to bring cargoes for
+which there is no demand.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_005.jpg" width="500" height="364" alt="REMAINS OF A VIKING SHIP" title="" />
+<span class="caption">REMAINS OF A VIKING SHIP, FROM A CAIRN AT GOKSTAD.
+<br />
+(<i>Now in the University at Christiania.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A declining city, a dying trade, enemies in all directions,
+an unwarlike population. When the curtain falls
+upon the scene in the year 410 that is what we see.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">{23}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_6_AFTER_THE_ROMANS" id="chap_6_AFTER_THE_ROMANS"></a>6. AFTER THE ROMANS.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Consider, again, the position of London. It stood, as
+you have seen, originally on two low hills overlooking the
+river. A strong wall built all along the bank from
+Blackfriars (now so called) to the present site of the
+Tower kept the river from swamping the houses and
+wharves which sprang up behind this wall. The walls
+of the City later on, but only about fifty years before the
+Romans went away, enclosed a large area covered over
+with streets, narrow near the river and broad farther
+north, and with residences, warehouses, villas, and workshops.
+There was probably a population of 70,000
+or even more. On the west, in the direction of Westminster,
+the City wall overlooked an immense marsh: on
+the south across the river there was a still broader and
+longer marsh: on the east there was another great
+marsh with the sea overflowing the sedgy meadows at
+every high tide: on the north there was a wild moor and
+beyond the moor there was an immense forest. Four
+roads not counting the river-way kept the City in communication
+with the rest of the island. The most important
+of these roads was that afterwards called Watling Street,
+which passed out at Newgate and led across the heart of
+the country to Chester and Wales, to York and the
+north. The second, afterwards called Ermyn Street,
+left the City at Bishopsgate and ran through Lincoln to
+York, a third road called the Vicinal Way ran into the
+eastern counties, and by way of London Bridge Watling
+Street was connected with Dover.</p>
+
+<p>London, therefore, standing in its marshes had no
+means of providing for itself. All the food for its great
+population was imported. It was brought on pack asses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">{24}</a></span>
+along these roads. It came from the farms and gardens
+of the country inland by means of these high roads,
+strong, broad, and splendid roads, as good as any we
+have since succeeded in making. In peaceful times
+these roads were crowded all the way from Chester and
+Lincoln and Dover with long trains of animals laden
+with provisions for the people of London, as well as with
+goods for export from the Port of London. They were
+met by long trains of animals laden with imports being
+carried to their destination. The Thames in the same
+way was filled with barges laden with provisions as well
+as with goods going down the river to the people and the
+Port of London. Below Bridge the river was filled with
+merchant ships bringing cargoes of wine and spices and
+costly things to be exchanged for skins and slaves and
+metals. Let us remember that the daily victualling of
+70,000 people means an immense service. We are so
+accustomed to find everything ready to hand in cities
+containing millions as well as in villages of hundreds,
+that we forget the magnitude of this service. No mind
+can conceive the magnitude of the food supply of modern
+London, Paris, New York, or even such towns as Portsmouth,
+Plymouth, Bristol. Yet try to understand what
+it means to feed every day, without interruption, only a
+small town of 70,000 people. So much bread for every
+day, so much meat, so much fish, so much wine, beer,
+mead, or cider&mdash;because at no time did people drink water
+if they could get anything else&mdash;so much milk, honey,
+butter, cheese, eggs, poultry, geese and ducks, so much
+beans, pease, salad, fruit. All this had to be brought in
+regularly&mdash;daily. There was salted meat for winter;
+there was dried fish when fresh could not be procured;
+there were granaries of wheat to provide for emergencies.
+All the rest had to be provided day by day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">{25}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>First, the East Saxons, settling in Essex and spreading
+over the whole of that county, stopped the supplies and
+the trade over all the eastern counties; then the Jutes,
+landing on the Isle of Thanet, stopped the ships that
+went up and down the river; they also spread over the
+south country and stopped the supplies that formerly
+came over London Bridge. Then the Picts and Scots,
+followed by more Saxons, harassed the north and middle
+of the island, and no more supplies came down Watling
+Street. Lastly, the enemy, pressing northward from the
+south shore, gained the middle reaches of the Thames,
+and no more supplies came down the river.</p>
+
+<p>London was thus deprived of food as well as of trade.</p>
+
+<p>This slowly, not suddenly, came to pass. First, one
+source of supply was cut off, then another. First, trade
+declined in one quarter, then it ceased in that quarter
+altogether. Next, another quarter was attacked. The
+foreign merchants, since there was no trade left, went on
+board their own ships and disappeared. Whether they
+succeeded in passing through the pirate craft that
+crowded the mouth of the river, one knows not. The
+bones of many lie at the bottom of the sea off the Nore.
+They vanished from hapless Augusta; they came back no
+more.</p>
+
+<p>Who were left? The native merchants. Despair
+was in their hearts; starvation threatened them, even
+amid the dainty appointments of their luxurious villas;
+what is the use of marble baths and silken hangings,
+tesselated pavements, and pictures, and books, and
+statues, if there is no food to be had, though one bid for
+it all the pictures in the house? With the merchants,
+there were the priests, the physicians, the lawyers, the
+actors and mimics, the artists, the teachers, all who
+minister to religion, luxury, and culture. There were next<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">{26}</a></span>
+the great mass of the people, the clerks and scribes, the
+craftsmen, the salesmen, the lightermen, stevedores,
+boatmen, marine store keepers, makers of ships' gear,
+porters&mdash;slaves for the most part&mdash;all from highest to
+lowest, plunged into helplessness. Whither could they
+fly for refuge? Upon whom could they call for help?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_7_AFTER_THE_ROMANS" id="chap_7_AFTER_THE_ROMANS"></a>7. AFTER THE ROMANS.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Abroad, the Roman Empire was breaking up. The
+whole of Europe was covered with war. Revolts of conquered
+tribes, rebellions of successful generals, invasions
+of savages, the murders of usurpers, the sacking of
+cities. Rome itself was sacked by Alaric; the conquest
+of one country after another made of this period the
+darkest in the history of the world. From over the seas
+no help, the enemy blocking the mouth of the river, all
+the roads closed and all the farms destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>There came a day at length when it was at last apparent
+that no more supplies would reach the City. Then
+the people began to leave the place: better to fight their
+way across the country to the west where the Britons still
+held their own, than to stay and starve. The men took
+their arms&mdash;they carried little treasure with them,
+because treasure would be of no use to them on their
+way&mdash;their wives and children, ladies as delicate and as
+helpless as any of our own time&mdash;children as unfit as our
+own to face the miseries of cold and hunger and nakedness&mdash;and
+they went out by the gate of Watling Street,
+not altogether, not the whole population, but in small
+companies, for greater safety. They left the City by the
+gate; they did not journey along the road, but for
+safety turned aside into the great forest, and so marching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">{27}</a></span>
+across moors and marshes, past burned homesteads, and
+ruined villages, and farm buildings thrown down, those
+of them who did not perish by the way under the
+enemies' sword or by malarious fever, or by starvation,
+reached the Severn and the border of the mountains
+where the Saxon could not penetrate.</p>
+
+<p>There was left behind a remnant&mdash;after every massacre
+or exodus there is always left a remnant. The people
+who stayed in the City were only a few and those of the
+baser sort, protected by their wretchedness and poverty.
+No one would kill those who offer no defence and have no
+treasures; and their condition under any new masters
+would be no worse. They shut the gates and barred
+them: they closed and barred the Bridge: they took out
+of the houses anything that they wanted&mdash;the soft warm
+mantles, the woollen garments, the coverlets, the pillows
+and hangings, but they abode in their hovels near the
+river banks; as for the works of art, the pictures,
+statues, and tesselated pavements, these they left where
+they found them or for wantonness destroyed them.
+They fished in the river for their food: they hunted over
+the marshes where are now Westminster, Battersea,
+and Lambeth: the years passed by and no one disturbed
+them: they still crouched in their huts while the thin
+veneer of civilisation was gradually lost with whatever
+arts they had learned and all their religion except the
+terror of the Unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the roofs of the villas and churches fell
+in, the walls decayed, the gardens were overgrown.
+Augusta&mdash;the proud and stately Augusta&mdash;was reduced
+to a wall enclosing a heap of ruins with a few savages
+huddled together in hovels by the riverside.</p>
+
+<p>For the East Saxon had overrun Essex, the Jute
+covered Kent and Surrey, the South Saxon held Sussex,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">{28}</a></span>
+the West Saxon held Wessex. All around&mdash;on every side&mdash;London
+was surrounded by the Conqueror of the Land.
+Why, then, did they not take London? Because London
+was deserted; there was nothing to take: London was
+silent. No ships going up or down the river reminded
+the Saxon of the City. It lay amid its marshes and its
+moors, the old roads choked and overgrown; it was forgotten;
+it was what the Saxons had already made of
+Canterbury and Anderida, a 'Waste Chester,' that is, a
+desolated stronghold.</p>
+
+<p>Augusta was forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>This is the story that we learn from the actual site of
+London&mdash;its position among marshes, the conditions
+under which alone the people could be maintained.</p>
+
+<p>How long did this oblivion continue? No one knows
+when it began or when it ended. As I read the story
+of the past, I find a day towards the close of the sixth
+century when there appeared within sight of the deserted
+walls a company of East Saxons. They were hunting:
+they were armed with spears: they followed the chase
+through the great forest afterwards called the Middlesex
+Forest, Epping Forest, Hainault Forest, and across the
+marshes of the river Lea, full of sedge and reed and
+treacherous quagmires. And they saw before them the
+gray walls of a great city of which they had never
+heard.</p>
+
+<p>They advanced cautiously: they found themselves on
+a firm road, the Vicinal Way, covered with grass: they
+expected the sight of an enemy on the wall: none appeared.
+The gates were closed, the timbers were rotten
+and fell down at a touch: the men broke through and
+found themselves among the streets of a city all in
+ruins. They ran about&mdash;shouting&mdash;no one appeared:
+the City was deserted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">{29}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>They went away and told what they had found.</p>
+
+<p>But Augusta had perished. When the City appears
+again it is under its more ancient name&mdash;it is again
+London.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_8_THE_FIRST_SAXON_SETTLEMENT" id="chap_8_THE_FIRST_SAXON_SETTLEMENT"></a>8. THE FIRST SAXON SETTLEMENT.</h2>
+
+
+<p>A hundred and fifty years passed away between the landing
+of the East Saxons and their recorded occupation of
+the City. This long period made a great difference in
+the fierce savage who followed the standard of the White
+Horse and landed on the coast of Essex. He became
+more peaceful: he settled down contentedly to periods of
+tranquillity. Certain arts he acquired, and he learned
+to live in towns: as yet he was not a Christian. This
+means that the influence of Rome with its religion, its
+learning and its arts had not yet touched him.</p>
+
+<p>But he had begun to live in towns; and he lived in
+London.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the first of the new settlers were the foreign
+merchants returning, as soon as more settled times
+allowed, with their cargoes. London has always been a
+place of trade. But for trade no one would have settled
+in it. Therefore, either the men of Essex invited the
+foreign merchants to return; or the foreign merchants
+returned and invited the men of Essex to come into the
+City and to bring with them what they had to exchange.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 597 Augustine, prior of a Roman monastery,
+was sent by Pope Gregory the Great with forty
+monks, to convert the English. Ethelbert, King of Kent,
+and most powerful of the English kinglets, was married
+to Bertha, a Christian princess. She had brought with
+her a chaplain and it was probably at her invitation or
+through her influence, that the monks were sent. They
+landed at Thanet. They obtained permission to meet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">{30}</a></span>
+the King in the open air. They appeared wearing their
+robes, carrying a crucifix, and chanting Psalms. It is
+probable that the conversion of the King had been
+arranged beforehand; for without any difficulty or delay
+the King and all his Court, and, following the King's
+example, all the people were baptised.</p>
+
+<p>Augustine returned to Rome where he was consecrated
+Archbishop of the English nation. A church was
+built at Canterbury, and the work of preaching the
+Faith went on vigorously. The East Saxons made no
+more hesitation at being baptised than the men of Kent.
+Ethelbert, indeed, could command obedience; he was
+Over Lord of all the nations south of the Humber.
+He it was, according to Bede, who built the first church
+of St. Paul in London, a fact which proves his authority
+and influence in London, and his sincere desire that the
+East Saxons should become Christians.</p>
+
+<p>They did, in a way. But when King Siebehrt died,
+they relapsed and drove their Bishop into exile.</p>
+
+<p>Then&mdash;Bede says that they were punished for this
+sin&mdash;the East Saxons fell into trouble. They went to
+war with the men of Wessex and were defeated by them.
+After this, we find London in the hands of the Northumbrians
+and the Mercians&mdash;that is to say&mdash;these nations
+one after the other obtained the supremacy. It was in
+the year 616 or thereabouts, that Bishop Mellitus had to
+leave his diocese. Forty years later another conversion
+of London took place under Bishop Cedd, consecrated at
+Lindisfarne. The new faith was not strong enough to
+stand against a plague, and the East Saxons of London
+went back once more to their old gods. After another
+thirty years, before the close of the seventh century,
+London was again converted: and this time for good.</p>
+
+<p>In the eighth century London passed again out of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">{31}</a></span>
+hands of the East Saxon kings into those of the
+Mercians. The earliest extant document concerning
+London is one dated 734, in which King Ethelbald
+grants to the Bishop of Rochester leave to send one ship
+without tax in or out of London Port.</p>
+
+<p>A witan&mdash;i.e. a national council&mdash;was held in London
+in 811. It is
+then spoken of as
+an illustrious place
+and royal city.
+The supremacy of
+Mercia passed to
+that of Wessex&mdash;London
+went with
+the supremacy. In
+833 Egbert, King
+of Wessex, held a
+witan in London.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;">
+<img src="images/image_006.jpg" width="333" height="400" alt="MARTYRDOM OF ST. EDMUND BY THE DANES" title="" />
+<span class="caption">MARTYRDOM OF ST. EDMUND BY THE DANES.
+<br />
+(<i>From a drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When Egbert
+died the supremacy
+of Wessex fell with
+him. Then the
+Danish troubles fell
+thick and disastrous
+upon the
+country. When
+Alfred succeeded to the Crown the Danes held the
+Isle of Thanet, which commanded the river; they had
+conquered the north country from the Tweed to the
+Humber; they had overrun all the eastern counties
+twice&mdash;viz., in 839 and in 852: they had pillaged
+London, which they presently occupied, making it their
+headquarters. With this Danish occupation ends the
+first Saxon settlement of the City.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">{32}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_9_THE_SECOND_SAXON_SETTLEMENT" id="chap_9_THE_SECOND_SAXON_SETTLEMENT"></a>9. THE SECOND SAXON SETTLEMENT.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Danes held the City for twelve years at least. One
+cannot believe that these fierce warriors, who were exactly
+what the Saxons and Jutes had been four hundred years
+before&mdash;as fierce, as rude, as pagan&mdash;suffered any of the
+inhabitants, except the slaves, to remain. Massacre
+and pillage&mdash;or the fear of both&mdash;drove away all the
+residents. But the City was the headquarters of the
+Danes. Alfred recovered it in the year 884.</p>
+
+<p>He found it as the East Saxons had found it three
+hundred years before, a city of ruins; the wall a ruin;
+the churches destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>King Alfred has left many imperishable monuments
+of his reign. One of the greatest is the City of London,
+which he rebuilt. A recent historian (Loftie, <i>Historic
+Towns</i>, 'London') says that it would hardly be wrong to
+write, 'London was founded, rather more than a thousand
+years ago, by King Alfred&mdash;who chose for the site
+of his city a place formerly fortified by the Romans but
+desolated successively by the Saxons and the Danes.'</p>
+
+<p>The first thing he did was to rebuild the wall. This
+work re-established confidence in the minds of the citizens.
+Alfred placed his son-in-law Ethelred, afterwards Alderman
+(i.e. Chief man&mdash;Governor) of the Mercians, in
+command of the City, which seems to have been immediately
+filled with people. The London citizens went out
+with Ethelred to defeat the Danes at Benfleet, and with
+Alfred to defeat the Danes at the mouth of the river
+Lea; they went out with Athelstan to fight at Brunanburgh.
+London was never again taken by the Danes.
+Twice Sweyn endeavoured to take the City but was
+repulsed. Nor did London open her gates to him until
+the King had left the City. And when the Danes again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">{33}</a></span>
+entered the City there was no more pillage or massacre;
+London was too strong to be pillaged or massacred, and
+too rich to be abandoned to the army.</p>
+
+<p>King Ethelred came back and died, and was buried
+in St. Paul's; the old St. Paul's&mdash;that of King Ethelbert
+or that of Bishop Cedd&mdash;was burned down and the
+Londoners were building a new cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Edmund Ironside was elected and crowned within
+the City walls. Then followed a siege of London by
+Canute. He dug a canal through the swamps, and
+dragged his ships
+by its means from
+Redriff to Lambeth.
+But he could not
+take the City. But
+the Treaty of Partition
+between Edmund
+and himself
+was agreed upon
+and the Dane once
+more obtained the
+City. He has left
+one or two names
+behind him. The
+church of St.
+Olave's in Hart Street, and that in 'Tooley,' or
+St. Olave's Street, Southwark, and the Church of St.
+Magnus, attest to the sovereignty of the Dane.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image_007.jpg" width="350" height="312" alt="SAXON HORSEMEN" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SAXON HORSEMEN.
+<br />
+(<i>Harl. MS. 603.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At this time the two principal officers of the City
+were the Bishop and the Portreeve: there was also the
+'Staller' or Marshal. The principal governing body
+was the 'Knighten Guild,' which was largely composed
+of the City aldermen. But these aldermen were not like
+those of the present day, an elected body: they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">{34}</a></span>
+hereditary: they were aldermen in right of their estates
+within the City. What powers the Knighten Guild possessed
+is not easy to define. Besides this, the aristocracy
+of the City, there were already trade guilds for religious
+purposes and for feasting&mdash;but, as yet, with no powers.
+The people had their folk mote, or general gathering:
+their ward mote: and their weekly hustings. We
+must not seek to define the powers of all these bodies
+and corporations. They overlapped each other: the
+aristocratic party was continually innovating while the
+popular party as continually resisted. In many ways
+what we call the government of the City had not begun
+to be understood. That there was order of a kind is
+shown by the strict regulations, as strictly enforced, of
+the dues and tolls for ships that came up the river to
+the Port of London.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_10_THE_ANGLO-SAXON_CITIZEN" id="chap_10_THE_ANGLO-SAXON_CITIZEN"></a>10. THE ANGLO-SAXON CITIZEN.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Londoner of Athelstan and Ethelred was an Anglo-Saxon
+of a type far in advance of his fierce ancestor who
+swept the narrow seas and harried the eastern coasts.
+He had learned many arts: he had become a Christian:
+he wanted many luxuries. But the solid things which
+he inherited from his rude forefathers he passed on to
+his children. And they remain an inheritance for us to
+this day. For instance, our form of monarchy, limited
+in power, comes straight down to us from Alfred and
+Athelstan. Our nobility is a survival and a development
+of the Saxon earls and thanes; our forms of justice,
+trial by jury, magistrates&mdash;all come from the
+Saxons; the divisions of our country are Saxon, our
+municipal institutions are Saxon, our parliaments and
+councils are Saxon in origin. We owe our language to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">{35}</a></span>
+the Anglo-Saxon, small additions from Latin, French,
+and other sources have been made, but the bulk of our
+language is Saxon. Three-fourths of us are Anglo-Saxon
+by descent. Whatever there is in the English
+character of persistence, obstinacy, patience, industry,
+sobriety, love of freedom, we are accustomed to attribute
+to our Anglo-Saxon descent. In religion, arts, learning,
+literature, culture, we owe little or nothing to the Anglo-Saxon.
+In all these things we are indebted to the
+South.</p>
+
+<p>Let us see how the Anglo-Saxon Londoner lived.</p>
+
+<p>He was a trader or a craftsman. As a trader he
+received from the country inland whatever it had to produce.
+Slaves, who were bred like cattle on the farms,
+formed a large part of the exports; hides, wool, iron,
+tin, the English merchant had these things, and nothing
+more, to offer the foreigner who brought in exchange
+wine, spices, silk, incense, vestments and pictures for the
+churches and monasteries, books, and other luxuries.
+The ships at first belonged to the foreign merchants:
+they traded not only at London, but also at Bristol,
+Canterbury, Dover, Arundel, and other towns. Before
+the Conquest, however, English-built ships and English-manned
+fleets had already entered upon the trade.</p>
+
+<p>The trader, already wealthy, lived in great comfort.
+He was absolute master in his own house, but the household
+was directed or ruled by his wife. Everything was
+made in the house: the flour was ground, the bread was
+baked, the meat and fish were salted; the linen was
+woven, the garments were made by the wife, the
+daughters, and the women servants. The Anglo-Saxon
+ladies were remarkable for their skill in embroidery;
+they excelled all other women in this beautiful art.</p>
+
+<p>The Anglo-Saxon house developed out of the common<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">{36}</a></span>
+hall. Those who know the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge
+can trace the growth of the house in any of them.
+First there is the Common Hall. In this room, formerly,
+the whole family, with the serving men and women, lived
+and slept. There still exists at Higham Ferrars, in
+Northampton, such a hall, built as an almshouse. It is
+a long room: at the east end, raised a foot, is a little
+chapel; on the south side is a long open stove; the almsmen
+slept on the floor on reeds, each man wrapped in
+his blanket.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_008.jpg" width="500" height="328" alt="SAXON CHURCH AT BRADFORD-ON-AVON, WILTS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SAXON CHURCH AT BRADFORD-ON-AVON, WILTS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Everybody lived and slept in the Common Hall. All
+day long the women worked at the spinning and weaving
+and sewing and embroidery. Women were defined by
+this kind of work&mdash;we still speak of spinsters. Formerly
+relationship through the mother was called 'on the
+spindle side,' while, long after the men had to fight every
+day against marauding tribes, relationship through the
+father was called 'on the spear side.' All day long the
+men worked outside in the fields, or in the warehouse,
+and on the quays or at their craft. In the evening they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">{37}</a></span>
+sat about the fire and listened to stories, or to songs
+with the accompaniment of the harp.</p>
+
+<p>The first improvement was the separation of the
+kitchen from the hall: in the Cambridge College you see
+the hall on one side and the kitchen the other, separated
+by a passage. The second step was the construction of
+the 'Solar,' or chamber over the kitchen, which became
+the bedroom of the master and the mistress of the house.
+Then they built a room behind the solar for the daughters
+and the maidservants; the sons and the menservants
+still sleeping in the Hall. Presumably the house was at
+this stage in the time of King Ethelred, just before the
+Norman Conquest. The ladies' 'bower' followed, and
+after that the sleeping rooms for the men.</p>
+
+<p>There was no furniture, as we understand it.
+Benches there were, and trestles for the tables, which
+were literally laid at every meal: a great chair was provided
+for the Lord and Lady: tapestry kept out the
+draughts: weapons, musical instruments, and other
+things hung upon the walls. Dinner was at noon:
+supper in the evening when work was over: they made
+great use of vegetables and they had nearly all our
+modern fruits: they drank, as the national beverage,
+beer or mead.</p>
+
+<p>But everybody was not a wealthy merchant: most
+of the citizens were craftsmen of some kind. These
+lived in small wooden houses of two rooms, one above
+the other: those who were not able to afford so much
+slept in hovels, consisting of four uprights with 'wattle
+and daub' for the sides, a roof of thatch, no window,
+and a fire in the middle of the floor. They lived very
+roughly: they endured many hardships: but they were
+a well-fed people, turbulent and independent: their
+houses were crowded in narrow lanes&mdash;how narrow may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">{38}</a></span>
+be understood by a walk along Thames Street; they
+were always in danger of fire&mdash;in 962, in 1087, in 1135,
+the greater part of the City was burned to the ground.
+They lived in plenty: there was work for all: they had
+their folk mote&mdash;their City parliament&mdash;and their ward
+mote&mdash;which still exists: they had no feudal lord to
+harass them: as for the dirt and mud and stench of the
+narrow City streets, they cared nothing for such things.
+They were free: and they were well fed: and they were
+cheerful and contented.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_11_THE_WALL_OF_LONDON" id="chap_11_THE_WALL_OF_LONDON"></a>11. THE WALL OF LONDON.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Let us examine into the history and the course of the
+Wall of London, if only for the very remarkable facts that
+the boundary of the City was determined for fifteen
+hundred years by the erection of this Wall; that for some
+purposes the course of the Wall still affects the government
+of London; and that it was only pulled down bit
+by bit in the course of the last century.</p>
+
+<p>You will see by reference to the map what was the
+course of the Wall. It began, starting from the east
+where the White Tower now stands. Part of the foundation
+of the Tower consists of a bastion of the Roman
+wall. It followed a line nearly north as far as Aldgate.
+Then it turned in a N.W. direction just north of
+Camomile Street and Bevis Marks to Bishopsgate.
+Thence it ran nearly due W., north of the street called
+London Wall, turning S. at Monkwell Street. At Aldersgate
+it turned W. until it reached Newgate, where
+it turned nearly S. again and so to the river, a little
+east of the present Blackfriars Bridge. It ran, lastly,
+along the river bank to join its eastern extremity. The
+river wall had openings or gates at Dowgate and Bishopsgate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">{39}</a></span>
+and probably at Queen Hithe. The length of the
+Wall, without counting the river side, was 2 miles and
+608 feet.</p>
+
+<p>This formidable Wall was originally about 12 feet
+thick made of rubble and mortar, the latter very hard,
+and faced with stone. You may know Roman work by
+the courses of tiles or bricks. They are arranged in
+double layers about 2 feet apart. The so-called bricks
+are not in the least like our bricks, being 6 inches long,
+12 inches wide and 1½ inch thick. The Wall was 20
+feet high, with towers and bastions at intervals about
+50 feet high. At first there was no moat or ditch, and
+it will be understood that in order to protect the City
+from an attack of barbarians&mdash;Picts or Scots&mdash;it was
+enough to close the gates and to man the towers. The
+invaders had no ladders.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_009.jpg" width="500" height="283" alt="CITY GATES." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CITY GATES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the course of centuries a great many repairs and rebuildings
+of the Wall took place. The Saxons allowed it to
+fall into a ruinous condition. Alfred rebuilt it and strengthened
+it. The next important repairs were made in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">{40}</a></span>
+reign of King John in 1215, by Henry III., Edward I.,
+Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Edward IV. After
+these various rebuildings there would seem to be little
+left of the original Wall. That, however, a great part of
+it continued to be the hard rubble core of the Roman
+work seems evident from the fact that the course of the
+Wall was never altered. The only alteration was when
+they turned the Wall west at Ludgate down to the Fleet
+River and so to the confluence of the Fleet and the
+Thames. The river side of the Wall was also allowed
+to be removed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_010.jpg" width="500" height="358" alt="REMAINS OF THE WALL." title="" />
+<span class="caption">REMAINS OF THE WALL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The City was thus protected by a great wall pierced
+by a few gates, with bastions and towers. At the East
+End after the Norman Conquest rose the Great White
+Tower still standing. At the West End was a tower
+called Montfichet's Tower.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_011.jpg" width="500" height="384" alt="PART OF THE ROMAN WALL AT LEICESTER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PART OF THE ROMAN WALL AT LEICESTER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>But a wall without a ditch, where a ditch was possible,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">{41}</a></span>
+became of little use as soon as scaling ladders were
+invented with wooden movable towers and other devices.
+A ditch was accordingly constructed in the year 1211 in
+the reign of King John. It appears to have been from
+the very first neglected by the citizens, who trusted
+more to their own bravery than to the protection of a
+ditch. It was frequently ordered to be cleansed and
+repaired: it abounded, when it was clean, with good
+fish of various kinds: but it was gradually allowed to
+dry up until, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, nothing
+was left but a narrow channel or no channel at all but a
+few scattered ponds, with market gardens planted in the
+ditch itself. In Agas's map of London these gardens
+are figured, with summer houses and cottages for the
+gardeners and cattle grazing. On the west side north
+of Ludgate the ditch has entirely disappeared and
+houses are built against the Wall on the outside.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">{42}</a></span>
+Houndsditch is a row of mean houses facing the moat.
+Fore Street is also built over against the moat. Within
+and without the Wall they placed churchyards&mdash;those of
+St. Alphege, Allhallows, and St. Martin's Outwich,
+you may still see for yourselves within the Wall: that of
+St. Augustine's at the north end of St. Mary Axe, has
+vanished. Those of the three churches of St. Botolph,
+Bishopsgate, Aldgate, Aldersgate, and that of St. Giles
+are churchyards without the Wall. Then the ditch
+became filled up and houses were built all along the Wall
+within and without. Thus began unchecked, perhaps
+openly encouraged, the gradual demolition of the Wall.
+It takes a long time to tear down a wall of solid rubble
+twelve feet thick. It took the Londoners about 160 years.
+In the year 1760 they finally removed the gates. Most
+of the Wall was gone by this time but large fragments
+remained here and there. You may still see a considerable
+piece, part of a bastion in the churchyard of St.
+Giles, and the vestry of All Hallows on the Wall is built
+upon a bastion. In Camomile Street and in other places
+portions of the Wall have been discovered where excavations
+have been made: and, of course, the foundation
+of the Wall exists still, from end to end.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_12_NORMAN_LONDON" id="chap_12_NORMAN_LONDON"></a>12. NORMAN LONDON.</h2>
+
+
+<p>When William the Conqueror received the submission
+of the City he gave the citizens a Charter&mdash;their first
+Charter&mdash;of freedom. There can be no doubt that the
+Charter was the price demanded by the citizens and
+willingly paid by the Conqueror in return for their submission.
+The following is the document. Short as it is,
+the whole future of the City is founded upon these few
+words:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">{43}</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'William King greets William Bishop and Gosfrith
+Portreeve and all the burghers within London, French
+and English, friendly.</p>
+
+<p>'I do you to wit that I will that ye be all law worthy
+that were in King Edward's day, and I will that every
+child be his father's heir after his father's day: and I
+will not endure that any man offer any wrong to you.</p>
+
+<p>'God keep you.'</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Charter itself is preserved at Guildhall.
+Many copies of it and translations of it were made from
+time to time. Let us see what it means.</p>
+
+<p>The citizens were to be 'law worthy' as they had
+been in the days of King Edward. This meant that
+they were to be free men in the courts of justice, with
+the right to be tried by their equals, that is, by jury.
+'All who were law worthy in King Edward's day.'
+Serfs were not law worthy, for instance. That the
+children should inherit their father's property was, as
+much as the preceding clause, great security to the freedom
+of the City, for it protected the people from any
+feudal claims that might arise. Next, observe that
+there was never any Earl of London: the City had no
+Lord but the King: it never would endure any Lord but
+the King. An attempt was made, but only one, and
+that was followed by the downfall of the Queen&mdash;Matilda&mdash;who
+tried it. Feudal customs arose and flourished
+and died, but they were unknown in this free city.</p>
+
+<p>But the City with its strong walls, its great multitude
+of people, and its resources, might prove so independent
+as to lock out the King. William therefore began to
+build the Tower, by means of which he could not only
+keep the enemy out of London but could keep his own
+strong hand upon the burghers. He took down a piece
+of the wall and enclosed twelve acres of ground, in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">{44}</a></span>
+he built his stronghold, within a deep and broad ditch.
+The work was entrusted to Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester,
+who left it unfinished when he died thirty years after.</p>
+
+<p>The next great Charter of the City was granted by
+Henry the First. He remitted the payment of the
+levies for feudal service,
+of tax called Danegeld,
+originally imposed for
+buying off the Danes:
+of the murder tax: of
+wager of battle, that is,
+that form of trial in
+which the accused and
+the accuser fought it out,
+and from certain tolls.
+He also gave the citizens
+the county of Middlesex
+to farm on payment to
+the Crown of 300<i>l.</i> a
+year&mdash;a payment still
+made: they were to appoint
+a Sheriff for the
+county: and they were
+to have leave to hunt in
+the forests of Middlesex,
+Surrey, and the Chiltern
+Hills. They were also
+empowered to elect their
+own justiciar and allowed
+to try their own cases within their own limits.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image_012.jpg" width="300" height="524" alt="TOWER IN THE EARLIER STYLE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">TOWER IN THE EARLIER STYLE. CHURCH
+AT EARL&#39;S BARTON.
+<br />
+(<i>The battlements are much later.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This was a very important Charter. No doubt, like
+the first, it was stipulated as a price for the support of
+the City. William Rufus was killed on Thursday&mdash;Henry
+was in London on Saturday. He must therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">{45}</a></span>
+have ridden hard to get over the hundred and twenty
+miles of rough bridle track between the New Forest and
+London. But the City supported him and this was their
+reward.</p>
+
+<p>We are gradually approaching the modern constitution
+of the City. The Portreeve or first Magistrate, in
+the year 1189, in the person of Henry Fitz Aylwin,
+assumed the title of Mayor&mdash;not Lord Mayor: the title
+came later, a habit or style, never a rank conferred.
+With him were two Sheriffs, the Sheriff of the City and
+the Sheriff of the County. There was the Bishop: there
+was the City Justiciar with his courts. There were also
+the Aldermen, not yet an elected body.</p>
+
+<p>The Londoners elected Stephen King, and stood by
+him through all the troubles that followed. The plainest
+proof of the strength and importance of the City is
+shown in the fact that when Matilda took revenge on
+London by depriving the City of its Charters the citizens
+rose and drove her out of London and made her
+cause hopeless.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_13_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY" id="chap_13_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY"></a>13. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The White Tower is the only building in modern London
+which belongs to Norman London. Portions remain&mdash;fragments&mdash;a
+part of the church of St. Bartholomew the
+Great, a part of the church of St. Ethelburga, the crypt
+of Bow Church: very little else. All the rest has been
+destroyed by time, by 'improvements,' or by fire, the
+greatest enemy to cities in every country and every age.
+Thus, three great fires in the tenth and eleventh century
+swept London from end to end. No need to ask if anything
+remains of the Roman or the Saxon City. Not a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">{46}</a></span>
+vestige is left&mdash;except the little fragment, known as the
+London Stone, now lying behind iron bars in the wall of
+St. Swithin's Church. Churches, Palaces, Monasteries,
+Castles&mdash;all perished in those three fires. The City, no
+doubt, speedily sprang again from its ashes, but of its
+rebuilding on each occasion we have no details at all.</p>
+
+<p>Most fortunately, there exists a document priceless
+and unique, short as it is and meagre in many of its
+details, which describes London as it was in the reign of
+Henry II. It is written by one FitzStephen, Chaplain
+to Thomas Becket. He was present at the murder of
+the Archbishop and wrote his life, to which this account
+is an introduction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_013.jpg" width="500" height="316" alt="A NORMAN SHIP." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A NORMAN SHIP.
+<br />
+(<i>From the Bayeux Tapestry.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>He says, first of all, that the City contained thirteen
+larger conventual churches and a hundred and twenty-six
+parish churches. He writes only fifty years after the
+Great Fire, so that it is not likely that new parishes had
+been erected. All the churches which had been destroyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">{47}</a></span>
+were rebuilt. Most of them were very small parishes,
+with, doubtless, very small churches. We shall return
+presently to the question of the churches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 501px;">
+<img src="images/image_014.jpg" width="501" height="600" alt="BUILDING A CHURCH IN THE LATER STYLE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BUILDING A CHURCH IN THE LATER STYLE.
+<br />
+(<i>From a drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the east was the White Tower which he calls the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">{48}</a></span>
+'Palatine Castle:' on the west there were two towers&mdash;there
+was the Tower called Montfichet, where is now
+Blackfriars station, and Baynard's Castle, close beside it.
+The walls of the City had seven double gates. The river
+wall had by this time been taken down. Two miles from
+the City, on the west, was the Royal Palace (Westminster),
+fortified with ramparts and connected with the City by a
+populous suburb. Already, therefore, the Strand and
+Charing Cross were settled. The gates were Aldgate,
+Bishopsgate, Cripplegate, Aldersgate, Newgate, Ludgate,
+and the Bridge.</p>
+
+<p>FitzStephen says that the citizens were so powerful
+that they could furnish the King with 20,000 horsemen
+and 60,000 foot. This is clearly gross exaggeration. If
+we allow 500 for each parish, we get a population of only
+63,000 in all, and in the enumeration later on, for the
+poll tax by Richard the Second, there were no more than
+48,000. This, however, was shortly after a great Plague
+had ravaged the City.</p>
+
+<p>But the writer tells us that the citizens excelled those
+of any other city in the world in 'handsomeness of
+manners and of dress, at table, and in way of speaking.'
+There were three principal schools, the scholars of which
+rivalled each other, and engaged in public contests of
+rhetoric and grammar.</p>
+
+<p>Those who worked at trades and sold wares of any
+kind were assigned their proper place whither they
+repaired every morning. It is easy to make out from the
+surviving names where the trades were placed. The
+names of Bread Street, Fish Street, Milk Street, Honey
+Lane, Wood Street, Soapers' Lane, the Poultry, for
+instance, indicate what trades were carried on there.
+Friday Street shows that the food proper for fast days
+was sold there&mdash;namely, dried fish. Cheapside preserves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">{49}</a></span>
+the name of the Chepe, the most important of all the
+old streets. Here, every day, all the year round, was a
+market held at which everything conceivable was sold,
+not in shops, but in <i>selds</i>, that is, covered wooden sheds,
+which could be taken down on occasion. Do not think
+that 'Chepe' was a narrow street: it was a great open
+space lying between St. Paul's and what is now the Royal
+Exchange, with streets north and south formed by rows of
+these <i>selds</i> or sheds. Presently the sheds became houses
+with shops in front and gardens behind. The roadway
+on the south side of this open space was called the Side
+of Chepe. There was another open space for salesmen
+called East Chepe, another at Billingsgate, called Roome
+Lane, another at Dowgate&mdash;both for purposes of exposing
+for sale imports landed on the Quays and the ports of
+Queenhithe and Billingsgate. Those who have seen a
+market-place in a French town will understand what
+these places were like. A large irregular area. On
+every side sheds with wares for sale: at first all seems
+confusion and noise: presently one makes out that there
+are streets in orderly array, in which those who know
+can find what they want. Here are mercers; here goldsmiths;
+here armourers; here glovers; here pepperers
+or grocers; and so forth. West Chepe is the place of
+shops where they sell the things made in the City and all
+things wanted for the daily life.</p>
+
+<p>On the other side of the Walbrook, across which there
+is a bridge where is now the Poultry, is East Chepe,
+whither they bring all kinds of imported goods and sell
+them to the retailers: and by the river side the merchants
+assemble in the open places beside Queenhithe
+and Billingsgate to receive or to buy the cargoes sent
+over from France, Spain, and the Low Countries. One
+more open space there was, that round St. Paul's, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">{50}</a></span>
+place where the people held their folkmotes. But
+London was not, as yet, by any means built over. Its
+northern parts were covered with gardens. It was here,
+as we shall see, that the great monasteries were shortly
+to be built.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image_015.jpg" width="300" height="334" alt="LAY COSTUMES IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LAY COSTUMES IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_14_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY" id="chap_14_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY"></a>14. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Outside the walls, he says, there were many places of
+pleasant resort, streams and springs among them. He
+means the Fleet River winding at the bottom of its broad
+valley: farther west Tyburn and Westbourne: on the
+south the Wandle, the Effra, the Ravensbourne. There
+was a well at Holywell
+in the Strand&mdash;it lies
+under the site of the
+present Opéra Comique
+Theatre: and at Clerkenwell:
+these wells had
+medicinal or miraculous
+properties and there
+were, no doubt, taverns
+and places of amusement
+about there. At
+Smithfield&mdash;or Smooth
+Field&mdash;just outside the
+City walls, there was
+held once a week&mdash;on
+Friday&mdash;a horse fair.
+Business over, horse racing followed. Then the river
+was full of fish: some went fishing for their livelihood:
+some for amusement: salmon were plentiful and great
+fish such as porpoises sometimes found their way above
+Bridge.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">{51}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Then there were the sports of the young men and the
+boys. They played at ball&mdash;when have not young men
+played at ball? The young Londoners practised some
+form of hockey out of which have grown the two noble
+games of cricket and golf. They wrestled and leaped.
+Nothing is said about boxing and quarterstaff. But
+perhaps these belonged to the practice of arms and archery,
+which were never neglected, because at any moment
+the London craftsman might have to become a soldier.
+They had cock
+fighting, a sport to
+which the Londoner
+was always greatly
+addicted. And they
+loved dancing with
+the girls to the
+music of pipe and
+tabor. In the winter,
+when the broad
+fens north of the
+walls were frozen,
+they skated. And
+they hunted with hawk and hound in the Forest of
+Middlesex, which belonged to the City.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;">
+<img src="images/image_016.jpg" width="325" height="232" alt="COSTUME OF SHEPHERDS IN THE TWELFTH
+CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COSTUME OF SHEPHERDS IN THE TWELFTH
+CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The City, he tells us, is governed by the same laws
+as those of Rome. Like Rome, London is divided into
+wards: like Rome the City has annually elected magistrates
+who are called Sheriffs instead of Consuls: like
+Rome it has senatorial and inferior magistrates: like
+Rome it has separate Courts and proper places for law
+suits, and like Rome the City holds assemblies on ordered
+days. The writer is carried away by his enthusiasm for
+Rome. As we have seen, the government, laws, and
+customs of London owed nothing at all, in any single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">{52}</a></span>
+respect, to Rome. Everything grew out of the Anglo-Saxon
+laws and customs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;">
+<img src="images/image_017.jpg" width="425" height="379" alt="ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUME IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUME IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>By his loud praise of the great plenty of food of every
+kind which could be found in London, FitzStephen reminds
+us that he has lived in other towns, and especially
+in Canterbury, when he was in the service of the Archbishop.
+We see, though he does not mention it, the
+comparison in his mind between the plentiful market
+of London and the meagre market of Canterbury. Everything,
+he says, was on sale. All the roasted meats and
+boiled that one can ask for; all the fish, poultry, and
+game in season, could every day be bought in London:
+there were cookshops where dinners and suppers could
+be had by paying for them. He dwells at length upon
+this abundance. Now in the country towns and the
+villages the supplies were a matter of uncertainty and
+anxiety: a housewife had to keep her pantry and her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">{53}</a></span>
+larder well victualled in advance: salt meat and salt fish
+were the staple of food. Beef and mutton were scarce:
+game there was in plenty if it could be taken; but game
+laws were strict; very little venison would find its way
+into Canterbury market. To this cleric who knew the
+country markets, the profusion of everything in London
+was amazing.</p>
+
+<p>Another thing he notices&mdash;'Nearly all the Bishops,
+Abbots, and Magnates of England are, as it were, citizens
+and freemen of London; having their own splendid houses
+to which they resort, where they spend largely when summoned
+to great Councils by the King, or by their Metropolitan,
+or drawn thither by their own private affairs.'</p>
+
+<p>In another century or two London will become, as
+you shall see, a City of Palaces. Observe that the palaces
+are already beginning. Observe, also, that London
+is already being enriched by the visits and residence
+of great lords who, with their retinues, spend 'largely.'
+Down to the present day the same thing has always
+gone on. The wealthy people who have their town
+houses in the West End of London and the thousands of
+country people and foreigners who now flock to the
+London hotels are the successors of the great men and
+their following who came up to London in the twelfth
+century and spent 'largely.'</p>
+
+<p>'I do not think,' says FitzStephen, 'that there is
+any city with more commendable customs of church
+attendance, honour to God's ordinances, keeping sacred
+festivals, almsgiving, hospitality, confirming, betrothals,
+contracting marriages, celebration of nuptials, preparing
+feasts, cheering the guests, and also in care for funerals
+and the interment of the dead. The only pests of London
+are the immoderate drinking of fools and the frequency
+of fires.'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">{54}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_15_LONDON_BRIDGE" id="chap_15_LONDON_BRIDGE"></a>15. LONDON BRIDGE.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Nobody knows who built the first Bridge. It was there
+in the fourth century&mdash;a bridge of timber provided with
+a fortified gate, one of the gates of the City. Who put it
+up, and when&mdash;how long it stood&mdash;what space there was
+between the piers&mdash;how broad it was&mdash;we do not know.
+Probably it was quite
+a narrow bridge consisting
+of beams laid
+across side by side
+and a railing at the
+side. That these
+beams were not close
+together is known by
+the fact that so many
+coins have been found
+in the bed of the
+river beneath the old
+Bridge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<img src="images/image_018.jpg" width="283" height="325" alt="ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND FROM RICHARD I.
+TO EDWARD III.
+<br />
+(<i>From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave, Westminster
+Abbey.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides the Bridge
+there were ferries
+across the river, especially
+between Dowgate
+and the opposite
+bank called St. Mary
+Overies Dock, where was afterwards erected St. Mary
+Overies Priory, to which belonged the church now called
+St. Saviour's, Southwark. The docks at either end of
+the old ferry still remain.</p>
+
+<p>The Bridge had many misfortunes: it is said to have
+been destroyed by the Danes in 1013. Perhaps for
+'destruction' we should read 'damage.' It was, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">{55}</a></span>
+certainly burned down in the Great Fire of 1136.
+Another, also of wood, was built in its place and, in the
+year 1176, a bridge of stone was commenced, which took
+thirty years to build and remained standing till the year
+1831, when the present Bridge was completed and the
+old one pulled down.</p>
+
+<p>The Architect of this stone Bridge, destined to stand
+for six hundred and fifty years, was one Peter, Chaplain
+of St. Mary Colechurch in the Old Jewry (the church
+was destroyed in the Great Fire and not rebuilt).</p>
+
+<p>Now the building of bridges was regarded, at this
+time, as a work of piety. If we consider how a bridge
+helps the people we shall agree with our forefathers.
+Without a bridge, those living on one side of a river
+can only carry on intercourse with those on the other side
+by means of boats. Merchants cannot carry their wares
+about: farmers cannot get their produce to market:
+wayfarers can only get across by ferry: armies cannot
+march&mdash;if you wish to follow an army across a country
+where there are no bridges you must look for fords.
+Roads are useless unless bridges cross the rivers. The
+first essential to the union of a nation is the possibility
+of intercommunication: without roads and bridges the
+man of Devon is a stranger and an enemy to the man of
+Somerset. We who have bridges over every river: who
+need never even ford a stream: who hardly know what
+a ferry means: easily forget that these bridges did not
+grow like the oaks and the elms: but were built after
+long study of the subject by men who were trained for
+the work just as other men were trained and taught to
+build cathedrals and churches. A religious order was
+founded in France in the twelfth century: it was called
+the Order of the 'Pontife' Brethren&mdash;<i>Pontife</i> is Pontifex&mdash;that
+is&mdash;Bridge Builder. The Bridge Building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">{56}</a></span>
+Brothers constructed many bridges in France of which
+several still remain. It is not certain that Peter of
+Colechurch was one of this Brotherhood, perhaps not.
+When he died, in 1205, before the Bridge was completed,
+King John called over a French 'Pontife' named Isembert
+who had built bridges at La Rochelle and Saintes.
+But the principal builders are said to have been three
+merchants of London named Serle Mercer, William
+Almain, and Benedict Botewrite. The building of the
+Bridge was regarded as a national work: the King: the
+great Lords: the Bishops: as well as the London Citizens,
+gave money to hasten its completion. The list of
+donors was preserved on 'a table fair written for posterity'
+in the Chapel on the Bridge. It was unhappily
+destroyed in the Great Fire.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be supposed that the Bridge of Peter Colechurch
+was like the present stately Bridge of broad arches.
+It contained twenty arches of irregular breadth: only
+two or three being the same: they varied from 10 feet
+to 32 feet: some of them therefore were very narrow:
+the piers were also of different lengths. These irregularities
+were certainly intentional and were based upon
+some observations on the rise and fall of the tide. No
+other great Bridge had yet been constructed across a
+tidal river.</p>
+
+<p>When the Bridge was built it was thought necessary
+to consecrate it to some saint. The latest saint, St.
+Thomas Becket, was chosen as the titular saint of this
+Bridge. A chapel, dedicated to him, was built in the
+centre pier of the Bridge: it was, in fact, a double
+chapel: in the lower part, the crypt, was buried Peter of
+Colechurch himself: the upper part, which escaped the
+Great Fire, became, after the Reformation, a warehouse.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">{57}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_16_LONDON_BRIDGE" id="chap_16_LONDON_BRIDGE"></a>16. LONDON BRIDGE.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Houses were erected in course of time along the Bridge on
+either side like a street, but with intervals; and along the
+roadway in the middle were chain posts to protect the
+passengers. As the Bridge was only 40 feet wide the
+houses must have been small. But they were built out
+at the back overhanging the river, and the roadway
+itself was not intended for carts or wheeled vehicles.
+Remember that everything was brought to the City on
+pack horse or pack ass. The table of Tolls sanctioned
+by King Edward I. makes no mention of cart or waggon
+at all. Men on horseback and loaded horses can get
+along with a very narrow road. Perhaps we may allow
+twelve feet for the road which gives for the houses on
+either side a depth of 14 feet each.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_019.jpg" width="500" height="359" alt="OLD LONDON BRIDGE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">OLD LONDON BRIDGE.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">{58}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These houses were occupied chiefly by shops, most of
+which were 'haberdashers and traders in small wares.'
+Later on there were many booksellers. Paper merchants
+and stationers, after the Reformation, occupied the chapel.
+The great painter Hans Holbein lived on the Bridge and
+the two marine painters Peter Monamy and Dominic
+Serres also lived here.</p>
+
+<p>The narrowness of the arches and the rush of the
+flowing or the ebbing tide made the 'shooting' of the
+Bridge a matter of great danger. The Duke of Norfolk
+in 1429 was thrown into the water by the capsizing of
+his boat and narrowly escaped with his life. Queen
+Henrietta, in 1628, was nearly wrecked in the same way
+by running into the piers while shooting the Bridge.
+Rubens the painter was thrown into the water in the
+same way.</p>
+
+<p>One of the twenty arches formed a drawbridge
+which allowed vessels of larger size than barges to pass
+up the river and could be used to keep back an enemy.
+In this way Sir Thomas Wyatt in 1557 was kept out of
+London. Before this drawbridge stood a tower on the
+battlements of which were placed the heads of traitors
+and criminals. The heads of Sir William Wallace, Jack
+Cade, Sir Thomas More and many others were stuck up
+here. On the Southwark side was another tower.</p>
+
+<p>The Bridge, which was the pride and boast of London,
+was endowed with lands for its maintenance: the rents
+of the houses were also collected for the same purpose:
+a toll was imposed on all merchandise carried across,
+and a Brotherhood was formed, called the Brothers of
+St. Thomas on the Bridge, whose duty it was to perform
+service in the chapel and to keep the Bridge in repair.</p>
+
+<p>Repairs were always wanting: to keep some of the
+force of the water off the piers these were furnished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">{59}</a></span>
+with 'starlings,' i.e. at first piles driven down in front
+of the piers, afterwards turned into projecting buttresses
+of stone. Then corn mills were built in some of the
+openings, and in the year 1582 great waterworks were
+constructed at the southern end. The tower before the
+drawbridge was by Queen Elizabeth rebuilt and made a
+very splendid house&mdash;called Nonesuch House. The Fire
+destroyed the houses on the Bridge, some of which were
+not rebuilt: and in the year 1757 all the houses were
+removed from the Bridge.</p>
+
+<p>The New Bridge was finished and opened in 1831&mdash;it
+stands 180 feet west of its predecessor. Then the Old
+Bridge was pulled down. The work of Peter Colechurch
+lasted from 1209 to 1831 or 622 years. The Pontife
+Brothers, therefore, knew how to put in good and lasting
+work.</p>
+
+<p>This is the history of London Bridge. First a narrow
+wooden gangway of beams lying on timber piles with a
+fortified gate; then a stone structure of twenty irregular
+arches, the Bridge broad but the roadway still narrow
+with houses on either side and a fortress and a chapel
+upon it&mdash;in those times there was always a fortress, and
+there was always a chapel. It must have been a pleasant
+place of residence: the air fresh and clear: the supply
+of water unlimited&mdash;one drew it up in a bucket: always
+something going on: the entrance of a foreign ambassador,
+a religious procession, a riding of the Lord
+Mayor, a pageant, a nobleman with his livery, a Bishop
+or a Prior with his servants, a pilgrimage, a string of
+pack horses out of Kent bringing fruit for the City:
+always something to see. Then there were the stories
+and traditions of the place, with the songs which the
+children sang about the Bridge. Especially there was
+the story of Edward Osborne. He was the son of one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">{60}</a></span>
+Richard Osborne, a gentleman of Kent. Like many
+sons of the poor country gentlemen, he was sent up to
+London and apprenticed to Sir William Hewitt a cloth
+worker who lived on London Bridge. His master had a
+daughter named Anne, a little girl who one day, while
+playing with her nurse at an open window overhanging
+the river, fell out into the rushing water sixty feet below.
+The apprentice, young Osborne, leaped into the river
+after her and succeeded in saving her. When the girl
+was grown up her father gave her to his ex-apprentice,
+Edward Osborne, to wife. Edward Osborne became
+Lord Mayor. His descendant is now Duke of Leeds.
+So that the Dukedom of Leeds sprang from that gallant
+leap out of the window overhanging the river Thames from
+London Bridge.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_17_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON" id="chap_17_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON"></a>17. THE TOWER OF LONDON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In an age when every noble's house was a castle, and when
+every castle was erected in order to dominate, as well
+as to defend, the town and the district in which it stood,
+the Tower of London was erected. The builder of the
+White Tower was William the Conqueror, who gave the
+City its Charter but had no intention of giving up his own
+sovereignty; the architect, as has been already said, was
+one Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester. Part of the City
+wall was pulled down to make room for it, and it was
+intended at once for the King's Palace, the King's Castle,
+and the King's Prison. It was also the key of London&mdash;who
+held the Tower, held the City.</p>
+
+<p>William Rufus built a wall round the Tower so as to
+separate it entirely from the City and to prevent the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">{61}</a></span>
+danger of a hasty rising of the people: with the same
+object he gave it a water gate.</p>
+
+<p>A hundred years later, while Richard C&oelig;ur de Lion
+was on his Crusade, the moat was constructed. Henry
+III. and his son Edward I. added to the outer walls and
+strengthened them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_020.jpg" width="500" height="346" alt="TOWER OF LONDON." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TOWER OF LONDON.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is a plan of the Tower made from a survey of
+the year 1597 and published by the Society of Antiquaries.
+A study of the plan should be made before
+visiting the place. Remark first of all that the fortress
+has three entrances only: one at the S.W. angle to
+the City; one to the river now called Traitors' Gate;
+and one on the S.E. angle called the Irongate: that it is
+surrounded by a broad and deep moat which could be
+filled at every high tide: that from the moat rises a
+battlemented wall, and that within this first wall is another,
+flanked with protecting towers; that the City
+entrance is most jealously guarded by a strong gate first:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">{62}</a></span>
+then by a narrow way passing under a tower: then over
+a bridge. In all mediæval castles the first thought was
+to make it impossible to carry the place by a rush. If
+we would restore the Tower of Queen Elizabeth to the
+Tower of Edward III. we must abolish all those buildings
+which stand on the north and east sides, with those
+called 'Lieutenants' Lodgings' on the south. The
+space on the north side of the Keep was the exercising
+ground: stables there must have been somewhere in
+this great area; the men at arms would live in the
+smaller towers. If you will study this plan carefully,
+you will understand the general arrangement of a
+mediæval castle.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixteenth century the place was no longer
+regarded as a fortress for the defence or the domination
+of the City. But the old forms were kept up: nobody
+was admitted who carried arms: the guard kept
+the gate: a garrison was maintained. Within, there
+was an armoury, the beginning of the splendid collection
+which is now shown: there was a Mint for the coining
+of money: there were collections of tapestry, saddles,
+bed furniture and robes belonging to the Crown: here
+were kept the Crown and sceptre and insignia: here was
+the Royal menagerie. Here were the rooms reserved for
+state criminals. It was no longer the Royal Palace but
+the sovereign sometimes occupied the Tower. James the
+First was here, for instance, in 1604.</p>
+
+<p>Near the outer gate where is now the Refreshment
+Room were kept the King's lions. Henry I. began this
+menagerie which was continued until the year 1834.
+At the entrance of the fortress is the Bell Tower where
+Queen Elizabeth was once confined. The Water Gate
+called Traitors' Gate is under St. Thomas's Tower. The
+Beauchamp Tower has been the prison of, among others,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">{63}</a></span>
+Queen Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane Grey. In the Great
+White Tower Richard II. abdicated in favour of Henry
+IV. In the vaults are dungeons, once the prison of Guy
+Fawkes. In the Chapel the newly made Knights of the
+Bath watched their armour all night long. The collection
+of arms contains examples of weapons and armour
+of every age. In the Church of St. Peter ad Vincula
+you will find the graves of the unfortunate Princes,
+Queens, and nobles who have been executed for State
+offences. Nothing, except the Royal tombs of Westminster,
+so much helps to prove the reality of History,
+as this collection of graves and slabs and tablets in this
+little church. And here were kept the Crown jewels
+about which many a chapter might be written.</p>
+
+<p>But to study the Tower of London one must visit it
+with the History of England in hand. Hither were
+brought all the State prisoners: here they were confined:
+here they were executed. Every tower, every stone
+reminds one of sufferers and criminals and traitors and
+innocent victims. Do not, however, forget that this
+Tower was built for the restriction of the liberties of the
+people. That purpose has been defeated. The liberties
+have grown beyond what could ever have been hoped
+while the privileges of the Crown, which this Tower
+was built to protect and to enlarge, have been restricted
+beyond the greatest fears of the mediæval kings.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_18_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON" id="chap_18_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON"></a>18. THE TOWER OF LONDON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Of all the prisoners who suffered death at the termination
+of their captivity in the Tower, there is none whose
+fate was so cruel as that of Lady Jane Grey. Her story
+belongs to English history. Recall, when next you visit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">{64}</a></span>
+the Tower, the short and tragic life of this young Queen
+of a nine days' reign.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_021.jpg" width="500" height="407" alt="Tower of London" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>She was not yet eighteen when she was beheaded,
+not through any fault of her own, but solely because her
+relationship to the Crown placed her in the hands of
+men who used her for their own political purposes. She
+was the second cousin of Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth.
+Her grandmother was the sister of Henry VIII.,
+widow of Louis XII. of France, and wife of Charles, Duke
+of Suffolk. The young King on his deathbed was persuaded
+to name her as his successor. She was sixteen
+years of age: she was already married to Lord Guilford
+Dudley, son of the Duke of Northumberland: when she
+was proclaimed Queen. Nine days after the proclamation
+she was a prisoner. On the 8th of July she was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">{65}</a></span>
+acknowledged Queen by the Lord Mayor and Aldermen:
+on the 10th she was taken by water from Greenwich to
+the Tower, and proclaimed Queen in the City: on the
+17th another proclamation was made of Queen Mary,
+and her reign was over. But the Tower she was never
+more to leave.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th of November&mdash;after five months of suspense&mdash;she
+was tried for high treason with Cranmer, her
+husband Lord Guilford, and her husband's brother,
+Lord Ambrose. They were all four found guilty, and
+condemned to death&mdash;their judges being the very men
+who had sworn allegiance to her as Queen. It would
+seem that Mary had no desire to carry out the sentence:
+Cranmer she reserved for a more cruel death than that
+of beheading&mdash;he was to be burned as a heretic. The
+other three, two boys and a girl, it would be dangerous
+to execute on account of the popular sympathy their
+death would awaken. They were therefore sent back to
+the Tower. Probably it was intended that Lady Jane,
+at least, should pass the rest of her life in honourable
+captivity, as happened later on to Arabella Stuart. But
+the rebellion of Wyatt showed that her name could still
+be used as a cry in favour of a Protestant succession. It
+was therefore resolved to put both husband and wife to
+death. What further harm the young Lord Guilford
+Dudley could do is not apparent. Even then the Queen's
+advisers shrank from exhibiting on Tower Hill the
+spectacle of a young and beautiful girl, taken forth to
+be beheaded because certain hot-headed partizans had
+used her name. She was executed therefore within the
+verge of the Tower itself, on the so-called 'Green.'</p>
+
+<p>'The Green' is a place where no grass will grow&mdash;it
+used to be said&mdash;on account of the blood that had been
+shed upon it. Among the sufferers here was Hastings,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">{66}</a></span>
+executed by order of King Richard: Anne Boleyn:
+Katharine Howard: and Lady Jane Grey. A stone
+marks the spot on which the scaffold was set up.</p>
+
+<p>It was on the morning of the 12th of February that
+Lady Jane Grey was put to death. She was then confined
+in the 'Brick' Tower, the residence of the Master of
+the Ordnance. From her window she saw the headless
+body of her husband brought back from Tower Hill in a
+cart. She looked upon it without shrinking. 'Oh! Guilford,'
+she said, 'the antipast is not so bitter after thou
+hast tasted, and which I shall soon taste, as to make my
+flesh tremble: it is nothing compared to the feast of
+which we shall partake this day in Heaven.' So she
+went forth with her two gentlewomen, Elizabeth Tylney
+and Mistress Helen, but she shed no tears. When she
+was on the scaffold she spoke to the officers of the Tower
+and the soldiers that stood around. No man or woman,
+however wise and dignified, could speak more clearly and
+with greater dignity than this girl of sixteen. They had
+been trying to make her a Catholic. Therefore, she
+made confession of the Protestant Faith: 'Good Christian
+people, bear witness that I die a true Christian
+woman and that I do look to be saved by no other means
+but only by the mercy of God, in the blood of his only
+son, Jesus Christ.'</p>
+
+<p>So she made her gentlewomen bare her neck and
+bind her eyes and kneeling down laid her head upon the
+block, and while she was saying, 'Lord, into Thy hands
+I commend my spirit,' the axe fell and she was dead.</p>
+
+<p>She lies buried before the altar of St. Peter's Church,
+near the bodies of the Queens Anne Boleyn and Katharine
+Howard.</p>
+
+<p>So she died, this poor innocent child of whom all we
+know is that she was so scholarly that she could read<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">{67}</a></span>
+Greek in the original: that she was beautiful: of a grave
+and sweet disposition: and raised far above the voice of
+calumny. She had, says Foxe, 'the innocency of childhood,
+the beauty of youth, the gravity of age: she had
+the birth of a princess, the learning of a clerk, the life of
+a saint, and the death of a malefactor for her parents'
+offences.'</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image_022.jpg" width="350" height="249" alt="A BED IN THE REIGN OF HENRY III." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A BED IN THE REIGN OF HENRY III.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_19_THE_PILGRIMS" id="chap_19_THE_PILGRIMS"></a>19. THE PILGRIMS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the time when the road connecting village with village
+and town with town was but an uncertain bridle path
+through woods and over waste places, where in winter
+horse, man, and wayfarer struggled with bog and quagmire,
+where robbers lurked in the thickets, and fevers
+and agues haunted the marsh, where men went armed
+and every stranger
+was a foe: it would
+seem as if most men
+stayed where they
+were born and desired
+not to court the
+dangers of the unknown
+world. In
+many villages, especially
+in the remote
+places of the country,
+this was the case. The men of Somerset abode where
+they were born, speaking their own language, a race
+apart: the men of Norfolk abode in their county cut
+off from the rest of the world by fens in the west and
+sea on the north and east: their language was not
+understood by the men of the west or the south country.
+Had the other conditions of life allowed this isolation to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">{68}</a></span>
+continue undisturbed, the nation could never have been
+created: we should have remained a scattered collection
+of tribes speaking each its own language and developing
+its own customs.</p>
+
+<p>There were three causes which stirred the stagnant
+waters. The first was War. The Baron, or Feudal
+Lord, carried off the young men of the village to fight:
+those of them who returned had things to tell of the
+outside world. They fired the imagination and awakened
+the enterprise of the lads. The second was Trade at
+the trading ports: the lads saw, and continued to talk
+with, the foreign sailors&mdash;the Fleming, the German, the
+man of Rouen or Bordeaux: some of them went on
+board the ships of the merchant adventurers and sailed
+to foreign lands. Lastly, there were the Pilgrimages.</p>
+
+<p>From the tenth to the fifteenth century there was a
+rage for pilgrimage. Everybody wanted to become a
+pilgrim. No money was wanted: there would certainly
+be found every day some monastery at which bed and
+a supper would be provided for the pilgrim: it was a
+joyous company which fared along the road, some riding,
+some on foot, travelling together for safety, all bound to
+the same shrine where they would hear the masses and
+make their vows and so return, light-hearted: it was, in
+fact, the mediæval way of taking a holiday. Sometimes
+it was to Canterbury, where was the shrine of Thomas
+Becket, that the pilgrims were bound: sometimes to
+Walsingham, where was the miraculous image of the
+Virgin: sometimes to Glastonbury, hallowed by the
+thorn miraculously flowering every year on Christmas
+Day, planted by Joseph of Arimathea himself: sometimes
+it was farther afield&mdash;to Compostella in Spain,
+Rome, or even Jerusalem&mdash;that the pilgrims proposed to
+go. Chaucer describes such a company all starting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">{69}</a></span>
+together, riding from London to Canterbury on pilgrimage
+to the shrine of Thomas Becket. They are pilgrims,
+but there is very little piety in their discourse:
+one can see that, whatever the motive, whether for the
+expiation of sin, or any other cause, the journey is full
+of cheerfulness and enjoyment. The Crusades were one
+outcome of this passion for pilgrimage. Nay, the first
+Crusade itself was little better than a great pilgrimage of
+the common people, so ignorant that they asked at the
+sight of every walled town if that was Jerusalem. It
+was a pilgrimage from which few, indeed, returned.</p>
+
+<p>In England, the chief gain from pilgrimage was the
+bringing together of men from the different parts of the
+country. Remember that the men of the North could
+not understand the speech of the men of the South: a
+Norfolk rustic at the present day would hardly understand
+a man of Devon: there was always danger of
+forgetting that they all belonged to the same realm, the
+same nation, and the same race.</p>
+
+<p>But the love of pilgrimage spread so wide that it
+became a danger. The rustic left the plough: the
+blacksmith his anvil: the carpenter his bench: all
+left their wives and their children in order to tramp
+across the country on pilgrimage to some shrine. By
+day they marched together: at night they sat round
+the fire in the strangers' room of the monastery, and
+took their supper and slept on the reeds. A delightful
+change from the monotony and hard work of the village!
+But the Bishops interposed. Let no one go on pilgrimage
+without his Bishop's license. Let not the monasteries
+give a bed and supper to any pilgrim who could
+not show his Bishop's license. Then the rustics and the
+craftsmen had to remain at home where they have
+stayed, except when they went out to fight, ever since.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">{70}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When the pilgrim&mdash;especially the pilgrim who had
+been over the seas&mdash;came home, he was able to entertain
+his friends with stories he had seen all the rest of his
+life. Thus, the earliest plan of the Holy Sepulchre is
+one drawn by a pilgrim for the instruction of certain
+monks who entertained him. The pilgrims were the
+travellers of the time. They observed foreign manners
+and customs: they brought home seeds and told of
+strange food: they extended the boundaries of the
+world: they prevented the native village from becoming
+the whole world: they taught and encouraged men to
+cease from regarding a stranger as an enemy. The
+world was thus opened out by War, Trade, and Pilgrimage,
+but most of all by Pilgrimage.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_20_ST_BARTHOLOMEWS_HOSPITAL" id="chap_20_ST_BARTHOLOMEWS_HOSPITAL"></a>20. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The oldest of the City Hospitals is that great and
+splendid Foundation which stands in Smithfield&mdash;the
+Smooth Field. It was first founded by one Rahere, of
+whom we know little or nothing except that he lived in
+the reign of Henry I., and that he founded the Priory
+and Monastery of St. Bartholomew. In the church of
+St. Bartholomew the Great you may see a very beautiful
+tomb said to be his, but the work is of a later date. It
+is related that while on a pilgrimage to Rome he fell ill
+and was like to die. And he vowed that if he were
+restored to health he would erect and establish a hospital
+for poor sick people. He did recover and he fulfilled his
+vow. He built the Priory of St. Bartholomew, whose
+church still stands in part and beside it established his
+hospital. The place called Smithfield was then a swampy
+field used for a horse fair: it was also a place of execution
+without the City wall. At first the hospital was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">{71}</a></span>
+very small place. It consisted probably of two large
+rooms or halls, one for men and one for women&mdash;with
+a chapel. If it had any endowment at all it must
+have been very small, because the Master or Hospitaller
+had to go every morning to the Shambles, Newgate, in
+order to beg meat for the maintenance of the sick.
+Two hundred years later the hospital was taken in hand
+by Edward IV. and provided with an establishment of
+Master, eight brethren, priests, and four sisters, who
+served the sick. They were all subject to the Rule of
+St. Austin. After the death of Whittington, the hospital<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">{72}</a></span>
+buildings were repaired by his bequests. On the dissolution
+of the religious houses, the Priory and Hospital
+of Bartholomew fell with the rest, but five years later
+the hospital was refounded and endowed by the King and
+the City.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_023.jpg" width="500" height="442" alt="INTERIOR OF THE HALL AT PENSHURST, KENT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF THE HALL AT PENSHURST, KENT.
+<br />
+(<i>Showing the screen with minstrels&#39; gallery over it, and the brazier for fire in the middle;
+built about 1340.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If you visit a hospital and are taken into a ward,
+you see a row of clean white beds arranged in orderly
+position on either side of the long room: the temperature
+is regulated: the ventilation is perfect: there are means
+by which the patient can be examined in private: the
+diseases are apportioned to separate wards: every thing
+is managed with the greatest cleanliness and order: if
+an operation is performed the patient is kept under
+chloroform and feels nothing. The physicians are men
+of the highest scientific reputation: the nurses are
+trained assistants: the food is the best that can be
+procured. The poorest man brought to the hospital is
+treated with the same care, the same science, the same
+luxuries as the richest.</p>
+
+<p>Look, however, at the hospital as founded by Rahere.</p>
+
+<p>There is a great hall with a chapel at one end: at
+which mass is daily sung. The room is narrow and
+lofty, lit by Norman windows, two or three on a side:
+there is a lanthorn in the roof: under the lanthorn a
+fire is burning every day, the smoke rising to the roof:
+the hall is dark and ill ventilated, the air foul and
+heavy with the breath of sixty or seventy sick men
+lying in beds arranged in rows along the wall. There
+are not separate beds for each patient, but as the
+sick are brought in they are laid together side by
+side, in the same bed, whatever the disease, so that he
+who suffers from fever is placed beside another who
+suffers from palsy. There are four in a bed, and in
+times of pressure even more. Sometimes one arrives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">{73}</a></span>
+who develops the plague, when the whole of the patients
+in the hospital catch the infection and all die together.
+The surgeons are especially skilled in the dressing of
+wounds received in battle or in fray: the sisters can
+tie up a broken limb and stop a bleeding wound. The
+brethren go about the beds administering the last offices
+of the Church to the dying. The food is scanty: the
+appliances are rude: there is small hope of recovery:
+yet to die in hospital tended and consoled instead of in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">{74}</a></span>
+the hut where life has been passed is something for which
+to be grateful.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;">
+<img src="images/image_024.jpg" width="387" height="500" alt="THE UPPER CHAMBER OR SOLAR AT SUTTON COURTENAY MANOR-HOUSE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE UPPER CHAMBER OR SOLAR AT SUTTON COURTENAY MANOR-HOUSE.
+<br />
+(<i>Date, about 1350.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Consider into how great, how noble a Foundation the
+little hospital of Rahere has grown. The modern
+hospital contains 676 beds: it receives about 150,000
+patients every year, of whom 7,000 are inpatients, 18,000
+out patients, and 130,000 casuals. The eight brethren
+have become 30 physicians and surgeons besides the
+assistants called clinical clerks and dressers. The four
+sisters are now 159 sisters and nurses. There is a noble
+school of medicine: there are museums, libraries, lecture
+rooms, and there is a residential college for medical
+students: there is a convalescent hospital in the
+country. No hospital in the world has a larger or
+a more noble record than this of St. Bartholomew. And
+it all sprang from the resolution of one man, who started
+a humble house for the reception of the sick in a poor
+and despised place outside the City wall, but near to the
+Shambles where one could beg for broken victuals and for
+the pieces of meat that the butchers could not sell.
+Thus out of one good deed, apparently of small importance,
+has grown a never-ending stream of refreshment
+and healing. It has lasted for 700 years already:
+there seems no reason why it should ever stop.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_21_THE_TERROR_OF_LEPROSY" id="chap_21_THE_TERROR_OF_LEPROSY"></a>21. THE TERROR OF LEPROSY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>One mile outside the City walls, on the west, stood for
+four hundred years the Hospital of St. Giles in the
+Fields.</p>
+
+<p>Here was a Lazar House, i.e. a Hospital for Lepers.
+It was founded by Maud, Queen of Henry I. It was
+dedicated to St. Giles because this saint was considered
+the protector of cripples. Hence the name Cripplegate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">{75}</a></span>
+which really means the Little Gate, was applied to the
+church of St. Giles, and supposed to mean the gate near
+the church dedicated to the Patron Saint of Cripples. A
+common result of leprosy was to make the sufferer lame
+and crippled. Hence the connection. Generally, however,
+Lazarus, whom our Lord raised from the dead, was
+esteemed the Saint of Lepers, whence a Leper's Hospital
+was always called a Lazar House.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle ages the mysterious disease called
+leprosy was an ever present terror. Other plagues
+appeared at intervals and disappeared. Leprosy remained.
+It never left the land. It struck the King on
+his Throne, the Bishop in his Cathedral, the Abbess in
+her Nunnery, the soldier in camp, the merchant in his
+counting house, the sailor at sea. No class could escape
+it. Robert Bruce died of it; Orivalle, Bishop of London,
+died of it; Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, died of it. To
+this day it prevails in India, at the Cape, in the Pacific
+Islands, while there are occasional cases found in our own
+hospitals. The disease was incurable: the man, woman,
+or child, attacked by it would surely and slowly die of it.
+The leper was unclean: he was thrust out of the town:
+he had to live apart, or congregated in hospitals with
+other wretches similarly afflicted: if he walked abroad
+he wore a grey gown for distinction and carried a clapper
+as he went along, crying 'Unclean, Unclean,' so that the
+people might stand aside and not so much as touch his
+garments. And since he could not work with his hands,
+he was permitted to carry into the market a 'clap dish,'
+that is to say, a bowl or basin in which to receive food
+and alms.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Lacroix, <i>Science</i>, p. 146.</p></div>
+
+<p>Leprosy is supposed to have had its origin in Egypt:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">{76}</a></span>
+the laws laid down in the Book of Leviticus for the separation
+of lepers are stringent and precise: it was believed,
+partly, no doubt, on account of these statutes in the
+Book of the Jewish Law, that the disease was brought
+into Western Europe by the Crusaders; but this was
+erroneous, because it was in this country before the
+Crusaders. Thus the Palace of St. James stands upon
+the site of a lazar house founded before the Conquest for
+fourteen leprous maidens.</p>
+
+<p>This is not the place to describe the symptoms and
+the results of this dreadful disease. Suffice it to say that
+the skin thickens, is discoloured and ulcerates: that the
+limbs swell: that the fingers and toes drop off: that the
+voice sinks to a whisper: and that the sufferer's mind is
+weakened by his malady.</p>
+
+<p>The fearful scourge was so prevalent that there was
+not a town, hardly a village, in any country of Europe
+which had not, in those centuries, its lepers and its lazar
+house, great or small. Every effort was made to isolate
+them: they were not allowed to worship with the rest of
+the people: they were provided with a separate building
+or chapel where, through a hole in the wall, they could
+look on at the performance of mass. And in addition,
+as you have seen, they lived apart and took their food
+apart.</p>
+
+<p>As for their houses&mdash;the lazar houses&mdash;the chief of
+them all, the place where Abbot possessed some kind of
+authority over the others, was one built in a village near
+Melton Mowbray called Burton Lazars. The Hospital of
+St. Giles, for instance, became shortly after its foundation
+a 'cell,' or dependency, of this House.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the cause of this malady, whether it be
+contagious, i.e. communicated by touch; or infectious,
+that is, communicated by breathing the same air; or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">{77}</a></span>
+hereditary; it is quite certain that it was greatly aggravated
+by the habits of the time. Bad food, uncleanly
+habits, bad air, all contributed to the spread of leprosy.
+Especially it has been considered that the long fasts
+during which meat was prohibited encouraged the
+disease: not because abstinence from meat is in itself a
+bad thing, but because the people had to eat fish imperfectly
+cured or kept too long, and unwholesome.
+Fresh-water fish could not be procured in sufficient
+quantities and it was impossible to convey fish from the
+sea more than a certain distance inland.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_025.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="THE LEPERS BEGGING." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE LEPERS BEGGING.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dreadful appearance of the lepers, their horrible
+sufferings, produced loathing more than pity. People
+were horror stricken at the sight of them: they drove
+them out of their sight: they punished them cruelly if
+they broke the rules of separation: they imprisoned any
+citizen who should harbour a leper: they kept bailiffs at
+the City gates to keep them from entering. Fourteen of
+these afflicted persons were required to be maintained in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">{78}</a></span>
+accordance with Queen Maud's Foundation by the Hospital
+of St. Giles: there was also a lazar house in the
+Old Kent Road, Southwark: one between Mile End and
+Bow: one at Kingsland between Shoreditch and Stoke
+Newington: one at Knightsbridge, west of Charing
+Cross, and one at Holloway.</p>
+
+<p>On the Dissolution of the Monasteries, all these
+lazar houses were suppressed. Now, since we hear very
+little more about lepers, and since no new lazar houses
+were built, and since the prohibitions to enter churches,
+towns, &amp;c., are no more renewed, it is tolerably certain
+that leprosy by the middle of the sixteenth century had
+practically disappeared. The above will show, however,
+how great and terrible a thing it was between the ninth
+and the sixteenth centuries.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE" id="chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE"></a>22. THE TERROR OF FAMINE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Suppose that all the ocean traffic were stopped; that
+there was no communication, or exchange of commodities,
+between our country and another; suppose that
+the people of this island depended entirely on their own
+harvests and their own cattle for their support. You
+would then easily understand how a single bad year
+might produce scarcity of food, and a very bad year might
+produce a famine. That was our condition down to the
+fifteenth century. Some corn may have been brought
+over from Prussia or from Hamburg; but there was no
+regular supply; the country depended on its own
+harvests. Therefore, the fear of a famine&mdash;or of scarcity&mdash;was
+ever present to the people.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these famines are on record. In the year
+990 a famine raged over the whole of England; in 1126
+there was a terrible scarcity. Wheat was sold at 6<i>s.</i> a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">{79}</a></span>
+horseload. Now, in the twelfth century a shilling meant
+more than a pound of our money, in purchasing power.
+It is not stated how much constituted a horseload. It would
+probably mean the filling of the two baskets hanging on
+either side of the packhorse. In 1257, after a wet season
+and a bad harvest, wheat rose to 24<i>s.</i> a quarter, a price
+which prohibited all but the richest from eating wheaten
+bread. It is said that 20,000 perished of starvation. In
+1316, after the same cause, wheat became so scarce that
+its price rose to 4<i>l.</i> a quarter. So great was the distress
+this year, that great nobles had to dismiss their retainers;
+the roads in the country were crowded with robbers.
+Robberies were openly committed in the streets for the
+sake of food: in the prisons the unfortunate criminals,
+left to starve, murdered and devoured each other. The
+people ate carrion and dead dogs. In 1335 there was
+another time of scarcity and suffering; in 1439, the
+distress was so great that the people made bread of fern
+roots and ivy berries. Then, for the first time, we read
+of the famine being assuaged by the arrival of rye from
+Prussia. In 1527 a threatened famine was checked by
+the Hanseatic merchants who gave, or sold, a hundred
+quarters of wheat to the City and sent three ships to
+Dantzig for more. In 1593 and in 1597 wheat rose to
+an enormous price. The last time of scarcity was during
+the long war with France, which lasted, from 1792 to
+1815, nearly a quarter of a century. We were then compelled
+to depend almost entirely upon our own harvests.
+Wheat went up as high as 103<i>s.</i> a quarter.</p>
+
+<p>At no time did the poorer classes depend much upon
+wheat. Rye and oats made the bread of the working
+people. But bad harvests affected rye and oats as much
+as wheat.</p>
+
+<p>The famine prices of wheat may be explained by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">{80}</a></span>
+following facts. In the reign of Henry I., at ordinary
+prices, bread enough for one meal for 100 men could be
+bought for a shilling and a whole sheep cost fourpence.
+In the next century, when wheat was at 6<i>s.</i> a quarter, a
+farthing loaf was to weigh 24 oz. whole meal and 16 oz.
+white. When it was at 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a quarter the farthing
+loaf was to weigh 96 oz. whole grain and 64 oz. white.
+The quartern loaf of 4 lb. or 64 oz. now costs 5<i>d.</i>, wheat
+being very cheap. So that prices in time of plenty being
+supposed the same, money was worth twenty times in that
+century as much as it is worth now. In the reign of
+Edward I. wheat went down to 1<i>s.</i> a quarter.</p>
+
+<p>The food of the craftsmen in London was, in
+ordinary times, plentiful and cheap. The City, as we
+have seen, was always remarkable for the great abundance
+of provision which was brought there. And there is
+every reason to believe that while the rustic fared poorly
+and was underfed, the craftsman of the towns always
+enjoyed good food and enough of it. This made a time
+of scarcity hard to bear for one who habitually lived
+well.</p>
+
+<p>Once or twice an attempt was made to provide the
+City with granaries in case of famine. Thus the origin
+of Leadenhall, the great City market, was the erecting
+of a public granary here by Sir Simon Eyre in 1419.
+Attached to the Hall, after the manner of the time, was
+a chapel dedicated to the Holy Trinity, which the founder
+endowed for 60 priests who were to prepare service every
+day for those who frequented the market.</p>
+
+<p>Another public granary was established in 1610 at
+Bridewell Palace. This was built to contain 6,000
+quarters of wheat.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing more is heard about these public granaries.
+Probably the public mind grew more assured on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">{81}</a></span>
+subject of famine as it became better understood that
+the loss of one country might be made up from the
+superfluous harvests of another. The lesson taught by
+the Hanseatic merchants in sending to Prussia for corn
+was not likely to be lost.</p>
+
+<p>At the present moment, with means of transport
+always in readiness and the electric wire joining the most
+distant countries, it might seem that famine was a thing
+no longer to be feared. There cannot be bad harvests
+all over the world. Not only can we every year import
+so much wheat that we need grow little in this country,
+but we import frozen meat in vast quantities: we bring
+fruit of all kinds from the most distant countries, insomuch
+that there are some fruits, such as apples, oranges,
+grapes, bananas, which we can enjoy the whole year round.
+But famine may yet play a great and a disastrous part in
+our history. We must not forget that we enjoy our present
+abundance of all things on one of two conditions; first,
+that we are strong enough to protect the waterway and
+keep it open, or, secondly, that we remain at peace. The
+latter we cannot hope to do always. Therefore it is of
+vital importance that we maintain a strong fleet, well
+equipped, ready to fight, at all times and at the shortest
+notice, superior to any likely combination that may be
+brought against us. Therefore, again, it behoves every
+man in these Isles to be jealous of the fleet, for a time
+may come when the way of the ocean may be closed and
+when Great Britain, through the neglect of her rulers,
+may be starved into a shameful and ruinous surrender.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">{82}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_23_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL" id="chap_23_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL"></a>23. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>When London was converted to Christianity, in the year
+610, the first Bishop of London, Mellitus, built a
+church on the highest ground within the walls of the
+City. This church he dedicated to St. Paul the Apostle
+who first preached to the Gentiles. What kind of
+church this was&mdash;whether great or small&mdash;whether of
+wood or of stone&mdash;how often rebuilt or repaired&mdash;we
+know not. Probably it was quite a small church at
+first. This church, or its successor, was taken down in
+the year 1087 when Bishop Maurice began to build a
+new and far more stately Cathedral. Fifty years later
+most of the church, not yet completed, was burned
+down. Its building, thus delayed, was continued for
+nearly two centuries. The steeple was not completed,
+for instance, till a hundred and fifty years after the
+commencement of the building. The drawing shows
+the church as it was in the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries. Old St. Paul's was one of the largest
+churches in Europe: its length was at least 600 feet;
+the spire reached the height of 460 feet. The church
+stood in a large walled enclosure, still kept partly open,
+though the wall has long since been pulled down and
+there have been encroachments on the north side.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">{83}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image_026.jpg" width="600" height="381" alt="LONDON BEFORE THE SPIRE OF ST. PAUL&#39;S WAS BURNED: SHOWING ALSO THE BRIDGE, THE TOWER, SHIPPING, ETC." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LONDON BEFORE THE SPIRE OF ST. PAUL&#39;S WAS BURNED: SHOWING ALSO THE BRIDGE, THE TOWER, SHIPPING, ETC.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The church in the fourteenth century was not
+regarded only as a place for public worship. Masses
+and services of all kinds were going on all day long: the
+place was bright, not only with the sunlight streaming
+through the painted glass, but with wax tapers burning
+before many a shrine&mdash;at some, all day and all night.
+People came to the church to walk about, for rest, for
+conversation, for the transaction of business&mdash;to make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">{84}</a></span>
+or receive payments: to hire servants. The middle aisle
+of the church where all this was done was called Paul's
+Walk or Duke Humphrey's Walk. Here were tables
+where twelve licensed scribes sat writing letters for those
+who wanted their services. They would also prepare a
+lease, a deed, a conveyance&mdash;any legal document. The
+church was filled with tombs and monuments, some of
+these very ancient, some of the greatest interest. Here
+was one called the tomb of Duke Humphrey&mdash;Humphrey
+Duke of Gloucester, who was really buried at St.
+Alban's. On May Day the watermen used to come to
+St. Paul's in order to sprinkle water and strew herbs
+upon this tomb&mdash;I know not why. Those who were out
+of work and went dinnerless were said to dine with Duke
+Humphrey: and there was a proverb&mdash;'Trash and
+trumpery is the way to Duke Humphrey.' Trumpery
+being used in its original meaning&mdash;<i>tromperie</i>&mdash;<i>deceit</i>.
+Among other tombs there were those of the Saxon Kings
+Sebbi and Ethelred. The first of these was King of the
+East Saxons. He was converted by Bishop Erkenwald.
+The second was the elder brother of King Alfred. There
+were tombs or shrines to many saints now forgotten&mdash;that
+of St. Erkenwald, whose fame rivalled that of
+Edward the Confessor at Westminster, St. Cuthbert at
+Durham, and St. Thomas à Becket at Canterbury: that
+of St. Ethelbert: that of St. Roger, Bishop of London&mdash;a
+cope which St. Roger wore is still preserved in the
+Sacristy: and that of St. Wilford. At every one of
+these shrines miracles were wrought&mdash;or believed to be
+wrought. There was also a miraculous crucifix said to
+have been discovered by Lucius, the first Christian King
+of ancient Britain in the year 140. Great gifts were
+constantly made to this crucifix.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Cathedral, in the crypt, was a parish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">{85}</a></span>
+church&mdash;that of St. Faith's&mdash;it is now united with the
+parish church of St. Augustine's in Watling Street.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_027.jpg" width="500" height="370" alt="OLD ST. PAULS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">OLD ST. PAUL&#39;S, FROM THE EAST.
+<br />
+(<i>Showing its condition just before the Great Fire; from an engraving by Hollar.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Outside the church, almost against the south wall, was
+the parish church of St. Gregory. In the same way the
+parish church of St. Margaret's stands outside Westminster
+Abbey. Within, we can see, in imagination,
+the people walking about&mdash;they have not yet begun to
+stand bareheaded in church&mdash;some dictating to the
+scribes: some leaning against the tombs: some sitting
+on the bases of the great round pillars&mdash;there
+were no pews, benches, or chairs in the Cathedral: the
+chantry priests are saying masses in the chapels: the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">{86}</a></span>
+people are kneeling before the golden shrine of St.
+Erkenwald, resplendent with lights, jewels, gold, and
+silver: women lay their offerings before the miraculous
+crucifix praying for the restoration to health of son or
+husband: a wedding is celebrated in one chapel: a
+funeral mass is being said in another: servants gather
+about a certain pillar waiting to be hired: porters carrying
+baskets on their heads enter at the north door and tramp
+through, going out of the south: processions of priests
+and choir pass up and down the aisles: the organ peals
+and echoes along the long and lofty roof. See; here
+comes a troop of men. They carry instruments of
+music: they are dressed in a livery, a cloak of green:
+they march together entering at the western doors and
+tramping through the whole length of the church to the
+chapel of Our Lady in the East. This is the Guild of
+the Minstrels. There were many other guilds attached
+to the Cathedral. You shall learn presently what was
+the meaning of these guilds.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_24_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL" id="chap_24_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL"></a>24. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Such was Paul's in the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth
+the Reformation came. The candles were all put
+out; the shrines were destroyed; the altars were taken
+out of the chapels: the miraculous images were taken
+away: the church, compared with its previous condition,
+became a shell. The choir was walled off for public
+worship: the rest of the church became a place of public
+resort: the poets of the time are full of allusions to
+Paul's Walk. It was a common thoroughfare even for
+men leading pack horses and asses. The Cathedral, left
+to neglect, began to fall into a ruinous condition. An<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">{87}</a></span>
+attempt was made at restoration: funds were collected,
+but they came in slowly. Laud, who became Bishop of
+London in 1631, gave an impetus to the work: the celebrated
+Inigo Jones was appointed architect: in order to
+prevent the church from being turned into an Exchange,
+he built a West Porch, which is shown in some of the
+pictures of St. Paul's. In the time of the Commonwealth
+this portico was let off in shops and stalls: the
+nave of the church actually became a cavalry barrack.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_028.jpg" width="500" height="320" alt="OLD ST. PAULS ON FIRE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">OLD ST. PAUL&#39;S ON FIRE.
+<br />
+(<i>From Longman&#39;s &#39;A History of the Three Cathedrals of St. Paul&#39;s.&#39;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When King Charles returned it was resolved to repair
+and restore the cathedral, by this time almost in ruins:
+but while the citizens were considering what should be
+done, the Great Fire of London settled the question
+by burning down all that was left.</p>
+
+<p>Then Christopher Wren began the present building.
+The first stone was laid on June 21, 1675, nine years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">{88}</a></span>
+after the Fire. Divine service was performed on December
+2, 1697, the day of thanksgiving for the Peace of
+Ryswick. The work was completed in 1710, thirty-five
+years after its commencement. The present church is
+100 feet shorter than its predecessor: its dome is also
+100 feet lower than the former spire. The grandeur of
+the building cannot be appreciated by any near view,
+because the houses block it in on all sides, and the
+former view from the bottom of Ludgate Hill is now
+spoiled by the railway bridge. Those who wish to see
+what St. Paul's really is&mdash;how splendid a church it is&mdash;how
+grandly it stands above the whole City&mdash;must cross
+the river and look at it from Bankside, Southwark.</p>
+
+<p>The dome is three fold: it consists of an outer casing
+of wood covered with lead: a cone of bricks which supports
+the lantern and cross: and an inner cupola of
+brick which supports nothing. The towers at the west
+end are 222 feet in height.</p>
+
+<p>St. Paul's, especially since the crowding at Westminster
+Abbey, is becoming the National Burial Church.
+It is already well filled with monuments of British
+worthies and heroes of this and the last century. Of men
+distinguished in Literature, Art, and Science, there are
+buried here Dr. Johnson, Hallam the historian, Sir
+Joshua Reynolds the painter, Turner the painter, Rennie
+the engineer who built Waterloo Bridge, Sir William
+Jones, the great Oriental scholar, and Sir Astley Cooper,
+the great surgeon. There is also buried here, as he should
+be, Sir Christopher Wren himself. But those who visit the
+Cathedral desire most to see the tombs of Wellington and
+Nelson. The remains of the former lie in a great sarcophagus
+worked out of a single piece of Cornish porphyry.
+Those of the Admiral were placed first in a coffin made
+from the main mast of the French ship <i>Orient</i>, taken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">{89}</a></span>
+at the Battle of the Nile. This was deposited in a sarcophagus
+made by Cardinal Wolsey and intended for the
+burial of King Henry the Eighth. In the Cathedral, too,
+you will find the monuments of those splendid fighting
+men, Lord Collingwood, Nelson's friend: Howe and
+Rodney: Earl St. Vincent, who won the battle of Cape St.
+Vincent: Lord Duncan of Camperdown, and many others.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;">
+<img src="images/image_029.jpg" width="353" height="500" alt="WEST FRONT OF ST. PAUL&#39;S CATHEDRAL CHURCH." title="" />
+<span class="caption">WEST FRONT OF ST. PAUL&#39;S CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
+<br />
+(<i>Built by Sir Christopher Wren.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">{90}</a></span>In the crypt you will find, if you look for it, the brass
+tablet which marks the spot where lie the remains of a
+man whose history should be an encouragement to every
+boy who reads this book. His name was Edward Palmer.
+Born without family influence, plainly educated at the
+grammar school of his town, he taught himself in the
+teeth of all difficulties&mdash;that of bad health especially&mdash;Arabic,
+Persian, and all the languages which belong to
+that group: at the age of twenty-four he was so splendid
+an Oriental scholar that the greatest Orientalist at Cambridge
+declared that he could teach him nothing. He
+was elected to a Fellowship at St. John's College and
+became the Lord Almoner's Professor of Arabic. He
+mastered, in addition to his Oriental studies, all the
+European languages except Russian and the Slavonic
+group. He explored the Desert of the Exodus and the
+Peninsula of Sinai. He did a great deal of literary work.
+But he was not buried in St. Paul's Cathedral for these
+studies. In the year 1882, when the Egyptian War
+broke out, he was sent on a secret mission to the tribes
+of the Desert. He knew them all: he could talk their
+language as well as his own: he was the equal of any
+one in his knowledge of Arabic poetry and his power of
+telling stories: they welcomed him with open arms: the
+service that he rendered to his country for which he was
+honoured with a funeral at St. Paul's, was that he prevented
+these tribes from destroying the Suez Canal. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">{91}</a></span>
+succeeded in reaching the British camp at Suez in safety,
+his task accomplished, the safety of the Canal assured.
+He was murdered in return by a party of Egyptian
+Arabs sent from Cairo. His bones were recovered by
+Sir Charles Warren&mdash;who further tracked down and
+hanged every man connected with the murder. The
+road to possible greatness lies open to all, but the way
+leads through a difficult and thorny way only to be
+passed, as Palmer found, by resolution invincible and by
+long patient industry.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_25_PAULS_CHURCHYARD" id="chap_25_PAULS_CHURCHYARD"></a>25. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD.</h2>
+
+
+<p>St. Paul's Cathedral stood in the centre of an oval-shaped
+enclosure very much like the present St. Paul's Churchyard,
+save that the houses now in the north are an
+encroachment. This open space was surrounded by a
+wall, in which were six gates embattled. The first was
+the Great Western Gate, facing Ludgate Hill: the
+second in Paul's Alley in Paternoster Row: the third at
+Canon Alley: the fourth, or Little Gate, where is now
+the entrance into Cheapside: the fifth, St. Augustine's
+Gate, Watling Street: the sixth at Paul's Chain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 452px;">
+<img src="images/image_030.jpg" width="452" height="500" alt="PAUL&#39;S CROSS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PAUL&#39;S CROSS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Walking round this enclosure we come first upon the
+Bishop's Palace, standing on the north side of the Nave.
+The Palace was provided with a private entrance into
+the Cathedral. Beyond the Palace was a very beautiful
+cloister called Pardon Church Haugh. In this cloister
+stood a chapel built by Gilbert, father of Thomas à
+Becket. Many monuments and tombs of great persons
+stood within this cloister, which was also remarkable for
+its 'Dances of Death.' This was a series of paintings
+representing Death as a skeleton armed with a dart, leading
+by the hand men and women of every degree, from
+the highest to the lowest. There were formerly many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">{92}</a></span>
+examples of such dances. Next to the cloister was the
+library, the catalogue of which still exists to show what
+a scholar's collection of books then meant. Next to the
+library stood the College of the Minor Canons: then
+came Charnel Chapel, beneath which was a crypt filled
+with human bones taken from the churchyard. Remember
+that this has been a burial place ever since<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">{93}</a></span>
+the year 610, when a church was first built here. From
+the year 610 till the year 1840, or for a period of 1,200
+years, new graves were continually made in this ground.
+Who can guess how many thousands lie buried here?
+Every handful of the dust is a handful of human remains.
+From time to time, however, the bones were
+collected and placed in this crypt of Charnel Chapel.
+The chapel itself was apparently a large building, for
+when it was pulled down the materials were used by the
+Duke of Somerset at the Reformation in building Somerset
+House in the Strand. There are yet standing some
+portions of the original house, so that the stones of
+Charnel Chapel may still be seen. As for the crypt, they
+carried away the bones, which made a thousand cartloads,
+and laid them over Finsbury Fields, covering them
+with ground, on which were erected three windmills.
+The site is marked by the street called Windmill Street.</p>
+
+<p>Next to Charnel Chapel stood the famous Paul's
+Cross.</p>
+
+<p>This famous place was a Pulpit Cross, from which
+sermons might be preached in the open air. Several
+London churches had their open-air pulpits: notably
+St. Michael's, Cornhill; St. Mary's Spital, without
+Bishopsgate&mdash;at this Cross a sermon was preached
+every Easter to the Lord Mayor and aldermen. When
+Paul's Cross was erected is not known: it probably
+stood on the site of some scaffold or steps, from which
+the people were anciently harangued, for this was the
+place of the folk-mote, or meeting of the people. Here
+were read aloud, and proclaimed, the King's Laws and
+Orders: here the people were informed of War and
+Peace: here Papal Bulls were read. There was a cross
+standing here in the year 1256&mdash;very likely it was
+already ancient. In the year 1387 it was ruinous and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">{94}</a></span>
+had to be repaired. It was again repaired or rebuilt in
+1480. Paul's Cross played a very important part in the
+Reformation. Here the 'Rood' of Bexley, which was a
+crucifix where the eyes and lips were made to move
+and the people were taught that it was miraculous, was
+exposed and broken to pieces: here the famous images
+of Walsingham and Ipswich, the object of so many pilgrimages,
+were brought to be broken to pieces before the
+eyes of the people. Here Latimer preached, a man of
+the people who could speak to them in a way to make
+them understand. Had it not been for the preaching of
+Latimer and others like him in plain language, the
+Reformation would have been an attempt, and probably
+a failure, to enforce upon the people the opinions of
+certain scholars. Paul's Cross did not perish in the
+Fire: it was taken down in the year 1643, or thereabouts,
+in order to be rebuilt; but this was not done,
+and when the Fire destroyed the Cathedral Paul's Cross
+was forgotten. Its site may be seen in the churchyard
+at the N.E. corner of the choir, marked by a flat stone,
+but it must be remembered that the old church was
+wider but farther south.</p>
+
+<p>On the south side of Paul's Churchyard we pass
+in succession the beautiful Chapter House: the Church
+of St. Gregory and the Deanery. Close to the western
+gate are residences for the Canons, south of the enclosure
+are the Cathedral Brewhouse and Bakehouse.</p>
+
+<p>Such are some of the buildings in Paul's Churchyard.
+The Cathedral establishment supported a great
+army of priests and people. For many of them, perhaps
+for most, there were residences of some kind either
+within the enclosure or close beside it. Thus the
+priests, including Bishop, Dean, Archdeacons and Canons,
+a hundred and thirty in number: then there were the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">{95}</a></span>
+inferior officers: yet persons of consideration and
+authority, such as Sacrist, Almoner, Bookbinder,
+Chief Brewer, Chief Baker, with all their servants:
+scribes, messengers, bookbinders, illuminators and copyists:
+singing-men and choir boys, and women to keep
+the church clean. When we add that the Brewer had
+to provide 200 gallons of beer a day, it is obvious that
+there must have been a good many people belonging to
+the Cathedral who lived in the enclosure called the
+Churchyard.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_26_THE_RELIGIOUS_HOUSES" id="chap_26_THE_RELIGIOUS_HOUSES"></a>26. THE RELIGIOUS HOUSES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>If we take a map of London in the fourteenth century
+and lay down upon it all the monasteries and religious
+Houses that then existed we shall find twenty, all rich
+and splendid Foundations, without counting those of
+Westminster and the villages within a few miles of
+London Stone. These were built for the most part either
+just within or just without the City wall. The reason
+was that the City was less densely populated near the wall
+than lower down along the river-side. Every one of these
+Societies was possessed of estates in the country and
+streets and houses in the City. Every one then retained,
+besides the monks or friars and nuns, a whole army of
+officers and servants. A great monastery provided employment
+for a very large number of people. In every
+separate estate which belonged to it, the monastery
+wanted tenant farmers, foresters and hunters, labourers,
+stewards and bailiffs, a curate or vicar in charge of the
+church and all the officers who are required for the management
+of an estate. For the House itself there were
+wanted first, the service of the chapel, apart from the
+singing which was done by the brethren: the school:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">{96}</a></span>
+the library: lawyers and clerks to administer the
+estates and guard the rights and privileges of the House:
+the brewhouse, bakehouse, kitchen, cellar, stables, with
+all the officers and servants required in a place where
+everything was made in the house; the architects, surveyors,
+carpenters and people wanted to maintain the
+buildings. It is not too much to reckon that a fourth
+part of the population of London belonged in some way
+or other to the monasteries, while these Houses were
+certainly the best customers for the wines, silks and
+spices which were brought to the quays of Queenhithe
+and Billingsgate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_031.jpg" width="500" height="308" alt="BERMONDSEY ABBEY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BERMONDSEY ABBEY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is generally believed that the monasteries, besides
+relieving the sick and poor and teaching the boys and
+girls, threw open their doors readily to any poor lad who
+desired to take the vows of the Order.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_032.jpg" width="500" height="381" alt="RUINS OF GATEWAY OF BERMONDSEY ABBEY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RUINS OF GATEWAY OF BERMONDSEY ABBEY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All this is a misconception: there were the same difficulties
+about relieving the poor as there are with us at the
+present moment. That is to say, indiscriminate charity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">{97}</a></span>
+then, as now, turned honest working men into paupers.
+This the monks and friars understood very well. They
+were therefore careful about their charities. Also in
+many Houses the school was allowed to drop into disuse.
+And as regards the admission of poor boys it was done
+only in cases where a boy showed himself quick and
+studious. It has been the glory of the Church in all
+ages that she has refused to recognise any barrier of
+birth: but she has also been careful to preserve her distinctions
+for those who deserve them. Most of the
+brethren in a rich Foundation were of gentle birth and
+good family. If a poor boy asked to join a monastery he
+was lucky if he was allowed to become one of its servants
+and to wear its livery. Then his livelihood was assured.
+There is every reason to believe that the rule of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">{98}</a></span>
+brethren, strict for themselves, was light and easy for
+their servants. You may find out for yourselves where
+the London monasteries were, by the names of streets now
+standing on their sites. Thus, following the line of the
+wall from the Tower north and west you find St. Katharine's
+Dock where stood St. Katharine's Hospital: the
+Minories marks the House of the Minorites or Sisters
+of St. Clare; Great St. Helens is on the site of St.
+Helen's Nunnery: Spital Square stands where St. Mary's
+Spital formerly received the sick: Blackfriars, Charter
+House and Bartholomew's still keep their name: Austin
+Friars is the name of a court and the Friars' Church
+still stands: Whitefriars is still the name of a street:
+Grey Friars is Christ's Hospital: the Temple is now the
+lawyer's home; part of the Church of the Knights Hospitallers
+is still to be seen. Three great Houses, it is
+true, have left no trace or memory behind. Eastminster
+or the Cistercian Abbey of St. Mary of Grace, which
+stood north of St. Katharine's, and was a very great and
+stately place indeed: the Priory of the Holy Trinity,
+which stood where is now Duke's Place, north of the
+church of St. Catharine Cree: and St. Mary of Bethlehem,
+which stood just outside Bishopsgate. The memory of
+Bermondsey Abbey and St. Mary Overy on the south
+side of the river has also departed, but the church of
+the latter still stands, the most beautiful church in
+London next to Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_033.jpg" width="500" height="356" alt="Christ&#39;s Hospital" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Christ&#39;s Hospital</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>But besides all these religious Houses employing
+thousands of people, there were in the City of London
+no fewer than 126 parish churches. Many of the parishes
+were extremely small&mdash;a single street&mdash;or half a street:
+many of the churches were insignificant: but many were
+rich and costly structures, adorned and beautified by the
+piety of many generations: all were endowed with funds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">{99}</a></span>
+for the saying of masses for the dead, so that there were
+many priests to every parish. Consider these things and
+you will understand that the City was filled with ecclesiastics&mdash;priests,
+friars, servants of the Church: at
+every corner rose a church: to one standing on the other
+bank of the river the City presented a forest of spires and
+towers. The church then occupied a far larger part of
+the daily life than is now the case even with Catholic
+countries. All were expected to attend a daily service:
+the trade companies went to church in state:
+young men belonged to a guild: the ringing of the bells
+was never silent: no one could escape, if he desired, from
+the Church. No one did desire to escape, because every
+one belonged to the Church. You must understand, not
+only that the Church was so great and rich that it owned
+and ruled a very large part of the country, but also that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">{100}</a></span>
+the people all belonged to the Church: it was part of
+their life as much as their daily work, their daily food,
+their daily rest.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_27_MONKS_FRIARS_AND_NUNS" id="chap_27_MONKS_FRIARS_AND_NUNS"></a>27. MONKS, FRIARS, AND NUNS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>We must not speak of monks indiscriminately as if they
+were all the same. There were as many varieties
+among the Orders as there are sects among Protestants
+and as much rivalry and even hatred of one with the
+other. Let us learn some of the distinctions among
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Monks were first introduced into Western Europe in
+the year 529. There had long been brotherhoods,
+hermits, and solitaries in the East, where they existed
+before the Christian age. St. Benedict founded at Monte
+Casino in Campania a monastery for twelve brethren in
+that year. The Benedictines are the most ancient Order:
+they have also been always the most learned. The Priory
+of the Holy Trinity in London was Benedictine. Several
+branches sprang out of this Order, mostly founded with
+the view of practising greater austerities. Among them
+were the Carthusians, a very strict Order&mdash;in London
+they had the Charter House, a name which is a corruption
+of Chartreuse, their original House: and the Cistercians,
+founded at Citeaux in France&mdash;they had Eastminster,
+or the Abbey of St. Mary of Grace. All these
+were monks.</p>
+
+<p>The Augustine, or Austin Friars, pretended to have
+been founded by Augustine, but were not constituted
+until the year 1256. They had the monastery of Austin
+Friars in London. There were several branches of this
+Order.</p>
+
+<p>There were next the three great Mendicant Orders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">{101}</a></span>
+Franciscans, Dominicans, and Carmelites. These were
+the popular Orders. The monks remained in their
+Houses alone, separated from the world. The friars
+went about among the people. By their vows they were
+to possess nothing of their own: they were to sleep
+where they could: they were to beg their food and
+raiment: they were to preach to the people in the
+streets and in their houses: they were to bring the rites
+of the Church to those who would not enter the doors of
+the Church. None were to be too poor or too miserable
+for them. In their humility they would not be called
+fathers but brothers&mdash;fratres&mdash;friars. In their preaching
+they used every way by which they could move the
+hearts of the people; some thundered, some wept,
+some made jokes. They preached in the midst of the
+markets, among the sports of the Fair, wherever they
+could get an audience together.</p>
+
+<p>The Franciscans, who had Grey Friars House, now
+the Bluecoat School, were founded by St. Francis of
+Assisi in the beginning of the thirteenth century. They
+came over to England and appeared in London a few
+years later. On account of their austerities and the
+faithfulness with which the earlier Franciscans kept
+their vows and the earnestness of their preaching they
+became very popular in this country. Their name&mdash;Grey
+Friars&mdash;denotes the colour of their dress. The old
+simplicity and poverty did not last long. It must, however,
+be acknowledged that wealth was forced upon
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The Dominicans were founded by St. Dominic about
+the year 1215. Sixty years later they came to London
+and established themselves in the place still known by
+their name&mdash;Blackfriars. Their dress was white with a
+black cloak. They were never so popular as the Franciscans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">{102}</a></span>
+perhaps because they insisted more on doctrine,
+and were associated with the Inquisition.</p>
+
+<p>The third of the Mendicant Orders was the Carmelite.
+They were the Whitefriars, their dress being white with
+a black hood. Their House was in Fleet Street. Here
+was a sanctuary whose privileges were not abolished till
+the year 1697.</p>
+
+<p>Other Orders represented in London were the Cluniacs,
+a branch of Benedictines&mdash;they had the Abbey of St.
+Saviour in Bermondsey; the Black Canons, established
+at St. Bartholomew's: the Canons Regular of St.
+Augustin&mdash;who had the Southwark Priory of St. Mary
+Overie: the Knights Templars; and the Knights of St.
+John.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule it is enough to remember that the
+monks were Benedictines with their principal branches of
+Carthusians, Cistercians, and Cluniacs: that the friars
+were those named after Augustine, Dominic, Francis,
+and Mount Carmel; that the monks remained in their
+Houses, practising a life of austerity and prayer&mdash;so long
+as they were faithful to their vows: and that the friars
+went about among the people, preaching and exhorting
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Of the nunneries some were Benedictine, some Franciscan:
+that of the Minorites belonged to the latter
+Order: that of St. Helen's, to the former.</p>
+
+<p>The Religious Houses were dissolved at the Reformation.
+You must remember that if it had not been for
+the existence of these Houses, most of the arts, science,
+and scholarship of the world would have perished utterly.
+The monks kept alive learning of all kinds: they
+encouraged painting: they were discoverers and inventors
+in science: they were the chief agriculturists
+and gardeners: they offered an asylum to the poor and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">{103}</a></span>
+the oppressed. 'The friendship of the poor,' said Bernard,
+'makes us the friends of Kings.' And in an age
+of unrestrained passions they showed an example of self-restraint
+and austerity. The friars did more: they
+were poor among the poor: no one was below their
+care and affection: they had nothing&mdash;they would take
+nothing&mdash;at first: till the love and gratitude of the
+people showered gifts upon them and even against their
+will, if they still retained any love for poverty, they
+became rich.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_28_THE_LONDON_CHURCHES" id="chap_28_THE_LONDON_CHURCHES"></a>28. THE LONDON CHURCHES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Before the Great Fire of London there were 126
+churches and parishes in the City. Most of these were
+destroyed by the Fire, and many were never rebuilt at
+all. Two or even three and four parishes were united
+in one church. Of late years there has been a destruction
+of City churches almost as disastrous as that of the
+Fire. Those who have learned from this book, and elsewhere,
+to respect the monuments of the past and to
+desire their preservation, should do their utmost to prevent
+the demolition of these churches, in consideration
+of their history and their association with the past.</p>
+
+<p>Looking at a picture of London after the Fire, you
+will certainly remark the great number of spires and
+towers. London, in fact, was then, and much more so
+before the Fire, a city of churches. Those which are
+here represented and those which now remain are nearly
+all the work of Christopher Wren, the architect of St.
+Paul's. Many of them are very beautiful internally;
+many have been decorated and adorned with the most
+splendid carved woodwork. About many there cling the
+memories of dead men and great men who worshipped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">{104}</a></span>
+here and made gifts to the church and were buried
+here.</p>
+
+<p>Let us show, by a few examples, how worthy these
+City churches are of preservation and respect.</p>
+
+<p>First, many of them stand on the sites of the most
+ancient churches in the history of London. Those about
+Thames Street, dedicated to St. Peter, St. Paul (the
+Cathedral), St. James, probably represent Christian
+temples of Roman London. The church of St. Martin's,
+Ludgate Hill, was traditionally built by a British prince:
+that of St. Peter, Cornhill, by a Roman general. The
+tradition proves at least the antiquity of the churches.
+St. Augustine's preserves the memory of the preacher
+who converted the Saxons. St. Olave's and St. Magnus
+mark the Danish rule: St. Dunstan's, St. Alphege, St.
+Ethelburga, St. Swithin, St. Botolph, commemorate Saxon
+saints. Why, for instance, are there three churches
+all dedicated to St. Botolph just outside City gates?
+Because this saint&mdash;after whom the Lincolnshire town
+of Icanhoe changed its name to Botolph's town, now
+Boston&mdash;was considered the special protector of travellers.
+Then the names of churches still commemorate some
+fact in history. St. Mary Woolnoth, marks the wool
+market: St. Osyth's&mdash;the name exists in Sise Lane, was
+changed into St. Bene't Shere Hog&mdash;or Skin-the-Pig&mdash;because
+the stream called Walbrook which ran close by
+was used for the purpose of assisting this operation. St.
+Austin's was the chapel of Austin Friars Monastery.
+St. Andrew's Undershaft tells that the City May Pole
+was hung up along its wall. St. Andrew's-by-the-Wardrobe
+commemorates the existence of the Palace formerly
+called the King's Wardrobe. In St. Michael's Bassishaw
+survives the name of an old City family&mdash;the Basings.
+In St. Martin Orgar's&mdash;now destroyed&mdash;we have another
+old City name&mdash;Orgar.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">{105}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Or, again, there are the people who are buried or were
+baptised in these churches.</p>
+
+<p>In All Hallows, Bread Street, now pulled down, was
+baptised the greatest poet of our country, John Milton.
+For this cause alone the church should never have been
+suffered to fall into decay. It was wickedly and wantonly
+destroyed for the sake of the money its site would fetch in
+the year 1877. When you visit Bow Church, Cheapside,
+look for the tablet to the memory of Milton, now fixed
+in that church. It belonged to All Hallows, Bread Street.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Three poets in three distant ages born,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Greece, Italy, and England did adorn:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The first in loftiness of thought surpassed,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The next in majesty&mdash;in both the last.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The force of Nature could no further go;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To make a third she joined the other two.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Christ Church, Newgate, stands on part of the site
+once occupied by the splendid church of the Grey Friars.
+Four Queens lie buried here, and an immense number
+of princes and great soldiers and nobles.</p>
+
+<p>Very few people, of the thousands who daily walk up
+and down Fleet Street, know anything about the statue
+in the wall of St. Dunstan's Church. This is the statue
+of Queen Elizabeth which formerly stood on the west side
+of Lud Gate. This gate was taken down in the year
+1760, and some time after the statue was placed here.
+One of the sights of London before the old church was
+pulled down was a clock with the figure of a savage on
+each side who struck the hours and the quarters on a
+bell with clubs. London has seldom been without some
+such show. As long ago as the fifteenth century there
+was a clock with figures in Fleet Street. Tyndal the
+Reformer, and Baxter the famous Nonconformist were
+preachers in this church.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">{106}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>St. Mary le Bow, was so called because it was the
+first church in the City built on arches&mdash;bows&mdash;of stone.
+The church is most intimately connected with the life
+and history of the City. Bow Bell rang for the closing
+of the shops. If the ringer was late the prentice boys
+reminded him pretty plainly.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'Clarke of the Bow Bell with thy yellow lockes:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In thy late ringing, thy head shall have knockes.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>To which the clerk replied:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'Children of Chepe, hold you all stille:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For you shall have Bow Bell ring at your will.'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>St. Mary's Woolnoth was for many years the church
+of the Rev. John Newton, once the poet Cowper's friend.
+He began his life in the merchant service and was for
+many years engaged in the slave trade.</p>
+
+<p>For these reasons&mdash;their antiquity, their history,
+their associations&mdash;the destruction of the City churches
+ought to be resisted with the utmost determination.
+You who read this page may very possibly become
+parishioners of such a church. Learn that, without the
+consent of the parishioners, no church can be destroyed.
+A meeting of parishioners must be called: they must
+vote and decide. Do not forget this privilege. The
+time may come when your vote and your's alone, may
+retain for your posterity a church rich in history and
+venerable with the traditions of the past.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_29_THE_STREETS" id="chap_29_THE_STREETS"></a>29. THE STREETS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>You have seen how the wall surrounded Roman London.
+The same wall which defended and limited Augusta
+defended and limited Plantagenet London. Outside the
+wall on the east there continued to extend wide marshes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">{107}</a></span>
+along the river; moorlands and forest on the north;
+marshes with rising ground on the west; marshes on the
+south. Wapping was called Wapping in the Wose
+(Wash or Ouze), meaning in the Marsh: Bermondsey
+was Bermond's Island, standing in the marsh: Battersea
+was Batter's Island, or perhaps Island of Boats: Chelsea
+was the Island of Chesel or Shingle: Westminster Abbey
+was built on the Isle of Thorns. The monasteries
+standing outside the wall attracted a certain number of
+serving people who built houses round them: some of the
+riverside folk&mdash;boat-builders, lightermen, and so forth&mdash;were
+living in the precinct of St. Katharine, just outside
+the Tower: all along the Strand were great men's houses,
+one of which, the Somerset House, still stands in altered
+form, and another, Northumberland House, was only
+pulled down a few years ago. Southwark had a single
+main street with a few branches east and west: it also
+contained several great houses, and was provided with
+many Inns for the use of those who brought their goods
+from Kent and Surrey to London Market. It was
+also admitted as a ward. On either side of the High
+Street lay marshes. The river was banked&mdash;hence the
+name Bank Side&mdash;but it is not known at what time.</p>
+
+<p>That part of the wall fronting the river had long
+been pulled down, but the stairs were guarded with iron
+chains, and there was a river police which rowed about
+among the shipping at night.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">{108}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image_034.jpg" width="600" height="430" alt="CHEPE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHEPE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The streets and lanes of London within the walls were
+very nearly the same as they are at present, except for
+the great thoroughfares constructed within the last
+thirty years. That is to say, when one entered at
+Lud Gate and passed through Paul's Churchyard, he
+found himself in the broad street, the market place of
+the City, known as Chepe. This continued to the place
+where the Royal Exchange now stands, where it broke
+off into two branches, Cornhill and Lombard Street.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">{109}</a></span>
+These respectively led into Leadenhall Street and Fenchurch
+Street, which united again before Aldgate.
+Another leading thoroughfare crossed the City from
+London Bridge to Bishopsgate, and another, Thames
+Street, by far the most important, because here the
+merchant adventurers&mdash;those who had ships and imported
+goods&mdash;met for the transaction of business. The rough
+cobbled pavement of Thames Street was the Exchange
+of Whittington and the merchants of his time, who all
+had their houses on the rising ground, among the
+narrow lanes north of the street. You have seen what
+splendid houses a London merchant loved to build.
+What kind of house did the retailer and the craftsman
+occupy? It was of stone in the lower parts, but the
+upper storey was generally of wood, and the roof was
+too often thatched. The window was glazed in the
+upper part, but had open work and shutter for the lower
+half: this half, with the door, stood open during the
+greater part of the year. The lower room was the
+living room, and sometimes the work room of the
+occupant. The upper floor contained the bed rooms.
+There was but one fireplace in the house&mdash;that in the
+living room. At the back of the house was generally a
+small garden. But, besides these houses, there were
+courts dark, narrow, noisome, where the huts were still
+'wattle and daub,' that is, built with posts, the sides
+filled in with branches or sticks and clay or mud, the
+fire in the middle of the floor, the chimney overhead.
+And still, as in Saxon times, the great danger to the
+City was from fire.</p>
+
+<p>Men of the same trade still congregated together for
+convenience. When all lived together the output would
+be regulated, prices maintained, and wages agreed upon.
+Nothing was more hateful to the mediæval trader than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">{110}</a></span>
+forestalling and regrating. To forestall was to buy
+things before they arrived at market with intent to sell
+at a higher price. To regrate was to buy up in the
+market and sell again in the same market at an advanced
+price. To undersell your neighbour was then also an
+unpardonable crime. You discover, therefore, that trade
+in Plantagenet London was not like trade in Victorian
+London. Then, all men of the same trade stood by
+each other and were brothers: now, too often, men of
+the same trade are enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The names of streets show the nature of the trades
+carried on in them. Turners and makers of wooden
+cups and platters, Wood Street: ironmongers, in their
+Lane: poultry sellers, the Poultry: bakers, Bread
+Street: and so on. Chepe was the great retail market
+of the City. It was built over gradually, but in early
+times it was a broad market covered with stalls, like the
+market-place of Norwich, for instance; these stalls were
+ranged in lines and streets: churches stood about among
+the lines. Then the stalls, which had been temporary
+wooden structures, were changed into permanent shops,
+which were also the houses of the tenants: the living
+room and kitchen were behind the shop: the master
+and his family slept above, and the prentices slept under
+the counter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 382px;">
+<img src="images/image_035.jpg" width="382" height="500" alt="LARGE SHIP AND BOAT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LARGE SHIP AND BOAT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+<br />
+(<i>The mainsail of the ship has the Beauchamp arms, and the streamer the bear and ragged
+staff. From the &#39;Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick,&#39; by John Rous; drawn
+about 1485.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_30_WHITTINGTON" id="chap_30_WHITTINGTON"></a>30 WHITTINGTON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The story of Dick Whittington has been a favourite
+legend for many generations. The boy coming up to
+London poor and friendless; lying despairing on the
+green slope of Highgate; resolved to return to the
+country since he can find no work in London: the falling
+upon his ears of the bells of Bow, wafted across the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">{111}</a></span>
+fields by the south wind&mdash;every child knows all this.
+What did the bells say to him&mdash;the soft and mellow
+bells, calling to him across four miles of fields? 'Turn
+again, Whittington&mdash;Turn again, Whittington&mdash;Lord
+Mayor of London&mdash;Turn again, Whittington.' He did
+turn, as we know, and became not once, but four times
+Lord Mayor of London and entertained kings, and was
+the richest merchant of his time. And all through a cat&mdash;we
+know how the cat began his fortune.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">{112}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That is the familiar legend. Now you shall learn
+the truth.</p>
+
+<p>There was a Dick Whittington: and he was Lord
+Mayor of London&mdash;to be accurate, he was Mayor of
+London, for the title of Lord Mayor did not yet exist.</p>
+
+<p>He was not a poor and friendless lad by any means.
+He belonged to a good family, his father, Sir William
+Whittington, Knight, being owner of an estate in Herefordshire
+called Soler's Hope, and one in Gloucestershire
+called Pauntley. The father was buried at Pauntley
+Church, where his shield may still be seen. Richard was
+the youngest of three sons of whom the eldest, William,
+died without children: and the second, Robert, had sons
+of whom one, Guy, fought at Agincourt. From the
+second son there are descendants to this day.</p>
+
+<p>Richard, at the age of fourteen, was sent to London,
+where he had connections. Many country people had
+connections in London who were merchants. Remember
+that in those days it would be impossible for a boy to
+rise from poverty to wealth and distinction by trade.
+Such a lad might rise in the church, or even, but I know
+not of any instance, by distinguished valour on the field
+of battle. Most certainly, he would be prenticed to a craft
+and a craftsman he would remain all his life. Whittington
+was a gentleman: that was the first and necessary condition
+to promotion: he came to London, not to learn
+a craft at all, but to be apprenticed to his cousin Sir John<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">{113}</a></span>
+Fitzwarren, Mercer and Merchant Adventurer. The
+Mercers were the richest and most important company
+in London: the merchant adventurers were those&mdash;the
+foremost among the Mercers&mdash;who owned ships which
+they despatched abroad with exports and with which
+they imported stuffs and merchandise to the Port of
+London. Whittington's master may have had a shop
+or stall in Chepe&mdash;but he was a great importer of silks,
+satins, cloth of gold, velvets, embroideries, precious
+stones, and all splendid materials required for an age of
+splendid costume.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 358px;">
+<img src="images/image_036.jpg" width="358" height="500" alt="A SEA-FIGHT." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A SEA-FIGHT.
+<br />
+(<i>From the &#39;Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick&#39;; drawn by John Rous about 1485.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">{114}</a></span>What is the meaning of the 'cat' story? Immediately
+after Whittington's death the story was spread
+about. When his executors repaired Newgate they
+placed a carven cat on the outside: when Whittington's
+nephews, a few years later, built a house in Gloucester
+they placed a carven cat over the door in recognition of
+the story. All sorts of explanations have been offered.
+First, that there never was any cat at all. Next, that
+by a 'cat' is meant a kind of ship, a collier. Thirdly,
+that the cat is symbolical and means something else.
+Why need we go out of our way at all? A cat at that
+time was a valuable animal: not by any means common:
+in certain countries where rats were a nuisance a cat
+was very valuable indeed. Why should not the lad
+entrust a kitten to one of his master's skippers with
+instructions to sell it for him in any Levantine port at
+which the vessel might touch? Then he would naturally
+ever afterwards refer to the sale of the cat, the first venture
+of his own, as the beginning and foundation of his
+fortune. But you must believe about the cat whatever
+you please. The story has been told of other men. There
+was a Portuguese sailor, named Alphonso, who was
+wrecked on the Coast of Guinea. He carried a cat safely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">{115}</a></span>
+ashore and sold her to the King for her weight in gold:
+with this for his first capital he rapidly made a large
+fortune. Again, one Diego Almagro, a companion of
+Pizarro, bought the first cat ever taken to South America
+for 600 pieces of eight. And the story is found in
+Persia and in Denmark, and I dare say all over the
+world. Yet I believe in its literal truth.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1378 Whittington's name first appears
+in the City papers. He was then perhaps twenty-one&mdash;but
+the date of his birth is uncertain&mdash;and was already
+in trade, not, as yet, very far advanced, for his assessment
+shows that as yet he was in the lowest and poorest class
+of the wholesale Mercers.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_31_WHITTINGTON" id="chap_31_WHITTINGTON"></a>31. WHITTINGTON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>For nearly fifty years after this Whittington leads an
+active, busy, prosperous life. It was a distracted time,
+full of troubles and anxieties. A Charter obtained in 1376,
+two or three years before he began business, was probably
+the real foundation of Whittington's fortune. For it
+forbade foreign merchants to sell by retail. This meant
+that a foreign ship bringing wine to the port of London
+could only dispose of her merchandise to the wholesale
+vintners: or one bringing silk could only sell it to wholesale
+mercers. The merchants, no doubt, intended to use
+this Charter for the furtherance of their own shipping
+interests.</p>
+
+<p>This important Charter, presented by the King, was
+nearly lost a little after, when there was trouble about
+Wycliffe. The great scholar was ordered to appear at
+St. Paul's Cathedral before the Archbishop of Canterbury<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">{116}</a></span>
+and the Bishop of London, to answer charges of heresy.
+He was not an unprotected and friendless man, and he
+appeared at the Cathedral under the protection of the
+powerful John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, son of
+King Edward III. The Bishop of London rebuked the
+Duke for protecting heretics, so the Duke, enraged,
+threatened to pull the Bishop out of his own church by
+the hair of his head. The people outside shouted that
+they would all die before the Bishop should suffer indignity.
+John of Gaunt rode off to Westminster and
+proposed that the office of Mayor should be abolished
+and that the Marshal of England should hold his court
+in the City&mdash;in other words, that even the liberties and
+Charters of the City should be swept clean away. Then
+the Londoners rushed to the Savoy, the Duke's palace,
+and would have sacked and destroyed it but for the
+Bishop. This story indicates the kind of danger to
+which, in those ages, the City was liable. There were no
+police; a popular tumult easily and suddenly became
+a rebellion: no one knew what might happen when the
+folk met together and wild passions of unreasoning fury
+were aroused.</p>
+
+<p>Another danger of the time for the peaceful merchant.
+For some years the navigation of the North Sea and the
+Channel was greatly impeded by a Scottish privateer
+or pirate named Mercer. In vain had the City made
+representations to the King. Nothing was done, and
+the pirate grew daily stronger and bolder. Then Sir
+John Philpot, the Mayor, did a very patriotic thing. He
+built certain ships of his own, equipped them with arms,
+went on board as captain or admiral, and manned them
+with a thousand stout fellows. He found the pirate off
+Scarborough, fell upon him, slew him with all his men
+and returned to London Port with all his own ships and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">{117}</a></span>
+all the pirate's ships&mdash;including fifteen Spanish vessels
+which had joined Mercer.</p>
+
+<p>The King pretended to be angry with this private
+mode of carrying on war, but the thing was done, and
+it was a very good thing, and profitable to London and
+to the King himself, therefore when Sir John Philpot
+gave the King the arms and armour of a thousand men
+and all his own ships and prize ships, the Royal clemency
+was not difficult to obtain. I wish that I could state
+that Whittington had sailed with Sir John on this
+gallant expedition.</p>
+
+<p>A third trouble arose in the year 1381 on the rebellion
+of the peasants under John Ball, Wat Tyler, Jack the
+Miller, Jack the Carter, and Jack Trewman. The rebels
+held possession of the City for awhile. They destroyed
+the Savoy, the Temple and the houses of the foreign
+merchants (this shows that they had been joined by
+some of the London people). They murdered the Archbishop
+of Canterbury and the Prior of St. John's Hospital.
+Then the citizens roused themselves and with an army
+of 6,000 men stood in ranks to defend the King.</p>
+
+<p>Then there happened the troubles of John of Northampton,
+Mayor in 1382. You have learned how trades
+of all kinds were banded together each in its own Company.
+Every Company had the right of regulating prices. Thus
+the Fishmongers sold their fish at a price ordered by the
+Warden or Master of the Company. It is easy to understand
+that this might lead to murmurs against the high
+price of fish or of anything else. This, in fact, really
+happened. It was a time of great questioning and doubt;
+the rising of Wat Tyler shows that this spirit was abroad.
+The craftsmen of London, those who made things,
+grumbled loudly at the price of provisions. They asked
+why the City should not take over the trade in food of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">{118}</a></span>
+all kinds and sell it to the people at lower prices. John
+of Northampton being Mayor, took the popular view.
+He did not exactly make over the provisioning of the
+City to the Corporation, but he first obtained an Act of
+Parliament throwing open the calling of fishmonger
+to all comers; and then another which practically
+abolished the trade of grocers, pepperers, fruiterers,
+butchers, and bakers. Imagine the rage with which such
+an Act would now be received by London tradesmen!</p>
+
+<p>The next Mayor, however, obtained the rescinding of
+these Acts. In consequence, fish went up in price and
+there was a popular tumult, upon which one man was
+hanged and John of Northampton was sent to the Castle
+of Tintagel on the Cornish Coast, where he remained for
+the rest of his life.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_32_WHITTINGTON" id="chap_32_WHITTINGTON"></a>32. WHITTINGTON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In the year 1384, being then about twenty-six years of
+age, Whittington was elected a member of the Common
+Council. In the year 1389 he was assessed at the same
+sum as the richest citizen. So that these ten years of
+his life were evidently very prosperous. In the year
+1393 he was made Alderman for Broad Street Ward.
+In the same year he was made Sheriff. In the year
+1396, the Mayor, Adam Bamme, dying in office, Whittington
+succeeded him. The following year he was
+elected Mayor.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1401, water was brought from Tyburn
+(now the N.E. corner of Hyde Park) to Cornhill in pipes,
+a great and important boon to the City.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1406 he was again elected Mayor. The
+manner of his election is described in the contemporary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">{119}</a></span>
+records. After service in the chapel of the Guildhall,
+the outgoing Mayor, with all the Aldermen and as many
+as possible of the wealthier and more substantial
+Commoners of the City, met in the Guildhall and chose
+two of their number, viz., Richard Whittington and
+Drew Barentyn. Then the Mayor receiving this nomination
+retired into a closed chamber with the Aldermen
+and made choice of Whittington.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1419 he was elected Mayor for the third
+and last time, but, counting his succession to Bamme,
+he was actually four times Mayor. In 1416 he was
+returned Member of Parliament for the City.</p>
+
+<p>It was not a new thing for a citizen to be made
+Mayor more than once. Three during the reign of
+Edward III. were Mayor four times; two, three times;
+seven, twice.</p>
+
+<p>In Whittington's later years began the burning of
+heretics and Lollards. It is certain that Lollardism had
+some hold in the City, but one knows not how great was
+the hold. A priest, William Sawtre, was the first who
+suffered. Two men of the lower class followed. There
+is nothing to show that Whittington ever swerved from
+orthodox opinions.</p>
+
+<p>In 1416, the City was first lighted at night: all
+citizens were ordered to hang lanterns over their doors.
+How far the order was obeyed, especially in the poorer
+parts of the City, is not known.</p>
+
+<p>In 1407 a plague carried off 30,000 persons in
+London alone. If this number is correctly stated it
+must have taken half the population.</p>
+
+<p>Many improvements were effected in the City during
+these years: it is reasonable to suppose that Whittington
+had a hand in bringing these about. Fresh water brought
+in pipes: lights hung out after dark: the erection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">{120}</a></span>
+of a house&mdash;Bakewell Hall&mdash;for the storage and sale of
+broadcloth: the erection of a store for the reception
+of grain, in case of famine&mdash;this was the beginning of
+Leadenhall&mdash;the building of a new Guildhall: and an
+attempt to reform the prisons&mdash;an attempt which failed.</p>
+
+<p>In his last year of office Whittington entertained the
+King, Henry V. and his Queen.</p>
+
+<p>There was as yet no Mansion House: every Mayor
+made use of his own private house.</p>
+
+<p>The magnificence of the entertainment amazed the
+King. Even the fires were fed with cedar and perfumed
+wood. When the Queen spoke of this costly gift the
+Mayor proposed to feed the fire with something more
+precious still. He then produced the King's bonds to
+the value of 60,000<i>l.</i> which he threw into the fire and
+burned. This great sum would be a very considerable
+gift even now. In that time it represented at least
+six times its present value. The Mayor therefore gave
+the King the sum of 360,000<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>This is, very shortly, an account of Whittington's
+public life.</p>
+
+<p>He lived, I believe, on the north side of St. Michael's
+Paternoster Royal. I think so because his College was
+established there after his death, and as he had no
+children it is reasonable to suppose that his house would
+be assigned to the College. There is nothing to show
+what kind of house it was, but we may rest assured that
+the man who could entertain the King and Queen in
+such a manner was at least well housed. There is a
+little court on this spot which is, I believe, on the site
+of Whittington's house. They used to show a house in
+Hart Street as Whittington's, but there was no ground
+for the tradition except that it was a very old house.</p>
+
+<p>Whittington married his master's daughter, Alice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">{121}</a></span>
+Fitzwarren. He had no children, and he died in 1423
+when he was sixty-five years of age.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the real Whittington. A gentleman by
+birth, a rich and successful man, happy in his private
+life, a great stickler for justice, as a magistrate severe
+upon those who cheat and adulterate, a loyal and patriotic
+man, and always filled with the desire to promote
+the interests of the City which had received him and
+made him rich.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_33_GIFTS_AND_BEQUESTS" id="chap_33_GIFTS_AND_BEQUESTS"></a>33. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The stream of charity which has so largely enriched and
+endowed the City of London began very early. You
+have seen how Rahere built and endowed Bartholomew's,
+and how Queen Maud founded the Lazar House of St.
+Giles. The fourteenth century furnishes many more
+instances. Thus William Elsinge founded in 1332 a
+hospital for a hundred poor blind men: in 1371 John
+Barnes gave a chest containing 1,000 marks to be lent
+by the City to young men beginning trade. You have
+heard how one Mayor went out to fight a pirate and slew
+him and made prizes of his vessels. Another when corn
+was very dear imported at his own expense a great
+quantity from Germany. Another gave money to relieve
+poor prisoners: another left money for the help of poor
+householders: another provided that on his commemoration
+day in the year 2,400 poor householders, of the
+City should have a dinner and every man two pence.
+This means in present money about £600 a year, or an
+estate worth £20,000: another left money to pay the tax
+called the Fifteenth, for three parishes: another brought
+water in a conduit from Highbury to Cripplegate.</p>
+
+<p>But the greatest and wisest benefactor of his time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">{122}</a></span>
+was Whittington. In his own words: 'The fervent
+desire and busy intention of a prudent, wise, and devout
+man, should be to cast before and make secure the state
+and the end of this short life with deeds of mercy and
+pity, and especially to provide for those miserable persons
+whom the penury of poverty insulteth, and to whom the
+power of seeking the necessaries of life by act or bodily
+labour is interdicted.'</p>
+
+<p>With these grave words, which should be a lesson to
+all men, rich or poor, Whittington begins the foundation
+of his College. If a man were in these days to found
+a College he would make it either a school for boys or a
+technical school&mdash;in any case a place which should be
+always <i>working</i> for the world. In those days, when it
+was universally believed that the saying of masses was
+able to lift souls out of punishment, a man founded a
+College which should <i>pray</i> for the world. Whittington's
+College was to consist of a Master and four Fellows&mdash;who
+were to be Masters of Arts&mdash;with clerks, choristers,
+and servants. They were every day to say mass for the
+souls of Richard and Alice Whittington in the church of
+St. Michael's Paternoster Royal&mdash;which church Whittington
+himself had rebuilt. Behind the church he
+founded and built an almshouse for thirteen poor men,
+who were to have 16<i>d.</i> each per week, about 7<i>s.</i> of our
+money, with clothing and rooms on the condition of
+praying daily for their founder and his wife. Part of
+the ground for the building was granted by the Mayor
+and Corporation.</p>
+
+<p>The College continued until the Dissolution of the Religious
+Houses&mdash;that is, for one hundred and fifty years:
+the almshouse continues to this day: but it has been removed
+to Highgate: on its site the Mercers' Company
+has established a school.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">{123}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Whittington, further, built a library for the Franciscan
+House; part of the building still remains at
+Christ's Hospital. It was 129 feet long and 31 feet
+broad. He also gave the friars 400<i>l.</i> to buy books. He
+restored and repaired the Hospital of St. Bartholomew's,
+to which he gave a library. He paved and glazed the
+new building of Guildhall: he gave large sums for the
+bridge&mdash;and the chapel on the bridge&mdash;at Rochester&mdash;as
+a merchant he was greatly interested in keeping this
+important bridge in order: he repaired Gloucester
+Cathedral&mdash;the cathedral church of his native diocese:
+he made 'bosses,' i.e. taps of water, to the great aqueduct:
+he rebuilt and enlarged Newgate Prison; and
+he founded a library at Guildhall.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these things were done after his death by
+his executors.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the gifts by which a City merchant of the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries sought to advance
+the prosperity of the citizens. Fresh water in plenty
+by 'bosses' here and there: the light of learning by
+means of libraries: almshouses for the poor: mercy
+and charity for the prisoners: hospitals for the sick:
+help for the young: prayers for the dead. These things
+he understood.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot expect any man to be greatly in advance
+of his age. Otherwise we should find a Whittington
+insisting upon cleanliness of streets: fresh air in the
+house: burial outside the City: the abolition of the
+long fasts which made people eat stinking fish and so
+gave them leprosy: the education of the craftsmen in
+something besides their trade: the establishment of a
+patrol by police: and the freedom of trade.</p>
+
+<p>He did not found any school. That is a remarkable
+omission. One of his successors, Sir William Sevenoke,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">{124}</a></span>
+founded a school for lads of his native town Sevenoaks:
+another, Sir Robert Chichele, founded a school, an almshouse,
+and a college in his native town of Higham
+Ferrers. A friend of his own, Sir John Niel, proposed to
+establish four new grammar schools in the City. And
+yet Whittington left no money for a school. We may be
+quite sure that there was a reason for the omission.
+Perhaps he was afraid of the growing spirit of doubt and
+inquiry. Boys who learn grammar and rhetoric may
+grow into men who question and argue; and so, easily
+and naturally, get bound to the stake and are consumed
+with the pile of faggots. Everything was provided except
+a school for boys. Libraries for men; but not a school
+for boys. The City of London School was founded by
+Whittington's executor, John Carpenter. There must
+have been reasons in Whittington's mind for omitting
+any endowment of schools. What those reasons were I
+cannot even guess.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_34_THE_PALACES_AND_GREAT_HOUSES" id="chap_34_THE_PALACES_AND_GREAT_HOUSES"></a>34. THE PALACES AND GREAT HOUSES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>When you think of a great city of the thirteenth or
+fourteenth century you must remember two things.
+First, that the streets were mostly very narrow&mdash;if you
+walk down Thames Street and note the streets running
+north and south you will be able to understand how
+narrow the City streets were. Second, that the great
+houses of the nobles and the rich merchants stood in
+these narrow streets, shut in on all sides though they
+often contained spacious courts and gardens. No attempt
+was made to group the houses or to arrange them with
+any view to picturesque effect.</p>
+
+<p>It has been the fashion to speak of mediæval London
+as if it were a city of hovels grouped together along dark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">{125}</a></span>
+and foul lanes. This was by no means the case. On
+the contrary, it was a city of splendid palaces and houses
+nearly all of which were destroyed by the Great Fire.
+You have seen how the City was covered with magnificent
+buildings of monasteries and churches. Do not believe
+that the nobles and rich merchants who endowed and
+built these places would be content to live in hovels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_037.jpg" width="500" height="281" alt="DURHAM, SALISBURY, AND WORCESTER HOUSES." title="" />
+<span class="caption">DURHAM, SALISBURY, AND WORCESTER HOUSES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The nobles indeed wanted barracks. A great Lord
+never moved anywhere without his following. The Earl
+of Warwick, called the King Maker, when he rode into
+London was followed by five hundred men, wearing his
+colours: all of these had to find accommodation in his
+town house. This was always built in the form of a
+court or quadrangle. The modern Somerset House, which
+is built on the foundations of the old house, shows us what
+a great man's house was like: and the College of Heralds
+in Queen Victoria Street, is another illustration, for this
+was Lord Derby's town house. Hampton Court and St.
+James's, are illustrations of a great house with more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">{126}</a></span>
+one court. Any one who knows the colleges of Oxford
+and Cambridge will understand the arrangement of the
+great noble's town house in the reign of Richard II.
+On one side was the hall in which the banquets took
+place and all affairs of importance were discussed. The
+kitchen, butteries and cellars stood opposite the doors of
+the hall; at the back of the hall with a private entrance
+were the rooms of the owner and his family: the rest of
+the rooms on the quadrangle were given up to the use
+of his followers.</p>
+
+<p>Baynard's Castle&mdash;the name yet survives&mdash;stood on
+the river bank not far from Blackfriars. It was a huge
+house with towers and turrets and a water gate with
+stairs. It contained two courts. It was at last, after
+standing for six hundred years, destroyed in the Great
+Fire, and was one of the most lamentable of the losses
+caused by that disaster. The house had been twice
+before burned down, and that which finally perished was
+built in 1428. Here Edward IV. assumed the Crown:
+here he placed his wife and children for safety before going
+forth to the Battle of Barnet. Here Buckingham
+offered the Crown to Richard. Here Henry VIII. lived.
+Here Charles II. was entertained.</p>
+
+<p>Eastward, also on the river bank and near the old
+Swan Stairs, stood another great house called Cold Harbour.
+It belonged to Holland, Dukes of Exeter, to
+Richard III. and to Margaret, Countess of Richmond.</p>
+
+<p>North of Thames Street near College Hill was the
+Erber, another great house which belonged successively
+to the Scropes and the Nevilles. Here lived the King-maker
+Earl of Warwick. His following was so numerous
+that every day six oxen were consumed for breakfast
+alone. His son-in-law, who had the house afterwards, was
+the Duke of Clarence&mdash;'false, fleeting, perjured Clarence.'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">{127}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If you would know how a great merchant of the
+fifteenth century loved to be housed, go visit Crosby
+Hall. It is the only specimen left of the ancient wealth
+and splendour of a City merchant. But as one man lived
+so did many. We cannot believe that Crosby was singular
+in his building a palace for himself.</p>
+
+<p>London with its narrow streets, its crowded courts, and
+the corners where the huts and hovels of wood and daub
+and thatch stood among their foul surroundings, a constant
+danger to the great houses of fire and plague, was
+a city of great houses and palaces, with which no other
+city in Europe could compare. Venice and Genoa had
+their Crosby Halls&mdash;their merchants' palaces; but
+London had in addition, the town houses of all the
+nobles of the land. In the City alone, without counting
+the Strand and Westminster, there were houses of the
+Earls of Arundel, Northumberland, Worcester, Berkeley,
+Oxford, Essex, Thanet, Suffolk, Richmond, Pembroke,
+Abergavenny, Warwick, Leicester, Westmoreland. Then
+there were the houses of the Bishops and the Abbots.
+All these before we come to the houses of the rich merchants.
+Let your vision of London under the Plantagenets
+be that of a city all spires and towers, great churches
+and stately convents, with noble houses as great and
+splendid as Crosby Hall scattered all about the City
+within the walls and lining the river bank from Ludgate
+to Westminster.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_35_AMUSEMENTS" id="chap_35_AMUSEMENTS"></a>35. AMUSEMENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>We have heard so much of the religious Houses, Companies,
+Hospitals, quarrels and struggles that we may
+have forgotten a very important element in the life of
+the City&mdash;the amusements and pastimes of the citizens.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">{128}</a></span>
+Never was there a time when the City had more amusements
+than in these centuries. You have seen that it
+was always a rich town: its craftsmen were well paid:
+food was abundant: the people were well fed always,
+except in times of famine, which were rare. There were
+taverns with music and singing: there were pageants,
+wonderful processions representing all kinds of marvels,
+devised by the citizens to please the King or to please
+themselves: there were plays representing scenes from
+the Bible and from the Lives of the Saints: there were
+tournaments to look at. Then there were the Festivals
+of the year, Christmas Day, Twelfth Day, Easter, the
+Day of St. John the Baptist, Shrove Tuesday, the Day
+of the Company, May Day, at all of which feasting
+and merriment were the rule. The young men, in
+winter, played at football, hockey, quarterstaff, and
+single stick. They had cock fighting, boar fights, and
+the baiting of bulls and bears. On May Day they erected
+a May-pole in every parish: they chose a May Queen:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">{129}</a></span>
+and they had morris-dancing with the lads dressed up as
+Robin Hood, Friar Tuck, Little John, Tom the Piper,
+and other famous characters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_038.jpg" width="500" height="269" alt="BEAR-BAITING" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BEAR-BAITING.
+<br />
+(<i>From the Luttrell Psalter.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Then they shot with the bow and the cross-bow for
+prizes: they had wrestlings and they had foot races.</p>
+
+<p>The two great festivals of the year were the Eve of
+St. John the Baptist and the Day of the Company.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_039.jpg" width="500" height="192" alt="SHOOTING AT THE BUTTS WITH THE LONG-BOW." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SHOOTING AT THE BUTTS WITH THE LONG-BOW.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the former there took place the March of the
+Watch. Bonfires were lit in the streets, not for warmth
+but in order to purge and cleanse the air of the narrow
+streets: at the open doors stood tables with meat and
+drink, neighbour inviting neighbour to hospitality.
+Then the doors were wreathed with green branches,
+leaves, and flowers: lamps of glass were hanging over
+them with oil burning all the night: some hung out
+branches of iron curiously wrought with hundreds of
+hanging lights. And everywhere the cheerful sounds of
+music and singing and the dancing of the prentice lads
+and girls in the open street. Through the midst of this
+joyousness filed the Watch. Four thousand men took
+part in this procession which was certainly the finest
+thing that Mediæval London had to show. To light the
+procession on its way the City found two hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">{130}</a></span>
+cressets or lanterns, the Companies found five hundred
+and the constables of London, two hundred and fifty in
+number, each carried one. The number of men who
+carried and attended to the cressets was two thousand.
+Then followed the Watch itself, consisting of two
+thousand captains, lieutenants, sergeants, drummers
+and fifers, standard bearers, trumpeters, demilances on
+great horses, bowmen, pikemen, with morris-dancers and
+minstrels&mdash;their armour all polished bright and some
+even gilded. No painter has ever painted this March:
+yet of all things, mediæval, it was the most beautiful
+and the most mediæval.</p>
+
+<p>On the day of the Company, i.e. the Company's Saint's
+Day, all the members assembled in the Hall, every man
+in a new livery, in the morning. First they formed in
+procession and marched to church, headed by priests
+and singing boys, in surplices: after these walked the
+servants, clerks, assistants, the chaplain, the Mayor's
+sergeants, often the Lord Mayor himself. Lastly came
+the Court with the Master and Wardens followed by the
+Livery, i.e. the members.</p>
+
+<p>After church they returned in like manner to the Hall,
+where a great banquet awaited them, music played in the
+gallery: the banners of the Company were hung over
+their heads: they burned scented wood: they sat in
+order, Master and Wardens and illustrious guests at the
+high table: and the freemen below, every man with his
+wife or some maiden if he were unmarried. After
+dinner the loving cup went round: the minstrels led in
+the players: and they had dramatic shows, songs, dances
+and 'mummeries' for the rest of the day.</p>
+
+<p>Do not think of mediæval London as a dull place&mdash;it
+was full of life and of brightness: the streets were
+narrow perhaps, but they were full of colour from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">{131}</a></span>
+bright dresses of all&mdash;the liveries of the Companies&mdash;the
+liveries of the great nobles&mdash;the splendid costume of the
+knights and richer class. The craftsman worked from
+daylight till curfew in the winter: from five or six in
+the summer: he had a long day: but he had three
+holidays: he had his evenings: and his Sundays. A
+dull time was going to fall upon the Londoners, but not
+yet for two hundred years.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_36_WESTMINSTER_ABBEY" id="chap_36_WESTMINSTER_ABBEY"></a>36. WESTMINSTER ABBEY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Hitherto our attention has been confined to the City
+within the walls. It is time to step outside the walls.</p>
+
+<p>All this time, i.e. ever since peaceful occupation
+became possible, a town had been growing up on the
+west side of London. You have seen that formerly there
+spread a broad marsh over this part. Some rising ground
+kept what is now the Strand above the river, but Westminster,
+except for certain reed-grown islets, was nothing
+but a marsh covered over twice in the day by the tide.
+The river thus spreading out over marshes on either bank
+was quite shallow, and could in certain places be forded.
+The spot where any ford existed afterwards became a ferry.
+Lambeth Bridge spans the river at one such place, the
+memory of which is now maintained in the name of the
+Horseferry Road. The largest of these islets was once
+called Thorney, i.e. the Isle of Thorns. If you will take a
+map of Westminster, shift the bank of the river so as to
+make it flow along Abingdon Street, draw a stream running
+down College Street into the Thames; another
+running into the Thames across King Street, and draw a
+ditch or moat connecting the two streams along Delahaye
+Street and Princes Street you will have Thorney, about
+a quarter of a mile long, and not quite so much broad,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">{132}</a></span>
+standing just above high water level. This was the
+original Precinct of Westminster.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 438px;">
+<img src="images/image_040.jpg" width="438" height="600" alt="TOMB OF EDWARD III. IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TOMB OF EDWARD III. IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY.</span>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">{133}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Abbey of St. Peter's, Westminster, is said to
+have been founded on the first conversion of the East
+Saxons, and at the same time as the Foundation of St.
+Paul's. We know nothing about the foundation of the
+church. During the Danish troubles the Abbey was
+deserted. It was refounded by Dunstan. It was, however,
+rebuilt in much greater splendour by Edward the
+Confessor. Of his work something still remains, and
+can be pointed out to the visitor. But the present Abbey
+contains work by Henry III., Edward I., Richard II.&mdash;Whittington
+being commissioner for the work&mdash;Henry
+VII. and Wren, Hawksmoor and Gilbert Scott the architects.</p>
+
+<p>There is no monument on British soil more venerable
+than Westminster Abbey. You must not think that you
+know the place when you have visited it once or twice.
+You must go there again and again. Every visit should
+teach you something of your country and its history.
+The building itself betraying to those who can read
+architecture the various periods at which its builders
+lived: the beauty of the building, the solemnity of the
+services&mdash;these are things which one must visit the
+Abbey often in order to understand. Then there are the
+associations of the Abbey; the things that have been
+done in the Abbey: the crowning of the Kings, in a long
+line from Edward the Confessor downwards. Here
+Edward the Fourth's Queen, Elizabeth Woodville, took
+sanctuary when her husband suffered reverse: here the unfortunate
+Edward V. was born. Here the same unhappy
+Queen brought her two boys when her husband died.
+Here Caxton set up his first printing press: here is the
+coronation chair. Here is the shrine of the sainted Edward
+the Confessor. It is robbed of its precious stones and its
+gold: but the shrine is the same as that before which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">{134}</a></span>
+for five hundred years people knelt as to the protector
+saint of England. This is the burial-place of no
+fewer than twenty-six of our Kings and their Queens.
+This is the sacred spot where we have buried most of
+our great men. To name a few whose monuments you
+should look for, here are Sir William Temple, Lord
+Chatham, Fox and Wilberforce, among statesmen; of
+soldiers there are Prince Rupert and Monk; of Indian
+fame, here are Lord Lawrence and Lord Clyde; of
+sailors, Blake, Cloudesley Shovel, and Lord Dundonald.
+Of poets, Chaucer, Spenser, Beaumont, Ben Jonson,
+Dryden, Prior, Addison, Gay, Campbell. Of historians
+and prose writers, Samuel Johnson, Macaulay, Dickens,
+Livingston, Isaac Newton. Many others there are to
+look for, notably the great poet Tennyson, buried here in
+October 1892.</p>
+
+<p>Read what was written by Jeremy Taylor, a great
+divine, on Westminster Abbey:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>'A man may read a sermon, the best and most
+passionate that ever man preached, if he shall but enter
+into the sepulchre of Kings.... There the warlike
+and the peaceful, the fortunate and the miserable, the
+beloved and the despised princes mingle their dust and
+pay down their symbol of mortality; and tell all the
+world that when we die our ashes shall be equal to kings,
+and our accounts easier, and our pains or our crowns
+shall be less.'</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_37_THE_COURT_AT_WESTMINSTER" id="chap_37_THE_COURT_AT_WESTMINSTER"></a>37. THE COURT AT WESTMINSTER.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Although the Kings of England have occasionally
+lodged in the Tower and even at Baynard's Castle, and
+other places in the City, the permanent home of the Court
+was always from Edward the Confessor to Henry VIII. at
+the Royal Palace of Westminster. Of this building,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">{135}</a></span>
+large, rambling, picturesque, only two parts are left,
+Westminster Hall and the crypt of St. Stephen's Chapel.
+When King Henry VIII. exchanged Westminster for
+Whitehall the rooms of the old Palace were given over
+to various purposes. One of them was the Star Chamber,
+in which the Star Chamber Court was held: one was
+the Exchequer Chamber: St. Stephen's Chapel was the
+House of Commons; and the House of Lords sat in the
+Old Court of Bequests. All that was left of the Palace
+except the Great Hall, was destroyed in the fire of 1834.
+Very fortunately the Hall was saved. This magnificent
+structure, one of the largest rooms in the world not supported
+by pillars, was built by William Rufus, and
+altered by Richard II. Here have been held Parliaments
+and Grand Councils. Here have been many State trials.
+Sir William Wallace was condemned in this Hall. Sir
+Thomas More; the Protector Somerset; Lady Jane
+Grey; Anne Boleyn; King Charles I.; the rebels of 1745,
+Lords Kilmarnock, Balmerino and Lovat: Earl Ferrers,
+for murdering his steward; all these were condemned.
+One or two have been acquitted, Lord Byron&mdash;cousin
+of the poet&mdash;for killing Mr. Chaworth: and Warren
+Hastings, the great Indian statesman. In Westminster
+Hall used to be held the Coronation Banquets at which
+the hereditary champion rode into the Hall in full
+armour and threw down a glove.</p>
+
+<p>After the removal of the Court the Hall became the
+Law Courts. It is almost incredible that three Courts
+sat in this Hall, cases being heard before three Judges at
+the same time. In addition to the Courts, shops or
+stalls were ranged along the walls where dealers in toys,
+milliners, sempstresses, stationers and booksellers sold
+their wares. A picture exists showing this extraordinary
+use of the Hall.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">{136}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is more difficult to restore ancient Westminster
+than any part of the City. We must remember that the
+great Hall formed part of a square or quadrangle on which
+were the private rooms of the Sovereign, the State rooms
+of audience and banquet, the official rooms of the King's
+ministers and servants; this court led into others&mdash;one
+knows not how many&mdash;but certainly as many as belong
+to the older part of Hampton Court, which may be taken
+as resembling Westminster Palace in its leading features.
+The courts were filled with men-at-arms, serving men,
+pages, and minstrels. They went backwards and forwards
+on their business or they lay about in the sun and
+gambled. Sometimes there crossed the court some great
+noble followed by two or three of his servants on his way
+to a Council: or a bishop with his chaplain, to have
+speech with the King: or a group of townsmen after a
+brawl, who had been brought here with ropes about their
+necks, uncertain whether all would be pardoned or half
+a dozen hanged, the uncertainty lending a very repentant
+and anxious look to their faces. Or it would be the
+Queen's most Excellent Highness herself with her ladies
+riding forth to see the hunt. This was the daily life
+of the Court: we read the dry history of what happened
+but we forget the scenery in which it happened&mdash;the
+crowds of nobles, bishops, abbots, knights, men-at-arms,
+serving men, among whom all these things took place.
+We are apt to forget, as well, the extraordinary brightness,
+the colour, the glitter and gleam that belonged to
+those times when every man went dressed in some gay
+livery wearing the colours and the crest of his lord.
+Who rides there, the hart couchant&mdash;the deer at rest&mdash;upon
+his helm? A Knight belonging to the Court:
+one of the Knights of King Richard the Second. Who
+march with the bear and ragged staff upon their arms?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">{137}</a></span>
+They are the Livery of the Earl of Warwick. The clash
+and gleam of arms and armour everywhere: colour on
+the men as well as the women: colour on the trappings
+of the horses: colour on the hanging arras of the wall:
+colour on the cloth of scarlet which they hang out of the
+windows when the royal pageant rides along.</p>
+
+<p>Close to the Palace, the Abbey. That too belongs to
+the time. Within the Abbey precincts the people are
+almost as crowded as in the Palace. But it is a different
+crowd. There is not so much colour: no arms or armour:
+an orderly crowd: there are the Benedictine monks themselves,
+with their crowd of servants, cooks, and refectory
+men: brewers: bakers: clothiers: architects, builders and
+masons: scribes and lawyers: foresters and farmers from
+the estates: stewards: cellarers: singing boys: organists&mdash;for
+the Abbey Church of St. Peter is as great and as
+rich and maintains as large an army of servants as
+the Cathedral Church of St. Paul.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_38_JUSTICE_AND_PUNISHMENTS" id="chap_38_JUSTICE_AND_PUNISHMENTS"></a>38. JUSTICE AND PUNISHMENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the time of the Plantagenets the punishments inflicted
+on wrongdoers were much more lenient than those which
+followed in later years. There is none of that brutal
+flogging which grew up in the last century, the worst
+time in the whole history of the country, for the people.
+This flogging not only in the army and navy but also
+for such offences as vagrancy, lasted even into the
+present century. In the year 1804 six women were
+publicly flogged at Gloucester for this offence. Under
+Whittington this barbarous cruelty would not have been
+done. There were, it is true, certain punishments which
+seem excessively cruel. If a man struck a sheriff or an
+alderman he was sentenced to have his right hand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">{138}</a></span>
+chopped off. That is, indeed, worse than hanging.
+But, consider, the whole strength of London lay in its
+power to act and its resolution always to act, as one
+man. This could only be effected by habitual obedience
+to law and the most profound respect to the executive
+officers. Therefore the worst penalty possible&mdash;that
+which deprived a man of his power to work and his
+power to fight&mdash;which reduced him to ruin&mdash;which
+made his innocent children beggars&mdash;which branded
+him till death as a malefactor of the most dangerous
+kind&mdash;was inflicted for such an offence. Here, again,
+mercy stepped in; for, when the criminal was brought
+out for execution, if he expressed contrition the offended
+officer, represented by the Alderman of the Ward&mdash;begged
+that he might be pardoned.</p>
+
+<p>For burglary criminals were ruthlessly hanged. This
+crime is bad enough now; it is a crime which ought at
+all times to be punished with the utmost rigour. But
+in these days what is it that a burglar can carry away
+from an ordinary house? A clock or two: a silver ring:
+a lady's watch and chain: a few trinkets: if any money,
+then only a purse with two or three pounds. The wealth
+of the family is invested in various securities: if the
+burglar takes the papers they are of no use to him: there
+is a current account at the bank; but that cannot be
+touched. Books, engravings, candlesticks, plated spoons&mdash;these
+are of little real value. Formerly, however,
+every man kept all his money&mdash;all his wealth&mdash;in his own
+house; if he was a rich merchant he had a stone safe or
+strong box constructed in the wall of his cellar or basement&mdash;I
+have seen such a safe in an old house pulled
+down about seven years ago. If he was only a small
+trader or craftsman he kept his money in a box: this he
+hid: there were various hiding places: behind the bed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">{139}</a></span>
+under the hearthstone&mdash;but they were all known. A
+burglar, therefore, might, and very often did, take away
+the whole of a man's property and reduce him to ruin.
+For this reason it was very wisely ordered that a
+burglar should be hanged.</p>
+
+<p>They began in the reign of Henry IV. to burn heretics.
+Later on they burned witches and poisoners. As yet
+they had not begun to slice off ears and to slit noses:
+there was no rack: nobody was tortured: nobody was
+branded on the hand: there was no whipping of women
+in Bridewell as a public show&mdash;that came later: there
+was no flogging at the cart tail.</p>
+
+<p>Punishments were mild. Sometimes the criminal
+performed the <i>amende honorable</i>, marching along Chepe
+bareheaded and wearing nothing but a white shirt,
+carrying a great wax taper, escorted by the Mayor's
+sergeants. There was a ducking-stool on the other side
+of the river, at Bank Side, in which scolds were ducked.
+There was the thewe, which was a chair in which women
+were made to sit, lifted high above the crowd, exposed
+to their derision. There was the pillory, which served
+for almost all the cases which now come before a police
+magistrate&mdash;adulteration, false weights and measures,
+selling bad meat: pretending to be an officer of the
+Mayor: making and selling bad work: forging title
+deeds; stealing&mdash;all were punished in the same way.
+The offender was carried or led through the City&mdash;sometimes
+mounted with his head to the horse's tail&mdash;always
+with something about his neck to show the
+nature of his offence, and placed in pillory for a certain
+time.</p>
+
+<p>There was one punishment always in reserve&mdash;the
+worst of all. This was deprivation of the privileges of a
+freeman and banishment from the City. 'Go,' said the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">{140}</a></span>
+Mayor. 'Thou shalt dwell with us; trade with us; converse
+with us; no more. Go.' And so that source of
+trouble was removed.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen how the trades formed companies&mdash;every
+trade having its own company. It must not,
+however, be understood that the working man gained
+much power by their unions. They were organised:
+they had to obey: obedience was very good for them as
+it is for all of us, always; but it must be obedience to a
+corporate body, not to a master. This they did not
+understand and they tried to form 'covins' or trades
+unions of their own. The City put down these attempts
+with a stern hand. The trade companies ruled hours
+of work, wages, and standard of work. Lastly, though
+there was no City police to guard the streets, there were
+certain laws for the maintenance of order. Nobody
+under the rank of knight was to carry arms in the
+streets: no one was to walk about the street after nine
+at night: houses were not to be built over streets. In
+a word, there were not many laws; but the people were
+law abiding. And this, perhaps, as much as anything
+else, explains the greatness of London.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a></span>
+<img src="images/image_041.jpg" width="600" height="302" alt="THE EMBARKATION OF HENRY VIII. FROM DOVER, 1520." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE EMBARKATION OF HENRY VIII. FROM DOVER, 1520.
+<br />
+(<i>From the original painting at Hampton Court.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_39_THE_POLITICAL_POWER_OF_LONDON" id="chap_39_THE_POLITICAL_POWER_OF_LONDON"></a>39. THE POLITICAL POWER OF LONDON.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Until the rapid growth of the manufacturing interests
+created immense cities in the North, the wealth and prosperity
+and population of London gave it a consideration
+and power in the political situation which was unequalled
+by that of any other mediæval city. Even Paris, for
+instance, has never held an equal importance in the
+history of France. This power has been especially, and
+significantly, employed in the election and proclamation
+of Kings. It is not only that London has been the place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">{142}</a></span>
+of proclamation: it is that the Londoners themselves
+have repeatedly said, 'This shall be our King': and, as
+repeatedly, by that very act, have given him to understand
+that if he would not reign well he should, like some of his
+predecessors, be deposed. London chose Kings Edmund
+and Harold Harefoot, before the Conquest. After the
+Conquest, they elected Stephen at a folkmote, a gathering
+of all the citizens. They put him on the Throne and
+they kept him there. The power of the Londoners is
+very well put by Froissart, who wrote in the time of
+Richard II. and Henry IV., and was an eyewitness of
+many things which he relates. 'The English,' he says,
+'are the worst people in the world: the most obstinate
+and the most presumptuous: and, of all England, the
+Londoners are the leaders; for, to say the truth, they
+are very powerful in men and in wealth. In the City
+there are 24,000 men completely armed from head to
+foot and full 30,000 archers. This is a great force and
+they are bold and courageous, and the more blood is
+spilled, the greater is their courage.'</p>
+
+<p>Take the deposition of Edward II., also described by
+Froissart. He says that when the Londoners found the
+King 'besotted' with his favourites, they sent word to
+Queen Isabella that if she could land in England with
+300 armed men she would find the citizens of London
+and the majority of the nobles and commonalty ready to
+join her and place her on the Throne. This the Queen
+effected: the citizens joined the little army thus collected&mdash;without
+their assistance, Froissart says, the thing
+could not have been done&mdash;and made Edward prisoner
+at Berkeley Castle.</p>
+
+<p>Or there was the capture of Richard II. This also
+was effected by an army composed entirely of Londoners
+12,000 strong, led by Henry of Lancaster. Afterwards,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">{143}</a></span>
+when Henry of Lancaster was Henry IV., and a
+conspiracy was formed against him, the Lord Mayor
+said, 'Sire, King we have made you: King we will keep
+you.' The City played almost as great a part against
+Henry VI.&mdash;half-heartedly at first, because they thought
+that as he had no children there would be at some time
+or other an end. Moreover, they could not readily forget
+his grandfather, their own King; and his father, the hero
+of Agincourt. When, however, a son was born, the
+Londoners became openly and unreservedly Yorkists.
+And the Yorkists triumphed. The election of Richard III.
+was made in London. When Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed
+Queen, it was not by the Mayor and Aldermen,
+but by the Duke of Northumberland, and the City looked
+on in apathy, expecting trouble. The greatest strength
+of Elizabeth lay in the affection and support of London,
+which never wavered. Had Charles I. conciliated the
+City he might have died in his bed, still King of England.
+It was the City which forced James II. to fly and called
+over William Prince of Orange. It was, again, London
+which supported Pitt in his firm and uncompromising
+resistance to Napoleon. And in the end Napoleon was
+beaten. It cannot be too often repeated that two causes
+made the strength of London: the unity of the City, so
+that its vast population moved as one man: and its
+wealth. The King thought of the subsidies&mdash;under the
+names of loans, grants, benevolences&mdash;which he could
+extort from the merchants. We who enjoy the fruits of
+the long struggle maintained especially by London for
+the right of managing our own affairs, especially in the
+matter of taxation, cannot understand the tyrannies
+which the people of old had to endure from Kings and
+nobles. Richard II., for instance, forced the citizens to
+sign and seal blank 'charts'&mdash;try to imagine the Prime<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">{144}</a></span>
+Minister making the Lord Mayor, the Aldermen, the
+Common Council men, and all the more important merchants
+sign blank cheques to be filled in as he pleased!
+That, however, was the last exaction of Richard II.
+Henry of Lancaster went out with 12,000 Londoners,
+and made him prisoner.</p>
+
+<p>Another factor, less generally understood, assisted and
+developed the power of London.</p>
+
+<p>It was also the position of the City as the centre of
+the country; not geographically, which would give Warwick
+that position, but from the construction of the roads
+and from its position on the Thames. But, to repeat,
+the use and wont of the City to act together by order of
+the Mayor, principally made it so great a power. Whatever
+troubles might arise, here was a solid body&mdash;'24,000
+men at arms and 30,000 archers,' all acting on one side.
+The rest of the country was scattered, uncertain, inclined
+this way and that. The City, to use a modern
+phrase, 'voted solid.' There were no differences of
+opinion in the City. And that, even more than its
+wealth, made London a far more important factor,
+politically, than the barons with all their following.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_40_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON" id="chap_40_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON"></a>40. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>A map of Elizabethan London, drawn by one Agas,
+which is almost a picture as well as a map, shows us
+very clearly the aspect of the City. Let us lay down the
+map before us. First of all, we observe the wall of the
+City; it is carefully drawn of uniform height, with battlements,
+and at regular intervals, bastions. Outside
+the wall there is the ditch, but it is now, as Stow
+describes it, laid out in gardens&mdash;cows are grazing in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">{145}</a></span>
+some parts of it&mdash;and there are mean houses built on
+the other side of it. There is a single street of houses
+with large gardens outside Aldgate, which is now Whitechapel.
+The north side of Houndsditch is already built.
+A street of houses runs north of Bishopsgate. No
+houses stand between this street and two or three
+streets outside Cripplegate. Moorfields are really fields.
+There are windmills, gardens with summer-houses, pasture-fields
+with cows, a large 'dogge house,' and fields
+where women appear to be laying out clothes to dry.
+Really, they are tenter fields, i.e. fields provided with
+'tenters,' or pegs, by means of which cloth could be
+stretched. North of Moorfields is indicated rising
+ground with woods. There can be no doubt at all as to
+the course of the wall, which is here marked with the
+greatest clearness. On the east of the Tower there is
+already a crowded quarter in the Precinct of St. Katherine's:
+and a few buildings mark the former site of the
+great monastery of Eastminster. In the Minories a group
+of new houses marks the site of the nunnery which stood
+here. London Bridge is covered with houses: on Bank
+Side, Southwark, there are two round buildings, 'The
+Bearebayting' and 'The Bullebayting.' There is also,
+opposite to Blackfriars, Paris Garden, a very favourite
+place of resort for the citizens. But as yet there are no
+theatres. Along the river outside the walls we find,
+beyond Bridewell Palace, an open space where was
+formerly Whitefriars. Here presently grew up a curious
+colony called Alsatia, which claimed to retain the right of
+Sanctuary once belonging to the monastery. Arrests
+for debt could not be made within its limits. That is to
+say, it was so claimed by the residents, who resisted
+any attempt to violate this privilege by force of arms.
+It was a notorious place in the seventeenth century, filled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">{146}</a></span>
+with rogues and broken-down gamblers, spendthrifts
+and profligates. As yet (when this map was drawn)
+there are very few houses between Whitefriars and the
+Temple. Beyond the Temple there are marked Arundel
+Place, Paget Place, Somerset Place, the Savoy, York
+Place. Duresme&mdash;i.e. Durham&mdash;Place, and 'the Court'&mdash;i.e.
+Whitehall&mdash;of which the map gives a plan, which
+gives us a clear idea of the plan and appearance of this
+palace, of which only the Banqueting Hall remains.
+The Savoy, at the time (1561) was a hospital. Henry
+VII. made a hospital of it, dedicated to St. John the
+Baptist, receiving 100 poor people. At the Dissolution
+of the Monasteries it was suppressed. Queen Mary
+restored it, and it continued as a hospital till the year
+1702, when it was finally suppressed. Like Whitefriars,
+and for the same reason, it claimed the right of
+Sanctuary: therefore it became the harbour of people
+described as 'rogues and masterless men.' In the City
+itself there are many large gardens and open spaces.
+The courts of the Grey Friars, now a school, are still
+standing: there are gardens on the site of the Austin
+Friars' monastery and gardens between Broad Street and
+Bishopsgate Street. We must not think of London as
+a city crowded with narrow lanes and courts, the houses
+almost touching their opposite neighbours. Such courts
+were only found beside the river: many streets, it is true,
+were narrow, but there were broad thoroughfares like
+Cheapside, Gracechurch Street, Canwicke (now Cannon
+Street) Tower Street, and Fenchurch Street. The river
+is covered with boats: one of them is a barge filled with
+soldiers, which is being tugged by a four-oared boat:
+packhorses are being taken to the river to drink: below
+bridge the lighters begin: two or three vessels are
+moored at Billingsgate: the ships begin opposite the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">{147}</a></span>
+Tower: two or three great three-masted vessels are
+shown: and two or three smaller ships of the kind
+called ketch, sloop, or hoy. Along the river front of the
+Tower are mounted cannon. The ditch of the Tower
+is filled with water. On Tower Hill there stands a permanent
+gallows: beside it is some small structure, which
+is probably a pillory with the stocks.</p>
+
+<p>Such is a brief account of London from this map.
+The original is the property of the Corporation and is
+kept in the Guildhall Library. A facsimile reprint has
+been made.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_41_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON" id="chap_41_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON"></a>41. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>We have passed over two hundred years. We left London
+under the Three Edwards. We find it under Elizabeth.
+It was a City of Palaces&mdash;monasteries, with splendid
+churches and stately buildings: town houses of bishops,
+abbots, and noble lords, every one able to accommodate a
+goodly following of liveried retainers and servants: the
+mansions of rich City merchants, sometimes as splendid
+as those of the lords: the halls of the City Companies:
+the hundred and twenty City churches. Look at London
+as Shakespeare saw it. Everywhere there are the ruins
+of the monasteries: some of the buildings have been
+destroyed with gunpowder: some have been pulled down:
+where it has been too costly to destroy the monastic
+chapels they are used as storehouses or workshops: the
+marble monuments of the buried Kings and Queens have
+been broken up and carried off: the ruins of refectory,
+dormitory, library, chapter house stand still, being taken
+down little by little as stones are wanted for building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">{148}</a></span>
+purposes: some of the ruins, indeed, lasted till this very
+century, notably a gateway of the Holy Trinity Priory,
+at the back of St. Catharine Cree, Leadenhall Street, and
+some of the buildings of St. Helen's Nunnery, beside
+the church of Great St. Helen's. One would think that
+the presence of all these ruins would have saddened the
+City. Not so. The people were so thoroughly Protestant
+that they regarded the ruins with the utmost satisfaction.
+They were a sign of deliverance from what
+their new preachers taught them was false doctrine.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">{149}</a></span>
+Moreover, there were other reasons why the citizens under
+Queen Elizabeth could not regret the past.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 460px;">
+<img src="images/image_042.jpg" width="460" height="500" alt="COACHES IN THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COACHES IN THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH.
+<br />
+(<i>From &#39;Archcæologia.&#39;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The parish churches were changed. The walls, once
+covered with paintings of saints and angels, were now
+scraped or whitewashed: instead of altars with blazing
+lights, there was a plain table: there were no more
+watching candles: there were no more splendid robes for
+the priest and the altar boys: the priest was transformed
+into a preacher: the service consisted of plain prayers,
+the reading of the Bible, and a sermon. In very few
+churches was there an organ. There was no external
+beauty in religion. Therefore external beauty in the
+church itself ceased for three hundred years to be
+desired. What was required was neatness, with ample
+space for all to be seated, so arranged that all might
+hear the sermon. And whereas under the Plantagenets
+every other man was a priest, a friar, or some officer or
+servant of a monastery, one only met here and there a
+clergyman with black gown and Genevan bands.</p>
+
+<p>This change alone transformed London. But there
+were other changes. Most of the great nobles had left
+the City. Long before they went away their following
+had been cut down to modest numbers: their great
+barracks had become useless: they were let out in tenements,
+and were falling into decay: some of them had
+been removed to make way for warehouses and offices:
+one or two remained till the Great Fire of 1666. Among
+them were Baynard's Castle, close to Blackfriars, and
+Cold Harbour. A few nobles continued to have houses
+in the City. In the time of Charles II., the Duke of
+Buckingham had a house on College Hill, and the palaces
+along the Strand still remained.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_043.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="THE CITY FROM SOUTHWARK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE CITY FROM SOUTHWARK.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The merchants' houses took the place of these
+palaces. They were built either in the form of a quadrangle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">{150}</a></span>
+standing round a garden, with a cloister or
+covered way running round, of which Gresham House,
+pulled down in the last century, was a very fine example.
+But, since few merchants could afford to build over so
+large a piece of ground and land was too valuable to be
+wasted on broad lawns and open courts, the houses
+were built in four or five stories, with rich carvings all
+over the front. The house called Sir Paul Pinder's
+House in Bishopsgate Street, pulled down only a year or
+two ago, was a very fine example of such a house. The
+great hall was henceforth only built in great country
+houses: in the City the following of the richest merchants,
+in his private house, consisted of a few servants
+only; small rooms henceforward became the rule: when
+entertainments and festivities on a large scale are held,
+the Companies' Halls may be used. The inferior kind
+of Elizabethan house may still be seen in Holborn&mdash;outside
+of Staple Inn: in Wych Street: in Cloth Fair:
+and one or two other places. They were narrow: three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">{151}</a></span>
+or four stories high: each story projected beyond the
+one below: they were gabled: the windows were latticed,
+with small diamond panes of glass: they were built of
+plaster and timber. Building with brick only began in
+the reign of James the First. Before every house hung
+a sign, on which was painted the figure by which the
+house was known: some of these signs may still be seen:
+there is one in Holywell Street: one in Ivy Lane: and
+there are many old Inns which still keep their ancient
+signs.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_42_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON" id="chap_42_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON"></a>42. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The population of London at this time was perhaps, for
+it is not certain, 150,000. There were no suburbs, unless
+we call the Strand and Smithfield suburbs; the London
+citizen stepped outside the gates into the open country.
+This fact must be remembered when we think of the
+narrow lanes. The great danger of the City still remained,
+that of fire, for though the better houses were
+built of stone, the inferior sort, as was stated above, continued
+to be built of timber and plaster. There were
+no vehicles in the streets except carts, and the number
+of these was restricted to 420. When you think of
+London streets at this time remember that in most of
+them, in all except the busy streets and the chief
+thoroughfares, there was hardly ever any noise of rumbling
+wheels. The packhorses followed each other in
+long procession, laden with everything; there were
+doubtless wheelbarrows and hand carts; but the rumbling
+of the wheels was not yet a part of the daily noise.</p>
+
+<p>The Lord Mayor was directed by Elizabeth always
+to keep a certain number of the citizens drilled and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">{152}</a></span>
+instructed in the use of arms. When the Spanish
+invasion was threatened, the Queen ordered a body of
+troops to be raised instantly. In a single day 1,000
+men, fully equipped, were marched off to camp. Afterwards
+10,000 men were sent off, and thirty-eight ships
+were supplied. Both men and sailors were raised by
+impressment. A constant danger to the peace of the
+City was the turbulence of the prentices, these lads were
+always ready to rush into the streets, shouting, ready
+to attack or destroy whatever was unpopular at the
+moment. Thus, early in the reign of Henry VIII., at a
+time when there was great animosity against foreign
+merchants, of whom there were a great many beside the
+Hanse merchants of the Steelyard, there was a riot in
+which a great many houses of foreigners were destroyed,
+many persons were killed, Newgate was assailed and
+taken, eleven rioters hanged and 400 more taken before
+the King with halters round their necks to receive his
+pardon. This was called 'Evil May Day.' The disorderly
+conduct of the prentices continued during
+Elizabeth's reign, she ordered the Provost-Marshal in
+order to put an end to this trouble, to hang all disorderly
+persons so convicted by any Justice of the Peace.</p>
+
+<p>There was much complaint of extravagance in dress:
+rules were passed by the Common Council on the subject.
+Prentices especially were forbidden to dress in any but
+the warmest and plainest materials. The dress of the
+Blue Coat boy is exactly the dress of the prentice of the
+period, including the flat cap which the modern wearer
+of the dress carries in his pocket.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">{153}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image_044.jpg" width="600" height="366" alt="SOUTH-EAST PART OF LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, SHOWING THE TOWER AND WALL." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SOUTH-EAST PART OF LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, SHOWING THE TOWER AND WALL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The punishments of this time are much more severe
+than had been found necessary in the Plantagenet period.
+They not only carried criminals in shameful procession
+through the City, but they flogged girls for idleness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">{154}</a></span>
+apprentices for immorality, and rogues for selling goods
+falsely described. A 'pillar of reformation' was set up
+at the Standard in Cheap; here on Sunday morning the
+mayor superintended the flogging of young servants.
+When Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed Queen a young
+fellow, for speaking slightingly of her title, had his ears
+nailed to the pillory and afterwards cut off, heretics were
+burned, traitors were hanged first for a few minutes and
+then taken down and cut open&mdash;one of the most horrible
+punishments ever inflicted.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation, which suppressed the religious
+Houses, at the same time suppressed the hospitals which
+were all religious Houses and the schools which belonged
+to the religious Houses. St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's,
+St. Mary's, St. Mary of Bethlehem, besides the smaller
+houses, were all suppressed. The sick people were sent
+back to their own houses; the brethren and sisters were
+dispersed. One House contained one hundred blind men,
+all these were cast adrift; another contained a number of
+aged priests&mdash;these were turned into the streets. Eight
+schools perished at the Dissolution. For a time London
+had neither schools nor hospitals.</p>
+
+<p>This could not continue. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's,
+Bethlehem, and, under Queen Mary, the Savoy were
+refounded under new statutes as hospitals. For schools,
+St. Paul's which was never closed, was endowed by Dean
+Colet; St. Anthony's continued, the Blue Coat School
+was founded on the site of the Franciscan House. The
+Mercers took over the school of St. Thomas. The
+Merchant Taylors founded their school. In Southwark,
+schools were founded at St. Olave's and St. Saviour's.
+A few years later Charterhouse was converted into an
+almshouse and a school.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">{155}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_43_TRADE" id="chap_43_TRADE"></a>43. TRADE.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>London was anciently the resort of 'foreign' merchants.
+It was rich because 'foreign' merchants brought and
+exchanged their goods at this port. There were no
+ships built in England until the reign of King Alfred.
+When the kingdom became tranquil he is said to have
+hired out his ships to foreign merchants. A list of tolls
+paid by foreign ships in the reign of King Ethelred II.
+shows that the imports were considerable. The foreign
+merchants, however, were not to 'forestall their markets
+from the burghers of London,' so that the retail trade
+was kept in native hands. When retail trade was
+separated from wholesale trade all that the London
+merchants had was the collection, the warehousing, and
+the sale of the exports. It is reasonable to suppose that
+foreign merchants coming to the City year after year
+would find it useful to have a permanent settlement&mdash;a
+wharf with officers and servants of their own. Such a
+settlement was, no doubt, permitted from very early
+times. But in the year 1169 was founded a trade association
+which, for wealth, success, and importance, might
+compare with our East India Company. This was the
+Hanseatic League (so called from the word <i>Hansa</i>, a
+convention). In the League were confederated: first,
+twelve towns in the Baltic, Lübeck at the head; next,
+sixty-four&mdash;and even eighty&mdash;German towns. They
+were first associated for protection against pirates: they
+speedily became the greatest trading company of the
+period. In the reign of Henry III. the League obtained
+a Royal Charter granting them liberty of constant residence
+at a place in London. They were permitted to
+have a permanent establishment at a place called the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">{156}</a></span>
+Steelyard&mdash;i.e. the place where the Steelyard or Scales
+had formerly been kept&mdash;under certain conditions, including
+the payment of custom dues. They were called
+the Merchants of the Steelyard: they at once drew to
+themselves the whole trade of England with the northern
+ports: and they remained there for nearly 400 years.</p>
+
+<p>There was another association of foreigners called
+the Merchants of the Staple. That is to say, they
+dealed in what was called the 'staples' of England&mdash;in
+the raw produce, as lead, tin, wool, &amp;c. Gradually,
+however, the word Staple came to be applied solely to
+wool as the most important export. The Lord Chancellor,
+to this day, is seated on a Woolsack. The Merchants
+of the Staple became merged in the Merchants of
+the Steelyard.</p>
+
+<p>These foreign merchants were at all times extremely
+unpopular with the Londoners, who envied their
+wealth, which they thought was made at the expense of
+the City, not understanding, for a long time, that the
+same way of wealth was open to themselves. When they
+began to put forth merchant ships on their own account,
+they at first sought the southern ports, sailing to Dunquerque,
+Sluys, Rouen, Havre, Bordeaux, Lisbon, and
+even to the Mediterranean ports. Whittington's trade
+was entirely with the South. It was not at Lübeck or
+on the shores of the Baltic that he found his cloth of
+gold, his rich velvets, his silks, his gold embroidery, his
+scented wood, his wines, his precious stones. And the
+reason why he sent his ships to the South was that the
+trade of the North was in the hands of the Steelyard.</p>
+
+<p>Edward III. seems first of our kings to have understood
+the value of manufactures and of foreign trade.
+He first passed laws for the repair of the highways:
+under his reign the Merchant Adventurers were encouraged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">{157}</a></span>
+and assisted: he first stimulated the making
+of English cloth instead of selling our wool: under him
+the shipping of the London merchants began to increase
+and to develop. Still the foreign merchants continued
+to occupy the Steelyard: still our merchants were shut
+out of the northern ports: still other foreigners received
+permission to settle: even craftsmen came over from
+Germany and the Low Countries and followed their
+trade in London. Richard III., in order to please the
+citizens, ordered their expulsion, but it does not appear
+that the order was obeyed. Henry VII., on the other
+hand, persuaded many Flemish woollen manufacturers
+to come over to this country.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the sixteenth century the exports of English
+cloth by the foreign merchants amounted to 44,000 pieces,
+while the English ships took away no more than 1,000
+pieces. When our own merchants were prepared with
+ships and had what may be called the machinery of trade;
+as a market, wharves, permission to buy and sell; it is
+obvious that the old state of things could no longer continue.
+It was not, however, until the reign of Edward VI.
+that the foreign merchants were finally deprived of all
+their privileges and charters.</p>
+
+<p>These rivals, with their powerful organisations and
+their hold over all the northern ports, once out of the
+way the English merchants began to push out their
+enterprises in all directions. You shall see immediately
+how they prospered.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime there remains a monument erected in
+memory of the Hanseatic League. In the reign of
+Queen Anne the merchants of Hamburg presented to
+the church where the merchants of the Steelyard had
+worshipped for 400 years, a splendid screen of carved
+wood. Unless the church, which is already threatened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">{158}</a></span>
+with destruction, is pulled down, you should go to
+see that screen, and remember all that it means and
+commemorates.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_44_TRADE" id="chap_44_TRADE"></a>44. TRADE.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>English trade, that is to say, trade in English hands,
+practically began with Edward III. and, slowly increasing
+under his successors, gained an enormous development
+under Elizabeth. Several causes operated to produce
+this increase. In the first place the abolition of the
+Steelyard, though ordered by Edward VI., was not completely
+carried out till many years afterwards. During
+this period the merchants were learning the immense
+possibilities open to them when this incubus should be
+removed. Next, the great rival of London, Antwerp,
+suffered, like the rest of the Netherlands, from the
+religious wars. Thirdly, the wise and farseeing action
+of Gresham transferred the commercial centre of the
+northern world from that town to London.</p>
+
+<p>Antwerp in the fifteenth century was the richest and
+most prosperous city in western Europe. There were
+200,000 inhabitants, a great many more than could be
+counted in London: 5,000 merchants met every day in
+the Bourse for the transaction of business: 2,500 vessels
+might be counted in the river: 500 loaded waggons
+entered every day from the country. It was the port of
+the great and rich manufacturing towns of Bruges and
+Ghent. In the latter town there were 40,000 weavers,
+and an army of 80,000 men fully armed and equipped,
+could be raised at any moment. The former town,
+Bruges, was the Market&mdash;the actual commercial centre&mdash;of
+the world. Hither came the merchants of Venice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">{159}</a></span>
+and Genoa, bringing the silks, velvets, cloth of gold,
+spices and precious stones from the East to exchange
+for the English wool and the produce of Germany and
+the Baltic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 427px;">
+<img src="images/image_045.jpg" width="427" height="500" alt="KING EDWARD VI." title="" />
+<span class="caption">KING EDWARD VI.
+<br />
+(<i>From a picture belonging to H. Hucks Gibbs, Esq.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Religious Wars of the sixteenth century: the
+ferocities, cruelties, and savagery of those wars: depopulated
+and ruined this rich and flourishing country:
+the Inquisition drove thousands of Flemings, an industrious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">{160}</a></span>
+and orderly folk, to England, where they
+established silk manufactures: and the carrying trade
+which had been wholly in the hands of the Antwerp
+shipowners was diverted and went across the narrow
+seas to London, where it has ever since remained.</p>
+
+<p>Before the ruin of Antwerp, Bruges, and Ghent, it
+was of these towns that the Kings of England obtained
+their loans. They were taken up by the merchants of
+the Low Countries at an interest of 14 per cent. This
+enormous interest, then thought quite moderate and
+reasonable, explains how the merchants of that time grew
+so wealthy. Part of the loans, also, often had to be taken
+in jewels. In order to negotiate these loans and to pay
+the interest an agent of the English Sovereign was kept
+at Antwerp, called the Royal Agent. Very fortunately
+for London, the Royal Agent under Edward VI., Mary,
+and the early years of Elizabeth, was Sir Thomas
+Gresham.</p>
+
+<p>You must learn something about this great man.
+He was the son of Sir Richard Gresham, formerly Lord
+Mayor: nephew of Sir John Gresham, also Lord Mayor
+(who preserved Bethlehem Hospital on the Dissolution
+of the Religious Houses): he came of a Norfolk family
+originally of the village of Gresham: like Whittington he
+was of gentle birth. He was educated at Cambridge: he
+was apprenticed to his uncle after taking his degree: and
+he was received into the Mercers' Company at the age of
+twenty-four. It must be observed that from the outset
+the young man had every advantage&mdash;good birth, good
+education, good society, and wealth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">{161}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;">
+<img src="images/image_046.jpg" width="442" height="500" alt="SIR THOMAS GRESHAM." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SIR THOMAS GRESHAM.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the age of thirty-two he was appointed Royal
+Agent at Antwerp. At this time the City was at the
+height of its splendour and prosperity. Gresham walked
+upon the long quays, gazed at the lines of ships, saw
+the river alive with boats and barges, loading and unloading,
+watched the throng of merchants in the Bourse,
+saw the palaces, the rows and streets of palaces in which
+they lived, thought of London which he had formerly
+regarded with so much pride though he now perceived
+that it was even poor and quiet compared with this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">{162}</a></span>
+crowded centre of an enormous trade&mdash;why, the city
+which he had thought the envy of the whole world could
+show no more than 317 merchants in all, against
+Antwerp's 5,000: and these, though there were some
+esteemed wealthy, could not between them all raise a
+loan of even 10,000<i>l.</i> The King had to go abroad for
+the money and to pay 14 per cent. for it. Then he
+began to ask himself whether something could not be
+done to divert some of this trade to his native town.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_047.jpg" width="500" height="460" alt="FIRST ROYAL EXCHANGE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">FIRST ROYAL EXCHANGE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>First of all, he applied himself to the reduction of
+the interest. This he managed to lower from fourteen
+per cent. to twelve and even to ten. A gain of four per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">{163}</a></span>
+cent. on a loan of, say, 60,000<i>l.</i> meant a saving of 2,400<i>l.</i>
+a year.</p>
+
+<p>When he came back to England he brought with him
+a discovery which seems simple. It is, however, the
+most difficult thing in the world for people to understand:
+we are always discovering it, over and over
+again.</p>
+
+<p>His discovery was this&mdash;it applies to every kind of
+business or enterprise&mdash;It is that union will effect what
+single effort is powerless to attempt. The City had for
+centuries understood this in matters of government:
+they were now to learn the same thing in matters of
+trade. The merchants of Antwerp had a central place
+where they could meet for purposes of union and combination.
+Those of London had none. As yet union
+had only been practised for the regulation of trade prices
+and work. True, the merchant adventurers existed,
+but the spirit of enterprise had as yet spread a very
+little way.</p>
+
+<p>Gresham determined to present to his fellow citizens
+such a Bourse as the merchants of Antwerp had enjoyed
+for centuries. He built his Bourse; he gave it to the
+City: he gave it as a place of meeting for the merchants:
+he gave it for the advance of enterprise. The Queen
+opened it with great State, and called it the Royal
+Exchange. It stood exactly where the present Royal
+Exchange stands, but its entrance was on the south side,
+not the west. And no gift has ever been made to any
+city more noble, more farseeing, more wise, or productive
+of greater benefits.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">{164}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_45_TRADE" id="chap_45_TRADE"></a>45. TRADE.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The merchants got their Exchange. What did they do
+in it? They did most wonderful things with it. Greater
+things were never done in any Exchange. For the first
+time they were enabled to act together: and it was the
+most favourable opportunity that ever happened to any
+trading community. The charters of the foreigners
+were abolished: the markets of Bruges were depressed
+in consequence of the civil wars already beginning: that
+city itself, with Antwerp and Ghent, was on the point
+of ruin. The way was open, and the spirit of enterprise
+was awakened. In ordinary times it would have been the
+love of gain alone that awakened this spirit. But these
+were not ordinary times. The people of Western
+Europe took a hundred years to discover that Columbus
+had doubled the world: that there was a new continent
+across the ocean. They began to send their ships across:
+nobody as yet knew the possibilities of that continent
+with its islands: the Spaniards had the first run, but the
+French and the English were beginning to claim their
+share. Then a way to India and the East had been
+found out: we were no longer going to be dependent on
+the Venetians for the products of Persia, India, the
+Moluccas, China. All those turbulent and restless spirits
+who could not settle down to peaceful crafts or the dull
+life of the desk, longed to be on board ship sailing
+Westward Ho. Fortune was waiting for them there:
+fortune with fighting, privation, endurance&mdash;perhaps
+death by fever or by battle: yet a glorious life. Or they
+might sail southwards and so round the Cape of Good
+Hope&mdash;called at first the Cape of Storms&mdash;and across
+the Indian Ocean to the port of Calicut, there to trade.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">{165}</a></span>
+There were dangers enough even on that voyage to
+tempt the most adventurous: Moorish pirates off the coast
+of Morocco: European pirates&mdash;English pirates&mdash;coming
+out of the rivers and ports of Western Africa: storms off
+the Cape: hurricanes in the Indian Ocean: the rocks
+and reefs of seas as yet unsurveyed: treachery of natives.
+Yet there were never wanting men in plenty to volunteer
+for these long and perilous voyages. At home, then,
+the spirit of enterprise, joined with the spirit of adventure,
+achieved mighty things. The merchant adventurers
+succeeding to some of the trade of the Hanseatic League,
+established 'courts,' i.e. branches at Antwerp, Hamburg,
+and Dordrecht: they had also courts at York, Hull, and
+Newcastle. Many other companies were founded. There
+was the Eastland Company or merchants of Ebbing.
+Their trade was with the Baltic. There was the
+'Merchant Adventurers for the discovery of Lands, not
+before known to, or frequented by, the English.' This
+afterwards became the Russian Company. They sent
+out Sir Hugh Willoughby with three ships to find a
+North-East passage to China. He and all his men
+were frozen to death on the shores of Russian Lapland.
+The Company afterwards took to whaling. There was
+also the Turkey Company, which lasted to well into the
+present century. There was the Royal African Company,
+which has been revived. There were the Merchants of
+Spain: the Merchants of France: the Merchants of
+Virginia: the East India Company: the Hudson's Bay
+Company: the South Sea Company: the Guinea
+Company: the Canary Company. Some of these companies
+were founded later, but they are all sprung from
+the spirit of enterprise, first called into existence by
+Gresham when he built his Exchange and brought the
+merchants together.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">{166}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_048.jpg" width="500" height="347" alt="SHIPPING IN THE THAMES, CIRCA 1660" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SHIPPING IN THE THAMES, CIRCA 1660.
+<br />
+(<i>From Pricke&#39;s &#39;South Prospect of London.&#39;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>By leaps and bounds the prosperity of the City increased,
+and has still continued to increase, for the three
+hundred years that have passed since Queen Elizabeth
+opened the Royal Exchange. Whether this prosperity will
+still further advance; whether forces, as yet unnoticed, will
+bring about the decay of London, no one can venture to
+prophecy. Antwerp may again become her rival: may
+perhaps surpass her; the port of Antwerp is rising
+yearly in importance: and that of Hamburg further
+north, has, like Liverpool, its miles of quays and wharves
+and its hundreds of vessels. But the trade of London is
+still far greater than that of any other port in the
+world, and for its three hundred years of prosperity we
+must thank, above all men, that wise merchant Sir
+Thomas Gresham.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">{167}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 465px;">
+<img src="images/image_049.jpg" width="465" height="600" alt="SIR FRANCIS DRAKE, IN HIS FORTY-THIRD YEAR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SIR FRANCIS DRAKE, IN HIS FORTY-THIRD YEAR.
+<br />
+(<i>From the engraving by Elstracke.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>He did more than give an Exchange to the City. He
+gave a college: he gave his own house in Broad Street
+for a college: he endowed it with professorships: he intended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">{168}</a></span>
+it to become for London what Christ Church was
+to Oxford, or Trinity to Cambridge. It has been converted
+into a place for the delivery of lectures, but
+there are signs that the City will once more have such a
+college as Gresham intended.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_46_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS" id="chap_46_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS"></a>46. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>There were no theatres in England, nor any Plays,
+before the reign of Queen Elizabeth. This is a statement
+which is true, but needs explanation. It is not
+the case that there was no acting. On the contrary,
+there has always been acting of some kind or other.
+There was acting at the fairs, where the Cheap Jack and
+the Quack had their tumbling boys and clowns to attract
+the crowd. There were always minstrels and tumblers,
+men and women who played, sang, danced, and tumbled
+in the hall for the amusement of the great people in the
+long winter evenings. Not including the wandering
+mummers, the Theatre was preceded by the Religious
+Drama, the Pageant, and the Masque.</p>
+
+<p>The Religious Drama was usually performed in
+churches, but sometimes in market-places and in front
+of churches. They represented scenes from the Bible
+and acts of saints. In a time when the people could
+not read, such shows presented Sacred History in a most
+vivid form. No one could possibly forget any detail in
+the Passion of Our Lord who had once seen it performed
+in a Mystery, with the dresses complete, with appropriate
+words and action, and with music. In the year 1409
+there was a play representing the Creation of the World
+performed at Clerkenwell. It lasted eight days, and was
+witnessed by a vast concourse of all ranks. Here were
+shown Paradise, our first parents, the admonition of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">{169}</a></span>
+Creator, the Fall, and the expulsion. Such a sight was
+better than a hundred sermons for teaching the people.</p>
+
+<p>The plays were not generally so long and so ambitious.
+They acted detached scenes: the two men of
+Emmaus meeting the Risen Lord: the Raising of
+Lazarus: the Birth of Christ: the Flood: the Fall of
+Lucifer: the Shepherds of Bethlehem: and other scenes.
+The Mystery or Sacred Play was the Sunday school of
+the middle ages. By those plays they learned the whole
+of Scripture History. The churches taught detached
+portions by the frescoes on the wall, the painted windows
+and the carvings: but the history in its sequence
+was taught by the Sacred Dramas.</p>
+
+<p>We have very full accounts of one Miracle Play, that
+which was annually performed by the Guilds of the City
+of Chester. It was performed at Whitsuntide and lasted
+three days. The play began with the 'Fall of Lucifer'
+performed by the tanners: went on to the 'Creation,' by
+the drapers: then to the 'Flood,' and so on. Nine plays
+were performed on the first day; nine on the second; and
+seven on the third. Each Guild provided a scaffold on
+wheels. The scaffold was provided with a canopy which
+would represent the sky, or the roof of a house, or a tent,
+or a cave, as the play demanded: the performers were
+properly dressed for their parts: there was music, and
+in some cases there were songs. Under the scaffold was
+the room where the actors dressed and where the 'properties'
+were kept. Every play was performed in every
+principal street. When one was finished the scaffold
+was rolled to another station and the play was repeated.
+This method prevented crowding. The most sacred
+Persons were exhibited at these plays, and nothing was
+spared to make them realistic to the last degree. Sometimes
+devils were put upon the stage: flames issued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">{170}</a></span>
+from their mouths: they performed tricks of buffoonery:
+they dragged off sinners to their doom. Sometimes
+comic scenes were introduced, as in the play of the
+'Flood,' where it was common to represent Noah's wife
+as a shrew who beats her husband and refuses to go
+into the Ark.</p>
+
+<p>These plays were swept away by the Reformation.
+They had been productive for a long time of mischief
+rather than of instruction. The profanity of the comic
+scenes increased: and reverence was destroyed when in
+the same tableau which presented the most sacred of
+events appeared the most unbridled buffoons. Religious
+plays have never been allowed since the Reformation.
+Should they again be put upon the stage it must be
+under the safeguard of those who can be trusted to
+admit of no other consideration than the presentation
+in the most reverent manner of sacred subjects. There
+must be no thought of gain for those who manage, or
+those who act, such plays. Many scenes and events of
+the Bible would lend themselves wonderfully to dramatic
+rendering. But the choice of these must not be left to
+the lessee of a theatre: nor must the acting of such
+plays be permitted to those who live by making the
+people laugh.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_47_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS" id="chap_47_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS"></a>47. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>After the religious dramas, the Pageants gratified the
+desire for spectacle and show. Pageants were held on
+every grand occasion: to welcome the sovereign: to
+honour the new Lord Mayor: to celebrate a victory.
+Then they erected triumphal arches adorned with pasteboard
+castles, ships, houses, caves&mdash;all kinds of things.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">{171}</a></span>
+They either carried with them, as part of the procession,
+or they stationed at some point, the City Giants. London
+was not alone in having giants. York, Norwich,
+Chester, possessed city giants. In Belgium the city
+giant is still carried in procession in Antwerp, Douai,
+and other towns. The figure of the giant symbolised
+the strength and power of the city. After Agincourt
+Henry V. was welcomed at the south gate of London
+Bridge by two giants: his son, Henry VI., was also
+received by a giant seventeen years later. Two giants
+stood on London Bridge to welcome Philip and Mary:
+the same two, at Temple Bar, afterwards welcomed
+Elizabeth. The pair of giants now in Guildhall were
+carved in 1707. The names Gog and Magog are wrong.
+The original names were Gogmagog and Corineus.</p>
+
+<p>The following account of the Pageant to celebrate the
+return of the victor Henry V. after Agincourt is preserved
+in Stow's 'London.'</p>
+
+<p>The Mayor and Aldermen, dressed in scarlet, with
+collars and chains, with 400 citizens in 'murrey,' all
+well mounted, rode out to meet the King at Blackheath.
+Then, after formal greetings, they all rode to London.
+In Southwark the King was met by all the London
+clergy in their most sumptuous robes, with crosses and
+censers. At the entrance of London Bridge, on the top
+of the tower, stood a pair of giants, male and female, the
+former bearing in his right hand an axe, and in his left
+hand the keys of the City. Around them stood a band
+of trumpeters.</p>
+
+<p>On the drawbridge were two lofty columns, on one of
+which stood an antelope and on the other a lion&mdash;both
+the King's crests.</p>
+
+<p>At the other end of the Bridge was another tower,
+and within it an image of St. George, with a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">{172}</a></span>
+number of boys representing angels. These sang an
+anthem, 'Give thanks, O England, to God for victory.'
+This is supposed to be preserved in the song 'Our King
+went forth to Normandy.'</p>
+
+<p>On Cornhill there was erected a tent of crimson
+cloth ornamented with the King's arms. Within it was
+a company of 'prophets' in golden coats. As the King
+approached they set loose a great number of small birds,
+which fluttered about while the 'prophets' sung 'Cantate
+Domino canticum novum'&mdash;'Sing unto the Lord a new
+song.'</p>
+
+<p>In Cheapside the conduit was hung with green.
+Here sat the twelve Apostles and the twelve Kings,
+Martyrs and Confessors of England. They also sung
+a chant and made the conduit run with wine. This
+represented the reception of Abraham by Melchisedek.</p>
+
+<p>The Cross of Chepe was built over by a high tower
+of wood covered all over with splendid coats of arms.
+There was a stage in front, on which a crowd of girls
+came with timbrels dancing and singing. Thus the
+maidens welcomed David when he returned from the
+slaughter of Goliath. And all about the building were
+crowds of boys, representing the Heavenly Host, who
+showered down coins resembling gold, and boughs of
+laurel, and sang 'Te Deum Laudamus.'</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, there was another tower at the west end of
+Chepe. In each corner of this stood a girl, who out of
+a cup strewed golden leaves before the feet of the King.
+And there was a high canopy painted with blue and stars,
+and beneath a figure all gold, to represent the sun surrounded
+by angels singing and playing all kinds of
+musical instruments.</p>
+
+<p>This witnessed, the King went on to St. Paul's to pay
+his devotions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">{173}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When you read this bald account of one of the
+greatest Pageants ever celebrated in the City, you must
+fill it up by imagining the long procession, every one in
+his place. Trumpeters, bowmen in leather jerkins,
+men-at-arms in shining helmet and cuirass, horsemen in
+full armour, knights, nobles, heralds all in full panoply,
+banners and bannerets, the Bishop and all the clergy,
+the King and his retinue, the Lord Mayor and his four
+hundred followers. Imagine the blare of the trumpets,
+the singing of the chants, the roaring of the people, the
+crimson hangings all along the line of march at every
+window. There were no police to keep the line: you
+might see the burgesses running out of the taverns on
+their way with blackjacks of Malmsey to regale the
+gallant soldiers who had fought and won the victory.
+You would see the King bareheaded. Why was he bareheaded?
+Because he was so modest&mdash;this brave King.
+Because he would not let the people see his helmet dinted
+and misshapen with the signs and scars of hard battle
+in which he had played his part as well as any humble
+leather-jerkined bowman in his array. Your ancestors,
+these soldiers and these citizens: your forefathers.
+They knew, far better than you will ever know, how to
+marshal a gallant show. We have lost the art of making
+a Pageant. It remains with us&mdash;once a year&mdash;in
+the Lord Mayor's Show. But think of Henry's Riding
+into London compared with the Lord Mayor's Show!</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_48_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS" id="chap_48_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS"></a>48. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Between the Pageant and the Play stands the Masque,
+a form of entertainment which achieved its greatest
+splendour both in stage mounting and in the words and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">{174}</a></span>
+songs in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Nowhere
+was the Masque more carefully studied and more magnificently
+presented than in London. The scenic display
+which in the early theatre was so meagre was carried in
+the Masque to a height never surpassed until the splendid
+shows of the present day. Nor did the greatest poets
+disdain to write words for the Masque. The most
+beautiful of those which remain are to be found in Ben
+Jonson's works. Every great man's house had a hall
+which was used for the Masque. Bacon, who gives
+directions for building a house, orders that there must be
+a room built on purpose for these performances. Under
+it is to be another room for the actors to dress and for
+the 'properties'&mdash;i.e. the things requisite for the presentation
+of the Masque, such as scenery, the woods,
+fountains, rocks, palaces, &amp;c.&mdash;that might be required.
+Let us show what a Masque was like by describing one
+of Ben Jonson's. It is called the Masque of Oberon, and
+was performed before Prince Henry, the eldest son of
+James I., who died in youth.</p>
+
+<p>The scene presents a rock with trees beyond it and
+'all the wildness that can be presented.' All is dark.
+Presently the moon rising shows a Satyr, one of the
+beings with whom the ancients peopled the forests and
+wild places. They were drawn with the feet and legs of
+goats, short horns on the head, and the body covered
+with thick hair. This Satyr lifts his head and calls his
+companions. There is no answer. He blows his cornet.
+Echo answers him. He blows again, and is again
+mocked by the Echo. A third time he blows, and other
+Satyrs come leaping and dancing upon the stage.
+Silenus, their leader, bids them prepare to see the young
+Prince Oberon.</p>
+
+<p>The scene opens: the rocks and forests disappear:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">{175}</a></span>
+there is shown a glorious palace whose walls and gates
+are transparent. Before the gates lie asleep two
+'Sylvans'&mdash;i.e. men of the woods. The Satyrs gather
+round these sleeping sentinels and wake them up with
+singing:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Buzz, quoth the blue fly:<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Hum, quoth the bee:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Buzz and hum they cry<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And so do we.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In his ear, in his nose,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Thus do you see? [They tickle them.]<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He ate the dormouse<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Else it was he.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The Sylvans wake: they explain that it is yet too
+early for the gates to open. Meantime let them sing
+and dance to while away the time. One of them sings
+therefore. After the song they fall into an 'antick
+dance full of gesture and swift motion' and thus
+continue till the crowing of a cock gives the signal for
+the whole palace to open. It is like a transformation
+scene at a pantomime. There is the palace with all its
+occupants&mdash;the 'whole nation of Fays' or Fairies. Some
+are playing instruments of music; some are singing:
+some are bearing lights: at the back of the stage sit the
+'Knights masquers.' With them Oberon in his chariot.
+And then, drawn by two white bears, guarded by three
+Sylvans on each side, the chariot moves down the stage.
+Observe that to produce all these effects the stage must
+have been very deep. The song they sing is in praise of
+the King:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">Melt earth to sea, sea flow to air,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">And air fly into fire,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Whilst we in tunes to Arthur's chair<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">Bear Oberon's desire:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Than which there's nothing can be higher<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Save James to whom it flies:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But he the wonder is of tongues and ears and eyes&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">{176}</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>The Satyrs leap and dance again for joy at so
+splendid a sight.</p>
+
+<p>Then Silenus speaks in praise of Prince Oberon, who
+is, of course, Prince Henry, the elder son of James,
+who died young. The flattery is no worse than was
+usual in Masques. Silenus says that the Prince&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4">Stays the time from turning old,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And keeps the age up in a head of gold.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He makes it ever day and ever spring<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">When he doth shine, and quickens everything.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Then two Fays sing a song and all the Fays together
+dance, after which all together sing. Then Oberon and
+his knights dance. Another song follows. Then they
+all together dance 'measures, corantos, and galliards,'
+till Phosphorus the day star appears and calls them
+away&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">To rest! To rest! The herald of the day,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Bright Phosphorus commands you hence. Obey.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>They quickly dance their last dance, one by one getting
+into the Palace. Then the Star vanishes, the day
+breaks, and while the last song is sung the 'machine
+closes'&mdash;i.e. the Palace becomes a wall of the room and
+the show is over. This is the pretty song which ends
+the Masque:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">O yet how early and before her time,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The envious morning up doth climb,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">Though she not love her bed!<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">What haste the jealous sun doth make<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">His fiery horses up to take<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">And once more show his head!<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Lest, taken with the brightness of this night,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The world should wish it last and never miss his light.<br /></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">{177}</a></span></div></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_49_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS" id="chap_49_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS"></a>49. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART IV.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Through the Religious Drama, the Pageant, the Masque,
+we work our way to the Play itself. The first beginnings
+of the modern Drama must here be passed over:
+there were the rough and unformed comedies such as
+'Gammer Gurton's Needle,' performed in a college hall:
+or the tragedy played on boards spread over a waggon
+in the courtyard of an inn. Let us suppose that we
+are past the beginnings and are in Shakespeare's time&mdash;i.e.
+the end of Queen Elizabeth and the whole reign of
+James I.</p>
+
+<p>The first theatre was built in 1570. Thirty years
+after there were seven. The Queen had companies of
+children to play before her. They were the boys of the
+choirs of St. Paul's, Westminster, Whitehall, and
+Windsor. The actors called themselves the servants of
+some great lord. Lord Leicester, Lord Warwick, Lord
+Pembroke, Lord Howard, the Earl of Essex, and others
+all had their company of actors&mdash;not all at the same
+time. The principal Houses were those at Southwark,
+and especially at Bank Side, where there were three,
+including the famous Globe: the Blackfriars Playhouse:
+the Fortune in Golden Lane, and the Curtain at Shoreditch.
+If you will look at the map you will observe
+that not one of these theatres is within the City&mdash;that at
+Blackfriars was in the former precinct of the Dominicans
+and outside the City. No theatre was allowed in the
+City. Thus early sprang up the prejudice against actors.
+Probably this was of old standing, and first belonged
+to the time when the minstrel and the tumbler, the
+musician and the dancing girl, the buffoon and the contortionist,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">{178}</a></span>
+wandered about the country free of rule and
+discipline, leading careless and lawless lives.</p>
+
+<p>The theatre was octagonal in shape but circular
+within. What we call the pit was called the 'yarde.'
+The stage projected into the 'yarde,' about three or four
+feet high. The people who filled the 'yarde' were called
+groundlings. Round the house were three galleries, the
+lowest of which contained 'rooms' or private boxes:
+what we call the upper circle and the gallery were above.
+There were no seats in the pit, nor apparently in the
+upper circles. On either side of the stage sat or lay
+gentlemen, chiefly of the younger kind, who smoked pipes
+of tobacco and talked loudly, disturbing the performance.
+At the back of the stage was a kind of upper stage,
+supported on columns, which gave the players a tower,
+gallery, wall, a town, or an upper story of a house, or
+anything of the kind that they wanted. There was a
+great sale of apples, nuts, and ale before the play began
+and between the acts: boys hawked the newest books
+about the 'rooms': the people while they waited smoked
+pipes, played cards. Above the stage on one side was the
+'music.' Three times the trumpets sounded. At the
+first, those who were outside hurried in to get a place:
+at the second, the card-players left off their games: at
+the third, those who bawled apples and ale and shouted
+the name of the new book became silent: the audience
+settled down: the Play began. Not much costume was
+wanted: that of the Elizabethan&mdash;noble&mdash;courtier&mdash;young
+knight&mdash;clown&mdash;fitted any and every age. There
+was little scenery required: blue hangings above meant
+day: black hangings night: the actors came out upon
+the advanced stage and played their parts. No doubt
+the illusion was as complete as we can contrive with
+all our scenery, mounting, and correctness of costume.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">{179}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image_050.jpg" width="450" height="379" alt="THE GLOBE THEATRE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE GLOBE THEATRE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The parts of women were taken by boys. No women
+appeared on the stage until the reign of Charles II.
+The Play began with the Prologue, spoken by an actor
+dressed in a long black velvet coat bowing very humbly
+to the audience. After the Play was over the clowns
+began to tumble and to sing. In short, a farce succeeded
+a tragedy. The time of performance was one o'clock,
+and the performance lasted until five.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1610 the Lord Mayor and Aldermen
+being alarmed at the increasing popularity of the Play,
+ordered that there should be only two theatres, the
+Fortune in Golden Lane and the Globe at Bankside.
+This order, however, like so many other laws, was only
+passed to satisfy a passing scare and does not seem to
+have been carried into effect. It was in such a theatre
+as this and with such scenery that the immortal plays
+of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson were acted. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">{180}</a></span>
+next you read a play of Shakespeare, remember the
+stage projecting into the pit; the people in the pit all
+standing, the gallants on the stage talking and smoking,
+the ladies in the boxes, the boys enjoying apples and
+nuts and ale and new books, and the actors playing
+partly on the stage advanced and partly on the stage
+behind.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_50_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE" id="chap_50_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE"></a>50. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>You have seen the City as it appeared to one who walked
+about its streets and watched the people. It was free,
+busy and prosperous, except at rare intervals, when its
+own internal dissensions, or the civil wars of the country,
+or the pretensions of the Sovereign, disturbed the peace
+of the City. Behind this prosperity, however, lay hid
+all through the middle ages, and down to two hundred
+years ago, four great and ever-present terrors. The
+first was the Terror of Leprosy: the second the Terror
+of Famine: the third was the Terror of Plague: the last
+was the Terror of Fire.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; height: 425px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 166px;">
+<img src="images/image_051.jpg" width="166" height="300" alt="CIVIL COSTUME ABOUT 1620." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CIVIL COSTUME ABOUT 1620.
+<br />
+<i>(From a contemporary broadside.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 190px;">
+<img src="images/image_052.jpg" width="190" height="300" alt="COSTUME OF A LAWYER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COSTUME OF A LAWYER.
+<br />
+(<i>From a broadside, dated 1623.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As for the first two, we have seen how lazar houses
+were established outside every town, and how public
+granaries were built. Let us consider the third. The
+Plague broke out so often that there was hardly any
+time between the tenth and the seventeenth century
+when some living person could not remember a visitation
+of this awful scourge. It appeared in London first&mdash;i.e.
+the first mention of it occurs in history&mdash;in the year 962:
+again in 1094: again in 1111: then there seems to have
+been a respite for 250 years. In the year 1348 the Plague
+carried off many thousands: in 1361 it appeared again:
+in 1367 and in 1369. In 1407 30,000 were carried off in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">{181}</a></span>
+London alone by the Plague. In 1478 a plague raged
+throughout the country, which was said to have destroyed
+more people than the Wars of the Roses. But we must
+accept all mediæval estimates of numbers as indicating no
+more than great mortality. With the sixteenth century
+began a period of a hundred and sixty years, marked with
+attacks of the Plague constantly recurring, and every
+time more fatal and more widespread. Nothing teaches
+the conditions of human life more plainly than the
+history of the Plague in London. We are placed in the
+world in the midst of dangers, and we have to find out
+for ourselves how to meet those dangers and to protect
+ourselves. Thus a vast number of persons were crowded
+together within the walls of the City. The streets were
+all narrow: the houses were generally of three or more
+stories, built out in front so as to obstruct the light<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">{182}</a></span>
+and air; there were many courts, in which the houses
+were mere hovels: there was no drainage: refuse of all
+kinds lay about the streets: everything that was required
+for the daily life was made in the City, which added a
+thousand noisome smells and noxious refuse. Then the
+Plague came and carried off its thousands and disappeared.
+Then the survivors went on their usual course.
+Nothing was changed. Yet the Plague was a voice
+which spoke loudly. It said 'Clean yourselves: cease
+to defile the soil of the City with your decaying matter:
+build your houses in wider streets: do not shut out the
+sunshine&mdash;which is a splendid purifier&mdash;or light and air.
+Keep yourselves clean&mdash;body and raiment, and house and
+street.' The voice spoke, but no one heard. Then
+came the Plague again. Still no one heard the voice.
+It came again and again. It came in 1500, in 1525, in
+1543, in 1563, in 1569, in 1574, in 1592, in 1603 (when
+30,575 died), in 1625 (when 35,470 died), in 1635 (when
+10,400 died), and lastly, in 1665. And in all that time
+no one understood that voice, and the City was never
+cleansed. All that was done was to light bonfires in the
+street in order to increase the circulation of the air.
+After the last, and worst attack, in 1666 the City was
+burned, and in the purification of the flames it emerged
+clean, and the Plague has never since appeared. The
+same voice speaks to mankind still in every visitation of
+every new pestilence. It used to cry aloud in time of
+Plague: it cries aloud now in time of typhoid, diphtheria,
+and cholera. Diseases spring from ignorance and from
+vice. Physicians cannot cure them: but they can learn
+their cause and they can prevent.</p>
+
+<p>The Plague of 1665 began in the autumn of the year
+before. It had been raging in Amsterdam and Hamburg
+in 1663. Precautions were taken to keep it out by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">{183}</a></span>
+stopping the importation of goods from these towns.
+But these proved ineffectual. Certain bales from
+Holland were landed and taken to a house in Long Acre,
+Drury Lane. Here they were opened by two Frenchmen,
+both of whom caught the disease and died. A third
+Frenchman who was seized in the same house was removed
+to Bearbinder Lane, St. Swithin's Lane, where he,
+too, died. And then the disease began to spread. A
+severe frost checked it for a time. But in March, when
+milder weather returned, it broke out again.</p>
+
+<p>The disease, when it seized upon a person, brought
+upon him a most distressing horror of mind. This was
+followed by fever and delirium. But the certain signs of
+the plague were spots, pustules, and swellings, which
+spread over the whole body. Death in most cases
+rapidly followed. Some there were who recovered, but
+the majority gave themselves over for lost on the first
+appearance. Many of the physicians ran away from
+the infected City: many of the parish clergy deserted
+their churches. The Lord Mayor and Aldermen, however,
+remained, by their presence giving heart to those
+of the clergy and physicians who stayed, and by their
+prudent measures preventing a vast amount of additional
+suffering which would otherwise have fallen upon the
+unhappy people.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_51_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE" id="chap_51_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE"></a>51. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In the month of May it was found that twenty City
+parishes were infected. Certain preventions, rather
+than remedies, of which there were none, were now employed
+by the Mayor. Infected houses were shut up:
+no one was allowed to go in or to come out: food was conveyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">{184}</a></span>
+by buckets let down from an upper window: the
+dead bodies were lowered in the same way, from the
+windows: on the doors were painted red crosses with
+the words, 'Lord, have mercy upon us!' Watchmen
+were placed at the doors to prevent the unhappy
+prisoners from coming out. All the dogs and cats in
+the City, being supposed to carry about infection in their
+fur or hair, were slaughtered&mdash;40,000 dogs, it is stated,
+and 200,000 cats, which seems an impossible number,
+were killed. They also tried, but without success, to kill
+the rats and mice. Everything was tried except the one
+thing wanted&mdash;air and cleanliness. At the outset a
+great many of the better sort left the City and stayed in
+the country till the danger was over: others would have
+followed but the country people would not suffer their
+presence and drove them back with clubs and pikes. So
+they had to come back and die in the City. Then all
+the shops closed: all industries were stopped: men
+could no longer sit beside each other: the masters dismissed
+their apprentices and their workmen and their
+servants. In the river the ships lay with their cargoes
+half discharged: on the quays stood the bales, unopened.
+In the churches there were no services except where the
+scanty congregation sat singly and apart. The Courts
+of Justice were empty: there were no crimes to try: in
+the streets the passengers avoided each other. In the
+markets which had to be kept open, the buyer lifted
+down his purchase with a hook and dropped the money
+into a bowl of vinegar. Many families voluntarily shut
+their houses and would neither go in or out. Some of
+these escaped the infection; the history of one such
+family during their six months' imprisonment has been
+preserved. They thanked God solemnly every morning
+for continued health: they prayed three times a day for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">{185}</a></span>
+safety. Some went on board ship and, as the Plague
+increased, dropped down the river.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/image_053.jpg" width="420" height="300" alt="ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; temp. CHARLES I." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A COUNTRYMAN. A COUNTRYWOMAN.
+<br />
+ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; <i>temp.</i> CHARLES I.
+<br />
+(<i>From Speed&#39;s map of &#39;The Kingdom of England,&#39; 1646.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The deaths, which in the four weeks of July numbered
+725, 1,089, 1,843, and 2,010, respectively, rose in
+August and September to three, four, five, and even eight
+thousand a week: but it was believed that the registers
+were badly kept and that the numbers were greater than
+appeared. Every evening carts were sent round, the
+drivers who smoked tobacco as a disinfectant, crying
+out, 'Bring out your Dead. Bring out your Dead,' and
+ringing a bell. The churchyards were filled and pits
+were dug outside the City into which the bodies were
+thrown without coffins. When the pestilence ceased the
+churchyards were covered with a thick deposit of fresh
+mould to prevent ill consequences. It was observed that
+during the prevalence of the disease there was an extraordinary
+continuance of calm and serene sunshine. For<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">{186}</a></span>
+many weeks together not the least breath of wind could
+be perceived.</p>
+
+<p>When the summer was over and the autumn came
+on, the disease became milder in its form: it lasted
+longer: and whereas, at the first, not one in five recovered,
+now not two in five died. Presently the cold
+weather returned and the Plague was stayed. They
+burned or washed all the linen, flannel, clothes, bedding,
+tapestry and curtains belonging to the infected houses:
+and they whitewashed the rooms in which the disease had
+appeared. But they did not take steps for the cleansing
+of the City. The voice had spoken in vain. The
+number of deaths during the year was registered as
+97,306 of which 68,596 were attributed to the Plague.
+But there seems little doubt that the registers were inefficiently
+kept. It was believed that the number who
+perished by Plague alone was at least 100,000.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to write down these figures. It is difficult
+to understand what they mean. Among them, a quarter
+at least, would be the breadwinners, the fathers of
+families. In many cases all perished together, parents
+and children: in others, the children were left destitute.
+Then there was no work. There were 100,000 working
+men out of employment. All these people had to be kept.
+The Lord Mayor, assisted by his Aldermen and two noble
+Lords, Albemarle and Craven, organised a service of
+relief. The King gave a thousand pounds a week: the
+City gave 600<i>l.</i> a week: the merchants contributed
+thousands every week. And so the people were kept
+from starving.</p>
+
+<p>When it was all over Pepys, who kept his Diary
+through the time of the Plague but was not one of those
+who stayed in the infected City, notes the enormous
+number of beggars. Who should they be but the poor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">{187}</a></span>
+creatures, the women and the children, the old and the
+infirm who had lost their breadwinners, the men who
+loved them and worked for them? The history is full
+of dreadful things: but this amazing crowd of beggars is
+the most dreadful.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_52_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE" id="chap_52_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE"></a>52. THE TERROR OF FIRE.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 434px;">
+<img src="images/image_054.jpg" width="434" height="300" alt="ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; temp. CHARLES I." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A CITIZEN. A CITIZEN&#39;S WIFE.
+<br />
+ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; <i>temp.</i> CHARLES I.
+<br />
+(<i>From Speed&#39;s map of &#39;The Kingdom of England,&#39; 1646.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The City of London has suffered from fire more than
+any other great town. In the year 961 a large number
+of houses were destroyed: in 1077, 1086, and 1093, a
+great part of the City was burned down. In 1136, a fire
+which broke out at London Stone, in the house of one
+Aylward, spread east and west as far as Aldgate on one
+side and St. Erkinwald's shrine in St. Paul's Cathedral
+on the other. London Bridge, then built of wood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">{188}</a></span>
+perished in the fire, which for five hundred years was
+known as the Great Fire. In these successive fires
+every building of Saxon erection, to say nothing of the
+Roman period, must have perished.</p>
+
+<p>But the ravages of all the fires together did less
+harm than the terrible fire which laid the greater part
+of London in ashes in the year 1666. If you will refer
+to the map of London you may mark off within
+the walls the North-East angle: that part contained by
+the wall and a straight line running from Coleman
+Street to Tower Hill. With the exception of that corner
+the whole of London within the walls, and beyond as far
+as the Temple, was entirely destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>The fire broke out at a baker's in Pudding Lane,
+Thames Street. It was early on Sunday morning on
+the second day of September, 1666. It was then, and
+is now, a place where the houses stood very thick and
+close together: all round were warehouses filled with
+oil, wine, tar, and every kind of inflammable stuff. The
+baker's shop contained a large quantity of faggots and
+brushwood, so that the flames caught and spread very
+rapidly. The people, for the most part, had time to
+remove their most valuable things, but their furniture,
+their clothes, the stock of their shops, the tools of their
+trade, they had to leave behind them. Some hurriedly
+placed their things in the churches for safety, as if the
+fire would respect the sanctity of these buildings. A
+stranger Sunday was never spent than this, when those
+who had escaped were asking where to go, and those
+upon whom the flames were advancing were tearing out
+of their houses whatever they could carry away, and the
+rest of the town were looking on and asking whether the
+flames would be stayed before they reached their houses.</p>
+
+<p>Among those who thought that a church would be a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">{189}</a></span>
+safe place were the booksellers of Paternoster Row. They
+carried all their books into St. Paul's Cathedral and
+retired&mdash;their stock in trade was safe. But the flames
+closed round upon the Cathedral: they seized on Paternoster
+Row, so that the booksellers like the rest were
+fain to fly: and presently towering to the sky flamed up
+the lofty roof of nave and chancel and tower. Then
+with an awful crash the flaming timbers fell down into
+the church below. Even the Cathedral was burned with
+the rest, and with it all the books.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 427px;">
+<img src="images/image_055.jpg" width="427" height="300" alt="ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; temp. CHARLES I." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A GENTLEMAN. A GENTLEWOMAN.
+<br />
+ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; <i>temp.</i> CHARLES I.
+<br />
+(<i>From Speed&#39;s map of &#39;The Kingdom of England,&#39; 1646.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All Sunday, Monday, Tuesday and part of Wednesday,
+the fire raged, till it seemed as if there would be no
+end until the City was utterly destroyed. Happily a
+remnant was saved, as you have seen. The fire was
+stopped at last by blowing up houses everywhere to
+arrest its progress. Close by the Temple Church (which
+barely escaped) they stopped it in this way. At Aldersgate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">{190}</a></span>
+Cripplegate, and Bishopsgate, they used the same
+means, and at Pye Corner, Smithfield. Nearly opposite
+Bartholomew's Hospital, you may still see the image of
+a boy set up to commemorate the stopping of the fire
+at that point. Had it gone further we should have lost
+St. Bartholomew the Great and the houses of Cloth
+Fair.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_056.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="LUD-GATE ON FIRE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LUD-GATE ON FIRE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the fire stopped the people sat down to consider
+the losses they had sustained and the best way out
+of them.</p>
+
+<p>St. Paul's Cathedral, that ancient and venerable
+edifice, with its thick walls and roof so lofty, that it
+seemed as if no fire but the fire from heaven could reach
+it, was a pile of ruins, the walls of the nave and transept
+standing, the choir fallen into the crypt below. The
+Parish churches to the number of 88 were burned: the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">{191}</a></span>
+Royal Exchange&mdash;Gresham's Exchange&mdash;was down and
+all the statues turned into lime, with the exception of
+Gresham's alone: nearly all the great houses left in the
+City, the great nobles' houses, such as Baynard's Castle,
+Coldharbour, Bridewell Palace, Derby House, were in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">{192}</a></span>
+ashes: all the Companies' Halls were gone: warehouses,
+shops, private residences, palaces and hovels&mdash;everything
+was levelled with the ground and burned to ashes. Five-sixths
+of the City were destroyed: an area of 436 acres
+was covered with the ruins: 13,200 houses were burned:
+it is said that 200,000 persons were rendered homeless&mdash;an
+estimate which would give an average of 15 residents
+to each house. Probably this is an exaggeration. The
+houseless people, however, formed a kind of camp in
+Moorfields just outside the wall, where they lived in
+tents, and cottages hastily run up. The place now
+called Finsbury Square stands on the site of this curious
+camp.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;">
+<img src="images/image_057.jpg" width="314" height="500" alt="PAUL PINDAR&#39;S HOUSE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PAUL PINDAR&#39;S HOUSE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We ask ourselves in wonder how life was resumed
+after so great a calamity. The title deeds to houses and
+estates were burned&mdash;who would claim and prove the
+right to property? The account books were all lost&mdash;who
+could claim or prove a debt? The warehouses and
+shops with their contents were gone&mdash;who could carry
+on business? The craftsmen had lost their employment&mdash;how
+were they to live?</p>
+
+<p>Of debts and rents and mortgages and all such
+things, little could be said. It was not a time to speak
+of the past. They must think of the future: they must
+all begin the world anew.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_53_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE" id="chap_53_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE"></a>53. THE TERROR OF FIRE.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>They must begin the world anew. For most of the
+merchants nothing was left to them but their credit&mdash;their
+good name: try to imagine the havoc caused by
+burning all the docks, warehouses, wharves, quays, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">{193}</a></span>
+shops in London at the present day with nothing at all
+insured!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image_058.jpg" width="600" height="353" alt="LONDON, AS REBUILT AFTER THE FIRE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LONDON, AS REBUILT AFTER THE FIRE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">{194}</a></span>But the citizens of London were not the kind of
+people to sit down weeping. The first thing was to
+rebuild their houses. This done there would be time to
+consider the future. The Lord Mayor and the Aldermen
+took counsel together how to rebuild the City. They called
+in Sir Christopher Wren, lately become an architect after
+being astronomer at Cambridge, and Evelyn: they
+invited plans for laying out the City in a more uniform
+manner with wider streets and houses more protected
+from fire. Both Wren and Evelyn sent in plans. But
+while these were under consideration the citizens were
+rebuilding their houses.</p>
+
+<p>They did not wait for the ashes to get cool. As
+soon as the flames were extinct and the smoke had
+cleared: as soon as it was possible to make way among
+the ruined walls, every man sought out the site of
+his own house and began to build it up again. So that
+London, rebuilt, was almost&mdash;not quite, for some improvements
+were effected&mdash;laid out with the same streets
+and lanes as before the fire. It was two years, however,
+before the ruins were all cleared away and four years
+before the City was completely rebuilt. Ten thousand
+houses were erected during that period, and these were
+all of brick: the old timbered house with clay between
+the posts was gone: so was the thatched roof: the
+houses were all of brick: the roofs were tiled: the chief
+danger was gone. At this time, too, they introduced
+the plan of a pavement on either side of smooth flat
+stones with posts to keep carts and waggons from interfering
+with the comforts of the foot passengers. It took
+much longer than four years to erect the Companies'
+Halls. About thirty of the churches were never rebuilt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">{195}</a></span>
+at all, the parishes being merged in others. The first
+to be repaired, not rebuilt, was that of St. Dunstan's
+two years after the fire: in four years more, another
+church was finished. In every year after this one or
+two: and the last of the City churches was not rebuilt
+till thirty one years after the fire.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;">
+<img src="images/image_059.jpg" width="425" height="177" alt="COACH OF THE LATTER HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COACH OF THE LATTER HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+<br />
+(<i>From Loggan&#39;s &#39;Oxonia Illustrata.&#39;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_060.jpg" width="500" height="171" alt="WAGGON OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">WAGGON OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+<br />
+(<i>From Loggan&#39;s &#39;Oxonia Illustrata.&#39;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was at this time of universal poverty that the
+advantages of union was illustrated to those who had
+eyes to see. First of all, the Corporation had to find
+food&mdash;therefore work. Thousands were employed in
+clearing away the rubbish and carting it off so as to
+make the streets, at least, free for traffic. The craftsmen
+who had no work to do, were employed when this was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">{196}</a></span>
+done on the building operations. The quays were cleared,
+and the warehouses put up again, for the business of
+the Port continued. Ships came, discharged their
+cargoes, and waited for their freight outward bound.
+Then the houses arose and the shops began to open
+again. And the Companies stood by their members:
+they gave them credit: advanced loans: started them
+afresh in the world. Had it not been for the Companies,
+the fate of London after the fire would have been as
+the fate of Antwerp after the Religious Wars. But there
+must have been many who were ruined completely by
+this fearful calamity. Hundreds of merchants, and retailers,
+having lost their all must have been unable to
+face the stress and anxiety of making this fresh start.
+The men advanced in life; the men of anxious and timid
+mind; the incompetent and feeble: were crushed. They
+became bankrupt: they went under: in the great crowd
+no one heeded them: their sons and daughters took
+a lower place: perhaps they are still among the ranks
+into which it is easy to sink; out of which it is difficult
+to rise. The craftsmen were injured least: their
+Companies replaced their tools for them: work was
+presently resumed again: their houses were rebuilt and,
+as for their furniture, there was not much of it before
+the fire and there was not much of it after the fire.</p>
+
+<p>The poet Dryden thus writes of the people during
+and after the fire:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Those who have homes, when home they do repair,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To a last lodging call their wandering friends:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their short uneasy sleeps are broke with care<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To look how near their own destruction tends.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Those who have none sit round where once it was<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And with full eyes each wonted room require:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Haunting the yet warm ashes of the place,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">As murdered men walk where they did expire.<br /></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">{197}</a></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The most in fields like herded beasts lie down,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To dews obnoxious on the grassy floor:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And while the babes in sleep their sorrow drown,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Sad parents watch the remnant of their store.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;">
+<img src="images/image_061.jpg" width="333" height="500" alt="ORDINARY DRESS OF GENTLEMEN IN 1675" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ORDINARY DRESS OF GENTLEMEN IN 1675.
+<br />
+(<i>From Loggan&#39;s &#39;Oxonia Illustrata.&#39;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_54_ROGUES_AND_VAGABONDS" id="chap_54_ROGUES_AND_VAGABONDS"></a>54. ROGUES AND VAGABONDS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The aspect of the City varies from age to age: the streets
+and the houses, the costumes, the language, the
+manners, all change.
+In one respect however,
+there is no
+change: we have always
+with us the same
+rogues and the same
+roguery. We do not
+treat them quite after
+the manner followed
+by our forefathers:
+and, as their methods
+were incapable of putting
+a stop to the
+tricks of those who live
+by trickery, so are
+ours; therefore we
+must not pride ourselves
+on any superiority
+in this direction.
+A large and very interesting
+collection of
+books might be formed
+on the subject of
+rogues and vagabonds. The collection would begin with
+Elizabeth and could be carried on to the present day, new<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">{198}</a></span>
+additions being made from year to year. But very few
+additions are ever made to the customs and the methods
+of the profession. For instance, there is the confidence
+trick, in which the rustic is beguiled by the honest
+stranger into trusting him. This trick was practised
+three hundred years ago. Or there is the ring-dropping
+trick, it is as old as the hills. Or there is the sham sailor&mdash;now
+very rarely met with. When we have another war
+he will come to the front again. We have still the cheating
+gambler, but he has always been with us. In King Charles
+the Second's time he was called a Ruffler, a Huff, or a
+Shabbaroon. The woman who now begs along the streets
+singing a hymn and leading borrowed children, did the
+same thing two hundred years ago and was called a clapperdozen.
+The man who pretends to be deaf and dumb
+went about then, and was known as the dummerer. The
+burglar was then the housebreaker. Burglary was
+formerly a far worse crime than it is now, because the
+people for the most part kept all their money in their
+houses, and a robbery might ruin them. The pickpocket
+plied his trade, only he was then a cutpurse. The footpad
+lay in wait on the lonely country road or among the
+bushes of the open fields at the back of Lincoln's Inn.
+The punishments, which seem so mild under the Plantagenets,
+increased in severity as the population outgrew the
+powers of the government. Instead of plain standing
+in pillory, ears were nailed to the post and even sliced off:
+whippings became more commonly administered, and
+were much more severe: heretics were burned by Elizabeth
+as well as by Mary, though not so often. After
+the civil wars we enter upon a period when punishment
+became savage in its cruelty, of which you will presently
+learn more. Meantime remark that when the City was
+less densely populated, and when none lived outside<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">{199}</a></span>
+the wards and walls, the people were well under the
+control of the aldermen and their officers: they were also
+well known to each other: they exercised that self-government&mdash;the
+best of any&mdash;which consists in refusing
+to harbour a rogue among them. If in every London
+street the tenants would refuse to suffer any evildoer to
+lodge in their midst, the police of London might be almost
+abolished. But the City grew: the wards became densely
+populated: then houses and extensive suburbs sprang
+up at Whitechapel, Wapping, outside Cripplegate, at
+Smithfield north of Fleet Street, Lambeth, Bermondsey
+and Rotherhithe: the aldermen no longer knew their
+people: the men of a ward did not know each other:
+rogues were harboured about Smithfield and outside
+Aldgate: the simple machinery for enforcing order ceased
+to be of any use: and as yet the new police was not
+invented. Therefore the punishments became savage.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">{200}</a></span>
+Since the government could not prevent crime and
+compel order, they would deter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/image_062.jpg" width="250" height="344" alt="DRESS OF LADIES OF QUALITY" title="" />
+<span class="caption">DRESS OF LADIES OF QUALITY.
+<br />
+(<i>From Sandford&#39;s &#39;Coronation Procession
+of James II.&#39;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image_063.jpg" width="300" height="311" alt="ORDINARY ATTIRE OF WOMEN OF
+THE LOWER CLASSES." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ORDINARY ATTIRE OF WOMEN OF
+THE LOWER CLASSES.
+<br />
+(<i>From Sandford&#39;s &#39;Coronation Procession of
+James II.&#39;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Apart from active crime, vagrancy was a great
+scourge. Wars and civil wars left crowds of idle soldiers
+who had no taste for steady work: they became vagrants:
+there was also&mdash;and there is still&mdash;a certain proportion of
+men and women who will not work: they become vagrants
+by a kind of instinct: they are born vagabonds. Laws and
+proclamations were continually passed for the repression
+of vagrants. They were passed on to their native place:
+they were provided with passes on their way. But these
+laws were always being evaded, and vagrants increased
+in number. Under Henry VIII. a very stringent statute
+was passed by which old and impotent persons were provided
+with license to beg, and anybody begging without
+a license was whipped. But like all such acts it was
+imperfectly carried out. For one who received a whipping
+a dozen escaped. Stocks, pillory, bread and water,
+all were applied, but without visible effect, because so many
+escaped. London especially swarmed with beggars and
+pretended cripples. They lived about Turnmill Street,
+Houndsditch and the Barbican, outside the walls. From
+time to time a raid was carried on against them, and
+they dispersed, but only to collect again. In the year
+1575, for instance, it is reported that there were few or
+no rogues in the London prisons. But in the year 1581,
+the Queen observing a large number of sturdy rogues
+during a drive made complaint, with the result that the
+next day 74 were arrested: the day after 60, and so on,
+the catch on one day being a hundred, all of whom were
+'soundly paid,' i.e. flogged and sent to their own homes.
+The statute ordering the whipping of vagabonds was enforced
+even in this present century, women being flogged
+as well as men. No statutes, however, can put down the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">{201}</a></span>
+curse of vagrancy and idleness. It can only be suppressed
+by the will and resolution of the people themselves.
+If for a single fortnight we should all refuse to
+give a single penny to beggars: if in every street we
+should all resolve upon having none but honest folk
+among us: then and only then, would the rogue find this
+island of Great Britain impossible to be longer inhabited
+by him and his tribe.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_55_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND" id="chap_55_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND"></a>55. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap" style="font-weight: normal;">The Wealth of London</span>.</h2>
+
+
+<p>If a new world was opened to the adventurous in the
+reign of Queen Elizabeth, this new world two hundred
+years later was only half explored and was constantly
+yielding up new treasures. The lion's share of these
+treasures came to Great Britain and was landed at the
+Port of London. The wealth and luxury of the
+merchants in the eighteenth century surpassed anything
+ever recorded or ever imagined. So great was their
+prosperity that historians and essayists predicted the
+speedy downfall of the City: the very greatness of their
+success frightened those who looked on and remembered
+the past.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_064.jpg" width="500" height="318" alt="GROUP SHOWING COSTUMES AND SEDAN CHAIR, ABOUT 1720." title="" />
+<span class="caption">GROUP SHOWING COSTUMES AND SEDAN CHAIR, ABOUT 1720.
+<br />
+(<i>From an engraving by Kip.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though the appearance of the City had changed, and
+its colour and picturesqueness were gone, at no time was
+London more powerful or more magnificent. There
+were no nobles living within the walls: only two or
+three of the riverside palaces remained along the Strand:
+there were no troops of retainers riding along the streets
+in the bright liveries of their masters: the picturesque
+gables, the latticed windows, the overhanging fronts&mdash;all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">{202}</a></span>
+these were gone: instead of the old churches rich
+with ancient carvings, frescoes in crimson and blue,
+marble monuments and painted glass, were the square
+halls&mdash;preaching halls&mdash;of Wren with their round
+windows, rich only in carved woodwork: the houses
+were square with sash windows: the shop fronts were
+glazed: the streets were filled with grave and sober
+merchants in great wigs and white ruffles. They lived
+in stately and commodious houses, many of which still
+survive&mdash;see the Square at the back of Austin Friars
+Church for a very fine example&mdash;they had their country
+houses: they drove in chariots: and they did a splendid
+business. Their ships went all over the world: they
+traded with India, not yet part of the Empire: with
+China, and the Far East: with the West Indies, with
+the Levant. They had Companies for carrying on trade
+in every part of the globe. The South Sea Company,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">{203}</a></span>
+the Hudson's Bay Company, the Turkey Company, the
+African Company, the Russian Company, the East India
+Company&mdash;are some. The ships lay moored below the
+Bridge in rows that reached a mile down the river.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_065.jpg" width="500" height="502" alt="TEMPLE BAR, LONDON." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TEMPLE BAR, LONDON.
+<br />
+(<i>Built by Sir Christopher Wren in 1670; taken down in 1878 and since
+rebuilt at Waltham Cross.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All this prosperity grew in spite of the wars which
+we carried on during the whole of the last century.
+These wars, though they covered the Channel and the
+Bay of Biscay with privateers, had little effect to stay the
+increase of London trade. And as the merchants lived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">{204}</a></span>
+within the City, in sight of each other, their wealth was
+observed and known by all. At the present day, when
+London from nightfall till morning is a dead city, no one
+knows the wealth of the merchants and it is only by considering
+the extent of the suburbs that one can understand
+the enormous wealth possessed by those men who
+come up by train every day and without ostentation walk
+among their clerks to their offices in the City. A hundred
+and fifty years ago, one saw the rich men: sat in church
+with them: sat at dinner with them on Company feast
+days: knew them. The visible presence of so much
+wealth helped to make London great and proud. It
+would be interesting, if it were possible, to discover how
+many families now noble or gentle&mdash;county families&mdash;derive
+their origin or their wealth from the City merchants
+of the last century.</p>
+
+<p>In one thing there is a great change. Till the middle
+of the seventeenth century it was customary for the rank
+of trade to be recruited&mdash;in London, at least&mdash;from the
+younger sons. This fashion was now changed. The continual
+wars gave the younger sons another career: they
+entered the army and the navy. Hence arose the contempt
+for trade which existed in the country for about a
+hundred and fifty years. It is now fast dying out, but
+it is not yet dead. Younger sons are now going into the
+City again.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">{205}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image_066.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="FLEET STREET AND TEMPLE BAR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">FLEET STREET AND TEMPLE BAR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The old exclusiveness was kept up jealously. No one
+must trade in the City who was not free of the City.
+But the freedom of the City was easily obtained. The
+craftsman and the clerk remained in their own places:
+they were taught to know their places: they were taught,
+which was a very fine thing, to think much of their own
+places and to take pride in the station to which they were
+called: to respect those in higher station and to receive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">{206}</a></span>
+respect from those lower than themselves. Though
+merchants had not, and have not, any rank assigned to
+them by the Court officials, there was as much difference
+of rank and place in the City as without. And in no
+time was there greater personal dignity than in this age
+when rank and station were so much regarded. But
+between the nobility and the City there was little intercourse
+and no sympathy. The manners, the morals, the
+dignity of the City ill assorted with those of the aristocracy
+at a time when drinking and gambling were ruining
+the old families and destroying the noblest names. There
+has always belonged to the London merchant a great
+respect for personal character and conduct. We are
+accustomed to regard this as a survival of Puritanism.
+This is not so: it existed before the arrival of Puritanism:
+it arose in the time when the men in the wards knew
+each other and when the master of many servants set
+the example, because his life was visible to all, of order,
+honour, and self-respect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_067.jpg" width="500" height="339" alt="A COACH OF THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A COACH OF THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+<br />
+(<i>From an engraving by John Dunstall.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_56_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND" id="chap_56_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND"></a>56. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>After the Great Fire, the number of City churches was
+reduced from 126 to 87. Those that were rebuilt were
+for the most part much larger and more capacious than
+their predecessors. In many cases, Wren, the great
+architect, who rebuilt St. Paul's Cathedral and all the
+churches, in order to get a larger church took in a part
+of the churchyard, which accounts for the fact that many
+of the City churchyards are now so small. Again, as
+the old churches had been built mainly for the purpose
+of saying and singing mass, the new churches were built<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">{207}</a></span>
+mainly for the purpose of hearing sermons. They were
+therefore provided with pews for the accommodation of
+the hearers, and resembled, in their original design, a
+convenient square room, where the preacher might be
+seen and heard by all, rather than a cruciform church.
+Some of Wren's churches, however, though they may be
+described as square rooms, are exceedingly beautiful, for
+instance, St. Stephen's, Walbrook, while nearly all are
+enriched with woodwork of a beautiful description. It
+was the custom in the last century to attend frequent
+church services, and to hear many sermons. The parish
+church entered into the daily life much more under
+George the Second's reign than it does now, in spite of
+our improved services and our multiplication of services.
+In forty-four City churches there was service, sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">{208}</a></span>
+twice, sometimes once, every day. In all of them there
+were evening services on Wednesday and Fridays: in
+many there were endowed lectureships, which gave an
+additional sermon once a week, or at stated times. Fast
+days were commonly observed, though it was not customary
+to close shops or suspend business on Good
+Friday or Ash Wednesday: not more than half of the
+City churches possessed an organ: on Sunday afternoons
+the children were duly catechised: if boys misbehaved,
+the beadle or sexton caned them in the churchyard: the
+laws were still in force which fined the parishioners for
+absence from church and for harbouring in their houses
+people who did not go to church. Except for Sunday
+services, sermons, and visitations of the sick, the clergy
+had nothing to do. What is now considered the work
+of the parish clergy&mdash;the work that occupies all their
+time&mdash;is entirely modern. Formerly this kind of work
+was not done at all; the people were left to themselves:
+the clergy were not the organisers of mothers' meetings,
+country jaunts, athletics, boys' clubs, and amusements.
+The Nonconformists still formed an important part of
+the City. They had many chapels, but their social
+influence in London, which was very great at the beginning
+of the century, declined steadily, until thirty or forty
+years ago it stood at a very low ebb indeed.</p>
+
+<p>In the streets the roads were paved with round
+pebbles&mdash;they were 'cobbled': the footway was protected
+by posts placed at intervals: the paving stones, which
+only existed in the principal streets before the year 1766,
+were small, and badly laid: after a shower they splashed
+up mud and water when one stepped upon them. The
+signs which we have seen on the Elizabethan houses
+still hung out from every shop and every house: they
+had grown bigger: they were set in immense frames of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">{209}</a></span>
+ironwork, which creaked noisily, and sometimes tore out
+the front of a house by their enormous weight. The shop
+windows were now glazed with small panes, mostly
+oblong, and often in bow windows: you may find several
+such shops still remaining: one at the top of the Haymarket:
+one in Coventry Street: one in the Strand:
+there were no fronts of plate glass brilliantly illuminated
+to exhibit the contents exposed for sale: the old-fashioned
+shopkeeper prided himself on keeping within, and out of
+sight, his best and choicest goods. A few candles lit up
+the shop in the winter afternoons.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image_068.jpg" width="500" height="376" alt="VIEW OF SCHOOL CONNECTED WITH BUNYAN&#39;S MEETING HOUSE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VIEW OF SCHOOL CONNECTED WITH BUNYAN&#39;S MEETING HOUSE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To walk in the streets meant the encounter of roughness
+and rudeness which would now be thought intolerable.
+There were no police to keep order: if a man
+wanted order he might fight for it. Fights, indeed, were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">{210}</a></span>
+common in the streets: the waggoners, the hackney
+coachmen, the men with the wheelbarrows, the porters
+who carried things, were always fighting in the streets:
+gentlemen were hustled by bullies, and often had to
+fight them: most men carried a thick cudgel for self-protection.</p>
+
+<p>The streets were far noisier in the last century than
+ever they had been before. Chiefly, this was due to the
+enormous increase of wheeled vehicles. Formerly everything
+came into the City or went out of it on the backs
+of pack-horses and pack-asses. Now the roads were so
+much improved that waggons could be used for everything,
+and the long lines of pack-horses had disappeared
+from the main roads. In the country lanes the pack-horse
+was still employed. Everybody was able to ride,
+and the City apprentice, when he had a holiday, always
+spent it on horseback. But for everyday the hackney
+coach was used. Smaller carts were also coming into
+use. And for dragging about barrels of beer and heavy
+cases a dray of iron, without wheels, was used. All
+these innovations meant more noise and still more noise.
+Had Whittington, in the time of George II., sat down
+on Highgate Hill (still a grassy slope), he would have
+heard, loud above the sound of Bow Bells, the rumbling
+of the waggons on Cheapside.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_57_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND" id="chap_57_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND"></a>57. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In walking through the City to-day, one may remark
+that there is very little crying of things to sell. In
+certain streets, as Broad Street, Whitecross Street,
+Whitechapel, or Middlesex Street, there is a kind of
+open street, fair, or market; but the street cries such as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">{211}</a></span>
+Hogarth depicted exist no longer. People used to sell a
+thousand things in the streets which are now sold in
+shops. All the little things&mdash;thread,
+string, pins, needles,
+small coal, ink, and straps&mdash;that
+are wanted in a house were
+sold by hawkers and bawled all
+day long in the streets: fruit
+of all kinds was sold from house
+to house: fish: milk: cakes
+and bread: herbs and drugs:
+brimstone matches: an endless
+procession passed along, all
+bawling their wares. Then
+there were the people who
+ground knives, mended chairs,
+soldered pots and pans: these
+bawled with the hawkers. We
+can no longer speak of the roar
+of London: there is no roar:
+the vehicles, nearly all provided
+with springs, roll smoothly over
+an even surface of asphalt:
+there are no more drays without
+wheels: there are no more
+street fights: there is comparatively
+little bawling of things to
+sell.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 176px;">
+<img src="images/image_069.jpg" width="176" height="500" alt="GRENADIER IN THE TIME OF
+THE PENINSULAR WAR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">GRENADIER IN THE TIME OF
+THE PENINSULAR WAR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In those days people liked
+the noise. It was a part of the
+City life: it showed how big
+and busy the City was since it could make such a
+tremendous noise by the mere carrying on of the daily
+round. Could any other city&mdash;even Paris&mdash;boast of such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">{212}</a></span>
+a noise? People who came up from the country to visit
+London were invited to consider the noise of the City as
+a part of its magnificence and pride.</p>
+
+<p>What else had they to consider? What were the
+sights of London?</p>
+
+<p>First of all, St. Paul's and Westminster Abbey.
+Then the Tower and the Monument, the Royal Exchange
+and the Mansion House, Guildhall and the Bank
+of England, London Bridge, Newgate, St. James's and
+the Horse Guards. These were to be visited by day.
+In the evening there were the theatres, Drury Lane and
+Covent Garden: and there were the Gardens.</p>
+
+<p>The citizens were always fond of their Gardens.
+They were opened as soon as the weather would allow,
+and they continued open till the autumn chills made them
+impossible. The gardens were those of Vauxhall&mdash;still
+in existence as a small park: Ranelagh, at Chelsea:
+Marylebone, opposite the old Parish Church in High
+Street: Bagnigge Wells, which lay East of Gray's Inn
+Road: Belsize, near Hampstead: the White Conduit
+House in the fields near Islington: the Florida Gardens
+at Brompton: the Temple of Flora, the Apollo Gardens,
+and the Bermondsey Spa Gardens, all on the south side.
+These Gardens, now built over, were all alike. Every
+one of them had an ornamental water, walks and shrubs,
+a room for dancing and singing, and a stand for the
+band out of doors. People walked about, looked at each
+other, had supper, drank punch&mdash;and went home. If
+the Gardens were at any distance from the City they
+marched together for safety.</p>
+
+<p>The river was still the favourite highway&mdash;thousands
+of boats plied up and down: it was much safer, shorter,
+and more pleasant to take oars from Westminster to the
+City than to walk or to hire a coach.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">{213}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image_070.jpg" width="450" height="357" alt="UNIFORM OF SAILORS ABOUT 1790." title="" />
+<span class="caption">UNIFORM OF SAILORS ABOUT 1790.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The high roads of the country were rapidly improving.
+Stage coaches ran from London to all the principal
+towns. They started, for the most part, at eight in the
+evening. They charged fourpence a mile, and they
+pretended to accomplish the journey at the rate of seven
+miles an hour. You may easily compare the cost of
+travelling when you remember that you may now go
+anywhere for a penny a mile&mdash;one fourth the former
+charge at five or six times the rate. The 'short stages,'
+of which there were a great many, ran to and from the
+suburbs: they were like the omnibuses, but not so frequent,
+and they cost a great deal more. Threepence a
+mile was the usual charge. There was a penny post in
+London, first set up by a private person. A letter sent
+from London cost twopence the first stage: threepence
+for two stages: above 150 miles, sixpence: Ireland
+and Scotland, sixpence: any foreign country a shilling.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">{214}</a></span>
+There were no bank notes under the value of 20<i>l.</i>: there
+were no postal orders or any conveniences of that kind.
+Money was remitted to London either by carrier or
+through some merchant. Banks there were by this
+time: but most people preferred keeping their own
+money in their own houses. Also banks being few
+everybody carried gold: this partly explains the prevalence
+of highway robbery: very likely the passengers
+on any long stage coach carried between them some
+hundreds of guineas: a whole railway train in these days
+would not yield so much: for people no longer carry
+with them more money than is wanted for the small
+expenditure of the day: tram, omnibus, cab, luncheon
+or dinner.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_58_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND" id="chap_58_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND"></a>58. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART IV.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>So far we understand that London about the year 1750
+was a city filled with dignified merchants all getting rich,
+and with a decorous, self-respecting population of retail
+traders, clerks, craftsmen, and servants of all kinds, a
+noisy but a well-behaved people. A church-going,
+sermon-loving, and orderly people.</p>
+
+<p>This is in the main a fair and just appreciation of
+the City. But there is the other side which must not be
+overlooked&mdash;that side, namely, which presents the vice
+and sin and misery which always accompany the congregation
+of many people and the accumulation of wealth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;">
+<img src="images/image_071.jpg" width="331" height="500" alt="COSTUMES OF GENTLEFOLK, ABOUT 1784." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COSTUMES OF GENTLEFOLK, ABOUT 1784.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The vice which has always been the father of most
+miseries is that of drink. In the middle of the last
+century, everybody drank too much. The dignity of
+the grave merchant was too often marred by indulgence
+in port and punch: the City clergy drank too much:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">{215}</a></span>
+even the ladies drank too much: it was hardly a
+reproach, in any class, to be overcome with liquor. As for
+the lower classes their habitual drink was beer&mdash;Franklin
+tells us that when he was a printer in London every
+man drank seven or eight pints of beer every day: nor
+was this small ale or porter: it was generally good
+strong beer: the beer would not perhaps hurt them so
+much&mdash;though the money spent on drink was enormous&mdash;but
+unfortunately they had now taken to gin as well&mdash;or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">{216}</a></span>
+instead. The drinking of gin at one time threatened,
+literally, to destroy the whole of the working classes of
+London. There were 10,000 houses&mdash;one in four&mdash;where
+gin was sold either secretly or openly. It was
+advertised that a man could get drunk for a penny and
+dead drunk for twopence. A check was placed upon
+this habit by imposing a tax of 5<i>s.</i> on every gallon of
+gin. This was in the year 1735 and in 1750 about 1,700
+gin shops were closed. Since then the continual efforts
+made to stop the pernicious habit of dram drinking have
+greatly reduced the evil. But it was not only the
+drinking of gin: there was also the rum punch which
+formed so large a part in the life of the Georgian citizen.
+Every man had his club to which he resorted in the
+evening after the day's work. Here he sat and for the
+most part drank what he called a sober glass: that is to
+say, he did not go home drunk, but he drank every night
+more than was good for him. The results were the
+transmission of gout and other disorders to his children.
+It should be, indeed, a most serious thing to reflect that
+in every evil habit we are bringing misery and suffering
+upon our children as well as ourselves. The habits of
+drinking showed themselves externally in a bloated body;
+puffed and red cheeks; a large and swollen nose;
+trembling hands; fat lips and bleared eyes: in the case
+of gin drinkers it showed itself in a face literally blue.
+It is said that King George the Third was persuaded to a
+temperate life&mdash;in a time of universal intemperance, this
+King remained always temperate&mdash;by the example of his
+uncle the Duke of Cumberland, who at the age of forty-five
+in consequence of his excesses in drink exhibited a
+body swollen and bloated and tortured with disease.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">{217}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image_072.jpg" width="600" height="374" alt="VESSELS UNLOADING AT THE CUSTOMS HOUSE, AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VESSELS UNLOADING AT THE CUSTOMS HOUSE, AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If you look at a map of London of this time you will
+see that the city extended a long way up and down the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">{218}</a></span>
+river on either bank. Outside the walls there were the
+crowded districts of Whitechapel, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate,
+St. Katherine's, Wapping, Ratcliff, Shadwell,
+Stepney, and others. These places were not only outside
+the wards and the jurisdiction of the City, but they
+were outside any government whatever. They were
+growing up in some parts without schools, churches, or
+any rule, order, or discipline whatever. The people in
+many of these quarters were of the working classes, but too
+often of the criminal class. They were rude and rough
+and ignorant to an extraordinary degree. How could
+they be anything else, living as they did? They were so
+unruly, they were so numerous, they were so ready to break
+out, that they became a danger to the very existence of
+Order and Government. They were kept in some kind
+of order by the greatest severity of punishment.
+They were hanged for what we now call light offences:
+they were kept half starved in foul and filthy prisons:
+and they were mercilessly flogged. In the army it was
+not unknown for a man to receive 500 lashes: in the
+navy they were always flogging the men. Horrible as
+it is to read of these punishments we must remember
+that the men who received them were brutal and dead to
+any other kind of persuasion. Drink and ignorance and
+habitual vice had killed the sense of shame and stilled
+the voice of conscience. The only thing they would feel
+was the pain of the whip.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_59_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND" id="chap_59_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND"></a>59. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART V.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>It was estimated, some years later than the period we
+are considering, that there were then in London 3,000
+receivers of stolen goods; that is to say, people who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">{219}</a></span>
+bought without question whatever was brought to them
+for sale: that the value of the goods stolen every year
+from the ships lying in the river&mdash;there were then no great
+Docks and the lading and unlading were carried on by
+lighters and barges&mdash;amounted to half a million sterling
+every year: that the value of the property annually stolen
+in and about London amounted to 700,000<i>l.</i>: and that
+goods worth half a million at least were annually stolen
+from His Majesty's stores, dockyards, ships of war, &amp;c.
+The moral principle, a writer states plainly, 'is totally
+destroyed among a vast body of the lower ranks of the
+people.' To meet this deplorable condition of things there
+were forty-eight different offences punishable by death:
+among them was shoplifting above five shillings: stealing
+linen from a bleaching ground: cutting hop bines and
+sending threatening letters. There were nineteen kinds of
+offences for which transportation, imprisonment, whipping,
+or pillory were provided: there were twenty-one
+kinds of offences punishable by whipping, pillory, fine
+and imprisonment. Among the last were 'combinations
+and conspiracies for raising the price of wages.' The
+classification seems to have been done at haphazard: for
+instance, to embezzle naval stores would seem as bad as
+to steal a master's goods: but the latter offence was capital
+and the former not. Again, it is surely a most abominable
+crime to set fire to a house, yet this is classed among the
+lighter offences. It was therefore a time when there was
+a large and constantly increasing criminal class: and, as
+a natural cause or a natural consequence, whichever we
+please, there was a very large class of people as ignorant,
+as rude, and as dangerous as could well be imagined.
+I do not think there was ever a time, not even in the
+most remote ages, when London contained savages more
+brutal and more ignorant than could be found in certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">{220}</a></span>
+districts outside the City of the Second George. But
+these poor wretches had one great virtue&mdash;they were
+brave: they manned our ships for us and gave Britannia
+the command of the sea: they were knocked down, driven
+and dragged aboard the ships by the press-gang. Once
+there they fell into rank and order, carried a valiant
+pike, manned the guns with zeal, joined the boarding
+party with alacrity and carried their cutlasses into the
+forlorn hope with faces that showed no fear. They were
+so strong, so stubborn, and so brave, that one sighs to
+think of the lash that kept them in discipline and order.
+There is one more side of London that must not be forgotten.
+It was a great and prosperous city: we can
+never dwell too strongly on the prosperity of the city:
+but there were shipwrecks many and disastrous. And
+the fate of the man who could not pay his debts was well
+known to all and could be witnessed every day, as an
+example and a warning. For he went to prison and in
+prison he stopped. 'Pay what you owe,' they said to
+the debtor, 'or else stay where you are.' The debtor
+could not pay: in prison the debtor had no means of
+making any money: therefore he stayed where he was
+until he died. For the accommodation of these unhappy
+persons there were the King's Bench and the Marshalsea,
+both in Southwark: there were the two Compters, both
+in the City: and there was the Fleet Prison.</p>
+
+<p>The life in these prisons can be found described in
+many novels. It was a squalid and miserable life among
+ruined gamblers, spendthrifts, profligates, broken down
+merchants, bankrupt tradesmen, and helpless women of
+all classes. Unless one had allowances from friends,
+starvation might be the end. In one at least the common
+hall had shelves ranged round the walls for the reception
+of beds: everything was carried on in the same room,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">{221}</a></span>
+living, sleeping, eating, cooking. And into such a place
+as this the unhappy debtor was thrust, there to remain
+till death released him.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image_073.jpg" width="600" height="413" alt="THE OLD HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT AND WESTMINSTER ABBEY, 1803." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE OLD HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT AND WESTMINSTER ABBEY, 1803.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">{222}</a></span>This was the London of a hundred and fifty years
+ago. No longer picturesque as in the old days, but solidly
+constructed, handsome, and substantial. The merchants
+still lived in the city but the nobles had all gone. The
+Companies possessed the greater part of the City and
+still ruled though they no longer dictated the wages,
+hours, and prices. Within the walls there reigned comparative
+order: outside there was no government at all.
+The river below the Bridge was crowded with ships
+moored two and four together side by side with an open
+way in the middle. Thousands of barges and lighters
+were engaged upon the cargoes: every day the church
+bells rang for a large and orderly congregation: every
+day arose in every street such an uproar as we cannot
+even imagine: yet there were quiet spots in the City
+with shady gardens where one could sit at peace: wealth
+grew fast: but with it there grew up the mob with
+the fear of anarchy and license, a taste of which was
+afforded by the Gordon Riots. Yet it would be eighty
+years before the city should understand the necessity for
+a police.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_60_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY" id="chap_60_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY"></a>60. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART I.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Let us walk into the streets. You will not observe,
+because you are used to these things, and have been
+brought up among them, and are accustomed to them,
+that all the men go about unarmed: that they do not
+carry even a stick for their protection: that they do not
+fight or quarrel with each other: that the strong do not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">{223}</a></span>
+knock down the weak but patiently wait for them and
+make room for them: that ladies walk about with no
+protection or escort: that things are exposed for sale
+with no other guard than a boy or a girl: that most
+valuable articles are hung up behind a thin pane of glass.
+You will further observe men in blue&mdash;you call them
+policemen&mdash;who stroll about in a leisurely manner looking
+on and taking no part in the bustle. What do these
+policemen do? In the roads the vehicles do not run
+into one another, but follow in rank and order, those
+going one way taking their own side. Everybody is
+orderly. Everything is arranged and disposed as if
+there was no such thing as violence, crime, or disorder.
+You think it has always been so? Nay: order in human
+affairs does not grow of its own accord. Disorder, if you
+please, grows like the weeds of the hedge side&mdash;but not
+order.</p>
+
+<p>Again, you always find the shops well provided and
+filled with goods. There are the food shops&mdash;those which
+offer meat, bread, fruit, vegetables, coffee, tea, sugar,
+butter, cheese. These shops are always full of these
+things. There is never a day in the whole year when
+the supply runs short. You think all these things come
+of their own accord? Not so: they come because their
+growth, importation, carriage, and distribution are so
+ordered by experience that has accumulated for centuries
+that there shall be no failure in the supply.</p>
+
+<p>Again, you find every kind of business and occupation
+carried on without hindrance. Nobody prevents a
+man from working at his trade; or from selling what
+he has made. One workman does not molest another
+though he is a rival. You think, perhaps, that this
+peacefulness has come by chance? Nay: strife comes to
+men left without rule&mdash;but not peace.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">{224}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>You may observe further, that the streets are paved
+with broad stones convenient for walking and easy to be
+kept clean: that the roadways are asphalted or paved
+with wood, and are also clean: things that must be
+thrown away are not thrown into the streets: they are
+collected in carts and carried away. You think that the
+streets of cities are kept clean by the rain? Not so: if
+we had only the rain as a scavenger we should be in a
+sorry plight.</p>
+
+<p>You find that water is laid on in every house. How
+does that water come? That gas lights up houses and
+streets. How does the gas come? That drains carry off
+the rain and the liquid refuse. How did the drains
+come?</p>
+
+<p>You may see as you go along a man who walks from
+house to house delivering letters. Does he do this of
+his own accord? You know very well that he does not;
+that he is paid to do it: that he does his duty. What
+is the whole of his duty? Who gives him his orders?</p>
+
+<p>Or you may see another man going from house to
+house leaving a paper at each. He is a rate collector.
+What is a rate collector? Who gives him authority to
+take money from people? What does he do with the
+money?</p>
+
+<p>Or you may see placards on the walls asking people
+to vote for this man, or for that man, for the School
+Board, the County Council, the House of Commons, or
+the Vestry. Why does this man want to get elected to
+one of those Councils? What will he do when he is
+elected? What are all these Councils for?</p>
+
+<p>Again, the thing has never been otherwise in your
+recollection and you therefore do not observe it, but if
+you listen you will find that men talk with the greatest
+freedom as they walk with their friends: no one interferes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">{225}</a></span>
+with their conversation, no one interferes with
+their dress, no one asks them what they want or where
+they are going. Did this personal freedom always
+exist? Certainly not, for personal freedom does not
+grow of its own accord.</p>
+
+<p>You will also observe, as you walk along, churches&mdash;in
+every street, a church&mdash;of all denominations: you
+will find posted on the walls notices of public meetings
+for discussion or for lectures and addresses on every conceivable
+topic: you will see boys crying newspapers in
+which all subjects are treated with the utmost freedom.
+You suppose, perhaps, that freedom of thought, of speech,
+of discussion, of writing comes to a community like the
+rain and the wind? Not so. Slavery comes to a community
+if you please, but not freedom. That has to be
+achieved.</p>
+
+<p>You have seen the city growing larger and wealthier:
+the people getting into finer houses, wider streets, and
+more settled ways. Now, there is a thing which goes
+with the advance of a people: it is good government.
+Unless with advance of wealth there comes improved
+government, the people fall into decay. But, which is
+a remarkable thing, good government can only continue
+or advance as the people themselves advance in wisdom
+as well as in wealth. Such government as we have now
+would have been useless in the time of King Ethelred or
+King Edward I. Such government as we have now
+would be impossible had not the citizens of London
+continued to learn the lessons in order, in good laws, in
+respect to law, which for generation after generation were
+submitted to the people.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">{226}</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_61_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY" id="chap_61_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY"></a>61. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART II.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Since all these things do not grow of their own accord,
+by whom were they first introduced, planted, and developed?
+By whom are they now maintained? By the
+collection of powers and authorities which we call the
+Government of the City and County of London.</p>
+
+<p>Thus order reigns in the streets: in the rare cases
+where disorder breaks out the policeman is present to
+stop it. His presence stops it. Not because he is a
+strong man, but because he is irresistible: he is the
+servant of the Law: he represents Authority. Formerly
+the Alderman of the Ward walked about his own streets
+followed by two bailiffs. If any one dared to resist the
+Alderman he was liable to have his hand struck off by
+an axe. In this way people were taught to respect the
+Law. By such sharp lessons it was forced upon them
+that the Law must be obeyed. Thus there gradually
+grew up among them a desire for Order. The policeman
+appointed by the Chief Police Officer stands for a symbol
+and reminder of the Law.</p>
+
+<p>You have seen how the people of London had their
+Folks' Mote, their Ward Mote, and their Hustings. From
+the first of these has sprung the Common Council, which
+rules over the City of London within the old boundaries.
+The Folks' Mote was a Parliament of the People&mdash;a rude
+and tumultuous assembly, no doubt, but a free assembly.
+When the City grew great such a Parliament became
+impossible. It therefore became an elective Parliament.
+The election was&mdash;and is still&mdash;conducted at the Ward
+Motes, each Ward returning so many members in proportion
+to its population, for the Common Council.
+The Councillors are elected for one year only. If there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">{227}</a></span>
+is a vacancy an Alderman is also elected, but that is
+for life.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly every man in London followed a trade: he
+therefore belonged to a Company. And as the commonalty,
+all the men of London together assembled, i.e. all
+the members of all the companies, elected the Mayor,
+so to this day the electors of the Lord Mayor are the
+members of the Companies. None others have any
+voice in the election. The Companies no longer include
+all the citizens, and the craftsmen have nearly all left
+the City. But the power remains.</p>
+
+<p>The Lord Mayor is the chief magistrate. With him
+is the Court of Aldermen, also magistrates. He has with
+him the great officers of the City: the Recorder, or Chief
+Justice; the Town Clerk; the Chamberlain, who is the
+Treasurer; the Remembrancer; and the Common
+Sergeant.</p>
+
+<p>The education of the young, the maintenance of the
+old, the paving and cleansing of the streets, the lighting,
+the removal of waste, the engines for extinguishing fires,
+the regulation of the road traffic, the preservation of
+order, all these things are conducted by the various
+Councils and Courts of the City, and the cost is provided
+by that kind of taxation known as the rates. That is to
+say, every house is 'rated' or estimated as worth so much
+rent. The tenant who pays the rent has to pay, in
+addition, a charge of so much in the pound for this and
+that object. Thus for education, if the rate be 1<i>s.</i> in the
+pound, a man in a house whose rent is 100<i>l.</i> has to pay 5<i>l.</i>
+on that charge. He has to pay also for the Police, the Fire
+Brigade, the Poor, lighting and paving. His own water
+supply is managed by a private company, and another
+private company gives him his gas or his electricity.
+In the same way the food is provided by private persons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">{228}</a></span>
+and brought to the city by private companies. Thus
+you are governed by men whom you are supposed yourselves
+to elect: order is kept for you: education, protection,
+and conveniences are found for you: in a word, life
+is made tolerable for you by your own Government&mdash;elected
+by yourselves&mdash;and at your own cost.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_62_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY" id="chap_62_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY"></a>62. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">PART III.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>That is the best Government which gives the greatest
+possible liberty to its people: only that people can be
+happy which is capable of using their freedom aright. You
+have seen how your personal freedom from violence,
+robbery, and molestation in your work is secured for you:
+how you are enabled to live in comfort and cleanliness&mdash;by
+a vast machinery of Government whose growth has
+been gradual and which must always be ready to meet
+changes so as to suit the needs of the people. One
+point you must carefully remember, that your greatest
+liberty is liberty of speech and of thought and of the
+Press. It is not so very long since martyrs&mdash;Catholic as
+well as Protestant&mdash;were executed for their religious
+belief: Catholics and Jews until quite recently were
+excluded from Parliament. A hundred years ago the
+debates of Parliament could not be reported: one had
+to weigh his words very carefully in speaking of the
+Sovereign or the Ministers: certain forms of opinion
+were not allowed to be published. All that is altered.
+You can believe what you like and advocate what you
+like, so long as it is not against Divine Law or the Law
+of the Land. Thus, if one were to preach the duty of
+Murder he would be very properly stopped. Therefore,
+when you buy a daily paper: whenever you enter a church
+or chapel: whenever you hear an address or a lecture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">{229}</a></span>
+remember that you are enjoying the freedom won for you
+by the obstinacy and the tenacity of your ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>We have spoken of the City Companies. They still
+exist and though their former powers are gone and they
+no longer control the trades after which they are named,
+their power is still very great on account of the revenues
+which they possess and their administration of charities,
+institutions, &amp;c., under their care. There were 109 in all,
+but many have been dissolved. There are still, however,
+76. About half of these possess Halls which are now the
+Great Houses of the City. The number of livery men,
+i.e. members of the Companies, is 8,765. The Companies
+vary greatly in numbers: there are 448 Haberdashers,
+for instance: 380 Fishmongers: and 356 Spectacle
+Makers: while there are only 16 Fletchers, i.e. makers of
+arrows. Many of the trades are now extinct, such as the
+Fletchers above named, the Bowyers, the Girdlers, the
+Bowstring Makers and the Armourers.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these Companies are now very rich. One of
+them possesses an income, including Trust money, of
+83,000<i>l.</i> a year. It must be acknowledged that the
+Companies carry on a great deal of good work with their
+money. Many of them, however, have little or nothing:
+the Basket Makers have only 102<i>l.</i> a year: the Glass
+Sellers only 21<i>l.</i> a year: the Tinplate Workers 7<i>l.</i> 7<i>s.</i> a
+year. If, therefore, you hear of the great riches of the
+City Companies remember (1) that 25 of them have less
+than 500<i>l.</i> a year each: and (2) that the rich Companies
+support Technical Colleges and Schools, grant scholarships,
+encourage trade, hold exhibitions, maintain almshouses,
+and make large grants to objects worthy of
+support. It is not likely that the privilege of electing
+the Lord Mayor will long continue to be in the hands of
+the Companies. It is not, indeed, worthy of a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">{230}</a></span>
+City that its Chief Magistrate should be elected by so
+small a minority as 8,765 out of the hundreds of
+thousands who have their offices and transact their
+business in the City: but while this privilege will cease,
+the Companies may remain and continue to exercise a
+central influence, at the least in London, over the Crafts
+and Arts which they represent. Let us never destroy
+what has been useful: let us, on the other hand, preserve
+it, altered to meet changed circumstances. For an
+institution is not like a tree which grows and decays. If
+it is a good institution, built upon the needs and adapted
+to the circumstances of human nature, it will never
+decay but, like the Saxon form of popular election, live
+and develop and change as the people themselves change
+from age to age.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap_63_LONDON" id="chap_63_LONDON"></a>63. LONDON.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: normal;">GREATER LONDON.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>It has been a great misfortune for London that, when
+its Wall ceased to be the true boundary of the town, and
+when the people began to spread in all directions outside
+the walls, no statesman arose with vision clear enough
+to perceive that the old system must be enlarged or
+abolished: that the City must cease to mean the City
+of the Edwards, and must include these new suburbs,
+from Richmond on the West to Poplar on the East, and
+from Hampstead on the North to Balham on the South.
+It is true that something was done: there are the Wards
+of Bridge Without, which is Southwark: and of Farringdon
+Without. There should have been provision
+for the creation of new Wards whenever the growth of a
+suburb warranted its addition. That, however, has not
+been done. The Old London remains as it was, and as
+we now see it, surrounded by another, and an immense<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">{231}</a></span>
+City, or aggregate of cities, all placed under the rule of a
+Council.</p>
+
+<p>This was done by the Act of 1888, which created a
+County whose boundaries were the same as those of the
+former Metropolitan Board of Works; in other words, it
+embraces all the suburbs of London properly so called.
+This County extends from Putney and Hammersmith on
+the West to Plumstead on the East: on the North are
+Hampstead and Highgate; on the South are Tooting,
+Streatham, Lewisham and Eltham. There are 138
+Councillors, of whom 19 are Aldermen and one a Chairman.
+The conservative tendency of our people is shown
+in their retention of the old division of aldermen. It is,
+once more, Kings, Lords, and Commons. But the functions
+of the Aldermen do not differ from those of the
+Councillor. The Councillors are elected by the ratepayers
+for three years, the Aldermen for six; but there
+is a rule as to retiring by rotation.</p>
+
+<p>The powers of the County Council are enormous.
+It regulates the building of houses and streets: the
+drainage: places of amusement: it can close streets
+and pull down houses: it administers and makes regulations
+concerning parks, bridges, tunnels, subways, dairies,
+cattle diseases, explosives, lunatic asylums, reformatory
+schools, weights and measures. It grants licenses for
+music and dancing: it carries on, in fact, the whole
+administration of the greatest City in the world, and, in
+some respects, the best managed City.</p>
+
+<p>In order to carry out these works the Council expend
+about 600,000<i>l.</i> a year. It has a debt of 30,000,000<i>l.</i>,
+against which are various assets, so that the real debt is
+no more than 18,000,000<i>l.</i> The rating outside the City
+was last year 12½<i>d.</i> in the pound. The first Chairman
+was Lord Rosebery. He has been succeeded by Sir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">{232}</a></span>
+John Lubbock and Mr. John Hutton. The list of County
+Councillors contains men of every rank and every opinion.
+Dukes, Earls and Barons, sit upon the Council beside
+plain working men&mdash;an excellent promise for the future.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the government of London. Within the
+City what was intended to be democratic has become
+oligarchic. The election by the whole people has become
+the election by 8,000 only. Without the City a great
+democratic Parliament attracts men whose historic names
+and titles belong to the aristocracy. In the London
+County Council the Peers may, if they are elected, sit
+beside the Commons.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, what is the chief lesson for you to learn out
+of this history? It is short, and may be summed up
+in a few sentences.</p>
+
+<p>1. Consider how your liberties have grown silently
+and steadily out of the original free institutions of your
+Saxon ancestors. They have grown as the trunk, the
+tree, the leaves, the flower, the fruit, grow from the single
+seed. The Folk Mote, the 'Law worthiness' of every man,
+the absence of any Over Lord but the King, have kept
+London always free and ready for every expansion of her
+liberties. Respect, therefore, the ancient things which
+have made the City&mdash;and the country&mdash;what it is.
+Trust that the further natural growth of the old tree&mdash;still
+vigorous&mdash;will be safer for us than to cut it down
+and plant a sapling, which may prove a poison tree.
+And with the old institutions respect the old places.
+Never, if you can help it, suffer an old monument to be
+pulled down and destroyed. Keep before your eyes the
+things which remind you of the past. When you look
+on London Stone, remember that Henry of London Stone
+was one of the first Mayors. When you go up College
+Hill, remember Whittington who gave it that name.
+When you pass the Royal Exchange think of Gresham:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">{233}</a></span>
+when you go up Walbrook remember the stream beneath
+your feet, the Roman Fortress on your right, and the
+British town on your left. London is crammed full of
+associations for those who read and know and think.
+You will be better citizens of the present for knowing
+about the citizens of the past.</p>
+
+<p>2. The next lesson is your duty to your country.
+What does it mean, the right of the Folk Mote? The
+Mote has now become a House of Commons, a County
+Council, a School Board. You have the same rights
+that your ancestor had. He was jealous over them: he
+fought to the death to preserve them and to strengthen
+them. Be as jealous, for they are far more important to
+you than ever they were to him. You have a hundred
+times as much to defend: you have dangers which he did
+not know or fear. Show your jealousy by exercising your
+right as the most sacred duty you have to fulfil. Your
+vote is an inheritance and a trust. You have inherited
+it direct from the Angles and the Jutes: as you exercise
+that vote so it will be ill or well with you and your
+children. Be very jealous of the man you put in power:
+learn to distinguish the man who wants place from the
+man who wants justice: vote only for the right man: and
+do your best to find out the right man. It is difficult at
+all times. You may make it less difficult by sending to
+the various Parliaments of the country a man you know,
+who has lived among you, whose life, whose private
+character, whose previous record you know instead of the
+stranger who comes to court your vote. Above all things
+<i>vote always</i> and let the first duty in your mind always be
+to protect your rights and your liberties.</p>
+
+<p>These are the two lessons that this book should teach
+you&mdash;the respect that is due to the past and the duty
+that is owed to the present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">{235}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="NOTES" id="NOTES"></a>NOTES</h2>
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_1_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON">1. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Æneas</b>: a Trojan prince who escaped from Troy when it was destroyed by
+the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p><b>Venus</b>, the Roman Goddess of Love and Beauty, was the mother of Æneas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Troy</b>: a famous city in the north-west corner of Asia Minor. It was destroyed
+by Greek invaders about 1,000 years before Christ, and the stories connected
+with it form one of the chief subjects of Greek and Latin poets.</p>
+
+<p><b>Troynovant</b> means New Troy.</p>
+
+<p><b>Constantine the Great</b> was Emperor of Rome, that is, of all the then known
+world from 305 to 337 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> He was the first Roman Emperor to adopt and
+favour Christianity. Constantinople is named after him, and was made by
+him the capital of the Empire.</p>
+
+<p><b>Geoffrey of Monmouth</b> was a British historian of the twelfth century. He
+was made Bishop of St. Asaph in 1152. His 'histories' are largely made
+up of stories, such as that about Brutus, which nobody believes now.</p>
+
+<p><b>historical document</b>: a piece of writing that can be used to prove some
+event in the history of past times.</p>
+
+<p><b>architecture</b>: the art of building; the style in which houses are built.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cornhill</b>: a street in the City of London running west to east from the
+Royal Exchange into Leadenhall Street. It was probably named after a
+family of that name, and not from any corn market on the site.</p>
+
+<p><b>bastion</b>: a strong turret or tower at the corner of a fortified building.</p>
+
+<p><b>Walbrook</b>: a small stream that crossed the City from north to south. It
+flowed near where the Mansion House now stands (Walbrook is a street at
+the side of the Mansion House), and fell into the Thames at Dowgate, near
+where Cannon Street Railway Station now stands.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fleet River</b>: a small stream which fell into the Thames near where Blackfriars
+Railway Station now stands.</p>
+
+<p><b>Moorfields</b> was a piece of moor land lying to the north of the City, outside the
+walls. The City gate which led to this district was the Moorgate, a name
+which still survives in Moorgate Street.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ken Wood</b>, in Hampstead, <b>Hainault Forest</b>, a small piece of wood in Essex,
+about eight miles north-east of London, and <b>Epping Forest</b>, a larger portion,
+also in Essex, to the west of Hainault Forest, are all remaining portions of
+a great forest that once stretched away from London far into the country.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chelsea, Bermondsey</b>: in all such words <i>ea</i> or <i>ey</i> is an old word for island.
+In this way are formed Winchelsea, Battersea, &amp;c.; <b>Thorney</b> (where Westminster
+is now) is the Island of Thorns; and <b>Jersey</b>, Cæsar's Island.</p>
+
+<p><b>Southwark</b>: a district of London opposite the City, on the south side of the
+Thames. It was the South work, or fort, and is spoken of as a village as
+late as 1327, the accession of Edward III.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">{236}</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_2_THE_FOUNDATION_OF_LONDON">2. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Malarious</b>: causing the air to be bad, and so giving rise to fevers; unhealthy.
+(Latin <i>malus</i>, bad; <i>aer</i>, air.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Weybridge</b>, in Surrey, near where the river Wey, after flowing past Godalming
+and Guildford, falls into the Thames.</p>
+
+<p><b>entrenching</b>: making a trench or ditch. The earth dug out was formed into
+a mound. The mound and ditch, together with the stockade, protected the
+place.</p>
+
+<p><b>stockade</b>: a barrier made of <i>stakes</i> stuck in the ground.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gaul</b>: the old name for the country now called France&mdash;the land of the Galli,
+or Celts. <i>Gaelic</i> is the language still spoken by the Celts in Scotland.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thanet</b>: a district in the north-east of Kent, containing Ramsgate, Margate,
+and Broadstairs. The river Stour parts it from the rest of Kent, so that
+it is still an 'island,' though the channel was formerly much wider and
+deeper.</p>
+
+<p><b>Captain Cook</b>: a famous sailor born 1728, murdered in the Sandwich Islands
+1779. He was among the first to visit Australia and New Zealand, and
+made many discoveries in the Pacific.</p>
+
+<p><b>Polynesians</b>: the natives of Polynesia, or the smaller islands in the South
+Pacific. They are brown-skinned, and akin in race to the Maories of New
+Zealand and the Malays.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brythonic</b>: that portion of the Celts whose descendants are now the Welsh,
+Bretons: (in Bretagne, on the west coast of France), and Cornishmen.</p>
+
+<p><b>Basques</b>: the natives of a part of northern Spain, near the Pyrenees. Their
+language is unconnected with any other, except perhaps that of the Finns.
+The Province and Bay of Biscay is named after them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Finns</b>: the natives of Finland in Russia. Like the Basques, they are the
+remains of a nation which once spread over all Europe, and has now nearly
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<p><b>barrow</b>: a mound raised over a grave.</p>
+
+<p><b>Verulam</b>: an old British, and then a Roman town, on the site of which is now
+St. Albans, in Hertfordshire.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_3_ROMAN_LONDON">3. ROMAN LONDON. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Stationary camp</b>: a fixed or permanent camp; a fort. A Roman army on
+the march constructed a camp if it only spent one night in a place. Such
+camps were not stationary.</p>
+
+<p><b>Porchester</b>: a small town on the north side of Portsmouth Harbour. Chester
+is the Latin <i>castra</i>, a camp, and occurs in Leicester, Colchester, Chester,
+Silchester, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><b>rubble</b>: small rough stones often used inside piles of masonry.</p>
+
+<p><b>Silchester</b>: a place near Reading at which remains of old Roman buildings
+have been dug out.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mincing Lane</b>: a narrow street in the east part of the City.</p>
+
+<p><b>tribunal</b>: the place where judges sit to administer justice.</p>
+
+<p><b>Exchange</b>: the place where merchants meet and carry on their business.</p>
+
+<p><b>stevedores</b>: those engaged in the work of loading and unloading ships.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_4_ROMAN_LONDON">4. ROMAN LONDON. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Tesselated</b>: formed of small pieces of stone or tile of various colours arranged
+to form a pattern, like mosaic work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Diana</b>: the Roman Goddess of Hunting; also of the Moon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">{237}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Apollo</b>: the Roman God of Poetry, Music, and Prophecy.</p>
+
+<p><b>Guildhall</b>: the hall of the Guild or Corporation of the City of London, near
+Cheapside.</p>
+
+<p><b>usurper</b>: one who by force seizes and holds a position which does not belong
+to him.</p>
+
+<p><b>Picts</b>: wild savages from the country which we call Scotland; <b>Scots</b>, also
+savage men, who, though they afterwards gave their name to Scotland, at
+that time came from Ireland.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hong Kong</b>: an island off the coast of China; <b>Singapore</b>, a large British
+seaport on an island of the same name off the south end of the Malay
+Peninsula; <b>West Indies</b>, a number of islands to the east of Central America
+in the Atlantic: of those belonging to Great Britain Jamaica is the largest.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_5_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">5. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>East Saxons</b> were those who dwelt in Essex, the county named after them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Crayford</b>: on the river Cray in north Kent. Here the Saxons under Hengist
+totally defeated the Britons under Vortimer in 457 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Canterbury</b> is the burgh, borough, or fortified place of the men of Kent.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pulborough</b>, in Sussex, gives us another form of the suffix.</p>
+
+<p><b>chronicler</b>: a historian, particularly one living in early times.</p>
+
+<p><b>Saxons</b>: German tribes from the district by the mouth of the Elbe; <b>Jutes</b>,
+from a part of Denmark which still preserves their name, Jutland; <b>Angles</b>,
+from what is now Schleswig and Holstein.</p>
+
+<p><b>Count of the Saxon Shore</b>: the Roman admiral set to defend the southern
+parts of the English coast, which were called 'Saxon Shore,' because most
+liable to attack from the Saxons.</p>
+
+<p><b>mercenaries</b>: soldiers who do not fight for the safety and glory of their own
+country, but for hire.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_6_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">6. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Blackfriars</b>, at the eastern end of the Thames Embankment, derives its
+name from a monastery or house of Black Friars which stood there.</p>
+
+<p><b>Watling Street</b>, <b>Ermyn Street</b>, <b>Vicinal Way</b>: made by the Romans, who
+were famous makers of high roads, many of which are still in use. (See
+map on p. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Newgate</b> was a gate on the west of the walls which enclosed the City;
+<b>Bishopsgate</b>, on the north-east.</p>
+
+<p><b>victualling</b>: providing food for.</p>
+
+<p><b>emergencies</b>: times of difficulty and danger.</p>
+
+<p><b>Isle of Thanet</b>: it must be remembered that the Stour, at the back of Thanet,
+was once much wider and deeper than it is now. In fact, it was the general
+route for vessels coming up the Thames.</p>
+
+<p><b>appointments</b>: furniture, fittings.</p>
+
+<p><b>mimics</b>: actors who played in farces, like our panto<i>mimes</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>scribes</b>: among the Romans, clerks in public offices.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_7_AFTER_THE_ROMANS">7. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART III.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Alaric</b>, king of a German tribe called the Visigoths (West Goths) invaded
+Greece and Italy, and after several defeats finally took and sacked Rome in
+410 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> It was this state of thing which compelled the Romans to withdraw
+their troops from Britain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">{238}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The West where the Britons still held their own</b>: Wales and Cornwall
+were never occupied by the invading Saxons: Welsh and Cornishmen are
+Celts, with a language of their own in Wales, while the Cornish language
+has only disappeared during the last hundred years.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wessex</b>: the land of the West Saxons corresponds roughly to England south
+of the Thames.</p>
+
+<p><b>oblivion</b>: being forgotten.</p>
+
+<p><b>The river Lea</b> rises in Bedfordshire, near Luton, passes Hertford and Ware,
+forms the boundary between Middlesex and Essex, and falls into the Thames
+at Blackwall, after a course of forty miles.</p>
+
+<p><b>quagmires</b>: marshy, boggy ground that <i>quakes</i> under the feet (quake, mire).</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_8_THE_FIRST_SAXON_SETTLEMENT">8. THE FIRST SAXON SETTLEMENT.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Ecclesiastic</b>: connected with the Church. For many centuries Rome was
+the centre of Christian influence, and is so still to all Roman Catholics.</p>
+
+<p><b>ritual</b>: the customs and ceremonies employed in performing service in a
+church.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gregory I.</b> or <b>the Great</b> was Pope from 590-604 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> He it was who sent
+Augustine to attempt the conversion of the English in the year 597.</p>
+
+<p><b>kinglet</b>: a petty king. England was then divided among many kings, so that
+the realm of each was necessarily very small.</p>
+
+<p><b>crucifix</b>: a figure of Christ fixed to the cross.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bede</b>: a monk and Church historian who lived and died at Jarrow in county
+Durham in 735 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Lindesfarne</b>, or Holy Island, off the coast of Northumberland.</p>
+
+<p><b>Northumbrians</b>: the men of Northumbria&mdash;that is, Yorkshire, Durham, and
+Northumberland.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mercians</b>: the men of Mercia, or land of the Middle English.</p>
+
+<p><b>supremacy</b>: Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, were separate kingdoms which
+were successively, in the order in which they are given, strong enough to
+overawe or exercise supremacy over the others. The king of Wessex
+eventually became king of England.</p>
+
+<p><b>Witan</b>, or in its fuller form <b>wit-an-a-ge-mote</b>, the 'meeting of wise men,'
+was the national council which afterwards grew up into our modern
+parliament.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_9_THE_SECOND_SAXON_SETTLEMENT">9. THE SECOND SAXON SETTLEMENT.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Pagan</b>: heathen, not yet converted to Christianity.</p>
+
+<p><b>King Alfred</b>, called the Great, was king of England from 871-901 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Alderman</b> in early England meant the ruler of a large district, such as a shire
+or kingdom. When Mercia became subject to Wessex it was ruled by an
+alderman.</p>
+
+<p><b>Benfleet</b>: a place in Essex, on the north bank of the Thames, not far from
+Southend.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brunanburgh</b> was the scene of a defeat of the Danes by Athelstan in 937 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>;
+the place cannot now be identified.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sweyn</b>, King of Denmark, invaded England with his son Canute in 1013 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Redriff</b> is now called Rotherhithe, south of the Thames.</p>
+
+<p><b>King Ethelred II.</b>, called the Unredig, or lacking in counsel, reigned 979-1013
+<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Olave</b> or <b>Olaf</b> and <b>Magnus</b> are Scandinavian names: there were early kings
+of Norway so called.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">{239}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The Portreeve</b>: the reeve or governor of London was a chief magistrate or
+mayor of the City.</p>
+
+<p><b>The 'Staller'</b> or <b>Marshal</b> led the men of London to battle.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Knighten Guild</b> was the ruling council of London: they were not chosen
+by election, but were the chief owners of property, and, like their land, the
+office was handed down from father to son.</p>
+
+<p><b>mote</b>: meeting.</p>
+
+<p><b>hustings</b>: a general meeting of the citizens held every week; later on the word
+came to mean the platform whence candidates for parliament addressed
+their constituents.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_10_THE_ANGLO-SAXON_CITIZEN">10. THE ANGLO-SAXON CITIZEN.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Athelstan</b> (925-940), the grandson of Alfred the Great, and <b>Etheldred II.</b>
+(979-1013) were kings of England.</p>
+
+<p><b>earl</b> or <b>eorl</b> was what we should now call a gentleman of good family; <b>thanes</b>:
+nobles who for the most part acquired their titles from the king as rewards
+for services.</p>
+
+<p><b>municipal</b>: having to do with the municipality or city.</p>
+
+<p><b>French</b>: Norman-French was the language spoken by the Normans.</p>
+
+<p><b>the meat and fish were salted</b>: in the absence of root-crops it was found
+difficult to keep animals through the winter. Hence much salt meat and
+fish were stored up.</p>
+
+<p><b>embroidery</b>: the art of working designs on cloth in needlework.</p>
+
+<p><b>spinster</b>: an unmarried woman; so called because unmarried daughters
+worked at spinning and weaving for the household, making 'homespun'
+cloth for them.</p>
+
+<p><b>marauding</b>: roving about for plunder.</p>
+
+<p><b>solar</b>: in early houses the chamber over the hall, used as the bedroom for the
+master and mistress of the house. (See picture on p. <a href="#Page_74">73</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>tapestry</b>: thick hangings or curtains with figures worked on them.</p>
+
+<p><b>mead</b>: a fermented drink made of honey: metheglin is another form of the
+word.</p>
+
+<p><b>wattle</b>: flexible twigs, withies, or osier rods: <b>daub</b>, mud.</p>
+
+<p><b>turbulent</b>: disorderly, riotous.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thames Street</b>: a very narrow street running along the bank of the Thames
+between Blackfriars and the Tower.</p>
+
+<p><b>ward</b>: a division of the City. The <b>ward mote</b> or ward meeting still exists, and
+elects the alderman or representative of the ward on the City Council.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_11_THE_WALL_OF_LONDON">11. THE WALL OF LONDON.</a></h3>
+
+<p>The <b>White Tower</b> is the 'keep' or central part of the Tower of London, begun
+by William the Conqueror and finished by the Red King. It is 92 feet
+high and the walls are 17 feet thick.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dowgate</b>: the site of one of the gates of Old London Wall is near where
+Cannon Street Railway Station now stands: here the Walbrook fell into
+the Thames.</p>
+
+<p><b>Queen Hithe</b>: 'The Queen's Landing Place.' Merchants were compelled to
+land their goods here so that the dues paid should go to the Queen.</p>
+
+<p><b>confluence</b>: a flowing together, the place where two rivers meet. The Fleet
+fell into the Thames at Blackfriars. (Latin <i>cum</i>, with, together; <i>fluo</i>, to flow.
+Compare, <i>fluid</i>, <i>fluent</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Montfichet's Tower</b> was near Baynard's Castle, at the south-west corner of
+the old walls in Blackfriars. Both were named after the Norman tenants
+who occupied them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">{240}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Houndsditch</b> is now a cross street joining Bishopgate Street and Aldgate,
+with a Church of St. Botolph at each end of it. It adjoined the moat or
+ditch round the City wall.</p>
+
+<p><b>Allhallows</b>: the same as All Saints&mdash;all the saints to whom churches were
+often dedicated, and whose memory is celebrated on November 1, which is
+All Saints' Day.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Giles, Cripplegate</b>, contains in its churchyard part of London Wall.
+Milton was buried here in 1674.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_12_NORMAN_LONDON">12. NORMAN LONDON.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Bishop and Portreeve</b>: the two chief officers of the City, one ruling for the
+Church, the other a civil ruler.</p>
+
+<p><b>charter</b>: a writing confirming or granting privileges.</p>
+
+<p><b>burghers</b> or burgesses: citizens of a borough.</p>
+
+<p><b>Guildhall</b> contains the necessary offices and accommodation for the guild or
+corporation, town clerk, &amp;c., the City library, museum and law courts, and
+a great hall that will hold 7,000 persons.</p>
+
+<p><b>feudal claims</b>: demands made on their tenants by owners under the feudal
+system. Such demands were usually for military service or something
+equivalent.</p>
+
+<p><b>Matilda</b>, daughter of Henry I., and mother of Henry II., and widow of the
+Emperor Henry V. of Germany, was the opponent of Stephen (1100-1135)
+in the civil war of his reign. She gave London as 'a demesne' to the Earl
+of Essex, with the Tower as his castle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Danegeld</b>, or Dane money: a tax raised to buy off the Danes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sheriff</b>, or shire-reeve, governor of a shire, was the king's representative in
+each shire: he collected the revenue, called out and led the soldiers, and
+administered justice.</p>
+
+<p><b>Justiciar</b>: judge. It was one of the privileges of the City to have a judge
+of its own to try cases within its own limits.</p>
+
+<p><b>stipulated</b>: bargained for.</p>
+
+<p><b>constitution</b>: form of government.</p>
+
+<p><b>priory</b>: a house for monks or nuns under the rule of a prior or prioress.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Katherine Cree</b>: this church is in Leadenhall Street, near Aldgate.
+Cree in this name is for Christ.</p>
+
+<p><b>Portsoken</b> is one of the City wards near Aldgate and the Minories.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_13_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY">13. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>St. Bartholomew the Great</b> in Smithfield is part of St. Bartholomew's
+Hospital.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Ethelburga</b> is in Bishopsgate Street, not far from Liverpool Street Railway
+Station.</p>
+
+<p><b>crypt</b> is a chapel or vault underground.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Swithin's Church</b> is near Cannon Street Railway Station. 'London Stone,'
+supposed to be a Roman milestone, is let into the wall of this church. St.
+Swithin, to whom the church is dedicated, was a Saxon Bishop of
+Winchester, under whose care the youth of Alfred was spent at Winchester.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thomas Becket</b>, Archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in his own
+cathedral by four knights, who thought they were executing the wishes of
+Henry II. (1170 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>).</p>
+
+<p><b>conventual</b>: attached to convents.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">{241}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Palatine</b> usually means 'held by a nobleman who has had royal powers given
+him.'</p>
+
+<p><b>Westminster</b> is named after a minster first erected there of wood about
+604 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>: it was thus distinguished from St. Paul's, which was the 'East
+Minster.' The site was a marshy spot, then called Thorney, or Thorn Island.</p>
+
+<p><b>Charing Cross</b> is named from the memorial cross built there by Edward I. in
+1294 in honour of his queen, Eleanor, who was brought for burial from
+Lincoln to Westminster, and each place (nine) where her body rested was
+marked by a similar cross. ('Charing' is a corruption of the French
+<i>chère reine</i>, dear queen.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Cheapside</b>: the important street running between St. Paul's and the Mansion
+House is so called because its site was the side&mdash;the south side&mdash;of the
+Chepe, or old London market.</p>
+
+<p><b>East Chepe</b>, or the East Market, has given its name to Eastcheap, a street
+running from the City towards the Tower.</p>
+
+<p><b>mercer</b>: a merchant selling woollens and silks.</p>
+
+<p><b>folkmotes</b>: the meetings of the folk or tribe: they met in arms in the Saxon
+times, and were presided over by the alderman.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_14_FITZSTEPHENS_ACCOUNT_OF_THE_CITY">14. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Tyburn</b>: a brook which gave its name to the place Tyburn, where the Marble
+Arch now stands.</p>
+
+<p><b>Westbourne</b>: this brook has given its name to Westbourne Park, in Paddington.</p>
+
+<p><b>Holywell</b> may be remembered by Holywell Street, in the Strand.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clerkenwell</b> is named after the Parish Clerks' Well, round which they used
+to perform their 'mysteries.'</p>
+
+<p><b>quarterstaff</b>: a long staff used as a weapon of defence, and held in the middle
+and also one quarter way from the end.</p>
+
+<p><b>tabor</b>: a kind of small drum beaten with one drumstick.</p>
+
+<p><b>consuls</b>: the chief magistrates of Rome: two of them with equal power came
+into office every year.</p>
+
+<p><b>senatorial</b>: appointed and controlled by the senate or governing council of
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p><b>venison</b> (pronounced <i>ven´-zon</i>): the flesh of deer.</p>
+
+<p><b>cleric</b>: a clergyman.</p>
+
+<p><b>abbot</b>: the head of an abbey or monastery.</p>
+
+<p><b>magnate</b>: a great man, a man of great wealth and rank. (Latin <i>magnus</i>,
+great.)</p>
+
+<p><b>metropolitan</b>: the bishop of a metropolis or chief cathedral city, as Canterbury
+is the metropolis of England in this sense.</p>
+
+<p><b>ordinances</b>: laws, commands.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_15_LONDON_BRIDGE">15. LONDON BRIDGE. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Architect</b>: one who designs buildings and superintends the building of them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jewry</b>: the district in a town inhabited by the Jews; for in early times the
+Jews were not allowed to live where they liked, but only in quarters assigned
+to them. The street now called Old Jewry turns out of the Poultry, on the
+north side.</p>
+
+<p><b>essential</b>: something very important and that cannot be done without.</p>
+
+<p><b>intercommunication</b>: intercourse; dealings between people which are made
+much easier by having good roads and bridges to travel on.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">{242}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>La Rochelle</b>: a seaport in France on the Atlantic, some distance north of
+Bordeaux.</p>
+
+<p><b>Saintes</b>: a French town about thirty-eight miles from La Rochelle.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Thomas Becket</b>, the murdered Archbishop of Canterbury, who was
+canonised, that is, named a saint after his death.</p>
+
+<p><b>titular</b>: giving his name to the bridge.</p>
+
+<p><b>crypt</b>: an underground or lower room used as a chapel or burying-place.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_16_LONDON_BRIDGE">16. LONDON BRIDGE. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>King Edward I</b>: 1272-1307 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>haberdashers</b>: dealers in 'small wares' such as cotton, tape, needles, and
+pins.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hans Holbein</b>: a celebrated German painter who came to live in England
+and was introduced to Henry VIII.</p>
+
+<p><b>marine painters</b>: artists who excel in painting boats, ships, and sea scenes.
+(Latin <i>mare</i>, the sea.)</p>
+
+<p><b>'shooting' the bridge</b>: passing through the arches in a boat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Queen Henrietta</b> was the queen of Charles I. of England. After the Civil
+War she withdrew to France, where she died in 1669.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rubens</b>: a very celebrated Flemish painter, born in 1577, died at Antwerp in
+1640.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sir Thomas Wyatt</b> headed a rebellion in Kent, which was provoked by Mary's
+marriage with Philip of Spain and the restoration of Roman Catholicism.
+He was about to cross London Bridge, but finding this impossible crossed
+the Thames at Kingston. The rising was a failure, and Wyatt was executed,
+1554.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sir William Wallace</b>: a brave Scotch gentleman who led the Scotch against
+Edward I., who was trying to deprive Scotland of its independence. Wallace
+was finally taken and executed as a traitor at Tyburn, 1305.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jack Cade</b> headed a rebellion in Kent in 1450 through dissatisfaction with the
+government of Henry VI.: 30,000 rebels gathered on Blackheath, but the
+movement ended in failure and Cade was slain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sir Thomas More</b>: the good and learned chancellor of Henry VIII., and
+author of a famous book called 'Utopia.' He was executed as a traitor in
+1535.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Thomas-on-the-Bridge</b>: that is, Thomas Becket, to whom the bridge was
+dedicated.</p>
+
+<p><b>pageant</b>: a splendid show or procession.</p>
+
+<p><b>ex-apprentice</b>: one who has been once an apprentice.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_17_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON">17. THE TOWER OF LONDON. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Dominate</b>: to lord over, to overawe, to be master of. (Latin <i>dominus</i>, a master,
+lord.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Crusade</b>: an expedition under the banner of the <i>Cross</i> to recover the Holy
+Land from the Turks. Richard I. went on the third Crusade in 1191.</p>
+
+<p><b>antiquaries</b>: people who study ancient things.</p>
+
+<p><b>mediæval</b>: made during the middle ages; the period, roughly speaking,
+between the time of the Romans and the reign of Henry VII. (400-1485).</p>
+
+<p><b>lieutenant</b>: an officer in command of the Tower.</p>
+
+<p><b>keep</b>: the strongest part of a fortress or castle.</p>
+
+<p><b>insignia</b>: the badges of any office.</p>
+
+<p><b>menagerie</b>: a collection of wild animals.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">{243}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Queen Anne Boleyn</b>, to marry whom, Henry VIII. divorced Catherine of
+Aragon. She was the mother of Queen Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lady Jane Grey</b> was proclaimed Queen by the Duke of Northumberland on the
+death of Edward VI., but the attempt to prevent Mary's accession was a
+failure, and Lady Jane Grey was executed in 1554.</p>
+
+<p><b>Guy Fawkes</b>: a conspirator who tried to blow up the King and Parliament
+in 1605.</p>
+
+<p><b>The unfortunate princes</b> were Edward V., son of Edward IV., and the rightful
+king, and Richard Duke of York, his younger brother, murdered in the
+Tower by the usurper Richard III., 1483.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_18_THE_TOWER_OF_LONDON">18. THE TOWER OF LONDON. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Allegiance</b>: the duty due from a subject to his liege the sovereign.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lord Hastings</b> was executed by order of the Duke of Gloucester, afterwards
+Richard III., in 1483 for supporting the side of Edward V. and his relations.</p>
+
+<p><b>ordnance</b>: artillery, cannon, big guns.</p>
+
+<p><b>antipast</b>: aftertaste.</p>
+
+<p><b>clerk</b>: a clergyman, a scholar, because in early times all learning was confined
+to the clergy.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_19_THE_PILGRIMS">19. THE PILGRIMS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>ague</b>: a fever coming on at intervals, with fits of shivering.</p>
+
+<p><b>isolation</b>: living away from outside communication, a lonely position like that
+of men on an <i>island</i> cut off from the rest of the world.</p>
+
+<p><b>Flemings</b>: the people of Flanders, a district now comprising parts of Belgium,
+South Holland, and North France.</p>
+
+<p><b>Walsingham</b>: a place in the north of Norfolk, where was a famous shrine.</p>
+
+<p><b>Glastonbury</b>: a small town near Wells, in Somersetshire.</p>
+
+<p><b>Compostella</b>: a place in Spain where is the shrine of St. James, the patron
+saint of Spain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chaucer</b>: the great early English poet, born in London 1328, died 1400.</p>
+
+<p><b>expiation</b>: making amends for, atonement.</p>
+
+<p><b>Holy Sepulchre</b>: the burial place of our Lord at Jerusalem, to rescue which
+from the Turks was the object of the Crusades.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_20_ST_BARTHOLOMEWS_HOSPITAL">20. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Endowment</b>: money given for the permanent support of an institution, such
+as a church, hospital, or school.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hospitaller</b>: one in charge of a hospital. The term is generally applied to the
+Knights of St. John, who built a hospital for sick Crusaders at Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p><b>shambles</b>: a slaughter-house.</p>
+
+<p><b>Whittington</b>, originally an apprentice in London, became a wealthy mercer,
+thrice Lord Mayor, and knighted. He died in 1423, without children, and
+left his wealth for public objects, such as the one in the text.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dissolution of the religious houses</b>, carried out by Henry VIII. in 1536-1540
+for the sake of the plunder they afforded.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chloroform</b>: a colourless liquid which when inhaled produces complete insensibility
+to pain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Norman windows</b>: that is, built in a style introduced by the Normans. The
+rounded tops of doors and windows maybe seen in the illustration on p. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>lanthorn</b>: a raised construction on the roof, with horn or glass sides to give
+light.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">{244}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>clinical</b>: in attendance at the bedside of patients.</p>
+
+<p><b>residential college</b>: where they reside or dwell.</p>
+
+<p><b>convalescent hospital</b>: where those who have had some illness may get quite
+well and strong again.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_21_THE_TERROR_OF_LEPROSY">21. THE TERROR OF LEPROSY.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Leprosy</b>: a terrible disease of the skin and blood, once prevalent in Europe,
+now mostly confined to the East.</p>
+
+<p><b>lazar</b>: a leper; one suffering from a foul disease like Lazarus in St. Luke xvi.</p>
+
+<p><b>congregate</b>: flock together, crowd with.</p>
+
+<p><b>stringent</b>: strict.</p>
+
+<p><b>statutes</b>: rules or laws.</p>
+
+<p><b>Book of the Jewish Law</b>: that is, the book Leviticus.</p>
+
+<p><b>ulcerates</b>: is afflicted with ulcers or sores.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mass</b>: the celebration of the Lord's Supper in the Roman Catholic Church.</p>
+
+<p><b>Burton Lazars</b>: a village one mile from Melton Mowbray, in Leicestershire.
+Here, on account of its excellent sulphur springs, the chief leper-hospital
+was established in the reign of Stephen.</p>
+
+<p><b>hereditary</b>: transmitted from parents to children.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE_NOTE" id="chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE_NOTE"></a><a href="#chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE">22. THE TERROR OF FAMINE.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>24 shillings a quarter</b>: this is not far from the present price of wheat, which
+gives us cheap bread. But in 1257 24<i>s.</i> would be equivalent to at least 20<i>l.</i>
+in our money.</p>
+
+<p><b>retainers</b>: those in the service of a nobleman and wearing his livery and
+badge.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hanseatic merchants</b>: merchants trading with the Hanse cities in Germany
+(among which was Hamburg) who had formed a league for self-protection
+about the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>granary</b>: a place for storing up grain or corn.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_23_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL">23. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>460 feet</b>: the loftiest spire in England, that of Salisbury Cathedral, is about
+404 feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>its length was at least 600 feet</b>: the present cathedral, the third on the site,
+is 500 feet long.</p>
+
+<p><b>shrine</b>: a receptacle for relics and other sacred things. (The word means a
+'chest.')</p>
+
+<p><b>aisle</b> (pronounced <i>&#299;le</i>) is the side or wing of a church.</p>
+
+<p><b>scribe</b>: a writer. In those early times so few people could read or write that
+men often had to have recourse to professional writers.</p>
+
+<p><b>deed</b>: a written document relating to some legal transaction.</p>
+
+<p><b>conveyance</b>: a writing legally transferring from one person to another
+property, especially houses and land.</p>
+
+<p><b>Humphrey Duke of Gloucester</b> was the youngest brother of Henry V., on
+whose death he was made regent in England in 1422. He died in 1447.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Cuthbert</b> was a monk, missionary, and bishop of Lindesfarne, an island off
+the coast of Northumberland, where he died in 687 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>, and was buried in
+Durham Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p><b>sacristy</b>: a room adjoining a church where sacred vessels, vestments, &amp;c. are
+kept.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">{245}</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_24_ST_PAULS_CATHEDRAL">24. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Inigo Jones</b> (born 1572, died 1652) was a celebrated architect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Portico</b>: a row of columns in front of a building.</p>
+
+<p><b>Exchange</b>: a building where merchants meet to transact business.</p>
+
+<p><b>nave</b>: the main body of a church, the aisles being on each side of the nave.</p>
+
+<p><b>King Charles II. returned</b> at the Restoration in 1660.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sir Christopher Wren</b> (born 1632, died 1723): the greatest English architect.
+After the great fire he rebuilt St. Paul's Cathedral, fifty London churches,
+and many public buildings. Over his tomb in St. Paul's is the inscription
+in Latin: 'If you seek for his monument, look round about you.'</p>
+
+<p><b>The Peace of Ryswick</b>, 1697, made by England, Spain, and Holland with
+Louis XIV. of France.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dr. Johnson</b> (born 1709, died 1784): one of the great names in English
+literature, and author of a celebrated dictionary.</p>
+
+<p><b>oriental scholar</b>, or <b>orientalist</b>, is a man who studies Eastern or Indian
+languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Hindi, Sanskrit, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><b>sarcophagus</b>: a stone chest for holding a corpse.</p>
+
+<p><b>porphyry</b>: a hard kind of stone coloured purple and white.</p>
+
+<p><b>Battle of the Nile</b>, 1798; <b>Cape St. Vincent</b>, 1797; <b>Camperdown</b>, 1797.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lord Almoner</b>: the official who dispenses the royal charities and bounties.</p>
+
+<p><b>Slavonic</b>: a group of kindred languages, including Russian, Polish, and
+Bulgarian.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_25_PAULS_CHURCHYARD">25. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Embattled</b>: built with battlements.</p>
+
+<p><b>minor canons</b>: clergy of the cathedral who intone the services and look after
+the music.</p>
+
+<p><b>charnel</b>: containing the bones of the dead.</p>
+
+<p><b>Finsbury Fields</b>: the <i>fenny</i> or marshy ground lying north of the Moorgate
+of the old City walls.</p>
+
+<p><b>Papal Bulls</b>: decrees and orders issued by the Pope, so called from the seal
+attached to them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Latimer</b> (born 1470, died 1555), Bishop of Worcester, burnt at the stake for
+his Protestant opinions together with Ridley, Bishop of London.</p>
+
+<p><b>chapter house</b>: the building where the chapter or clergy belonging to the
+cathedral meet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sacrist</b>: the official in a cathedral who copied and took care of the music
+and books.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paul's Chain</b>: so called because traffic was stopped by a chain during the
+hours of service.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_26_THE_RELIGIOUS_HOUSES">26. THE RELIGIOUS HOUSES.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Forester</b>: one who has charge of a forest to cut wood, plant new trees, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><b>vicar</b>: one who acts in place of another; hence a priest who on behalf of
+his monastery conducted services in a parish church.</p>
+
+<p><b>orders</b>: the different brotherhoods into which monks were divided.</p>
+
+<p><b>indiscriminate charity</b>: giving without thinking, whether the charity is well
+or ill bestowed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Minorites</b>: monks or nuns belonging to the Franciscan Order, who in their
+humility called themselves the 'lesser' (<i>minores</i>) brethren, or sisters.</p>
+
+<p><b>Blackfriars</b> were the Dominicans; <b>Whitefriars</b> were the Carmelites;
+<b>Greyfriars</b> were Franciscans, from the colour of their respective dresses.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">{246}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Charter House</b>: the house of the Carthusian monks.</p>
+
+<p><b>Temple</b>: once the house of the <b>Templars</b>, an order of knights whose duty
+it was to protect the Holy Sepulchre.</p>
+
+<p><b>part of the church ... still to be seen</b>: at Clerkenwell the gate of the
+priory of St. John's is still standing.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_27_MONKS_FRIARS_AND_NUNS">27. MONKS, FRIARS, AND NUNS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Indiscriminately</b>: without making any distinctions between them.</p>
+
+<p><b>hermit</b>, from the Greek, and <b>solitary</b>, from the Latin, mean the same thing&mdash;one
+who retires from the world and lives in a lonely place.</p>
+
+<p><b>Monte Casino</b>, in Campania, near Naples, where St. Benedict established
+his monastery in 529 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>St. Benedict</b> is often shortened to Benet, as in the name of several London
+churches.</p>
+
+<p><b>austerities</b>: severe rules of life and conduct.</p>
+
+<p><b>Friars</b>, or brethren (French <i>frères</i>, Latin <i>fratres</i>): those orders that went
+forth to the people.</p>
+
+<p><b>Assisi</b>: a town in Central Italy where St. Francis was born.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Dominic</b>: born in Castile, in Spain, 1170, died 1221; founded his order to
+convert 'heretics,' and procured the establishment of the <b>Inquisition</b>, or
+court for punishing heretics.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sanctuary</b>: a refuge where criminals were safe from the law. Sir W. Scott in
+the 'Fortunes of Nigel' well describes the lawless character of this
+district in the reign of James I.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Bernard</b>: a celebrated brother of the Cistercian Order (born 1091, died
+1153).</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_28_THE_LONDON_CHURCHES">28. THE LONDON CHURCHES.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>St. Augustine</b> was sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 597 to convert the
+heathen English: he was the 'Apostle of the English,' and first Archbishop
+of Canterbury.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Dunstan</b>, who became Archbishop of Canterbury and died in 988, was not
+only a zealous priest but a great statesman and ruler.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Alphege</b>: an Archbishop of Canterbury murdered by the Danes in
+1012 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Sise Lane</b>: a lane in the City, near Cannon Street.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Basings</b>: an old City family whose name also survives in the 'Bassishaw'
+ward of the City, and in Basinghall Street.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bread Street</b>, turning out of Cheapside, shows where the bakers chiefly dwelt
+in Old London.</p>
+
+<p><b>John Milton</b> (born 1608, died 1674) wrote 'Paradise Lost,' 'Paradise
+Regained,' and some beautiful shorter pieces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Three Poets</b>: i. the Greek Homer, reputed author of those noble epics the
+'Iliad' and 'Odyssey' (about 1000 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>); ii. the Roman Virgil, who wrote the
+'Æneid' (born 70 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>); iii. the English Milton. The famous epitaph was
+written by John Dryden.</p>
+
+<p><b>William Tyndal</b> assisted the Reformation by translating the New Testament
+into English (1526), and part of the Old Testament. He was burnt as a
+heretic at Vilvoorde, near Brussels, in 1536.</p>
+
+<p><b>William Cowper</b> (born 1731, died 1800), the author of 'The Task' and other
+beautiful poems.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">{247}</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_29_THE_STREETS">29. THE STREETS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Plantagenet</b>: Henry II., 1154-1189, was the first of the line of kings bearing
+this name, so called from the badge worn by Henry's father, a sprig of
+broom.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chesel</b> was the Anglo-Saxon for pebble, and Kiesel is the German for the
+same. The <b>Chesil Beach</b>, near Weymouth, is a remarkable bank of shingle
+joining Portland Bill to the mainland.</p>
+
+<p><b>Somerset House</b>, in the Strand: the palace of the Protector Somerset has
+been pulled down, and public offices erected on its site.</p>
+
+<p><b>Northumberland House</b>, now demolished, has given its name to Northumberland
+Avenue, near Charing Cross.</p>
+
+<p><b>Southwark ... many Inns</b>: in particular the Tabard, where Chaucer's
+pilgrims assembled.</p>
+
+<p><b>mediæval</b>: living in the middle ages, that is, some time before about 1500 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>ironmongers in their Lane</b>: that is, Ironmonger Lane, turning out of
+Cheapside.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_30_WHITTINGTON">30. WHITTINGTON. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Mercer</b>: a merchant who sells silken or woollen goods.</p>
+
+<p><b>executors</b>: those who are appointed to carry out the last will and testament
+of a dead man.</p>
+
+<p><b>Levantine</b>, in the Levant, or eastern part of the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p><b>Guinea</b>, on the west coast of Africa.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pizarro</b>: a Spanish adventurer who conquered Peru from its native rulers or
+Incas, and was murdered in his palace at Lima in 1541.</p>
+
+<p><b>a piece of eight</b> (dollars), that is, about 30<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>assessment</b>: the value put upon house or property in order to fix the amount
+of taxes to be paid.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_31_WHITTINGTON">31. WHITTINGTON. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Vintner</b>: a wine-seller.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wycliffe</b>, born about 1324, was a learned theologian and rector of Lutterworth,
+in Leicestershire. For preaching Protestant doctrines he was summoned
+to appear at St. Paul's to answer a charge of heresy in 1377.</p>
+
+<p><b>John of Gaunt</b> thus made the second attempt to deprive London of its
+liberties and charter; Matilda, the opponent of Stephen, had tried long
+before, but it ended in her overthrow (<i>see</i> p. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The Marshal</b> was the commander of the Royal forces. To put London
+under him was to destroy its liberty. This office is hereditary in the family
+of the Duke of Norfolk, and like other royal offices became unimportant
+when it became hereditary.</p>
+
+<p><b>rebellion of the peasants, 1381</b>, against over-taxation and being bound to
+the soil as serfs by their landlords. <b>John Ball</b>, the popular preacher, used
+to ask:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'When Adam delved and Eve span,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Who was then a gentleman?'<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Archbishop of Canterbury</b>, Simon of Sudbury, had as chancellor proposed
+the taxes complained of; therefore the peasants murdered him.</p>
+
+<p><b>rescinding</b>: repealing of a law.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">{248}</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_32_WHITTINGTON">32. WHITTINGTON. PART III.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Burning of heretics and Lollards</b>: in 1401, in the reign of Henry IV., an
+Act of Parliament was passed for burning heretics.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lollards</b> were those who differed from the Church before the Reformation.
+The name comes from a German word <i>lollen</i>, to sing&mdash;from the custom of
+these reformers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mansion House</b>: the official home of the Lord Mayor. The present building
+was begun in 1739; previously a house in Cheapside was used for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p><b>bond</b>: a written obligation binding someone to pay a sum of money. When
+money was needed the King used to borrow from wealthy citizens and give a
+bond or promise to repay.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Michael's Paternoster Royal</b> is in College Hill, near Cannon Street. The
+church was so called from the Tower Royal given by Edward III. in 1331
+to his queen, Philippa, for her wardrobe.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_33_GIFTS_AND_BEQUESTS">33. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Mark</b>: a coin, now obsolete, worth 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>interdicted</b>: forbidden, prevented.</p>
+
+<p><b>technical school</b>: where useful and practical arts and trades are taught.</p>
+
+<p><b>aqueduct</b>: an artificial channel for water.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sevenoaks</b>, in Kent.</p>
+
+<p><b>Higham Ferrers</b> is a small town in Northamptonshire.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_34_THE_PALACES_AND_GREAT_HOUSES">34. THE PALACES AND GREAT HOUSES.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>The King Maker</b>: Warwick was so called because he helped Edward IV. to
+become king in 1461, and restored Henry VI. for a time in 1470. He was
+slain at the battle of Barnet, 1471.</p>
+
+<p><b>quadrangle</b>: an open court, square, with buildings all round it.</p>
+
+<p><b>College of Heralds</b>: a Government office under the Earl Marshal which looks
+after pedigrees and armorial bearings.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hampton Court</b>: a Royal palace begun by Cardinal Wolsey.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. James's Palace</b>: the official residence of the Queen in London, Buckingham
+Palace being her private residence.</p>
+
+<p><b>buttery</b>: a storeroom where liquors and other provisions were kept.</p>
+
+<p><b>Baynard's Castle</b> has given its name to one of the City wards.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Duke of Buckingham</b> secured the crown for Richard III., and then being
+insufficiently rewarded rebelled against him, and was executed in 1483.</p>
+
+<p><b>George, Duke of Clarence</b>, brother of Edward IV., first sided with his
+father-in-law, the Earl of Warwick, then joined his brother in 1471. With
+justice, therefore, Shakespeare called him 'false, fleeting, perjured Clarence.'
+He was accused of treason and found dead in the Tower in 1478.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_35_AMUSEMENTS">35. AMUSEMENTS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Tournament</b>: a sham fight at which knights, mostly on horseback, used to
+show their skill.</p>
+
+<p><b>Twelfth Day</b>: twelve days after Christmas, formerly an occasion of great
+festivities, which have now nearly died out.</p>
+
+<p><b>Morris-dance</b>: a <i>Moorish</i> dance to an accompaniment of bells and tambourines.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">{249}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>cresset</b>: a kind of lantern formed of an open brazier filled with combustible
+materials.</p>
+
+<p><b>demilance</b>: a kind of horse-soldier armed with a short lance.</p>
+
+<p><b>mummeries</b>: entertainments performed by men in masks.</p>
+
+<p><b>Curfew</b>: the bell rung at eight o'clock at night as a sign to put out all lights.
+Ancient towns having much wood were liable to serious fires.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_36_WESTMINSTER_ABBEY">36. WESTMINSTER ABBEY.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Thorney</b>, Isle of Thorns; <i>ey</i> and <i>ea</i> meaning island, as in Anglesey, Chelsea,
+Winchelsea.</p>
+
+<p><b>precinct</b>: the limit of the ground belonging to a church or other institution.</p>
+
+<p><b>commissioner</b>: appointed to see that the work was carried out.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sir G. Gilbert Scott</b>, born 1811, died 1878, was the greatest modern English
+architect.</p>
+
+<p><b>took sanctuary</b>: fled for shelter to the abbey, whence she could not be
+taken without violating the privileges of the Church.</p>
+
+<p><b>William Caxton</b> set up in 1476 the first printing press in England.</p>
+
+<p><b>coronation chair</b>: under this is the famous stone brought from Scone by
+Edward I., over which all the Scottish kings had been crowned since about
+800 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_37_THE_COURT_AT_WESTMINSTER">37. THE COURT AT WESTMINSTER.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Star Chamber Court</b>, in which cases were tried before some members of the
+Privy Council and two judges without a jury. This was established in
+1487 to restore order because great lords and landowners used to frighten
+juries from giving true verdicts.</p>
+
+<p><b>bear and ragged staff</b>: the arms of the Earl of Warwick consisted of a bear
+erect and hugging a rough stake. (See pictures on pp. <a href="#Page_110">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>arras</b>: tapestry for hanging; so called from Arras, in the north of France,
+where it was made.</p>
+
+<p><b>refectory</b>: the hall where the monks or nuns took their meals.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_38_JUSTICE_AND_PUNISHMENTS">38. JUSTICE AND PUNISHMENTS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>executive officers</b>: those whose duty it is to enforce the law.</p>
+
+<p><b>contrition</b>: repentance.</p>
+
+<p><b>securities</b>: stocks and shares; papers which can be of no use to the ordinary
+thief.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bridewell</b>: the site of a prison, now demolished. It adjoined Whitefriars,
+and may be seen in the map to the west of Blackfriars.</p>
+
+<p><b>amende honorable</b> (French): when one who has done wrong gives satisfaction
+without loss of honour.</p>
+
+<p><b>pillory</b>: a framework supported by an upright pillar. In it were holes through
+which the head and hands of offenders were thrust. In this uncomfortable
+position they had to stand exposed to the insults of the mob.</p>
+
+<p><b>cogged</b>: loaded so as always to fall in a certain way.</p>
+
+<p><b>title deeds</b>: writings drawn up in proper legal form to prove the possession
+of property.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_39_THE_POLITICAL_POWER_OF_LONDON">39. THE POLITICAL POWER OF LONDON.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Froissart</b>: an early French chronicler or historian who visited England in
+the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II., and died in 1401.</p>
+
+<p><b>besotted with</b>: stupidly and excessively fond of.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">{250}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>commonalty</b>: the common people.</p>
+
+<p><b>Berkeley Castle</b>, in Gloucestershire, where Edward II. was murdered in 1327.</p>
+
+<p><b>a son was born</b>: Edward, Prince of Wales, born in 1453. After the Yorkist
+victory of Northampton in 1460 Edward's claim to the throne was set aside
+in favour of Richard, Duke of York, father of Edward IV. The Prince was
+slain at the battle of Tewkesbury, 1471.</p>
+
+<p><b>benevolences</b>: loans of money, supposed to be voluntary, really compulsory,
+made by merchants and other rich men to the king.</p>
+
+<p><b>charts</b>: papers; <b>blank cheques</b>: orders on the bank for money with all except
+the amount required filled up and properly signed.</p>
+
+<p><b>factor</b>: if 2 × 3 makes six, 2 and 3 are each factors of 6; hence it is something
+which helps to bring about some result.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_40_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">40. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Stow</b> (born 1525, died 1605): a famous writer in Queen Elizabeth's reign on
+the antiquities of London and other places.</p>
+
+<p><b>Whitechapel</b> takes its name from a white chapel-of-ease built to relieve
+Stepney, in which parish this district was till 1763.</p>
+
+<p><b>tenters</b>: pegs for stretching cloth. Sometimes hooks were used, from which
+we get the phrase 'to be on tenter hooks'&mdash;to be on a stretch with anxiety.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Katharine's</b> has given its name to the great docks east of the Tower.</p>
+
+<p><b>bull-, bear-baiting</b>: the sport of setting dogs to worry bulls or bears.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alsatia</b>: for a vivid picture of this haunt of rogues in the reign of James I.
+the reader is referred to Sir W. Scott's 'Fortunes of Nigel.'</p>
+
+<p><b>Austin Friars</b>: the space known as Drapers' Gardens (because the hall of
+the Drapers' Company is adjoining) in Throgmorton Street is on the site of
+this monastery.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canwicke (now Cannon) Street</b> was so called because the wax-chandlers and
+candle-makers lived in that part.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_41_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">41. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>William Shakespeare</b> (born 1564, died 1616): the prince of poets, who lived
+in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.</p>
+
+<p><b>ruins of the monasteries</b> which had been suppressed by Henry <span class="smcap">VIII.</span> in
+1536-1540.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cold Harbour</b>: a merchant's mansion once standing on the bank of the Thames
+in Thames Street.</p>
+
+<p><b>Genevan bands</b>: a kind of collar worn by Protestant clergymen, so called
+because Geneva, the home of Calvin, was the centre of Protestantism.</p>
+
+<p><b>palaces along the Strand</b>: if you walk along the Strand you will notice that
+many of the short streets leading down to the river bear the names of noblemen,
+such as Arundel Street, Norfolk Street, Salisbury Street, &amp;c. from
+the old palaces which once stood there.</p>
+
+<p><b>Staples Inn</b>: a picturesque group of old houses in Holborn was formerly a
+wool-market (<i>staple</i> means a fixed market). <b>Wych Street</b> is near Holywell
+Street in the Strand.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cloth Fair</b> is now a poor neighbourhood near Smithfield.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_42_ELIZABETHAN_LONDON">42. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART III.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Impressment</b>: in the absence of some orderly arrangement, such as conscription
+(where all serve) or a voluntary system (like our own), the
+press-gang
+used to kidnap people and force them to serve.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">{251}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>animosity</b>: anger, ill feeling against.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Steelyard</b>, on the site of which Cannon Street railway station now stands,
+was the house of the Hanse merchants (<i>see</i> <a href="#chap_22_THE_TERROR_OF_FAMINE_NOTE">note on Chapter XXII</a>.).</p>
+
+<p><b>John Colet</b>, Dean of St. Paul's (born 1466, died 1519), was one of the leaders
+of the revival of learning in England. St. Paul's School, which he founded
+in 1512, has been moved to Hammersmith.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_43_TRADE">43. TRADE. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Forestall their market</b>: that is, to buy things before they arrived at the
+market, so as to sell them at a higher price.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lübeck</b>: a large port in north Germany in the Baltic.</p>
+
+<p><b>staples</b>, originally all kinds of raw produce, came to be applied only to wool.
+Staples Inn was once a wool-market.</p>
+
+<p><b>instead of selling our wool</b>: Edward III. brought Flemish weavers into
+England to encourage manufactures. Till then England produced and exported
+wool to Antwerp and other manufacturing centres, but did not make
+it into cloth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hamburg</b> was a member of the Hanseatic League.</p>
+
+<p><b>The screen</b> was presented to the Church of All Hallows the Great, Thames
+Street, in 1710, by the Hanseatic merchants.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_44_TRADE">44. TRADE. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Incubus</b>: something that weighs down and hinders.</p>
+
+<p><b>religious wars in the Netherlands</b>: between the Protestant Dutch and the
+Catholic Spaniards, who were oppressing the country through great part of
+the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bourse</b>: the same as <b>Exchange</b>, where merchants meet to transact their
+business.</p>
+
+<p><b>English wool</b> in Bruges, because it was much exported thither from England
+before the growth of home manufactures.</p>
+
+<p><b>Flemings</b>: the natives of Flanders; who were the chief manufacturers of
+Europe long before England took the lead.</p>
+
+<p><b>14 per cent.</b>: the height of this rate may be seen by comparing it with the
+2½ per cent., which is all England now pays as interest upon her debt.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bethlehem Hospital</b>, corrupted into Bedlam, is still a hospital, but only for
+the insane.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_45_TRADE">45. TRADE. PART III.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Bruges ... civil wars</b>: that is, the religious wars referred to in <a href="#chap_44_TRADE">Chapter XLIV</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Venetians</b>: before the discovery of the sea route to India and the East
+Venice was the first maritime and commercial power in the world. The
+route round the Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco de Gama in
+1497.</p>
+
+<p><b>Moluccas</b>: a group of tropical islands between Celebes and New Guinea,
+rich in pearls, spices, and precious woods.</p>
+
+<p><b>Calicut</b>: the port in Madras, where Vasco de Gama first landed in May 1498.
+The cotton cloth called <i>calico</i> was first brought thence.</p>
+
+<p><b>Moorish pirates</b>: North Africa has always been a haunt of pirates. In 1816
+Lord Exmouth had to bombard Algiers, and even as late as 1860 the
+European Powers had to suppress piracy in Morocco.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">{252}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Dordrecht</b>: a commercial town in the south of Holland, near Rotterdam.</p>
+
+<p><b>The South Sea Company</b> is celebrated above the other trading companies for
+the great speculation in its shares called the <b>South Sea bubble</b> in 1720.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_46_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">46. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Mummers</b>: men who played in entertainments masked and in various
+disguises.</p>
+
+<p><b>masque</b>: a kind of play in which the actors wore masks. Milton's 'Comus' is
+a well-known masque of high character.</p>
+
+<p><b>mystery</b>: a name for a religious play representing some scene from the Bible
+or scenes from the life of a saint.</p>
+
+<p><b>admonition</b>: warning.</p>
+
+<p><b>frescoes</b>: paintings on a wall covered with plaster&mdash;done while the plaster
+is still wet or <i>fresh</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>sequence</b>: that is, the connection of one event with another.</p>
+
+<p><b>properties</b>: the articles used in the play, scenery, dress, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><b>realistic</b>: looking as though they really were the persons represented.</p>
+
+<p><b>tableau</b>: scene.</p>
+
+<p><b>lessee</b>: one who rents a theatre or holds it on a lease from the owner.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_47_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">47. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Pageants</b>: grand shows, processions.</p>
+
+<p><b>censers</b>: vessels for burning incense.</p>
+
+<p><b>conduit</b>: a pipe or channel for leading or <i>conducting</i> water.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cross of Chepe</b>: a memorial erected in the centre of the chepe, or market,
+in memory of Queen Eleanor.</p>
+
+<p><b>jerkins</b>: a kind of jacket often made of leather.</p>
+
+<p><b>panoply</b>: full armour.</p>
+
+<p><b>banneret</b>: a little banner.</p>
+
+<p><b>blackjacks</b>: leather vessels for holding liquor.</p>
+
+<p><b>malmsey</b>: a strong sweet wine.</p>
+
+<p><b>marshal</b>: draw up and arrange.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lord Mayor's Show</b>: on November 9&mdash;when the people have an opportunity
+of welcoming the new Lord Mayor on his entering into office.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_48_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">48. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART III.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>libretto</b>: the words of a masque or play set to music.</p>
+
+<p><b>scenic</b>: on the stage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ben Jonson</b> (born 1574, died 1637): a great English play writer and poet,
+and a friend of Shakespeare.</p>
+
+<p><b>Francis Bacon</b>, Lord Verulam (born 1561, died 1626), was Lord Chancellor
+and a great writer on philosophical subjects.</p>
+
+<p><b>Oberon</b>: the king of the fairies and husband of Titania, as in Shakespeare's
+'Midsummer Night's Dream.'</p>
+
+<p><b>save James</b>: that is, King James I.; a piece of courtly flattery due to Jonson's
+connection with the court.</p>
+
+<p><b>Prince Henry</b>, who is meant by Oberon in the masque, died in 1612, to the
+great regret of the people.</p>
+
+<p><b>Phosphorus</b>: Lucifer, the morning star that brings the day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">{253}</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_49_PLAYS_AND_PAGEANTS">49. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART IV.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Gammer (i.e. Old Mother) Gurton's Needle</b> is a very rough old play about
+an old woman who lost her needle while mending a pair of breeches, and,
+after accusing everyone of stealing it, finds it after all in the garment itself.
+It was written some time before 1560. ('Gammer,' the French <i>grand'-mère</i>,
+grandmother, contracted into 'ganmer,' and then 'gammer.')</p>
+
+<p><b>contortionist</b>: one who twists himself into extraordinary attitudes to amuse
+the public.</p>
+
+<p><b>octagonal</b>: with eight sides.</p>
+
+<p><b>prologue</b>: the verses spoken before a play to introduce it to the audience.</p>
+
+<p><b>Golden Lane</b>: a street near the Barbican, turning out of Aldersgate Street.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bankside</b>, in Southwark, on the southern side of the Thames.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_50_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE">50. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Pretensions</b>: ambitious claims.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wars of the Roses</b>: a civil war lasting 1455-1485. In thinking of the loss
+of life occasioned by this war, it must be remembered that such loss fell
+most heavily on the noble families; the mass of the population was not so
+much disturbed by it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Long Acre</b>: a street near Drury Lane, now chiefly occupied by carriage-makers.</p>
+
+<p><b>delirium</b>: a wandering in the mind caused by fever.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_51_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE">51. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Registers</b>: a record of names of persons who have died. Such records are
+now accurately kept by the registrars of births, deaths, and marriages.</p>
+
+<p><b>The King</b>: Charles II., who, whatever his faults may have been, was at least
+good-natured and averse to suffering.</p>
+
+<p><b>Samuel Pepys</b> (born 1632, died 1703) was Secretary to the Admiralty in the
+reigns of Charles II. and James II. His famous diary gives a graphic
+picture of life during these reigns.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_52_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE">52. THE TERROR OF FIRE. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Coleman Street</b> runs northward from Lothbury (behind the Bank of England)
+to Moorgate. The name goes back even to Saxon times, and probably comes
+from one Ceolmund, who had a farm near.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Erkinwald</b>: an early Saxon Bishop of London, who encouraged the citizens
+to restore their ruined city, and himself built the Bishop's Gate (named
+after him). His shrine in St. Paul's was long an object of reverence.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paternoster Row</b>: always a great centre of the book trade: it was a row immediately
+adjoining the precincts of the Cathedral before encroachments
+were made. Naturally much of the booksellers' wares was religious&mdash;paternosters,
+aves, credos, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><b>chancel</b>: the east end of a church in which is the altar, separated from the
+rest of the church by a screen or railings. (Latin <i>cancelli</i>, a grating.)</p>
+
+<p><b>transept</b>: the part of a cathedral projecting on either side. Cathedrals are
+generally built in the shape of a cross; the transept is the arms of the cross
+in the ground plan.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">{254}</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_53_THE_TERROR_OF_FIRE">53. THE TERROR OF FIRE. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Astronomer</b>: one who studies the stars or heavenly bodies.</p>
+
+<p><b>John Evelyn</b> (born 1620, died 1706), a gentleman of the reign of Charles II.,
+was made one of the commissioners for the restoration of London after the
+Great Fire. He wrote a diary, which is not so amusing as that of Pepys
+(<i>see</i> <a href="#chap_51_THE_TERROR_OF_THE_PLAGUE">Chapter LI</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Dunstan-in-the-East</b>, in Tower Street, was the first church restored by
+Wren after the fire.</p>
+
+<p><b>John Dryden</b> (born 1631, died 1700): one of the greatest English poets. He
+was a supporter of the house of Stuart, and was made poet laureate.</p>
+
+<p><b>obnoxious</b>: exposed to.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_54_ROGUES_AND_VAGABONDS">54. ROGUES AND VAGABONDS.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Vagabonds</b>: wanderers who have no settled home.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wapping</b>: called Wapping Wash (or Marsh) in the time of Queen Elizabeth,
+when it was first drained and banked in, lies on the north bank of the
+Thames, in Middlesex, near the Thames Tunnel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lambeth</b>, facing Westminster, on the south bank of the river, is low-lying,
+and was called in Saxon times Lambhythe, meaning loamy or muddy landing
+place.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bermondsey</b> (<i>ey</i>&mdash;island), on the south bank of the Thames, one mile S.E. of
+St. Paul's, is a centre of the leather and wool trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rotherhithe</b> (or Redriff), on the south bank of the Thames, lies east of
+Bermondsey and faces Wapping. The south end of the Thames Tunnel is
+in Rotherhithe.</p>
+
+<p><b>stringent</b>: strict.</p>
+
+<p><b>impotent</b>: powerless, unable to work.</p>
+
+<p><b>stocks</b>: a wooden frame in which the legs of criminals were confined.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Barbican</b>: a street near the site of the old Aldersgate. Barbican means
+defensive works for a gate. <b>Turnmill Street</b> is near Farringdon railway
+station.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_55_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">55. UNDER GEORGE II. PART I. THE WEALTH OF LONDON.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Essayists</b>: people who write essays; that is, short compositions on any
+subject.</p>
+
+<p><b>picturesqueness</b>: beauty and grace; qualities which might be supposed to
+make anything a good subject for a <i>picture</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>ruffles</b>: pieces of some white material plaited and attached as a frill to the
+collar and sleeves of garments.</p>
+
+<p><b>ostentation</b>: making a great show.</p>
+
+<p><b>Puritanism</b>: the more sober style of life and thought introduced by the
+Puritans, who were a religious party in the times of Elizabeth and the
+Stuarts, and were desirous of a purer and simpler doctrine and mode of
+living.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_56_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">56. UNDER GEORGE II. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Predecessors</b>: those that went before them.</p>
+
+<p><b>cruciform</b>: in the form of a cross. The ground plan of many churches is
+shaped like a cross.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Stephen's, Walbrook</b>, stands behind the Mansion House, where the
+Walbrook used to flow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">{255}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>lectureship</b>: the office of a lecturer, one who gives lectures, discourses, or (as
+in this case) sermons. Money was left to pay for these sermons, that is, the
+lectureships were <b>endowed</b>.</p>
+
+<p><b>harbouring</b>: sheltering.</p>
+
+<p><b>organisers</b>: those who get up and arrange anything.</p>
+
+<p><b>Haymarket</b> (obviously once a hay market) is near Trafalgar Square, and
+<b>Coventry Street</b> near Leicester Square.</p>
+
+<p><b>innovations</b>: novelties, new things.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_57_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">57. UNDER GEORGE II. PART III.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Broad Street</b>: between the Royal Exchange and Liverpool Street.</p>
+
+<p><b>Whitecross Street</b> is near the Barbican, Aldersgate Street; <b>Whitechapel</b>,
+in which is <b>Middlesex Street</b> (commonly known as Petticoat Lane), is
+reached through Aldgate.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hogarth</b> (born 1697, died 1764): a celebrated English painter, chiefly
+famous for moral, satirical and humorous pictures drawn from everyday
+life.</p>
+
+<p><b>asphalt</b>: a kind of mineral pitchy substance which melts in heat and can be
+laid down so as to form a hard, smooth roadway.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vauxhall</b>: in Surrey, in the parish of Lambeth, on the south of the Thames.
+There was once an old manor house here called Faukes or Fox Hall.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bermondsey Spa</b>: so called from a mineral spring discovered there in 1770.
+(Spa, a place where there is a mineral spring, gets its name from a celebrated
+watering-place in Belgium of that name.)</p>
+
+<p><b>punch</b>: a drink containing five ingredients&mdash;water, spirits, sugar, lemon-juice,
+spice.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_58_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">58. UNDER GEORGE II. PART IV.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Decorous</b>: behaving in a decent and respectable way.</p>
+
+<p><b>appreciation</b>: estimate, judgment about.</p>
+
+<p><b>congregation</b>: gathering together.</p>
+
+<p><b>Benjamin Franklin</b> (born 1706, died 1790): a native of Boston, U.S.A., who
+lived for some time in England. As a scientist he is famous for electrical
+experiments; as a politician, for the share he took in upholding the independence
+of the American States.</p>
+
+<p><b>transmission</b>: handing down from father to son.</p>
+
+<p><b>externally</b>: outwardly.</p>
+
+<p><b>St. Katharine's</b>, <b>Ratcliff</b>, <b>Shadwell</b>, <b>Stepney</b>, are all in the East End of
+London.</p>
+
+<p><b>jurisdiction</b>: legal authority.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_59_UNDER_GEORGE_THE_SECOND">59. UNDER GEORGE II. PART V.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Lighters</b>: large boats or barges used in unloading ships.</p>
+
+<p><b>bleaching-grounds</b>: where cloth was laid out to be bleached or whitened by
+the wind and sun.</p>
+
+<p><b>hopbines</b>: the stalks of hop plants.</p>
+
+<p><b>transportation</b>: conveying convicted criminals abroad. Till 1869 convicts
+were sent to Australia; now they are kept in convict prisons at home.</p>
+
+<p><b>classification</b>: dividing and arranging into classes.</p>
+
+<p><b>embezzle</b>: to steal something entrusted to one's care.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">{256}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>press-gang</b>: a party of sailors under an officer who forcibly took men to serve
+in the Royal Navy.</p>
+
+<p><b>anarchy</b>: absence of rule, disorder.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gordon Riots</b>: in 1780, led by the fanatic Lord George Gordon. The mob
+raised the cry of 'No Popery' on account of a law then proposing to remove
+hardships from Roman Catholics. Riot and plunder were the real object of
+the mob. The disorder had to be suppressed by military force.</p>
+
+<p><b>Police</b>: organised in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel, after whom the members of
+the force were called 'bobbies' and 'peelers.'</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_60_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">60. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART I.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Denominations</b>: religious bodies or sects, the members of which are all called
+by the same name. (Latin <i>nomen</i>, a name.)</p>
+
+<p><b>every conceivable topic</b>: every subject you can think of.</p>
+
+<p><b>community</b>: a people, the public.</p>
+
+<p><b>achieved</b>: won by effort.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_61_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">61. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART II.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Symbol of</b>: the representative of; the presence of a policeman is the outward
+form taken by the law in the eyes of the people.</p>
+
+<p><b>mote</b>: meeting; hence <b>folks' mote</b>, meeting of the folk or people; <b>ward
+mote</b>, meeting of those living in the same ward or city division.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Companies</b>: such as those of the Goldsmiths, Merchant Taylors,
+Drapers, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><b>Quarter Sessions</b>: the sessions or sittings of the Law Courts in a county or
+city held every quarter.</p>
+
+<p><b>archives</b>: public records.</p>
+
+<p><b>sergeant</b> means 'servant,' 'officer'&mdash;here of the law. Ordinarily it is a rank
+in the army.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_62_THE_GOVERNMENT_OF_THE_CITY">62. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART III.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Advocate</b>: argue in favour of.</p>
+
+<p><b>tenacity</b>: perseverance, holding on. (Latin <i>teneo</i>, to hold.)</p>
+
+<p><b>livery</b>: because the members of the different trade companies used to wear a
+distinguishing uniform or livery.</p>
+
+<p><b>fletchers</b>: arrow-makers. (French <i>flèche</i>, an arrow.)</p>
+
+<p><b>trust-money</b>: money entrusted for a certain purpose for which alone it can
+be used.</p>
+
+<p><b>technical</b>: where useful trades and sciences are taught.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><a href="#chap_63_LONDON">63. LONDON. GREATER LONDON.</a></h3>
+
+<p><b>Conservative</b>: preserving, so far as convenient, the present state of things.</p>
+
+<p><b>functions</b>: powers and duties.</p>
+
+<p><b>reformatory schools</b>: where boys and girls who have committed some crime
+are sent to be reformed to better ways.</p>
+
+<p><b>assets</b>: property actually held, so that it can be set off against a debt.</p>
+
+<p><b>democratic</b>: giving power and influence to the people.</p>
+
+<p><b>oligarchic</b>: giving power and influence to the few.</p>
+
+<p><b>'law worthiness'</b>: right to assist in the making of laws.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p class='center'><i>Spottiswoode &amp; Co. Printers, New-street Square, London</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p>[Transcriber's Note: The following errors have been corrected in this text:</p>
+
+<p>Page 6: Fitzstephen's to FitzStephen's</p>
+
+<p>Page 68: fiteenth to fifteenth</p>
+
+<p>Page 108: SEVENTEENTH to FIFTEENTH</p>
+
+<p>Page 135: Westminter to Westminster</p>
+
+<p>Page 223: alway to always</p>
+
+<p>Page 246: Archishop to Archbishop</p>
+
+<p>Page 256: supressed to suppressed</p>
+
+<p>The following words are inconsistently hyphenated in the original text:
+folk-mote, folkmote; Lud-gate, Ludgate; pack-horse, packhorse;
+river-side, riverside.]</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of London, by Walter Besant
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF LONDON ***
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,8374 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of London, by Walter Besant
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The History of London
+
+Author: Walter Besant
+
+Release Date: February 4, 2009 [EBook #27995]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF LONDON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Susan Skinner and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The following conventions are used in this text:
+~bold text~, _italic text_, [=i]--i with a macron over it.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Illustration: THE NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT: DESIGNED BY BARRY, OPENED
+1852.]
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+HISTORY OF LONDON
+
+
+BY
+
+WALTER BESANT
+
+AUTHOR OF 'LONDON' 'CHILDREN OF GIBEON' ETC.
+
+
+_SECOND EDITION_
+
+
+LONDON
+LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+
+1894
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+LESSON                                                              PAGE
+
+ 1. The Foundation of London (I)                                       7
+
+ 2. The Foundation of London (II)                                     10
+
+ 3. Roman London (I)                                                  13
+
+ 4. "     "    (II)                                                   16
+
+ 5. After the Romans (I)                                              19
+
+ 6. "     "   "     (II)                                              23
+
+ 7. "     "   "     (III)                                             26
+
+ 8. The First Saxon Settlement                                        29
+
+ 9. The Second Saxon Settlement                                       32
+
+10. The Anglo-Saxon Citizen                                           34
+
+11. The Wall of London                                                38
+
+12. Norman London                                                     42
+
+13. FitzStephen's Account of the City (I)                             45
+
+14. FitzStephen's Account of the City (II)                            50
+
+15. London Bridge (I)                                                 54
+
+16. "       "    (II)                                                 57
+
+17. The Tower of London (I)                                           60
+
+18. "    "        "    (II)                                           63
+
+19. The Pilgrims                                                      67
+
+20. St. Bartholomew's Hospital                                        70
+
+21. The Terror of Leprosy                                             74
+
+22. The Terror of Famine                                              78
+
+23. St. Paul's Cathedral (I)                                          82
+
+24. "    "         "    (II)                                          86
+
+25. Paul's Churchyard                                                 91
+
+26. The Religious Houses                                              95
+
+27. Monks, Friars, and Nuns                                          100
+
+28. The London Churches                                              103
+
+29. The Streets                                                      106
+
+30. Whittington (I)                                                  110
+
+31. "      (II)                                                      115
+
+32. "      (III)                                                     118
+
+33. Gifts and Bequests                                               121
+
+34. The Palaces and Great Houses                                     124
+
+35. Amusements                                                       127
+
+36. Westminster Abbey                                                131
+
+37. The Court at Westminster                                         134
+
+38. Justice and Punishments                                        137
+
+39. The Political Power of London                                    140
+
+40. Elizabethan London (I)                                           144
+
+41. "        "    (II)                                               147
+
+42. "        "    (III)                                              151
+
+43. Trade (I)                                                        155
+
+44. "    (II)                                                        158
+
+45. "    (III)                                                       164
+
+46. Plays and Pageants (I)                                           168
+
+47. "    "     "     (II)                                            170
+
+48. "    "     "     (III)                                           173
+
+49. "    "     "     (IV)                                            177
+
+50. The Terror of the Plague (I)                                     180
+
+51. The Terror of the Plague (II)                                    183
+
+52. The Terror of Fire (I)                                           187
+
+53. "   "        "   (II)                                            192
+
+54. Rogues and Vagabonds                                             197
+
+55. Under George the Second (I)                                      201
+
+56. Under George the Second (II)                                     206
+
+57. Under George the Second (III)                                    210
+
+58. Under George the Second (IV)                                     214
+
+59. Under George the Second (V)                                      218
+
+60. The Government of the City (I)                                   222
+
+61. The Government of the City (II)                                  226
+
+62. The Government of the City (III)                                 228
+
+63. London                                                           230
+
+Notes                                                                235
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+ 1. The New Houses of Parliament: designed by Barry, opened 1852  _Frontispiece_
+
+ 2. Early British Pottery                                              9
+
+ 3. Roman London                                                      15
+
+ 4. Remains of a Viking Ship, from a Cairn at Gokstad                 22
+
+ 5. Martyrdom of St. Edmund by the Danes                              31
+
+ 6. Saxon Horsemen                                                    33
+
+ 7. Saxon Church at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts                           36
+
+ 8. City Gates                                                        39
+
+ 9. Remains of the Wall                                               40
+
+10. Part of the Roman Wall at Leicester                               41
+
+11. Tower in the Earlier Style. Church at Earl's Barton               44
+
+12. A Norman Ship                                                     46
+
+13. Building a Church in the later Style                              47
+
+14. Lay Costumes in the Twelfth Century                               50
+
+15. Costume of Shepherds in the Twelfth Century                       51
+
+16. Ecclesiastical Costume in the Twelfth Century                     52
+
+17. Royal Arms of England from Richard I. to Edward III. 54
+
+18. Old London Bridge                                                 57
+
+19. The Tower of London                                           61, 64
+
+20. A Bed in the Reign of Henry III. 67
+
+21. Interior of the Hall at Penshurst, Kent                           71
+
+22. The Upper Chamber or Solar at Sutton Courtenay Manor-house        73
+
+23. The Lepers Begging                                                77
+
+24. London before the Spire of St. Paul's was burned; showing
+    the Bridge, Tower, Shipping, &c. 83
+
+25. Old St. Paul's, from the East                                     85
+
+26. Old St. Paul's on Fire                                            87
+
+27. West Front of St. Paul's Cathedral
+    Church. (Built by Sir Christopher Wren)                           89
+
+28. Paul's Cross                                                      92
+
+29. Bermondsey Abbey                                                  96
+
+30. Ruins of Gateway of Bermondsey Abbey                              97
+
+31. Christ's Hospital                                                 99
+
+32. Chepe in the Fifteenth Century                                   108
+
+33. Large Ship and Boat of the Fifteenth Century                     111
+
+34. A Sea-Fight                                                      113
+
+35. Durham, Salisbury, and Worcester Houses                          125
+
+36. Bear-baiting                                                     128
+
+37. Shooting at the Butts with the Long-bow                          129
+
+38. Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster Abbey                         132
+
+39. The Embarkation of Henry VIII. from Dover, 1520                  141
+
+40. Coaches in the Reign of Elizabeth                                148
+
+41. The City from Southwark                                          150
+
+42. South-east Part of London in the Fifteenth Century,
+    showing the Tower and Wall                                       153
+
+43. King Edward VI. 159
+
+44. Sir Thomas Gresham                                               161
+
+45. First Royal Exchange                                             162
+
+46. Shipping in the Thames, _circa_ 1660                        166
+
+47. Sir Francis Drake, in his Forty-third Year                       167
+
+48. The Globe Theatre                                                179
+
+49. Civil Costume about 1620                                         181
+
+50. Costume of a Lawyer                                              181
+
+    Ordinary Civil Costume; _temp._ Charles I.:
+
+51. A Countryman                                                     185
+
+52. A Countrywoman                                                   185
+
+53. A Citizen                                                        187
+
+54. A Citizen's Wife                                                 187
+
+55. A Gentleman                                                      189
+
+56. A Gentlewoman                                                    189
+
+57. Lud-gate on Fire                                                 190
+
+58. Paul Pindar's House                                              191
+
+59. London, as Rebuilt after the Fire                                193
+
+60. Coach of the latter half of the Seventeenth Century              195
+
+61. Waggon of the second half of the Seventeenth Century             195
+
+62. Ordinary Dress of Gentlemen in 1675                              197
+
+63. Dress of Ladies of Quality                                       199
+
+64. Ordinary Attire of Women of the Lower Classes                    199
+
+65. Group showing Costumes and Sedan Chair, about 1720               202
+
+66. Temple Bar, London                                               203
+
+67. Fleet Street and Temple Bar                                      205
+
+68. A Coach of the Middle of the Seventeenth Century                 207
+
+69. View of School connected with Bunyan's Meeting House             209
+
+70. Grenadier in the time of the Peninsular War                      211
+
+71. Uniform of Sailors, about 1790                                   213
+
+72. Costumes of Gentlefolk, about 1784                               215
+
+73. Vessels unloading at the Customs House, at the beginning
+    of the Eighteenth Century                                        217
+
+74. The Old Houses of Parliament and Westminster Abbey, 1803         221
+
+
+
+
+LONDON
+
+
+
+
+1. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+'In the year 1108 B.C., Brutus, a descendant of AEneas, who was the son
+of Venus, came to England with his companions, after the taking of Troy,
+and founded the City of Troynovant, which is now called London. After a
+thousand years, during which the City grew and flourished exceedingly,
+one Lud became its king. He built walls and towers, and, among other
+things, the famous gate whose name still survives in the street called
+Ludgate. King Lud was succeeded by his brother Cassivelaunus, in whose
+time happened the invasion of the Romans under Julius Caesar. Troynovant,
+or London, then became a Roman city. It was newly fortified by Helena,
+mother of Constantine the Great.'
+
+This is the legend invented or copied by Geoffrey of Monmouth, and
+continued to be copied, and perhaps believed, almost to the present day.
+Having paid this tribute to old tradition, let us relate the true early
+history of the City, as it can be recovered from such documents as
+remain, from discoveries made in excavation, from fragments of
+architecture, and from the lie of the ground. The testimony derived
+from the lie of the ground is more important than any other, for several
+reasons. First, an historical document may be false, or inexact; for
+instance, the invention of a Brutus, son of AEneas, is false and absurd
+on the face of it. Or a document may be wrongly interpreted. Thus, a
+fragment of architecture may through ignorance be ascribed to the Roman,
+when it belongs to the Norman, period--one needs to be a profound
+student of architecture before an opinion of value can be pronounced
+upon the age of any monument: or it may be taken to mean something quite
+apart from the truth, as if a bastion of the old Roman fort, such as has
+been discovered on Cornhill, should be taken for part of the Roman wall.
+But the lie of the ground cannot deceive, and, in competent hands,
+cannot well be misunderstood. If we know the course of streams, the
+height and position of hills, the run of valleys, the site of marshes,
+the former extent of forests, the safety of harbours, the existence of
+fords, we have in our hands a guide-book to history. We can then
+understand why towns were built in certain positions, why trade sprang
+up, why invading armies landed at certain places, what course was taken
+by armies, and why battles have been fought on certain spots. For these
+things are not the result of chance, they are necessitated by the
+geographical position of the place, and by the lie of the ground. Why,
+for instance, is Dover one of the oldest towns in the country? Because
+it is the nearest landing ground for the continent, and because its hill
+forms a natural fortress for protecting that landing ground. Why was
+there a Roman station at Portsmouth? On account of the great and
+landlocked harbour. Why is Durham an ancient city? Because the steep
+hill made it almost impregnable. Why is Chester so called? Because it
+was from very ancient times a fort, or stationary camp (L. _castra_),
+against the wild Welsh.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY BRITISH POTTERY.]
+
+Let us consider this question as regards London. Look at the map called
+'Roman London' (p. 15). You will there see flowing into the river Thames
+two little streams, one called Walbrook, and the other called the Fleet
+River. You will see a steep slope, or cliff, indicated along the river
+side. Anciently, before any buildings stood along the bank, this cliff,
+about 30 feet high, rose over an immense marsh which covered all the
+ground on the south, the east, and the west. The cliff receded from the
+river on the east and on the west at this point: on either side of the
+Walbrook it rose out of the marsh at the very edge of the river at high
+tide. There was thus a double hill, one on the east with the Walbrook on
+one side of it, the Thames on a second side, and a marsh on a third
+side, and the Fleet River on the west. It was thus bounded on east,
+south, and west, by streams. On the north was a wild moor (hence the
+name Moorfields) and beyond the moor stretched away northwards a vast
+forest, afterwards called the Middlesex forest. This forest covered,
+indeed, the greater part of the island, save where marshes and stagnant
+lakes lay extended, the haunt of countless wild birds. You may see
+portions and fragments of this forest even now; some of it lies in Ken
+Wood, Hampstead; some in the last bit left of Hainault Forest; some at
+Epping.
+
+The river Thames ran through this marsh. It was then much broader than
+at present, because there were no banks or quays to keep it within
+limits: at high tide it overflowed the whole of the marsh and lay in an
+immense lake, bounded on the north by this low cliff of clay, and on the
+south by the rising ground of what we now call the Surrey Hills, which
+begin between Kennington and Clapham, as is shown by the name of Clapham
+Rise. In this marsh were a few low islets, always above water save at
+very high tides. The memory of these islands is preserved in the names
+ending with _ea_ or _ey_, as Chelsea, Battersea, Bermondsey. And
+Westminster Abbey was built upon the Isle of Thorns or Thorney. The
+marsh, south of the river, remained a marsh, undrained and neglected for
+many centuries. Almost within the memory of living men Southwark
+contained stagnant ponds, while Bermondsey is still flooded when the
+tide is higher than is customary.
+
+
+
+
+2. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+On these low hillocks marked on the map London was first founded. The
+site had many advantages: it was raised above the malarious marsh, it
+overlooked the river, which here was at its narrowest, it was protected
+by two other streams and by the steepness of the cliff, and it was over
+the little port formed by the fall of one stream into the river. Here,
+on the western hill, the Britons formed their first settlement; there
+were as yet no ships on the silent river where they fished; there was no
+ferry, no bridge, no communication with the outer world; the woods
+provided the first Londoners with game and skins; the river gave them
+fish; they lived in round huts formed of clay and branches with thatched
+roofs. If you desire to understand how the Britons fortified themselves,
+you may see an excellent example not very far from London. It is the
+place called St. George's Hill, near Weybridge. They wanted a hill--the
+steeper the side the better: they made it steeper by entrenching it;
+they sometimes surrounded it with a high earthwork and sometimes with a
+stockade: the great thing being to put the assailing force under the
+disadvantage of having to climb. The three river sides of the London
+fort presented a perpendicular cliff surmounted by a stockade, the other
+side, on which lay the forest, probably had an earthwork also surmounted
+by a stockade. There were no buildings and there was no trade; the
+people belonged to a tribe and had to go out and fight when war was
+carried on with another tribe.
+
+The fort was called Llyn-din--the Lake Fort. When the Romans came they
+could not pronounce the word Llyn--Thlin in the British way--and called
+it Lon--hence their word Londinium. Presently adventurous merchants from
+Gaul pushed across to Dover, and sailed along the coast of Kent past
+Sandwich and through the open channel which then separated the island of
+Thanet from the main land, into the broad Thames, and, sailing up with
+the tide, dropped anchor off the fishing villages which lay along the
+river and began to trade. What did they offer? What Captain Cook offered
+the Polynesians: weapons, clothes, adornments. What did they take away?
+Skins and slaves at first; skins and slaves, and tin and iron, after the
+country became better known and its resources were understood. The taste
+for trading once acquired rapidly grows; it is a delightful thing to
+exchange what you do not want for what you do want, and it is so very
+easy to extend one's wants. So that when the Romans first saw London it
+was already a flourishing town with a great concourse of merchants.
+
+How long a period elapsed between the foundation of London and the
+arrival of the Romans? How long between the foundation and the
+beginnings of trade? It is quite impossible even to guess. When Caesar
+landed Gauls and Belgians were already here before him. As for the
+Britons themselves they were Celts, as were the Gauls and the Belgians,
+but of what is called the Brythonic branch, represented in speech by the
+Welsh, Breton and Cornish languages (the last is now extinct). There
+were also lingering among them the surviving families of an earlier and
+a conquered race, perhaps Basques or Finns. When the country was
+conquered by the Celts we do not know. Nor is there any record at all of
+the people they found here unless the caves, full of the bones which
+they gnawed and cut in two for the marrow, were the homes of these
+earlier occupants.
+
+When the Romans came they found the town prosperous. That is all we
+know. What the town was like we do not know. It is, however, probable
+that the requirements of trade had already necessitated some form of
+embankment and some kind of quay; also, if trade were of long standing,
+some improvement in the huts, the manner of living, the wants, and the
+dress of the people would certainly have been introduced.
+
+Such was the beginning of London. Let us repeat.
+
+It was a small fortress defended on three sides by earthworks, by
+stockades, by a cliff or steeply sloping bank, and by streams; on the
+fourth side by an earthwork, stockade, and trench. The ground was
+slightly irregular, rising from 30 to 60 feet. An open moor full of
+quagmires and ponds also protected it on the north. On the east on the
+other side of the stream rose another low hill. The extent of this
+British fort of Llyn-din may be easily estimated. The distance from
+Walbrook to the Fleet is very nearly 900 yards; supposing the fort was
+500 yards in depth from south to north we have an area of 450,000 square
+yards, i.e. about 100 acres was occupied by the first London, the
+Fortress on the Lake. What this town was like in its later days when the
+Romans found it; what buildings stood upon it; how the people lived, we
+know very little indeed. They went out to fight, we know so much; and if
+you visit Hampstead Heath you may look at a barrow on the top of a hill
+which probably contains the bones of those citizens of London who fell
+in the victory which they achieved over the citizens of Verulam when
+they fought it out in the valley below that hill.
+
+
+
+
+3. ROMAN LONDON.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+The Romans, when they resolved to settle in England, established
+themselves on the opposite hillock, the eastern bank of the Walbrook.
+The situation was not so strong as that of the British town, because it
+was protected by cliff and river on two sides only instead of three. But
+the Romans depended on their walls and their arms rather than the
+position of their town. As was their habit they erected here a strong
+fortress or a stationary camp, such as others which remain in the
+country. Perhaps the Roman building which most resembles this fort is
+the walled enclosure called Porchester, which stands at the head of
+Portsmouth Harbour. This is rectangular in shape and is contained by a
+high wall built of rubble stone and narrow bricks, with round, hollow
+bastions at intervals. One may also see such a stationary camp at
+Richborough, near Sandwich; and at Pevensey, in Sussex; and at
+Silchester, near Reading, but the two latter are not rectangular. One
+end of this fort was on the top of the Walbrook bank and the other, if
+you look in your map, on the site of Mincing Lane. This gives a length
+of about 700 yards by a breadth of 350, which means an enclosure of
+about 50 acres. This is a large area: it was at once the barrack, the
+arsenal, and the treasury of the station; it contained the residences of
+the officers, the offices of the station, the law court and tribunals,
+and the prisons; it was the official residence. Outside the fort on the
+north was the burial place. If we desire to know the character of the
+buildings we may assure ourselves that they were not mean or ignoble by
+visiting the Roman town of Silchester. Here we find that the great Hall
+of Justice was a hall more spacious than Westminster Hall, though
+doubtless not so lofty or so fine. Attached to this hall were other
+smaller rooms for the administration of justice; on one side was an open
+court with a cloister or corridor running all round it and shops at the
+back for the sale of everything. This was the centre of the city: here
+the courts were held; this was the Exchange; here were the baths; this
+was the place where the people resorted in the morning and lounged about
+to hear the news; here the jugglers and the minstrels and the acrobats
+came to perform; it was the very centre of the life of the city--as was
+Silchester so was London.
+
+[Illustration: _Walker & Boutallse._
+
+ROMAN LONDON.]
+
+Outside the Citadel the rude British town--if it was still a rude
+town--disappeared rapidly. The security of the place, strongly
+garrisoned, the extension of Roman manners, the introduction of Roman
+customs, dress, and luxuries gave a great impetus to the development of
+the City. The little ports of the rivers Walbrook and Fleet no longer
+sufficed for the shipping which now came up the river; if there were as
+yet no quays or embankments they were begun to be erected; behind them
+rose warehouses and wharves. The cliff began to be cut away; a steep
+slope took its place; its very existence was forgotten. The same thing
+has happened at Brighton, where, almost within the memory of living man,
+a low cliff ran along the beach. This embankment extended east and
+west--as far as the Fleet River, which is now Blackfriars, on the west,
+and what is now Tower Hill on the east. Then, the trade still
+increasing, the belt of ground behind the embankment became filled with
+a dense population of riverside people--boatmen, sailors, boat-builders,
+store-keepers, bargemen, stevedores, porters--all the people who belong
+to a busy mercantile port. As for the better sort, they lived round the
+Citadel, protected by its presence, in villas, remains of which have
+been found in many places.
+
+The two things which most marked the Roman occupation were London Wall
+and Bridge. Of the latter we will speak in another place. The wall was
+erected at a time between A.D. 350 and A.D. 369--very near the end of
+the Roman occupation. This wall remained the City wall for more than a
+thousand years; it was rebuilt, repaired, restored; the scanty remains
+of it--a few fragments here and there--contain very little of the
+original wall; but the course of the wall was never altered, and we know
+exactly how it ran. There was first a strong river wall along the
+northern bank. There were three water gates and the Bridge gate; there
+were two land gates at Newgate and Bishopsgate. The wall was 3 miles and
+205 yards long; the area enclosed was 380 acres. This shows that the
+population must have been already very large, for the Romans were not
+accustomed to erect walls longer than they could defend.
+
+
+
+
+4. ROMAN LONDON.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+We must think of Roman London as of a small stronghold on a low hill
+rising out of the river. It is a strongly-walled place, within which is
+a garrison of soldiers; outside its walls stretch gardens and villas,
+many of them rich and beautiful, filled with costly things. Below the
+fort is a long river wall or quay covered with warehouses, bales of
+goods, and a busy multitude of men at work. Some are slaves--perhaps
+all. Would you like to know what a Roman villa was like? It was in plan
+a small, square court, surrounded on three sides by a cloister or
+corridor with pillars, and behind the cloister the rooms of the house;
+the middle part of the court was a garden, and in front was another and
+a larger garden. The house was of one storey, the number and size of the
+rooms varying according to the size of the house. On one side were the
+winter divisions, on the other were the summer rooms. The former part
+was kept warm by means of a furnace constructed below the house, which
+supplied hot-air pipes running up all the walls. At the back of the
+house were the kitchen, stables, and sleeping quarters of the servants.
+Tesselated pavements, statues, pictures, carvings, hangings, pillows,
+and fine glass adorned the house. There was not in London the enormous
+wealth which enabled some of the Romans to live in palaces, but there
+was comparative wealth--the wealth which enables a man to procure for
+himself in reason all the things that he desires.
+
+The City as it grew in prosperity was honoured by receiving the name of
+Augusta. It remained in Roman hands for nearly four hundred years. The
+Citadel, which marks the first occupation by the Romans, was probably
+built about A.D. 43. The Romans went away in A.D. 410. During these four
+centuries the people became entirely Romanised. Add to this that they
+became Christians. Augusta was a Christian city; the churches which
+stand--or stood, because three at least have been removed--along Thames
+Street, probably occupied the sites of older Roman churches. In this
+part of the City the people were thickest; in this quarter, therefore,
+stood the greater number of churches: the fact that they were mostly
+dedicated to the apostles instead of to later Saxon saints seems to show
+that they stood on the sites of Roman churches. It has been asked why
+there has never been found any heathen temple in London; the answer is
+that London under the Romans very early became Christian; if there had
+been a temple of Diana or Apollo it would have been destroyed or
+converted into a church. Such remains of Augusta as have been found are
+inconsiderable: they are nearly all in the museum of the Guildhall,
+where they should be visited and examined.
+
+The history of Roman London is meagre. Seventeen years after the
+building of the Citadel, on the rebellion of Boadicea, the Roman general
+Suetonius abandoned the place, as unable to defend it. All those who
+remained were massacred by the insurgents. After this, so far as we
+know, for history is silent, there was peace in London for 200 years.
+Then one Carausius, an officer in command of the fleet stationed in the
+Channel for the suppression of piracies, assumed the title of emperor.
+He continued undisturbed for some years, his soldiers remaining faithful
+to him on account of his wealth: he established a Mint at London and
+struck a large amount of money there. He was murdered by one of his
+officers, Allectus, who called himself emperor in turn and continued to
+rule in Britain for three years. Then the end came for him as well. The
+Roman general landing with a large force marched upon London where
+Allectus lay. A battle fought in the south of London resulted in the
+overthrow and death of the usurper. His soldiers taking advantage of the
+confusion began to plunder and murder in the town, but were stopped and
+killed by the victors.
+
+Constantine, who became emperor in 306, was then in Britain, but his
+name is not connected with London except by coins bearing his name.
+
+Tradition connects the name of Helena, Constantine's mother, with
+London, but there is nothing to prove that she was ever in the island at
+all.
+
+Late in the fourth century troubles began to fall thick upon the
+country. The Picts and the Scots overran the northern parts and
+penetrated to the very walls of London. The general Theodosius, whose
+son became the emperor of that name, drove them back. About this time
+the wall of London was built; not the wall of the Roman fort, but that
+of the whole City. From the year 369, when Theodosius the general landed
+in Britain, to the year 609 we see nothing of London except one brief
+glimpse of fugitives flying for their lives across London Bridge. Of
+this interval we shall speak in the next chapter. Meanwhile it is
+sufficient to say that the decay of the Roman power made it necessary to
+withdraw the legions from the outlying and distant portions of the
+Empire. Britain had to be abandoned. It was as if England were to give
+up Hong Kong and Singapore and the West Indies because she could no
+longer spare the ships and regiments to defend them. The nation which
+abandons her possessions is not far from downfall. Remember, when you
+listen to those who advocate abandonment of our colonies, the example of
+Rome.
+
+
+
+
+5. AFTER THE ROMANS.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+The Romans left London. That was early in the fifth century; probably in
+the year 410.
+
+Two hundred years later we find the East Saxons in London.
+
+What happened during this long interval of seven generations? Not a word
+reaches us of London for two hundred years except once when, after a
+defeat of the British by the Saxons at Crayford in the year 457, we read
+that the fugitives crossed over London Bridge to take refuge within the
+walls of the City. What happened during this two hundred years?[1]
+
+We know what happened with other cities. Anderida, now called Pevensey,
+was taken by the Saxons, and all its inhabitants, man, woman and child,
+were slaughtered, so that it became a waste until the Normans built a
+castle within the old walls. Canterbury, Silchester, Porchester,
+Colchester--all were taken, their people massacred, the walls left
+standing, the streets left desolate. For the English--the Saxons--loved
+not city walls. Therefore, we might reasonably conclude that the same
+thing happened to London. But if it be worthy of the chronicler to note
+the massacre of Anderida, a small seaport, why should he omit the far
+more important capture of Augusta?
+
+[1] On this subject, see the author's book _London_ (Chatto & Windus).
+
+Let us hear what history has to tell. Times full of trouble fell upon
+the country. Long before the Romans went away the Picts and Scots were
+pouring their wild hordes over the north and west, sometimes getting as
+far south as the Middlesex Forest, murdering and destroying. As early as
+the year 368, forty years before they left the country, the Romans sent
+an expedition north to drive back these savages. Already the Saxons, the
+Jutes and the Angles were sending piratical expeditions to harry the
+coast and even to make settlements. The arm of the Roman was growing
+weak, it could not stretch out so far: the fleets of the Romans, under
+the officer called the 'Count of the Saxon Shore'--whose duty was to
+guard the eastern and southern coasts--were destroyed and their
+commander slain. So that, with foes on the eastern seaboard, foes in the
+Channel, foes in the river, foes in the north and west, it is certain
+that the trade of Augusta was declining long before the City was left to
+defend itself.
+
+What sort of defence were the people likely to offer? For nearly four
+hundred years they had lived at peace, free to grow rich and luxurious,
+with mercenaries to fight for them. Between the taking of the City by
+Boadicea and the departure of the Romans, a space of three hundred and
+fifty years, the peace of the City was only disturbed by the lawlessness
+of Allectus's mercenaries. Their attempt to sack the City was put down,
+it is significant to note, not by the citizens but by the Roman soldiers
+who entered the City in time. The citizens were mostly merchants: they
+were Christians in name and in form of worship, they were superstitious,
+they were luxurious, they were unwarlike. Many of them were not Britons
+at all, but foreigners settled in the City for trade. Moreover, for it
+is not true that the whole British people had grown unfit for war, a
+revolt of the Roman legions in the year 407 drew a large number of the
+young men into their ranks, and when Constantine the usurper took them
+over into Gaul for the four years' fighting which followed, the country
+was drained of its best fighting material. The City, then, contained a
+large number of wealthy merchants, native and foreign; it also contained
+a great many slaves who were occupied in the conduct of the trade, and
+few, since the young men went away with Constantine, who could be relied
+upon to fight.
+
+One more point may be made out from history. Since London was a town
+which then, as now, lived entirely by its trade and was the centre of
+the export and import trade of the whole country, the merchants, as we
+have seen, must have suffered most severely long before the Romans went
+away. We are, therefore, in the year 410, facing a situation full of
+menace. The Picts and Scots are overrunning the whole of the north, the
+Saxons are harrying the east and the south-east, trade is dying, there
+is little demand for imports, there are few exports, it is useless for
+ships to wait cargoes which never arrive, it is useless for ships to
+bring cargoes for which there is no demand.
+
+[Illustration: REMAINS OF A VIKING SHIP, FROM A CAIRN AT GOKSTAD.
+
+(_Now in the University at Christiania._)]
+
+A declining city, a dying trade, enemies in all directions, an unwarlike
+population. When the curtain falls upon the scene in the year 410 that
+is what we see.
+
+
+
+
+6. AFTER THE ROMANS.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Consider, again, the position of London. It stood, as you have seen,
+originally on two low hills overlooking the river. A strong wall built
+all along the bank from Blackfriars (now so called) to the present site
+of the Tower kept the river from swamping the houses and wharves which
+sprang up behind this wall. The walls of the City later on, but only
+about fifty years before the Romans went away, enclosed a large area
+covered over with streets, narrow near the river and broad farther
+north, and with residences, warehouses, villas, and workshops. There was
+probably a population of 70,000 or even more. On the west, in the
+direction of Westminster, the City wall overlooked an immense marsh: on
+the south across the river there was a still broader and longer marsh:
+on the east there was another great marsh with the sea overflowing the
+sedgy meadows at every high tide: on the north there was a wild moor and
+beyond the moor there was an immense forest. Four roads not counting the
+river-way kept the City in communication with the rest of the island.
+The most important of these roads was that afterwards called Watling
+Street, which passed out at Newgate and led across the heart of the
+country to Chester and Wales, to York and the north. The second,
+afterwards called Ermyn Street, left the City at Bishopsgate and ran
+through Lincoln to York, a third road called the Vicinal Way ran into
+the eastern counties, and by way of London Bridge Watling Street was
+connected with Dover.
+
+London, therefore, standing in its marshes had no means of providing for
+itself. All the food for its great population was imported. It was
+brought on pack asses along these roads. It came from the farms and
+gardens of the country inland by means of these high roads, strong,
+broad, and splendid roads, as good as any we have since succeeded in
+making. In peaceful times these roads were crowded all the way from
+Chester and Lincoln and Dover with long trains of animals laden with
+provisions for the people of London, as well as with goods for export
+from the Port of London. They were met by long trains of animals laden
+with imports being carried to their destination. The Thames in the same
+way was filled with barges laden with provisions as well as with goods
+going down the river to the people and the Port of London. Below Bridge
+the river was filled with merchant ships bringing cargoes of wine and
+spices and costly things to be exchanged for skins and slaves and
+metals. Let us remember that the daily victualling of 70,000 people
+means an immense service. We are so accustomed to find everything ready
+to hand in cities containing millions as well as in villages of
+hundreds, that we forget the magnitude of this service. No mind can
+conceive the magnitude of the food supply of modern London, Paris, New
+York, or even such towns as Portsmouth, Plymouth, Bristol. Yet try to
+understand what it means to feed every day, without interruption, only a
+small town of 70,000 people. So much bread for every day, so much meat,
+so much fish, so much wine, beer, mead, or cider--because at no time did
+people drink water if they could get anything else--so much milk, honey,
+butter, cheese, eggs, poultry, geese and ducks, so much beans, pease,
+salad, fruit. All this had to be brought in regularly--daily. There was
+salted meat for winter; there was dried fish when fresh could not be
+procured; there were granaries of wheat to provide for emergencies. All
+the rest had to be provided day by day.
+
+First, the East Saxons, settling in Essex and spreading over the whole
+of that county, stopped the supplies and the trade over all the eastern
+counties; then the Jutes, landing on the Isle of Thanet, stopped the
+ships that went up and down the river; they also spread over the south
+country and stopped the supplies that formerly came over London Bridge.
+Then the Picts and Scots, followed by more Saxons, harassed the north
+and middle of the island, and no more supplies came down Watling Street.
+Lastly, the enemy, pressing northward from the south shore, gained the
+middle reaches of the Thames, and no more supplies came down the river.
+
+London was thus deprived of food as well as of trade.
+
+This slowly, not suddenly, came to pass. First, one source of supply was
+cut off, then another. First, trade declined in one quarter, then it
+ceased in that quarter altogether. Next, another quarter was attacked.
+The foreign merchants, since there was no trade left, went on board
+their own ships and disappeared. Whether they succeeded in passing
+through the pirate craft that crowded the mouth of the river, one knows
+not. The bones of many lie at the bottom of the sea off the Nore. They
+vanished from hapless Augusta; they came back no more.
+
+Who were left? The native merchants. Despair was in their hearts;
+starvation threatened them, even amid the dainty appointments of their
+luxurious villas; what is the use of marble baths and silken hangings,
+tesselated pavements, and pictures, and books, and statues, if there is
+no food to be had, though one bid for it all the pictures in the house?
+With the merchants, there were the priests, the physicians, the lawyers,
+the actors and mimics, the artists, the teachers, all who minister to
+religion, luxury, and culture. There were next the great mass of the
+people, the clerks and scribes, the craftsmen, the salesmen, the
+lightermen, stevedores, boatmen, marine store keepers, makers of ships'
+gear, porters--slaves for the most part--all from highest to lowest,
+plunged into helplessness. Whither could they fly for refuge? Upon whom
+could they call for help?
+
+
+
+
+7. AFTER THE ROMANS.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+Abroad, the Roman Empire was breaking up. The whole of Europe was
+covered with war. Revolts of conquered tribes, rebellions of successful
+generals, invasions of savages, the murders of usurpers, the sacking of
+cities. Rome itself was sacked by Alaric; the conquest of one country
+after another made of this period the darkest in the history of the
+world. From over the seas no help, the enemy blocking the mouth of the
+river, all the roads closed and all the farms destroyed.
+
+There came a day at length when it was at last apparent that no more
+supplies would reach the City. Then the people began to leave the place:
+better to fight their way across the country to the west where the
+Britons still held their own, than to stay and starve. The men took
+their arms--they carried little treasure with them, because treasure
+would be of no use to them on their way--their wives and children,
+ladies as delicate and as helpless as any of our own time--children as
+unfit as our own to face the miseries of cold and hunger and
+nakedness--and they went out by the gate of Watling Street, not
+altogether, not the whole population, but in small companies, for
+greater safety. They left the City by the gate; they did not journey
+along the road, but for safety turned aside into the great forest, and
+so marching across moors and marshes, past burned homesteads, and
+ruined villages, and farm buildings thrown down, those of them who did
+not perish by the way under the enemies' sword or by malarious fever, or
+by starvation, reached the Severn and the border of the mountains where
+the Saxon could not penetrate.
+
+There was left behind a remnant--after every massacre or exodus there is
+always left a remnant. The people who stayed in the City were only a few
+and those of the baser sort, protected by their wretchedness and
+poverty. No one would kill those who offer no defence and have no
+treasures; and their condition under any new masters would be no worse.
+They shut the gates and barred them: they closed and barred the Bridge:
+they took out of the houses anything that they wanted--the soft warm
+mantles, the woollen garments, the coverlets, the pillows and hangings,
+but they abode in their hovels near the river banks; as for the works of
+art, the pictures, statues, and tesselated pavements, these they left
+where they found them or for wantonness destroyed them. They fished in
+the river for their food: they hunted over the marshes where are now
+Westminster, Battersea, and Lambeth: the years passed by and no one
+disturbed them: they still crouched in their huts while the thin veneer
+of civilisation was gradually lost with whatever arts they had learned
+and all their religion except the terror of the Unknown.
+
+Meanwhile the roofs of the villas and churches fell in, the walls
+decayed, the gardens were overgrown. Augusta--the proud and stately
+Augusta--was reduced to a wall enclosing a heap of ruins with a few
+savages huddled together in hovels by the riverside.
+
+For the East Saxon had overrun Essex, the Jute covered Kent and Surrey,
+the South Saxon held Sussex, the West Saxon held Wessex. All around--on
+every side--London was surrounded by the Conqueror of the Land. Why,
+then, did they not take London? Because London was deserted; there was
+nothing to take: London was silent. No ships going up or down the river
+reminded the Saxon of the City. It lay amid its marshes and its moors,
+the old roads choked and overgrown; it was forgotten; it was what the
+Saxons had already made of Canterbury and Anderida, a 'Waste Chester,'
+that is, a desolated stronghold.
+
+Augusta was forgotten.
+
+This is the story that we learn from the actual site of London--its
+position among marshes, the conditions under which alone the people
+could be maintained.
+
+How long did this oblivion continue? No one knows when it began or when
+it ended. As I read the story of the past, I find a day towards the
+close of the sixth century when there appeared within sight of the
+deserted walls a company of East Saxons. They were hunting: they were
+armed with spears: they followed the chase through the great forest
+afterwards called the Middlesex Forest, Epping Forest, Hainault Forest,
+and across the marshes of the river Lea, full of sedge and reed and
+treacherous quagmires. And they saw before them the gray walls of a
+great city of which they had never heard.
+
+They advanced cautiously: they found themselves on a firm road, the
+Vicinal Way, covered with grass: they expected the sight of an enemy on
+the wall: none appeared. The gates were closed, the timbers were rotten
+and fell down at a touch: the men broke through and found themselves
+among the streets of a city all in ruins. They ran about--shouting--no
+one appeared: the City was deserted.
+
+They went away and told what they had found.
+
+But Augusta had perished. When the City appears again it is under its
+more ancient name--it is again London.
+
+
+
+
+8. THE FIRST SAXON SETTLEMENT.
+
+
+A hundred and fifty years passed away between the landing of the East
+Saxons and their recorded occupation of the City. This long period made
+a great difference in the fierce savage who followed the standard of the
+White Horse and landed on the coast of Essex. He became more peaceful:
+he settled down contentedly to periods of tranquillity. Certain arts he
+acquired, and he learned to live in towns: as yet he was not a
+Christian. This means that the influence of Rome with its religion, its
+learning and its arts had not yet touched him.
+
+But he had begun to live in towns; and he lived in London.
+
+Perhaps the first of the new settlers were the foreign merchants
+returning, as soon as more settled times allowed, with their cargoes.
+London has always been a place of trade. But for trade no one would have
+settled in it. Therefore, either the men of Essex invited the foreign
+merchants to return; or the foreign merchants returned and invited the
+men of Essex to come into the City and to bring with them what they had
+to exchange.
+
+In the year 597 Augustine, prior of a Roman monastery, was sent by Pope
+Gregory the Great with forty monks, to convert the English. Ethelbert,
+King of Kent, and most powerful of the English kinglets, was married to
+Bertha, a Christian princess. She had brought with her a chaplain and it
+was probably at her invitation or through her influence, that the monks
+were sent. They landed at Thanet. They obtained permission to meet the
+King in the open air. They appeared wearing their robes, carrying a
+crucifix, and chanting Psalms. It is probable that the conversion of the
+King had been arranged beforehand; for without any difficulty or delay
+the King and all his Court, and, following the King's example, all the
+people were baptised.
+
+Augustine returned to Rome where he was consecrated Archbishop of the
+English nation. A church was built at Canterbury, and the work of
+preaching the Faith went on vigorously. The East Saxons made no more
+hesitation at being baptised than the men of Kent. Ethelbert, indeed,
+could command obedience; he was Over Lord of all the nations south of
+the Humber. He it was, according to Bede, who built the first church of
+St. Paul in London, a fact which proves his authority and influence in
+London, and his sincere desire that the East Saxons should become
+Christians.
+
+They did, in a way. But when King Siebehrt died, they relapsed and drove
+their Bishop into exile.
+
+Then--Bede says that they were punished for this sin--the East Saxons
+fell into trouble. They went to war with the men of Wessex and were
+defeated by them. After this, we find London in the hands of the
+Northumbrians and the Mercians--that is to say--these nations one after
+the other obtained the supremacy. It was in the year 616 or thereabouts,
+that Bishop Mellitus had to leave his diocese. Forty years later another
+conversion of London took place under Bishop Cedd, consecrated at
+Lindisfarne. The new faith was not strong enough to stand against a
+plague, and the East Saxons of London went back once more to their old
+gods. After another thirty years, before the close of the seventh
+century, London was again converted: and this time for good.
+
+In the eighth century London passed again out of the hands of the East
+Saxon kings into those of the Mercians. The earliest extant document
+concerning London is one dated 734, in which King Ethelbald grants to
+the Bishop of Rochester leave to send one ship without tax in or out of
+London Port.
+
+A witan--i.e. a national council--was held in London in 811. It is then
+spoken of as an illustrious place and royal city. The supremacy of
+Mercia passed to that of Wessex--London went with the supremacy. In 833
+Egbert, King of Wessex, held a witan in London.
+
+[Illustration: MARTYRDOM OF ST. EDMUND BY THE DANES.
+
+(_From a drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries._)]
+
+When Egbert died the supremacy of Wessex fell with him. Then the Danish
+troubles fell thick and disastrous upon the country. When Alfred
+succeeded to the Crown the Danes held the Isle of Thanet, which
+commanded the river; they had conquered the north country from the Tweed
+to the Humber; they had overrun all the eastern counties twice--viz., in
+839 and in 852: they had pillaged London, which they presently occupied,
+making it their headquarters. With this Danish occupation ends the first
+Saxon settlement of the City.
+
+
+
+
+9. THE SECOND SAXON SETTLEMENT.
+
+
+The Danes held the City for twelve years at least. One cannot believe
+that these fierce warriors, who were exactly what the Saxons and Jutes
+had been four hundred years before--as fierce, as rude, as
+pagan--suffered any of the inhabitants, except the slaves, to remain.
+Massacre and pillage--or the fear of both--drove away all the residents.
+But the City was the headquarters of the Danes. Alfred recovered it in
+the year 884.
+
+He found it as the East Saxons had found it three hundred years before,
+a city of ruins; the wall a ruin; the churches destroyed.
+
+King Alfred has left many imperishable monuments of his reign. One of
+the greatest is the City of London, which he rebuilt. A recent historian
+(Loftie, _Historic Towns_, 'London') says that it would hardly be wrong
+to write, 'London was founded, rather more than a thousand years ago, by
+King Alfred--who chose for the site of his city a place formerly
+fortified by the Romans but desolated successively by the Saxons and the
+Danes.'
+
+The first thing he did was to rebuild the wall. This work re-established
+confidence in the minds of the citizens. Alfred placed his son-in-law
+Ethelred, afterwards Alderman (i.e. Chief man--Governor) of the
+Mercians, in command of the City, which seems to have been immediately
+filled with people. The London citizens went out with Ethelred to defeat
+the Danes at Benfleet, and with Alfred to defeat the Danes at the mouth
+of the river Lea; they went out with Athelstan to fight at Brunanburgh.
+London was never again taken by the Danes. Twice Sweyn endeavoured to
+take the City but was repulsed. Nor did London open her gates to him
+until the King had left the City. And when the Danes again entered the
+City there was no more pillage or massacre; London was too strong to be
+pillaged or massacred, and too rich to be abandoned to the army.
+
+King Ethelred came back and died, and was buried in St. Paul's; the old
+St. Paul's--that of King Ethelbert or that of Bishop Cedd--was burned
+down and the Londoners were building a new cathedral.
+
+Edmund Ironside was elected and crowned within the City walls. Then
+followed a siege of London by Canute. He dug a canal through the swamps,
+and dragged his ships by its means from Redriff to Lambeth. But he could
+not take the City. But the Treaty of Partition between Edmund and
+himself was agreed upon and the Dane once more obtained the City. He has
+left one or two names behind him. The church of St. Olave's in Hart
+Street, and that in 'Tooley,' or St. Olave's Street, Southwark, and the
+Church of St. Magnus, attest to the sovereignty of the Dane.
+
+[Illustration: SAXON HORSEMEN.
+
+(_Harl. MS. 603._)]
+
+At this time the two principal officers of the City were the Bishop and
+the Portreeve: there was also the 'Staller' or Marshal. The principal
+governing body was the 'Knighten Guild,' which was largely composed of
+the City aldermen. But these aldermen were not like those of the present
+day, an elected body: they were hereditary: they were aldermen in right
+of their estates within the City. What powers the Knighten Guild
+possessed is not easy to define. Besides this, the aristocracy of the
+City, there were already trade guilds for religious purposes and for
+feasting--but, as yet, with no powers. The people had their folk mote,
+or general gathering: their ward mote: and their weekly hustings. We
+must not seek to define the powers of all these bodies and corporations.
+They overlapped each other: the aristocratic party was continually
+innovating while the popular party as continually resisted. In many ways
+what we call the government of the City had not begun to be understood.
+That there was order of a kind is shown by the strict regulations, as
+strictly enforced, of the dues and tolls for ships that came up the
+river to the Port of London.
+
+
+
+
+10. THE ANGLO-SAXON CITIZEN.
+
+
+The Londoner of Athelstan and Ethelred was an Anglo-Saxon of a type far
+in advance of his fierce ancestor who swept the narrow seas and harried
+the eastern coasts. He had learned many arts: he had become a Christian:
+he wanted many luxuries. But the solid things which he inherited from
+his rude forefathers he passed on to his children. And they remain an
+inheritance for us to this day. For instance, our form of monarchy,
+limited in power, comes straight down to us from Alfred and Athelstan.
+Our nobility is a survival and a development of the Saxon earls and
+thanes; our forms of justice, trial by jury, magistrates--all come from
+the Saxons; the divisions of our country are Saxon, our municipal
+institutions are Saxon, our parliaments and councils are Saxon in
+origin. We owe our language to the Anglo-Saxon, small additions from
+Latin, French, and other sources have been made, but the bulk of our
+language is Saxon. Three-fourths of us are Anglo-Saxon by descent.
+Whatever there is in the English character of persistence, obstinacy,
+patience, industry, sobriety, love of freedom, we are accustomed to
+attribute to our Anglo-Saxon descent. In religion, arts, learning,
+literature, culture, we owe little or nothing to the Anglo-Saxon. In all
+these things we are indebted to the South.
+
+Let us see how the Anglo-Saxon Londoner lived.
+
+He was a trader or a craftsman. As a trader he received from the country
+inland whatever it had to produce. Slaves, who were bred like cattle on
+the farms, formed a large part of the exports; hides, wool, iron, tin,
+the English merchant had these things, and nothing more, to offer the
+foreigner who brought in exchange wine, spices, silk, incense, vestments
+and pictures for the churches and monasteries, books, and other
+luxuries. The ships at first belonged to the foreign merchants: they
+traded not only at London, but also at Bristol, Canterbury, Dover,
+Arundel, and other towns. Before the Conquest, however, English-built
+ships and English-manned fleets had already entered upon the trade.
+
+The trader, already wealthy, lived in great comfort. He was absolute
+master in his own house, but the household was directed or ruled by his
+wife. Everything was made in the house: the flour was ground, the bread
+was baked, the meat and fish were salted; the linen was woven, the
+garments were made by the wife, the daughters, and the women servants.
+The Anglo-Saxon ladies were remarkable for their skill in embroidery;
+they excelled all other women in this beautiful art.
+
+The Anglo-Saxon house developed out of the common hall. Those who know
+the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge can trace the growth of the house
+in any of them. First there is the Common Hall. In this room, formerly,
+the whole family, with the serving men and women, lived and slept. There
+still exists at Higham Ferrars, in Northampton, such a hall, built as an
+almshouse. It is a long room: at the east end, raised a foot, is a
+little chapel; on the south side is a long open stove; the almsmen slept
+on the floor on reeds, each man wrapped in his blanket.
+
+[Illustration: SAXON CHURCH AT BRADFORD-ON-AVON, WILTS.]
+
+Everybody lived and slept in the Common Hall. All day long the women
+worked at the spinning and weaving and sewing and embroidery. Women were
+defined by this kind of work--we still speak of spinsters. Formerly
+relationship through the mother was called 'on the spindle side,' while,
+long after the men had to fight every day against marauding tribes,
+relationship through the father was called 'on the spear side.' All day
+long the men worked outside in the fields, or in the warehouse, and on
+the quays or at their craft. In the evening they sat about the fire and
+listened to stories, or to songs with the accompaniment of the harp.
+
+The first improvement was the separation of the kitchen from the hall:
+in the Cambridge College you see the hall on one side and the kitchen
+the other, separated by a passage. The second step was the construction
+of the 'Solar,' or chamber over the kitchen, which became the bedroom of
+the master and the mistress of the house. Then they built a room behind
+the solar for the daughters and the maidservants; the sons and the
+menservants still sleeping in the Hall. Presumably the house was at this
+stage in the time of King Ethelred, just before the Norman Conquest. The
+ladies' 'bower' followed, and after that the sleeping rooms for the men.
+
+There was no furniture, as we understand it. Benches there were, and
+trestles for the tables, which were literally laid at every meal: a
+great chair was provided for the Lord and Lady: tapestry kept out the
+draughts: weapons, musical instruments, and other things hung upon the
+walls. Dinner was at noon: supper in the evening when work was over:
+they made great use of vegetables and they had nearly all our modern
+fruits: they drank, as the national beverage, beer or mead.
+
+But everybody was not a wealthy merchant: most of the citizens were
+craftsmen of some kind. These lived in small wooden houses of two rooms,
+one above the other: those who were not able to afford so much slept in
+hovels, consisting of four uprights with 'wattle and daub' for the
+sides, a roof of thatch, no window, and a fire in the middle of the
+floor. They lived very roughly: they endured many hardships: but they
+were a well-fed people, turbulent and independent: their houses were
+crowded in narrow lanes--how narrow may be understood by a walk along
+Thames Street; they were always in danger of fire--in 962, in 1087, in
+1135, the greater part of the City was burned to the ground. They lived
+in plenty: there was work for all: they had their folk mote--their City
+parliament--and their ward mote--which still exists: they had no feudal
+lord to harass them: as for the dirt and mud and stench of the narrow
+City streets, they cared nothing for such things. They were free: and
+they were well fed: and they were cheerful and contented.
+
+
+
+
+11. THE WALL OF LONDON.
+
+
+Let us examine into the history and the course of the Wall of London, if
+only for the very remarkable facts that the boundary of the City was
+determined for fifteen hundred years by the erection of this Wall; that
+for some purposes the course of the Wall still affects the government of
+London; and that it was only pulled down bit by bit in the course of the
+last century.
+
+You will see by reference to the map what was the course of the Wall. It
+began, starting from the east where the White Tower now stands. Part of
+the foundation of the Tower consists of a bastion of the Roman wall. It
+followed a line nearly north as far as Aldgate. Then it turned in a N.W.
+direction just north of Camomile Street and Bevis Marks to Bishopsgate.
+Thence it ran nearly due W., north of the street called London Wall,
+turning S. at Monkwell Street. At Aldersgate it turned W. until it
+reached Newgate, where it turned nearly S. again and so to the river, a
+little east of the present Blackfriars Bridge. It ran, lastly, along the
+river bank to join its eastern extremity. The river wall had openings or
+gates at Dowgate and Bishopsgate, and probably at Queen Hithe. The
+length of the Wall, without counting the river side, was 2 miles and 608
+feet.
+
+This formidable Wall was originally about 12 feet thick made of rubble
+and mortar, the latter very hard, and faced with stone. You may know
+Roman work by the courses of tiles or bricks. They are arranged in
+double layers about 2 feet apart. The so-called bricks are not in the
+least like our bricks, being 6 inches long, 12 inches wide and 11/2 inch
+thick. The Wall was 20 feet high, with towers and bastions at intervals
+about 50 feet high. At first there was no moat or ditch, and it will be
+understood that in order to protect the City from an attack of
+barbarians--Picts or Scots--it was enough to close the gates and to man
+the towers. The invaders had no ladders.
+
+[Illustration: CITY GATES.]
+
+In the course of centuries a great many repairs and rebuildings of the
+Wall took place. The Saxons allowed it to fall into a ruinous condition.
+Alfred rebuilt it and strengthened it. The next important repairs were
+made in the reign of King John in 1215, by Henry III., Edward I.,
+Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Edward IV. After these various
+rebuildings there would seem to be little left of the original Wall.
+That, however, a great part of it continued to be the hard rubble core
+of the Roman work seems evident from the fact that the course of the
+Wall was never altered. The only alteration was when they turned the
+Wall west at Ludgate down to the Fleet River and so to the confluence of
+the Fleet and the Thames. The river side of the Wall was also allowed to
+be removed.
+
+[Illustration: REMAINS OF THE WALL.]
+
+The City was thus protected by a great wall pierced by a few gates, with
+bastions and towers. At the East End after the Norman Conquest rose the
+Great White Tower still standing. At the West End was a tower called
+Montfichet's Tower.
+
+[Illustration: PART OF THE ROMAN WALL AT LEICESTER.]
+
+But a wall without a ditch, where a ditch was possible, became of
+little use as soon as scaling ladders were invented with wooden movable
+towers and other devices. A ditch was accordingly constructed in the
+year 1211 in the reign of King John. It appears to have been from the
+very first neglected by the citizens, who trusted more to their own
+bravery than to the protection of a ditch. It was frequently ordered to
+be cleansed and repaired: it abounded, when it was clean, with good fish
+of various kinds: but it was gradually allowed to dry up until, in the
+reign of Queen Elizabeth, nothing was left but a narrow channel or no
+channel at all but a few scattered ponds, with market gardens planted in
+the ditch itself. In Agas's map of London these gardens are figured,
+with summer houses and cottages for the gardeners and cattle grazing. On
+the west side north of Ludgate the ditch has entirely disappeared and
+houses are built against the Wall on the outside. Houndsditch is a row
+of mean houses facing the moat. Fore Street is also built over against
+the moat. Within and without the Wall they placed churchyards--those of
+St. Alphege, Allhallows, and St. Martin's Outwich, you may still see for
+yourselves within the Wall: that of St. Augustine's at the north end of
+St. Mary Axe, has vanished. Those of the three churches of St. Botolph,
+Bishopsgate, Aldgate, Aldersgate, and that of St. Giles are churchyards
+without the Wall. Then the ditch became filled up and houses were built
+all along the Wall within and without. Thus began unchecked, perhaps
+openly encouraged, the gradual demolition of the Wall. It takes a long
+time to tear down a wall of solid rubble twelve feet thick. It took the
+Londoners about 160 years. In the year 1760 they finally removed the
+gates. Most of the Wall was gone by this time but large fragments
+remained here and there. You may still see a considerable piece, part of
+a bastion in the churchyard of St. Giles, and the vestry of All Hallows
+on the Wall is built upon a bastion. In Camomile Street and in other
+places portions of the Wall have been discovered where excavations have
+been made: and, of course, the foundation of the Wall exists still, from
+end to end.
+
+
+
+
+12. NORMAN LONDON.
+
+
+When William the Conqueror received the submission of the City he gave
+the citizens a Charter--their first Charter--of freedom. There can be no
+doubt that the Charter was the price demanded by the citizens and
+willingly paid by the Conqueror in return for their submission. The
+following is the document. Short as it is, the whole future of the City
+is founded upon these few words:--
+
+'William King greets William Bishop and Gosfrith Portreeve and all the
+burghers within London, French and English, friendly.
+
+'I do you to wit that I will that ye be all law worthy that were in King
+Edward's day, and I will that every child be his father's heir after his
+father's day: and I will not endure that any man offer any wrong to you.
+
+'God keep you.'
+
+The ancient Charter itself is preserved at Guildhall. Many copies of it
+and translations of it were made from time to time. Let us see what it
+means.
+
+The citizens were to be 'law worthy' as they had been in the days of
+King Edward. This meant that they were to be free men in the courts of
+justice, with the right to be tried by their equals, that is, by jury.
+'All who were law worthy in King Edward's day.' Serfs were not law
+worthy, for instance. That the children should inherit their father's
+property was, as much as the preceding clause, great security to the
+freedom of the City, for it protected the people from any feudal claims
+that might arise. Next, observe that there was never any Earl of London:
+the City had no Lord but the King: it never would endure any Lord but
+the King. An attempt was made, but only one, and that was followed by
+the downfall of the Queen--Matilda--who tried it. Feudal customs arose
+and flourished and died, but they were unknown in this free city.
+
+But the City with its strong walls, its great multitude of people, and
+its resources, might prove so independent as to lock out the King.
+William therefore began to build the Tower, by means of which he could
+not only keep the enemy out of London but could keep his own strong hand
+upon the burghers. He took down a piece of the wall and enclosed twelve
+acres of ground, in which he built his stronghold, within a deep and
+broad ditch. The work was entrusted to Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester,
+who left it unfinished when he died thirty years after.
+
+The next great Charter of the City was granted by Henry the First. He
+remitted the payment of the levies for feudal service, of tax called
+Danegeld, originally imposed for buying off the Danes: of the murder
+tax: of wager of battle, that is, that form of trial in which the
+accused and the accuser fought it out, and from certain tolls. He also
+gave the citizens the county of Middlesex to farm on payment to the
+Crown of 300_l._ a year--a payment still made: they were to appoint a
+Sheriff for the county: and they were to have leave to hunt in the
+forests of Middlesex, Surrey, and the Chiltern Hills. They were also
+empowered to elect their own justiciar and allowed to try their own
+cases within their own limits.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER IN THE EARLIER STYLE. CHURCH AT EARL'S BARTON.
+
+(_The battlements are much later._)]
+
+This was a very important Charter. No doubt, like the first, it was
+stipulated as a price for the support of the City. William Rufus was
+killed on Thursday--Henry was in London on Saturday. He must therefore
+have ridden hard to get over the hundred and twenty miles of rough
+bridle track between the New Forest and London. But the City supported
+him and this was their reward.
+
+We are gradually approaching the modern constitution of the City. The
+Portreeve or first Magistrate, in the year 1189, in the person of Henry
+Fitz Aylwin, assumed the title of Mayor--not Lord Mayor: the title came
+later, a habit or style, never a rank conferred. With him were two
+Sheriffs, the Sheriff of the City and the Sheriff of the County. There
+was the Bishop: there was the City Justiciar with his courts. There were
+also the Aldermen, not yet an elected body.
+
+The Londoners elected Stephen King, and stood by him through all the
+troubles that followed. The plainest proof of the strength and
+importance of the City is shown in the fact that when Matilda took
+revenge on London by depriving the City of its Charters the citizens
+rose and drove her out of London and made her cause hopeless.
+
+
+
+
+13. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+The White Tower is the only building in modern London which belongs to
+Norman London. Portions remain--fragments--a part of the church of St.
+Bartholomew the Great, a part of the church of St. Ethelburga, the crypt
+of Bow Church: very little else. All the rest has been destroyed by
+time, by 'improvements,' or by fire, the greatest enemy to cities in
+every country and every age. Thus, three great fires in the tenth and
+eleventh century swept London from end to end. No need to ask if
+anything remains of the Roman or the Saxon City. Not a vestige is
+left--except the little fragment, known as the London Stone, now lying
+behind iron bars in the wall of St. Swithin's Church. Churches, Palaces,
+Monasteries, Castles--all perished in those three fires. The City, no
+doubt, speedily sprang again from its ashes, but of its rebuilding on
+each occasion we have no details at all.
+
+Most fortunately, there exists a document priceless and unique, short as
+it is and meagre in many of its details, which describes London as it
+was in the reign of Henry II. It is written by one FitzStephen, Chaplain
+to Thomas Becket. He was present at the murder of the Archbishop and
+wrote his life, to which this account is an introduction.
+
+[Illustration: A NORMAN SHIP.
+
+(_From the Bayeux Tapestry._)]
+
+He says, first of all, that the City contained thirteen larger
+conventual churches and a hundred and twenty-six parish churches. He
+writes only fifty years after the Great Fire, so that it is not likely
+that new parishes had been erected. All the churches which had been
+destroyed were rebuilt. Most of them were very small parishes, with,
+doubtless, very small churches. We shall return presently to the
+question of the churches.
+
+[Illustration: BUILDING A CHURCH IN THE LATER STYLE.
+
+(_From a drawing belonging to the Society of Antiquaries._)]
+
+On the east was the White Tower which he calls the 'Palatine Castle:'
+on the west there were two towers--there was the Tower called
+Montfichet, where is now Blackfriars station, and Baynard's Castle,
+close beside it. The walls of the City had seven double gates. The river
+wall had by this time been taken down. Two miles from the City, on the
+west, was the Royal Palace (Westminster), fortified with ramparts and
+connected with the City by a populous suburb. Already, therefore, the
+Strand and Charing Cross were settled. The gates were Aldgate,
+Bishopsgate, Cripplegate, Aldersgate, Newgate, Ludgate, and the Bridge.
+
+FitzStephen says that the citizens were so powerful that they could
+furnish the King with 20,000 horsemen and 60,000 foot. This is clearly
+gross exaggeration. If we allow 500 for each parish, we get a population
+of only 63,000 in all, and in the enumeration later on, for the poll tax
+by Richard the Second, there were no more than 48,000. This, however,
+was shortly after a great Plague had ravaged the City.
+
+But the writer tells us that the citizens excelled those of any other
+city in the world in 'handsomeness of manners and of dress, at table,
+and in way of speaking.' There were three principal schools, the
+scholars of which rivalled each other, and engaged in public contests of
+rhetoric and grammar.
+
+Those who worked at trades and sold wares of any kind were assigned
+their proper place whither they repaired every morning. It is easy to
+make out from the surviving names where the trades were placed. The
+names of Bread Street, Fish Street, Milk Street, Honey Lane, Wood
+Street, Soapers' Lane, the Poultry, for instance, indicate what trades
+were carried on there. Friday Street shows that the food proper for fast
+days was sold there--namely, dried fish. Cheapside preserves the name
+of the Chepe, the most important of all the old streets. Here, every
+day, all the year round, was a market held at which everything
+conceivable was sold, not in shops, but in _selds_, that is, covered
+wooden sheds, which could be taken down on occasion. Do not think that
+'Chepe' was a narrow street: it was a great open space lying between St.
+Paul's and what is now the Royal Exchange, with streets north and south
+formed by rows of these _selds_ or sheds. Presently the sheds became
+houses with shops in front and gardens behind. The roadway on the south
+side of this open space was called the Side of Chepe. There was another
+open space for salesmen called East Chepe, another at Billingsgate,
+called Roome Lane, another at Dowgate--both for purposes of exposing for
+sale imports landed on the Quays and the ports of Queenhithe and
+Billingsgate. Those who have seen a market-place in a French town will
+understand what these places were like. A large irregular area. On every
+side sheds with wares for sale: at first all seems confusion and noise:
+presently one makes out that there are streets in orderly array, in
+which those who know can find what they want. Here are mercers; here
+goldsmiths; here armourers; here glovers; here pepperers or grocers; and
+so forth. West Chepe is the place of shops where they sell the things
+made in the City and all things wanted for the daily life.
+
+On the other side of the Walbrook, across which there is a bridge where
+is now the Poultry, is East Chepe, whither they bring all kinds of
+imported goods and sell them to the retailers: and by the river side the
+merchants assemble in the open places beside Queenhithe and Billingsgate
+to receive or to buy the cargoes sent over from France, Spain, and the
+Low Countries. One more open space there was, that round St. Paul's,
+the place where the people held their folkmotes. But London was not, as
+yet, by any means built over. Its northern parts were covered with
+gardens. It was here, as we shall see, that the great monasteries were
+shortly to be built.
+
+[Illustration: LAY COSTUMES IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.]
+
+
+
+
+
+14. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Outside the walls, he says, there were many places of pleasant resort,
+streams and springs among them. He means the Fleet River winding at the
+bottom of its broad valley: farther west Tyburn and Westbourne: on the
+south the Wandle, the Effra, the Ravensbourne. There was a well at
+Holywell in the Strand--it lies under the site of the present Opera
+Comique Theatre: and at Clerkenwell: these wells had medicinal or
+miraculous properties and there were, no doubt, taverns and places of
+amusement about there. At Smithfield--or Smooth Field--just outside the
+City walls, there was held once a week--on Friday--a horse fair.
+Business over, horse racing followed. Then the river was full of fish:
+some went fishing for their livelihood: some for amusement: salmon were
+plentiful and great fish such as porpoises sometimes found their way
+above Bridge.
+
+Then there were the sports of the young men and the boys. They played at
+ball--when have not young men played at ball? The young Londoners
+practised some form of hockey out of which have grown the two noble
+games of cricket and golf. They wrestled and leaped. Nothing is said
+about boxing and quarterstaff. But perhaps these belonged to the
+practice of arms and archery, which were never neglected, because at any
+moment the London craftsman might have to become a soldier. They had
+cock fighting, a sport to which the Londoner was always greatly
+addicted. And they loved dancing with the girls to the music of pipe and
+tabor. In the winter, when the broad fens north of the walls were
+frozen, they skated. And they hunted with hawk and hound in the Forest
+of Middlesex, which belonged to the City.
+
+[Illustration: COSTUME OF SHEPHERDS IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.]
+
+The City, he tells us, is governed by the same laws as those of Rome.
+Like Rome, London is divided into wards: like Rome the City has annually
+elected magistrates who are called Sheriffs instead of Consuls: like
+Rome it has senatorial and inferior magistrates: like Rome it has
+separate Courts and proper places for law suits, and like Rome the City
+holds assemblies on ordered days. The writer is carried away by his
+enthusiasm for Rome. As we have seen, the government, laws, and customs
+of London owed nothing at all, in any single respect, to Rome.
+Everything grew out of the Anglo-Saxon laws and customs.
+
+[Illustration: ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUME IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY.]
+
+By his loud praise of the great plenty of food of every kind which could
+be found in London, FitzStephen reminds us that he has lived in other
+towns, and especially in Canterbury, when he was in the service of the
+Archbishop. We see, though he does not mention it, the comparison in his
+mind between the plentiful market of London and the meagre market of
+Canterbury. Everything, he says, was on sale. All the roasted meats and
+boiled that one can ask for; all the fish, poultry, and game in season,
+could every day be bought in London: there were cookshops where dinners
+and suppers could be had by paying for them. He dwells at length upon
+this abundance. Now in the country towns and the villages the supplies
+were a matter of uncertainty and anxiety: a housewife had to keep her
+pantry and her larder well victualled in advance: salt meat and salt
+fish were the staple of food. Beef and mutton were scarce: game there
+was in plenty if it could be taken; but game laws were strict; very
+little venison would find its way into Canterbury market. To this cleric
+who knew the country markets, the profusion of everything in London was
+amazing.
+
+Another thing he notices--'Nearly all the Bishops, Abbots, and Magnates
+of England are, as it were, citizens and freemen of London; having their
+own splendid houses to which they resort, where they spend largely when
+summoned to great Councils by the King, or by their Metropolitan, or
+drawn thither by their own private affairs.'
+
+In another century or two London will become, as you shall see, a City
+of Palaces. Observe that the palaces are already beginning. Observe,
+also, that London is already being enriched by the visits and residence
+of great lords who, with their retinues, spend 'largely.' Down to the
+present day the same thing has always gone on. The wealthy people who
+have their town houses in the West End of London and the thousands of
+country people and foreigners who now flock to the London hotels are the
+successors of the great men and their following who came up to London in
+the twelfth century and spent 'largely.'
+
+'I do not think,' says FitzStephen, 'that there is any city with more
+commendable customs of church attendance, honour to God's ordinances,
+keeping sacred festivals, almsgiving, hospitality, confirming,
+betrothals, contracting marriages, celebration of nuptials, preparing
+feasts, cheering the guests, and also in care for funerals and the
+interment of the dead. The only pests of London are the immoderate
+drinking of fools and the frequency of fires.'
+
+
+
+
+15. LONDON BRIDGE.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+Nobody knows who built the first Bridge. It was there in the fourth
+century--a bridge of timber provided with a fortified gate, one of the
+gates of the City. Who put it up, and when--how long it stood--what
+space there was between the piers--how broad it was--we do not know.
+Probably it was quite a narrow bridge consisting of beams laid across
+side by side and a railing at the side. That these beams were not close
+together is known by the fact that so many coins have been found in the
+bed of the river beneath the old Bridge.
+
+[Illustration: ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND FROM RICHARD I. TO EDWARD III.
+
+(_From the wall arcade, south aisle of nave, Westminster Abbey._)]
+
+Besides the Bridge there were ferries across the river, especially
+between Dowgate and the opposite bank called St. Mary Overies Dock,
+where was afterwards erected St. Mary Overies Priory, to which belonged
+the church now called St. Saviour's, Southwark. The docks at either end
+of the old ferry still remain.
+
+The Bridge had many misfortunes: it is said to have been destroyed by
+the Danes in 1013. Perhaps for 'destruction' we should read 'damage.' It
+was, however, certainly burned down in the Great Fire of 1136. Another,
+also of wood, was built in its place and, in the year 1176, a bridge of
+stone was commenced, which took thirty years to build and remained
+standing till the year 1831, when the present Bridge was completed and
+the old one pulled down.
+
+The Architect of this stone Bridge, destined to stand for six hundred
+and fifty years, was one Peter, Chaplain of St. Mary Colechurch in the
+Old Jewry (the church was destroyed in the Great Fire and not rebuilt).
+
+Now the building of bridges was regarded, at this time, as a work of
+piety. If we consider how a bridge helps the people we shall agree with
+our forefathers. Without a bridge, those living on one side of a river
+can only carry on intercourse with those on the other side by means of
+boats. Merchants cannot carry their wares about: farmers cannot get
+their produce to market: wayfarers can only get across by ferry: armies
+cannot march--if you wish to follow an army across a country where there
+are no bridges you must look for fords. Roads are useless unless bridges
+cross the rivers. The first essential to the union of a nation is the
+possibility of intercommunication: without roads and bridges the man of
+Devon is a stranger and an enemy to the man of Somerset. We who have
+bridges over every river: who need never even ford a stream: who hardly
+know what a ferry means: easily forget that these bridges did not grow
+like the oaks and the elms: but were built after long study of the
+subject by men who were trained for the work just as other men were
+trained and taught to build cathedrals and churches. A religious order
+was founded in France in the twelfth century: it was called the Order of
+the 'Pontife' Brethren--_Pontife_ is Pontifex--that is--Bridge Builder.
+The Bridge Building Brothers constructed many bridges in France of
+which several still remain. It is not certain that Peter of Colechurch
+was one of this Brotherhood, perhaps not. When he died, in 1205, before
+the Bridge was completed, King John called over a French 'Pontife' named
+Isembert who had built bridges at La Rochelle and Saintes. But the
+principal builders are said to have been three merchants of London named
+Serle Mercer, William Almain, and Benedict Botewrite. The building of
+the Bridge was regarded as a national work: the King: the great Lords:
+the Bishops: as well as the London Citizens, gave money to hasten its
+completion. The list of donors was preserved on 'a table fair written
+for posterity' in the Chapel on the Bridge. It was unhappily destroyed
+in the Great Fire.
+
+It must not be supposed that the Bridge of Peter Colechurch was like the
+present stately Bridge of broad arches. It contained twenty arches of
+irregular breadth: only two or three being the same: they varied from 10
+feet to 32 feet: some of them therefore were very narrow: the piers were
+also of different lengths. These irregularities were certainly
+intentional and were based upon some observations on the rise and fall
+of the tide. No other great Bridge had yet been constructed across a
+tidal river.
+
+When the Bridge was built it was thought necessary to consecrate it to
+some saint. The latest saint, St. Thomas Becket, was chosen as the
+titular saint of this Bridge. A chapel, dedicated to him, was built in
+the centre pier of the Bridge: it was, in fact, a double chapel: in the
+lower part, the crypt, was buried Peter of Colechurch himself: the upper
+part, which escaped the Great Fire, became, after the Reformation, a
+warehouse.
+
+
+
+
+16. LONDON BRIDGE.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Houses were erected in course of time along the Bridge on either side
+like a street, but with intervals; and along the roadway in the middle
+were chain posts to protect the passengers. As the Bridge was only 40
+feet wide the houses must have been small. But they were built out at
+the back overhanging the river, and the roadway itself was not intended
+for carts or wheeled vehicles. Remember that everything was brought to
+the City on pack horse or pack ass. The table of Tolls sanctioned by
+King Edward I. makes no mention of cart or waggon at all. Men on
+horseback and loaded horses can get along with a very narrow road.
+Perhaps we may allow twelve feet for the road which gives for the houses
+on either side a depth of 14 feet each.
+
+[Illustration: OLD LONDON BRIDGE.]
+
+These houses were occupied chiefly by shops, most of which were
+'haberdashers and traders in small wares.' Later on there were many
+booksellers. Paper merchants and stationers, after the Reformation,
+occupied the chapel. The great painter Hans Holbein lived on the Bridge
+and the two marine painters Peter Monamy and Dominic Serres also lived
+here.
+
+The narrowness of the arches and the rush of the flowing or the ebbing
+tide made the 'shooting' of the Bridge a matter of great danger. The
+Duke of Norfolk in 1429 was thrown into the water by the capsizing of
+his boat and narrowly escaped with his life. Queen Henrietta, in 1628,
+was nearly wrecked in the same way by running into the piers while
+shooting the Bridge. Rubens the painter was thrown into the water in the
+same way.
+
+One of the twenty arches formed a drawbridge which allowed vessels of
+larger size than barges to pass up the river and could be used to keep
+back an enemy. In this way Sir Thomas Wyatt in 1557 was kept out of
+London. Before this drawbridge stood a tower on the battlements of which
+were placed the heads of traitors and criminals. The heads of Sir
+William Wallace, Jack Cade, Sir Thomas More and many others were stuck
+up here. On the Southwark side was another tower.
+
+The Bridge, which was the pride and boast of London, was endowed with
+lands for its maintenance: the rents of the houses were also collected
+for the same purpose: a toll was imposed on all merchandise carried
+across, and a Brotherhood was formed, called the Brothers of St. Thomas
+on the Bridge, whose duty it was to perform service in the chapel and to
+keep the Bridge in repair.
+
+Repairs were always wanting: to keep some of the force of the water off
+the piers these were furnished with 'starlings,' i.e. at first piles
+driven down in front of the piers, afterwards turned into projecting
+buttresses of stone. Then corn mills were built in some of the openings,
+and in the year 1582 great waterworks were constructed at the southern
+end. The tower before the drawbridge was by Queen Elizabeth rebuilt and
+made a very splendid house--called Nonesuch House. The Fire destroyed
+the houses on the Bridge, some of which were not rebuilt: and in the
+year 1757 all the houses were removed from the Bridge.
+
+The New Bridge was finished and opened in 1831--it stands 180 feet west
+of its predecessor. Then the Old Bridge was pulled down. The work of
+Peter Colechurch lasted from 1209 to 1831 or 622 years. The Pontife
+Brothers, therefore, knew how to put in good and lasting work.
+
+This is the history of London Bridge. First a narrow wooden gangway of
+beams lying on timber piles with a fortified gate; then a stone
+structure of twenty irregular arches, the Bridge broad but the roadway
+still narrow with houses on either side and a fortress and a chapel upon
+it--in those times there was always a fortress, and there was always a
+chapel. It must have been a pleasant place of residence: the air fresh
+and clear: the supply of water unlimited--one drew it up in a bucket:
+always something going on: the entrance of a foreign ambassador, a
+religious procession, a riding of the Lord Mayor, a pageant, a nobleman
+with his livery, a Bishop or a Prior with his servants, a pilgrimage, a
+string of pack horses out of Kent bringing fruit for the City: always
+something to see. Then there were the stories and traditions of the
+place, with the songs which the children sang about the Bridge.
+Especially there was the story of Edward Osborne. He was the son of one
+Richard Osborne, a gentleman of Kent. Like many sons of the poor country
+gentlemen, he was sent up to London and apprenticed to Sir William
+Hewitt a cloth worker who lived on London Bridge. His master had a
+daughter named Anne, a little girl who one day, while playing with her
+nurse at an open window overhanging the river, fell out into the rushing
+water sixty feet below. The apprentice, young Osborne, leaped into the
+river after her and succeeded in saving her. When the girl was grown up
+her father gave her to his ex-apprentice, Edward Osborne, to wife.
+Edward Osborne became Lord Mayor. His descendant is now Duke of Leeds.
+So that the Dukedom of Leeds sprang from that gallant leap out of the
+window overhanging the river Thames from London Bridge.
+
+
+
+
+17. THE TOWER OF LONDON.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+In an age when every noble's house was a castle, and when every castle
+was erected in order to dominate, as well as to defend, the town and the
+district in which it stood, the Tower of London was erected. The builder
+of the White Tower was William the Conqueror, who gave the City its
+Charter but had no intention of giving up his own sovereignty; the
+architect, as has been already said, was one Gundulph, Bishop of
+Rochester. Part of the City wall was pulled down to make room for it,
+and it was intended at once for the King's Palace, the King's Castle,
+and the King's Prison. It was also the key of London--who held the
+Tower, held the City.
+
+William Rufus built a wall round the Tower so as to separate it entirely
+from the City and to prevent the danger of a hasty rising of the
+people: with the same object he gave it a water gate.
+
+A hundred years later, while Richard Coeur de Lion was on his Crusade,
+the moat was constructed. Henry III. and his son Edward I. added to the
+outer walls and strengthened them.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER OF LONDON.]
+
+There is a plan of the Tower made from a survey of the year 1597 and
+published by the Society of Antiquaries. A study of the plan should be
+made before visiting the place. Remark first of all that the fortress
+has three entrances only: one at the S.W. angle to the City; one to the
+river now called Traitors' Gate; and one on the S.E. angle called the
+Irongate: that it is surrounded by a broad and deep moat which could be
+filled at every high tide: that from the moat rises a battlemented wall,
+and that within this first wall is another, flanked with protecting
+towers; that the City entrance is most jealously guarded by a strong
+gate first: then by a narrow way passing under a tower: then over a
+bridge. In all mediaeval castles the first thought was to make it
+impossible to carry the place by a rush. If we would restore the Tower
+of Queen Elizabeth to the Tower of Edward III. we must abolish all those
+buildings which stand on the north and east sides, with those called
+'Lieutenants' Lodgings' on the south. The space on the north side of the
+Keep was the exercising ground: stables there must have been somewhere
+in this great area; the men at arms would live in the smaller towers. If
+you will study this plan carefully, you will understand the general
+arrangement of a mediaeval castle.
+
+In the sixteenth century the place was no longer regarded as a fortress
+for the defence or the domination of the City. But the old forms were
+kept up: nobody was admitted who carried arms: the guard kept the gate:
+a garrison was maintained. Within, there was an armoury, the beginning
+of the splendid collection which is now shown: there was a Mint for the
+coining of money: there were collections of tapestry, saddles, bed
+furniture and robes belonging to the Crown: here were kept the Crown and
+sceptre and insignia: here was the Royal menagerie. Here were the rooms
+reserved for state criminals. It was no longer the Royal Palace but the
+sovereign sometimes occupied the Tower. James the First was here, for
+instance, in 1604.
+
+Near the outer gate where is now the Refreshment Room were kept the
+King's lions. Henry I. began this menagerie which was continued until
+the year 1834. At the entrance of the fortress is the Bell Tower where
+Queen Elizabeth was once confined. The Water Gate called Traitors' Gate
+is under St. Thomas's Tower. The Beauchamp Tower has been the prison of,
+among others, Queen Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane Grey. In the Great White
+Tower Richard II. abdicated in favour of Henry IV. In the vaults are
+dungeons, once the prison of Guy Fawkes. In the Chapel the newly made
+Knights of the Bath watched their armour all night long. The collection
+of arms contains examples of weapons and armour of every age. In the
+Church of St. Peter ad Vincula you will find the graves of the
+unfortunate Princes, Queens, and nobles who have been executed for State
+offences. Nothing, except the Royal tombs of Westminster, so much helps
+to prove the reality of History, as this collection of graves and slabs
+and tablets in this little church. And here were kept the Crown jewels
+about which many a chapter might be written.
+
+But to study the Tower of London one must visit it with the History of
+England in hand. Hither were brought all the State prisoners: here they
+were confined: here they were executed. Every tower, every stone reminds
+one of sufferers and criminals and traitors and innocent victims. Do
+not, however, forget that this Tower was built for the restriction of
+the liberties of the people. That purpose has been defeated. The
+liberties have grown beyond what could ever have been hoped while the
+privileges of the Crown, which this Tower was built to protect and to
+enlarge, have been restricted beyond the greatest fears of the mediaeval
+kings.
+
+
+
+
+18. THE TOWER OF LONDON.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Of all the prisoners who suffered death at the termination of their
+captivity in the Tower, there is none whose fate was so cruel as that of
+Lady Jane Grey. Her story belongs to English history. Recall, when next
+you visit the Tower, the short and tragic life of this young Queen of a
+nine days' reign.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+She was not yet eighteen when she was beheaded, not through any fault of
+her own, but solely because her relationship to the Crown placed her in
+the hands of men who used her for their own political purposes. She was
+the second cousin of Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Her grandmother
+was the sister of Henry VIII., widow of Louis XII. of France, and wife
+of Charles, Duke of Suffolk. The young King on his deathbed was
+persuaded to name her as his successor. She was sixteen years of age:
+she was already married to Lord Guilford Dudley, son of the Duke of
+Northumberland: when she was proclaimed Queen. Nine days after the
+proclamation she was a prisoner. On the 8th of July she was
+acknowledged Queen by the Lord Mayor and Aldermen: on the 10th she was
+taken by water from Greenwich to the Tower, and proclaimed Queen in the
+City: on the 17th another proclamation was made of Queen Mary, and her
+reign was over. But the Tower she was never more to leave.
+
+On the 13th of November--after five months of suspense--she was tried
+for high treason with Cranmer, her husband Lord Guilford, and her
+husband's brother, Lord Ambrose. They were all four found guilty, and
+condemned to death--their judges being the very men who had sworn
+allegiance to her as Queen. It would seem that Mary had no desire to
+carry out the sentence: Cranmer she reserved for a more cruel death than
+that of beheading--he was to be burned as a heretic. The other three,
+two boys and a girl, it would be dangerous to execute on account of the
+popular sympathy their death would awaken. They were therefore sent back
+to the Tower. Probably it was intended that Lady Jane, at least, should
+pass the rest of her life in honourable captivity, as happened later on
+to Arabella Stuart. But the rebellion of Wyatt showed that her name
+could still be used as a cry in favour of a Protestant succession. It
+was therefore resolved to put both husband and wife to death. What
+further harm the young Lord Guilford Dudley could do is not apparent.
+Even then the Queen's advisers shrank from exhibiting on Tower Hill the
+spectacle of a young and beautiful girl, taken forth to be beheaded
+because certain hot-headed partizans had used her name. She was executed
+therefore within the verge of the Tower itself, on the so-called
+'Green.'
+
+'The Green' is a place where no grass will grow--it used to be said--on
+account of the blood that had been shed upon it. Among the sufferers
+here was Hastings, executed by order of King Richard: Anne Boleyn:
+Katharine Howard: and Lady Jane Grey. A stone marks the spot on which
+the scaffold was set up.
+
+It was on the morning of the 12th of February that Lady Jane Grey was
+put to death. She was then confined in the 'Brick' Tower, the residence
+of the Master of the Ordnance. From her window she saw the headless body
+of her husband brought back from Tower Hill in a cart. She looked upon
+it without shrinking. 'Oh! Guilford,' she said, 'the antipast is not so
+bitter after thou hast tasted, and which I shall soon taste, as to make
+my flesh tremble: it is nothing compared to the feast of which we shall
+partake this day in Heaven.' So she went forth with her two gentlewomen,
+Elizabeth Tylney and Mistress Helen, but she shed no tears. When she was
+on the scaffold she spoke to the officers of the Tower and the soldiers
+that stood around. No man or woman, however wise and dignified, could
+speak more clearly and with greater dignity than this girl of sixteen.
+They had been trying to make her a Catholic. Therefore, she made
+confession of the Protestant Faith: 'Good Christian people, bear witness
+that I die a true Christian woman and that I do look to be saved by no
+other means but only by the mercy of God, in the blood of his only son,
+Jesus Christ.'
+
+So she made her gentlewomen bare her neck and bind her eyes and kneeling
+down laid her head upon the block, and while she was saying, 'Lord, into
+Thy hands I commend my spirit,' the axe fell and she was dead.
+
+She lies buried before the altar of St. Peter's Church, near the bodies
+of the Queens Anne Boleyn and Katharine Howard.
+
+So she died, this poor innocent child of whom all we know is that she
+was so scholarly that she could read Greek in the original: that she
+was beautiful: of a grave and sweet disposition: and raised far above
+the voice of calumny. She had, says Foxe, 'the innocency of childhood,
+the beauty of youth, the gravity of age: she had the birth of a
+princess, the learning of a clerk, the life of a saint, and the death of
+a malefactor for her parents' offences.'
+
+[Illustration: A BED IN THE REIGN OF HENRY III.]
+
+
+
+
+19. THE PILGRIMS.
+
+
+In the time when the road connecting village with village and town with
+town was but an uncertain bridle path through woods and over waste
+places, where in winter horse, man, and wayfarer struggled with bog and
+quagmire, where robbers lurked in the thickets, and fevers and agues
+haunted the marsh, where men went armed and every stranger was a foe: it
+would seem as if most men stayed where they were born and desired not to
+court the dangers of the unknown world. In many villages, especially in
+the remote places of the country, this was the case. The men of Somerset
+abode where they were born, speaking their own language, a race apart:
+the men of Norfolk abode in their county cut off from the rest of the
+world by fens in the west and sea on the north and east: their language
+was not understood by the men of the west or the south country. Had the
+other conditions of life allowed this isolation to continue
+undisturbed, the nation could never have been created: we should have
+remained a scattered collection of tribes speaking each its own language
+and developing its own customs.
+
+There were three causes which stirred the stagnant waters. The first was
+War. The Baron, or Feudal Lord, carried off the young men of the village
+to fight: those of them who returned had things to tell of the outside
+world. They fired the imagination and awakened the enterprise of the
+lads. The second was Trade at the trading ports: the lads saw, and
+continued to talk with, the foreign sailors--the Fleming, the German,
+the man of Rouen or Bordeaux: some of them went on board the ships of
+the merchant adventurers and sailed to foreign lands. Lastly, there were
+the Pilgrimages.
+
+From the tenth to the fifteenth century there was a rage for pilgrimage.
+Everybody wanted to become a pilgrim. No money was wanted: there would
+certainly be found every day some monastery at which bed and a supper
+would be provided for the pilgrim: it was a joyous company which fared
+along the road, some riding, some on foot, travelling together for
+safety, all bound to the same shrine where they would hear the masses
+and make their vows and so return, light-hearted: it was, in fact, the
+mediaeval way of taking a holiday. Sometimes it was to Canterbury, where
+was the shrine of Thomas Becket, that the pilgrims were bound: sometimes
+to Walsingham, where was the miraculous image of the Virgin: sometimes
+to Glastonbury, hallowed by the thorn miraculously flowering every year
+on Christmas Day, planted by Joseph of Arimathea himself: sometimes it
+was farther afield--to Compostella in Spain, Rome, or even
+Jerusalem--that the pilgrims proposed to go. Chaucer describes such a
+company all starting together, riding from London to Canterbury on
+pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas Becket. They are pilgrims, but there
+is very little piety in their discourse: one can see that, whatever the
+motive, whether for the expiation of sin, or any other cause, the
+journey is full of cheerfulness and enjoyment. The Crusades were one
+outcome of this passion for pilgrimage. Nay, the first Crusade itself
+was little better than a great pilgrimage of the common people, so
+ignorant that they asked at the sight of every walled town if that was
+Jerusalem. It was a pilgrimage from which few, indeed, returned.
+
+In England, the chief gain from pilgrimage was the bringing together of
+men from the different parts of the country. Remember that the men of
+the North could not understand the speech of the men of the South: a
+Norfolk rustic at the present day would hardly understand a man of
+Devon: there was always danger of forgetting that they all belonged to
+the same realm, the same nation, and the same race.
+
+But the love of pilgrimage spread so wide that it became a danger. The
+rustic left the plough: the blacksmith his anvil: the carpenter his
+bench: all left their wives and their children in order to tramp across
+the country on pilgrimage to some shrine. By day they marched together:
+at night they sat round the fire in the strangers' room of the
+monastery, and took their supper and slept on the reeds. A delightful
+change from the monotony and hard work of the village! But the Bishops
+interposed. Let no one go on pilgrimage without his Bishop's license.
+Let not the monasteries give a bed and supper to any pilgrim who could
+not show his Bishop's license. Then the rustics and the craftsmen had to
+remain at home where they have stayed, except when they went out to
+fight, ever since.
+
+When the pilgrim--especially the pilgrim who had been over the
+seas--came home, he was able to entertain his friends with stories he
+had seen all the rest of his life. Thus, the earliest plan of the Holy
+Sepulchre is one drawn by a pilgrim for the instruction of certain monks
+who entertained him. The pilgrims were the travellers of the time. They
+observed foreign manners and customs: they brought home seeds and told
+of strange food: they extended the boundaries of the world: they
+prevented the native village from becoming the whole world: they taught
+and encouraged men to cease from regarding a stranger as an enemy. The
+world was thus opened out by War, Trade, and Pilgrimage, but most of all
+by Pilgrimage.
+
+
+
+
+20. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL.
+
+
+The oldest of the City Hospitals is that great and splendid Foundation
+which stands in Smithfield--the Smooth Field. It was first founded by
+one Rahere, of whom we know little or nothing except that he lived in
+the reign of Henry I., and that he founded the Priory and Monastery of
+St. Bartholomew. In the church of St. Bartholomew the Great you may see
+a very beautiful tomb said to be his, but the work is of a later date.
+It is related that while on a pilgrimage to Rome he fell ill and was
+like to die. And he vowed that if he were restored to health he would
+erect and establish a hospital for poor sick people. He did recover and
+he fulfilled his vow. He built the Priory of St. Bartholomew, whose
+church still stands in part and beside it established his hospital. The
+place called Smithfield was then a swampy field used for a horse fair:
+it was also a place of execution without the City wall. At first the
+hospital was a very small place. It consisted probably of two large
+rooms or halls, one for men and one for women--with a chapel. If it had
+any endowment at all it must have been very small, because the Master or
+Hospitaller had to go every morning to the Shambles, Newgate, in order
+to beg meat for the maintenance of the sick. Two hundred years later the
+hospital was taken in hand by Edward IV. and provided with an
+establishment of Master, eight brethren, priests, and four sisters, who
+served the sick. They were all subject to the Rule of St. Austin. After
+the death of Whittington, the hospital buildings were repaired by his
+bequests. On the dissolution of the religious houses, the Priory and
+Hospital of Bartholomew fell with the rest, but five years later the
+hospital was refounded and endowed by the King and the City.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE HALL AT PENSHURST, KENT.
+
+(_Showing the screen with minstrels' gallery over it, and the brazier
+for fire in the middle; built about 1340._)]
+
+If you visit a hospital and are taken into a ward, you see a row of
+clean white beds arranged in orderly position on either side of the long
+room: the temperature is regulated: the ventilation is perfect: there
+are means by which the patient can be examined in private: the diseases
+are apportioned to separate wards: every thing is managed with the
+greatest cleanliness and order: if an operation is performed the patient
+is kept under chloroform and feels nothing. The physicians are men of
+the highest scientific reputation: the nurses are trained assistants:
+the food is the best that can be procured. The poorest man brought to
+the hospital is treated with the same care, the same science, the same
+luxuries as the richest.
+
+Look, however, at the hospital as founded by Rahere.
+
+There is a great hall with a chapel at one end: at which mass is daily
+sung. The room is narrow and lofty, lit by Norman windows, two or three
+on a side: there is a lanthorn in the roof: under the lanthorn a fire is
+burning every day, the smoke rising to the roof: the hall is dark and
+ill ventilated, the air foul and heavy with the breath of sixty or
+seventy sick men lying in beds arranged in rows along the wall. There
+are not separate beds for each patient, but as the sick are brought in
+they are laid together side by side, in the same bed, whatever the
+disease, so that he who suffers from fever is placed beside another who
+suffers from palsy. There are four in a bed, and in times of pressure
+even more. Sometimes one arrives who develops the plague, when the
+whole of the patients in the hospital catch the infection and all die
+together. The surgeons are especially skilled in the dressing of wounds
+received in battle or in fray: the sisters can tie up a broken limb and
+stop a bleeding wound. The brethren go about the beds administering the
+last offices of the Church to the dying. The food is scanty: the
+appliances are rude: there is small hope of recovery: yet to die in
+hospital tended and consoled instead of in the hut where life has been
+passed is something for which to be grateful.
+
+[Illustration: THE UPPER CHAMBER OR SOLAR AT SUTTON COURTENAY
+MANOR-HOUSE.
+
+(_Date, about 1350._)]
+
+Consider into how great, how noble a Foundation the little hospital of
+Rahere has grown. The modern hospital contains 676 beds: it receives
+about 150,000 patients every year, of whom 7,000 are inpatients, 18,000
+out patients, and 130,000 casuals. The eight brethren have become 30
+physicians and surgeons besides the assistants called clinical clerks
+and dressers. The four sisters are now 159 sisters and nurses. There is
+a noble school of medicine: there are museums, libraries, lecture rooms,
+and there is a residential college for medical students: there is a
+convalescent hospital in the country. No hospital in the world has a
+larger or a more noble record than this of St. Bartholomew. And it all
+sprang from the resolution of one man, who started a humble house for
+the reception of the sick in a poor and despised place outside the City
+wall, but near to the Shambles where one could beg for broken victuals
+and for the pieces of meat that the butchers could not sell. Thus out of
+one good deed, apparently of small importance, has grown a never-ending
+stream of refreshment and healing. It has lasted for 700 years already:
+there seems no reason why it should ever stop.
+
+
+
+
+21. THE TERROR OF LEPROSY.
+
+
+One mile outside the City walls, on the west, stood for four hundred
+years the Hospital of St. Giles in the Fields.
+
+Here was a Lazar House, i.e. a Hospital for Lepers. It was founded by
+Maud, Queen of Henry I. It was dedicated to St. Giles because this saint
+was considered the protector of cripples. Hence the name Cripplegate,
+which really means the Little Gate, was applied to the church of St.
+Giles, and supposed to mean the gate near the church dedicated to the
+Patron Saint of Cripples. A common result of leprosy was to make the
+sufferer lame and crippled. Hence the connection. Generally, however,
+Lazarus, whom our Lord raised from the dead, was esteemed the Saint of
+Lepers, whence a Leper's Hospital was always called a Lazar House.
+
+In the middle ages the mysterious disease called leprosy was an ever
+present terror. Other plagues appeared at intervals and disappeared.
+Leprosy remained. It never left the land. It struck the King on his
+Throne, the Bishop in his Cathedral, the Abbess in her Nunnery, the
+soldier in camp, the merchant in his counting house, the sailor at sea.
+No class could escape it. Robert Bruce died of it; Orivalle, Bishop of
+London, died of it; Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, died of it. To this day
+it prevails in India, at the Cape, in the Pacific Islands, while there
+are occasional cases found in our own hospitals. The disease was
+incurable: the man, woman, or child, attacked by it would surely and
+slowly die of it. The leper was unclean: he was thrust out of the town:
+he had to live apart, or congregated in hospitals with other wretches
+similarly afflicted: if he walked abroad he wore a grey gown for
+distinction and carried a clapper as he went along, crying 'Unclean,
+Unclean,' so that the people might stand aside and not so much as touch
+his garments. And since he could not work with his hands, he was
+permitted to carry into the market a 'clap dish,' that is to say, a bowl
+or basin in which to receive food and alms.[2]
+
+[2] Lacroix, _Science_, p. 146.
+
+Leprosy is supposed to have had its origin in Egypt: the laws laid down
+in the Book of Leviticus for the separation of lepers are stringent and
+precise: it was believed, partly, no doubt, on account of these statutes
+in the Book of the Jewish Law, that the disease was brought into Western
+Europe by the Crusaders; but this was erroneous, because it was in this
+country before the Crusaders. Thus the Palace of St. James stands upon
+the site of a lazar house founded before the Conquest for fourteen
+leprous maidens.
+
+This is not the place to describe the symptoms and the results of this
+dreadful disease. Suffice it to say that the skin thickens, is
+discoloured and ulcerates: that the limbs swell: that the fingers and
+toes drop off: that the voice sinks to a whisper: and that the
+sufferer's mind is weakened by his malady.
+
+The fearful scourge was so prevalent that there was not a town, hardly a
+village, in any country of Europe which had not, in those centuries, its
+lepers and its lazar house, great or small. Every effort was made to
+isolate them: they were not allowed to worship with the rest of the
+people: they were provided with a separate building or chapel where,
+through a hole in the wall, they could look on at the performance of
+mass. And in addition, as you have seen, they lived apart and took their
+food apart.
+
+As for their houses--the lazar houses--the chief of them all, the place
+where Abbot possessed some kind of authority over the others, was one
+built in a village near Melton Mowbray called Burton Lazars. The
+Hospital of St. Giles, for instance, became shortly after its foundation
+a 'cell,' or dependency, of this House.
+
+Whatever the cause of this malady, whether it be contagious, i.e.
+communicated by touch; or infectious, that is, communicated by breathing
+the same air; or hereditary; it is quite certain that it was greatly
+aggravated by the habits of the time. Bad food, uncleanly habits, bad
+air, all contributed to the spread of leprosy. Especially it has been
+considered that the long fasts during which meat was prohibited
+encouraged the disease: not because abstinence from meat is in itself a
+bad thing, but because the people had to eat fish imperfectly cured or
+kept too long, and unwholesome. Fresh-water fish could not be procured
+in sufficient quantities and it was impossible to convey fish from the
+sea more than a certain distance inland.
+
+[Illustration: THE LEPERS BEGGING.]
+
+The dreadful appearance of the lepers, their horrible sufferings,
+produced loathing more than pity. People were horror stricken at the
+sight of them: they drove them out of their sight: they punished them
+cruelly if they broke the rules of separation: they imprisoned any
+citizen who should harbour a leper: they kept bailiffs at the City gates
+to keep them from entering. Fourteen of these afflicted persons were
+required to be maintained in accordance with Queen Maud's Foundation by
+the Hospital of St. Giles: there was also a lazar house in the Old Kent
+Road, Southwark: one between Mile End and Bow: one at Kingsland between
+Shoreditch and Stoke Newington: one at Knightsbridge, west of Charing
+Cross, and one at Holloway.
+
+On the Dissolution of the Monasteries, all these lazar houses were
+suppressed. Now, since we hear very little more about lepers, and since
+no new lazar houses were built, and since the prohibitions to enter
+churches, towns, &c., are no more renewed, it is tolerably certain that
+leprosy by the middle of the sixteenth century had practically
+disappeared. The above will show, however, how great and terrible a
+thing it was between the ninth and the sixteenth centuries.
+
+
+
+
+22. THE TERROR OF FAMINE.
+
+
+Suppose that all the ocean traffic were stopped; that there was no
+communication, or exchange of commodities, between our country and
+another; suppose that the people of this island depended entirely on
+their own harvests and their own cattle for their support. You would
+then easily understand how a single bad year might produce scarcity of
+food, and a very bad year might produce a famine. That was our condition
+down to the fifteenth century. Some corn may have been brought over from
+Prussia or from Hamburg; but there was no regular supply; the country
+depended on its own harvests. Therefore, the fear of a famine--or of
+scarcity--was ever present to the people.
+
+Many of these famines are on record. In the year 990 a famine raged over
+the whole of England; in 1126 there was a terrible scarcity. Wheat was
+sold at 6_s._ a horseload. Now, in the twelfth century a shilling meant
+more than a pound of our money, in purchasing power. It is not stated
+how much constituted a horseload. It would probably mean the filling of
+the two baskets hanging on either side of the packhorse. In 1257, after
+a wet season and a bad harvest, wheat rose to 24_s._ a quarter, a price
+which prohibited all but the richest from eating wheaten bread. It is
+said that 20,000 perished of starvation. In 1316, after the same cause,
+wheat became so scarce that its price rose to 4_l._ a quarter. So great
+was the distress this year, that great nobles had to dismiss their
+retainers; the roads in the country were crowded with robbers. Robberies
+were openly committed in the streets for the sake of food: in the
+prisons the unfortunate criminals, left to starve, murdered and devoured
+each other. The people ate carrion and dead dogs. In 1335 there was
+another time of scarcity and suffering; in 1439, the distress was so
+great that the people made bread of fern roots and ivy berries. Then,
+for the first time, we read of the famine being assuaged by the arrival
+of rye from Prussia. In 1527 a threatened famine was checked by the
+Hanseatic merchants who gave, or sold, a hundred quarters of wheat to
+the City and sent three ships to Dantzig for more. In 1593 and in 1597
+wheat rose to an enormous price. The last time of scarcity was during
+the long war with France, which lasted, from 1792 to 1815, nearly a
+quarter of a century. We were then compelled to depend almost entirely
+upon our own harvests. Wheat went up as high as 103_s._ a quarter.
+
+At no time did the poorer classes depend much upon wheat. Rye and oats
+made the bread of the working people. But bad harvests affected rye and
+oats as much as wheat.
+
+The famine prices of wheat may be explained by the following facts. In
+the reign of Henry I., at ordinary prices, bread enough for one meal for
+100 men could be bought for a shilling and a whole sheep cost fourpence.
+In the next century, when wheat was at 6_s._ a quarter, a farthing loaf
+was to weigh 24 oz. whole meal and 16 oz. white. When it was at 1_s._
+6_d._ a quarter the farthing loaf was to weigh 96 oz. whole grain and 64
+oz. white. The quartern loaf of 4 lb. or 64 oz. now costs 5_d._, wheat
+being very cheap. So that prices in time of plenty being supposed the
+same, money was worth twenty times in that century as much as it is
+worth now. In the reign of Edward I. wheat went down to 1_s._ a quarter.
+
+The food of the craftsmen in London was, in ordinary times, plentiful
+and cheap. The City, as we have seen, was always remarkable for the
+great abundance of provision which was brought there. And there is every
+reason to believe that while the rustic fared poorly and was underfed,
+the craftsman of the towns always enjoyed good food and enough of it.
+This made a time of scarcity hard to bear for one who habitually lived
+well.
+
+Once or twice an attempt was made to provide the City with granaries in
+case of famine. Thus the origin of Leadenhall, the great City market,
+was the erecting of a public granary here by Sir Simon Eyre in 1419.
+Attached to the Hall, after the manner of the time, was a chapel
+dedicated to the Holy Trinity, which the founder endowed for 60 priests
+who were to prepare service every day for those who frequented the
+market.
+
+Another public granary was established in 1610 at Bridewell Palace. This
+was built to contain 6,000 quarters of wheat.
+
+Nothing more is heard about these public granaries. Probably the public
+mind grew more assured on the subject of famine as it became better
+understood that the loss of one country might be made up from the
+superfluous harvests of another. The lesson taught by the Hanseatic
+merchants in sending to Prussia for corn was not likely to be lost.
+
+At the present moment, with means of transport always in readiness and
+the electric wire joining the most distant countries, it might seem that
+famine was a thing no longer to be feared. There cannot be bad harvests
+all over the world. Not only can we every year import so much wheat that
+we need grow little in this country, but we import frozen meat in vast
+quantities: we bring fruit of all kinds from the most distant countries,
+insomuch that there are some fruits, such as apples, oranges, grapes,
+bananas, which we can enjoy the whole year round. But famine may yet
+play a great and a disastrous part in our history. We must not forget
+that we enjoy our present abundance of all things on one of two
+conditions; first, that we are strong enough to protect the waterway and
+keep it open, or, secondly, that we remain at peace. The latter we
+cannot hope to do always. Therefore it is of vital importance that we
+maintain a strong fleet, well equipped, ready to fight, at all times and
+at the shortest notice, superior to any likely combination that may be
+brought against us. Therefore, again, it behoves every man in these
+Isles to be jealous of the fleet, for a time may come when the way of
+the ocean may be closed and when Great Britain, through the neglect of
+her rulers, may be starved into a shameful and ruinous surrender.
+
+
+
+
+23. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+When London was converted to Christianity, in the year 610, the first
+Bishop of London, Mellitus, built a church on the highest ground within
+the walls of the City. This church he dedicated to St. Paul the Apostle
+who first preached to the Gentiles. What kind of church this
+was--whether great or small--whether of wood or of stone--how often
+rebuilt or repaired--we know not. Probably it was quite a small church
+at first. This church, or its successor, was taken down in the year 1087
+when Bishop Maurice began to build a new and far more stately Cathedral.
+Fifty years later most of the church, not yet completed, was burned
+down. Its building, thus delayed, was continued for nearly two
+centuries. The steeple was not completed, for instance, till a hundred
+and fifty years after the commencement of the building. The drawing
+shows the church as it was in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
+Old St. Paul's was one of the largest churches in Europe: its length was
+at least 600 feet; the spire reached the height of 460 feet. The church
+stood in a large walled enclosure, still kept partly open, though the
+wall has long since been pulled down and there have been encroachments
+on the north side.
+
+[Illustration: LONDON BEFORE THE SPIRE OF ST. PAUL'S WAS BURNED: SHOWING
+ALSO THE BRIDGE, THE TOWER, SHIPPING, ETC.]
+
+The church in the fourteenth century was not regarded only as a place
+for public worship. Masses and services of all kinds were going on all
+day long: the place was bright, not only with the sunlight streaming
+through the painted glass, but with wax tapers burning before many a
+shrine--at some, all day and all night. People came to the church to
+walk about, for rest, for conversation, for the transaction of
+business--to make or receive payments: to hire servants. The middle
+aisle of the church where all this was done was called Paul's Walk or
+Duke Humphrey's Walk. Here were tables where twelve licensed scribes sat
+writing letters for those who wanted their services. They would also
+prepare a lease, a deed, a conveyance--any legal document. The church
+was filled with tombs and monuments, some of these very ancient, some of
+the greatest interest. Here was one called the tomb of Duke
+Humphrey--Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, who was really buried at St.
+Alban's. On May Day the watermen used to come to St. Paul's in order to
+sprinkle water and strew herbs upon this tomb--I know not why. Those who
+were out of work and went dinnerless were said to dine with Duke
+Humphrey: and there was a proverb--'Trash and trumpery is the way to
+Duke Humphrey.' Trumpery being used in its original
+meaning--_tromperie_--_deceit_. Among other tombs there were those of
+the Saxon Kings Sebbi and Ethelred. The first of these was King of the
+East Saxons. He was converted by Bishop Erkenwald. The second was the
+elder brother of King Alfred. There were tombs or shrines to many saints
+now forgotten--that of St. Erkenwald, whose fame rivalled that of Edward
+the Confessor at Westminster, St. Cuthbert at Durham, and St. Thomas a
+Becket at Canterbury: that of St. Ethelbert: that of St. Roger, Bishop
+of London--a cope which St. Roger wore is still preserved in the
+Sacristy: and that of St. Wilford. At every one of these shrines
+miracles were wrought--or believed to be wrought. There was also a
+miraculous crucifix said to have been discovered by Lucius, the first
+Christian King of ancient Britain in the year 140. Great gifts were
+constantly made to this crucifix.
+
+Under the Cathedral, in the crypt, was a parish church--that of St.
+Faith's--it is now united with the parish church of St. Augustine's in
+Watling Street.
+
+[Illustration: OLD ST. PAUL'S, FROM THE EAST.
+
+(_Showing its condition just before the Great Fire; from an engraving by
+Hollar._)]
+
+Outside the church, almost against the south wall, was the parish church
+of St. Gregory. In the same way the parish church of St. Margaret's
+stands outside Westminster Abbey. Within, we can see, in imagination,
+the people walking about--they have not yet begun to stand bareheaded in
+church--some dictating to the scribes: some leaning against the tombs:
+some sitting on the bases of the great round pillars--there were no
+pews, benches, or chairs in the Cathedral: the chantry priests are
+saying masses in the chapels: the people are kneeling before the golden
+shrine of St. Erkenwald, resplendent with lights, jewels, gold, and
+silver: women lay their offerings before the miraculous crucifix praying
+for the restoration to health of son or husband: a wedding is celebrated
+in one chapel: a funeral mass is being said in another: servants gather
+about a certain pillar waiting to be hired: porters carrying baskets on
+their heads enter at the north door and tramp through, going out of the
+south: processions of priests and choir pass up and down the aisles: the
+organ peals and echoes along the long and lofty roof. See; here comes a
+troop of men. They carry instruments of music: they are dressed in a
+livery, a cloak of green: they march together entering at the western
+doors and tramping through the whole length of the church to the chapel
+of Our Lady in the East. This is the Guild of the Minstrels. There were
+many other guilds attached to the Cathedral. You shall learn presently
+what was the meaning of these guilds.
+
+
+
+
+24. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Such was Paul's in the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth the
+Reformation came. The candles were all put out; the shrines were
+destroyed; the altars were taken out of the chapels: the miraculous
+images were taken away: the church, compared with its previous
+condition, became a shell. The choir was walled off for public worship:
+the rest of the church became a place of public resort: the poets of the
+time are full of allusions to Paul's Walk. It was a common thoroughfare
+even for men leading pack horses and asses. The Cathedral, left to
+neglect, began to fall into a ruinous condition. An attempt was made at
+restoration: funds were collected, but they came in slowly. Laud, who
+became Bishop of London in 1631, gave an impetus to the work: the
+celebrated Inigo Jones was appointed architect: in order to prevent the
+church from being turned into an Exchange, he built a West Porch, which
+is shown in some of the pictures of St. Paul's. In the time of the
+Commonwealth this portico was let off in shops and stalls: the nave of
+the church actually became a cavalry barrack.
+
+[Illustration: OLD ST. PAUL'S ON FIRE.
+
+(_From Longman's 'A History of the Three Cathedrals of St. Paul's.'_)]
+
+When King Charles returned it was resolved to repair and restore the
+cathedral, by this time almost in ruins: but while the citizens were
+considering what should be done, the Great Fire of London settled the
+question by burning down all that was left.
+
+Then Christopher Wren began the present building. The first stone was
+laid on June 21, 1675, nine years after the Fire. Divine service was
+performed on December 2, 1697, the day of thanksgiving for the Peace of
+Ryswick. The work was completed in 1710, thirty-five years after its
+commencement. The present church is 100 feet shorter than its
+predecessor: its dome is also 100 feet lower than the former spire. The
+grandeur of the building cannot be appreciated by any near view, because
+the houses block it in on all sides, and the former view from the bottom
+of Ludgate Hill is now spoiled by the railway bridge. Those who wish to
+see what St. Paul's really is--how splendid a church it is--how grandly
+it stands above the whole City--must cross the river and look at it from
+Bankside, Southwark.
+
+The dome is three fold: it consists of an outer casing of wood covered
+with lead: a cone of bricks which supports the lantern and cross: and an
+inner cupola of brick which supports nothing. The towers at the west end
+are 222 feet in height.
+
+St. Paul's, especially since the crowding at Westminster Abbey, is
+becoming the National Burial Church. It is already well filled with
+monuments of British worthies and heroes of this and the last century.
+Of men distinguished in Literature, Art, and Science, there are buried
+here Dr. Johnson, Hallam the historian, Sir Joshua Reynolds the painter,
+Turner the painter, Rennie the engineer who built Waterloo Bridge, Sir
+William Jones, the great Oriental scholar, and Sir Astley Cooper, the
+great surgeon. There is also buried here, as he should be, Sir
+Christopher Wren himself. But those who visit the Cathedral desire most
+to see the tombs of Wellington and Nelson. The remains of the former lie
+in a great sarcophagus worked out of a single piece of Cornish porphyry.
+Those of the Admiral were placed first in a coffin made from the main
+mast of the French ship _Orient_, taken at the Battle of the Nile.
+This was deposited in a sarcophagus made by Cardinal Wolsey and intended
+for the burial of King Henry the Eighth. In the Cathedral, too, you will
+find the monuments of those splendid fighting men, Lord Collingwood,
+Nelson's friend: Howe and Rodney: Earl St. Vincent, who won the battle
+of Cape St. Vincent: Lord Duncan of Camperdown, and many others.
+
+[Illustration: WEST FRONT OF ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
+
+(_Built by Sir Christopher Wren._)]
+
+In the crypt you will find, if you look for it, the brass tablet which
+marks the spot where lie the remains of a man whose history should be an
+encouragement to every boy who reads this book. His name was Edward
+Palmer. Born without family influence, plainly educated at the grammar
+school of his town, he taught himself in the teeth of all
+difficulties--that of bad health especially--Arabic, Persian, and all
+the languages which belong to that group: at the age of twenty-four he
+was so splendid an Oriental scholar that the greatest Orientalist at
+Cambridge declared that he could teach him nothing. He was elected to a
+Fellowship at St. John's College and became the Lord Almoner's Professor
+of Arabic. He mastered, in addition to his Oriental studies, all the
+European languages except Russian and the Slavonic group. He explored
+the Desert of the Exodus and the Peninsula of Sinai. He did a great deal
+of literary work. But he was not buried in St. Paul's Cathedral for
+these studies. In the year 1882, when the Egyptian War broke out, he was
+sent on a secret mission to the tribes of the Desert. He knew them all:
+he could talk their language as well as his own: he was the equal of any
+one in his knowledge of Arabic poetry and his power of telling stories:
+they welcomed him with open arms: the service that he rendered to his
+country for which he was honoured with a funeral at St. Paul's, was that
+he prevented these tribes from destroying the Suez Canal. He succeeded
+in reaching the British camp at Suez in safety, his task accomplished,
+the safety of the Canal assured. He was murdered in return by a party of
+Egyptian Arabs sent from Cairo. His bones were recovered by Sir Charles
+Warren--who further tracked down and hanged every man connected with the
+murder. The road to possible greatness lies open to all, but the way
+leads through a difficult and thorny way only to be passed, as Palmer
+found, by resolution invincible and by long patient industry.
+
+
+
+
+25. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD.
+
+
+St. Paul's Cathedral stood in the centre of an oval-shaped enclosure
+very much like the present St. Paul's Churchyard, save that the houses
+now in the north are an encroachment. This open space was surrounded by
+a wall, in which were six gates embattled. The first was the Great
+Western Gate, facing Ludgate Hill: the second in Paul's Alley in
+Paternoster Row: the third at Canon Alley: the fourth, or Little Gate,
+where is now the entrance into Cheapside: the fifth, St. Augustine's
+Gate, Watling Street: the sixth at Paul's Chain.
+
+[Illustration: PAUL'S CROSS.]
+
+Walking round this enclosure we come first upon the Bishop's Palace,
+standing on the north side of the Nave. The Palace was provided with a
+private entrance into the Cathedral. Beyond the Palace was a very
+beautiful cloister called Pardon Church Haugh. In this cloister stood a
+chapel built by Gilbert, father of Thomas a Becket. Many monuments and
+tombs of great persons stood within this cloister, which was also
+remarkable for its 'Dances of Death.' This was a series of paintings
+representing Death as a skeleton armed with a dart, leading by the hand
+men and women of every degree, from the highest to the lowest. There
+were formerly many examples of such dances. Next to the cloister was
+the library, the catalogue of which still exists to show what a
+scholar's collection of books then meant. Next to the library stood the
+College of the Minor Canons: then came Charnel Chapel, beneath which was
+a crypt filled with human bones taken from the churchyard. Remember that
+this has been a burial place ever since the year 610, when a church was
+first built here. From the year 610 till the year 1840, or for a period
+of 1,200 years, new graves were continually made in this ground. Who can
+guess how many thousands lie buried here? Every handful of the dust is a
+handful of human remains. From time to time, however, the bones were
+collected and placed in this crypt of Charnel Chapel. The chapel itself
+was apparently a large building, for when it was pulled down the
+materials were used by the Duke of Somerset at the Reformation in
+building Somerset House in the Strand. There are yet standing some
+portions of the original house, so that the stones of Charnel Chapel may
+still be seen. As for the crypt, they carried away the bones, which made
+a thousand cartloads, and laid them over Finsbury Fields, covering them
+with ground, on which were erected three windmills. The site is marked
+by the street called Windmill Street.
+
+Next to Charnel Chapel stood the famous Paul's Cross.
+
+This famous place was a Pulpit Cross, from which sermons might be
+preached in the open air. Several London churches had their open-air
+pulpits: notably St. Michael's, Cornhill; St. Mary's Spital, without
+Bishopsgate--at this Cross a sermon was preached every Easter to the
+Lord Mayor and aldermen. When Paul's Cross was erected is not known: it
+probably stood on the site of some scaffold or steps, from which the
+people were anciently harangued, for this was the place of the
+folk-mote, or meeting of the people. Here were read aloud, and
+proclaimed, the King's Laws and Orders: here the people were informed of
+War and Peace: here Papal Bulls were read. There was a cross standing
+here in the year 1256--very likely it was already ancient. In the year
+1387 it was ruinous and had to be repaired. It was again repaired or
+rebuilt in 1480. Paul's Cross played a very important part in the
+Reformation. Here the 'Rood' of Bexley, which was a crucifix where the
+eyes and lips were made to move and the people were taught that it was
+miraculous, was exposed and broken to pieces: here the famous images of
+Walsingham and Ipswich, the object of so many pilgrimages, were brought
+to be broken to pieces before the eyes of the people. Here Latimer
+preached, a man of the people who could speak to them in a way to make
+them understand. Had it not been for the preaching of Latimer and others
+like him in plain language, the Reformation would have been an attempt,
+and probably a failure, to enforce upon the people the opinions of
+certain scholars. Paul's Cross did not perish in the Fire: it was taken
+down in the year 1643, or thereabouts, in order to be rebuilt; but this
+was not done, and when the Fire destroyed the Cathedral Paul's Cross was
+forgotten. Its site may be seen in the churchyard at the N.E. corner of
+the choir, marked by a flat stone, but it must be remembered that the
+old church was wider but farther south.
+
+On the south side of Paul's Churchyard we pass in succession the
+beautiful Chapter House: the Church of St. Gregory and the Deanery.
+Close to the western gate are residences for the Canons, south of the
+enclosure are the Cathedral Brewhouse and Bakehouse.
+
+Such are some of the buildings in Paul's Churchyard. The Cathedral
+establishment supported a great army of priests and people. For many of
+them, perhaps for most, there were residences of some kind either within
+the enclosure or close beside it. Thus the priests, including Bishop,
+Dean, Archdeacons and Canons, a hundred and thirty in number: then there
+were the inferior officers: yet persons of consideration and authority,
+such as Sacrist, Almoner, Bookbinder, Chief Brewer, Chief Baker, with
+all their servants: scribes, messengers, bookbinders, illuminators and
+copyists: singing-men and choir boys, and women to keep the church
+clean. When we add that the Brewer had to provide 200 gallons of beer a
+day, it is obvious that there must have been a good many people
+belonging to the Cathedral who lived in the enclosure called the
+Churchyard.
+
+
+
+
+26. THE RELIGIOUS HOUSES.
+
+
+If we take a map of London in the fourteenth century and lay down upon
+it all the monasteries and religious Houses that then existed we shall
+find twenty, all rich and splendid Foundations, without counting those
+of Westminster and the villages within a few miles of London Stone.
+These were built for the most part either just within or just without
+the City wall. The reason was that the City was less densely populated
+near the wall than lower down along the river-side. Every one of these
+Societies was possessed of estates in the country and streets and houses
+in the City. Every one then retained, besides the monks or friars and
+nuns, a whole army of officers and servants. A great monastery provided
+employment for a very large number of people. In every separate estate
+which belonged to it, the monastery wanted tenant farmers, foresters and
+hunters, labourers, stewards and bailiffs, a curate or vicar in charge
+of the church and all the officers who are required for the management
+of an estate. For the House itself there were wanted first, the service
+of the chapel, apart from the singing which was done by the brethren:
+the school: the library: lawyers and clerks to administer the estates
+and guard the rights and privileges of the House: the brewhouse,
+bakehouse, kitchen, cellar, stables, with all the officers and servants
+required in a place where everything was made in the house; the
+architects, surveyors, carpenters and people wanted to maintain the
+buildings. It is not too much to reckon that a fourth part of the
+population of London belonged in some way or other to the monasteries,
+while these Houses were certainly the best customers for the wines,
+silks and spices which were brought to the quays of Queenhithe and
+Billingsgate.
+
+[Illustration: BERMONDSEY ABBEY.]
+
+It is generally believed that the monasteries, besides relieving the
+sick and poor and teaching the boys and girls, threw open their doors
+readily to any poor lad who desired to take the vows of the Order.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF GATEWAY OF BERMONDSEY ABBEY.]
+
+All this is a misconception: there were the same difficulties about
+relieving the poor as there are with us at the present moment. That is
+to say, indiscriminate charity then, as now, turned honest working men
+into paupers. This the monks and friars understood very well. They were
+therefore careful about their charities. Also in many Houses the school
+was allowed to drop into disuse. And as regards the admission of poor
+boys it was done only in cases where a boy showed himself quick and
+studious. It has been the glory of the Church in all ages that she has
+refused to recognise any barrier of birth: but she has also been careful
+to preserve her distinctions for those who deserve them. Most of the
+brethren in a rich Foundation were of gentle birth and good family. If a
+poor boy asked to join a monastery he was lucky if he was allowed to
+become one of its servants and to wear its livery. Then his livelihood
+was assured. There is every reason to believe that the rule of the
+brethren, strict for themselves, was light and easy for their servants.
+You may find out for yourselves where the London monasteries were, by
+the names of streets now standing on their sites. Thus, following the
+line of the wall from the Tower north and west you find St. Katharine's
+Dock where stood St. Katharine's Hospital: the Minories marks the House
+of the Minorites or Sisters of St. Clare; Great St. Helens is on the
+site of St. Helen's Nunnery: Spital Square stands where St. Mary's
+Spital formerly received the sick: Blackfriars, Charter House and
+Bartholomew's still keep their name: Austin Friars is the name of a
+court and the Friars' Church still stands: Whitefriars is still the name
+of a street: Grey Friars is Christ's Hospital: the Temple is now the
+lawyer's home; part of the Church of the Knights Hospitallers is still
+to be seen. Three great Houses, it is true, have left no trace or memory
+behind. Eastminster or the Cistercian Abbey of St. Mary of Grace, which
+stood north of St. Katharine's, and was a very great and stately place
+indeed: the Priory of the Holy Trinity, which stood where is now Duke's
+Place, north of the church of St. Catharine Cree: and St. Mary of
+Bethlehem, which stood just outside Bishopsgate. The memory of
+Bermondsey Abbey and St. Mary Overy on the south side of the river has
+also departed, but the church of the latter still stands, the most
+beautiful church in London next to Westminster Abbey.
+
+[Illustration: Christ's Hospital]
+
+But besides all these religious Houses employing thousands of people,
+there were in the City of London no fewer than 126 parish churches. Many
+of the parishes were extremely small--a single street--or half a street:
+many of the churches were insignificant: but many were rich and costly
+structures, adorned and beautified by the piety of many generations: all
+were endowed with funds for the saying of masses for the dead, so that
+there were many priests to every parish. Consider these things and you
+will understand that the City was filled with ecclesiastics--priests,
+friars, servants of the Church: at every corner rose a church: to one
+standing on the other bank of the river the City presented a forest of
+spires and towers. The church then occupied a far larger part of the
+daily life than is now the case even with Catholic countries. All were
+expected to attend a daily service: the trade companies went to church
+in state: young men belonged to a guild: the ringing of the bells was
+never silent: no one could escape, if he desired, from the Church. No
+one did desire to escape, because every one belonged to the Church. You
+must understand, not only that the Church was so great and rich that it
+owned and ruled a very large part of the country, but also that the
+people all belonged to the Church: it was part of their life as much as
+their daily work, their daily food, their daily rest.
+
+
+
+
+27. MONKS, FRIARS, AND NUNS.
+
+
+We must not speak of monks indiscriminately as if they were all the
+same. There were as many varieties among the Orders as there are sects
+among Protestants and as much rivalry and even hatred of one with the
+other. Let us learn some of the distinctions among them.
+
+Monks were first introduced into Western Europe in the year 529. There
+had long been brotherhoods, hermits, and solitaries in the East, where
+they existed before the Christian age. St. Benedict founded at Monte
+Casino in Campania a monastery for twelve brethren in that year. The
+Benedictines are the most ancient Order: they have also been always the
+most learned. The Priory of the Holy Trinity in London was Benedictine.
+Several branches sprang out of this Order, mostly founded with the view
+of practising greater austerities. Among them were the Carthusians, a
+very strict Order--in London they had the Charter House, a name which is
+a corruption of Chartreuse, their original House: and the Cistercians,
+founded at Citeaux in France--they had Eastminster, or the Abbey of St.
+Mary of Grace. All these were monks.
+
+The Augustine, or Austin Friars, pretended to have been founded by
+Augustine, but were not constituted until the year 1256. They had the
+monastery of Austin Friars in London. There were several branches of
+this Order.
+
+There were next the three great Mendicant Orders, Franciscans,
+Dominicans, and Carmelites. These were the popular Orders. The monks
+remained in their Houses alone, separated from the world. The friars
+went about among the people. By their vows they were to possess nothing
+of their own: they were to sleep where they could: they were to beg
+their food and raiment: they were to preach to the people in the streets
+and in their houses: they were to bring the rites of the Church to those
+who would not enter the doors of the Church. None were to be too poor or
+too miserable for them. In their humility they would not be called
+fathers but brothers--fratres--friars. In their preaching they used
+every way by which they could move the hearts of the people; some
+thundered, some wept, some made jokes. They preached in the midst of the
+markets, among the sports of the Fair, wherever they could get an
+audience together.
+
+The Franciscans, who had Grey Friars House, now the Bluecoat School,
+were founded by St. Francis of Assisi in the beginning of the thirteenth
+century. They came over to England and appeared in London a few years
+later. On account of their austerities and the faithfulness with which
+the earlier Franciscans kept their vows and the earnestness of their
+preaching they became very popular in this country. Their name--Grey
+Friars--denotes the colour of their dress. The old simplicity and
+poverty did not last long. It must, however, be acknowledged that wealth
+was forced upon them.
+
+The Dominicans were founded by St. Dominic about the year 1215. Sixty
+years later they came to London and established themselves in the place
+still known by their name--Blackfriars. Their dress was white with a
+black cloak. They were never so popular as the Franciscans perhaps
+because they insisted more on doctrine, and were associated with the
+Inquisition.
+
+The third of the Mendicant Orders was the Carmelite. They were the
+Whitefriars, their dress being white with a black hood. Their House was
+in Fleet Street. Here was a sanctuary whose privileges were not
+abolished till the year 1697.
+
+Other Orders represented in London were the Cluniacs, a branch of
+Benedictines--they had the Abbey of St. Saviour in Bermondsey; the Black
+Canons, established at St. Bartholomew's: the Canons Regular of St.
+Augustin--who had the Southwark Priory of St. Mary Overie: the Knights
+Templars; and the Knights of St. John.
+
+As a general rule it is enough to remember that the monks were
+Benedictines with their principal branches of Carthusians, Cistercians,
+and Cluniacs: that the friars were those named after Augustine, Dominic,
+Francis, and Mount Carmel; that the monks remained in their Houses,
+practising a life of austerity and prayer--so long as they were faithful
+to their vows: and that the friars went about among the people,
+preaching and exhorting them.
+
+Of the nunneries some were Benedictine, some Franciscan: that of the
+Minorites belonged to the latter Order: that of St. Helen's, to the
+former.
+
+The Religious Houses were dissolved at the Reformation. You must
+remember that if it had not been for the existence of these Houses, most
+of the arts, science, and scholarship of the world would have perished
+utterly. The monks kept alive learning of all kinds: they encouraged
+painting: they were discoverers and inventors in science: they were the
+chief agriculturists and gardeners: they offered an asylum to the poor
+and the oppressed. 'The friendship of the poor,' said Bernard, 'makes
+us the friends of Kings.' And in an age of unrestrained passions they
+showed an example of self-restraint and austerity. The friars did more:
+they were poor among the poor: no one was below their care and
+affection: they had nothing--they would take nothing--at first: till the
+love and gratitude of the people showered gifts upon them and even
+against their will, if they still retained any love for poverty, they
+became rich.
+
+
+
+
+28. THE LONDON CHURCHES.
+
+
+Before the Great Fire of London there were 126 churches and parishes in
+the City. Most of these were destroyed by the Fire, and many were never
+rebuilt at all. Two or even three and four parishes were united in one
+church. Of late years there has been a destruction of City churches
+almost as disastrous as that of the Fire. Those who have learned from
+this book, and elsewhere, to respect the monuments of the past and to
+desire their preservation, should do their utmost to prevent the
+demolition of these churches, in consideration of their history and
+their association with the past.
+
+Looking at a picture of London after the Fire, you will certainly remark
+the great number of spires and towers. London, in fact, was then, and
+much more so before the Fire, a city of churches. Those which are here
+represented and those which now remain are nearly all the work of
+Christopher Wren, the architect of St. Paul's. Many of them are very
+beautiful internally; many have been decorated and adorned with the most
+splendid carved woodwork. About many there cling the memories of dead
+men and great men who worshipped here and made gifts to the church and
+were buried here.
+
+Let us show, by a few examples, how worthy these City churches are of
+preservation and respect.
+
+First, many of them stand on the sites of the most ancient churches in
+the history of London. Those about Thames Street, dedicated to St.
+Peter, St. Paul (the Cathedral), St. James, probably represent Christian
+temples of Roman London. The church of St. Martin's, Ludgate Hill, was
+traditionally built by a British prince: that of St. Peter, Cornhill, by
+a Roman general. The tradition proves at least the antiquity of the
+churches. St. Augustine's preserves the memory of the preacher who
+converted the Saxons. St. Olave's and St. Magnus mark the Danish rule:
+St. Dunstan's, St. Alphege, St. Ethelburga, St. Swithin, St. Botolph,
+commemorate Saxon saints. Why, for instance, are there three churches
+all dedicated to St. Botolph just outside City gates? Because this
+saint--after whom the Lincolnshire town of Icanhoe changed its name to
+Botolph's town, now Boston--was considered the special protector of
+travellers. Then the names of churches still commemorate some fact in
+history. St. Mary Woolnoth, marks the wool market: St. Osyth's--the name
+exists in Sise Lane, was changed into St. Bene't Shere Hog--or
+Skin-the-Pig--because the stream called Walbrook which ran close by was
+used for the purpose of assisting this operation. St. Austin's was the
+chapel of Austin Friars Monastery. St. Andrew's Undershaft tells that
+the City May Pole was hung up along its wall. St.
+Andrew's-by-the-Wardrobe commemorates the existence of the Palace
+formerly called the King's Wardrobe. In St. Michael's Bassishaw survives
+the name of an old City family--the Basings. In St. Martin Orgar's--now
+destroyed--we have another old City name--Orgar.
+
+Or, again, there are the people who are buried or were baptised in these
+churches.
+
+In All Hallows, Bread Street, now pulled down, was baptised the greatest
+poet of our country, John Milton. For this cause alone the church should
+never have been suffered to fall into decay. It was wickedly and
+wantonly destroyed for the sake of the money its site would fetch in the
+year 1877. When you visit Bow Church, Cheapside, look for the tablet to
+the memory of Milton, now fixed in that church. It belonged to All
+Hallows, Bread Street.
+
+    Three poets in three distant ages born,
+    Greece, Italy, and England did adorn:
+    The first in loftiness of thought surpassed,
+    The next in majesty--in both the last.
+    The force of Nature could no further go;
+    To make a third she joined the other two.
+
+Christ Church, Newgate, stands on part of the site once occupied by the
+splendid church of the Grey Friars. Four Queens lie buried here, and an
+immense number of princes and great soldiers and nobles.
+
+Very few people, of the thousands who daily walk up and down Fleet
+Street, know anything about the statue in the wall of St. Dunstan's
+Church. This is the statue of Queen Elizabeth which formerly stood on
+the west side of Lud Gate. This gate was taken down in the year 1760,
+and some time after the statue was placed here. One of the sights of
+London before the old church was pulled down was a clock with the figure
+of a savage on each side who struck the hours and the quarters on a bell
+with clubs. London has seldom been without some such show. As long ago
+as the fifteenth century there was a clock with figures in Fleet Street.
+Tyndal the Reformer, and Baxter the famous Nonconformist were preachers
+in this church.
+
+St. Mary le Bow, was so called because it was the first church in the
+City built on arches--bows--of stone. The church is most intimately
+connected with the life and history of the City. Bow Bell rang for the
+closing of the shops. If the ringer was late the prentice boys reminded
+him pretty plainly.
+
+    'Clarke of the Bow Bell with thy yellow lockes:
+    In thy late ringing, thy head shall have knockes.'
+
+To which the clerk replied:
+
+    'Children of Chepe, hold you all stille:
+    For you shall have Bow Bell ring at your will.'
+
+St. Mary's Woolnoth was for many years the church of the Rev. John
+Newton, once the poet Cowper's friend. He began his life in the merchant
+service and was for many years engaged in the slave trade.
+
+For these reasons--their antiquity, their history, their
+associations--the destruction of the City churches ought to be resisted
+with the utmost determination. You who read this page may very possibly
+become parishioners of such a church. Learn that, without the consent of
+the parishioners, no church can be destroyed. A meeting of parishioners
+must be called: they must vote and decide. Do not forget this privilege.
+The time may come when your vote and your's alone, may retain for your
+posterity a church rich in history and venerable with the traditions of
+the past.
+
+
+
+
+29. THE STREETS.
+
+
+You have seen how the wall surrounded Roman London. The same wall which
+defended and limited Augusta defended and limited Plantagenet London.
+Outside the wall on the east there continued to extend wide marshes
+along the river; moorlands and forest on the north; marshes with rising
+ground on the west; marshes on the south. Wapping was called Wapping in
+the Wose (Wash or Ouze), meaning in the Marsh: Bermondsey was Bermond's
+Island, standing in the marsh: Battersea was Batter's Island, or perhaps
+Island of Boats: Chelsea was the Island of Chesel or Shingle:
+Westminster Abbey was built on the Isle of Thorns. The monasteries
+standing outside the wall attracted a certain number of serving people
+who built houses round them: some of the riverside folk--boat-builders,
+lightermen, and so forth--were living in the precinct of St. Katharine,
+just outside the Tower: all along the Strand were great men's houses,
+one of which, the Somerset House, still stands in altered form, and
+another, Northumberland House, was only pulled down a few years ago.
+Southwark had a single main street with a few branches east and west: it
+also contained several great houses, and was provided with many Inns for
+the use of those who brought their goods from Kent and Surrey to London
+Market. It was also admitted as a ward. On either side of the High
+Street lay marshes. The river was banked--hence the name Bank Side--but
+it is not known at what time.
+
+That part of the wall fronting the river had long been pulled down, but
+the stairs were guarded with iron chains, and there was a river police
+which rowed about among the shipping at night.
+
+[Illustration: CHEPE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+The streets and lanes of London within the walls were very nearly the
+same as they are at present, except for the great thoroughfares
+constructed within the last thirty years. That is to say, when one
+entered at Lud Gate and passed through Paul's Churchyard, he found
+himself in the broad street, the market place of the City, known as
+Chepe. This continued to the place where the Royal Exchange now stands,
+where it broke off into two branches, Cornhill and Lombard Street.
+These respectively led into Leadenhall Street and Fenchurch Street,
+which united again before Aldgate. Another leading thoroughfare crossed
+the City from London Bridge to Bishopsgate, and another, Thames Street,
+by far the most important, because here the merchant adventurers--those
+who had ships and imported goods--met for the transaction of business.
+The rough cobbled pavement of Thames Street was the Exchange of
+Whittington and the merchants of his time, who all had their houses on
+the rising ground, among the narrow lanes north of the street. You have
+seen what splendid houses a London merchant loved to build. What kind of
+house did the retailer and the craftsman occupy? It was of stone in the
+lower parts, but the upper storey was generally of wood, and the roof
+was too often thatched. The window was glazed in the upper part, but had
+open work and shutter for the lower half: this half, with the door,
+stood open during the greater part of the year. The lower room was the
+living room, and sometimes the work room of the occupant. The upper
+floor contained the bed rooms. There was but one fireplace in the
+house--that in the living room. At the back of the house was generally a
+small garden. But, besides these houses, there were courts dark, narrow,
+noisome, where the huts were still 'wattle and daub,' that is, built
+with posts, the sides filled in with branches or sticks and clay or mud,
+the fire in the middle of the floor, the chimney overhead. And still, as
+in Saxon times, the great danger to the City was from fire.
+
+Men of the same trade still congregated together for convenience. When
+all lived together the output would be regulated, prices maintained, and
+wages agreed upon. Nothing was more hateful to the mediaeval trader than
+forestalling and regrating. To forestall was to buy things before they
+arrived at market with intent to sell at a higher price. To regrate was
+to buy up in the market and sell again in the same market at an advanced
+price. To undersell your neighbour was then also an unpardonable crime.
+You discover, therefore, that trade in Plantagenet London was not like
+trade in Victorian London. Then, all men of the same trade stood by each
+other and were brothers: now, too often, men of the same trade are
+enemies.
+
+The names of streets show the nature of the trades carried on in them.
+Turners and makers of wooden cups and platters, Wood Street:
+ironmongers, in their Lane: poultry sellers, the Poultry: bakers, Bread
+Street: and so on. Chepe was the great retail market of the City. It was
+built over gradually, but in early times it was a broad market covered
+with stalls, like the market-place of Norwich, for instance; these
+stalls were ranged in lines and streets: churches stood about among the
+lines. Then the stalls, which had been temporary wooden structures, were
+changed into permanent shops, which were also the houses of the tenants:
+the living room and kitchen were behind the shop: the master and his
+family slept above, and the prentices slept under the counter.
+
+[Illustration: LARGE SHIP AND BOAT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_The mainsail of the ship has the Beauchamp arms, and the streamer the
+bear and ragged staff. From the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of
+Warwick,' by John Rous; drawn about 1485._)]
+
+
+
+
+30 WHITTINGTON.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+The story of Dick Whittington has been a favourite legend for many
+generations. The boy coming up to London poor and friendless; lying
+despairing on the green slope of Highgate; resolved to return to the
+country since he can find no work in London: the falling upon his ears
+of the bells of Bow, wafted across the fields by the south wind--every
+child knows all this. What did the bells say to him--the soft and
+mellow bells, calling to him across four miles of fields? 'Turn again,
+Whittington--Turn again, Whittington--Lord Mayor of London--Turn again,
+Whittington.' He did turn, as we know, and became not once, but four
+times Lord Mayor of London and entertained kings, and was the richest
+merchant of his time. And all through a cat--we know how the cat began
+his fortune.
+
+That is the familiar legend. Now you shall learn the truth.
+
+There was a Dick Whittington: and he was Lord Mayor of London--to be
+accurate, he was Mayor of London, for the title of Lord Mayor did not
+yet exist.
+
+He was not a poor and friendless lad by any means. He belonged to a good
+family, his father, Sir William Whittington, Knight, being owner of an
+estate in Herefordshire called Soler's Hope, and one in Gloucestershire
+called Pauntley. The father was buried at Pauntley Church, where his
+shield may still be seen. Richard was the youngest of three sons of whom
+the eldest, William, died without children: and the second, Robert, had
+sons of whom one, Guy, fought at Agincourt. From the second son there
+are descendants to this day.
+
+Richard, at the age of fourteen, was sent to London, where he had
+connections. Many country people had connections in London who were
+merchants. Remember that in those days it would be impossible for a boy
+to rise from poverty to wealth and distinction by trade. Such a lad
+might rise in the church, or even, but I know not of any instance, by
+distinguished valour on the field of battle. Most certainly, he would be
+prenticed to a craft and a craftsman he would remain all his life.
+Whittington was a gentleman: that was the first and necessary condition
+to promotion: he came to London, not to learn a craft at all, but to be
+apprenticed to his cousin Sir John Fitzwarren, Mercer and Merchant
+Adventurer. The Mercers were the richest and most important company in
+London: the merchant adventurers were those--the foremost among the
+Mercers--who owned ships which they despatched abroad with exports and
+with which they imported stuffs and merchandise to the Port of London.
+Whittington's master may have had a shop or stall in Chepe--but he was a
+great importer of silks, satins, cloth of gold, velvets, embroideries,
+precious stones, and all splendid materials required for an age of
+splendid costume.
+
+[Illustration: A SEA-FIGHT.
+
+(_From the 'Life of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick'; drawn by John
+Rous about 1485._)]
+
+What is the meaning of the 'cat' story? Immediately after Whittington's
+death the story was spread about. When his executors repaired Newgate
+they placed a carven cat on the outside: when Whittington's nephews, a
+few years later, built a house in Gloucester they placed a carven cat
+over the door in recognition of the story. All sorts of explanations
+have been offered. First, that there never was any cat at all. Next,
+that by a 'cat' is meant a kind of ship, a collier. Thirdly, that the
+cat is symbolical and means something else. Why need we go out of our
+way at all? A cat at that time was a valuable animal: not by any means
+common: in certain countries where rats were a nuisance a cat was very
+valuable indeed. Why should not the lad entrust a kitten to one of his
+master's skippers with instructions to sell it for him in any Levantine
+port at which the vessel might touch? Then he would naturally ever
+afterwards refer to the sale of the cat, the first venture of his own,
+as the beginning and foundation of his fortune. But you must believe
+about the cat whatever you please. The story has been told of other men.
+There was a Portuguese sailor, named Alphonso, who was wrecked on the
+Coast of Guinea. He carried a cat safely ashore and sold her to the
+King for her weight in gold: with this for his first capital he rapidly
+made a large fortune. Again, one Diego Almagro, a companion of Pizarro,
+bought the first cat ever taken to South America for 600 pieces of
+eight. And the story is found in Persia and in Denmark, and I dare say
+all over the world. Yet I believe in its literal truth.
+
+In the year 1378 Whittington's name first appears in the City papers. He
+was then perhaps twenty-one--but the date of his birth is uncertain--and
+was already in trade, not, as yet, very far advanced, for his assessment
+shows that as yet he was in the lowest and poorest class of the
+wholesale Mercers.
+
+
+
+
+31. WHITTINGTON.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+For nearly fifty years after this Whittington leads an active, busy,
+prosperous life. It was a distracted time, full of troubles and
+anxieties. A Charter obtained in 1376, two or three years before he
+began business, was probably the real foundation of Whittington's
+fortune. For it forbade foreign merchants to sell by retail. This meant
+that a foreign ship bringing wine to the port of London could only
+dispose of her merchandise to the wholesale vintners: or one bringing
+silk could only sell it to wholesale mercers. The merchants, no doubt,
+intended to use this Charter for the furtherance of their own shipping
+interests.
+
+This important Charter, presented by the King, was nearly lost a little
+after, when there was trouble about Wycliffe. The great scholar was
+ordered to appear at St. Paul's Cathedral before the Archbishop of
+Canterbury and the Bishop of London, to answer charges of heresy. He
+was not an unprotected and friendless man, and he appeared at the
+Cathedral under the protection of the powerful John of Gaunt, Duke of
+Lancaster, son of King Edward III. The Bishop of London rebuked the Duke
+for protecting heretics, so the Duke, enraged, threatened to pull the
+Bishop out of his own church by the hair of his head. The people outside
+shouted that they would all die before the Bishop should suffer
+indignity. John of Gaunt rode off to Westminster and proposed that the
+office of Mayor should be abolished and that the Marshal of England
+should hold his court in the City--in other words, that even the
+liberties and Charters of the City should be swept clean away. Then the
+Londoners rushed to the Savoy, the Duke's palace, and would have sacked
+and destroyed it but for the Bishop. This story indicates the kind of
+danger to which, in those ages, the City was liable. There were no
+police; a popular tumult easily and suddenly became a rebellion: no one
+knew what might happen when the folk met together and wild passions of
+unreasoning fury were aroused.
+
+Another danger of the time for the peaceful merchant. For some years the
+navigation of the North Sea and the Channel was greatly impeded by a
+Scottish privateer or pirate named Mercer. In vain had the City made
+representations to the King. Nothing was done, and the pirate grew daily
+stronger and bolder. Then Sir John Philpot, the Mayor, did a very
+patriotic thing. He built certain ships of his own, equipped them with
+arms, went on board as captain or admiral, and manned them with a
+thousand stout fellows. He found the pirate off Scarborough, fell upon
+him, slew him with all his men and returned to London Port with all his
+own ships and all the pirate's ships--including fifteen Spanish vessels
+which had joined Mercer.
+
+The King pretended to be angry with this private mode of carrying on
+war, but the thing was done, and it was a very good thing, and
+profitable to London and to the King himself, therefore when Sir John
+Philpot gave the King the arms and armour of a thousand men and all his
+own ships and prize ships, the Royal clemency was not difficult to
+obtain. I wish that I could state that Whittington had sailed with Sir
+John on this gallant expedition.
+
+A third trouble arose in the year 1381 on the rebellion of the peasants
+under John Ball, Wat Tyler, Jack the Miller, Jack the Carter, and Jack
+Trewman. The rebels held possession of the City for awhile. They
+destroyed the Savoy, the Temple and the houses of the foreign merchants
+(this shows that they had been joined by some of the London people).
+They murdered the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Prior of St. John's
+Hospital. Then the citizens roused themselves and with an army of 6,000
+men stood in ranks to defend the King.
+
+Then there happened the troubles of John of Northampton, Mayor in 1382.
+You have learned how trades of all kinds were banded together each in
+its own Company. Every Company had the right of regulating prices. Thus
+the Fishmongers sold their fish at a price ordered by the Warden or
+Master of the Company. It is easy to understand that this might lead to
+murmurs against the high price of fish or of anything else. This, in
+fact, really happened. It was a time of great questioning and doubt; the
+rising of Wat Tyler shows that this spirit was abroad. The craftsmen of
+London, those who made things, grumbled loudly at the price of
+provisions. They asked why the City should not take over the trade in
+food of all kinds and sell it to the people at lower prices. John of
+Northampton being Mayor, took the popular view. He did not exactly make
+over the provisioning of the City to the Corporation, but he first
+obtained an Act of Parliament throwing open the calling of fishmonger to
+all comers; and then another which practically abolished the trade of
+grocers, pepperers, fruiterers, butchers, and bakers. Imagine the rage
+with which such an Act would now be received by London tradesmen!
+
+The next Mayor, however, obtained the rescinding of these Acts. In
+consequence, fish went up in price and there was a popular tumult, upon
+which one man was hanged and John of Northampton was sent to the Castle
+of Tintagel on the Cornish Coast, where he remained for the rest of his
+life.
+
+
+
+
+32. WHITTINGTON.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+In the year 1384, being then about twenty-six years of age, Whittington
+was elected a member of the Common Council. In the year 1389 he was
+assessed at the same sum as the richest citizen. So that these ten years
+of his life were evidently very prosperous. In the year 1393 he was made
+Alderman for Broad Street Ward. In the same year he was made Sheriff. In
+the year 1396, the Mayor, Adam Bamme, dying in office, Whittington
+succeeded him. The following year he was elected Mayor.
+
+In the year 1401, water was brought from Tyburn (now the N.E. corner of
+Hyde Park) to Cornhill in pipes, a great and important boon to the City.
+
+In the year 1406 he was again elected Mayor. The manner of his election
+is described in the contemporary records. After service in the chapel
+of the Guildhall, the outgoing Mayor, with all the Aldermen and as many
+as possible of the wealthier and more substantial Commoners of the City,
+met in the Guildhall and chose two of their number, viz., Richard
+Whittington and Drew Barentyn. Then the Mayor receiving this nomination
+retired into a closed chamber with the Aldermen and made choice of
+Whittington.
+
+In the year 1419 he was elected Mayor for the third and last time, but,
+counting his succession to Bamme, he was actually four times Mayor. In
+1416 he was returned Member of Parliament for the City.
+
+It was not a new thing for a citizen to be made Mayor more than once.
+Three during the reign of Edward III. were Mayor four times; two, three
+times; seven, twice.
+
+In Whittington's later years began the burning of heretics and Lollards.
+It is certain that Lollardism had some hold in the City, but one knows
+not how great was the hold. A priest, William Sawtre, was the first who
+suffered. Two men of the lower class followed. There is nothing to show
+that Whittington ever swerved from orthodox opinions.
+
+In 1416, the City was first lighted at night: all citizens were ordered
+to hang lanterns over their doors. How far the order was obeyed,
+especially in the poorer parts of the City, is not known.
+
+In 1407 a plague carried off 30,000 persons in London alone. If this
+number is correctly stated it must have taken half the population.
+
+Many improvements were effected in the City during these years: it is
+reasonable to suppose that Whittington had a hand in bringing these
+about. Fresh water brought in pipes: lights hung out after dark: the
+erection of a house--Bakewell Hall--for the storage and sale of
+broadcloth: the erection of a store for the reception of grain, in case
+of famine--this was the beginning of Leadenhall--the building of a new
+Guildhall: and an attempt to reform the prisons--an attempt which
+failed.
+
+In his last year of office Whittington entertained the King, Henry V.
+and his Queen.
+
+There was as yet no Mansion House: every Mayor made use of his own
+private house.
+
+The magnificence of the entertainment amazed the King. Even the fires
+were fed with cedar and perfumed wood. When the Queen spoke of this
+costly gift the Mayor proposed to feed the fire with something more
+precious still. He then produced the King's bonds to the value of
+60,000_l._ which he threw into the fire and burned. This great sum would
+be a very considerable gift even now. In that time it represented at
+least six times its present value. The Mayor therefore gave the King the
+sum of 360,000_l._
+
+This is, very shortly, an account of Whittington's public life.
+
+He lived, I believe, on the north side of St. Michael's Paternoster
+Royal. I think so because his College was established there after his
+death, and as he had no children it is reasonable to suppose that his
+house would be assigned to the College. There is nothing to show what
+kind of house it was, but we may rest assured that the man who could
+entertain the King and Queen in such a manner was at least well housed.
+There is a little court on this spot which is, I believe, on the site of
+Whittington's house. They used to show a house in Hart Street as
+Whittington's, but there was no ground for the tradition except that it
+was a very old house.
+
+Whittington married his master's daughter, Alice Fitzwarren. He had no
+children, and he died in 1423 when he was sixty-five years of age.
+
+Such was the real Whittington. A gentleman by birth, a rich and
+successful man, happy in his private life, a great stickler for justice,
+as a magistrate severe upon those who cheat and adulterate, a loyal and
+patriotic man, and always filled with the desire to promote the
+interests of the City which had received him and made him rich.
+
+
+
+
+33. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS.
+
+
+The stream of charity which has so largely enriched and endowed the City
+of London began very early. You have seen how Rahere built and endowed
+Bartholomew's, and how Queen Maud founded the Lazar House of St. Giles.
+The fourteenth century furnishes many more instances. Thus William
+Elsinge founded in 1332 a hospital for a hundred poor blind men: in 1371
+John Barnes gave a chest containing 1,000 marks to be lent by the City
+to young men beginning trade. You have heard how one Mayor went out to
+fight a pirate and slew him and made prizes of his vessels. Another when
+corn was very dear imported at his own expense a great quantity from
+Germany. Another gave money to relieve poor prisoners: another left
+money for the help of poor householders: another provided that on his
+commemoration day in the year 2,400 poor householders, of the City
+should have a dinner and every man two pence. This means in present
+money about L600 a year, or an estate worth L20,000: another left money
+to pay the tax called the Fifteenth, for three parishes: another brought
+water in a conduit from Highbury to Cripplegate.
+
+But the greatest and wisest benefactor of his time was Whittington. In
+his own words: 'The fervent desire and busy intention of a prudent,
+wise, and devout man, should be to cast before and make secure the state
+and the end of this short life with deeds of mercy and pity, and
+especially to provide for those miserable persons whom the penury of
+poverty insulteth, and to whom the power of seeking the necessaries of
+life by act or bodily labour is interdicted.'
+
+With these grave words, which should be a lesson to all men, rich or
+poor, Whittington begins the foundation of his College. If a man were in
+these days to found a College he would make it either a school for boys
+or a technical school--in any case a place which should be always
+_working_ for the world. In those days, when it was universally believed
+that the saying of masses was able to lift souls out of punishment, a
+man founded a College which should _pray_ for the world. Whittington's
+College was to consist of a Master and four Fellows--who were to be
+Masters of Arts--with clerks, choristers, and servants. They were every
+day to say mass for the souls of Richard and Alice Whittington in the
+church of St. Michael's Paternoster Royal--which church Whittington
+himself had rebuilt. Behind the church he founded and built an almshouse
+for thirteen poor men, who were to have 16_d._ each per week, about
+7_s._ of our money, with clothing and rooms on the condition of praying
+daily for their founder and his wife. Part of the ground for the
+building was granted by the Mayor and Corporation.
+
+The College continued until the Dissolution of the Religious
+Houses--that is, for one hundred and fifty years: the almshouse
+continues to this day: but it has been removed to Highgate: on its site
+the Mercers' Company has established a school.
+
+Whittington, further, built a library for the Franciscan House; part of
+the building still remains at Christ's Hospital. It was 129 feet long
+and 31 feet broad. He also gave the friars 400_l._ to buy books. He
+restored and repaired the Hospital of St. Bartholomew's, to which he
+gave a library. He paved and glazed the new building of Guildhall: he
+gave large sums for the bridge--and the chapel on the bridge--at
+Rochester--as a merchant he was greatly interested in keeping this
+important bridge in order: he repaired Gloucester Cathedral--the
+cathedral church of his native diocese: he made 'bosses,' i.e. taps of
+water, to the great aqueduct: he rebuilt and enlarged Newgate Prison;
+and he founded a library at Guildhall.
+
+Many of these things were done after his death by his executors.
+
+Such were the gifts by which a City merchant of the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries sought to advance the prosperity of the citizens.
+Fresh water in plenty by 'bosses' here and there: the light of learning
+by means of libraries: almshouses for the poor: mercy and charity for
+the prisoners: hospitals for the sick: help for the young: prayers for
+the dead. These things he understood.
+
+We cannot expect any man to be greatly in advance of his age. Otherwise
+we should find a Whittington insisting upon cleanliness of streets:
+fresh air in the house: burial outside the City: the abolition of the
+long fasts which made people eat stinking fish and so gave them leprosy:
+the education of the craftsmen in something besides their trade: the
+establishment of a patrol by police: and the freedom of trade.
+
+He did not found any school. That is a remarkable omission. One of his
+successors, Sir William Sevenoke, founded a school for lads of his
+native town Sevenoaks: another, Sir Robert Chichele, founded a school,
+an almshouse, and a college in his native town of Higham Ferrers. A
+friend of his own, Sir John Niel, proposed to establish four new grammar
+schools in the City. And yet Whittington left no money for a school. We
+may be quite sure that there was a reason for the omission. Perhaps he
+was afraid of the growing spirit of doubt and inquiry. Boys who learn
+grammar and rhetoric may grow into men who question and argue; and so,
+easily and naturally, get bound to the stake and are consumed with the
+pile of faggots. Everything was provided except a school for boys.
+Libraries for men; but not a school for boys. The City of London School
+was founded by Whittington's executor, John Carpenter. There must have
+been reasons in Whittington's mind for omitting any endowment of
+schools. What those reasons were I cannot even guess.
+
+
+
+
+34. THE PALACES AND GREAT HOUSES.
+
+
+When you think of a great city of the thirteenth or fourteenth century
+you must remember two things. First, that the streets were mostly very
+narrow--if you walk down Thames Street and note the streets running
+north and south you will be able to understand how narrow the City
+streets were. Second, that the great houses of the nobles and the rich
+merchants stood in these narrow streets, shut in on all sides though
+they often contained spacious courts and gardens. No attempt was made to
+group the houses or to arrange them with any view to picturesque effect.
+
+It has been the fashion to speak of mediaeval London as if it were a city
+of hovels grouped together along dark and foul lanes. This was by no
+means the case. On the contrary, it was a city of splendid palaces and
+houses nearly all of which were destroyed by the Great Fire. You have
+seen how the City was covered with magnificent buildings of monasteries
+and churches. Do not believe that the nobles and rich merchants who
+endowed and built these places would be content to live in hovels.
+
+[Illustration: DURHAM, SALISBURY, AND WORCESTER HOUSES.]
+
+The nobles indeed wanted barracks. A great Lord never moved anywhere
+without his following. The Earl of Warwick, called the King Maker, when
+he rode into London was followed by five hundred men, wearing his
+colours: all of these had to find accommodation in his town house. This
+was always built in the form of a court or quadrangle. The modern
+Somerset House, which is built on the foundations of the old house,
+shows us what a great man's house was like: and the College of Heralds
+in Queen Victoria Street, is another illustration, for this was Lord
+Derby's town house. Hampton Court and St. James's, are illustrations of
+a great house with more than one court. Any one who knows the colleges
+of Oxford and Cambridge will understand the arrangement of the great
+noble's town house in the reign of Richard II. On one side was the hall
+in which the banquets took place and all affairs of importance were
+discussed. The kitchen, butteries and cellars stood opposite the doors
+of the hall; at the back of the hall with a private entrance were the
+rooms of the owner and his family: the rest of the rooms on the
+quadrangle were given up to the use of his followers.
+
+Baynard's Castle--the name yet survives--stood on the river bank not far
+from Blackfriars. It was a huge house with towers and turrets and a
+water gate with stairs. It contained two courts. It was at last, after
+standing for six hundred years, destroyed in the Great Fire, and was one
+of the most lamentable of the losses caused by that disaster. The house
+had been twice before burned down, and that which finally perished was
+built in 1428. Here Edward IV. assumed the Crown: here he placed his
+wife and children for safety before going forth to the Battle of Barnet.
+Here Buckingham offered the Crown to Richard. Here Henry VIII. lived.
+Here Charles II. was entertained.
+
+Eastward, also on the river bank and near the old Swan Stairs, stood
+another great house called Cold Harbour. It belonged to Holland, Dukes
+of Exeter, to Richard III. and to Margaret, Countess of Richmond.
+
+North of Thames Street near College Hill was the Erber, another great
+house which belonged successively to the Scropes and the Nevilles. Here
+lived the King-maker Earl of Warwick. His following was so numerous that
+every day six oxen were consumed for breakfast alone. His son-in-law,
+who had the house afterwards, was the Duke of Clarence--'false,
+fleeting, perjured Clarence.'
+
+If you would know how a great merchant of the fifteenth century loved to
+be housed, go visit Crosby Hall. It is the only specimen left of the
+ancient wealth and splendour of a City merchant. But as one man lived so
+did many. We cannot believe that Crosby was singular in his building a
+palace for himself.
+
+London with its narrow streets, its crowded courts, and the corners
+where the huts and hovels of wood and daub and thatch stood among their
+foul surroundings, a constant danger to the great houses of fire and
+plague, was a city of great houses and palaces, with which no other city
+in Europe could compare. Venice and Genoa had their Crosby Halls--their
+merchants' palaces; but London had in addition, the town houses of all
+the nobles of the land. In the City alone, without counting the Strand
+and Westminster, there were houses of the Earls of Arundel,
+Northumberland, Worcester, Berkeley, Oxford, Essex, Thanet, Suffolk,
+Richmond, Pembroke, Abergavenny, Warwick, Leicester, Westmoreland. Then
+there were the houses of the Bishops and the Abbots. All these before we
+come to the houses of the rich merchants. Let your vision of London
+under the Plantagenets be that of a city all spires and towers, great
+churches and stately convents, with noble houses as great and splendid
+as Crosby Hall scattered all about the City within the walls and lining
+the river bank from Ludgate to Westminster.
+
+
+
+
+35. AMUSEMENTS.
+
+
+We have heard so much of the religious Houses, Companies, Hospitals,
+quarrels and struggles that we may have forgotten a very important
+element in the life of the City--the amusements and pastimes of the
+citizens. Never was there a time when the City had more amusements than
+in these centuries. You have seen that it was always a rich town: its
+craftsmen were well paid: food was abundant: the people were well fed
+always, except in times of famine, which were rare. There were taverns
+with music and singing: there were pageants, wonderful processions
+representing all kinds of marvels, devised by the citizens to please the
+King or to please themselves: there were plays representing scenes from
+the Bible and from the Lives of the Saints: there were tournaments to
+look at. Then there were the Festivals of the year, Christmas Day,
+Twelfth Day, Easter, the Day of St. John the Baptist, Shrove Tuesday,
+the Day of the Company, May Day, at all of which feasting and merriment
+were the rule. The young men, in winter, played at football, hockey,
+quarterstaff, and single stick. They had cock fighting, boar fights, and
+the baiting of bulls and bears. On May Day they erected a May-pole in
+every parish: they chose a May Queen: and they had morris-dancing with
+the lads dressed up as Robin Hood, Friar Tuck, Little John, Tom the
+Piper, and other famous characters.
+
+[Illustration: BEAR-BAITING.
+
+(_From the Luttrell Psalter._)]
+
+Then they shot with the bow and the cross-bow for prizes: they had
+wrestlings and they had foot races.
+
+The two great festivals of the year were the Eve of St. John the Baptist
+and the Day of the Company.
+
+[Illustration: SHOOTING AT THE BUTTS WITH THE LONG-BOW.]
+
+On the former there took place the March of the Watch. Bonfires were lit
+in the streets, not for warmth but in order to purge and cleanse the air
+of the narrow streets: at the open doors stood tables with meat and
+drink, neighbour inviting neighbour to hospitality. Then the doors were
+wreathed with green branches, leaves, and flowers: lamps of glass were
+hanging over them with oil burning all the night: some hung out branches
+of iron curiously wrought with hundreds of hanging lights. And
+everywhere the cheerful sounds of music and singing and the dancing of
+the prentice lads and girls in the open street. Through the midst of
+this joyousness filed the Watch. Four thousand men took part in this
+procession which was certainly the finest thing that Mediaeval London had
+to show. To light the procession on its way the City found two hundred
+cressets or lanterns, the Companies found five hundred and the
+constables of London, two hundred and fifty in number, each carried one.
+The number of men who carried and attended to the cressets was two
+thousand. Then followed the Watch itself, consisting of two thousand
+captains, lieutenants, sergeants, drummers and fifers, standard bearers,
+trumpeters, demilances on great horses, bowmen, pikemen, with
+morris-dancers and minstrels--their armour all polished bright and some
+even gilded. No painter has ever painted this March: yet of all things,
+mediaeval, it was the most beautiful and the most mediaeval.
+
+On the day of the Company, i.e. the Company's Saint's Day, all the
+members assembled in the Hall, every man in a new livery, in the
+morning. First they formed in procession and marched to church, headed
+by priests and singing boys, in surplices: after these walked the
+servants, clerks, assistants, the chaplain, the Mayor's sergeants, often
+the Lord Mayor himself. Lastly came the Court with the Master and
+Wardens followed by the Livery, i.e. the members.
+
+After church they returned in like manner to the Hall, where a great
+banquet awaited them, music played in the gallery: the banners of the
+Company were hung over their heads: they burned scented wood: they sat
+in order, Master and Wardens and illustrious guests at the high table:
+and the freemen below, every man with his wife or some maiden if he were
+unmarried. After dinner the loving cup went round: the minstrels led in
+the players: and they had dramatic shows, songs, dances and 'mummeries'
+for the rest of the day.
+
+Do not think of mediaeval London as a dull place--it was full of life and
+of brightness: the streets were narrow perhaps, but they were full of
+colour from the bright dresses of all--the liveries of the
+Companies--the liveries of the great nobles--the splendid costume of the
+knights and richer class. The craftsman worked from daylight till curfew
+in the winter: from five or six in the summer: he had a long day: but he
+had three holidays: he had his evenings: and his Sundays. A dull time
+was going to fall upon the Londoners, but not yet for two hundred years.
+
+
+
+
+36. WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
+
+
+Hitherto our attention has been confined to the City within the walls.
+It is time to step outside the walls.
+
+All this time, i.e. ever since peaceful occupation became possible, a
+town had been growing up on the west side of London. You have seen that
+formerly there spread a broad marsh over this part. Some rising ground
+kept what is now the Strand above the river, but Westminster, except for
+certain reed-grown islets, was nothing but a marsh covered over twice in
+the day by the tide. The river thus spreading out over marshes on either
+bank was quite shallow, and could in certain places be forded. The spot
+where any ford existed afterwards became a ferry. Lambeth Bridge spans
+the river at one such place, the memory of which is now maintained in
+the name of the Horseferry Road. The largest of these islets was once
+called Thorney, i.e. the Isle of Thorns. If you will take a map of
+Westminster, shift the bank of the river so as to make it flow along
+Abingdon Street, draw a stream running down College Street into the
+Thames; another running into the Thames across King Street, and draw a
+ditch or moat connecting the two streams along Delahaye Street and
+Princes Street you will have Thorney, about a quarter of a mile long,
+and not quite so much broad, standing just above high water level. This
+was the original Precinct of Westminster.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB OF EDWARD III. IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+The Abbey of St. Peter's, Westminster, is said to have been founded on
+the first conversion of the East Saxons, and at the same time as the
+Foundation of St. Paul's. We know nothing about the foundation of the
+church. During the Danish troubles the Abbey was deserted. It was
+refounded by Dunstan. It was, however, rebuilt in much greater splendour
+by Edward the Confessor. Of his work something still remains, and can be
+pointed out to the visitor. But the present Abbey contains work by Henry
+III., Edward I., Richard II.--Whittington being commissioner for the
+work--Henry VII. and Wren, Hawksmoor and Gilbert Scott the architects.
+
+There is no monument on British soil more venerable than Westminster
+Abbey. You must not think that you know the place when you have visited
+it once or twice. You must go there again and again. Every visit should
+teach you something of your country and its history. The building itself
+betraying to those who can read architecture the various periods at
+which its builders lived: the beauty of the building, the solemnity of
+the services--these are things which one must visit the Abbey often in
+order to understand. Then there are the associations of the Abbey; the
+things that have been done in the Abbey: the crowning of the Kings, in a
+long line from Edward the Confessor downwards. Here Edward the Fourth's
+Queen, Elizabeth Woodville, took sanctuary when her husband suffered
+reverse: here the unfortunate Edward V. was born. Here the same unhappy
+Queen brought her two boys when her husband died. Here Caxton set up his
+first printing press: here is the coronation chair. Here is the shrine
+of the sainted Edward the Confessor. It is robbed of its precious stones
+and its gold: but the shrine is the same as that before which for five
+hundred years people knelt as to the protector saint of England. This is
+the burial-place of no fewer than twenty-six of our Kings and their
+Queens. This is the sacred spot where we have buried most of our great
+men. To name a few whose monuments you should look for, here are Sir
+William Temple, Lord Chatham, Fox and Wilberforce, among statesmen; of
+soldiers there are Prince Rupert and Monk; of Indian fame, here are Lord
+Lawrence and Lord Clyde; of sailors, Blake, Cloudesley Shovel, and Lord
+Dundonald. Of poets, Chaucer, Spenser, Beaumont, Ben Jonson, Dryden,
+Prior, Addison, Gay, Campbell. Of historians and prose writers, Samuel
+Johnson, Macaulay, Dickens, Livingston, Isaac Newton. Many others there
+are to look for, notably the great poet Tennyson, buried here in October
+1892.
+
+Read what was written by Jeremy Taylor, a great divine, on Westminster
+Abbey:--
+
+'A man may read a sermon, the best and most passionate that ever man
+preached, if he shall but enter into the sepulchre of Kings.... There
+the warlike and the peaceful, the fortunate and the miserable, the
+beloved and the despised princes mingle their dust and pay down their
+symbol of mortality; and tell all the world that when we die our ashes
+shall be equal to kings, and our accounts easier, and our pains or our
+crowns shall be less.'
+
+
+
+
+37. THE COURT AT WESTMINSTER.
+
+
+Although the Kings of England have occasionally lodged in the Tower and
+even at Baynard's Castle, and other places in the City, the permanent
+home of the Court was always from Edward the Confessor to Henry VIII. at
+the Royal Palace of Westminster. Of this building, large, rambling,
+picturesque, only two parts are left, Westminster Hall and the crypt of
+St. Stephen's Chapel. When King Henry VIII. exchanged Westminster for
+Whitehall the rooms of the old Palace were given over to various
+purposes. One of them was the Star Chamber, in which the Star Chamber
+Court was held: one was the Exchequer Chamber: St. Stephen's Chapel was
+the House of Commons; and the House of Lords sat in the Old Court of
+Bequests. All that was left of the Palace except the Great Hall, was
+destroyed in the fire of 1834. Very fortunately the Hall was saved. This
+magnificent structure, one of the largest rooms in the world not
+supported by pillars, was built by William Rufus, and altered by Richard
+II. Here have been held Parliaments and Grand Councils. Here have been
+many State trials. Sir William Wallace was condemned in this Hall. Sir
+Thomas More; the Protector Somerset; Lady Jane Grey; Anne Boleyn; King
+Charles I.; the rebels of 1745, Lords Kilmarnock, Balmerino and Lovat:
+Earl Ferrers, for murdering his steward; all these were condemned. One
+or two have been acquitted, Lord Byron--cousin of the poet--for killing
+Mr. Chaworth: and Warren Hastings, the great Indian statesman. In
+Westminster Hall used to be held the Coronation Banquets at which the
+hereditary champion rode into the Hall in full armour and threw down a
+glove.
+
+After the removal of the Court the Hall became the Law Courts. It is
+almost incredible that three Courts sat in this Hall, cases being heard
+before three Judges at the same time. In addition to the Courts, shops
+or stalls were ranged along the walls where dealers in toys, milliners,
+sempstresses, stationers and booksellers sold their wares. A picture
+exists showing this extraordinary use of the Hall.
+
+It is more difficult to restore ancient Westminster than any part of the
+City. We must remember that the great Hall formed part of a square or
+quadrangle on which were the private rooms of the Sovereign, the State
+rooms of audience and banquet, the official rooms of the King's
+ministers and servants; this court led into others--one knows not how
+many--but certainly as many as belong to the older part of Hampton
+Court, which may be taken as resembling Westminster Palace in its
+leading features. The courts were filled with men-at-arms, serving men,
+pages, and minstrels. They went backwards and forwards on their business
+or they lay about in the sun and gambled. Sometimes there crossed the
+court some great noble followed by two or three of his servants on his
+way to a Council: or a bishop with his chaplain, to have speech with the
+King: or a group of townsmen after a brawl, who had been brought here
+with ropes about their necks, uncertain whether all would be pardoned or
+half a dozen hanged, the uncertainty lending a very repentant and
+anxious look to their faces. Or it would be the Queen's most Excellent
+Highness herself with her ladies riding forth to see the hunt. This was
+the daily life of the Court: we read the dry history of what happened
+but we forget the scenery in which it happened--the crowds of nobles,
+bishops, abbots, knights, men-at-arms, serving men, among whom all these
+things took place. We are apt to forget, as well, the extraordinary
+brightness, the colour, the glitter and gleam that belonged to those
+times when every man went dressed in some gay livery wearing the colours
+and the crest of his lord. Who rides there, the hart couchant--the deer
+at rest--upon his helm? A Knight belonging to the Court: one of the
+Knights of King Richard the Second. Who march with the bear and ragged
+staff upon their arms? They are the Livery of the Earl of Warwick. The
+clash and gleam of arms and armour everywhere: colour on the men as well
+as the women: colour on the trappings of the horses: colour on the
+hanging arras of the wall: colour on the cloth of scarlet which they
+hang out of the windows when the royal pageant rides along.
+
+Close to the Palace, the Abbey. That too belongs to the time. Within the
+Abbey precincts the people are almost as crowded as in the Palace. But
+it is a different crowd. There is not so much colour: no arms or armour:
+an orderly crowd: there are the Benedictine monks themselves, with their
+crowd of servants, cooks, and refectory men: brewers: bakers: clothiers:
+architects, builders and masons: scribes and lawyers: foresters and
+farmers from the estates: stewards: cellarers: singing boys:
+organists--for the Abbey Church of St. Peter is as great and as rich and
+maintains as large an army of servants as the Cathedral Church of St.
+Paul.
+
+
+
+
+38. JUSTICE AND PUNISHMENTS.
+
+
+In the time of the Plantagenets the punishments inflicted on wrongdoers
+were much more lenient than those which followed in later years. There
+is none of that brutal flogging which grew up in the last century, the
+worst time in the whole history of the country, for the people. This
+flogging not only in the army and navy but also for such offences as
+vagrancy, lasted even into the present century. In the year 1804 six
+women were publicly flogged at Gloucester for this offence. Under
+Whittington this barbarous cruelty would not have been done. There were,
+it is true, certain punishments which seem excessively cruel. If a man
+struck a sheriff or an alderman he was sentenced to have his right hand
+chopped off. That is, indeed, worse than hanging. But, consider, the
+whole strength of London lay in its power to act and its resolution
+always to act, as one man. This could only be effected by habitual
+obedience to law and the most profound respect to the executive
+officers. Therefore the worst penalty possible--that which deprived a
+man of his power to work and his power to fight--which reduced him to
+ruin--which made his innocent children beggars--which branded him till
+death as a malefactor of the most dangerous kind--was inflicted for such
+an offence. Here, again, mercy stepped in; for, when the criminal was
+brought out for execution, if he expressed contrition the offended
+officer, represented by the Alderman of the Ward--begged that he might
+be pardoned.
+
+For burglary criminals were ruthlessly hanged. This crime is bad enough
+now; it is a crime which ought at all times to be punished with the
+utmost rigour. But in these days what is it that a burglar can carry
+away from an ordinary house? A clock or two: a silver ring: a lady's
+watch and chain: a few trinkets: if any money, then only a purse with
+two or three pounds. The wealth of the family is invested in various
+securities: if the burglar takes the papers they are of no use to him:
+there is a current account at the bank; but that cannot be touched.
+Books, engravings, candlesticks, plated spoons--these are of little real
+value. Formerly, however, every man kept all his money--all his
+wealth--in his own house; if he was a rich merchant he had a stone safe
+or strong box constructed in the wall of his cellar or basement--I have
+seen such a safe in an old house pulled down about seven years ago. If
+he was only a small trader or craftsman he kept his money in a box: this
+he hid: there were various hiding places: behind the bed, under the
+hearthstone--but they were all known. A burglar, therefore, might, and
+very often did, take away the whole of a man's property and reduce him
+to ruin. For this reason it was very wisely ordered that a burglar
+should be hanged.
+
+They began in the reign of Henry IV. to burn heretics. Later on they
+burned witches and poisoners. As yet they had not begun to slice off
+ears and to slit noses: there was no rack: nobody was tortured: nobody
+was branded on the hand: there was no whipping of women in Bridewell as
+a public show--that came later: there was no flogging at the cart tail.
+
+Punishments were mild. Sometimes the criminal performed the _amende
+honorable_, marching along Chepe bareheaded and wearing nothing but a
+white shirt, carrying a great wax taper, escorted by the Mayor's
+sergeants. There was a ducking-stool on the other side of the river, at
+Bank Side, in which scolds were ducked. There was the thewe, which was a
+chair in which women were made to sit, lifted high above the crowd,
+exposed to their derision. There was the pillory, which served for
+almost all the cases which now come before a police
+magistrate--adulteration, false weights and measures, selling bad meat:
+pretending to be an officer of the Mayor: making and selling bad work:
+forging title deeds; stealing--all were punished in the same way. The
+offender was carried or led through the City--sometimes mounted with his
+head to the horse's tail--always with something about his neck to show
+the nature of his offence, and placed in pillory for a certain time.
+
+There was one punishment always in reserve--the worst of all. This was
+deprivation of the privileges of a freeman and banishment from the City.
+'Go,' said the Mayor. 'Thou shalt dwell with us; trade with us;
+converse with us; no more. Go.' And so that source of trouble was
+removed.
+
+We have seen how the trades formed companies--every trade having its own
+company. It must not, however, be understood that the working man gained
+much power by their unions. They were organised: they had to obey:
+obedience was very good for them as it is for all of us, always; but it
+must be obedience to a corporate body, not to a master. This they did
+not understand and they tried to form 'covins' or trades unions of their
+own. The City put down these attempts with a stern hand. The trade
+companies ruled hours of work, wages, and standard of work. Lastly,
+though there was no City police to guard the streets, there were certain
+laws for the maintenance of order. Nobody under the rank of knight was
+to carry arms in the streets: no one was to walk about the street after
+nine at night: houses were not to be built over streets. In a word,
+there were not many laws; but the people were law abiding. And this,
+perhaps, as much as anything else, explains the greatness of London.
+
+[Illustration: THE EMBARKATION OF HENRY VIII. FROM DOVER, 1520.
+
+(_From the original painting at Hampton Court._)]
+
+
+
+
+39. THE POLITICAL POWER OF LONDON.
+
+
+Until the rapid growth of the manufacturing interests created immense
+cities in the North, the wealth and prosperity and population of London
+gave it a consideration and power in the political situation which was
+unequalled by that of any other mediaeval city. Even Paris, for instance,
+has never held an equal importance in the history of France. This power
+has been especially, and significantly, employed in the election and
+proclamation of Kings. It is not only that London has been the place
+of proclamation: it is that the Londoners themselves have repeatedly
+said, 'This shall be our King': and, as repeatedly, by that very act,
+have given him to understand that if he would not reign well he should,
+like some of his predecessors, be deposed. London chose Kings Edmund and
+Harold Harefoot, before the Conquest. After the Conquest, they elected
+Stephen at a folkmote, a gathering of all the citizens. They put him on
+the Throne and they kept him there. The power of the Londoners is very
+well put by Froissart, who wrote in the time of Richard II. and Henry
+IV., and was an eyewitness of many things which he relates. 'The
+English,' he says, 'are the worst people in the world: the most
+obstinate and the most presumptuous: and, of all England, the Londoners
+are the leaders; for, to say the truth, they are very powerful in men
+and in wealth. In the City there are 24,000 men completely armed from
+head to foot and full 30,000 archers. This is a great force and they are
+bold and courageous, and the more blood is spilled, the greater is their
+courage.'
+
+Take the deposition of Edward II., also described by Froissart. He says
+that when the Londoners found the King 'besotted' with his favourites,
+they sent word to Queen Isabella that if she could land in England with
+300 armed men she would find the citizens of London and the majority of
+the nobles and commonalty ready to join her and place her on the Throne.
+This the Queen effected: the citizens joined the little army thus
+collected--without their assistance, Froissart says, the thing could not
+have been done--and made Edward prisoner at Berkeley Castle.
+
+Or there was the capture of Richard II. This also was effected by an
+army composed entirely of Londoners 12,000 strong, led by Henry of
+Lancaster. Afterwards, when Henry of Lancaster was Henry IV., and a
+conspiracy was formed against him, the Lord Mayor said, 'Sire, King we
+have made you: King we will keep you.' The City played almost as great a
+part against Henry VI.--half-heartedly at first, because they thought
+that as he had no children there would be at some time or other an end.
+Moreover, they could not readily forget his grandfather, their own King;
+and his father, the hero of Agincourt. When, however, a son was born,
+the Londoners became openly and unreservedly Yorkists. And the Yorkists
+triumphed. The election of Richard III. was made in London. When Lady
+Jane Grey was proclaimed Queen, it was not by the Mayor and Aldermen,
+but by the Duke of Northumberland, and the City looked on in apathy,
+expecting trouble. The greatest strength of Elizabeth lay in the
+affection and support of London, which never wavered. Had Charles I.
+conciliated the City he might have died in his bed, still King of
+England. It was the City which forced James II. to fly and called over
+William Prince of Orange. It was, again, London which supported Pitt in
+his firm and uncompromising resistance to Napoleon. And in the end
+Napoleon was beaten. It cannot be too often repeated that two causes
+made the strength of London: the unity of the City, so that its vast
+population moved as one man: and its wealth. The King thought of the
+subsidies--under the names of loans, grants, benevolences--which he
+could extort from the merchants. We who enjoy the fruits of the long
+struggle maintained especially by London for the right of managing our
+own affairs, especially in the matter of taxation, cannot understand the
+tyrannies which the people of old had to endure from Kings and nobles.
+Richard II., for instance, forced the citizens to sign and seal blank
+'charts'--try to imagine the Prime Minister making the Lord Mayor, the
+Aldermen, the Common Council men, and all the more important merchants
+sign blank cheques to be filled in as he pleased! That, however, was the
+last exaction of Richard II. Henry of Lancaster went out with 12,000
+Londoners, and made him prisoner.
+
+Another factor, less generally understood, assisted and developed the
+power of London.
+
+It was also the position of the City as the centre of the country; not
+geographically, which would give Warwick that position, but from the
+construction of the roads and from its position on the Thames. But, to
+repeat, the use and wont of the City to act together by order of the
+Mayor, principally made it so great a power. Whatever troubles might
+arise, here was a solid body--'24,000 men at arms and 30,000 archers,'
+all acting on one side. The rest of the country was scattered,
+uncertain, inclined this way and that. The City, to use a modern phrase,
+'voted solid.' There were no differences of opinion in the City. And
+that, even more than its wealth, made London a far more important
+factor, politically, than the barons with all their following.
+
+
+
+
+40. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+A map of Elizabethan London, drawn by one Agas, which is almost a
+picture as well as a map, shows us very clearly the aspect of the City.
+Let us lay down the map before us. First of all, we observe the wall of
+the City; it is carefully drawn of uniform height, with battlements, and
+at regular intervals, bastions. Outside the wall there is the ditch, but
+it is now, as Stow describes it, laid out in gardens--cows are grazing
+in some parts of it--and there are mean houses built on the other side
+of it. There is a single street of houses with large gardens outside
+Aldgate, which is now Whitechapel. The north side of Houndsditch is
+already built. A street of houses runs north of Bishopsgate. No houses
+stand between this street and two or three streets outside Cripplegate.
+Moorfields are really fields. There are windmills, gardens with
+summer-houses, pasture-fields with cows, a large 'dogge house,' and
+fields where women appear to be laying out clothes to dry. Really, they
+are tenter fields, i.e. fields provided with 'tenters,' or pegs, by
+means of which cloth could be stretched. North of Moorfields is
+indicated rising ground with woods. There can be no doubt at all as to
+the course of the wall, which is here marked with the greatest
+clearness. On the east of the Tower there is already a crowded quarter
+in the Precinct of St. Katherine's: and a few buildings mark the former
+site of the great monastery of Eastminster. In the Minories a group of
+new houses marks the site of the nunnery which stood here. London Bridge
+is covered with houses: on Bank Side, Southwark, there are two round
+buildings, 'The Bearebayting' and 'The Bullebayting.' There is also,
+opposite to Blackfriars, Paris Garden, a very favourite place of resort
+for the citizens. But as yet there are no theatres. Along the river
+outside the walls we find, beyond Bridewell Palace, an open space where
+was formerly Whitefriars. Here presently grew up a curious colony called
+Alsatia, which claimed to retain the right of Sanctuary once belonging
+to the monastery. Arrests for debt could not be made within its limits.
+That is to say, it was so claimed by the residents, who resisted any
+attempt to violate this privilege by force of arms. It was a notorious
+place in the seventeenth century, filled with rogues and broken-down
+gamblers, spendthrifts and profligates. As yet (when this map was drawn)
+there are very few houses between Whitefriars and the Temple. Beyond the
+Temple there are marked Arundel Place, Paget Place, Somerset Place, the
+Savoy, York Place. Duresme--i.e. Durham--Place, and 'the Court'--i.e.
+Whitehall--of which the map gives a plan, which gives us a clear idea of
+the plan and appearance of this palace, of which only the Banqueting
+Hall remains. The Savoy, at the time (1561) was a hospital. Henry VII.
+made a hospital of it, dedicated to St. John the Baptist, receiving 100
+poor people. At the Dissolution of the Monasteries it was suppressed.
+Queen Mary restored it, and it continued as a hospital till the year
+1702, when it was finally suppressed. Like Whitefriars, and for the same
+reason, it claimed the right of Sanctuary: therefore it became the
+harbour of people described as 'rogues and masterless men.' In the City
+itself there are many large gardens and open spaces. The courts of the
+Grey Friars, now a school, are still standing: there are gardens on the
+site of the Austin Friars' monastery and gardens between Broad Street
+and Bishopsgate Street. We must not think of London as a city crowded
+with narrow lanes and courts, the houses almost touching their opposite
+neighbours. Such courts were only found beside the river: many streets,
+it is true, were narrow, but there were broad thoroughfares like
+Cheapside, Gracechurch Street, Canwicke (now Cannon Street) Tower
+Street, and Fenchurch Street. The river is covered with boats: one of
+them is a barge filled with soldiers, which is being tugged by a
+four-oared boat: packhorses are being taken to the river to drink: below
+bridge the lighters begin: two or three vessels are moored at
+Billingsgate: the ships begin opposite the Tower: two or three great
+three-masted vessels are shown: and two or three smaller ships of the
+kind called ketch, sloop, or hoy. Along the river front of the Tower are
+mounted cannon. The ditch of the Tower is filled with water. On Tower
+Hill there stands a permanent gallows: beside it is some small
+structure, which is probably a pillory with the stocks.
+
+Such is a brief account of London from this map. The original is the
+property of the Corporation and is kept in the Guildhall Library. A
+facsimile reprint has been made.
+
+
+
+
+41. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+We have passed over two hundred years. We left London under the Three
+Edwards. We find it under Elizabeth. It was a City of
+Palaces--monasteries, with splendid churches and stately buildings: town
+houses of bishops, abbots, and noble lords, every one able to
+accommodate a goodly following of liveried retainers and servants: the
+mansions of rich City merchants, sometimes as splendid as those of the
+lords: the halls of the City Companies: the hundred and twenty City
+churches. Look at London as Shakespeare saw it. Everywhere there are the
+ruins of the monasteries: some of the buildings have been destroyed with
+gunpowder: some have been pulled down: where it has been too costly to
+destroy the monastic chapels they are used as storehouses or workshops:
+the marble monuments of the buried Kings and Queens have been broken up
+and carried off: the ruins of refectory, dormitory, library, chapter
+house stand still, being taken down little by little as stones are
+wanted for building purposes: some of the ruins, indeed, lasted till
+this very century, notably a gateway of the Holy Trinity Priory, at the
+back of St. Catharine Cree, Leadenhall Street, and some of the buildings
+of St. Helen's Nunnery, beside the church of Great St. Helen's. One
+would think that the presence of all these ruins would have saddened the
+City. Not so. The people were so thoroughly Protestant that they
+regarded the ruins with the utmost satisfaction. They were a sign of
+deliverance from what their new preachers taught them was false
+doctrine. Moreover, there were other reasons why the citizens under
+Queen Elizabeth could not regret the past.
+
+[Illustration: COACHES IN THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH.
+
+(_From 'Archcaeologia.'_)]
+
+The parish churches were changed. The walls, once covered with paintings
+of saints and angels, were now scraped or whitewashed: instead of altars
+with blazing lights, there was a plain table: there were no more
+watching candles: there were no more splendid robes for the priest and
+the altar boys: the priest was transformed into a preacher: the service
+consisted of plain prayers, the reading of the Bible, and a sermon. In
+very few churches was there an organ. There was no external beauty in
+religion. Therefore external beauty in the church itself ceased for
+three hundred years to be desired. What was required was neatness, with
+ample space for all to be seated, so arranged that all might hear the
+sermon. And whereas under the Plantagenets every other man was a priest,
+a friar, or some officer or servant of a monastery, one only met here
+and there a clergyman with black gown and Genevan bands.
+
+This change alone transformed London. But there were other changes. Most
+of the great nobles had left the City. Long before they went away their
+following had been cut down to modest numbers: their great barracks had
+become useless: they were let out in tenements, and were falling into
+decay: some of them had been removed to make way for warehouses and
+offices: one or two remained till the Great Fire of 1666. Among them
+were Baynard's Castle, close to Blackfriars, and Cold Harbour. A few
+nobles continued to have houses in the City. In the time of Charles II.,
+the Duke of Buckingham had a house on College Hill, and the palaces
+along the Strand still remained.
+
+[Illustration: THE CITY FROM SOUTHWARK.]
+
+The merchants' houses took the place of these palaces. They were built
+either in the form of a quadrangle, standing round a garden, with a
+cloister or covered way running round, of which Gresham House, pulled
+down in the last century, was a very fine example. But, since few
+merchants could afford to build over so large a piece of ground and land
+was too valuable to be wasted on broad lawns and open courts, the houses
+were built in four or five stories, with rich carvings all over the
+front. The house called Sir Paul Pinder's House in Bishopsgate Street,
+pulled down only a year or two ago, was a very fine example of such a
+house. The great hall was henceforth only built in great country houses:
+in the City the following of the richest merchants, in his private
+house, consisted of a few servants only; small rooms henceforward became
+the rule: when entertainments and festivities on a large scale are held,
+the Companies' Halls may be used. The inferior kind of Elizabethan house
+may still be seen in Holborn--outside of Staple Inn: in Wych Street: in
+Cloth Fair: and one or two other places. They were narrow: three or
+four stories high: each story projected beyond the one below: they were
+gabled: the windows were latticed, with small diamond panes of glass:
+they were built of plaster and timber. Building with brick only began in
+the reign of James the First. Before every house hung a sign, on which
+was painted the figure by which the house was known: some of these signs
+may still be seen: there is one in Holywell Street: one in Ivy Lane: and
+there are many old Inns which still keep their ancient signs.
+
+
+
+
+42. ELIZABETHAN LONDON.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+The population of London at this time was perhaps, for it is not
+certain, 150,000. There were no suburbs, unless we call the Strand and
+Smithfield suburbs; the London citizen stepped outside the gates into
+the open country. This fact must be remembered when we think of the
+narrow lanes. The great danger of the City still remained, that of fire,
+for though the better houses were built of stone, the inferior sort, as
+was stated above, continued to be built of timber and plaster. There
+were no vehicles in the streets except carts, and the number of these
+was restricted to 420. When you think of London streets at this time
+remember that in most of them, in all except the busy streets and the
+chief thoroughfares, there was hardly ever any noise of rumbling wheels.
+The packhorses followed each other in long procession, laden with
+everything; there were doubtless wheelbarrows and hand carts; but the
+rumbling of the wheels was not yet a part of the daily noise.
+
+The Lord Mayor was directed by Elizabeth always to keep a certain number
+of the citizens drilled and instructed in the use of arms. When the
+Spanish invasion was threatened, the Queen ordered a body of troops to
+be raised instantly. In a single day 1,000 men, fully equipped, were
+marched off to camp. Afterwards 10,000 men were sent off, and
+thirty-eight ships were supplied. Both men and sailors were raised by
+impressment. A constant danger to the peace of the City was the
+turbulence of the prentices, these lads were always ready to rush into
+the streets, shouting, ready to attack or destroy whatever was unpopular
+at the moment. Thus, early in the reign of Henry VIII., at a time when
+there was great animosity against foreign merchants, of whom there were
+a great many beside the Hanse merchants of the Steelyard, there was a
+riot in which a great many houses of foreigners were destroyed, many
+persons were killed, Newgate was assailed and taken, eleven rioters
+hanged and 400 more taken before the King with halters round their necks
+to receive his pardon. This was called 'Evil May Day.' The disorderly
+conduct of the prentices continued during Elizabeth's reign, she ordered
+the Provost-Marshal in order to put an end to this trouble, to hang all
+disorderly persons so convicted by any Justice of the Peace.
+
+There was much complaint of extravagance in dress: rules were passed by
+the Common Council on the subject. Prentices especially were forbidden
+to dress in any but the warmest and plainest materials. The dress of the
+Blue Coat boy is exactly the dress of the prentice of the period,
+including the flat cap which the modern wearer of the dress carries in
+his pocket.
+
+[Illustration: SOUTH-EAST PART OF LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY,
+SHOWING THE TOWER AND WALL.]
+
+The punishments of this time are much more severe than had been found
+necessary in the Plantagenet period. They not only carried criminals in
+shameful procession through the City, but they flogged girls for
+idleness, apprentices for immorality, and rogues for selling goods
+falsely described. A 'pillar of reformation' was set up at the Standard
+in Cheap; here on Sunday morning the mayor superintended the flogging of
+young servants. When Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed Queen a young fellow,
+for speaking slightingly of her title, had his ears nailed to the
+pillory and afterwards cut off, heretics were burned, traitors were
+hanged first for a few minutes and then taken down and cut open--one of
+the most horrible punishments ever inflicted.
+
+The Reformation, which suppressed the religious Houses, at the same time
+suppressed the hospitals which were all religious Houses and the schools
+which belonged to the religious Houses. St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's,
+St. Mary's, St. Mary of Bethlehem, besides the smaller houses, were all
+suppressed. The sick people were sent back to their own houses; the
+brethren and sisters were dispersed. One House contained one hundred
+blind men, all these were cast adrift; another contained a number of
+aged priests--these were turned into the streets. Eight schools perished
+at the Dissolution. For a time London had neither schools nor hospitals.
+
+This could not continue. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, Bethlehem, and,
+under Queen Mary, the Savoy were refounded under new statutes as
+hospitals. For schools, St. Paul's which was never closed, was endowed
+by Dean Colet; St. Anthony's continued, the Blue Coat School was founded
+on the site of the Franciscan House. The Mercers took over the school of
+St. Thomas. The Merchant Taylors founded their school. In Southwark,
+schools were founded at St. Olave's and St. Saviour's. A few years later
+Charterhouse was converted into an almshouse and a school.
+
+
+
+
+43. TRADE.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+London was anciently the resort of 'foreign' merchants. It was rich
+because 'foreign' merchants brought and exchanged their goods at this
+port. There were no ships built in England until the reign of King
+Alfred. When the kingdom became tranquil he is said to have hired out
+his ships to foreign merchants. A list of tolls paid by foreign ships in
+the reign of King Ethelred II. shows that the imports were considerable.
+The foreign merchants, however, were not to 'forestall their markets
+from the burghers of London,' so that the retail trade was kept in
+native hands. When retail trade was separated from wholesale trade all
+that the London merchants had was the collection, the warehousing, and
+the sale of the exports. It is reasonable to suppose that foreign
+merchants coming to the City year after year would find it useful to
+have a permanent settlement--a wharf with officers and servants of their
+own. Such a settlement was, no doubt, permitted from very early times.
+But in the year 1169 was founded a trade association which, for wealth,
+success, and importance, might compare with our East India Company. This
+was the Hanseatic League (so called from the word _Hansa_, a
+convention). In the League were confederated: first, twelve towns in the
+Baltic, Luebeck at the head; next, sixty-four--and even eighty--German
+towns. They were first associated for protection against pirates: they
+speedily became the greatest trading company of the period. In the reign
+of Henry III. the League obtained a Royal Charter granting them liberty
+of constant residence at a place in London. They were permitted to have
+a permanent establishment at a place called the Steelyard--i.e. the
+place where the Steelyard or Scales had formerly been kept--under
+certain conditions, including the payment of custom dues. They were
+called the Merchants of the Steelyard: they at once drew to themselves
+the whole trade of England with the northern ports: and they remained
+there for nearly 400 years.
+
+There was another association of foreigners called the Merchants of the
+Staple. That is to say, they dealed in what was called the 'staples' of
+England--in the raw produce, as lead, tin, wool, &c. Gradually, however,
+the word Staple came to be applied solely to wool as the most important
+export. The Lord Chancellor, to this day, is seated on a Woolsack. The
+Merchants of the Staple became merged in the Merchants of the Steelyard.
+
+These foreign merchants were at all times extremely unpopular with the
+Londoners, who envied their wealth, which they thought was made at the
+expense of the City, not understanding, for a long time, that the same
+way of wealth was open to themselves. When they began to put forth
+merchant ships on their own account, they at first sought the southern
+ports, sailing to Dunquerque, Sluys, Rouen, Havre, Bordeaux, Lisbon, and
+even to the Mediterranean ports. Whittington's trade was entirely with
+the South. It was not at Luebeck or on the shores of the Baltic that he
+found his cloth of gold, his rich velvets, his silks, his gold
+embroidery, his scented wood, his wines, his precious stones. And the
+reason why he sent his ships to the South was that the trade of the
+North was in the hands of the Steelyard.
+
+Edward III. seems first of our kings to have understood the value of
+manufactures and of foreign trade. He first passed laws for the repair
+of the highways: under his reign the Merchant Adventurers were
+encouraged and assisted: he first stimulated the making of English
+cloth instead of selling our wool: under him the shipping of the London
+merchants began to increase and to develop. Still the foreign merchants
+continued to occupy the Steelyard: still our merchants were shut out of
+the northern ports: still other foreigners received permission to
+settle: even craftsmen came over from Germany and the Low Countries and
+followed their trade in London. Richard III., in order to please the
+citizens, ordered their expulsion, but it does not appear that the order
+was obeyed. Henry VII., on the other hand, persuaded many Flemish
+woollen manufacturers to come over to this country.
+
+Early in the sixteenth century the exports of English cloth by the
+foreign merchants amounted to 44,000 pieces, while the English ships
+took away no more than 1,000 pieces. When our own merchants were
+prepared with ships and had what may be called the machinery of trade;
+as a market, wharves, permission to buy and sell; it is obvious that the
+old state of things could no longer continue. It was not, however, until
+the reign of Edward VI. that the foreign merchants were finally deprived
+of all their privileges and charters.
+
+These rivals, with their powerful organisations and their hold over all
+the northern ports, once out of the way the English merchants began to
+push out their enterprises in all directions. You shall see immediately
+how they prospered.
+
+Meantime there remains a monument erected in memory of the Hanseatic
+League. In the reign of Queen Anne the merchants of Hamburg presented to
+the church where the merchants of the Steelyard had worshipped for 400
+years, a splendid screen of carved wood. Unless the church, which is
+already threatened with destruction, is pulled down, you should go to
+see that screen, and remember all that it means and commemorates.
+
+
+
+
+44. TRADE.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+English trade, that is to say, trade in English hands, practically began
+with Edward III. and, slowly increasing under his successors, gained an
+enormous development under Elizabeth. Several causes operated to produce
+this increase. In the first place the abolition of the Steelyard, though
+ordered by Edward VI., was not completely carried out till many years
+afterwards. During this period the merchants were learning the immense
+possibilities open to them when this incubus should be removed. Next,
+the great rival of London, Antwerp, suffered, like the rest of the
+Netherlands, from the religious wars. Thirdly, the wise and farseeing
+action of Gresham transferred the commercial centre of the northern
+world from that town to London.
+
+Antwerp in the fifteenth century was the richest and most prosperous
+city in western Europe. There were 200,000 inhabitants, a great many
+more than could be counted in London: 5,000 merchants met every day in
+the Bourse for the transaction of business: 2,500 vessels might be
+counted in the river: 500 loaded waggons entered every day from the
+country. It was the port of the great and rich manufacturing towns of
+Bruges and Ghent. In the latter town there were 40,000 weavers, and an
+army of 80,000 men fully armed and equipped, could be raised at any
+moment. The former town, Bruges, was the Market--the actual commercial
+centre--of the world. Hither came the merchants of Venice and Genoa,
+bringing the silks, velvets, cloth of gold, spices and precious stones
+from the East to exchange for the English wool and the produce of
+Germany and the Baltic.
+
+[Illustration: KING EDWARD VI.
+
+(_From a picture belonging to H. Hucks Gibbs, Esq._)]
+
+The Religious Wars of the sixteenth century: the ferocities, cruelties,
+and savagery of those wars: depopulated and ruined this rich and
+flourishing country: the Inquisition drove thousands of Flemings, an
+industrious and orderly folk, to England, where they established silk
+manufactures: and the carrying trade which had been wholly in the hands
+of the Antwerp shipowners was diverted and went across the narrow seas
+to London, where it has ever since remained.
+
+Before the ruin of Antwerp, Bruges, and Ghent, it was of these towns
+that the Kings of England obtained their loans. They were taken up by
+the merchants of the Low Countries at an interest of 14 per cent. This
+enormous interest, then thought quite moderate and reasonable, explains
+how the merchants of that time grew so wealthy. Part of the loans, also,
+often had to be taken in jewels. In order to negotiate these loans and
+to pay the interest an agent of the English Sovereign was kept at
+Antwerp, called the Royal Agent. Very fortunately for London, the Royal
+Agent under Edward VI., Mary, and the early years of Elizabeth, was Sir
+Thomas Gresham.
+
+You must learn something about this great man. He was the son of Sir
+Richard Gresham, formerly Lord Mayor: nephew of Sir John Gresham, also
+Lord Mayor (who preserved Bethlehem Hospital on the Dissolution of the
+Religious Houses): he came of a Norfolk family originally of the village
+of Gresham: like Whittington he was of gentle birth. He was educated at
+Cambridge: he was apprenticed to his uncle after taking his degree: and
+he was received into the Mercers' Company at the age of twenty-four. It
+must be observed that from the outset the young man had every
+advantage--good birth, good education, good society, and wealth.
+
+[Illustration: SIR THOMAS GRESHAM.]
+
+At the age of thirty-two he was appointed Royal Agent at Antwerp. At
+this time the City was at the height of its splendour and prosperity.
+Gresham walked upon the long quays, gazed at the lines of ships, saw
+the river alive with boats and barges, loading and unloading, watched
+the throng of merchants in the Bourse, saw the palaces, the rows and
+streets of palaces in which they lived, thought of London which he had
+formerly regarded with so much pride though he now perceived that it was
+even poor and quiet compared with this crowded centre of an enormous
+trade--why, the city which he had thought the envy of the whole world
+could show no more than 317 merchants in all, against Antwerp's 5,000:
+and these, though there were some esteemed wealthy, could not between
+them all raise a loan of even 10,000_l._ The King had to go abroad for
+the money and to pay 14 per cent. for it. Then he began to ask himself
+whether something could not be done to divert some of this trade to his
+native town.
+
+[Illustration: FIRST ROYAL EXCHANGE.]
+
+First of all, he applied himself to the reduction of the interest. This
+he managed to lower from fourteen per cent. to twelve and even to ten. A
+gain of four per cent. on a loan of, say, 60,000_l._ meant a saving of
+2,400_l._ a year.
+
+When he came back to England he brought with him a discovery which seems
+simple. It is, however, the most difficult thing in the world for people
+to understand: we are always discovering it, over and over again.
+
+His discovery was this--it applies to every kind of business or
+enterprise--It is that union will effect what single effort is powerless
+to attempt. The City had for centuries understood this in matters of
+government: they were now to learn the same thing in matters of trade.
+The merchants of Antwerp had a central place where they could meet for
+purposes of union and combination. Those of London had none. As yet
+union had only been practised for the regulation of trade prices and
+work. True, the merchant adventurers existed, but the spirit of
+enterprise had as yet spread a very little way.
+
+Gresham determined to present to his fellow citizens such a Bourse as
+the merchants of Antwerp had enjoyed for centuries. He built his Bourse;
+he gave it to the City: he gave it as a place of meeting for the
+merchants: he gave it for the advance of enterprise. The Queen opened it
+with great State, and called it the Royal Exchange. It stood exactly
+where the present Royal Exchange stands, but its entrance was on the
+south side, not the west. And no gift has ever been made to any city
+more noble, more farseeing, more wise, or productive of greater
+benefits.
+
+
+
+
+45. TRADE.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+The merchants got their Exchange. What did they do in it? They did most
+wonderful things with it. Greater things were never done in any
+Exchange. For the first time they were enabled to act together: and it
+was the most favourable opportunity that ever happened to any trading
+community. The charters of the foreigners were abolished: the markets of
+Bruges were depressed in consequence of the civil wars already
+beginning: that city itself, with Antwerp and Ghent, was on the point of
+ruin. The way was open, and the spirit of enterprise was awakened. In
+ordinary times it would have been the love of gain alone that awakened
+this spirit. But these were not ordinary times. The people of Western
+Europe took a hundred years to discover that Columbus had doubled the
+world: that there was a new continent across the ocean. They began to
+send their ships across: nobody as yet knew the possibilities of that
+continent with its islands: the Spaniards had the first run, but the
+French and the English were beginning to claim their share. Then a way
+to India and the East had been found out: we were no longer going to be
+dependent on the Venetians for the products of Persia, India, the
+Moluccas, China. All those turbulent and restless spirits who could not
+settle down to peaceful crafts or the dull life of the desk, longed to
+be on board ship sailing Westward Ho. Fortune was waiting for them
+there: fortune with fighting, privation, endurance--perhaps death by
+fever or by battle: yet a glorious life. Or they might sail southwards
+and so round the Cape of Good Hope--called at first the Cape of
+Storms--and across the Indian Ocean to the port of Calicut, there to
+trade. There were dangers enough even on that voyage to tempt the most
+adventurous: Moorish pirates off the coast of Morocco: European
+pirates--English pirates--coming out of the rivers and ports of Western
+Africa: storms off the Cape: hurricanes in the Indian Ocean: the rocks
+and reefs of seas as yet unsurveyed: treachery of natives. Yet there
+were never wanting men in plenty to volunteer for these long and
+perilous voyages. At home, then, the spirit of enterprise, joined with
+the spirit of adventure, achieved mighty things. The merchant
+adventurers succeeding to some of the trade of the Hanseatic League,
+established 'courts,' i.e. branches at Antwerp, Hamburg, and Dordrecht:
+they had also courts at York, Hull, and Newcastle. Many other companies
+were founded. There was the Eastland Company or merchants of Ebbing.
+Their trade was with the Baltic. There was the 'Merchant Adventurers for
+the discovery of Lands, not before known to, or frequented by, the
+English.' This afterwards became the Russian Company. They sent out Sir
+Hugh Willoughby with three ships to find a North-East passage to China.
+He and all his men were frozen to death on the shores of Russian
+Lapland. The Company afterwards took to whaling. There was also the
+Turkey Company, which lasted to well into the present century. There was
+the Royal African Company, which has been revived. There were the
+Merchants of Spain: the Merchants of France: the Merchants of Virginia:
+the East India Company: the Hudson's Bay Company: the South Sea Company:
+the Guinea Company: the Canary Company. Some of these companies were
+founded later, but they are all sprung from the spirit of enterprise,
+first called into existence by Gresham when he built his Exchange and
+brought the merchants together.
+
+[Illustration: SHIPPING IN THE THAMES, CIRCA 1660.
+
+(_From Pricke's 'South Prospect of London.'_)]
+
+By leaps and bounds the prosperity of the City increased, and has still
+continued to increase, for the three hundred years that have passed
+since Queen Elizabeth opened the Royal Exchange. Whether this prosperity
+will still further advance; whether forces, as yet unnoticed, will bring
+about the decay of London, no one can venture to prophecy. Antwerp may
+again become her rival: may perhaps surpass her; the port of Antwerp is
+rising yearly in importance: and that of Hamburg further north, has,
+like Liverpool, its miles of quays and wharves and its hundreds of
+vessels. But the trade of London is still far greater than that of any
+other port in the world, and for its three hundred years of prosperity
+we must thank, above all men, that wise merchant Sir Thomas Gresham.
+
+[Illustration: SIR FRANCIS DRAKE, IN HIS FORTY-THIRD YEAR.
+
+(_From the engraving by Elstracke._)]
+
+He did more than give an Exchange to the City. He gave a college: he
+gave his own house in Broad Street for a college: he endowed it with
+professorships: he intended it to become for London what Christ Church
+was to Oxford, or Trinity to Cambridge. It has been converted into a
+place for the delivery of lectures, but there are signs that the City
+will once more have such a college as Gresham intended.
+
+
+
+
+46. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+There were no theatres in England, nor any Plays, before the reign of
+Queen Elizabeth. This is a statement which is true, but needs
+explanation. It is not the case that there was no acting. On the
+contrary, there has always been acting of some kind or other. There was
+acting at the fairs, where the Cheap Jack and the Quack had their
+tumbling boys and clowns to attract the crowd. There were always
+minstrels and tumblers, men and women who played, sang, danced, and
+tumbled in the hall for the amusement of the great people in the long
+winter evenings. Not including the wandering mummers, the Theatre was
+preceded by the Religious Drama, the Pageant, and the Masque.
+
+The Religious Drama was usually performed in churches, but sometimes in
+market-places and in front of churches. They represented scenes from the
+Bible and acts of saints. In a time when the people could not read, such
+shows presented Sacred History in a most vivid form. No one could
+possibly forget any detail in the Passion of Our Lord who had once seen
+it performed in a Mystery, with the dresses complete, with appropriate
+words and action, and with music. In the year 1409 there was a play
+representing the Creation of the World performed at Clerkenwell. It
+lasted eight days, and was witnessed by a vast concourse of all ranks.
+Here were shown Paradise, our first parents, the admonition of the
+Creator, the Fall, and the expulsion. Such a sight was better than a
+hundred sermons for teaching the people.
+
+The plays were not generally so long and so ambitious. They acted
+detached scenes: the two men of Emmaus meeting the Risen Lord: the
+Raising of Lazarus: the Birth of Christ: the Flood: the Fall of Lucifer:
+the Shepherds of Bethlehem: and other scenes. The Mystery or Sacred Play
+was the Sunday school of the middle ages. By those plays they learned
+the whole of Scripture History. The churches taught detached portions by
+the frescoes on the wall, the painted windows and the carvings: but the
+history in its sequence was taught by the Sacred Dramas.
+
+We have very full accounts of one Miracle Play, that which was annually
+performed by the Guilds of the City of Chester. It was performed at
+Whitsuntide and lasted three days. The play began with the 'Fall of
+Lucifer' performed by the tanners: went on to the 'Creation,' by the
+drapers: then to the 'Flood,' and so on. Nine plays were performed on
+the first day; nine on the second; and seven on the third. Each Guild
+provided a scaffold on wheels. The scaffold was provided with a canopy
+which would represent the sky, or the roof of a house, or a tent, or a
+cave, as the play demanded: the performers were properly dressed for
+their parts: there was music, and in some cases there were songs. Under
+the scaffold was the room where the actors dressed and where the
+'properties' were kept. Every play was performed in every principal
+street. When one was finished the scaffold was rolled to another station
+and the play was repeated. This method prevented crowding. The most
+sacred Persons were exhibited at these plays, and nothing was spared to
+make them realistic to the last degree. Sometimes devils were put upon
+the stage: flames issued from their mouths: they performed tricks of
+buffoonery: they dragged off sinners to their doom. Sometimes comic
+scenes were introduced, as in the play of the 'Flood,' where it was
+common to represent Noah's wife as a shrew who beats her husband and
+refuses to go into the Ark.
+
+These plays were swept away by the Reformation. They had been productive
+for a long time of mischief rather than of instruction. The profanity of
+the comic scenes increased: and reverence was destroyed when in the same
+tableau which presented the most sacred of events appeared the most
+unbridled buffoons. Religious plays have never been allowed since the
+Reformation. Should they again be put upon the stage it must be under
+the safeguard of those who can be trusted to admit of no other
+consideration than the presentation in the most reverent manner of
+sacred subjects. There must be no thought of gain for those who manage,
+or those who act, such plays. Many scenes and events of the Bible would
+lend themselves wonderfully to dramatic rendering. But the choice of
+these must not be left to the lessee of a theatre: nor must the acting
+of such plays be permitted to those who live by making the people laugh.
+
+
+
+
+47. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+After the religious dramas, the Pageants gratified the desire for
+spectacle and show. Pageants were held on every grand occasion: to
+welcome the sovereign: to honour the new Lord Mayor: to celebrate a
+victory. Then they erected triumphal arches adorned with pasteboard
+castles, ships, houses, caves--all kinds of things. They either carried
+with them, as part of the procession, or they stationed at some point,
+the City Giants. London was not alone in having giants. York, Norwich,
+Chester, possessed city giants. In Belgium the city giant is still
+carried in procession in Antwerp, Douai, and other towns. The figure of
+the giant symbolised the strength and power of the city. After Agincourt
+Henry V. was welcomed at the south gate of London Bridge by two giants:
+his son, Henry VI., was also received by a giant seventeen years later.
+Two giants stood on London Bridge to welcome Philip and Mary: the same
+two, at Temple Bar, afterwards welcomed Elizabeth. The pair of giants
+now in Guildhall were carved in 1707. The names Gog and Magog are wrong.
+The original names were Gogmagog and Corineus.
+
+The following account of the Pageant to celebrate the return of the
+victor Henry V. after Agincourt is preserved in Stow's 'London.'
+
+The Mayor and Aldermen, dressed in scarlet, with collars and chains,
+with 400 citizens in 'murrey,' all well mounted, rode out to meet the
+King at Blackheath. Then, after formal greetings, they all rode to
+London. In Southwark the King was met by all the London clergy in their
+most sumptuous robes, with crosses and censers. At the entrance of
+London Bridge, on the top of the tower, stood a pair of giants, male and
+female, the former bearing in his right hand an axe, and in his left
+hand the keys of the City. Around them stood a band of trumpeters.
+
+On the drawbridge were two lofty columns, on one of which stood an
+antelope and on the other a lion--both the King's crests.
+
+At the other end of the Bridge was another tower, and within it an image
+of St. George, with a great number of boys representing angels. These
+sang an anthem, 'Give thanks, O England, to God for victory.' This is
+supposed to be preserved in the song 'Our King went forth to Normandy.'
+
+On Cornhill there was erected a tent of crimson cloth ornamented with
+the King's arms. Within it was a company of 'prophets' in golden coats.
+As the King approached they set loose a great number of small birds,
+which fluttered about while the 'prophets' sung 'Cantate Domino canticum
+novum'--'Sing unto the Lord a new song.'
+
+In Cheapside the conduit was hung with green. Here sat the twelve
+Apostles and the twelve Kings, Martyrs and Confessors of England. They
+also sung a chant and made the conduit run with wine. This represented
+the reception of Abraham by Melchisedek.
+
+The Cross of Chepe was built over by a high tower of wood covered all
+over with splendid coats of arms. There was a stage in front, on which a
+crowd of girls came with timbrels dancing and singing. Thus the maidens
+welcomed David when he returned from the slaughter of Goliath. And all
+about the building were crowds of boys, representing the Heavenly Host,
+who showered down coins resembling gold, and boughs of laurel, and sang
+'Te Deum Laudamus.'
+
+Lastly, there was another tower at the west end of Chepe. In each corner
+of this stood a girl, who out of a cup strewed golden leaves before the
+feet of the King. And there was a high canopy painted with blue and
+stars, and beneath a figure all gold, to represent the sun surrounded by
+angels singing and playing all kinds of musical instruments.
+
+This witnessed, the King went on to St. Paul's to pay his devotions.
+
+When you read this bald account of one of the greatest Pageants ever
+celebrated in the City, you must fill it up by imagining the long
+procession, every one in his place. Trumpeters, bowmen in leather
+jerkins, men-at-arms in shining helmet and cuirass, horsemen in full
+armour, knights, nobles, heralds all in full panoply, banners and
+bannerets, the Bishop and all the clergy, the King and his retinue, the
+Lord Mayor and his four hundred followers. Imagine the blare of the
+trumpets, the singing of the chants, the roaring of the people, the
+crimson hangings all along the line of march at every window. There were
+no police to keep the line: you might see the burgesses running out of
+the taverns on their way with blackjacks of Malmsey to regale the
+gallant soldiers who had fought and won the victory. You would see the
+King bareheaded. Why was he bareheaded? Because he was so modest--this
+brave King. Because he would not let the people see his helmet dinted
+and misshapen with the signs and scars of hard battle in which he had
+played his part as well as any humble leather-jerkined bowman in his
+array. Your ancestors, these soldiers and these citizens: your
+forefathers. They knew, far better than you will ever know, how to
+marshal a gallant show. We have lost the art of making a Pageant. It
+remains with us--once a year--in the Lord Mayor's Show. But think of
+Henry's Riding into London compared with the Lord Mayor's Show!
+
+
+
+
+48. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+Between the Pageant and the Play stands the Masque, a form of
+entertainment which achieved its greatest splendour both in stage
+mounting and in the words and songs in the reigns of Elizabeth and
+James I. Nowhere was the Masque more carefully studied and more
+magnificently presented than in London. The scenic display which in the
+early theatre was so meagre was carried in the Masque to a height never
+surpassed until the splendid shows of the present day. Nor did the
+greatest poets disdain to write words for the Masque. The most beautiful
+of those which remain are to be found in Ben Jonson's works. Every great
+man's house had a hall which was used for the Masque. Bacon, who gives
+directions for building a house, orders that there must be a room built
+on purpose for these performances. Under it is to be another room for
+the actors to dress and for the 'properties'--i.e. the things requisite
+for the presentation of the Masque, such as scenery, the woods,
+fountains, rocks, palaces, &c.--that might be required. Let us show what
+a Masque was like by describing one of Ben Jonson's. It is called the
+Masque of Oberon, and was performed before Prince Henry, the eldest son
+of James I., who died in youth.
+
+The scene presents a rock with trees beyond it and 'all the wildness
+that can be presented.' All is dark. Presently the moon rising shows a
+Satyr, one of the beings with whom the ancients peopled the forests and
+wild places. They were drawn with the feet and legs of goats, short
+horns on the head, and the body covered with thick hair. This Satyr
+lifts his head and calls his companions. There is no answer. He blows
+his cornet. Echo answers him. He blows again, and is again mocked by the
+Echo. A third time he blows, and other Satyrs come leaping and dancing
+upon the stage. Silenus, their leader, bids them prepare to see the
+young Prince Oberon.
+
+The scene opens: the rocks and forests disappear: there is shown a
+glorious palace whose walls and gates are transparent. Before the gates
+lie asleep two 'Sylvans'--i.e. men of the woods. The Satyrs gather round
+these sleeping sentinels and wake them up with singing:
+
+    Buzz, quoth the blue fly:
+      Hum, quoth the bee:
+    Buzz and hum they cry
+      And so do we.
+    In his ear, in his nose,
+      Thus do you see? [They tickle them.]
+    He ate the dormouse
+      Else it was he.
+
+The Sylvans wake: they explain that it is yet too early for the gates to
+open. Meantime let them sing and dance to while away the time. One of
+them sings therefore. After the song they fall into an 'antick dance
+full of gesture and swift motion' and thus continue till the crowing of
+a cock gives the signal for the whole palace to open. It is like a
+transformation scene at a pantomime. There is the palace with all its
+occupants--the 'whole nation of Fays' or Fairies. Some are playing
+instruments of music; some are singing: some are bearing lights: at the
+back of the stage sit the 'Knights masquers.' With them Oberon in his
+chariot. And then, drawn by two white bears, guarded by three Sylvans on
+each side, the chariot moves down the stage. Observe that to produce all
+these effects the stage must have been very deep. The song they sing is
+in praise of the King:
+
+        Melt earth to sea, sea flow to air,
+          And air fly into fire,
+        Whilst we in tunes to Arthur's chair
+          Bear Oberon's desire:
+    Than which there's nothing can be higher
+      Save James to whom it flies:
+    But he the wonder is of tongues and ears and eyes--
+
+The Satyrs leap and dance again for joy at so splendid a sight.
+
+Then Silenus speaks in praise of Prince Oberon, who is, of course,
+Prince Henry, the elder son of James, who died young. The flattery is no
+worse than was usual in Masques. Silenus says that the Prince--
+
+            Stays the time from turning old,
+    And keeps the age up in a head of gold.
+    He makes it ever day and ever spring
+    When he doth shine, and quickens everything.
+
+Then two Fays sing a song and all the Fays together dance, after which
+all together sing. Then Oberon and his knights dance. Another song
+follows. Then they all together dance 'measures, corantos, and
+galliards,' till Phosphorus the day star appears and calls them away--
+
+    To rest! To rest! The herald of the day,
+    Bright Phosphorus commands you hence. Obey.
+
+They quickly dance their last dance, one by one getting into the Palace.
+Then the Star vanishes, the day breaks, and while the last song is sung
+the 'machine closes'--i.e. the Palace becomes a wall of the room and the
+show is over. This is the pretty song which ends the Masque:
+
+        O yet how early and before her time,
+        The envious morning up doth climb,
+          Though she not love her bed!
+        What haste the jealous sun doth make
+        His fiery horses up to take
+          And once more show his head!
+        Lest, taken with the brightness of this night,
+    The world should wish it last and never miss his light.
+
+
+
+
+49. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS.
+
+PART IV.
+
+
+Through the Religious Drama, the Pageant, the Masque, we work our way to
+the Play itself. The first beginnings of the modern Drama must here be
+passed over: there were the rough and unformed comedies such as 'Gammer
+Gurton's Needle,' performed in a college hall: or the tragedy played on
+boards spread over a waggon in the courtyard of an inn. Let us suppose
+that we are past the beginnings and are in Shakespeare's time--i.e. the
+end of Queen Elizabeth and the whole reign of James I.
+
+The first theatre was built in 1570. Thirty years after there were
+seven. The Queen had companies of children to play before her. They were
+the boys of the choirs of St. Paul's, Westminster, Whitehall, and
+Windsor. The actors called themselves the servants of some great lord.
+Lord Leicester, Lord Warwick, Lord Pembroke, Lord Howard, the Earl of
+Essex, and others all had their company of actors--not all at the same
+time. The principal Houses were those at Southwark, and especially at
+Bank Side, where there were three, including the famous Globe: the
+Blackfriars Playhouse: the Fortune in Golden Lane, and the Curtain at
+Shoreditch. If you will look at the map you will observe that not one of
+these theatres is within the City--that at Blackfriars was in the former
+precinct of the Dominicans and outside the City. No theatre was allowed
+in the City. Thus early sprang up the prejudice against actors. Probably
+this was of old standing, and first belonged to the time when the
+minstrel and the tumbler, the musician and the dancing girl, the buffoon
+and the contortionist, wandered about the country free of rule and
+discipline, leading careless and lawless lives.
+
+The theatre was octagonal in shape but circular within. What we call the
+pit was called the 'yarde.' The stage projected into the 'yarde,' about
+three or four feet high. The people who filled the 'yarde' were called
+groundlings. Round the house were three galleries, the lowest of which
+contained 'rooms' or private boxes: what we call the upper circle and
+the gallery were above. There were no seats in the pit, nor apparently
+in the upper circles. On either side of the stage sat or lay gentlemen,
+chiefly of the younger kind, who smoked pipes of tobacco and talked
+loudly, disturbing the performance. At the back of the stage was a kind
+of upper stage, supported on columns, which gave the players a tower,
+gallery, wall, a town, or an upper story of a house, or anything of the
+kind that they wanted. There was a great sale of apples, nuts, and ale
+before the play began and between the acts: boys hawked the newest books
+about the 'rooms': the people while they waited smoked pipes, played
+cards. Above the stage on one side was the 'music.' Three times the
+trumpets sounded. At the first, those who were outside hurried in to get
+a place: at the second, the card-players left off their games: at the
+third, those who bawled apples and ale and shouted the name of the new
+book became silent: the audience settled down: the Play began. Not much
+costume was wanted: that of the Elizabethan--noble--courtier--young
+knight--clown--fitted any and every age. There was little scenery
+required: blue hangings above meant day: black hangings night: the
+actors came out upon the advanced stage and played their parts. No doubt
+the illusion was as complete as we can contrive with all our scenery,
+mounting, and correctness of costume.
+
+[Illustration: THE GLOBE THEATRE.]
+
+The parts of women were taken by boys. No women appeared on the stage
+until the reign of Charles II. The Play began with the Prologue, spoken
+by an actor dressed in a long black velvet coat bowing very humbly to
+the audience. After the Play was over the clowns began to tumble and to
+sing. In short, a farce succeeded a tragedy. The time of performance was
+one o'clock, and the performance lasted until five.
+
+In the year 1610 the Lord Mayor and Aldermen being alarmed at the
+increasing popularity of the Play, ordered that there should be only two
+theatres, the Fortune in Golden Lane and the Globe at Bankside. This
+order, however, like so many other laws, was only passed to satisfy a
+passing scare and does not seem to have been carried into effect. It was
+in such a theatre as this and with such scenery that the immortal plays
+of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson were acted. When next you read a play of
+Shakespeare, remember the stage projecting into the pit; the people in
+the pit all standing, the gallants on the stage talking and smoking, the
+ladies in the boxes, the boys enjoying apples and nuts and ale and new
+books, and the actors playing partly on the stage advanced and partly on
+the stage behind.
+
+
+
+
+50. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+You have seen the City as it appeared to one who walked about its
+streets and watched the people. It was free, busy and prosperous, except
+at rare intervals, when its own internal dissensions, or the civil wars
+of the country, or the pretensions of the Sovereign, disturbed the peace
+of the City. Behind this prosperity, however, lay hid all through the
+middle ages, and down to two hundred years ago, four great and
+ever-present terrors. The first was the Terror of Leprosy: the second
+the Terror of Famine: the third was the Terror of Plague: the last was
+the Terror of Fire.
+
+[Illustration: CIVIL COSTUME ABOUT 1620.
+
+(_From a contemporary broadside._)]
+
+[Illustration: COSTUME OF A LAWYER.
+
+(_From a broadside, dated 1623._)]
+
+As for the first two, we have seen how lazar houses were established
+outside every town, and how public granaries were built. Let us consider
+the third. The Plague broke out so often that there was hardly any time
+between the tenth and the seventeenth century when some living person
+could not remember a visitation of this awful scourge. It appeared in
+London first--i.e. the first mention of it occurs in history--in the
+year 962: again in 1094: again in 1111: then there seems to have been a
+respite for 250 years. In the year 1348 the Plague carried off many
+thousands: in 1361 it appeared again: in 1367 and in 1369. In 1407
+30,000 were carried off in London alone by the Plague. In 1478 a plague
+raged throughout the country, which was said to have destroyed more
+people than the Wars of the Roses. But we must accept all mediaeval
+estimates of numbers as indicating no more than great mortality. With
+the sixteenth century began a period of a hundred and sixty years,
+marked with attacks of the Plague constantly recurring, and every time
+more fatal and more widespread. Nothing teaches the conditions of human
+life more plainly than the history of the Plague in London. We are
+placed in the world in the midst of dangers, and we have to find out for
+ourselves how to meet those dangers and to protect ourselves. Thus a
+vast number of persons were crowded together within the walls of the
+City. The streets were all narrow: the houses were generally of three or
+more stories, built out in front so as to obstruct the light and air;
+there were many courts, in which the houses were mere hovels: there was
+no drainage: refuse of all kinds lay about the streets: everything that
+was required for the daily life was made in the City, which added a
+thousand noisome smells and noxious refuse. Then the Plague came and
+carried off its thousands and disappeared. Then the survivors went on
+their usual course. Nothing was changed. Yet the Plague was a voice
+which spoke loudly. It said 'Clean yourselves: cease to defile the soil
+of the City with your decaying matter: build your houses in wider
+streets: do not shut out the sunshine--which is a splendid purifier--or
+light and air. Keep yourselves clean--body and raiment, and house and
+street.' The voice spoke, but no one heard. Then came the Plague again.
+Still no one heard the voice. It came again and again. It came in 1500,
+in 1525, in 1543, in 1563, in 1569, in 1574, in 1592, in 1603 (when
+30,575 died), in 1625 (when 35,470 died), in 1635 (when 10,400 died),
+and lastly, in 1665. And in all that time no one understood that voice,
+and the City was never cleansed. All that was done was to light bonfires
+in the street in order to increase the circulation of the air. After the
+last, and worst attack, in 1666 the City was burned, and in the
+purification of the flames it emerged clean, and the Plague has never
+since appeared. The same voice speaks to mankind still in every
+visitation of every new pestilence. It used to cry aloud in time of
+Plague: it cries aloud now in time of typhoid, diphtheria, and cholera.
+Diseases spring from ignorance and from vice. Physicians cannot cure
+them: but they can learn their cause and they can prevent.
+
+The Plague of 1665 began in the autumn of the year before. It had been
+raging in Amsterdam and Hamburg in 1663. Precautions were taken to keep
+it out by stopping the importation of goods from these towns. But these
+proved ineffectual. Certain bales from Holland were landed and taken to
+a house in Long Acre, Drury Lane. Here they were opened by two
+Frenchmen, both of whom caught the disease and died. A third Frenchman
+who was seized in the same house was removed to Bearbinder Lane, St.
+Swithin's Lane, where he, too, died. And then the disease began to
+spread. A severe frost checked it for a time. But in March, when milder
+weather returned, it broke out again.
+
+The disease, when it seized upon a person, brought upon him a most
+distressing horror of mind. This was followed by fever and delirium. But
+the certain signs of the plague were spots, pustules, and swellings,
+which spread over the whole body. Death in most cases rapidly followed.
+Some there were who recovered, but the majority gave themselves over for
+lost on the first appearance. Many of the physicians ran away from the
+infected City: many of the parish clergy deserted their churches. The
+Lord Mayor and Aldermen, however, remained, by their presence giving
+heart to those of the clergy and physicians who stayed, and by their
+prudent measures preventing a vast amount of additional suffering which
+would otherwise have fallen upon the unhappy people.
+
+
+
+
+51. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+In the month of May it was found that twenty City parishes were
+infected. Certain preventions, rather than remedies, of which there were
+none, were now employed by the Mayor. Infected houses were shut up: no
+one was allowed to go in or to come out: food was conveyed by buckets
+let down from an upper window: the dead bodies were lowered in the same
+way, from the windows: on the doors were painted red crosses with the
+words, 'Lord, have mercy upon us!' Watchmen were placed at the doors to
+prevent the unhappy prisoners from coming out. All the dogs and cats in
+the City, being supposed to carry about infection in their fur or hair,
+were slaughtered--40,000 dogs, it is stated, and 200,000 cats, which
+seems an impossible number, were killed. They also tried, but without
+success, to kill the rats and mice. Everything was tried except the one
+thing wanted--air and cleanliness. At the outset a great many of the
+better sort left the City and stayed in the country till the danger was
+over: others would have followed but the country people would not suffer
+their presence and drove them back with clubs and pikes. So they had to
+come back and die in the City. Then all the shops closed: all industries
+were stopped: men could no longer sit beside each other: the masters
+dismissed their apprentices and their workmen and their servants. In the
+river the ships lay with their cargoes half discharged: on the quays
+stood the bales, unopened. In the churches there were no services except
+where the scanty congregation sat singly and apart. The Courts of
+Justice were empty: there were no crimes to try: in the streets the
+passengers avoided each other. In the markets which had to be kept open,
+the buyer lifted down his purchase with a hook and dropped the money
+into a bowl of vinegar. Many families voluntarily shut their houses and
+would neither go in or out. Some of these escaped the infection; the
+history of one such family during their six months' imprisonment has
+been preserved. They thanked God solemnly every morning for continued
+health: they prayed three times a day for safety. Some went on board
+ship and, as the Plague increased, dropped down the river.
+
+[Illustration: A COUNTRYMAN. A COUNTRYWOMAN.
+
+ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; _temp._ CHARLES I.
+
+(_From Speed's map of 'The Kingdom of England,' 1646._)]
+
+The deaths, which in the four weeks of July numbered 725, 1,089, 1,843,
+and 2,010, respectively, rose in August and September to three, four,
+five, and even eight thousand a week: but it was believed that the
+registers were badly kept and that the numbers were greater than
+appeared. Every evening carts were sent round, the drivers who smoked
+tobacco as a disinfectant, crying out, 'Bring out your Dead. Bring out
+your Dead,' and ringing a bell. The churchyards were filled and pits
+were dug outside the City into which the bodies were thrown without
+coffins. When the pestilence ceased the churchyards were covered with a
+thick deposit of fresh mould to prevent ill consequences. It was
+observed that during the prevalence of the disease there was an
+extraordinary continuance of calm and serene sunshine. For many weeks
+together not the least breath of wind could be perceived.
+
+When the summer was over and the autumn came on, the disease became
+milder in its form: it lasted longer: and whereas, at the first, not one
+in five recovered, now not two in five died. Presently the cold weather
+returned and the Plague was stayed. They burned or washed all the linen,
+flannel, clothes, bedding, tapestry and curtains belonging to the
+infected houses: and they whitewashed the rooms in which the disease had
+appeared. But they did not take steps for the cleansing of the City. The
+voice had spoken in vain. The number of deaths during the year was
+registered as 97,306 of which 68,596 were attributed to the Plague. But
+there seems little doubt that the registers were inefficiently kept. It
+was believed that the number who perished by Plague alone was at least
+100,000.
+
+It is easy to write down these figures. It is difficult to understand
+what they mean. Among them, a quarter at least, would be the
+breadwinners, the fathers of families. In many cases all perished
+together, parents and children: in others, the children were left
+destitute. Then there was no work. There were 100,000 working men out of
+employment. All these people had to be kept. The Lord Mayor, assisted by
+his Aldermen and two noble Lords, Albemarle and Craven, organised a
+service of relief. The King gave a thousand pounds a week: the City gave
+600_l._ a week: the merchants contributed thousands every week. And so
+the people were kept from starving.
+
+When it was all over Pepys, who kept his Diary through the time of the
+Plague but was not one of those who stayed in the infected City, notes
+the enormous number of beggars. Who should they be but the poor
+creatures, the women and the children, the old and the infirm who had
+lost their breadwinners, the men who loved them and worked for them? The
+history is full of dreadful things: but this amazing crowd of beggars is
+the most dreadful.
+
+
+
+
+52. THE TERROR OF FIRE.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+[Illustration: A CITIZEN. A CITIZEN'S WIFE.
+
+ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; _temp._ CHARLES I.
+
+(_From Speed's map of 'The Kingdom of England,' 1646._)]
+
+The City of London has suffered from fire more than any other great
+town. In the year 961 a large number of houses were destroyed: in 1077,
+1086, and 1093, a great part of the City was burned down. In 1136, a
+fire which broke out at London Stone, in the house of one Aylward,
+spread east and west as far as Aldgate on one side and St. Erkinwald's
+shrine in St. Paul's Cathedral on the other. London Bridge, then built
+of wood, perished in the fire, which for five hundred years was known
+as the Great Fire. In these successive fires every building of Saxon
+erection, to say nothing of the Roman period, must have perished.
+
+But the ravages of all the fires together did less harm than the
+terrible fire which laid the greater part of London in ashes in the year
+1666. If you will refer to the map of London you may mark off within the
+walls the North-East angle: that part contained by the wall and a
+straight line running from Coleman Street to Tower Hill. With the
+exception of that corner the whole of London within the walls, and
+beyond as far as the Temple, was entirely destroyed.
+
+The fire broke out at a baker's in Pudding Lane, Thames Street. It was
+early on Sunday morning on the second day of September, 1666. It was
+then, and is now, a place where the houses stood very thick and close
+together: all round were warehouses filled with oil, wine, tar, and
+every kind of inflammable stuff. The baker's shop contained a large
+quantity of faggots and brushwood, so that the flames caught and spread
+very rapidly. The people, for the most part, had time to remove their
+most valuable things, but their furniture, their clothes, the stock of
+their shops, the tools of their trade, they had to leave behind them.
+Some hurriedly placed their things in the churches for safety, as if the
+fire would respect the sanctity of these buildings. A stranger Sunday
+was never spent than this, when those who had escaped were asking where
+to go, and those upon whom the flames were advancing were tearing out of
+their houses whatever they could carry away, and the rest of the town
+were looking on and asking whether the flames would be stayed before
+they reached their houses.
+
+Among those who thought that a church would be a safe place were the
+booksellers of Paternoster Row. They carried all their books into St.
+Paul's Cathedral and retired--their stock in trade was safe. But the
+flames closed round upon the Cathedral: they seized on Paternoster Row,
+so that the booksellers like the rest were fain to fly: and presently
+towering to the sky flamed up the lofty roof of nave and chancel and
+tower. Then with an awful crash the flaming timbers fell down into the
+church below. Even the Cathedral was burned with the rest, and with it
+all the books.
+
+[Illustration: A GENTLEMAN. A GENTLEWOMAN.
+
+ORDINARY CIVIL COSTUME; _temp._ CHARLES I.
+
+(_From Speed's map of 'The Kingdom of England,' 1646._)]
+
+All Sunday, Monday, Tuesday and part of Wednesday, the fire raged, till
+it seemed as if there would be no end until the City was utterly
+destroyed. Happily a remnant was saved, as you have seen. The fire was
+stopped at last by blowing up houses everywhere to arrest its progress.
+Close by the Temple Church (which barely escaped) they stopped it in
+this way. At Aldersgate, Cripplegate, and Bishopsgate, they used the
+same means, and at Pye Corner, Smithfield. Nearly opposite Bartholomew's
+Hospital, you may still see the image of a boy set up to commemorate the
+stopping of the fire at that point. Had it gone further we should have
+lost St. Bartholomew the Great and the houses of Cloth Fair.
+
+[Illustration: LUD-GATE ON FIRE.]
+
+When the fire stopped the people sat down to consider the losses they
+had sustained and the best way out of them.
+
+St. Paul's Cathedral, that ancient and venerable edifice, with its thick
+walls and roof so lofty, that it seemed as if no fire but the fire from
+heaven could reach it, was a pile of ruins, the walls of the nave and
+transept standing, the choir fallen into the crypt below. The Parish
+churches to the number of 88 were burned: the Royal Exchange--Gresham's
+Exchange--was down and all the statues turned into lime, with the
+exception of Gresham's alone: nearly all the great houses left in the
+City, the great nobles' houses, such as Baynard's Castle, Coldharbour,
+Bridewell Palace, Derby House, were in ashes: all the Companies' Halls
+were gone: warehouses, shops, private residences, palaces and
+hovels--everything was levelled with the ground and burned to ashes.
+Five-sixths of the City were destroyed: an area of 436 acres was covered
+with the ruins: 13,200 houses were burned: it is said that 200,000
+persons were rendered homeless--an estimate which would give an average
+of 15 residents to each house. Probably this is an exaggeration. The
+houseless people, however, formed a kind of camp in Moorfields just
+outside the wall, where they lived in tents, and cottages hastily run
+up. The place now called Finsbury Square stands on the site of this
+curious camp.
+
+[Illustration: PAUL PINDAR'S HOUSE.]
+
+We ask ourselves in wonder how life was resumed after so great a
+calamity. The title deeds to houses and estates were burned--who would
+claim and prove the right to property? The account books were all
+lost--who could claim or prove a debt? The warehouses and shops with
+their contents were gone--who could carry on business? The craftsmen had
+lost their employment--how were they to live?
+
+Of debts and rents and mortgages and all such things, little could be
+said. It was not a time to speak of the past. They must think of the
+future: they must all begin the world anew.
+
+
+
+
+53. THE TERROR OF FIRE.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+They must begin the world anew. For most of the merchants nothing was
+left to them but their credit--their good name: try to imagine the havoc
+caused by burning all the docks, warehouses, wharves, quays, and shops
+in London at the present day with nothing at all insured!
+
+[Illustration: LONDON, AS REBUILT AFTER THE FIRE.]
+
+But the citizens of London were not the kind of people to sit down
+weeping. The first thing was to rebuild their houses. This done there
+would be time to consider the future. The Lord Mayor and the Aldermen
+took counsel together how to rebuild the City. They called in Sir
+Christopher Wren, lately become an architect after being astronomer at
+Cambridge, and Evelyn: they invited plans for laying out the City in a
+more uniform manner with wider streets and houses more protected from
+fire. Both Wren and Evelyn sent in plans. But while these were under
+consideration the citizens were rebuilding their houses.
+
+They did not wait for the ashes to get cool. As soon as the flames were
+extinct and the smoke had cleared: as soon as it was possible to make
+way among the ruined walls, every man sought out the site of his own
+house and began to build it up again. So that London, rebuilt, was
+almost--not quite, for some improvements were effected--laid out with
+the same streets and lanes as before the fire. It was two years,
+however, before the ruins were all cleared away and four years before
+the City was completely rebuilt. Ten thousand houses were erected during
+that period, and these were all of brick: the old timbered house with
+clay between the posts was gone: so was the thatched roof: the houses
+were all of brick: the roofs were tiled: the chief danger was gone. At
+this time, too, they introduced the plan of a pavement on either side of
+smooth flat stones with posts to keep carts and waggons from interfering
+with the comforts of the foot passengers. It took much longer than four
+years to erect the Companies' Halls. About thirty of the churches were
+never rebuilt at all, the parishes being merged in others. The first to
+be repaired, not rebuilt, was that of St. Dunstan's two years after the
+fire: in four years more, another church was finished. In every year
+after this one or two: and the last of the City churches was not rebuilt
+till thirty one years after the fire.
+
+[Illustration: COACH OF THE LATTER HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_From Loggan's 'Oxonia Illustrata.'_)]
+
+[Illustration: WAGGON OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_From Loggan's 'Oxonia Illustrata.'_)]
+
+It was at this time of universal poverty that the advantages of union
+was illustrated to those who had eyes to see. First of all, the
+Corporation had to find food--therefore work. Thousands were employed in
+clearing away the rubbish and carting it off so as to make the streets,
+at least, free for traffic. The craftsmen who had no work to do, were
+employed when this was done on the building operations. The quays were
+cleared, and the warehouses put up again, for the business of the Port
+continued. Ships came, discharged their cargoes, and waited for their
+freight outward bound. Then the houses arose and the shops began to open
+again. And the Companies stood by their members: they gave them credit:
+advanced loans: started them afresh in the world. Had it not been for
+the Companies, the fate of London after the fire would have been as the
+fate of Antwerp after the Religious Wars. But there must have been many
+who were ruined completely by this fearful calamity. Hundreds of
+merchants, and retailers, having lost their all must have been unable to
+face the stress and anxiety of making this fresh start. The men advanced
+in life; the men of anxious and timid mind; the incompetent and feeble:
+were crushed. They became bankrupt: they went under: in the great crowd
+no one heeded them: their sons and daughters took a lower place: perhaps
+they are still among the ranks into which it is easy to sink; out of
+which it is difficult to rise. The craftsmen were injured least: their
+Companies replaced their tools for them: work was presently resumed
+again: their houses were rebuilt and, as for their furniture, there was
+not much of it before the fire and there was not much of it after the
+fire.
+
+The poet Dryden thus writes of the people during and after the fire:
+
+    Those who have homes, when home they do repair,
+      To a last lodging call their wandering friends:
+    Their short uneasy sleeps are broke with care
+      To look how near their own destruction tends.
+
+    Those who have none sit round where once it was
+      And with full eyes each wonted room require:
+    Haunting the yet warm ashes of the place,
+      As murdered men walk where they did expire.
+
+    The most in fields like herded beasts lie down,
+      To dews obnoxious on the grassy floor:
+    And while the babes in sleep their sorrow drown,
+      Sad parents watch the remnant of their store.
+
+[Illustration: ORDINARY DRESS OF GENTLEMEN IN 1675.
+
+(_From Loggan's 'Oxonia Illustrata.'_)]
+
+
+
+
+54. ROGUES AND VAGABONDS.
+
+
+The aspect of the City varies from age to age: the streets and the
+houses, the costumes, the language, the manners, all change. In one
+respect however, there is no change: we have always with us the same
+rogues and the same roguery. We do not treat them quite after the manner
+followed by our forefathers: and, as their methods were incapable of
+putting a stop to the tricks of those who live by trickery, so are ours;
+therefore we must not pride ourselves on any superiority in this
+direction. A large and very interesting collection of books might be
+formed on the subject of rogues and vagabonds. The collection would
+begin with Elizabeth and could be carried on to the present day, new
+additions being made from year to year. But very few additions are ever
+made to the customs and the methods of the profession. For instance,
+there is the confidence trick, in which the rustic is beguiled by the
+honest stranger into trusting him. This trick was practised three
+hundred years ago. Or there is the ring-dropping trick, it is as old as
+the hills. Or there is the sham sailor--now very rarely met with. When
+we have another war he will come to the front again. We have still the
+cheating gambler, but he has always been with us. In King Charles the
+Second's time he was called a Ruffler, a Huff, or a Shabbaroon. The
+woman who now begs along the streets singing a hymn and leading borrowed
+children, did the same thing two hundred years ago and was called a
+clapperdozen. The man who pretends to be deaf and dumb went about then,
+and was known as the dummerer. The burglar was then the housebreaker.
+Burglary was formerly a far worse crime than it is now, because the
+people for the most part kept all their money in their houses, and a
+robbery might ruin them. The pickpocket plied his trade, only he was
+then a cutpurse. The footpad lay in wait on the lonely country road or
+among the bushes of the open fields at the back of Lincoln's Inn. The
+punishments, which seem so mild under the Plantagenets, increased in
+severity as the population outgrew the powers of the government. Instead
+of plain standing in pillory, ears were nailed to the post and even
+sliced off: whippings became more commonly administered, and were much
+more severe: heretics were burned by Elizabeth as well as by Mary,
+though not so often. After the civil wars we enter upon a period when
+punishment became savage in its cruelty, of which you will presently
+learn more. Meantime remark that when the City was less densely
+populated, and when none lived outside the wards and walls, the people
+were well under the control of the aldermen and their officers: they
+were also well known to each other: they exercised that
+self-government--the best of any--which consists in refusing to harbour
+a rogue among them. If in every London street the tenants would refuse
+to suffer any evildoer to lodge in their midst, the police of London
+might be almost abolished. But the City grew: the wards became densely
+populated: then houses and extensive suburbs sprang up at Whitechapel,
+Wapping, outside Cripplegate, at Smithfield north of Fleet Street,
+Lambeth, Bermondsey and Rotherhithe: the aldermen no longer knew their
+people: the men of a ward did not know each other: rogues were harboured
+about Smithfield and outside Aldgate: the simple machinery for enforcing
+order ceased to be of any use: and as yet the new police was not
+invented. Therefore the punishments became savage. Since the government
+could not prevent crime and compel order, they would deter.
+
+[Illustration: DRESS OF LADIES OF QUALITY.
+
+(_From Sandford's 'Coronation Procession of James II.'_)]
+
+[Illustration: ORDINARY ATTIRE OF WOMEN OF THE LOWER CLASSES.
+
+(_From Sandford's 'Coronation Procession of James II.'_)]
+
+Apart from active crime, vagrancy was a great scourge. Wars and civil
+wars left crowds of idle soldiers who had no taste for steady work: they
+became vagrants: there was also--and there is still--a certain
+proportion of men and women who will not work: they become vagrants by a
+kind of instinct: they are born vagabonds. Laws and proclamations were
+continually passed for the repression of vagrants. They were passed on
+to their native place: they were provided with passes on their way. But
+these laws were always being evaded, and vagrants increased in number.
+Under Henry VIII. a very stringent statute was passed by which old and
+impotent persons were provided with license to beg, and anybody begging
+without a license was whipped. But like all such acts it was imperfectly
+carried out. For one who received a whipping a dozen escaped. Stocks,
+pillory, bread and water, all were applied, but without visible effect,
+because so many escaped. London especially swarmed with beggars and
+pretended cripples. They lived about Turnmill Street, Houndsditch and
+the Barbican, outside the walls. From time to time a raid was carried on
+against them, and they dispersed, but only to collect again. In the year
+1575, for instance, it is reported that there were few or no rogues in
+the London prisons. But in the year 1581, the Queen observing a large
+number of sturdy rogues during a drive made complaint, with the result
+that the next day 74 were arrested: the day after 60, and so on, the
+catch on one day being a hundred, all of whom were 'soundly paid,' i.e.
+flogged and sent to their own homes. The statute ordering the whipping
+of vagabonds was enforced even in this present century, women being
+flogged as well as men. No statutes, however, can put down the curse of
+vagrancy and idleness. It can only be suppressed by the will and
+resolution of the people themselves. If for a single fortnight we should
+all refuse to give a single penny to beggars: if in every street we
+should all resolve upon having none but honest folk among us: then and
+only then, would the rogue find this island of Great Britain impossible
+to be longer inhabited by him and his tribe.
+
+
+
+
+55. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.
+
+PART I.
+
+THE WEALTH OF LONDON.
+
+
+If a new world was opened to the adventurous in the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth, this new world two hundred years later was only half explored
+and was constantly yielding up new treasures. The lion's share of these
+treasures came to Great Britain and was landed at the Port of London.
+The wealth and luxury of the merchants in the eighteenth century
+surpassed anything ever recorded or ever imagined. So great was their
+prosperity that historians and essayists predicted the speedy downfall
+of the City: the very greatness of their success frightened those who
+looked on and remembered the past.
+
+[Illustration: GROUP SHOWING COSTUMES AND SEDAN CHAIR, ABOUT 1720.
+
+(_From an engraving by Kip._)]
+
+Though the appearance of the City had changed, and its colour and
+picturesqueness were gone, at no time was London more powerful or more
+magnificent. There were no nobles living within the walls: only two or
+three of the riverside palaces remained along the Strand: there were no
+troops of retainers riding along the streets in the bright liveries of
+their masters: the picturesque gables, the latticed windows, the
+overhanging fronts--all these were gone: instead of the old churches
+rich with ancient carvings, frescoes in crimson and blue, marble
+monuments and painted glass, were the square halls--preaching halls--of
+Wren with their round windows, rich only in carved woodwork: the houses
+were square with sash windows: the shop fronts were glazed: the streets
+were filled with grave and sober merchants in great wigs and white
+ruffles. They lived in stately and commodious houses, many of which
+still survive--see the Square at the back of Austin Friars Church for a
+very fine example--they had their country houses: they drove in
+chariots: and they did a splendid business. Their ships went all over
+the world: they traded with India, not yet part of the Empire: with
+China, and the Far East: with the West Indies, with the Levant. They had
+Companies for carrying on trade in every part of the globe. The South
+Sea Company, the Hudson's Bay Company, the Turkey Company, the African
+Company, the Russian Company, the East India Company--are some. The
+ships lay moored below the Bridge in rows that reached a mile down the
+river.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE BAR, LONDON.
+
+(_Built by Sir Christopher Wren in 1670; taken down in 1878 and since
+rebuilt at Waltham Cross._)]
+
+All this prosperity grew in spite of the wars which we carried on during
+the whole of the last century. These wars, though they covered the
+Channel and the Bay of Biscay with privateers, had little effect to stay
+the increase of London trade. And as the merchants lived within the
+City, in sight of each other, their wealth was observed and known by
+all. At the present day, when London from nightfall till morning is a
+dead city, no one knows the wealth of the merchants and it is only by
+considering the extent of the suburbs that one can understand the
+enormous wealth possessed by those men who come up by train every day
+and without ostentation walk among their clerks to their offices in the
+City. A hundred and fifty years ago, one saw the rich men: sat in church
+with them: sat at dinner with them on Company feast days: knew them. The
+visible presence of so much wealth helped to make London great and
+proud. It would be interesting, if it were possible, to discover how
+many families now noble or gentle--county families--derive their origin
+or their wealth from the City merchants of the last century.
+
+In one thing there is a great change. Till the middle of the seventeenth
+century it was customary for the rank of trade to be recruited--in
+London, at least--from the younger sons. This fashion was now changed.
+The continual wars gave the younger sons another career: they entered
+the army and the navy. Hence arose the contempt for trade which existed
+in the country for about a hundred and fifty years. It is now fast dying
+out, but it is not yet dead. Younger sons are now going into the City
+again.
+
+[Illustration: FLEET STREET AND TEMPLE BAR.]
+
+The old exclusiveness was kept up jealously. No one must trade in the
+City who was not free of the City. But the freedom of the City was
+easily obtained. The craftsman and the clerk remained in their own
+places: they were taught to know their places: they were taught, which
+was a very fine thing, to think much of their own places and to take
+pride in the station to which they were called: to respect those in
+higher station and to receive respect from those lower than
+themselves. Though merchants had not, and have not, any rank assigned to
+them by the Court officials, there was as much difference of rank and
+place in the City as without. And in no time was there greater personal
+dignity than in this age when rank and station were so much regarded.
+But between the nobility and the City there was little intercourse and
+no sympathy. The manners, the morals, the dignity of the City ill
+assorted with those of the aristocracy at a time when drinking and
+gambling were ruining the old families and destroying the noblest names.
+There has always belonged to the London merchant a great respect for
+personal character and conduct. We are accustomed to regard this as a
+survival of Puritanism. This is not so: it existed before the arrival of
+Puritanism: it arose in the time when the men in the wards knew each
+other and when the master of many servants set the example, because his
+life was visible to all, of order, honour, and self-respect.
+
+[Illustration: A COACH OF THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+(_From an engraving by John Dunstall._)]
+
+
+
+
+56. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+After the Great Fire, the number of City churches was reduced from 126
+to 87. Those that were rebuilt were for the most part much larger and
+more capacious than their predecessors. In many cases, Wren, the great
+architect, who rebuilt St. Paul's Cathedral and all the churches, in
+order to get a larger church took in a part of the churchyard, which
+accounts for the fact that many of the City churchyards are now so
+small. Again, as the old churches had been built mainly for the purpose
+of saying and singing mass, the new churches were built mainly for the
+purpose of hearing sermons. They were therefore provided with pews for
+the accommodation of the hearers, and resembled, in their original
+design, a convenient square room, where the preacher might be seen and
+heard by all, rather than a cruciform church. Some of Wren's churches,
+however, though they may be described as square rooms, are exceedingly
+beautiful, for instance, St. Stephen's, Walbrook, while nearly all are
+enriched with woodwork of a beautiful description. It was the custom in
+the last century to attend frequent church services, and to hear many
+sermons. The parish church entered into the daily life much more under
+George the Second's reign than it does now, in spite of our improved
+services and our multiplication of services. In forty-four City churches
+there was service, sometimes twice, sometimes once, every day. In all
+of them there were evening services on Wednesday and Fridays: in many
+there were endowed lectureships, which gave an additional sermon once a
+week, or at stated times. Fast days were commonly observed, though it
+was not customary to close shops or suspend business on Good Friday or
+Ash Wednesday: not more than half of the City churches possessed an
+organ: on Sunday afternoons the children were duly catechised: if boys
+misbehaved, the beadle or sexton caned them in the churchyard: the laws
+were still in force which fined the parishioners for absence from church
+and for harbouring in their houses people who did not go to church.
+Except for Sunday services, sermons, and visitations of the sick, the
+clergy had nothing to do. What is now considered the work of the parish
+clergy--the work that occupies all their time--is entirely modern.
+Formerly this kind of work was not done at all; the people were left to
+themselves: the clergy were not the organisers of mothers' meetings,
+country jaunts, athletics, boys' clubs, and amusements. The
+Nonconformists still formed an important part of the City. They had many
+chapels, but their social influence in London, which was very great at
+the beginning of the century, declined steadily, until thirty or forty
+years ago it stood at a very low ebb indeed.
+
+In the streets the roads were paved with round pebbles--they were
+'cobbled': the footway was protected by posts placed at intervals: the
+paving stones, which only existed in the principal streets before the
+year 1766, were small, and badly laid: after a shower they splashed up
+mud and water when one stepped upon them. The signs which we have seen
+on the Elizabethan houses still hung out from every shop and every
+house: they had grown bigger: they were set in immense frames of
+ironwork, which creaked noisily, and sometimes tore out the front of a
+house by their enormous weight. The shop windows were now glazed with
+small panes, mostly oblong, and often in bow windows: you may find
+several such shops still remaining: one at the top of the Haymarket: one
+in Coventry Street: one in the Strand: there were no fronts of plate
+glass brilliantly illuminated to exhibit the contents exposed for sale:
+the old-fashioned shopkeeper prided himself on keeping within, and out
+of sight, his best and choicest goods. A few candles lit up the shop in
+the winter afternoons.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF SCHOOL CONNECTED WITH BUNYAN'S MEETING HOUSE.]
+
+To walk in the streets meant the encounter of roughness and rudeness
+which would now be thought intolerable. There were no police to keep
+order: if a man wanted order he might fight for it. Fights, indeed,
+were common in the streets: the waggoners, the hackney coachmen, the
+men with the wheelbarrows, the porters who carried things, were always
+fighting in the streets: gentlemen were hustled by bullies, and often
+had to fight them: most men carried a thick cudgel for self-protection.
+
+The streets were far noisier in the last century than ever they had been
+before. Chiefly, this was due to the enormous increase of wheeled
+vehicles. Formerly everything came into the City or went out of it on
+the backs of pack-horses and pack-asses. Now the roads were so much
+improved that waggons could be used for everything, and the long lines
+of pack-horses had disappeared from the main roads. In the country lanes
+the pack-horse was still employed. Everybody was able to ride, and the
+City apprentice, when he had a holiday, always spent it on horseback.
+But for everyday the hackney coach was used. Smaller carts were also
+coming into use. And for dragging about barrels of beer and heavy cases
+a dray of iron, without wheels, was used. All these innovations meant
+more noise and still more noise. Had Whittington, in the time of George
+II., sat down on Highgate Hill (still a grassy slope), he would have
+heard, loud above the sound of Bow Bells, the rumbling of the waggons on
+Cheapside.
+
+
+
+
+57. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+In walking through the City to-day, one may remark that there is very
+little crying of things to sell. In certain streets, as Broad Street,
+Whitecross Street, Whitechapel, or Middlesex Street, there is a kind of
+open street, fair, or market; but the street cries such as Hogarth
+depicted exist no longer. People used to sell a thousand things in the
+streets which are now sold in shops. All the little things--thread,
+string, pins, needles, small coal, ink, and straps--that are wanted in a
+house were sold by hawkers and bawled all day long in the streets: fruit
+of all kinds was sold from house to house: fish: milk: cakes and bread:
+herbs and drugs: brimstone matches: an endless procession passed along,
+all bawling their wares. Then there were the people who ground knives,
+mended chairs, soldered pots and pans: these bawled with the hawkers. We
+can no longer speak of the roar of London: there is no roar: the
+vehicles, nearly all provided with springs, roll smoothly over an even
+surface of asphalt: there are no more drays without wheels: there are no
+more street fights: there is comparatively little bawling of things to
+sell.
+
+[Illustration: GRENADIER IN THE TIME OF THE PENINSULAR WAR.]
+
+In those days people liked the noise. It was a part of the City life: it
+showed how big and busy the City was since it could make such a
+tremendous noise by the mere carrying on of the daily round. Could any
+other city--even Paris--boast of such a noise? People who came up from
+the country to visit London were invited to consider the noise of the
+City as a part of its magnificence and pride.
+
+What else had they to consider? What were the sights of London?
+
+First of all, St. Paul's and Westminster Abbey. Then the Tower and the
+Monument, the Royal Exchange and the Mansion House, Guildhall and the
+Bank of England, London Bridge, Newgate, St. James's and the Horse
+Guards. These were to be visited by day. In the evening there were the
+theatres, Drury Lane and Covent Garden: and there were the Gardens.
+
+The citizens were always fond of their Gardens. They were opened as soon
+as the weather would allow, and they continued open till the autumn
+chills made them impossible. The gardens were those of Vauxhall--still
+in existence as a small park: Ranelagh, at Chelsea: Marylebone, opposite
+the old Parish Church in High Street: Bagnigge Wells, which lay East of
+Gray's Inn Road: Belsize, near Hampstead: the White Conduit House in the
+fields near Islington: the Florida Gardens at Brompton: the Temple of
+Flora, the Apollo Gardens, and the Bermondsey Spa Gardens, all on the
+south side. These Gardens, now built over, were all alike. Every one of
+them had an ornamental water, walks and shrubs, a room for dancing and
+singing, and a stand for the band out of doors. People walked about,
+looked at each other, had supper, drank punch--and went home. If the
+Gardens were at any distance from the City they marched together for
+safety.
+
+The river was still the favourite highway--thousands of boats plied up
+and down: it was much safer, shorter, and more pleasant to take oars
+from Westminster to the City than to walk or to hire a coach.
+
+[Illustration: UNIFORM OF SAILORS ABOUT 1790.]
+
+The high roads of the country were rapidly improving. Stage coaches ran
+from London to all the principal towns. They started, for the most part,
+at eight in the evening. They charged fourpence a mile, and they
+pretended to accomplish the journey at the rate of seven miles an hour.
+You may easily compare the cost of travelling when you remember that you
+may now go anywhere for a penny a mile--one fourth the former charge at
+five or six times the rate. The 'short stages,' of which there were a
+great many, ran to and from the suburbs: they were like the omnibuses,
+but not so frequent, and they cost a great deal more. Threepence a mile
+was the usual charge. There was a penny post in London, first set up by
+a private person. A letter sent from London cost twopence the first
+stage: threepence for two stages: above 150 miles, sixpence: Ireland and
+Scotland, sixpence: any foreign country a shilling. There were no bank
+notes under the value of 20_l._: there were no postal orders or any
+conveniences of that kind. Money was remitted to London either by
+carrier or through some merchant. Banks there were by this time: but
+most people preferred keeping their own money in their own houses. Also
+banks being few everybody carried gold: this partly explains the
+prevalence of highway robbery: very likely the passengers on any long
+stage coach carried between them some hundreds of guineas: a whole
+railway train in these days would not yield so much: for people no
+longer carry with them more money than is wanted for the small
+expenditure of the day: tram, omnibus, cab, luncheon or dinner.
+
+
+
+
+58. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.
+
+PART IV.
+
+
+So far we understand that London about the year 1750 was a city filled
+with dignified merchants all getting rich, and with a decorous,
+self-respecting population of retail traders, clerks, craftsmen, and
+servants of all kinds, a noisy but a well-behaved people. A
+church-going, sermon-loving, and orderly people.
+
+This is in the main a fair and just appreciation of the City. But there
+is the other side which must not be overlooked--that side, namely, which
+presents the vice and sin and misery which always accompany the
+congregation of many people and the accumulation of wealth.
+
+[Illustration: COSTUMES OF GENTLEFOLK, ABOUT 1784.]
+
+The vice which has always been the father of most miseries is that of
+drink. In the middle of the last century, everybody drank too much. The
+dignity of the grave merchant was too often marred by indulgence in port
+and punch: the City clergy drank too much: even the ladies drank too
+much: it was hardly a reproach, in any class, to be overcome with
+liquor. As for the lower classes their habitual drink was beer--Franklin
+tells us that when he was a printer in London every man drank seven or
+eight pints of beer every day: nor was this small ale or porter: it was
+generally good strong beer: the beer would not perhaps hurt them so
+much--though the money spent on drink was enormous--but unfortunately
+they had now taken to gin as well--or instead. The drinking of gin at
+one time threatened, literally, to destroy the whole of the working
+classes of London. There were 10,000 houses--one in four--where gin was
+sold either secretly or openly. It was advertised that a man could get
+drunk for a penny and dead drunk for twopence. A check was placed upon
+this habit by imposing a tax of 5_s._ on every gallon of gin. This was
+in the year 1735 and in 1750 about 1,700 gin shops were closed. Since
+then the continual efforts made to stop the pernicious habit of dram
+drinking have greatly reduced the evil. But it was not only the drinking
+of gin: there was also the rum punch which formed so large a part in the
+life of the Georgian citizen. Every man had his club to which he
+resorted in the evening after the day's work. Here he sat and for the
+most part drank what he called a sober glass: that is to say, he did not
+go home drunk, but he drank every night more than was good for him. The
+results were the transmission of gout and other disorders to his
+children. It should be, indeed, a most serious thing to reflect that in
+every evil habit we are bringing misery and suffering upon our children
+as well as ourselves. The habits of drinking showed themselves
+externally in a bloated body; puffed and red cheeks; a large and swollen
+nose; trembling hands; fat lips and bleared eyes: in the case of gin
+drinkers it showed itself in a face literally blue. It is said that King
+George the Third was persuaded to a temperate life--in a time of
+universal intemperance, this King remained always temperate--by the
+example of his uncle the Duke of Cumberland, who at the age of
+forty-five in consequence of his excesses in drink exhibited a body
+swollen and bloated and tortured with disease.
+
+[Illustration: VESSELS UNLOADING AT THE CUSTOMS HOUSE, AT THE BEGINNING
+OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+If you look at a map of London of this time you will see that the city
+extended a long way up and down the river on either bank. Outside the
+walls there were the crowded districts of Whitechapel, Cripplegate,
+Bishopsgate, St. Katherine's, Wapping, Ratcliff, Shadwell, Stepney, and
+others. These places were not only outside the wards and the
+jurisdiction of the City, but they were outside any government whatever.
+They were growing up in some parts without schools, churches, or any
+rule, order, or discipline whatever. The people in many of these
+quarters were of the working classes, but too often of the criminal
+class. They were rude and rough and ignorant to an extraordinary degree.
+How could they be anything else, living as they did? They were so
+unruly, they were so numerous, they were so ready to break out, that
+they became a danger to the very existence of Order and Government. They
+were kept in some kind of order by the greatest severity of punishment.
+They were hanged for what we now call light offences: they were kept
+half starved in foul and filthy prisons: and they were mercilessly
+flogged. In the army it was not unknown for a man to receive 500 lashes:
+in the navy they were always flogging the men. Horrible as it is to read
+of these punishments we must remember that the men who received them
+were brutal and dead to any other kind of persuasion. Drink and
+ignorance and habitual vice had killed the sense of shame and stilled
+the voice of conscience. The only thing they would feel was the pain of
+the whip.
+
+
+
+
+59. UNDER GEORGE THE SECOND.
+
+PART V.
+
+
+It was estimated, some years later than the period we are considering,
+that there were then in London 3,000 receivers of stolen goods; that is
+to say, people who bought without question whatever was brought to them
+for sale: that the value of the goods stolen every year from the ships
+lying in the river--there were then no great Docks and the lading and
+unlading were carried on by lighters and barges--amounted to half a
+million sterling every year: that the value of the property annually
+stolen in and about London amounted to 700,000_l._: and that goods worth
+half a million at least were annually stolen from His Majesty's stores,
+dockyards, ships of war, &c. The moral principle, a writer states
+plainly, 'is totally destroyed among a vast body of the lower ranks of
+the people.' To meet this deplorable condition of things there were
+forty-eight different offences punishable by death: among them was
+shoplifting above five shillings: stealing linen from a bleaching
+ground: cutting hop bines and sending threatening letters. There were
+nineteen kinds of offences for which transportation, imprisonment,
+whipping, or pillory were provided: there were twenty-one kinds of
+offences punishable by whipping, pillory, fine and imprisonment. Among
+the last were 'combinations and conspiracies for raising the price of
+wages.' The classification seems to have been done at haphazard: for
+instance, to embezzle naval stores would seem as bad as to steal a
+master's goods: but the latter offence was capital and the former not.
+Again, it is surely a most abominable crime to set fire to a house, yet
+this is classed among the lighter offences. It was therefore a time when
+there was a large and constantly increasing criminal class: and, as a
+natural cause or a natural consequence, whichever we please, there was a
+very large class of people as ignorant, as rude, and as dangerous as
+could well be imagined. I do not think there was ever a time, not even
+in the most remote ages, when London contained savages more brutal and
+more ignorant than could be found in certain districts outside the City
+of the Second George. But these poor wretches had one great virtue--they
+were brave: they manned our ships for us and gave Britannia the command
+of the sea: they were knocked down, driven and dragged aboard the ships
+by the press-gang. Once there they fell into rank and order, carried a
+valiant pike, manned the guns with zeal, joined the boarding party with
+alacrity and carried their cutlasses into the forlorn hope with faces
+that showed no fear. They were so strong, so stubborn, and so brave,
+that one sighs to think of the lash that kept them in discipline and
+order. There is one more side of London that must not be forgotten. It
+was a great and prosperous city: we can never dwell too strongly on the
+prosperity of the city: but there were shipwrecks many and disastrous.
+And the fate of the man who could not pay his debts was well known to
+all and could be witnessed every day, as an example and a warning. For
+he went to prison and in prison he stopped. 'Pay what you owe,' they
+said to the debtor, 'or else stay where you are.' The debtor could not
+pay: in prison the debtor had no means of making any money: therefore he
+stayed where he was until he died. For the accommodation of these
+unhappy persons there were the King's Bench and the Marshalsea, both in
+Southwark: there were the two Compters, both in the City: and there was
+the Fleet Prison.
+
+The life in these prisons can be found described in many novels. It was
+a squalid and miserable life among ruined gamblers, spendthrifts,
+profligates, broken down merchants, bankrupt tradesmen, and helpless
+women of all classes. Unless one had allowances from friends, starvation
+might be the end. In one at least the common hall had shelves ranged
+round the walls for the reception of beds: everything was carried on in
+the same room, living, sleeping, eating, cooking. And into such a
+place as this the unhappy debtor was thrust, there to remain till death
+released him.
+
+[Illustration: THE OLD HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT AND WESTMINSTER ABBEY,
+1803.]
+
+This was the London of a hundred and fifty years ago. No longer
+picturesque as in the old days, but solidly constructed, handsome, and
+substantial. The merchants still lived in the city but the nobles had
+all gone. The Companies possessed the greater part of the City and still
+ruled though they no longer dictated the wages, hours, and prices.
+Within the walls there reigned comparative order: outside there was no
+government at all. The river below the Bridge was crowded with ships
+moored two and four together side by side with an open way in the
+middle. Thousands of barges and lighters were engaged upon the cargoes:
+every day the church bells rang for a large and orderly congregation:
+every day arose in every street such an uproar as we cannot even
+imagine: yet there were quiet spots in the City with shady gardens where
+one could sit at peace: wealth grew fast: but with it there grew up the
+mob with the fear of anarchy and license, a taste of which was afforded
+by the Gordon Riots. Yet it would be eighty years before the city should
+understand the necessity for a police.
+
+
+
+
+60. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART I.
+
+
+Let us walk into the streets. You will not observe, because you are used
+to these things, and have been brought up among them, and are accustomed
+to them, that all the men go about unarmed: that they do not carry even
+a stick for their protection: that they do not fight or quarrel with
+each other: that the strong do not knock down the weak but patiently
+wait for them and make room for them: that ladies walk about with no
+protection or escort: that things are exposed for sale with no other
+guard than a boy or a girl: that most valuable articles are hung up
+behind a thin pane of glass. You will further observe men in blue--you
+call them policemen--who stroll about in a leisurely manner looking on
+and taking no part in the bustle. What do these policemen do? In the
+roads the vehicles do not run into one another, but follow in rank and
+order, those going one way taking their own side. Everybody is orderly.
+Everything is arranged and disposed as if there was no such thing as
+violence, crime, or disorder. You think it has always been so? Nay:
+order in human affairs does not grow of its own accord. Disorder, if you
+please, grows like the weeds of the hedge side--but not order.
+
+Again, you always find the shops well provided and filled with goods.
+There are the food shops--those which offer meat, bread, fruit,
+vegetables, coffee, tea, sugar, butter, cheese. These shops are always
+full of these things. There is never a day in the whole year when the
+supply runs short. You think all these things come of their own accord?
+Not so: they come because their growth, importation, carriage, and
+distribution are so ordered by experience that has accumulated for
+centuries that there shall be no failure in the supply.
+
+Again, you find every kind of business and occupation carried on without
+hindrance. Nobody prevents a man from working at his trade; or from
+selling what he has made. One workman does not molest another though he
+is a rival. You think, perhaps, that this peacefulness has come by
+chance? Nay: strife comes to men left without rule--but not peace.
+
+You may observe further, that the streets are paved with broad stones
+convenient for walking and easy to be kept clean: that the roadways are
+asphalted or paved with wood, and are also clean: things that must be
+thrown away are not thrown into the streets: they are collected in carts
+and carried away. You think that the streets of cities are kept clean by
+the rain? Not so: if we had only the rain as a scavenger we should be in
+a sorry plight.
+
+You find that water is laid on in every house. How does that water come?
+That gas lights up houses and streets. How does the gas come? That drains
+carry off the rain and the liquid refuse. How did the drains come?
+
+You may see as you go along a man who walks from house to house
+delivering letters. Does he do this of his own accord? You know very
+well that he does not; that he is paid to do it: that he does his duty.
+What is the whole of his duty? Who gives him his orders?
+
+Or you may see another man going from house to house leaving a paper at
+each. He is a rate collector. What is a rate collector? Who gives him
+authority to take money from people? What does he do with the money?
+
+Or you may see placards on the walls asking people to vote for this man,
+or for that man, for the School Board, the County Council, the House of
+Commons, or the Vestry. Why does this man want to get elected to one of
+those Councils? What will he do when he is elected? What are all these
+Councils for?
+
+Again, the thing has never been otherwise in your recollection and you
+therefore do not observe it, but if you listen you will find that men
+talk with the greatest freedom as they walk with their friends: no one
+interferes with their conversation, no one interferes with their dress,
+no one asks them what they want or where they are going. Did this
+personal freedom always exist? Certainly not, for personal freedom does
+not grow of its own accord.
+
+You will also observe, as you walk along, churches--in every street, a
+church--of all denominations: you will find posted on the walls notices
+of public meetings for discussion or for lectures and addresses on every
+conceivable topic: you will see boys crying newspapers in which all
+subjects are treated with the utmost freedom. You suppose, perhaps, that
+freedom of thought, of speech, of discussion, of writing comes to a
+community like the rain and the wind? Not so. Slavery comes to a
+community if you please, but not freedom. That has to be achieved.
+
+You have seen the city growing larger and wealthier: the people getting
+into finer houses, wider streets, and more settled ways. Now, there is a
+thing which goes with the advance of a people: it is good government.
+Unless with advance of wealth there comes improved government, the
+people fall into decay. But, which is a remarkable thing, good
+government can only continue or advance as the people themselves advance
+in wisdom as well as in wealth. Such government as we have now would
+have been useless in the time of King Ethelred or King Edward I. Such
+government as we have now would be impossible had not the citizens of
+London continued to learn the lessons in order, in good laws, in respect
+to law, which for generation after generation were submitted to the
+people.
+
+
+
+
+61. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART II.
+
+
+Since all these things do not grow of their own accord, by whom were
+they first introduced, planted, and developed? By whom are they now
+maintained? By the collection of powers and authorities which we call
+the Government of the City and County of London.
+
+Thus order reigns in the streets: in the rare cases where disorder
+breaks out the policeman is present to stop it. His presence stops it.
+Not because he is a strong man, but because he is irresistible: he is
+the servant of the Law: he represents Authority. Formerly the Alderman
+of the Ward walked about his own streets followed by two bailiffs. If
+any one dared to resist the Alderman he was liable to have his hand
+struck off by an axe. In this way people were taught to respect the Law.
+By such sharp lessons it was forced upon them that the Law must be
+obeyed. Thus there gradually grew up among them a desire for Order. The
+policeman appointed by the Chief Police Officer stands for a symbol and
+reminder of the Law.
+
+You have seen how the people of London had their Folks' Mote, their Ward
+Mote, and their Hustings. From the first of these has sprung the Common
+Council, which rules over the City of London within the old boundaries.
+The Folks' Mote was a Parliament of the People--a rude and tumultuous
+assembly, no doubt, but a free assembly. When the City grew great such a
+Parliament became impossible. It therefore became an elective
+Parliament. The election was--and is still--conducted at the Ward Motes,
+each Ward returning so many members in proportion to its population, for
+the Common Council. The Councillors are elected for one year only. If
+there is a vacancy an Alderman is also elected, but that is for life.
+
+Formerly every man in London followed a trade: he therefore belonged to
+a Company. And as the commonalty, all the men of London together
+assembled, i.e. all the members of all the companies, elected the Mayor,
+so to this day the electors of the Lord Mayor are the members of the
+Companies. None others have any voice in the election. The Companies no
+longer include all the citizens, and the craftsmen have nearly all left
+the City. But the power remains.
+
+The Lord Mayor is the chief magistrate. With him is the Court of
+Aldermen, also magistrates. He has with him the great officers of the
+City: the Recorder, or Chief Justice; the Town Clerk; the Chamberlain,
+who is the Treasurer; the Remembrancer; and the Common Sergeant.
+
+The education of the young, the maintenance of the old, the paving and
+cleansing of the streets, the lighting, the removal of waste, the
+engines for extinguishing fires, the regulation of the road traffic, the
+preservation of order, all these things are conducted by the various
+Councils and Courts of the City, and the cost is provided by that kind
+of taxation known as the rates. That is to say, every house is 'rated'
+or estimated as worth so much rent. The tenant who pays the rent has to
+pay, in addition, a charge of so much in the pound for this and that
+object. Thus for education, if the rate be 1_s._ in the pound, a man in
+a house whose rent is 100_l._ has to pay 5_l._ on that charge. He has to
+pay also for the Police, the Fire Brigade, the Poor, lighting and
+paving. His own water supply is managed by a private company, and
+another private company gives him his gas or his electricity. In the
+same way the food is provided by private persons and brought to the
+city by private companies. Thus you are governed by men whom you are
+supposed yourselves to elect: order is kept for you: education,
+protection, and conveniences are found for you: in a word, life is made
+tolerable for you by your own Government--elected by yourselves--and at
+your own cost.
+
+
+
+
+62. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART III.
+
+
+That is the best Government which gives the greatest possible liberty to
+its people: only that people can be happy which is capable of using
+their freedom aright. You have seen how your personal freedom from
+violence, robbery, and molestation in your work is secured for you: how
+you are enabled to live in comfort and cleanliness--by a vast machinery
+of Government whose growth has been gradual and which must always be
+ready to meet changes so as to suit the needs of the people. One point
+you must carefully remember, that your greatest liberty is liberty of
+speech and of thought and of the Press. It is not so very long since
+martyrs--Catholic as well as Protestant--were executed for their
+religious belief: Catholics and Jews until quite recently were excluded
+from Parliament. A hundred years ago the debates of Parliament could not
+be reported: one had to weigh his words very carefully in speaking of
+the Sovereign or the Ministers: certain forms of opinion were not
+allowed to be published. All that is altered. You can believe what you
+like and advocate what you like, so long as it is not against Divine Law
+or the Law of the Land. Thus, if one were to preach the duty of Murder
+he would be very properly stopped. Therefore, when you buy a daily
+paper: whenever you enter a church or chapel: whenever you hear an
+address or a lecture remember that you are enjoying the freedom won for
+you by the obstinacy and the tenacity of your ancestors.
+
+We have spoken of the City Companies. They still exist and though their
+former powers are gone and they no longer control the trades after which
+they are named, their power is still very great on account of the
+revenues which they possess and their administration of charities,
+institutions, &c., under their care. There were 109 in all, but many
+have been dissolved. There are still, however, 76. About half of these
+possess Halls which are now the Great Houses of the City. The number of
+livery men, i.e. members of the Companies, is 8,765. The Companies vary
+greatly in numbers: there are 448 Haberdashers, for instance: 380
+Fishmongers: and 356 Spectacle Makers: while there are only 16
+Fletchers, i.e. makers of arrows. Many of the trades are now extinct,
+such as the Fletchers above named, the Bowyers, the Girdlers, the
+Bowstring Makers and the Armourers.
+
+Some of these Companies are now very rich. One of them possesses an
+income, including Trust money, of 83,000_l._ a year. It must be
+acknowledged that the Companies carry on a great deal of good work with
+their money. Many of them, however, have little or nothing: the Basket
+Makers have only 102_l._ a year: the Glass Sellers only 21_l._ a year:
+the Tinplate Workers 7_l._ 7_s._ a year. If, therefore, you hear of the
+great riches of the City Companies remember (1) that 25 of them have
+less than 500_l._ a year each: and (2) that the rich Companies support
+Technical Colleges and Schools, grant scholarships, encourage trade,
+hold exhibitions, maintain almshouses, and make large grants to objects
+worthy of support. It is not likely that the privilege of electing the
+Lord Mayor will long continue to be in the hands of the Companies. It is
+not, indeed, worthy of a great City that its Chief Magistrate should be
+elected by so small a minority as 8,765 out of the hundreds of thousands
+who have their offices and transact their business in the City: but
+while this privilege will cease, the Companies may remain and continue
+to exercise a central influence, at the least in London, over the Crafts
+and Arts which they represent. Let us never destroy what has been
+useful: let us, on the other hand, preserve it, altered to meet changed
+circumstances. For an institution is not like a tree which grows and
+decays. If it is a good institution, built upon the needs and adapted to
+the circumstances of human nature, it will never decay but, like the
+Saxon form of popular election, live and develop and change as the
+people themselves change from age to age.
+
+
+
+
+63. LONDON.
+
+GREATER LONDON.
+
+
+It has been a great misfortune for London that, when its Wall ceased to
+be the true boundary of the town, and when the people began to spread in
+all directions outside the walls, no statesman arose with vision clear
+enough to perceive that the old system must be enlarged or abolished:
+that the City must cease to mean the City of the Edwards, and must
+include these new suburbs, from Richmond on the West to Poplar on the
+East, and from Hampstead on the North to Balham on the South. It is true
+that something was done: there are the Wards of Bridge Without, which is
+Southwark: and of Farringdon Without. There should have been provision
+for the creation of new Wards whenever the growth of a suburb warranted
+its addition. That, however, has not been done. The Old London remains
+as it was, and as we now see it, surrounded by another, and an immense
+City, or aggregate of cities, all placed under the rule of a Council.
+
+This was done by the Act of 1888, which created a County whose
+boundaries were the same as those of the former Metropolitan Board of
+Works; in other words, it embraces all the suburbs of London properly so
+called. This County extends from Putney and Hammersmith on the West to
+Plumstead on the East: on the North are Hampstead and Highgate; on the
+South are Tooting, Streatham, Lewisham and Eltham. There are 138
+Councillors, of whom 19 are Aldermen and one a Chairman. The
+conservative tendency of our people is shown in their retention of the
+old division of aldermen. It is, once more, Kings, Lords, and Commons.
+But the functions of the Aldermen do not differ from those of the
+Councillor. The Councillors are elected by the ratepayers for three
+years, the Aldermen for six; but there is a rule as to retiring by
+rotation.
+
+The powers of the County Council are enormous. It regulates the building
+of houses and streets: the drainage: places of amusement: it can close
+streets and pull down houses: it administers and makes regulations
+concerning parks, bridges, tunnels, subways, dairies, cattle diseases,
+explosives, lunatic asylums, reformatory schools, weights and measures.
+It grants licenses for music and dancing: it carries on, in fact, the
+whole administration of the greatest City in the world, and, in some
+respects, the best managed City.
+
+In order to carry out these works the Council expend about 600,000_l._ a
+year. It has a debt of 30,000,000_l._, against which are various assets,
+so that the real debt is no more than 18,000,000_l._ The rating outside
+the City was last year 121/2_d._ in the pound. The first Chairman was Lord
+Rosebery. He has been succeeded by Sir John Lubbock and Mr. John
+Hutton. The list of County Councillors contains men of every rank and
+every opinion. Dukes, Earls and Barons, sit upon the Council beside
+plain working men--an excellent promise for the future.
+
+Such is the government of London. Within the City what was intended to
+be democratic has become oligarchic. The election by the whole people
+has become the election by 8,000 only. Without the City a great
+democratic Parliament attracts men whose historic names and titles
+belong to the aristocracy. In the London County Council the Peers may,
+if they are elected, sit beside the Commons.
+
+Lastly, what is the chief lesson for you to learn out of this history?
+It is short, and may be summed up in a few sentences.
+
+1. Consider how your liberties have grown silently and steadily out of
+the original free institutions of your Saxon ancestors. They have grown
+as the trunk, the tree, the leaves, the flower, the fruit, grow from the
+single seed. The Folk Mote, the 'Law worthiness' of every man, the
+absence of any Over Lord but the King, have kept London always free and
+ready for every expansion of her liberties. Respect, therefore, the
+ancient things which have made the City--and the country--what it is.
+Trust that the further natural growth of the old tree--still
+vigorous--will be safer for us than to cut it down and plant a sapling,
+which may prove a poison tree. And with the old institutions respect the
+old places. Never, if you can help it, suffer an old monument to be
+pulled down and destroyed. Keep before your eyes the things which remind
+you of the past. When you look on London Stone, remember that Henry of
+London Stone was one of the first Mayors. When you go up College Hill,
+remember Whittington who gave it that name. When you pass the Royal
+Exchange think of Gresham: when you go up Walbrook remember the stream
+beneath your feet, the Roman Fortress on your right, and the British
+town on your left. London is crammed full of associations for those who
+read and know and think. You will be better citizens of the present for
+knowing about the citizens of the past.
+
+2. The next lesson is your duty to your country. What does it mean, the
+right of the Folk Mote? The Mote has now become a House of Commons, a
+County Council, a School Board. You have the same rights that your
+ancestor had. He was jealous over them: he fought to the death to
+preserve them and to strengthen them. Be as jealous, for they are far
+more important to you than ever they were to him. You have a hundred
+times as much to defend: you have dangers which he did not know or fear.
+Show your jealousy by exercising your right as the most sacred duty you
+have to fulfil. Your vote is an inheritance and a trust. You have
+inherited it direct from the Angles and the Jutes: as you exercise that
+vote so it will be ill or well with you and your children. Be very
+jealous of the man you put in power: learn to distinguish the man who
+wants place from the man who wants justice: vote only for the right man:
+and do your best to find out the right man. It is difficult at all
+times. You may make it less difficult by sending to the various
+Parliaments of the country a man you know, who has lived among you,
+whose life, whose private character, whose previous record you know
+instead of the stranger who comes to court your vote. Above all things
+_vote always_ and let the first duty in your mind always be to protect
+your rights and your liberties.
+
+These are the two lessons that this book should teach you--the respect
+that is due to the past and the duty that is owed to the present.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+1. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON. PART I.
+
+~AEneas~: a Trojan prince who escaped from Troy when it was destroyed by
+the Greeks.
+
+~Venus~, the Roman Goddess of Love and Beauty, was the mother of AEneas.
+
+~Troy~: a famous city in the north-west corner of Asia Minor. It was
+destroyed by Greek invaders about 1,000 years before Christ, and the
+stories connected with it form one of the chief subjects of Greek and
+Latin poets.
+
+~Troynovant~ means New Troy.
+
+~Constantine the Great~ was Emperor of Rome, that is, of all the then
+known world from 305 to 337 A.D. He was the first Roman Emperor to adopt
+and favour Christianity. Constantinople is named after him, and was made
+by him the capital of the Empire.
+
+~Geoffrey of Monmouth~ was a British historian of the twelfth century.
+He was made Bishop of St. Asaph in 1152. His 'histories' are largely
+made up of stories, such as that about Brutus, which nobody believes
+now.
+
+~historical document~: a piece of writing that can be used to prove some
+event in the history of past times.
+
+~architecture~: the art of building; the style in which houses are
+built.
+
+~Cornhill~: a street in the City of London running west to east from the
+Royal Exchange into Leadenhall Street. It was probably named after a
+family of that name, and not from any corn market on the site.
+
+~bastion~: a strong turret or tower at the corner of a fortified
+building.
+
+~Walbrook~: a small stream that crossed the City from north to south. It
+flowed near where the Mansion House now stands (Walbrook is a street at
+the side of the Mansion House), and fell into the Thames at Dowgate,
+near where Cannon Street Railway Station now stands.
+
+~Fleet River~: a small stream which fell into the Thames near where
+Blackfriars Railway Station now stands.
+
+~Moorfields~ was a piece of moor land lying to the north of the City,
+outside the walls. The City gate which led to this district was the
+Moorgate, a name which still survives in Moorgate Street.
+
+~Ken Wood~, in Hampstead, ~Hainault Forest~, a small piece of wood in
+Essex, about eight miles north-east of London, and ~Epping Forest~, a
+larger portion, also in Essex, to the west of Hainault Forest, are all
+remaining portions of a great forest that once stretched away from
+London far into the country.
+
+~Chelsea, Bermondsey~: in all such words _ea_ or _ey_ is an old word for
+island. In this way are formed Winchelsea, Battersea, &c.; ~Thorney~
+(where Westminster is now) is the Island of Thorns; and ~Jersey~,
+Caesar's Island.
+
+~Southwark~: a district of London opposite the City, on the south side
+of the Thames. It was the South work, or fort, and is spoken of as a
+village as late as 1327, the accession of Edward III.
+
+
+2. THE FOUNDATION OF LONDON. PART II.
+
+~Malarious~: causing the air to be bad, and so giving rise to fevers;
+unhealthy. (Latin _malus_, bad; _aer_, air.)
+
+~Weybridge~, in Surrey, near where the river Wey, after flowing past
+Godalming and Guildford, falls into the Thames.
+
+~entrenching~: making a trench or ditch. The earth dug out was formed
+into a mound. The mound and ditch, together with the stockade, protected
+the place.
+
+~stockade~: a barrier made of _stakes_ stuck in the ground.
+
+~Gaul~: the old name for the country now called France--the land of the
+Galli, or Celts. _Gaelic_ is the language still spoken by the Celts in
+Scotland.
+
+~Thanet~: a district in the north-east of Kent, containing Ramsgate,
+Margate, and Broadstairs. The river Stour parts it from the rest of
+Kent, so that it is still an 'island,' though the channel was formerly
+much wider and deeper.
+
+~Captain Cook~: a famous sailor born 1728, murdered in the Sandwich
+Islands 1779. He was among the first to visit Australia and New Zealand,
+and made many discoveries in the Pacific.
+
+~Polynesians~: the natives of Polynesia, or the smaller islands in the
+South Pacific. They are brown-skinned, and akin in race to the Maories
+of New Zealand and the Malays.
+
+~Brythonic~: that portion of the Celts whose descendants are now the
+Welsh, Bretons: (in Bretagne, on the west coast of France), and
+Cornishmen.
+
+~Basques~: the natives of a part of northern Spain, near the Pyrenees.
+Their language is unconnected with any other, except perhaps that of the
+Finns. The Province and Bay of Biscay is named after them.
+
+~Finns~: the natives of Finland in Russia. Like the Basques, they are
+the remains of a nation which once spread over all Europe, and has now
+nearly disappeared.
+
+~barrow~: a mound raised over a grave.
+
+~Verulam~: an old British, and then a Roman town, on the site of which
+is now St. Albans, in Hertfordshire.
+
+
+3. ROMAN LONDON. PART I.
+
+~Stationary camp~: a fixed or permanent camp; a fort. A Roman army on
+the march constructed a camp if it only spent one night in a place. Such
+camps were not stationary.
+
+~Porchester~: a small town on the north side of Portsmouth Harbour.
+Chester is the Latin _castra_, a camp, and occurs in Leicester,
+Colchester, Chester, Silchester, &c.
+
+~rubble~: small rough stones often used inside piles of masonry.
+
+~Silchester~: a place near Reading at which remains of old Roman
+buildings have been dug out.
+
+~Mincing Lane~: a narrow street in the east part of the City.
+
+~tribunal~: the place where judges sit to administer justice.
+
+~Exchange~: the place where merchants meet and carry on their business.
+
+~stevedores~: those engaged in the work of loading and unloading ships.
+
+
+4. ROMAN LONDON. PART II.
+
+~Tesselated~: formed of small pieces of stone or tile of various colours
+arranged to form a pattern, like mosaic work.
+
+~Diana~: the Roman Goddess of Hunting; also of the Moon.
+
+~Apollo~: the Roman God of Poetry, Music, and Prophecy.
+
+~Guildhall~: the hall of the Guild or Corporation of the City of London,
+near Cheapside.
+
+~usurper~: one who by force seizes and holds a position which does not
+belong to him.
+
+~Picts~: wild savages from the country which we call Scotland; ~Scots~,
+also savage men, who, though they afterwards gave their name to
+Scotland, at that time came from Ireland.
+
+~Hong Kong~: an island off the coast of China; ~Singapore~, a large
+British seaport on an island of the same name off the south end of the
+Malay Peninsula; ~West Indies~, a number of islands to the east of
+Central America in the Atlantic: of those belonging to Great Britain
+Jamaica is the largest.
+
+
+5. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART I.
+
+~East Saxons~ were those who dwelt in Essex, the county named after
+them.
+
+~Crayford~: on the river Cray in north Kent. Here the Saxons under
+Hengist totally defeated the Britons under Vortimer in 457 A.D.
+
+~Canterbury~ is the burgh, borough, or fortified place of the men of
+Kent.
+
+~Pulborough~, in Sussex, gives us another form of the suffix.
+
+~chronicler~: a historian, particularly one living in early times.
+
+~Saxons~: German tribes from the district by the mouth of the Elbe;
+~Jutes~, from a part of Denmark which still preserves their name,
+Jutland; ~Angles~, from what is now Schleswig and Holstein.
+
+~Count of the Saxon Shore~: the Roman admiral set to defend the southern
+parts of the English coast, which were called 'Saxon Shore,' because
+most liable to attack from the Saxons.
+
+~mercenaries~: soldiers who do not fight for the safety and glory of
+their own country, but for hire.
+
+
+6. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART II.
+
+~Blackfriars~, at the eastern end of the Thames Embankment, derives its
+name from a monastery or house of Black Friars which stood there.
+
+~Watling Street~, ~Ermyn Street~, ~Vicinal Way~: made by the Romans, who
+were famous makers of high roads, many of which are still in use. (See
+map on p. 15.)
+
+~Newgate~ was a gate on the west of the walls which enclosed the City;
+~Bishopsgate~, on the north-east.
+
+~victualling~: providing food for.
+
+~emergencies~: times of difficulty and danger.
+
+~Isle of Thanet~: it must be remembered that the Stour, at the back of
+Thanet, was once much wider and deeper than it is now. In fact, it was
+the general route for vessels coming up the Thames.
+
+~appointments~: furniture, fittings.
+
+~mimics~: actors who played in farces, like our panto_mimes_.
+
+~scribes~: among the Romans, clerks in public offices.
+
+
+7. AFTER THE ROMANS. PART III.
+
+~Alaric~, king of a German tribe called the Visigoths (West Goths)
+invaded Greece and Italy, and after several defeats finally took and
+sacked Rome in 410 A.D. It was this state of thing which compelled the
+Romans to withdraw their troops from Britain.
+
+~The West where the Britons still held their own~: Wales and Cornwall
+were never occupied by the invading Saxons: Welsh and Cornishmen are
+Celts, with a language of their own in Wales, while the Cornish language
+has only disappeared during the last hundred years.
+
+~Wessex~: the land of the West Saxons corresponds roughly to England
+south of the Thames.
+
+~oblivion~: being forgotten.
+
+~The river Lea~ rises in Bedfordshire, near Luton, passes Hertford and
+Ware, forms the boundary between Middlesex and Essex, and falls into the
+Thames at Blackwall, after a course of forty miles.
+
+~quagmires~: marshy, boggy ground that _quakes_ under the feet (quake,
+mire).
+
+
+8. THE FIRST SAXON SETTLEMENT.
+
+~Ecclesiastic~: connected with the Church. For many centuries Rome was
+the centre of Christian influence, and is so still to all Roman
+Catholics.
+
+~ritual~: the customs and ceremonies employed in performing service in a
+church.
+
+~Gregory I.~ or ~the Great~ was Pope from 590-604 A.D. He it was who
+sent Augustine to attempt the conversion of the English in the year 597.
+
+~kinglet~: a petty king. England was then divided among many kings, so
+that the realm of each was necessarily very small.
+
+~crucifix~: a figure of Christ fixed to the cross.
+
+~Bede~: a monk and Church historian who lived and died at Jarrow in
+county Durham in 735 A.D.
+
+~Lindesfarne~, or Holy Island, off the coast of Northumberland.
+
+~Northumbrians~: the men of Northumbria--that is, Yorkshire, Durham, and
+Northumberland.
+
+~Mercians~: the men of Mercia, or land of the Middle English.
+
+~supremacy~: Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, were separate kingdoms which
+were successively, in the order in which they are given, strong enough
+to overawe or exercise supremacy over the others. The king of Wessex
+eventually became king of England.
+
+~Witan~, or in its fuller form ~wit-an-a-ge-mote~, the 'meeting of wise
+men,' was the national council which afterwards grew up into our modern
+parliament.
+
+
+9. THE SECOND SAXON SETTLEMENT.
+
+~Pagan~: heathen, not yet converted to Christianity.
+
+~King Alfred~, called the Great, was king of England from 871-901 A.D.
+
+~Alderman~ in early England meant the ruler of a large district, such as
+a shire or kingdom. When Mercia became subject to Wessex it was ruled by
+an alderman.
+
+~Benfleet~: a place in Essex, on the north bank of the Thames, not far
+from Southend.
+
+~Brunanburgh~ was the scene of a defeat of the Danes by Athelstan in 937
+A.D.; the place cannot now be identified.
+
+~Sweyn~, King of Denmark, invaded England with his son Canute in 1013
+A.D.
+
+~Redriff~ is now called Rotherhithe, south of the Thames.
+
+~King Ethelred II.~, called the Unredig, or lacking in counsel, reigned
+979-1013 A.D.
+
+~Olave~ or ~Olaf~ and ~Magnus~ are Scandinavian names: there were early
+kings of Norway so called.
+
+~The Portreeve~: the reeve or governor of London was a chief magistrate
+or mayor of the City.
+
+~The 'Staller'~ or ~Marshal~ led the men of London to battle.
+
+~The Knighten Guild~ was the ruling council of London: they were not
+chosen by election, but were the chief owners of property, and, like
+their land, the office was handed down from father to son.
+
+~mote~: meeting.
+
+~hustings~: a general meeting of the citizens held every week; later on
+the word came to mean the platform whence candidates for parliament
+addressed their constituents.
+
+
+10. THE ANGLO-SAXON CITIZEN.
+
+~Athelstan~ (925-940), the grandson of Alfred the Great, and ~Etheldred
+II.~ (979-1013) were kings of England.
+
+~earl~ or ~eorl~ was what we should now call a gentleman of good family;
+~thanes~: nobles who for the most part acquired their titles from the
+king as rewards for services.
+
+~municipal~: having to do with the municipality or city.
+
+~French~: Norman-French was the language spoken by the Normans.
+
+~the meat and fish were salted~: in the absence of root-crops it was
+found difficult to keep animals through the winter. Hence much salt meat
+and fish were stored up.
+
+~embroidery~: the art of working designs on cloth in needlework.
+
+~spinster~: an unmarried woman; so called because unmarried daughters
+worked at spinning and weaving for the household, making 'homespun'
+cloth for them.
+
+~marauding~: roving about for plunder.
+
+~solar~: in early houses the chamber over the hall, used as the bedroom
+for the master and mistress of the house. (See picture on p. 73.)
+
+~tapestry~: thick hangings or curtains with figures worked on them.
+
+~mead~: a fermented drink made of honey: metheglin is another form of
+the word.
+
+~wattle~: flexible twigs, withies, or osier rods: ~daub~, mud.
+
+~turbulent~: disorderly, riotous.
+
+~Thames Street~: a very narrow street running along the bank of the
+Thames between Blackfriars and the Tower.
+
+~ward~: a division of the City. The ~ward mote~ or ward meeting still
+exists, and elects the alderman or representative of the ward on the
+City Council.
+
+
+11. THE WALL OF LONDON.
+
+The ~White Tower~ is the 'keep' or central part of the Tower of London,
+begun by William the Conqueror and finished by the Red King. It is 92
+feet high and the walls are 17 feet thick.
+
+~Dowgate~: the site of one of the gates of Old London Wall is near where
+Cannon Street Railway Station now stands: here the Walbrook fell into
+the Thames.
+
+~Queen Hithe~: 'The Queen's Landing Place.' Merchants were compelled to
+land their goods here so that the dues paid should go to the Queen.
+
+~confluence~: a flowing together, the place where two rivers meet. The
+Fleet fell into the Thames at Blackfriars. (Latin _cum_, with, together;
+_fluo_, to flow. Compare, _fluid_, _fluent_.)
+
+~Montfichet's Tower~ was near Baynard's Castle, at the south-west corner
+of the old walls in Blackfriars. Both were named after the Norman
+tenants who occupied them.
+
+~Houndsditch~ is now a cross street joining Bishopgate Street and
+Aldgate, with a Church of St. Botolph at each end of it. It adjoined the
+moat or ditch round the City wall.
+
+~Allhallows~: the same as All Saints--all the saints to whom churches
+were often dedicated, and whose memory is celebrated on November 1,
+which is All Saints' Day.
+
+~St. Giles, Cripplegate~, contains in its churchyard part of London
+Wall. Milton was buried here in 1674.
+
+
+12. NORMAN LONDON.
+
+~Bishop and Portreeve~: the two chief officers of the City, one ruling
+for the Church, the other a civil ruler.
+
+~charter~: a writing confirming or granting privileges.
+
+~burghers~ or burgesses: citizens of a borough.
+
+~Guildhall~ contains the necessary offices and accommodation for the
+guild or corporation, town clerk, &c., the City library, museum and law
+courts, and a great hall that will hold 7,000 persons.
+
+~feudal claims~: demands made on their tenants by owners under the
+feudal system. Such demands were usually for military service or
+something equivalent.
+
+~Matilda~, daughter of Henry I., and mother of Henry II., and widow of
+the Emperor Henry V. of Germany, was the opponent of Stephen (1100-1135)
+in the civil war of his reign. She gave London as 'a demesne' to the
+Earl of Essex, with the Tower as his castle.
+
+~Danegeld~, or Dane money: a tax raised to buy off the Danes.
+
+~Sheriff~, or shire-reeve, governor of a shire, was the king's
+representative in each shire: he collected the revenue, called out and
+led the soldiers, and administered justice.
+
+~Justiciar~: judge. It was one of the privileges of the City to have a
+judge of its own to try cases within its own limits.
+
+~stipulated~: bargained for.
+
+~constitution~: form of government.
+
+~priory~: a house for monks or nuns under the rule of a prior or
+prioress.
+
+~St. Katherine Cree~: this church is in Leadenhall Street, near Aldgate.
+Cree in this name is for Christ.
+
+~Portsoken~ is one of the City wards near Aldgate and the Minories.
+
+
+13. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART I.
+
+~St. Bartholomew the Great~ in Smithfield is part of St. Bartholomew's
+Hospital.
+
+~St. Ethelburga~ is in Bishopsgate Street, not far from Liverpool Street
+Railway Station.
+
+~crypt~ is a chapel or vault underground.
+
+~St. Swithin's Church~ is near Cannon Street Railway Station. 'London
+Stone,' supposed to be a Roman milestone, is let into the wall of this
+church. St. Swithin, to whom the church is dedicated, was a Saxon Bishop
+of Winchester, under whose care the youth of Alfred was spent at
+Winchester.
+
+~Thomas Becket~, Archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in his own
+cathedral by four knights, who thought they were executing the wishes of
+Henry II. (1170 A.D.).
+
+~conventual~: attached to convents.
+
+~Palatine~ usually means 'held by a nobleman who has had royal powers
+given him.'
+
+~Westminster~ is named after a minster first erected there of wood about
+604 A.D.: it was thus distinguished from St. Paul's, which was the 'East
+Minster.' The site was a marshy spot, then called Thorney, or Thorn
+Island.
+
+~Charing Cross~ is named from the memorial cross built there by Edward
+I. in 1294 in honour of his queen, Eleanor, who was brought for burial
+from Lincoln to Westminster, and each place (nine) where her body rested
+was marked by a similar cross. ('Charing' is a corruption of the French
+_chere reine_, dear queen.)
+
+~Cheapside~: the important street running between St. Paul's and the
+Mansion House is so called because its site was the side--the south
+side--of the Chepe, or old London market.
+
+~East Chepe~, or the East Market, has given its name to Eastcheap, a
+street running from the City towards the Tower.
+
+~mercer~: a merchant selling woollens and silks.
+
+~folkmotes~: the meetings of the folk or tribe: they met in arms in the
+Saxon times, and were presided over by the alderman.
+
+
+14. FITZSTEPHEN'S ACCOUNT OF THE CITY.
+
+PART II.
+
+~Tyburn~: a brook which gave its name to the place Tyburn, where the
+Marble Arch now stands.
+
+~Westbourne~: this brook has given its name to Westbourne Park, in
+Paddington.
+
+~Holywell~ may be remembered by Holywell Street, in the Strand.
+
+~Clerkenwell~ is named after the Parish Clerks' Well, round which they
+used to perform their 'mysteries.'
+
+~quarterstaff~: a long staff used as a weapon of defence, and held in
+the middle and also one quarter way from the end.
+
+~tabor~: a kind of small drum beaten with one drumstick.
+
+~consuls~: the chief magistrates of Rome: two of them with equal power
+came into office every year.
+
+~senatorial~: appointed and controlled by the senate or governing
+council of Rome.
+
+~venison~ (pronounced _ven'-zon_): the flesh of deer.
+
+~cleric~: a clergyman.
+
+~abbot~: the head of an abbey or monastery.
+
+~magnate~: a great man, a man of great wealth and rank. (Latin _magnus_,
+great.)
+
+~metropolitan~: the bishop of a metropolis or chief cathedral city, as
+Canterbury is the metropolis of England in this sense.
+
+~ordinances~: laws, commands.
+
+
+15. LONDON BRIDGE. PART I.
+
+~Architect~: one who designs buildings and superintends the building of
+them.
+
+~Jewry~: the district in a town inhabited by the Jews; for in early
+times the Jews were not allowed to live where they liked, but only in
+quarters assigned to them. The street now called Old Jewry turns out of
+the Poultry, on the north side.
+
+~essential~: something very important and that cannot be done without.
+
+~intercommunication~: intercourse; dealings between people which are
+made much easier by having good roads and bridges to travel on.
+
+~La Rochelle~: a seaport in France on the Atlantic, some distance north
+of Bordeaux.
+
+~Saintes~: a French town about thirty-eight miles from La Rochelle.
+
+~St. Thomas Becket~, the murdered Archbishop of Canterbury, who was
+canonised, that is, named a saint after his death.
+
+~titular~: giving his name to the bridge.
+
+~crypt~: an underground or lower room used as a chapel or burying-place.
+
+
+16. LONDON BRIDGE. PART II.
+
+~King Edward I~: 1272-1307 A.D.
+
+~haberdashers~: dealers in 'small wares' such as cotton, tape, needles,
+and pins.
+
+~Hans Holbein~: a celebrated German painter who came to live in England
+and was introduced to Henry VIII.
+
+~marine painters~: artists who excel in painting boats, ships, and sea
+scenes. (Latin _mare_, the sea.)
+
+~'shooting' the bridge~: passing through the arches in a boat.
+
+~Queen Henrietta~ was the queen of Charles I. of England. After the
+Civil War she withdrew to France, where she died in 1669.
+
+~Rubens~: a very celebrated Flemish painter, born in 1577, died at
+Antwerp in 1640.
+
+~Sir Thomas Wyatt~ headed a rebellion in Kent, which was provoked by
+Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain and the restoration of Roman
+Catholicism. He was about to cross London Bridge, but finding this
+impossible crossed the Thames at Kingston. The rising was a failure, and
+Wyatt was executed, 1554.
+
+~Sir William Wallace~: a brave Scotch gentleman who led the Scotch
+against Edward I., who was trying to deprive Scotland of its
+independence. Wallace was finally taken and executed as a traitor at
+Tyburn, 1305.
+
+~Jack Cade~ headed a rebellion in Kent in 1450 through dissatisfaction
+with the government of Henry VI.: 30,000 rebels gathered on Blackheath,
+but the movement ended in failure and Cade was slain.
+
+~Sir Thomas More~: the good and learned chancellor of Henry VIII., and
+author of a famous book called 'Utopia.' He was executed as a traitor in
+1535.
+
+~St. Thomas-on-the-Bridge~: that is, Thomas Becket, to whom the bridge
+was dedicated.
+
+~pageant~: a splendid show or procession.
+
+~ex-apprentice~: one who has been once an apprentice.
+
+
+17. THE TOWER OF LONDON. PART I.
+
+~Dominate~: to lord over, to overawe, to be master of. (Latin _dominus_,
+a master, lord.)
+
+~Crusade~: an expedition under the banner of the _Cross_ to recover the
+Holy Land from the Turks. Richard I. went on the third Crusade in 1191.
+
+~antiquaries~: people who study ancient things.
+
+~mediaeval~: made during the middle ages; the period, roughly speaking,
+between the time of the Romans and the reign of Henry VII. (400-1485).
+
+~lieutenant~: an officer in command of the Tower.
+
+~keep~: the strongest part of a fortress or castle.
+
+~insignia~: the badges of any office.
+
+~menagerie~: a collection of wild animals.
+
+~Queen Anne Boleyn~, to marry whom, Henry VIII. divorced Catherine of
+Aragon. She was the mother of Queen Elizabeth.
+
+~Lady Jane Grey~ was proclaimed Queen by the Duke of Northumberland on
+the death of Edward VI., but the attempt to prevent Mary's accession was
+a failure, and Lady Jane Grey was executed in 1554.
+
+~Guy Fawkes~: a conspirator who tried to blow up the King and Parliament
+in 1605.
+
+~The unfortunate princes~ were Edward V., son of Edward IV., and the
+rightful king, and Richard Duke of York, his younger brother, murdered
+in the Tower by the usurper Richard III., 1483.
+
+
+18. THE TOWER OF LONDON. PART II.
+
+~Allegiance~: the duty due from a subject to his liege the sovereign.
+
+~Lord Hastings~ was executed by order of the Duke of Gloucester,
+afterwards Richard III., in 1483 for supporting the side of Edward V.
+and his relations.
+
+~ordnance~: artillery, cannon, big guns.
+
+~antipast~: aftertaste.
+
+~clerk~: a clergyman, a scholar, because in early times all learning was
+confined to the clergy.
+
+
+19. THE PILGRIMS.
+
+~ague~: a fever coming on at intervals, with fits of shivering.
+
+~isolation~: living away from outside communication, a lonely position
+like that of men on an _island_ cut off from the rest of the world.
+
+~Flemings~: the people of Flanders, a district now comprising parts of
+Belgium, South Holland, and North France.
+
+~Walsingham~: a place in the north of Norfolk, where was a famous
+shrine.
+
+~Glastonbury~: a small town near Wells, in Somersetshire.
+
+~Compostella~: a place in Spain where is the shrine of St. James, the
+patron saint of Spain.
+
+~Chaucer~: the great early English poet, born in London 1328, died 1400.
+
+~expiation~: making amends for, atonement.
+
+~Holy Sepulchre~: the burial place of our Lord at Jerusalem, to rescue
+which from the Turks was the object of the Crusades.
+
+
+20. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL.
+
+~Endowment~: money given for the permanent support of an institution,
+such as a church, hospital, or school.
+
+~Hospitaller~: one in charge of a hospital. The term is generally
+applied to the Knights of St. John, who built a hospital for sick
+Crusaders at Jerusalem.
+
+~shambles~: a slaughter-house.
+
+~Whittington~, originally an apprentice in London, became a wealthy
+mercer, thrice Lord Mayor, and knighted. He died in 1423, without
+children, and left his wealth for public objects, such as the one in the
+text.
+
+~Dissolution of the religious houses~, carried out by Henry VIII. in
+1536-1540 for the sake of the plunder they afforded.
+
+~Chloroform~: a colourless liquid which when inhaled produces complete
+insensibility to pain.
+
+~Norman windows~: that is, built in a style introduced by the Normans.
+The rounded tops of doors and windows maybe seen in the illustration on
+p. 44.
+
+~lanthorn~: a raised construction on the roof, with horn or glass sides
+to give light.
+
+~clinical~: in attendance at the bedside of patients.
+
+~residential college~: where they reside or dwell.
+
+~convalescent hospital~: where those who have had some illness may get
+quite well and strong again.
+
+
+21. THE TERROR OF LEPROSY.
+
+~Leprosy~: a terrible disease of the skin and blood, once prevalent in
+Europe, now mostly confined to the East.
+
+~lazar~: a leper; one suffering from a foul disease like Lazarus in St.
+Luke xvi.
+
+~congregate~: flock together, crowd with.
+
+~stringent~: strict.
+
+~statutes~: rules or laws.
+
+~Book of the Jewish Law~: that is, the book Leviticus.
+
+~ulcerates~: is afflicted with ulcers or sores.
+
+~Mass~: the celebration of the Lord's Supper in the Roman Catholic
+Church.
+
+~Burton Lazars~: a village one mile from Melton Mowbray, in
+Leicestershire. Here, on account of its excellent sulphur springs, the
+chief leper-hospital was established in the reign of Stephen.
+
+~hereditary~: transmitted from parents to children.
+
+
+22. THE TERROR OF FAMINE.
+
+~24 shillings a quarter~: this is not far from the present price of
+wheat, which gives us cheap bread. But in 1257 24_s._ would be
+equivalent to at least 20_l._ in our money.
+
+~retainers~: those in the service of a nobleman and wearing his livery
+and badge.
+
+~Hanseatic merchants~: merchants trading with the Hanse cities in
+Germany (among which was Hamburg) who had formed a league for
+self-protection about the twelfth century.
+
+~granary~: a place for storing up grain or corn.
+
+
+23. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. PART I.
+
+~460 feet~: the loftiest spire in England, that of Salisbury Cathedral,
+is about 404 feet.
+
+~its length was at least 600 feet~: the present cathedral, the third on
+the site, is 500 feet long.
+
+~shrine~: a receptacle for relics and other sacred things. (The word
+means a 'chest.')
+
+~aisle~ (pronounced _[=i]le_) is the side or wing of a church.
+
+~scribe~: a writer. In those early times so few people could read or
+write that men often had to have recourse to professional writers.
+
+~deed~: a written document relating to some legal transaction.
+
+~conveyance~: a writing legally transferring from one person to another
+property, especially houses and land.
+
+~Humphrey Duke of Gloucester~ was the youngest brother of Henry V., on
+whose death he was made regent in England in 1422. He died in 1447.
+
+~St. Cuthbert~ was a monk, missionary, and bishop of Lindesfarne, an
+island off the coast of Northumberland, where he died in 687 A.D., and
+was buried in Durham Cathedral.
+
+~sacristy~: a room adjoining a church where sacred vessels, vestments,
+&c. are kept.
+
+
+24. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. PART II.
+
+~Inigo Jones~ (born 1572, died 1652) was a celebrated architect.
+
+~Portico~: a row of columns in front of a building.
+
+~Exchange~: a building where merchants meet to transact business.
+
+~nave~: the main body of a church, the aisles being on each side of the
+nave.
+
+~King Charles II. returned~ at the Restoration in 1660.
+
+~Sir Christopher Wren~ (born 1632, died 1723): the greatest English
+architect. After the great fire he rebuilt St. Paul's Cathedral, fifty
+London churches, and many public buildings. Over his tomb in St. Paul's
+is the inscription in Latin: 'If you seek for his monument, look round
+about you.'
+
+~The Peace of Ryswick~, 1697, made by England, Spain, and Holland with
+Louis XIV. of France.
+
+~Dr. Johnson~ (born 1709, died 1784): one of the great names in English
+literature, and author of a celebrated dictionary.
+
+~oriental scholar~, or ~orientalist~, is a man who studies Eastern or
+Indian languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Hindi, Sanskrit, &c.
+
+~sarcophagus~: a stone chest for holding a corpse.
+
+~porphyry~: a hard kind of stone coloured purple and white.
+
+~Battle of the Nile~, 1798; ~Cape St. Vincent~, 1797; ~Camperdown~,
+1797.
+
+~Lord Almoner~: the official who dispenses the royal charities and
+bounties.
+
+~Slavonic~: a group of kindred languages, including Russian, Polish, and
+Bulgarian.
+
+
+25. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD.
+
+~Embattled~: built with battlements.
+
+~minor canons~: clergy of the cathedral who intone the services and look
+after the music.
+
+~charnel~: containing the bones of the dead.
+
+~Finsbury Fields~: the _fenny_ or marshy ground lying north of the
+Moorgate of the old City walls.
+
+~Papal Bulls~: decrees and orders issued by the Pope, so called from the
+seal attached to them.
+
+~Latimer~ (born 1470, died 1555), Bishop of Worcester, burnt at the
+stake for his Protestant opinions together with Ridley, Bishop of
+London.
+
+~chapter house~: the building where the chapter or clergy belonging to
+the cathedral meet.
+
+~Sacrist~: the official in a cathedral who copied and took care of the
+music and books.
+
+~Paul's Chain~: so called because traffic was stopped by a chain during
+the hours of service.
+
+
+26. THE RELIGIOUS HOUSES.
+
+~Forester~: one who has charge of a forest to cut wood, plant new trees,
+&c.
+
+~vicar~: one who acts in place of another; hence a priest who on behalf
+of his monastery conducted services in a parish church.
+
+~orders~: the different brotherhoods into which monks were divided.
+
+~indiscriminate charity~: giving without thinking, whether the charity
+is well or ill bestowed.
+
+~Minorites~: monks or nuns belonging to the Franciscan Order, who in
+their humility called themselves the 'lesser' (_minores_) brethren, or
+sisters.
+
+~Blackfriars~ were the Dominicans; ~Whitefriars~ were the Carmelites;
+~Greyfriars~ were Franciscans, from the colour of their respective
+dresses.
+
+~Charter House~: the house of the Carthusian monks.
+
+~Temple~: once the house of the ~Templars~, an order of knights whose
+duty it was to protect the Holy Sepulchre.
+
+~part of the church ... still to be seen~: at Clerkenwell the gate of
+the priory of St. John's is still standing.
+
+
+27. MONKS, FRIARS, AND NUNS.
+
+~Indiscriminately~: without making any distinctions between them.
+
+~hermit~, from the Greek, and ~solitary~, from the Latin, mean the same
+thing--one who retires from the world and lives in a lonely place.
+
+~Monte Casino~, in Campania, near Naples, where St. Benedict established
+his monastery in 529 A.D.
+
+~St. Benedict~ is often shortened to Benet, as in the name of several
+London churches.
+
+~austerities~: severe rules of life and conduct.
+
+~Friars~, or brethren (French _freres_, Latin _fratres_): those orders
+that went forth to the people.
+
+~Assisi~: a town in Central Italy where St. Francis was born.
+
+~St. Dominic~: born in Castile, in Spain, 1170, died 1221; founded his
+order to convert 'heretics,' and procured the establishment of the
+~Inquisition~, or court for punishing heretics.
+
+~Sanctuary~: a refuge where criminals were safe from the law. Sir W.
+Scott in the 'Fortunes of Nigel' well describes the lawless character of
+this district in the reign of James I.
+
+~St. Bernard~: a celebrated brother of the Cistercian Order (born 1091,
+died 1153).
+
+
+28. THE LONDON CHURCHES.
+
+~St. Augustine~ was sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 597 to convert the
+heathen English: he was the 'Apostle of the English,' and first
+Archbishop of Canterbury.
+
+~St. Dunstan~, who became Archbishop of Canterbury and died in 988, was
+not only a zealous priest but a great statesman and ruler.
+
+~St. Alphege~: an Archbishop of Canterbury murdered by the Danes in 1012
+A.D.
+
+~Sise Lane~: a lane in the City, near Cannon Street.
+
+~The Basings~: an old City family whose name also survives in the
+'Bassishaw' ward of the City, and in Basinghall Street.
+
+~Bread Street~, turning out of Cheapside, shows where the bakers chiefly
+dwelt in Old London.
+
+~John Milton~ (born 1608, died 1674) wrote 'Paradise Lost,' 'Paradise
+Regained,' and some beautiful shorter pieces.
+
+~Three Poets~: i. the Greek Homer, reputed author of those noble epics
+the 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey' (about 1000 B.C.); ii. the Roman Virgil, who
+wrote the 'AEneid' (born 70 B.C.); iii. the English Milton. The famous
+epitaph was written by John Dryden.
+
+~William Tyndal~ assisted the Reformation by translating the New
+Testament into English (1526), and part of the Old Testament. He was
+burnt as a heretic at Vilvoorde, near Brussels, in 1536.
+
+~William Cowper~ (born 1731, died 1800), the author of 'The Task' and
+other beautiful poems.
+
+
+29. THE STREETS.
+
+~Plantagenet~: Henry II., 1154-1189, was the first of the line of kings
+bearing this name, so called from the badge worn by Henry's father, a
+sprig of broom.
+
+~Chesel~ was the Anglo-Saxon for pebble, and Kiesel is the German for
+the same. The ~Chesil Beach~, near Weymouth, is a remarkable bank of
+shingle joining Portland Bill to the mainland.
+
+~Somerset House~, in the Strand: the palace of the Protector Somerset
+has been pulled down, and public offices erected on its site.
+
+~Northumberland House~, now demolished, has given its name to
+Northumberland Avenue, near Charing Cross.
+
+~Southwark ... many Inns~: in particular the Tabard, where Chaucer's
+pilgrims assembled.
+
+~mediaeval~: living in the middle ages, that is, some time before about
+1500 A.D.
+
+~ironmongers in their Lane~: that is, Ironmonger Lane, turning out of
+Cheapside.
+
+
+30. WHITTINGTON. PART I.
+
+~Mercer~: a merchant who sells silken or woollen goods.
+
+~executors~: those who are appointed to carry out the last will and
+testament of a dead man.
+
+~Levantine~, in the Levant, or eastern part of the Mediterranean.
+
+~Guinea~, on the west coast of Africa.
+
+~Pizarro~: a Spanish adventurer who conquered Peru from its native
+rulers or Incas, and was murdered in his palace at Lima in 1541.
+
+~a piece of eight~ (dollars), that is, about 30_s._
+
+~assessment~: the value put upon house or property in order to fix the
+amount of taxes to be paid.
+
+
+31. WHITTINGTON. PART II.
+
+~Vintner~: a wine-seller.
+
+~Wycliffe~, born about 1324, was a learned theologian and rector of
+Lutterworth, in Leicestershire. For preaching Protestant doctrines he
+was summoned to appear at St. Paul's to answer a charge of heresy in
+1377.
+
+~John of Gaunt~ thus made the second attempt to deprive London of its
+liberties and charter; Matilda, the opponent of Stephen, had tried long
+before, but it ended in her overthrow (_see_ p. 45).
+
+~The Marshal~ was the commander of the Royal forces. To put London under
+him was to destroy its liberty. This office is hereditary in the family
+of the Duke of Norfolk, and like other royal offices became unimportant
+when it became hereditary.
+
+~rebellion of the peasants, 1381~, against over-taxation and being bound
+to the soil as serfs by their landlords. ~John Ball~, the popular
+preacher, used to ask:
+
+    'When Adam delved and Eve span,
+    Who was then a gentleman?'
+
+~The Archbishop of Canterbury~, Simon of Sudbury, had as chancellor
+proposed the taxes complained of; therefore the peasants murdered him.
+
+~rescinding~: repealing of a law.
+
+
+32. WHITTINGTON. PART III.
+
+~Burning of heretics and Lollards~: in 1401, in the reign of Henry IV.,
+an Act of Parliament was passed for burning heretics.
+
+~Lollards~ were those who differed from the Church before the
+Reformation. The name comes from a German word _lollen_, to sing--from
+the custom of these reformers.
+
+~Mansion House~: the official home of the Lord Mayor. The present
+building was begun in 1739; previously a house in Cheapside was used for
+the purpose.
+
+~bond~: a written obligation binding someone to pay a sum of money. When
+money was needed the King used to borrow from wealthy citizens and give
+a bond or promise to repay.
+
+~St. Michael's Paternoster Royal~ is in College Hill, near Cannon
+Street. The church was so called from the Tower Royal given by Edward
+III. in 1331 to his queen, Philippa, for her wardrobe.
+
+
+33. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS.
+
+~Mark~: a coin, now obsolete, worth 13_s._ 4_d._
+
+~interdicted~: forbidden, prevented.
+
+~technical school~: where useful and practical arts and trades are
+taught.
+
+~aqueduct~: an artificial channel for water.
+
+~Sevenoaks~, in Kent.
+
+~Higham Ferrers~ is a small town in Northamptonshire.
+
+
+34. THE PALACES AND GREAT HOUSES.
+
+~The King Maker~: Warwick was so called because he helped Edward IV. to
+become king in 1461, and restored Henry VI. for a time in 1470. He was
+slain at the battle of Barnet, 1471.
+
+~quadrangle~: an open court, square, with buildings all round it.
+
+~College of Heralds~: a Government office under the Earl Marshal which
+looks after pedigrees and armorial bearings.
+
+~Hampton Court~: a Royal palace begun by Cardinal Wolsey.
+
+~St. James's Palace~: the official residence of the Queen in London,
+Buckingham Palace being her private residence.
+
+~buttery~: a storeroom where liquors and other provisions were kept.
+
+~Baynard's Castle~ has given its name to one of the City wards.
+
+~The Duke of Buckingham~ secured the crown for Richard III., and then
+being insufficiently rewarded rebelled against him, and was executed in
+1483.
+
+~George, Duke of Clarence~, brother of Edward IV., first sided with his
+father-in-law, the Earl of Warwick, then joined his brother in 1471.
+With justice, therefore, Shakespeare called him 'false, fleeting,
+perjured Clarence. He was accused of treason and found dead in the Tower
+in 1478.
+
+
+35. AMUSEMENTS.
+
+~Tournament~: a sham fight at which knights, mostly on horseback, used
+to show their skill.
+
+~Twelfth Day~: twelve days after Christmas, formerly an occasion of
+great festivities, which have now nearly died out.
+
+~Morris-dance~: a _Moorish_ dance to an accompaniment of bells and
+tambourines.
+
+~cresset~: a kind of lantern formed of an open brazier filled with
+combustible materials.
+
+~demilance~: a kind of horse-soldier armed with a short lance.
+
+~mummeries~: entertainments performed by men in masks.
+
+~Curfew~: the bell rung at eight o'clock at night as a sign to put out
+all lights. Ancient towns having much wood were liable to serious fires.
+
+
+36. WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
+
+~Thorney~, Isle of Thorns; _ey_ and _ea_ meaning island, as in Anglesey,
+Chelsea, Winchelsea.
+
+~precinct~: the limit of the ground belonging to a church or other
+institution.
+
+~commissioner~: appointed to see that the work was carried out.
+
+~Sir G. Gilbert Scott~, born 1811, died 1878, was the greatest modern
+English architect.
+
+~took sanctuary~: fled for shelter to the abbey, whence she could not be
+taken without violating the privileges of the Church.
+
+~William Caxton~ set up in 1476 the first printing press in England.
+
+~coronation chair~: under this is the famous stone brought from Scone by
+Edward I., over which all the Scottish kings had been crowned since
+about 800 A.D.
+
+
+37. THE COURT AT WESTMINSTER.
+
+~Star Chamber Court~, in which cases were tried before some members of
+the Privy Council and two judges without a jury. This was established in
+1487 to restore order because great lords and landowners used to
+frighten juries from giving true verdicts.
+
+~bear and ragged staff~: the arms of the Earl of Warwick consisted of a
+bear erect and hugging a rough stake. (See pictures on pp. 111, 113.)
+
+~arras~: tapestry for hanging; so called from Arras, in the north of
+France, where it was made.
+
+~refectory~: the hall where the monks or nuns took their meals.
+
+
+38. JUSTICE AND PUNISHMENTS.
+
+~executive officers~: those whose duty it is to enforce the law.
+
+~contrition~: repentance.
+
+~securities~: stocks and shares; papers which can be of no use to the
+ordinary thief.
+
+~Bridewell~: the site of a prison, now demolished. It adjoined
+Whitefriars, and may be seen in the map to the west of Blackfriars.
+
+~amende honorable~ (French): when one who has done wrong gives
+satisfaction without loss of honour.
+
+~pillory~: a framework supported by an upright pillar. In it were holes
+through which the head and hands of offenders were thrust. In this
+uncomfortable position they had to stand exposed to the insults of the
+mob.
+
+~cogged~: loaded so as always to fall in a certain way.
+
+~title deeds~: writings drawn up in proper legal form to prove the
+possession of property.
+
+
+39. THE POLITICAL POWER OF LONDON.
+
+~Froissart~: an early French chronicler or historian who visited England
+in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II., and died in 1401.
+
+~besotted with~: stupidly and excessively fond of.
+
+~commonalty~: the common people.
+
+~Berkeley Castle~, in Gloucestershire, where Edward II. was murdered in
+1327.
+
+~a son was born~: Edward, Prince of Wales, born in 1453. After the
+Yorkist victory of Northampton in 1460 Edward's claim to the throne was
+set aside in favour of Richard, Duke of York, father of Edward IV. The
+Prince was slain at the battle of Tewkesbury, 1471.
+
+~benevolences~: loans of money, supposed to be voluntary, really
+compulsory, made by merchants and other rich men to the king.
+
+~charts~: papers; ~blank cheques~: orders on the bank for money with all
+except the amount required filled up and properly signed.
+
+~factor~: if 2 x 3 makes six, 2 and 3 are each factors of 6; hence it is
+something which helps to bring about some result.
+
+
+40. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART I.
+
+~Stow~ (born 1525, died 1605): a famous writer in Queen Elizabeth's
+reign on the antiquities of London and other places.
+
+~Whitechapel~ takes its name from a white chapel-of-ease built to
+relieve Stepney, in which parish this district was till 1763.
+
+~tenters~: pegs for stretching cloth. Sometimes hooks were used, from
+which we get the phrase 'to be on tenter hooks'--to be on a stretch with
+anxiety.
+
+~St. Katharine's~ has given its name to the great docks east of the
+Tower.
+
+~bull-, bear-baiting~: the sport of setting dogs to worry bulls or
+bears.
+
+~Alsatia~: for a vivid picture of this haunt of rogues in the reign of
+James I. the reader is referred to Sir W. Scott's 'Fortunes of Nigel.'
+
+~Austin Friars~: the space known as Drapers' Gardens (because the hall
+of the Drapers' Company is adjoining) in Throgmorton Street is on the
+site of this monastery.
+
+~Canwicke (now Cannon) Street~ was so called because the wax-chandlers
+and candle-makers lived in that part.
+
+
+41. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART II.
+
+~William Shakespeare~ (born 1564, died 1616): the prince of poets, who
+lived in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.
+
+~ruins of the monasteries~ which had been suppressed by Henry VIII. in
+1536-1540.
+
+~Cold Harbour~: a merchant's mansion once standing on the bank of the
+Thames in Thames Street.
+
+~Genevan bands~: a kind of collar worn by Protestant clergymen, so
+called because Geneva, the home of Calvin, was the centre of
+Protestantism.
+
+~palaces along the Strand~: if you walk along the Strand you will notice
+that many of the short streets leading down to the river bear the names
+of noblemen, such as Arundel Street, Norfolk Street, Salisbury Street,
+&c. from the old palaces which once stood there.
+
+~Staples Inn~: a picturesque group of old houses in Holborn was formerly
+a wool-market (_staple_ means a fixed market). ~Wych Street~ is near
+Holywell Street in the Strand.
+
+~Cloth Fair~ is now a poor neighbourhood near Smithfield.
+
+
+42. ELIZABETHAN LONDON. PART III.
+
+~Impressment~: in the absence of some orderly arrangement, such as
+conscription (where all serve) or a voluntary system (like our own), the
+press-gang used to kidnap people and force them to serve.
+
+~animosity~: anger, ill feeling against.
+
+~The Steelyard~, on the site of which Cannon Street railway station now
+stands, was the house of the Hanse merchants (_see_ note on Chapter
+XXII.).
+
+~John Colet~, Dean of St. Paul's (born 1466, died 1519), was one of the
+leaders of the revival of learning in England. St. Paul's School, which
+he founded in 1512, has been moved to Hammersmith.
+
+
+43. TRADE. PART I.
+
+~Forestall their market~: that is, to buy things before they arrived at
+the market, so as to sell them at a higher price.
+
+~Luebeck~: a large port in north Germany in the Baltic.
+
+~staples~, originally all kinds of raw produce, came to be applied only
+to wool. Staples Inn was once a wool-market.
+
+~instead of selling our wool~: Edward III. brought Flemish weavers into
+England to encourage manufactures. Till then England produced and
+exported wool to Antwerp and other manufacturing centres, but did not
+make it into cloth.
+
+~Hamburg~ was a member of the Hanseatic League.
+
+~The screen~ was presented to the Church of All Hallows the Great,
+Thames Street, in 1710, by the Hanseatic merchants.
+
+
+44. TRADE. PART II.
+
+~Incubus~: something that weighs down and hinders.
+
+~religious wars in the Netherlands~: between the Protestant Dutch and
+the Catholic Spaniards, who were oppressing the country through great
+part of the sixteenth century.
+
+~Bourse~: the same as ~Exchange~, where merchants meet to transact their
+business.
+
+~English wool~ in Bruges, because it was much exported thither from
+England before the growth of home manufactures.
+
+~Flemings~: the natives of Flanders; who were the chief manufacturers of
+Europe long before England took the lead.
+
+~14 per cent.~: the height of this rate may be seen by comparing it with
+the 21/2 per cent., which is all England now pays as interest upon her
+debt.
+
+~Bethlehem Hospital~, corrupted into Bedlam, is still a hospital, but
+only for the insane.
+
+
+45. TRADE. PART III.
+
+~Bruges ... civil wars~: that is, the religious wars referred to in
+Chapter XLIV.
+
+~Venetians~: before the discovery of the sea route to India and the East
+Venice was the first maritime and commercial power in the world. The
+route round the Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco de Gama in
+1497.
+
+~Moluccas~: a group of tropical islands between Celebes and New Guinea,
+rich in pearls, spices, and precious woods.
+
+~Calicut~: the port in Madras, where Vasco de Gama first landed in May
+1498. The cotton cloth called _calico_ was first brought thence.
+
+~Moorish pirates~: North Africa has always been a haunt of pirates. In
+1816 Lord Exmouth had to bombard Algiers, and even as late as 1860 the
+European Powers had to suppress piracy in Morocco.
+
+~Dordrecht~: a commercial town in the south of Holland, near Rotterdam.
+
+~The South Sea Company~ is celebrated above the other trading companies
+for the great speculation in its shares called the ~South Sea bubble~ in
+1720.
+
+
+46. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART I.
+
+~Mummers~: men who played in entertainments masked and in various
+disguises.
+
+~masque~: a kind of play in which the actors wore masks. Milton's
+'Comus' is a well-known masque of high character.
+
+~mystery~: a name for a religious play representing some scene from the
+Bible or scenes from the life of a saint.
+
+~admonition~: warning.
+
+~frescoes~: paintings on a wall covered with plaster--done while the
+plaster is still wet or _fresh_.
+
+~sequence~: that is, the connection of one event with another.
+
+~properties~: the articles used in the play, scenery, dress, &c.
+
+~realistic~: looking as though they really were the persons represented.
+
+~tableau~: scene.
+
+~lessee~: one who rents a theatre or holds it on a lease from the owner.
+
+
+47. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART II.
+
+~Pageants~: grand shows, processions.
+
+~censers~: vessels for burning incense.
+
+~conduit~: a pipe or channel for leading or _conducting_ water.
+
+~Cross of Chepe~: a memorial erected in the centre of the chepe, or
+market, in memory of Queen Eleanor.
+
+~jerkins~: a kind of jacket often made of leather.
+
+~panoply~: full armour.
+
+~banneret~: a little banner.
+
+~blackjacks~: leather vessels for holding liquor.
+
+~malmsey~: a strong sweet wine.
+
+~marshal~: draw up and arrange.
+
+~Lord Mayor's Show~: on November 9--when the people have an opportunity
+of welcoming the new Lord Mayor on his entering into office.
+
+
+48. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART III.
+
+~libretto~: the words of a masque or play set to music.
+
+~scenic~: on the stage.
+
+~Ben Jonson~ (born 1574, died 1637): a great English play writer and
+poet, and a friend of Shakespeare.
+
+~Francis Bacon~, Lord Verulam (born 1561, died 1626), was Lord
+Chancellor and a great writer on philosophical subjects.
+
+~Oberon~: the king of the fairies and husband of Titania, as in
+Shakespeare's 'Midsummer Night's Dream.'
+
+~save James~: that is, King James I.; a piece of courtly flattery due to
+Jonson's connection with the court.
+
+~Prince Henry~, who is meant by Oberon in the masque, died in 1612, to
+the great regret of the people.
+
+~Phosphorus~: Lucifer, the morning star that brings the day.
+
+
+49. PLAYS AND PAGEANTS. PART IV.
+
+~Gammer (i.e. Old Mother) Gurton's Needle~ is a very rough old play
+about an old woman who lost her needle while mending a pair of breeches,
+and, after accusing everyone of stealing it, finds it after all in the
+garment itself. It was written some time before 1560. ('Gammer,' the
+French _grand'-mere_, grandmother, contracted into 'ganmer,' and then
+'gammer.')
+
+~contortionist~: one who twists himself into extraordinary attitudes to
+amuse the public.
+
+~octagonal~: with eight sides.
+
+~prologue~: the verses spoken before a play to introduce it to the
+audience.
+
+~Golden Lane~: a street near the Barbican, turning out of Aldersgate
+Street.
+
+~Bankside~, in Southwark, on the southern side of the Thames.
+
+
+50. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE. PART I.
+
+~Pretensions~: ambitious claims.
+
+~Wars of the Roses~: a civil war lasting 1455-1485. In thinking of the
+loss of life occasioned by this war, it must be remembered that such
+loss fell most heavily on the noble families; the mass of the population
+was not so much disturbed by it.
+
+~Long Acre~: a street near Drury Lane, now chiefly occupied by
+carriage-makers.
+
+~delirium~: a wandering in the mind caused by fever.
+
+
+51. THE TERROR OF THE PLAGUE. PART II.
+
+~Registers~: a record of names of persons who have died. Such records
+are now accurately kept by the registrars of births, deaths, and
+marriages.
+
+~The King~: Charles II., who, whatever his faults may have been, was at
+least good-natured and averse to suffering.
+
+~Samuel Pepys~ (born 1632, died 1703) was Secretary to the Admiralty in
+the reigns of Charles II. and James II. His famous diary gives a graphic
+picture of life during these reigns.
+
+
+52. THE TERROR OF FIRE. PART I.
+
+~Coleman Street~ runs northward from Lothbury (behind the Bank of
+England) to Moorgate. The name goes back even to Saxon times, and
+probably comes from one Ceolmund, who had a farm near.
+
+~St. Erkinwald~: an early Saxon Bishop of London, who encouraged the
+citizens to restore their ruined city, and himself built the Bishop's
+Gate (named after him). His shrine in St. Paul's was long an object of
+reverence.
+
+~Paternoster Row~: always a great centre of the book trade: it was a row
+immediately adjoining the precincts of the Cathedral before
+encroachments were made. Naturally much of the booksellers' wares was
+religious--paternosters, aves, credos, &c.
+
+~chancel~: the east end of a church in which is the altar, separated
+from the rest of the church by a screen or railings. (Latin _cancelli_,
+a grating.)
+
+~transept~: the part of a cathedral projecting on either side.
+Cathedrals are generally built in the shape of a cross; the transept is
+the arms of the cross in the ground plan.
+
+
+53. THE TERROR OF FIRE. PART II.
+
+~Astronomer~: one who studies the stars or heavenly bodies.
+
+~John Evelyn~ (born 1620, died 1706), a gentleman of the reign of
+Charles II., was made one of the commissioners for the restoration of
+London after the Great Fire. He wrote a diary, which is not so amusing
+as that of Pepys (_see_ Chapter LI.)
+
+~St. Dunstan-in-the-East~, in Tower Street, was the first church
+restored by Wren after the fire.
+
+~John Dryden~ (born 1631, died 1700): one of the greatest English poets.
+He was a supporter of the house of Stuart, and was made poet laureate.
+
+~obnoxious~: exposed to.
+
+
+54. ROGUES AND VAGABONDS.
+
+~Vagabonds~: wanderers who have no settled home.
+
+~Wapping~: called Wapping Wash (or Marsh) in the time of Queen
+Elizabeth, when it was first drained and banked in, lies on the north
+bank of the Thames, in Middlesex, near the Thames Tunnel.
+
+~Lambeth~, facing Westminster, on the south bank of the river, is
+low-lying, and was called in Saxon times Lambhythe, meaning loamy or
+muddy landing place.
+
+~Bermondsey~ (_ey_--island), on the south bank of the Thames, one mile
+S.E. of St. Paul's, is a centre of the leather and wool trade.
+
+~Rotherhithe~ (or Redriff), on the south bank of the Thames, lies east
+of Bermondsey and faces Wapping. The south end of the Thames Tunnel is
+in Rotherhithe.
+
+~stringent~: strict.
+
+~impotent~: powerless, unable to work.
+
+~stocks~: a wooden frame in which the legs of criminals were confined.
+
+~The Barbican~: a street near the site of the old Aldersgate. Barbican
+means defensive works for a gate. ~Turnmill Street~ is near Farringdon
+railway station.
+
+
+55. UNDER GEORGE II. PART I. THE WEALTH OF LONDON.
+
+~Essayists~: people who write essays; that is, short compositions on any
+subject.
+
+~picturesqueness~: beauty and grace; qualities which might be supposed
+to make anything a good subject for a _picture_.
+
+~ruffles~: pieces of some white material plaited and attached as a frill
+to the collar and sleeves of garments.
+
+~ostentation~: making a great show.
+
+~Puritanism~: the more sober style of life and thought introduced by the
+Puritans, who were a religious party in the times of Elizabeth and the
+Stuarts, and were desirous of a purer and simpler doctrine and mode of
+living.
+
+
+56. UNDER GEORGE II. PART II.
+
+~Predecessors~: those that went before them.
+
+~cruciform~: in the form of a cross. The ground plan of many churches is
+shaped like a cross.
+
+~St. Stephen's, Walbrook~, stands behind the Mansion House, where the
+Walbrook used to flow.
+
+~lectureship~: the office of a lecturer, one who gives lectures,
+discourses, or (as in this case) sermons. Money was left to pay for
+these sermons, that is, the lectureships were ~endowed~.
+
+~harbouring~: sheltering.
+
+~organisers~: those who get up and arrange anything.
+
+~Haymarket~ (obviously once a hay market) is near Trafalgar Square, and
+~Coventry Street~ near Leicester Square.
+
+~innovations~: novelties, new things.
+
+
+57. UNDER GEORGE II. PART III.
+
+~Broad Street~: between the Royal Exchange and Liverpool Street.
+
+~Whitecross Street~ is near the Barbican, Aldersgate Street;
+~Whitechapel~, in which is ~Middlesex Street~ (commonly known as
+Petticoat Lane), is reached through Aldgate.
+
+~Hogarth~ (born 1697, died 1764): a celebrated English painter, chiefly
+famous for moral, satirical and humorous pictures drawn from everyday
+life.
+
+~asphalt~: a kind of mineral pitchy substance which melts in heat and
+can be laid down so as to form a hard, smooth roadway.
+
+~Vauxhall~: in Surrey, in the parish of Lambeth, on the south of the
+Thames. There was once an old manor house here called Faukes or Fox
+Hall.
+
+~Bermondsey Spa~: so called from a mineral spring discovered there in
+1770. (Spa, a place where there is a mineral spring, gets its name from
+a celebrated watering-place in Belgium of that name.)
+
+~punch~: a drink containing five ingredients--water, spirits, sugar,
+lemon-juice, spice.
+
+
+58. UNDER GEORGE II. PART IV.
+
+~Decorous~: behaving in a decent and respectable way.
+
+~appreciation~: estimate, judgment about.
+
+~congregation~: gathering together.
+
+~Benjamin Franklin~ (born 1706, died 1790): a native of Boston, U.S.A.,
+who lived for some time in England. As a scientist he is famous for
+electrical experiments; as a politician, for the share he took in
+upholding the independence of the American States.
+
+~transmission~: handing down from father to son.
+
+~externally~: outwardly.
+
+~St. Katharine's~, ~Ratcliff~, ~Shadwell~, ~Stepney~, are all in the
+East End of London.
+
+~jurisdiction~: legal authority.
+
+
+59. UNDER GEORGE II. PART V.
+
+~Lighters~: large boats or barges used in unloading ships.
+
+~bleaching-grounds~: where cloth was laid out to be bleached or whitened
+by the wind and sun.
+
+~hopbines~: the stalks of hop plants.
+
+~transportation~: conveying convicted criminals abroad. Till 1869
+convicts were sent to Australia; now they are kept in convict prisons at
+home.
+
+~classification~: dividing and arranging into classes.
+
+~embezzle~: to steal something entrusted to one's care.
+
+~press-gang~: a party of sailors under an officer who forcibly took men
+to serve in the Royal Navy.
+
+~anarchy~: absence of rule, disorder.
+
+~Gordon Riots~: in 1780, led by the fanatic Lord George Gordon. The mob
+raised the cry of 'No Popery' on account of a law then proposing to
+remove hardships from Roman Catholics. Riot and plunder were the real
+object of the mob. The disorder had to be suppressed by military force.
+
+~Police~: organised in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel, after whom the members
+of the force were called 'bobbies' and 'peelers.'
+
+
+60. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART I.
+
+~Denominations~: religious bodies or sects, the members of which are all
+called by the same name. (Latin _nomen_, a name.)
+
+~every conceivable topic~: every subject you can think of.
+
+~community~: a people, the public.
+
+~achieved~: won by effort.
+
+
+61. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART II.
+
+~Symbol of~: the representative of; the presence of a policeman is the
+outward form taken by the law in the eyes of the people.
+
+~mote~: meeting; hence ~folks' mote~, meeting of the folk or people;
+~ward mote~, meeting of those living in the same ward or city division.
+
+~The Companies~: such as those of the Goldsmiths, Merchant Taylors,
+Drapers, &c.
+
+~Quarter Sessions~: the sessions or sittings of the Law Courts in a
+county or city held every quarter.
+
+~archives~: public records.
+
+~sergeant~ means 'servant,' 'officer'--here of the law. Ordinarily it is
+a rank in the army.
+
+
+62. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. PART III.
+
+~Advocate~: argue in favour of.
+
+~tenacity~: perseverance, holding on. (Latin _teneo_, to hold.)
+
+~livery~: because the members of the different trade companies used to
+wear a distinguishing uniform or livery.
+
+~fletchers~: arrow-makers. (French _fleche_, an arrow.)
+
+~trust-money~: money entrusted for a certain purpose for which alone it
+can be used.
+
+~technical~: where useful trades and sciences are taught.
+
+
+63. LONDON. GREATER LONDON.
+
+~Conservative~: preserving, so far as convenient, the present state of
+things.
+
+~functions~: powers and duties.
+
+~reformatory schools~: where boys and girls who have committed some
+crime are sent to be reformed to better ways.
+
+~assets~: property actually held, so that it can be set off against a
+debt.
+
+~democratic~: giving power and influence to the people.
+
+~oligarchic~: giving power and influence to the few.
+
+~'law worthiness'~: right to assist in the making of laws.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Spottiswoode & Co. Printers, New-street Square, London_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The following errors have been corrected in this text:
+
+Page 6: Fitzstephen's to FitzStephen's
+
+Page 68: fiteenth to fifteenth
+
+Page 108: SEVENTEENTH to FIFTEENTH
+
+Page 135: Westminter to Westminster
+
+Page 223: alway to always
+
+Page 246: Archishop to Archbishop
+
+Page 256: supressed to suppressed
+
+The following words are inconsistently hyphenated in the original text:
+folk-mote, folkmote; Lud-gate, Ludgate; pack-horse, packhorse;
+river-side, riverside.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of London, by Walter Besant
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