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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Writing of the Short Story, by 
+Lewis Worthington Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Writing of the Short Story
+
+Author: Lewis Worthington Smith
+
+Release Date: November 10, 2008 [EBook #27224]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jacqueline Jeremy and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    THE WRITING OF THE
+    SHORT STORY
+
+    BY
+
+    LEWIS WORTHINGTON SMITH, A.M.
+
+    DRAKE UNIVERSITY, DES MOINES, IOWA
+
+    D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS
+    BOSTON  NEW YORK  CHICAGO
+
+
+    COPYRIGHT, 1902,
+    BY D. C. HEATH & CO.
+
+
+
+
+    IT IS A PLEASURE TO BE PERMITTED TO ASSOCIATE
+     WITH THIS LITTLE BOOK THE NAME OF MY FRIEND
+               PROFESSOR L. A. SHERMAN
+            OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA.
+
+
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS
+
+
+In the author's classes the three stories in the volume entitled "Three
+Hundred Dollars" are first studied because of their simplicity, and
+these are followed by parts of "The Bonnie Brier Bush," and then by the
+stories from Bret Harte. Mrs. Phelps Ward's "Loveliness" is especially
+valuable for illustrating methods and devices for making a simple theme
+dramatically interesting. Students are required to mark stories with the
+symbols and discuss them with reference to the principles of which this
+little book is an exposition, but no recitation on the book itself is
+required. Perhaps one-third of the time in the class-room is spent in
+discussion of the short themes written by the class, and when convenient
+these are placed on the board before the class for that purpose. In the
+theme work following the suggested subjects the effort is made to
+confine instruction and practice to one thing at a time, but at the
+conclusion of the work of the term each member of the class is required
+to hand in a complete original story.
+
+
+
+
+THE WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY
+
+NARRATIVE FORMS
+
+
+=1. Elements of the Story.=--This little volume is meant to be a
+discussion of but one of the various forms that literature takes, and it
+will be first in order to see what are the elements that go to the
+making of a narrative having literary quality. A story may be true or
+false, but we shall here be concerned primarily with fiction, and with
+fiction of no great length. In writing of this sort the first essential
+is that something shall happen; a story without a succession of
+incidents of some kind is inconceivable. We may then settle upon
+_incident_ as a first element. As a mere matter of possibility a story
+may be written without any interest other than that of incident, but a
+story dealing with men will not have much interest for thoughtful
+readers unless it also includes some showing of _character_. Further, as
+the lives of all men and women are more or less conditioned by their
+surroundings and circumstance, any story will require more or less
+_description_. Incidents are of but little moment, character showing may
+have but slight interest, description is purposeless, unless the
+happenings of the story develop in the characters _feelings_ toward
+which we assume some attitude of sympathy or opposition. Including this
+fourth element of the story, we shall then have _incident_,
+_description_, _character_, _mood_, as the first elements of the
+narrative form.
+
+=2. A Succession of Incidents Required.=--A series of unconnected
+happenings may be interesting merely from the unexpectedness--or the
+hurry and movement of the events, but ordinarily a story gains greatly
+in its appeal to the reader through having its separate incidents
+developed in some sort of organic unity. The handling of incidents for a
+definite effect gives what we call plot. A plot should work steadily
+forward to the end or dénouement, and should yet conceal that end in
+order that interest may be maintained to the close. Evidently a writer
+who from the first has in mind the outcome of his story will subordinate
+the separate incidents to that main purpose and so in that controlling
+motive give unity to the whole plot. Further, the interest in the plot
+will be put on a higher plane, if in the transition from incident to
+incident there is seen, not chance simply, but some relation of cause
+and effect. When the unfolding of the plot is thus orderly in its
+development, the reader feels his kindling interest going forward to the
+outcome with a keener relish because of the quickening of thought, as
+well as of emotion, in piecing together the details that arouse a glow
+of satisfaction.
+
+=3. The Character Interest.=--We can hardly have any vital interest in a
+story apart from an interest in the characters. It is because things
+happen to them, because we are glad of their good fortune or
+apprehensive of evil for them, that the incidents in their succession
+gain importance in our emotions. We are concerned with things that
+affect our lives, and secondarily with things that affect the lives of
+others, since what touches the fortunes of others is but a part of that
+complex web of destiny and environment in which our own lives are
+enmeshed. In the story it is not so true as in the drama that, for the
+going out of our sympathies toward the hero or the heroine, there should
+be other contrasting characters; but a story gains color and movement
+from having a variety of individualities. Especially if the story is one
+of action, definite sympathies are heightened when they are accompanied
+by emotional antagonisms. In "The Master of Ballantrae," we come to take
+sides with Henry Durrie almost wholly through having found his rival,
+the Master, so black a monster. Such establishment of a common bond of
+interest between us and the character with whom our sympathies are to be
+engaged is a most effective means of holding us to a personal
+involvement in the development of the plot. There must not be too many
+characters shown, the relations between them must not be too various or
+too complexly conflicting, but where the interplay of feeling and
+clashing motives is not too hard to grasp, a variety of characters gives
+life and warmth of human interest to a story.
+
+=4. Uses of Description.=--Inasmuch as there are other interests in our
+lives than those which are established by our relations with our
+fellows, interests connected with the material world about us, any
+narrative will probably have occasion to include some description. It
+may be necessary merely as an aid to our understanding of some of the
+details upon which the plot turns, it may help us to realize the
+personalities of the characters, and it is often useful in creating
+background and atmosphere, giving us some of the feelings of those with
+whom the story deals as they look upon the beauty, or the gray dullness,
+of the changing panorama of their lives. Stevenson's description of the
+"old sea-dog" in "Treasure Island" is an excellent illustration of the
+effectiveness of a few lines of description in making us know something
+very definite in the man.
+
+    "I remember him as if it were yesterday, as he came plodding to
+    the inn door, his sea-chest following behind him in a
+    handbarrow, a tall, strong, heavy, nut-brown man; his hands
+    ragged and scarred, with black, broken nails, and the saber cut
+    across one cheek, a lurid white."
+
+=5.= Rossetti in "The Bride's Prelude," a story in verse, after merely
+glancing at the opening of the tale, devotes eight stanzas to
+description introduced for the purpose of background and atmosphere. Two
+of them are given here.
+
+    "Within the window's heaped recess
+       The light was counterchanged
+     In blent reflexes manifold
+     From perfume caskets of wrought gold
+     And gems the bride's hair could not hold
+
+    "All thrust together: and with these
+       A slim-curved lute, which now,
+     At Amelotte's sudden passing there,
+     Was swept in some wise unaware,
+     And shook to music the close air."
+
+This helps us to enter into the life and spirit of the time and place,
+to conceive imaginatively the likings, the desires, the passions, the
+purposes, and the powers that shall be potent in the story.
+
+=6. Kinds of Description.=--Description is primarily of two kinds, that
+which is to give accurate information, and that which is to produce a
+definite impression not necessarily involving exactness of imagery. The
+first of these forms is useful simply in the way of explanation, serving
+the first purpose indicated in paragraph four. The second is useful for
+other purposes than that of exposition, often appealing incidentally to
+our sense of the beautiful, and requiring always nice literary skill in
+its management. It should be borne in mind always that literary
+description must not usurp the office of representations of the material
+in the plastic arts. It should not be employed as an end in itself, but
+only as subsidiary to other ends.
+
+=7. Various Moods as Incidents.=--The moods in the characters of a story
+and their changes are connected with the incidents of the story, since
+they are in part happenings, and with the characters, since they reveal
+character. Apart from direct statement of them, we understand the moods
+of the actors in the little drama which we are made to imagine is being
+played before us from the things they say, from the things they do, and
+from gestures, attitudes, movements, which the author visualizes for us.
+If these moods are not made clear to us or we cannot see that they are
+natural, definite reactions from previous happenings in accord with
+character, we do not have a sense of organic unity in the narrative. We
+become confused in trying to establish the dependence of incident and
+feeling upon something preceding, and our interest flags. Everything
+that happens in a well-told story gives us feelings which we look to
+find in those whom the happenings affect in the tale, feelings which
+should call forth some sort of responsive action for our satisfaction.
+Clearly, if the characters are cold, if we cannot find in them moods of
+the kind and intensity that to us seem warranted, the story will be a
+disappointment.
+
+
+
+
+LITERARY DIVISIONS AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES
+
+
+=8. The Conceptual and Emotional.=--Theoretically all writing is divided
+easily into two classes, conceptual and emotional, the literature of
+thought and the literature of feeling. In the actual attempt to classify
+written composition on this basis, however, no sharp distinction can be
+maintained. Even matters of fact, certainly such matters of fact as we
+care to write about, are of more or less moment to us; we cannot deal
+with them in a wholly unemotional way. In our daily lives we are
+continually reaching conclusions that differ from the conclusions
+reached by others about the same matters of fact, and are trying to make
+these matters of fact have the same value for others that they have for
+us. This is true of our business life as well as of our social and home
+life. It always will be so. It is doubtless true that if our knowledge
+of matters of fact embraced a knowledge of the universe, and if the
+experience of each of us were just like that of his fellow and included
+all possible experience, we might reach identical conclusions. This is
+not true and never can be true. It is in effect true of a small portion
+of the things about which we think,--the addition of one to two makes
+three for every one,--but outside of these things, writing need not be
+and seldom is purely conceptual.
+
+=9. Subject-matter.=--Various as are the things about which we write and
+manifold as are our interests in them, they may be classified for our
+purposes under four heads: Matters of Fact, Experience, Beauty, Truth.
+Again, we shall find difficulty in separating each of these from each of
+the others. Some of our experiences have certainly been revelations of
+matters of fact; without our experiences, we should hardly have acquired
+any real sense of the beautiful; save for them we could not have known
+anything of truth. No accurate definition of these things carefully
+distinguishing between them can be attempted here. It may be assumed
+that what is meant by matters of fact will be understood without
+definition. As we read the story in great measure for the purpose of
+enlarging our experience, this part of our possible literary material is
+worth considering further. In the child we are able to detect very early
+a growing curiosity. That curiosity does not disappear when the child
+has grown from boy to man; he is still asking questions of the universe,
+still trying to piece the fragments of his knowledge into a law-ordered
+and will-ordered whole. What he knows has been the product of
+experience, what he may yet know further must be the product of
+experience. This experience may not all be personal, but even that which
+he gets at second hand is so far useful in helping him toward that
+understanding of the universe for which he hopes. He never will reach
+that understanding, all his experience will make but a fraction of
+things to be known matters of fact to him; and yet a deathless interest
+in the scarcely recognized belief that the facts and forces of which he
+has known have some unifying principle makes his emotions quicken at
+every new experience that may have possible significance.
+
+=10. Appeal of Experience, Beauty, and Truth.=--It will be evident,
+then, that experience which somehow makes the impression of superior
+importance may be presented inorganically and yet gain an interested
+hearing. The method of creating this impression, whether through the
+appearance of conviction in the writer or by various literary devices,
+need not detain us here. We shall be concerned merely with noting that
+the possible relation of the particular to the general, of this
+experience to the whole of experience, makes it a thing of moment. In
+just what way experience develops in us the sense of the beautiful, just
+what it is in anything that makes us distinguish beauty in it, cannot
+now be determined. It will be enough for us to know that literature
+makes a large appeal to a sense of the beautiful in us, a sense not
+fortuitous and irrational, though varying, but normal and almost
+universal, dependent upon natural laws of development. Truth is also
+difficult of definition, but we may understand that when out of
+experience, as through a process of reasoning, we have reached a
+conclusion that is something more than a matter of fact, a conclusion
+touching our emotions and having vital spiritual interest to us, the
+experience, whether our own directly or at second hand, has brought us
+to a truth. Truth is, perhaps, that matter of fact of universal
+intelligence that transcends the matter of fact of the finite mind.
+
+=11. Literary Principles and Qualities.=--There are some fundamental
+principles of literary presentation which we may briefly review here.
+All our study of science, and in a less obvious fashion, of all the
+physical, social, and artistic world about us, is more or less an
+attempt to classify, simplify, and unify facts whose relations we do not
+see at a glance. We must observe and learn the facts first, but they
+will be of no great utility to us as unrelated items of knowledge. The
+need of establishing some sort of law and order in our understanding of
+the mass of phenomena of which we must take cognizance is so insistent
+that we early acquire the habit of attempting to hold in mind any new
+fact through its relation to some other fact or facts. In other words,
+we can retain the knowledge we acquire only by making one fact do duty
+for a great many other facts included in it. Our writing must not
+violate what is at once a necessity and a pleasure of the mind. Unity,
+simplicity, coherence, harmony, or congruity, must all be sought as
+essential qualities of any writing. We must also indicate our sense of
+the relative values of the things with which we deal by a proper
+selection of details for presentation, a careful subordination of the
+less important to the more important through the proportion of space and
+attention given to each, and through other devices for securing
+emphasis. Let us keep in mind value, selection, subordination,
+proportion, emphasis, as a second group of terms for principles involved
+in writing. We may also wish to give our subject further elements of
+appeal through what may be suggested beyond the telling, through the
+melody and rhythm of the words, or through a quickening of the sense of
+the beautiful. Suggestion, melody, rhythm, beauty, are to be included,
+then, in a third group of qualities that may contribute to the
+effectiveness of what we write.
+
+=12. Conceptual Writing.=--Of the literary qualities that have just been
+discussed, only the first group is perhaps essential to what has been
+designated as conceptual writing. Here we may place expository writing
+on subjects wholly matter of fact, mathematical discussions, scientific
+treatises largely, though not necessarily, and other writing of like
+character. As unity is the quality of importance here, we may well
+consider the units of discourse. Our first unit is that of the whole
+composition, the second that of the paragraph, and the third that of the
+sentence. Which of these is the prime unit, as the dollar is the prime
+unit of our medium of exchange, may not be evident at once; but if we
+examine the writing of clear thinkers carefully, without attempting to
+settle the matter in any doctrinaire fashion, we shall find that the
+paragraph, and not the sentence, is the more unified whole. I turn to
+Cardinal Newman, and in the middle of a paragraph find the sentence,
+"This should be carefully observed," a sentence meaningless when taken
+from the context. As a part of the paragraph it has a function, but it
+is certainly as a unit of detail and not as a prime unit. A writer like
+Carlyle makes these lesser units more important, but they are still
+subordinate to their use in the paragraph. In all our writing we shall
+do much for the unity, simplicity, and coherence of our work by seeing
+to it that our paragraphs are properly arranged and that each fulfills
+this function of a prime unit in the composition.
+
+=13. The Sense of Value.=--When, in addition to statement of mere
+matters of fact, an author wishes to impress his readers with his own
+sense of the importance and the value of what he has to say, or of some
+special phase of his subject, he will employ the principles of the
+second group spoken of in a preceding paragraph. They cannot be ignored,
+indeed, in explanation of the simplest matters of fact, but a writer who
+means to convince and persuade will make more use of them. His
+personality will express itself in the selection of details and in the
+emphasis he places upon one detail or another. Among the literary forms
+which, besides being conceptual, are also concerned with persuasion, we
+find the oration, the essay, a great deal of business correspondence,
+and much of what we read in magazines and newspapers.
+
+=14. Writing having Artistic Quality.=--When in addition to expressing
+matters of fact or truth, appealing perhaps to experience, we wish to
+arouse some sense of the beautiful and the artistic, we shall give our
+writing some or all of the qualities of the third group. Evidently,
+writing of this sort is in many respects the most difficult, since the
+writer must have regard for unity and the related principles, as well as
+for the qualities which peculiarly distinguish it. Experience, beauty,
+and truth are all available as subject-matter, and all the principles
+governing literary composition are concerned. Here we shall find the
+poem, the drama, the oration in some of its forms, most essays of the
+better sort, the greater part of good critical writing, literary
+description, and all narrative forms except the matter-of-fact
+historical writing of unliterary scholars.
+
+=15. Two Things Requisite in Writing.=--It is to be borne in mind that
+the foregoing classifications are by no means absolute. Gardiner in his
+"Forms of Prose Literature" says very truly that the "essential
+elements, not only of literature, but of all the fine arts, are: first,
+an organic unity of conception; and second, the pervasive personality of
+the artist." It is true that much of our writing does not aspire to
+literary character, but in very little of our writing of any sort can we
+afford to neglect the first of these elements, and in very little of it
+do we care to leave the second out of account. Even in exposition of the
+simpler sort we may give to our writing the distinction of a more
+luminous style and the stronger appeal of a warmer personal interest, if
+we shape it into organic unity and make evident in it "the pervasive
+personality of the artist."
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY IN PARTICULAR
+
+
+=16. The Art of the Story.=--However abstract the thinking of civilized
+man may become, "all our intelligence," to quote Ladd's "Outlines of
+Physiological Psychology," "is intelligence about something or other,
+... resting on a basis of sensations and volitions." Difficult as it is
+and difficult as are the problems involved in its construction, the
+story is from some points of view the most elementary of literary forms.
+It is concerned directly with matters of sensation and volition. If it
+is to play upon our emotions, it must revive sensations and volitions,
+make us in some degree part of the action. Experience is at once its
+warp and woof, but while it gives us new experiences, it must, in
+connection with them, revive old ones and so become tangible and real
+for us.
+
+Of the memories that have come to us through the senses of sight,
+hearing, touch, smell, and taste, those that are visual are probably the
+most clearly defined and persistent for most people. The sensation of
+hearing doubtless comes next, and then those of touch, smell, and taste.
+A name will suffice to make us see the face of an absent friend; a few
+words, or the sight of a music roll, is enough to make us hear a
+favorite melody; a line or two on a printed page brings back to us the
+scent of the hayfield or the heavy odor of hyacinths in a conservatory.
+We must remember, too, that this may be in each case, not simply a
+bringing back of the idea of the things, but a reviving of the
+sensations themselves. The seat of sensation is after all the brain.
+Originally we experience sensation through some excitation of the end
+organs of sense, the ear, the nerves of touch, the retina; but these
+sensations become associated with verbal images in the mind, and finally
+the excitation of the verbal images results also in the revival of the
+original sensation. There is perhaps no one of us who has not seen
+wholly imaginary moving shadows or flashing lights in the dark. Such
+cases are not good illustrations of the point, possibly, but most of us
+can at will hear a connected succession of notes with which we have
+familiarized ourselves. In my own recent experience there occurred a
+very clear and wholly unexpected subjective sense of smell when reading
+of an experiment with frogs which recalled the distinctive odor of slimy
+water. Mr. James Sully, in "Illusions," says, "Stories are told of
+portrait painters who could summon visual images of their sitters with a
+vividness equal to that of reality, and serving all the purposes of
+their art." The same writer says again, and this is peculiarly
+significant, that "the physiologist Gruithuisen had a dream in which the
+principal feature was a violet flame, and which left behind it, _after
+waking_ for an appreciable duration, a complementary image of a yellow
+spot." Here a purely subjective impression had been reproduced in the
+nerves of sense.
+
+=17. The Place of Sensation in Writing.=--The thing that it seems
+important to dwell upon here is that subjective sensations do go out
+from the brain and stimulate in a very real fashion the sensations that
+are naturally excited by external stimuli localizing themselves in the
+end organs of sense. As these sensations, while not the all of emotion,
+are largely involved in emotion as its more poignant element, and as
+emotion is a first requisite in the appeal of a story, it is evident
+that the writer of stories will do well to acquire the art of reviving
+sensations. Further, as in the quickening of sensations our ideas
+become more tangible and real, writers who employ other literary forms
+will find that their style gains clarity and distinction by a like
+appeal to sensation when possible. Just how successful story-writers
+make appeal to sensation, revive experience, give new experience, and
+touch the sense of the beautiful is to be taken up more definitely in
+the following pages. We can understand, of course, that subjective
+sensations are not as strong as those which we experience directly, but
+on the other hand they may be more varied, they may crowd in upon us
+more rapidly, they may be more congruously chosen for a definite effect
+than in our actual life. The total effect may then be no less
+pronounced. In discovering how this is brought about we shall find the
+art of the short story.
+
+
+
+
+SPECIAL STUDY OF THE STORY
+
+
+=18. Symbols for Visualization.=--On analyzing a story for the purpose
+of discovering the elements of which it is composed, and the kind and
+degree of appeal which they have for us, we shall find it convenient to
+employ a few symbols for the purpose of labeling our findings for
+discussion in the class room. Some of the directions which we make will
+be based upon differences in the way in which the things presented are
+effective in our minds, others upon differences in the things presented,
+themselves. First we shall work with symbols of description and
+visualization, of which for convenience we may distinguish four sorts
+shading one into the other, not clearly defined, and yet worth
+discussing, that we may cultivate a sharper sense of qualities of
+effectiveness in visualization. For these four sorts of visualization we
+may employ the symbols, _V__1, _V__2, _V__3, _VB__3. For the first of
+these the symbol _V__1 is not very satisfactory, since we will employ it
+for simple description which presents rather the idea of the thing than
+a mental picture, but it will perhaps be simpler to use it than to use a
+symbol for the word description. Having in mind the idea of a thing, we
+may by mental effort, if the idea is defined with sufficient clearness,
+call up the image of the object. _V__2 is the symbol for a visualization
+through a suggestion which the mind, by reason of the interest kindled,
+fills out to something more than the mere idea, more or less definite
+imagery resulting. In the _V__3 form, we are, as it were, compelled to
+see the image without mental effort, so swiftly and surely do the verbal
+memory images reëstablish old sensations or combine with old sensations
+to the formation of new. In the fourth form, we will add the _B_
+(Beauty) when the image which we see is such as to appeal pleasurably to
+the æsthetic sense. That there should be perfect agreement in the use of
+any one of these symbols in any particular case is, of course, not to be
+expected. Our individual experiences have been so different and the
+associations of sensation are so varied that the character and intensity
+of any visualization must differ in each individual. This, of course, is
+one of the things that complicate the problem of literary composition
+and make study of these things of particular importance.
+
+=19. Audition and Other Sensations.=--As the problem of audition is of
+less moment than that of visualization, we will make but the one
+distinction between such presentation of sound as calls up the idea of
+the sound only, _a__1 and such as produces in us the sense of the sound
+itself, _a__2, premising that any one who chooses may make the three
+divisions preceding.
+
+Appeals to the other senses as occurring less often, we may group
+together under the symbol _S_, using 1 with this, as with _a_, when it
+comes to us in the conceptual way, and 2 when it comes as an excitant of
+sensation.
+
+=20. Instances of Visualization.=--Before we go farther, it will be well
+to examine briefly an example or two of literary description.
+
+    "The rim of the sun was burning the hilltops, and already      _V__2
+    the vanguard of his strength stemming the morning mists,
+    when I and my companion first trod the dust of a small         _V__2
+    town which stood in our path. It still lay very hard and
+    white, however, and sharply edged to its girdle of olive       _V__1
+    and mulberry trees drenched in dew, a compactly folded
+    town well fortified by strong walls and many towers, with
+    the mist upon it and softly over it like a veil. For it        _V__2
+    lay well under the shade of the hills awaiting the sun's
+    coming. In the streets, though they were by no means           _V__1
+    asleep, but, contrariwise, busy with the traffic of men        _S__2
+    and pack mules, there was a shrewd bite as of night air;       _V__2
+    looking up we could perceive how faint the blue of the
+    sky was, and the cloud-flaw how rosy yet with the flush
+    of Aurora's beauty-sleep. Therefore we were glad to get
+    into the market place, filled with people and set around
+    with goodly brick buildings, and to feel the light and         _S__2
+    warmth steal about our limbs."
+
+               --MAURICE HEWLETT, "Earthwork out of Tuscany."
+
+Here we shall first use the symbol _V__2, because the image presented is
+one that appeals at once to experience, experience too that has not been
+dimmed by frequence. The instant when the _rim_ of the sun comes up
+bright and red is the instant when our expectation is most kindled
+toward the glory of the dawn and of the day which it foretokens. "The
+vanguard of his strength" in the next clause suggests the purely
+fanciful. This mixture of the concrete and the abstract does not go back
+to sensation, a thing worth noting and so the visualization is
+destroyed. The dependent clause brings up a new visualization, a _V__2,
+in the "dust of a small town." The second sentence is _V__1, until the
+close when it becomes _V__2 through the quickening of memories that have
+been emotional. The vagueness of a village hidden in the mist has
+appealed to our imagination in the assurance of a something unknown. The
+next sentence is _V__1, and so also is the next until in "the shrewd
+bite as of night air" we get an _S__2. The _V__2 of the faint blue of
+the sky is destroyed, as in the first sentence, by the merely
+intellectual playing of fancy in "Aurora's beauty-sleep." The next
+sentence gives us an _S__2 in the closing clause, for which the two
+preceding have been a preparation.
+
+    "Solemn and vast at all times, in spite of pettiness in the near
+    details, the impression becomes more solemn and vast towards
+    evening. The sun goes down, a swollen orange, as it were, into
+    the sea. A blue-clad peasant rides home, with a harrow smoking
+    behind him among the dry clods."
+
+In this from Robert Louis Stevenson the last sentence brings the
+description to a _V__3; the smoking harrow is suggestive of so much more
+than the cloud of dust that has not yet settled to the earth in the
+stillness of the approaching twilight when the work of the day is done.
+
+=21. Motor Effects of Visualization.=--There is another way in which
+things seen touch sensation. Look at a picture of the Laocoön for a
+moment. Fix your eyes upon the contortions of the limbs, see the agony
+of the face, note the fangs of the serpent ready to embed themselves in
+the flesh. While fastening these fearful details in your mind have you
+not felt some of the horror of it, and has not that feeling shown a
+tendency to innervate some of the muscles, has not your face shown some
+of the suffering which you have been studying, and have you not felt a
+tendency toward the muscular movements of one writhing in agony?
+Certainly, such motor impulses do result from certain kinds of
+visualization, and it need hardly be said that they are peculiarly
+effective in making us really alive with the emotion which inheres in
+the movement or the attitude which we see. If the gestures of a speaker
+are to be effective, they must seem natural to us; that is, they must be
+such as we would make if we were in that fashion attempting to express a
+similar emotion. Otherwise the motor suggestions of the words and the
+motor suggestion of the gestures may inhibit or neutralize each other,
+or at least produce a feeling of confusion. Halleck, in his "Education
+of the Central Nervous System," says, "All states of consciousness
+contain a motor element." When a visualization or an audition, as that
+of a sharp command, seems to have motor effects, we may add to the
+symbols of kind and degree of sensation the symbol _x_.
+
+=22. Inference in Literature.=--It was apparent in the visualization
+quoted from Stevenson that some of the impressions which we get from
+literature we get as inferences. Dust does not arise from a harrow so as
+to have the appearance of smoke on a windy day, and therefore we know
+that it is quiet. In the opening of a story some things must be
+explained directly, and for such explanatory matter, matter from which
+we infer nothing beyond the statement, we will employ the symbol _Exp._;
+but for other presentation of matters of fact we will employ the symbol
+_F__1. From facts as presented--and we will use the term in a
+comprehensive sense--we may or may not draw inferences, and we will
+distinguish facts from which no inference is drawn by the symbol _F__1,
+and those from which inference is drawn by the symbol _F__2. An
+inference may be preponderatingly intellectual or emotional; we may,
+when desirable, add the symbol _a_ for one and _b_ for the other. An
+inference we may call an "effect," and a fact as effect, whether the
+effect be emotional or conceptual, is clearly more potent in a literary
+way than a mere fact.
+
+=23. Effects of Incident and Mood.=--Allied to the fact as effect is the
+incident which makes us know something more than the happening itself.
+All incidents we may distinguish under the symbols _In__1, _In__2_a_,
+_In__2_b_, the secondary symbols having the significance as with _F_
+above. Mood effects are, in general, more important, and it will be
+worth while to distinguish three sorts, _m__1, an inference which we
+draw regarding the mood of the writer, _m__2, a like inference which
+becomes infectious, creating in us in some degree a like feeling, and
+_m__3, an "effect" enabling us to draw an inference regarding the mood
+of a character in the story. In addition to this we shall find direct
+statement of mood, but that we shall mark with some of the preceding
+symbols, generally _F__1, perhaps. We may understand further that the
+mood effects are of both kind and degree. When the showing of mood is
+such as to make us realize in it the intensity of strong emotion or
+passion, we may indicate the heightening of the feeling by the addition
+of the symbol _d_, using _k_ alone, or with _d_ to indicate that the
+character of the mood is shown.
+
+=24. Methods of Characterization.=--In our everyday life we are
+continually drawing inferences in regard to the characters of those
+about us, and we do the same thing in a story. Some writers tell us as
+clearly as they can the natures of the men and women they are revealing
+to us, while others leave that almost wholly for us to conjecture. We
+shall employ, then, two sets of symbols for character, one for direct
+statement of character, and one for character effects. The realization
+of character through direct statement may include presentation of
+motives, ideas, passions, will, special phases of development. It may
+come through report of the talk of others, or through statement of
+opinion generally entertained. _c__1 we will use for direct statement of
+character,--"John was a hard old miser,"--and we will add to this symbol
+the symbol _a_ to indicate that this is only so far potent with us as to
+make us know the writer's understanding of the character merely, _b_ to
+indicate that we recognize the writer's feeling for the character but do
+not share it, and _c_ to indicate that the writer's feeling for his
+character affects us sympathetically to a like feeling. Another group of
+symbols, _c__2, _c__3, and _c__4, we will use for character "effects,"
+for such knowledge of character as we gain by inference. _c__2 is a
+symbol for a general inference regarding a group of people or a
+community; _c__3 and _c__4 are symbols for inferences regarding the
+individual, _c__3 indicating the recognition of type or class qualities,
+_c__4, the recognition of more individual traits of character. The
+distinction here is merely one of matter of fact, a distinction not
+always to be made with sureness, since it is one of degree rather than
+altogether one of kind. When the way in which a man is good or cheerful
+or avaricious is differentiated for us from the way in which another man
+is good or cheerful or avaricious, he is so far individualized. Class
+characterization, _c__3, may be found along with individualization. The
+extreme accentuation of one or a few characteristics to the disregard of
+others gives the effect of individualization, but we shall understand
+this as in fact type characterization, since our natures are so complex
+that in almost no case can the conduct of any one be understood through
+knowledge of a few dominant traits of character. Individualization gives
+us intimacy of acquaintance; type or class characterization makes us see
+merely the striking, peculiar, or controlling expressions of
+personality. Guy Mannering in Scott's "Guy Mannering" is but a type of
+the conventional soldier. Tito Milema in George Eliot's "Romola"
+presents so many sides of a complex nature that we easily distinguish
+him from all other characters in fiction whatever.
+
+=25. The Subjective and Objective.=--Writers, in their methods of
+presentation, may be broadly divided into two classes, those who write
+subjectively and those who write objectively. A subjective writer is one
+whose own personality, point of view, feeling, is insistent in what he
+writes. An objective writer, on the other hand, is one who leaves the
+things of which he makes record to produce their own impression, the
+writer himself remaining an almost impassive spectator, telling the
+story with little or no comment. Chaucer, in the prologue to the
+"Canterbury Tales," betrays his personal feeling for his characters
+continually, and so is subjective. Shakespeare in his plays is
+objective, presenting all sorts of men and women without show of his own
+attitude toward them.
+
+=26. Interest of the Plot and its Purpose.=--We have seen that interest
+in incident is a first interest in the story. This interest, we must
+understand further, is not to be maintained by having things happen in a
+matter regulated only by chance or the exigencies of the author's
+invention at the moment. The unification of a story that results from
+the subordination of minor incidents to a final outcome is an essential
+necessity of the plot. The plot, indeed, is the arrangement of incidents
+with reference to the dénouement. The development of the plot should be
+such as to indicate an end toward which the succession of incidents is
+tending, and yet such as to keep the reader in suspense with regard to
+the nature of that end. There must be novelty in the happenings, and yet
+the novelty must not be so great as to keep the reader confused or
+strain belief. The permanent hold upon us of a piece of fiction is
+enhanced if it embodies some central truth, illustrating the working out
+of some law of life, or involved in the personal attitude of the writer
+toward some problem of existence. Only dilettanteism and superficiality
+forget that an artist, giving the form of beauty to his conceptions, is
+trying to make them as significant to others as they are to him, and
+that æsthetic and ethical, or spiritual, significance are inextricably
+interwoven. It will, of course, be the care of the artist to see that
+any didactic purpose is not obtrusive.
+
+  _F_2b_     1. A tray of glasses was placed on the table with great
+             solemnity by the "wricht," who made no sign and invited
+             none. 2. You might have supposed that the circumstance
+ _F_2b_      had escaped the notice of the company, so abstracted and
+             unconscious was their manner, had it not been that two
+             graven images a minute later are standing by the table.
+
+  _m_3k_     3. "Ye 'ill taste, Tammas," with settled melancholy.
+
+  _m_3k_     4. "Na, na; I've nae incleenation the day; it's an awful
+  _F_2a_     dispensation, this, Jeems. 5. She wuld be barely saxty."
+
+  _m_3k_     6. "Ay, ay, but we maun keep up the body sae lang as we're
+             here, Tammas."
+
+  _c_2/c_4_  7. "Weel, puttin' it that way, a'm not sayin' but yir
+  _m__2      richt," yielding unwillingly to the force of circumstance.
+
+  _c_4/m_3_  8. "We're here the day and there the morn, Tammas. 9. She
+  _m__3      was a fine wumman--Mistress Stirton--a weel-livin' wumman:
+             this will be a blend, a'm thinkin'."
+
+  _c_4/m_3_  10. "She slippit aff sudden in the end; a'm judgin' it's
+  _m__3      frae the Muirtown grocer; but a body canna discreeminate
+             on a day like this."
+
+             11. It was George Howe's funeral that broke the custom and
+  _F_2b_     closed the "service." 12. When I came into the garden
+             where the neighbors were gathered, the "wricht" was
+  Exp.+_m_2_ removing his tray and not a glass had been touched. 13.
+             Then I guessed that Drumtochty had a sense of the fitness
+             of things and was stirred to its depths.
+
+             14. "Ye saw the wricht carry in his tray," said Drumsheigh
+             as he went home from the kirkyard.
+
+  _m_3d_     15. "Weel, yon's the last sicht o't ye' ill get or a'm no
+  _m_3k_     Drumsheigh. 16. I've nae objection masel' to a neighbor
+             tastin' at a funeral, a' the more if he's come from the
+             upper end o' the pairish, and ye ken I dinna hold wi' thae
+  _m_3d_     teetotal fouk. 17. A'm ower auld in the horn to change noo.
+  _m_3/F_2b_ 18. But there's times and seasons, as the Gude Buik says,
+             and it wud hae been an awfu' like business tae luik at a
+             gless in Marget's Garden, and puir Domsie standing in ahent
+             the brier bush as if he cud never lift his heid again."
+
+=27. Interpretative Application of the Symbols.=--A little discussion of
+the foregoing from a "A Scholar's Funeral" in the "Bonnie Brier Bush"
+may serve to make some of these things clearer. The fact that the
+"wricht" is silent here in the first sentence makes us know that this is
+the usual custom and that these people have an underlying sense of
+decorum. Sentence two has the same effect in their abstraction, and this
+is emphasized again in the "two graven images." The third sentence is a
+mood "effect" of kind, since we recognize the conventionally sobered
+feeling without the "settled melancholy." This is true again in sentence
+four, and in five we have a "fact as effect," drawing the inference that
+they are a long-lived race in Drumtochty. From the yielding to an
+invitation so framed as to put aside the semblance of yielding to
+inclination, we get a knowledge of character which seems to us
+individual, but which is used by the author to indicate a local
+community characteristic. The author's mood of amused observation is
+evident here, too, in his unbelieving acquiescence in Tammas's point of
+view. In sentences eight and nine we come to know Jeems in a more
+individual way, through the mingling in him of moods of conventional
+solemnity and everyday discussion. This is repeated in sentence ten. In
+sentence twelve we draw an emotional inference concerning the degree of
+their feeling from the fact that "not a glass had been touched." This is
+told in the explanatory way in thirteen with the addition of a
+suggestion of the author's sympathetic understanding and appreciation.
+Knowing Drumsheigh's reserve, from things that have gone before this in
+the story, we feel that only strong emotion could have called out
+sentence fifteen; and the apologetic tone of sixteen and seventeen
+indicates rather mood than such heightened feeling. Sentence eighteen
+returns to the mood of fifteen and sixteen, and through the fact of
+Domsie's standing "ahent the brier bush" reveals both Domsie's mood and
+Drumsheigh's own in our knowledge of its emotional appeal to him.
+
+=28. Different Forms of the Story.=--It is to be understood that certain
+types of the short story are not included in this study as not being
+available for detailed work. Stories in which the interest is almost
+wholly dependent upon the succession of incidents can profitably be
+studied only with relation to the plot. Generally in such cases the
+things that make the story effective will be readily apparent, and they
+can be brought out by a few questions. To give variety and interest to
+the work the teacher will occasionally find it desirable to call
+attention to stories in current periodicals, requiring the class to
+bring in analyses of them showing structure of the plot, methods of
+managing the reader's sympathies, fundamental motive of the story, the
+treatment of character and methods of presenting it, and such other
+things as seem most of moment in the story in question. When library
+facilities permit, it will be found worth while to make some comparison
+of the short story as it is now written in America with the short
+stories of fifty years ago and of the present day in England and France.
+No classification of stories is attempted here, since such
+classification is of no particular moment to the writer of stories.
+
+
+
+
+A FEW CAUTIONS
+
+
+=29.= The suggestions that follow are phrased to cover the matter of
+visualization, but they touch upon general principles which are of wider
+application. It has seemed more convenient at this point to give them
+this specific treatment.
+
+=30. Author's Purpose should be Concealed.=--An attempt to bring about a
+visualization or any other artistic effect in the mind of the reader is
+foredoomed to failure when in any way the writer's purpose too evidently
+betrays itself as such. Too much in the way of direct statement or
+predication is one indication of such purpose, and is therefore more or
+less ineffectual. For effective visualization some sort of preparation
+of the mood or sympathies of the reader is generally required. This,
+however, should be concealed, being accomplished through suggestion, as
+is the visualization itself.
+
+=31. Unity in Visualization.=--A visualization should be so managed as
+to bring the whole picture, or nearly all of it, into the mind at once.
+It is partly because it does not do this that the method by details is
+not generally effective. A string of incomplete images passing through
+the mind, each one taking the place of the preceding and effacing it, is
+not artistically satisfying. It is possible to retain such separate
+images and at the end bring them together in a complete picture, but
+this will require effort on the part of the reader; and it is
+fundamentally important in all writing to reduce the conscious attention
+and effort of the reader to the lowest point. Only extreme literary art
+can so nullify this effort in effect as to make description by detail
+pleasurable, if of any length. Description by detail is, perhaps, more
+admissible in writing having a meditative tone than in any other,
+except, of course, technical description.
+
+=32. Fine Writing.=--Fine writing is especially to be avoided in
+visualization, since the tone of artificiality is immediately
+destructive of the reader's confidence in the sincerity of the writer.
+It betrays the author's purpose of producing an effect. The appearance
+of truth free from any semblance of over-statement is a first requisite.
+
+=33.= In any visualization harmony of detail is of prime importance.
+Even in describing something actually seen it will sometimes be
+necessary to leave out items really present, but not of a kind to
+contribute to the general effect. The saying that "Truth is stranger
+than fiction" should read that fiction may not be as strange as truth.
+Harmony of mood is important, as well as harmony of detail, in the thing
+described. If the picture is a quiet one, exclamatory excitement on the
+part of the writer, however affecting the scene may be supposed to be,
+will prevent its becoming real to the reader. These things are, then, to
+be borne in mind with regard to the elements of a visualization: the
+details presented must be so far true to common knowledge and
+experience as to gain ready belief, they must have unity in fact and in
+effect, and they must also be sufficiently individual to appeal to the
+mind with something of the sense of novelty.
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCE TABLE OF SYMBOLS
+
+
+    Exp.   = Explanatory matter.
+
+    _F_1_  = Statement of fact from which no inference is drawn.
+
+    _F_2_  = Statement of fact from which an inference is drawn.
+
+    _F_2a_ = Statement of fact with inference mainly logical.
+
+    _F_2b_ = Statement of fact with inference mainly emotional.
+
+    _In._  = Statement of incident, secondary symbols as with _F_.
+
+    _As_1_ = Anticipatory suggestion, a foretelling of something to
+               happen, leaving the reader in doubt as to how it is to
+               be brought about.
+
+    _As_2_ = Anticipatory suggestion, a foreshowing of something
+               definite to happen, exciting the reader's curiosity to
+               know what it is and how it is to be brought about.
+
+    _As_3_ = Anticipatory suggestion, a foreshadowing of something
+               to be expected in the way of character development and
+               consequent happening.
+
+    _V_1_  = Description in which the mere idea of the thing
+               described is presented.
+
+    _V_2_  = A kindling hint by which the mind is enabled to piece
+               together a visualization of the object.
+
+    _V_3_  = Visualization of so vivid a kind as to possess the mind
+               completely. This becomes
+
+    _Vb_3_   when it pleasurably affects the sensibilities.
+
+    _A_1_  = Audition in the way of simple idea of the thing to be
+               heard.
+
+    _A_2_  = Audition as a reviving of the sense of sound.
+
+    _S_1_  = Sensation, the mere presentation of the idea of an
+               appeal to one of the other senses.
+
+    _S_2_  = Sensation, a subjective reviving of the sensation
+               itself.
+
+    _x_      used to indicate that a subjective excitation of some one
+               of the senses has motor effects, as in the shiver at the
+               thought of a file upon the teeth.
+
+    _m_1_  = Mood "effect," from which we learn the feeling of the
+               writer without experiencing it ourselves.
+
+    _m_2_  = Mood "effect" from which we sympathetically experience
+               the feeling of the writer.
+
+    _m_3_  = Mood "effect," a revelation of the feeling of a
+               character in the story.
+
+    _c_1_  = Direct statement of character.
+
+    _c_1a_ = Direct statement of character that does not reveal the
+               author's attitude toward the character.
+
+    _c_1b_ = Direct statement in which we are made aware of the
+               author's attitude toward the character, but are not
+               affected by it.
+
+    _c_1c_ = Direct statement of character sympathetically
+               influencing us to the author's attitude toward the
+               character.
+
+    _c_2_  = Character "effect," characterization of a group or
+               community of people.
+
+    _c_3_  = Character "effect," class or type characterization of
+               the individual.
+
+    _c_4_  = Character "effect" in the way of individualization.
+
+    _d_    = Degree, added to symbol for mood effect to indicate
+               intensity of the feeling.
+
+    _k_    = Kind, used to indicate that the inference concerns itself
+               with character and not intensity.
+
+    _/_    = A symbol employed (see section 26) to indicate that one
+               inference is drawn as an ultimate conclusion from
+               another more immediate inference.
+
+
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR DAILY THEMES
+
+
+Subjects for visualization and the reviving of other sensations.
+
+1. A sunset sky. 2. A group in the park. 3. A spring freshet. 4. The man
+at the threshing machine. 5. The city across the river: night. 6.
+Moonlight among the hills. 7. A city street. 8. The college campus. 9.
+Eleanor's rose garden. 10. The witch of Endor (1 Sam. xxviii: 6-25). 11.
+Mt. Pelée in eruption. 12. The woods at night. 13. David playing before
+Saul. 14. A ferny water course among the trees. 15. A bluebird in the
+orchard. 16. The violinist. 17. In time of apple blossoms. 18. The scent
+of new-mown hay. 19. Barbara at the piano. 20. The first watermelon. 21.
+Sailing with the wind. 22. Dawn in the mountains. 23. The wind among the
+pines. 24. The blacksmith and the forge.
+
+Subjects for presentation of mood.
+
+1. Uncle Dick hears the news. 2. Balboa catches sight of the Pacific. 3.
+Silas explains himself. 4. Napoleon looking back at Moscow. 5.
+Congressman Norris is refused the floor of the convention. 6. Johnnie is
+told that he may go to the circus. 7. Ethan Allen at Ticonderoga. 8.
+Bamba, king of an island in the south seas, sees the first ship of the
+white man. 9. Alfred meets a Hallowe'en obstacle.
+
+Subjects for visualization and presentation of facts as "effects."
+
+1. A deserted house. 2. In the second-hand store. 3. The railroad wreck.
+4. The beggar at the door. 5. Representative Dongan reads a letter from
+"The Corners." 6. A woman at the station. 7. Mrs. Humphrey's kitchen. 8.
+The trail of war.
+
+Subjects for character studies.
+
+1. The village oracle. 2. The landlord of the Lion Inn. 3. The old
+stage-driver. 4. The conductor. 5. An old-fashioned music-master. 6. A
+pirate captain. 7. A country beau. 8. Deacon Bradley. 9. The school
+bully. 10. The female suffragist. 11. One of the four hundred. 12. A
+disciple of Mrs. Eddy. 13. "The man with the hoe." 14. The scissors
+grinder. 15. Captain Doty of the police. 16. A candidate for office.
+
+
+
+
+THE COMPLETE STORY
+
+
+The invention of situations and plots can hardly be a matter of
+class-room instruction. If stories come to one, it is well. Study of the
+detailed means of making them living for the reader will then be worth
+while. The student should be encouraged to invent plots of his own, but
+as a simplification of this difficulty, to the end that some exercise in
+the writing of a complete story may be had, plots of some successful
+published stories are here given with suggestions regarding methods of
+treatment.
+
+
+I
+
+    Scene, a saloon where both men and women are drinking. One of
+    them, a girl, thinks she sees at the window the face of Christ
+    with his tender eyes. She leaves and will not permit the others
+    to go with her.
+
+    At a little distance she comes upon the stranger waiting for
+    her. He tells her that when she wakes it will be to a new life
+    and she will be his, bidding her go to a house he points out and
+    remain for the night. She obeys, and the man passes into the
+    shadow.
+
+    Introductory sentence in the original, giving the atmosphere of
+    the story: "This was the story the mystic told." Concluding
+    sentence in the original, connecting it with our sense of
+    unfathomable mysteries: "And this the listener gravely asked,
+    'One was chosen, the others left. Were the others less in need
+    of grace?'"
+
+    Divisions of the story. 1. Visualizing description of the saloon
+    and of the street outside through which the stranger passes.
+
+    2. Appearance of the face at the pane and its effect on the
+    young girl (_m_3_ "effect"). This is the difficult part of the
+    story, and the reader can be made to believe in it only through
+    sympathy with the girl's feeling.
+
+    3. The talk of her companions and her answers (_m_3_).
+
+    4. Her search for the stranger in the night (_m_3_).
+
+    5. His talk to her when she finds him.
+
+This story in the original contains a little less than two thousand
+words. It will be seen at once that unless handled in such fashion as to
+appeal vividly to the imagination, a story with this for its theme will
+seem weak and unreal. It must be made as suggestive as possible or it
+will fail. It preaches, but it must avoid the air of preaching. Consider
+carefully how you would present the stranger--whether first at the
+window or before--so as to affect the reader with a sense of something
+more than human in him.
+
+
+II
+
+    Scene of the story is the prairie desert of the West in time of
+    drouth. A party of men, including two who are not yet through
+    their work in an eastern college, are riding in search of water,
+    having had none for two days. Water is found, but shortly
+    afterwards one of the two young men is missing. The talk of the
+    others reveals the absent one's unselfishness and friendly
+    devotion to his chum. Soon he is seen riding up excitedly and
+    beckoning. The others follow him to a rough eminence, where he
+    stops and listens, imploring them to tell him whether they can
+    hear a voice calling. When they hear it too, he is assured that
+    he has not lost his reason from the thirst, and together they
+    begin a search which results in their discerning a cavern in the
+    side of an embankment where a man lies on a couch moaning for
+    water. As they try to enter, he warns them away with the cry of
+    "smallpox."
+
+    The story is told to a group of friends gathered together of an
+    evening, and the narrator draws from among his books a copy of
+    Shakespeare found in the cavern by one of the men, bearing on
+    its fly leaf, in addition to the owner's name, the word
+    _Brasenose_, the name of one of the colleges at Oxford. The
+    pathos of the story is in this last touch, an Oxford student
+    dying so loathsome a death in a strange and desert land, and
+    dying so heroically.
+
+    Divisions of the story. 1. Visualization of the desert and the
+    men. The scent of water. Drinking from the muddied stream.
+
+    2. One of the young men starts off alone in a delirium of pain
+    (_m_3_). He returns suffering from the fear that he has lost his
+    reason (_m_3_).
+
+    3. The discovery of the cave (_V_3_ and _F_2b_). The delirious
+    talk of the sick man. His sudden joy in the unexpected presence
+    of human beings (_V_3_ and _m_3_). His final "G'way! G'way!
+    Smallpox!"
+
+    4. The narrator of the story shows the copy of Shakespeare and
+    the inscription on the fly leaf.
+
+The story in the original contains about three thousand words. It is
+important that the suffering of the men be developed at some length in a
+convincing fashion. It serves as a preparation for the more terrible
+suffering of the one man who moans for water as he tears the foul
+smallpox sores. This should be presented in as visualizing a way as
+possible and with as full showing of mood as may be. The conclusion in
+division 4 must be altogether different in tone from the preceding.
+Narrator and listeners are in a world of ease and comfort, and their
+interest in the story is an interest in something pathetically remote.
+
+
+
+
+SITUATIONS TO BE DEVELOPED INTO PLOTS
+
+(Adapted from published stories not original)
+
+
+1. Rome in the early centuries after Christ. Three persons are involved,
+one man and two women, one of whom has just pledged troth to the man.
+The man and the other woman are devotees of a mystic faith, whose priest
+residing in a dark cavern in the hills calls now one, now another
+devotee to pass through the "void" to eternal fellowship with God.
+
+2. Oklahoma at the time of the opening of the strip for settlement. A
+man and his wife and two children come from Kansas to find land in the
+strip on the day of the run. They have failed in Kansas and are almost
+out of money. The husband, who is to make the run for the strip on
+horseback when the signal guns are fired, falls sick.
+
+3. A lumber camp. In addition to the men, a man and his wife who cook
+and take care of the camp, and a half-witted chore boy. The chore boy
+tries to take care of the men and keep them from drinking. A number of
+the men go off to a neighboring town for a spree, and the chore boy goes
+with them.
+
+4. Some place in the region of the mountain whites of the Carolinas and
+Tennessee. A beautiful girl with a tinge of negro blood that does not
+show in nature, intellectual endowment, or appearance. A mountain white
+to whom she is betrothed. A young man from the North visiting the family
+with whom she is staying is attracted by her. The contrast of the life
+of the mountain whites to which her betrothal if fulfilled dooms her,
+and that of the world of taste and culture which her nature demands.
+
+
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON "A DOCTOR OF THE OLD SCHOOL," FROM THE "BONNIE BRIER BUSH"
+
+
+I
+
+1. _a._ What has been accomplished in your sympathies by this? 2. _b._
+Has this been through direct statement of things calling for your
+sympathies, or through "effects"? _c._ Is the method cumulative and
+gradual, or direct and insistent? _d._ Would you say that the method
+here is objective or subjective? _e._ What symbols do you find that you
+have employed largely, and for what purpose have the devices for which
+two of these stand been employed? _f._ Would you say that the author
+puts much or little meaning into his words? Is the style diffuse and
+thin, or does it accomplish much with few words? Indicate a paragraph or
+page that justifies your conclusion and say how. _g._ Are the inferences
+which you are made to draw logical or emotional, and do they seem to you
+delicate and subtle or simple and direct? Indicate some of them in
+confirmation of your conclusion.
+
+
+II
+
+1. _a._ Do you see any change in the method of presenting MacLure here?
+_b._ How is it an advance in the development of the story or not? _c._
+Was Part I. preparation for this or not, and if so, how? _d._ Does this
+have a definite climax and dénouement, and if so, where?
+
+
+III
+
+1. _a._ How does this make an advance upon the preceding in the
+revelation of MacLure? _b._ Does it in any way get nearer to elemental
+human feeling? _c._ Does it anywhere appeal directly to sensation? _d._
+Do you find in this any feeling for the mystery of existence? Does it
+seem to be an integral part of the story, coming from its essential
+emotion and free from obtrusive moralizing, or not? _e._ Is there any
+increase in intensity of feeling in this or not, and if so, how is it
+indicated in the symbols you have employed? _f._ Has MacLure now been
+presented to us with full showing of his distinguishing characteristics
+or not? and do we find in him a vital human nature?
+
+
+IV
+
+1. _a._ Do you think a death-bed scene a good subject for literary
+presentation or not? Why? _b._ Would you call it a difficult thing to
+present or not? _c._ Do you find anything objectionable here? _d._ Has
+the interest of the whole story depended upon incident or upon showing
+of character? _e._ Does this Part IV. serve in any particular way to
+round out our knowledge of MacLure, and if so, in what way? _f._ What is
+the especially appealing thing in the portrait of MacLure? And what in
+the fortune and circumstance of his life? _g._ Does this appeal touch in
+any fashion upon our sense of a something inscrutable governing our
+lives? _h._ Which of the different sorts of subject-matter (see section
+9) seem to you to be the more largely employed here? So far as it is
+concerned with experience, is it a reviving of what we have experienced
+or an addition to our knowledge of life? Is there in it a truth that you
+could formulate into a law of life, or is the truth so much a matter of
+emotion as merely to touch the sensibilities and so give us a wider
+vision?
+
+
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON "LOVELINESS," BY ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS-WARD
+
+(_Atlantic Monthly_, August, 1899)
+
+
+1. _a._ Do you detect in this story any purpose beyond that of
+recounting a series of happenings? If so, what? _b._ If you were to
+write the story, would you think it prospectively a difficult thing to
+arouse interest in a dog? _c._ Has that been done here or not? _d._ If
+so, what are some of the author's devices and how successfully employed?
+
+2. _a._ What is the artistic purpose of the first two paragraphs? Why
+does the author delay so long in telling us that she is writing of a
+dog? _b._ Does she let her own feeling for the girl and dog appear or
+not? If so, is it obtrusive or not? Effective or not, as your markings
+indicate? _c._ Are there any incidents in the story that a reader might
+for any reason be unwilling to accept? _d._ If so, how is the handling
+such as to disguise the difficulty or not, as the case may be?
+
+3. _a._ What devices are employed to make us interested in Adah? _b._
+Are we made to feel that her dependence upon the dog is natural and
+deserving of sympathy or not, and if so, how? _c._ Are the incidents so
+managed as to maintain interest in the expectation of the dénouement or
+not? _d._ Does the story seem to have sufficient unity of purpose and
+plan or not?
+
+4. _a._ What symbols do you notice that you have employed most largely?
+_b._ Is the story written in the way of direct statement or of
+suggestion? _c._ For what frequent purpose would you say that the writer
+employs _F_2_? _M_3_? _M_2_? _d._ Can you say in what the art of the
+story especially consists? _e._ What would you probably have thought of
+the story were its art less delicate and sure?
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL OUTLINE QUESTIONS FOR STUDY OF STORIES IN CURRENT MAGAZINES,
+ETC.
+
+
+1. _a._ Upon what is the interest of the story especially dependent?
+_b._ Are the incidents presented rapidly and coherently, or slowly and
+disconnectedly? _c._ Is there a clearly defined plot or not? _d._ Does
+the plot have a climax of entanglement, or does it fail in developing
+this feature of the story interest?
+
+2. _a._ How is character presented? _b._ Are the characters well chosen
+for their reactions among themselves? _c._ Are the things they do and
+say continually consistent or not? _d._ Are they sufficiently
+individualized to escape the appearance of the conventional and to hold
+interest?
+
+3. _a._ Does the story state facts and happenings merely, or does it get
+hold of vital sensations and revive them? _b._ If so, in what ways does
+it seem to do that? _c._ In general does it seem to you subjective or
+objective in method?
+
+4. _a._ How much of the interest of the story is in the development of
+the plot and how much in the stirring of vital sensations, including
+sympathetic moods? _b._ Does the development of the story center about
+any idea or attitude toward life? _c._ What excellences and what faults
+do you find in the story?
+
+
+
+
+SOME STORIES AVAILABLE FOR STUDY
+
+
+"Five Hundred Dollars," "The Village Convict," and "Eli," all in a
+volume under the title of the first, Heman White Chaplin, Little, Brown
+& Co., $1.00.
+
+"Loveliness," Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward, _Atlantic Monthly_, August,
+1899.
+
+"The Flail of Time," Helen Choate Prince, _Atlantic Monthly_, August,
+1899.
+
+"A Christmas Carol," Dickens, Cassel's National Library, 10 cents.
+
+"Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush," Ian MacLaren, David C. Cook, Elgin and
+Chicago, paper, 5 cents.
+
+"The Luck of Roaring Camp," "Tennessee's Partner," Bret Harte, Houghton,
+Mifflin & Co., $1.00, _Overland Monthly_, September, 1902.
+
+"Bonaventure" (Chapters XVI-XVIII), George W. Cable, copyrighted, but
+obtainable in a cheap reprint.
+
+"The Game and the Nation," Owen Wister, _Harper's Monthly_, May, 1900.
+
+Nettleton's "Specimens of the Short Story," Henry Holt & Co., 50 cents.
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS THAT MAY PROFITABLY BE CONSULTED
+
+
+"Education of the Central Nervous System," R. P. Halleck, The Macmillan
+Co.
+
+"The Philosophy of the Short Story," Brander Matthews, Longmans, Green &
+Co.
+
+"The Short Story," Yale Studies in English, Henry Holt & Co.
+
+"Forms of Prose Literature," J. H. Gardiner, Chas. Scribner's Sons.
+
+"Working Principles of Rhetoric," J. F. Genung, Ginn & Co.
+
+"Outline of Psychology," E. B. Titchener, The Macmillan Co.
+
+"Short Story Writing," C. R. Barrett, Baker & Taylor Co., $ 1.00.
+
+Chapter XII, "A Study of Prose Fiction," Bliss Perry, Houghton, Mifflin
+& Co.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH LITERATURE.
+
+_The Arden Shakespeare._
+
+    The Greater Plays in their literary aspect. One play in each
+    volume, with Introduction, Notes, Essay on Metre, and Glossary.
+    Based on the Globe text. From 144 to 224 pages. Cloth. Price, 25
+    cents a volume.
+
+This edition presents the greater plays in their literary aspect, and
+not merely as material for the study of philology or grammar. Verbal and
+textual criticism has been included only so far as may serve to help the
+student in his appreciation of the poetry.
+
+Questions of date and literary history have been fully dealt with in the
+Introductions, but the larger space has been devoted to the
+interpretative rather than to the matter-of-fact order of scholarship.
+Æsthetic judgments are never final, but the editors have attempted to
+suggest points of view from which the analysis of dramatic motive and
+dramatic character may be profitably undertaken.
+
+In the Notes likewise, though it is hoped that unfamiliar expressions
+and allusions have been adequately explained, it has been thought more
+important to consider the dramatic value of each scene, and the part
+that it plays in relation to the whole.
+
+Each volume has a Glossary, an Essay upon Metre, and an Index.
+Appendices are added upon points of interest that could not be treated
+in the Introduction or the Notes. The text is based on that of the Globe
+edition. The following plays are ready:--
+
+    HAMLET.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A.
+
+    MACBETH.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A., Oxford.
+
+    JULIUS CÆSAR.--Edited by Arthur D. Innes, M.A., Oxford.
+
+    THE MERCHANT OF VENICE.--Edited by H. L. Withers, B.A., Oxford.
+
+    TWELFTH NIGHT.--Edited by Arthur D. Innes, M.A., Oxford.
+
+    AS YOU LIKE IT.--Edited by J. C. Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.
+
+    A MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A.
+
+    CYMBELINE.--Edited by A. J. Wyatt, M.A., Cambridge.
+
+    THE TEMPEST.--Edited by F. S. Boas, M.A., Oxford.
+
+    KING JOHN.--Edited by G. C. Moore Smith, M.A., Cambridge.
+
+    RICHARD II.--Edited by C. H. Herford, L.H.D., Cambridge.
+
+    RICHARD III.--Edited by George Macdonald, M.A., Oxford.
+
+    HENRY V.--Edited by G. C. Moore Smith, M.A., Cambridge.
+
+    HENRY VIII.--Edited by D. Nichol Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.
+
+    CORIOLANUS.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A., Oxford.
+
+    MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING.--Edited by J. C. Smith, M.A., Oxford.
+
+    KING LEAR.--Edited by D. Nichol Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+_Introduction to Shakespeare._
+
+    By HIRAM CORSON, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English
+    Literature in Cornell University. Cloth. 400 pages. Introduction
+    price, $1.00.
+
+This work indicates some lines of Shakespearean thought which serve
+to introduce to the study of the plays as plays. The introductory
+chapter is followed by chapters on: The Shakespeare-Bacon
+controversy,--The Authenticity of the First Folio,--The Chronology
+of the Plays,--Shakespeare's Verse,--The Latin and Anglo-Saxon
+Elements of Shakespeare's English. The larger portion of the book is
+devoted to commentaries and critical chapters upon Romeo and Juliet,
+King John, Much Ado about Nothing, Hamlet, Macbeth, and Anthony and
+Cleopatra. These aim to present the points of view demanded for a
+proper appreciation of Shakespeare's general attitude toward things,
+and his resultant dramatic art, rather than the textual study of the
+plays.
+
+
+
+
+_Introduction to Browning._
+
+    By HIRAM CORSON, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English
+    Literature in Cornell University. Cloth. 348 pages. Introduction
+    price, $1.00.
+
+This volume affords aid and guidance to the study of Robert Browning's
+poetry, which, being the most complexly subjective of all English
+poetry, is, for that reason alone, the most difficult. The exposition
+presented in the Introduction, of the constitution and skillful
+management of the dramatic monologue and the Arguments given to the
+several poems included in this volume, will, it is hoped, reduce, if not
+altogether remove, the difficulties of this kind. In the same section of
+the Introduction certain peculiarities of the poet's diction are
+presented and illustrated.
+
+The following is the Table of Contents:--
+
+    I. The Spiritual Ebb and Flow exhibited in English Poetry from
+    Chaucer to Tennyson and Browning. II. The Idea of Personality
+    and of Art, as an intermediate agency of Personality, as
+    embodied in Browning's Poetry. (Read before the Browning Society
+    of London in 1882.) III. Browning's Obscurity. IV. Browning's
+    Verse. V. Arguments of the Poems. VI. Poems. (Under this head
+    are thirty-three representative poems, the Arguments of which
+    are given in the preceding section.)
+
+
+
+
+A Source Book of Greek History
+
+    By FREDERICK MORROW FLING, Professor of Ancient History,
+    University of Nebraska. Cloth. xiv + 370 pages. Illustrated.
+    Introduction price, $1.00.
+
+This book serves several purposes. It (1) supplies illustrative
+material, drawn from the best Greek sources, that may be used to
+supplement the school narrative; (2) by means of searching questions, it
+furnishes opportunity for more intensive study of certain periods; (3)
+by supplying data upon the writer of source, and at times, more than one
+source upon the same topic, it makes possible the study of simple
+problems in the value of evidence; (4) extracts are of sufficient length
+so that the pupil may be given some idea of Greek literature, as far as
+that is possible through the use of translations; (5) the illustrations
+not only supplement the written sources on the life of the Greeks, but
+have been selected with a view to impressing upon the minds of students
+the great value of the artistic work of the Greeks.
+
+
+
+
+A Source Book of Roman History
+
+    By DANA C. MUNRO, University of Wisconsin. Cloth. Illustrated,
+    x + 258 pages. Introduction price, $1.00.
+
+The series of extracts from original sources contained in this book
+cover the following topics: Sources and credibility of early Roman
+history; religion; the army; monarchical institutions; the constitution
+of the republic; early laws and history; the conquest of the
+Mediterranean; the Punic wars; results of foreign wars; misrule of the
+optimates; the last century of the republic; the early empire;
+Christianity and Stoicism; Roman life and society--slavery, education,
+manners, customs, amusements; provinces and provincial administration,
+etc. References to supplementary sources are prefixed to each chapter.
+
+
+
+
+A Day in Ancient Rome
+
+    A revision of Lohr's _Aus dem alten Rom_, by EDGAR S. SHUMWAY,
+    recently Professor of Latin in Rutgers College. Cloth. 96 pages.
+    Fifty-nine illustrations (seventeen full page). Retail price, 75
+    cents. Paper, 30 cents.
+
+This attractive little book gives a picture of the famous old city as
+compared with the new. Availing himself of the latest excavations and of
+recent photographs, the author pictures graphically persons and places
+of classic fame as though vividly present.
+
+
+
+
+Studies in General History
+
+    (1000 B.C. to 1880 A.D.) By MARY D. SHELDON, formerly Professor
+    of History in Wellesley College, and Assistant Professor in
+    Leland Stanford Jr. University. Half leather, xvi + 556 pages.
+    Introduction price, $1.60.
+
+This book gives a collection of historic material, which may be dealt
+with first-hand, as the pupil deals with the actual substance in
+chemistry, and with the living plant in botany. Work of this kind
+stimulates the student's historic sense and judgment. _It is especially
+adapted to help students and teachers who do not have access to large
+libraries; it contains within itself all that is absolutely necessary
+for the work required._ The material given consists of maps, pictures,
+lists of important events, men, works, and deeds, tables of political
+organizations, and extracts from original sources, including
+constitutions, creeds, laws, chronicles, and poems. It is accompanied by
+questions in the nature of problems, the answers to which must be worked
+out by the pupil himself from the given data. It is a book to be
+studied, not read.
+
+
+
+
+Greek and Roman History
+
+    Or, _Studies in General History_, from 1000 B.C. to 476 A.D. By
+    MARY SHELDON BARNES, formerly Professor of History in Wellesley
+    College, and in Leland Stanford Jr. University. Cloth, xiii +
+    255 pages. Introduction price, $1.00.
+
+This book contains the portion of Sheldon's _Studies in General History_
+which relates to Greece and Rome, including a small amount of prefatory
+ancient history. This portion meets the needs of students preparing for
+college, of schools in which ancient history takes the place of general
+history, and of students who have used an ordinary manual and wish to
+make a spirited and helpful review.
+
+
+
+
+Teacher's Manual to General History
+
+    By MARY SHELDON BARNES. Cloth. 172 pages. Retail price, 85
+    cents.
+
+The student's edition of the _Studies in General History_ contains
+material and problems for independent study. The _Teacher's Manual_
+contains the answers to these problems, embodied in tabulations, and a
+running commentary of text, which will furnish suggestions for
+discussions and summaries.
+
+
+
+
+Aids to the Teaching of General History
+
+    A pamphlet of 30 pages, by MARY SHELDON BARNES. Retail price, 10
+    cents. Also bound with the _Teacher's Manual_.
+
+
+
+
+_English Etymology._
+
+    A select glossary, serving as an introduction to the history of
+    the English Language. By FRIEDRICH KLUGE, Professor at the
+    University of Freiburg, Germany, and author of _Etymologisches
+    Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache_, and FREDERICK LUTZ, Professor
+    at Albion College, Mich. Cloth. 242 pages. Introduction price,
+    60 cents.
+
+The purpose of this work is to serve as an introduction to the study of
+the historical development of the English language. The scope of the
+book is sufficient to give the student an insight into the main
+linguistic phenomena. While the method of discussion is concise, care
+has been taken to include all words the history of which bears on the
+development of the language at large. The authors have, in the first
+place, traced back to the older periods loanwords of Scandinavian,
+French and Latin origin, and such genuine English words as may afford
+matter for investigation. In this way there has been provided a "basis
+for every historical grammar of English."
+
+
+
+
+_A History of English Critical Terms._
+
+    By J. W. BRAY. Cloth. 352 pages. Retail price, $1.00.
+
+In literary criticism, and in the discussion of art, there are more than
+a hundred important terms whose history determines their present use and
+meaning. There are also several hundred others terms occasionally used
+in explaining the larger terms or their synonyms. All these terms are
+here arranged in alphabetical order. The history of the more important
+terms is presented in full. Under each is given: (1) Its grouping (by
+synonyms). (2) The historical limits of its use. (3) A brief statement
+of its meanings. (4) An explanation of its changes of meaning. (5)
+Representative quotations.
+
+About one hundred and fifty critics are represented in the quotations,
+the work thus covering the entire field of English criticism.
+
+The vocabulary of criticism is preceded by an Introduction, which gives
+a philosophical discussion of critical terms under three heads: (1) What
+is a Critical term? (2) General Historical Movements and Tendencies in
+Critical Terms. (3) Method of Dealing with the Separate Critical Terms.
+
+    The Outlook, _New York_: The book is not simply a collection of
+    information; it is both a contribution to the history of
+    criticism and a text-book for its study.
+
+
+
+
+English Literature
+
+    =The Arden Shakespeare.= The plays in their literary aspect,
+        each with introduction, interpretative notes, glossary, and
+        essay on metre. 25 cts.
+
+    =Bronson's History of American Literature.= 384 pages. 80 cents.
+
+    =Burke's American Orations.= (A. J. GEORGE.) Five complete
+        selections. 50 cts.
+
+    =Burns's Select Poems.= (A. J. GEORGE.) 118 poems
+        chronologically arranged, with introduction, notes, and
+        glossary. Illustrated. 75 cts.
+
+    =Coleridge's Principles of Criticism.= (A. J. GEORGE.) From the
+        _Biographia Literaria_. With portrait. 60 cts.
+
+    =Cook's Judith.= With introduction, translation, and glossary.
+        Cloth. 170 pages. $1.00.
+
+    =Cook's The Bible and English Prose Style.= 40 cts.
+
+    =Corson's Introduction to Browning.= A guide to the study of
+        Browning's poetry. Also has 33 poems with notes. With
+        portrait of Browning. $1.00.
+
+    =Corson's Introduction to the Study of Shakespeare.= A critical
+        study of Shakespeare's art, with comments on nine plays.
+        $1.00.
+
+    =Crawshaw's The Making Of English Literature.= An interpretative
+        and historical guide for students. Map and illustrations.
+        484 pages. $1.25.
+
+    =Davidson's Prolegomena to Tennyson's In Memoriam.= A critical
+        analysis, with an index of the poem. 50 cts.
+
+    =De Quincey's Confessions of an Opium Eater.= (G. A. WAUCHOPE.)
+        50 cts.
+
+    =Hall's Beowulf.= A metrical translation. 75 cts. Student's
+        edition, 30 cts.
+
+    =Hawthorne and Lemmon's American Literature.= Contains sketches,
+        characterizations, and selections. Illustrated with
+        portraits. $1.12.
+
+    =Hodgkin's Nineteenth Century Authors.= Gives aids for library
+        study of 26 authors. Price, 5 cts. each, or $3.00 per
+        hundred. Complete in cloth. 60 cts.
+
+    =Howes's Primer of English Literature.= Illustrated. 50 cents.
+
+    =Meiklejohn's History of English Language and Literature.=
+        Revised. 60 cts.
+
+    =Milton's Select Poems.= (A. P. WALKER.) Illustrated. 488 pages.
+        50 cts.
+
+    =Moulton's Four Years of Novel-Reading.= A reader's guide.
+        50 cts.
+
+    =Moulton's Literary Study of the Bible.= An account of the
+        leading forms of literature represented, without reference
+        to theological matters. $2.00.
+
+    =Plumptre's Translation of Aeschylus.= With biography and
+        appendix. $1.00.
+
+    =Plumptre's Translation of Dante.= Five vols. Illustrated.
+        Student's edition, 50 cts. per vol. Library edition, $4.00
+        per set.
+
+    =Plumptre's Translation of Sophocles.= With biography and
+        appendix. $1.00.
+
+    =Shelley's Prometheus Unbound.= (VIDA D. SCUDDER.) 60 cts.
+
+    =Simonds's Introduction to the Study of English Fiction.= With
+        illustrative selections. 80 cts. _Briefer edition_, without
+        illustrative selections. Boards. 30 cts.
+
+    =Simonds's Sir Thomas Wyatt and His Poems.= With critical
+        analysis. 50 cts.
+
+    =Webster's Speeches.= (A. J. GEORGE.) Nine select speeches with
+        notes. 75 cts.
+
+    =Whitcomb's The Study of a Novel.= 251 pages. $1.25.
+
+    =Wordsworth's Prefaces and Essays on Poetry.= (A. J. GEORGE.) 50
+        cts.
+
+    =Wordsworth's Prelude.= (A. J. GEORGE.) Annotated. 75 cts.
+
+    =Selections from Wordsworth.= (A. J. GEORGE.) 168 poems chosen
+        with a view to illustrate the growth of the poet's mind and
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Writing of the Short Story, by 
+Lewis Worthington Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Writing of the Short Story
+
+Author: Lewis Worthington Smith
+
+Release Date: November 10, 2008 [EBook #27224]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jacqueline Jeremy and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="title"><span class="name">THE WRITING OF THE<br />
+SHORT STORY</span><br />
+<br /><br /><br />
+<span class="by">BY</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="author">LEWIS WORTHINGTON SMITH, A.M.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="location">DRAKE UNIVERSITY, DES MOINES, IOWA</span><br />
+<br /><br /><br /><br />
+<span class="pub">D. C. HEATH &amp; CO., PUBLISHERS</span><br />
+<span class="pub2">BOSTON  NEW</span> <span class="pub2">YORK  CHICAGO</span></p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1902,</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">By D. C. Heath &amp; Co.</span></h5>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong><span class="smcap">It is a pleasure<br />
+to be permitted to associate<br />
+with this little book<br />
+the name of my friend<br />
+Professor L. A. Sherman<br />
+of the University of Nebraska.</span></strong></p>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2>SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the author's classes the three stories in the volume entitled
+"Three Hundred Dollars" are first studied because of their
+simplicity, and these are followed by parts of "The Bonnie
+Brier Bush," and then by the stories from Bret Harte. Mrs.
+Phelps Ward's "Loveliness" is especially valuable for illustrating
+methods and devices for making a simple theme dramatically
+interesting. Students are required to mark stories with
+the symbols and discuss them with reference to the principles
+of which this little book is an exposition, but no recitation on
+the book itself is required. Perhaps one-third of the time in the
+class-room is spent in discussion of the short themes written by
+the class, and when convenient these are placed on the board
+before the class for that purpose. In the theme work following
+the suggested subjects the effort is made to confine instruction
+and practice to one thing at a time, but at the conclusion of the
+work of the term each member of the class is required to hand
+in a complete original story.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span>
+WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY</h2>
+
+<hr class="hr2" />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Narrative Forms</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>1. Elements of the Story.</strong>&mdash;This little volume is meant
+to be a discussion of but one of the various forms that
+literature takes, and it will be first in order to see what are
+the elements that go to the making of a narrative having
+literary quality. A story may be true or false, but we
+shall here be concerned primarily with fiction, and with
+fiction of no great length. In writing of this sort the first
+essential is that something shall happen; a story without
+a succession of incidents of some kind is inconceivable.
+We may then settle upon <em>incident</em> as a first element. As
+a mere matter of possibility a story may be written without
+any interest other than that of incident, but a story dealing
+with men will not have much interest for thoughtful readers
+unless it also includes some showing of <em>character</em>. Further,
+as the lives of all men and women are more or less conditioned
+by their surroundings and circumstance, any story
+will require more or less <em>description</em>. Incidents are of but
+little moment, character showing may have but slight interest,
+description is purposeless, unless the happenings of
+the story develop in the characters <em>feelings</em> toward which
+we assume some attitude of sympathy or opposition. Including
+this fourth element of the story, we shall then have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+<em>incident</em>, <em>description</em>, <em>character</em>, <em>mood</em>, as the first elements
+of the narrative form.</p>
+
+<p><strong>2. A Succession of Incidents Required.</strong>&mdash;A series of
+unconnected happenings may be interesting merely from
+the unexpectedness&mdash;or the hurry and movement of the
+events, but ordinarily a story gains greatly in its appeal to
+the reader through having its separate incidents developed
+in some sort of organic unity. The handling of incidents
+for a definite effect gives what we call plot. A plot
+should work steadily forward to the end or d&eacute;nouement,
+and should yet conceal that end in order that interest may
+be maintained to the close. Evidently a writer who from
+the first has in mind the outcome of his story will subordinate
+the separate incidents to that main purpose and so
+in that controlling motive give unity to the whole plot.
+Further, the interest in the plot will be put on a higher
+plane, if in the transition from incident to incident there is
+seen, not chance simply, but some relation of cause and
+effect. When the unfolding of the plot is thus orderly in
+its development, the reader feels his kindling interest going
+forward to the outcome with a keener relish because of the
+quickening of thought, as well as of emotion, in piecing
+together the details that arouse a glow of satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p><strong>3. The Character Interest.</strong>&mdash;We can hardly have any
+vital interest in a story apart from an interest in the
+characters. It is because things happen to them, because
+we are glad of their good fortune or apprehensive of evil
+for them, that the incidents in their succession gain importance
+in our emotions. We are concerned with things that
+affect our lives, and secondarily with things that affect the
+lives of others, since what touches the fortunes of others
+is but a part of that complex web of destiny and environment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+in which our own lives are enmeshed. In the story
+it is not so true as in the drama that, for the going out of
+our sympathies toward the hero or the heroine, there
+should be other contrasting characters; but a story gains
+color and movement from having a variety of individualities.
+Especially if the story is one of action, definite
+sympathies are heightened when they are accompanied by
+emotional antagonisms. In "The Master of Ballantrae,"
+we come to take sides with Henry Durrie almost wholly
+through having found his rival, the Master, so black
+a monster. Such establishment of a common bond of
+interest between us and the character with whom our
+sympathies are to be engaged is a most effective means of
+holding us to a personal involvement in the development
+of the plot. There must not be too many characters
+shown, the relations between them must not be too various
+or too complexly conflicting, but where the interplay of
+feeling and clashing motives is not too hard to grasp, a
+variety of characters gives life and warmth of human
+interest to a story.</p>
+
+<p><strong>4. Uses of Description.</strong>&mdash;Inasmuch as there are other
+interests in our lives than those which are established by
+our relations with our fellows, interests connected with the
+material world about us, any narrative will probably have
+occasion to include some description. It may be necessary
+merely as an aid to our understanding of some of the
+details upon which the plot turns, it may help us to realize
+the personalities of the characters, and it is often useful
+in creating background and atmosphere, giving us some of
+the feelings of those with whom the story deals as they
+look upon the beauty, or the gray dullness, of the changing
+panorama of their lives. Stevenson's description of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+"old sea-dog" in "Treasure Island" is an excellent illustration
+of the effectiveness of a few lines of description in
+making us know something very definite in the man.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I remember him as if it were yesterday, as he came plodding to the
+inn door, his sea-chest following behind him in a handbarrow, a tall,
+strong, heavy, nut-brown man; his hands ragged and scarred, with
+black, broken nails, and the saber cut across one cheek, a lurid white."</p></div>
+
+<p><strong>5.</strong> Rossetti in "The Bride's Prelude," a story in verse,
+after merely glancing at the opening of the tale, devotes
+eight stanzas to description introduced for the purpose
+of background and atmosphere. Two of them are given
+here.</p>
+
+<div class="block">
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="io">"Within the window's heaped recess<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The light was counterchanged<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In blent reflexes manifold<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From perfume caskets of wrought gold<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And gems the bride's hair could not hold<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="io">"All thrust together: and with these<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">A slim-curved lute, which now,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">At Amelotte's sudden passing there,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Was swept in some wise unaware,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And shook to music the close air."<br /></span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>This helps us to enter into the life and spirit of the time
+and place, to conceive imaginatively the likings, the desires,
+the passions, the purposes, and the powers that shall be
+potent in the story.</p>
+
+<p><strong>6. Kinds of Description.</strong>&mdash;Description is primarily of
+two kinds, that which is to give accurate information, and
+that which is to produce a definite impression not necessarily
+involving exactness of imagery. The first of these
+forms is useful simply in the way of explanation, serving
+the first purpose indicated in paragraph four. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+second is useful for other purposes than that of exposition,
+often appealing incidentally to our sense of the
+beautiful, and requiring always nice literary skill in its
+management. It should be borne in mind always that
+literary description must not usurp the office of representations
+of the material in the plastic arts. It should not be
+employed as an end in itself, but only as subsidiary to
+other ends.</p>
+
+<p><strong>7. Various Moods as Incidents.</strong>&mdash;The moods in the
+characters of a story and their changes are connected with
+the incidents of the story, since they are in part happenings,
+and with the characters, since they reveal character.
+Apart from direct statement of them, we understand the
+moods of the actors in the little drama which we are made
+to imagine is being played before us from the things they
+say, from the things they do, and from gestures, attitudes,
+movements, which the author visualizes for us. If these
+moods are not made clear to us or we cannot see that they
+are natural, definite reactions from previous happenings in
+accord with character, we do not have a sense of organic
+unity in the narrative. We become confused in trying to
+establish the dependence of incident and feeling upon
+something preceding, and our interest flags. Everything
+that happens in a well-told story gives us feelings which
+we look to find in those whom the happenings affect in
+the tale, feelings which should call forth some sort of
+responsive action for our satisfaction. Clearly, if the
+characters are cold, if we cannot find in them moods of
+the kind and intensity that to us seem warranted, the story
+will be a disappointment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Literary Divisions and General Principles</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>8. The Conceptual and Emotional.</strong>&mdash;Theoretically all
+writing is divided easily into two classes, conceptual and
+emotional, the literature of thought and the literature of
+feeling. In the actual attempt to classify written composition
+on this basis, however, no sharp distinction can be
+maintained. Even matters of fact, certainly such matters
+of fact as we care to write about, are of more or less
+moment to us; we cannot deal with them in a wholly
+unemotional way. In our daily lives we are continually
+reaching conclusions that differ from the conclusions
+reached by others about the same matters of fact, and are
+trying to make these matters of fact have the same value
+for others that they have for us. This is true of our business
+life as well as of our social and home life. It always
+will be so. It is doubtless true that if our knowledge of
+matters of fact embraced a knowledge of the universe, and
+if the experience of each of us were just like that of his
+fellow and included all possible experience, we might reach
+identical conclusions. This is not true and never can be
+true. It is in effect true of a small portion of the things
+about which we think,&mdash;the addition of one to two makes
+three for every one,&mdash;but outside of these things, writing
+need not be and seldom is purely conceptual.</p>
+
+<p><a name="subject" id="subject"></a><strong>9. Subject-matter.</strong>&mdash;Various as are the things about
+which we write and manifold as are our interests in them,
+they may be classified for our purposes under four heads:
+Matters of Fact, Experience, Beauty, Truth. Again, we
+shall find difficulty in separating each of these from each
+of the others. Some of our experiences have certainly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+been revelations of matters of fact; without our experiences,
+we should hardly have acquired any real sense of
+the beautiful; save for them we could not have known
+anything of truth. No accurate definition of these things
+carefully distinguishing between them can be attempted
+here. It may be assumed that what is meant by matters
+of fact will be understood without definition. As we read
+the story in great measure for the purpose of enlarging
+our experience, this part of our possible literary material
+is worth considering further. In the child we are able to
+detect very early a growing curiosity. That curiosity does
+not disappear when the child has grown from boy to man;
+he is still asking questions of the universe, still trying to
+piece the fragments of his knowledge into a law-ordered
+and will-ordered whole. What he knows has been the
+product of experience, what he may yet know further must
+be the product of experience. This experience may not
+all be personal, but even that which he gets at second hand
+is so far useful in helping him toward that understanding
+of the universe for which he hopes. He never will reach
+that understanding, all his experience will make but a fraction
+of things to be known matters of fact to him; and yet
+a deathless interest in the scarcely recognized belief that the
+facts and forces of which he has known have some unifying
+principle makes his emotions quicken at every new
+experience that may have possible significance.</p>
+
+<p><strong>10. Appeal of Experience, Beauty, and Truth.</strong>&mdash;It will
+be evident, then, that experience which somehow makes
+the impression of superior importance may be presented
+inorganically and yet gain an interested hearing. The
+method of creating this impression, whether through the
+appearance of conviction in the writer or by various literary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+devices, need not detain us here. We shall be concerned
+merely with noting that the possible relation of the
+particular to the general, of this experience to the whole of
+experience, makes it a thing of moment. In just what way
+experience develops in us the sense of the beautiful, just
+what it is in anything that makes us distinguish beauty in
+it, cannot now be determined. It will be enough for us to
+know that literature makes a large appeal to a sense of the
+beautiful in us, a sense not fortuitous and irrational, though
+varying, but normal and almost universal, dependent upon
+natural laws of development. Truth is also difficult of
+definition, but we may understand that when out of experience,
+as through a process of reasoning, we have reached
+a conclusion that is something more than a matter of fact,
+a conclusion touching our emotions and having vital spiritual
+interest to us, the experience, whether our own directly or
+at second hand, has brought us to a truth. Truth is, perhaps,
+that matter of fact of universal intelligence that
+transcends the matter of fact of the finite mind.</p>
+
+<p><strong>11. Literary Principles and Qualities.</strong>&mdash;There are some
+fundamental principles of literary presentation which we
+may briefly review here. All our study of science, and in
+a less obvious fashion, of all the physical, social, and
+artistic world about us, is more or less an attempt to
+classify, simplify, and unify facts whose relations we do
+not see at a glance. We must observe and learn the facts
+first, but they will be of no great utility to us as unrelated
+items of knowledge. The need of establishing some sort
+of law and order in our understanding of the mass of
+phenomena of which we must take cognizance is so
+insistent that we early acquire the habit of attempting to
+hold in mind any new fact through its relation to some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+other fact or facts. In other words, we can retain the
+knowledge we acquire only by making one fact do duty
+for a great many other facts included in it. Our writing
+must not violate what is at once a necessity and a pleasure
+of the mind. Unity, simplicity, coherence, harmony, or
+congruity, must all be sought as essential qualities of any
+writing. We must also indicate our sense of the relative
+values of the things with which we deal by a proper selection
+of details for presentation, a careful subordination of
+the less important to the more important through the proportion
+of space and attention given to each, and through
+other devices for securing emphasis. Let us keep in mind
+value, selection, subordination, proportion, emphasis, as a
+second group of terms for principles involved in writing.
+We may also wish to give our subject further elements of
+appeal through what may be suggested beyond the telling,
+through the melody and rhythm of the words, or through
+a quickening of the sense of the beautiful. Suggestion,
+melody, rhythm, beauty, are to be included, then, in a
+third group of qualities that may contribute to the effectiveness
+of what we write.</p>
+
+<p><strong>12. Conceptual Writing.</strong>&mdash;Of the literary qualities that
+have just been discussed, only the first group is perhaps
+essential to what has been designated as conceptual writing.
+Here we may place expository writing on subjects wholly
+matter of fact, mathematical discussions, scientific treatises
+largely, though not necessarily, and other writing of like
+character. As unity is the quality of importance here, we
+may well consider the units of discourse. Our first unit is
+that of the whole composition, the second that of the paragraph,
+and the third that of the sentence. Which of these
+is the prime unit, as the dollar is the prime unit of our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+medium of exchange, may not be evident at once; but if
+we examine the writing of clear thinkers carefully, without
+attempting to settle the matter in any doctrinaire fashion,
+we shall find that the paragraph, and not the sentence, is
+the more unified whole. I turn to Cardinal Newman, and
+in the middle of a paragraph find the sentence, "This
+should be carefully observed," a sentence meaningless
+when taken from the context. As a part of the paragraph
+it has a function, but it is certainly as a unit of detail and
+not as a prime unit. A writer like Carlyle makes these
+lesser units more important, but they are still subordinate
+to their use in the paragraph. In all our writing we shall
+do much for the unity, simplicity, and coherence of our
+work by seeing to it that our paragraphs are properly
+arranged and that each fulfills this function of a prime unit
+in the composition.</p>
+
+<p><strong>13. The Sense of Value.</strong>&mdash;When, in addition to statement
+of mere matters of fact, an author wishes to impress
+his readers with his own sense of the importance and the
+value of what he has to say, or of some special phase of
+his subject, he will employ the principles of the second
+group spoken of in a preceding paragraph. They cannot
+be ignored, indeed, in explanation of the simplest matters
+of fact, but a writer who means to convince and persuade
+will make more use of them. His personality will express
+itself in the selection of details and in the emphasis he
+places upon one detail or another. Among the literary
+forms which, besides being conceptual, are also concerned
+with persuasion, we find the oration, the essay, a great deal
+of business correspondence, and much of what we read in
+magazines and newspapers.</p>
+
+<p><strong>14. Writing having Artistic Quality.</strong>&mdash;When in addition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+to expressing matters of fact or truth, appealing perhaps
+to experience, we wish to arouse some sense of the beautiful
+and the artistic, we shall give our writing some or all of
+the qualities of the third group. Evidently, writing of this
+sort is in many respects the most difficult, since the writer
+must have regard for unity and the related principles, as
+well as for the qualities which peculiarly distinguish it.
+Experience, beauty, and truth are all available as subject-matter,
+and all the principles governing literary composition
+are concerned. Here we shall find the poem, the
+drama, the oration in some of its forms, most essays of the
+better sort, the greater part of good critical writing, literary
+description, and all narrative forms except the matter-of-fact
+historical writing of unliterary scholars.</p>
+
+<p><strong>15. Two Things Requisite in Writing.</strong>&mdash;It is to be borne
+in mind that the foregoing classifications are by no means
+absolute. Gardiner in his "Forms of Prose Literature" says
+very truly that the "essential elements, not only of literature,
+but of all the fine arts, are: first, an organic unity of
+conception; and second, the pervasive personality of the
+artist." It is true that much of our writing does not aspire
+to literary character, but in very little of our writing of any
+sort can we afford to neglect the first of these elements,
+and in very little of it do we care to leave the second out
+of account. Even in exposition of the simpler sort we may
+give to our writing the distinction of a more luminous style
+and the stronger appeal of a warmer personal interest, if
+we shape it into organic unity and make evident in it "the
+pervasive personality of the artist."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">The Story in Particular</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>16. The Art of the Story.</strong>&mdash;However abstract the thinking
+of civilized man may become, "all our intelligence," to
+quote Ladd's "Outlines of Physiological Psychology," "is intelligence
+about something or other, ... resting on a basis
+of sensations and volitions." Difficult as it is and difficult
+as are the problems involved in its construction, the story
+is from some points of view the most elementary of literary
+forms. It is concerned directly with matters of sensation
+and volition. If it is to play upon our emotions, it must
+revive sensations and volitions, make us in some degree
+part of the action. Experience is at once its warp and
+woof, but while it gives us new experiences, it must, in
+connection with them, revive old ones and so become tangible
+and real for us.</p>
+
+<p>Of the memories that have come to us through the senses
+of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste, those that are
+visual are probably the most clearly defined and persistent
+for most people. The sensation of hearing doubtless comes
+next, and then those of touch, smell, and taste. A name
+will suffice to make us see the face of an absent friend; a
+few words, or the sight of a music roll, is enough to make
+us hear a favorite melody; a line or two on a printed page
+brings back to us the scent of the hayfield or the heavy
+odor of hyacinths in a conservatory. We must remember,
+too, that this may be in each case, not simply a bringing
+back of the idea of the things, but a reviving of the sensations
+themselves. The seat of sensation is after all the
+brain. Originally we experience sensation through some
+excitation of the end organs of sense, the ear, the nerves of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+touch, the retina; but these sensations become associated
+with verbal images in the mind, and finally the excitation
+of the verbal images results also in the revival of the original
+sensation. There is perhaps no one of us who has not
+seen wholly imaginary moving shadows or flashing lights
+in the dark. Such cases are not good illustrations of the
+point, possibly, but most of us can at will hear a connected
+succession of notes with which we have familiarized ourselves.
+In my own recent experience there occurred a very
+clear and wholly unexpected subjective sense of smell when
+reading of an experiment with frogs which recalled the
+distinctive odor of slimy water. Mr. James Sully, in
+"Illusions," says, "Stories are told of portrait painters who
+could summon visual images of their sitters with a vividness
+equal to that of reality, and serving all the purposes
+of their art." The same writer says again, and this is
+peculiarly significant, that "the physiologist Gruithuisen
+had a dream in which the principal feature was a violet
+flame, and which left behind it, <em>after waking</em> for an appreciable
+duration, a complementary image of a yellow spot."
+Here a purely subjective impression had been reproduced
+in the nerves of sense.</p>
+
+<p><strong>17. The Place of Sensation in Writing.</strong>&mdash;The thing that
+it seems important to dwell upon here is that subjective
+sensations do go out from the brain and stimulate in a very
+real fashion the sensations that are naturally excited by
+external stimuli localizing themselves in the end organs of
+sense. As these sensations, while not the all of emotion,
+are largely involved in emotion as its more poignant
+element, and as emotion is a first requisite in the appeal of
+a story, it is evident that the writer of stories will do well
+to acquire the art of reviving sensations. Further, as in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+the quickening of sensations our ideas become more tangible
+and real, writers who employ other literary forms
+will find that their style gains clarity and distinction by a
+like appeal to sensation when possible. Just how successful
+story-writers make appeal to sensation, revive experience,
+give new experience, and touch the sense of the
+beautiful is to be taken up more definitely in the following
+pages. We can understand, of course, that subjective
+sensations are not as strong as those which we experience
+directly, but on the other hand they may be more varied,
+they may crowd in upon us more rapidly, they may be more
+congruously chosen for a definite effect than in our actual
+life. The total effect may then be no less pronounced. In
+discovering how this is brought about we shall find the art
+of the short story.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Special Study of the Story</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>18. Symbols for Visualization.</strong>&mdash;On analyzing a story
+for the purpose of discovering the elements of which it is
+composed, and the kind and degree of appeal which they
+have for us, we shall find it convenient to employ a few
+symbols for the purpose of labeling our findings for discussion
+in the class room. Some of the directions which we
+make will be based upon differences in the way in which
+the things presented are effective in our minds, others
+upon differences in the things presented, themselves. First
+we shall work with symbols of description and visualization,
+of which for convenience we may distinguish four sorts
+shading one into the other, not clearly defined, and yet
+worth discussing, that we may cultivate a sharper sense of
+qualities of effectiveness in visualization. For these four
+sorts of visualization we may employ the symbols, <em>V</em><sub>1</sub>, <em>V</em><sub>2</sub>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+<em>V</em><sub>3</sub>, <em>VB</em><sub>3</sub>. For the first of these the symbol <em>V</em><sub>1</sub> is not very
+satisfactory, since we will employ it for simple description
+which presents rather the idea of the thing than a mental
+picture, but it will perhaps be simpler to use it than to use
+a symbol for the word description. Having in mind the
+idea of a thing, we may by mental effort, if the idea is
+defined with sufficient clearness, call up the image of the
+object. <em>V</em><sub>2</sub> is the symbol for a visualization through a
+suggestion which the mind, by reason of the interest
+kindled, fills out to something more than the mere idea,
+more or less definite imagery resulting. In the <em>V</em><sub>3</sub> form,
+we are, as it were, compelled to see the image without
+mental effort, so swiftly and surely do the verbal memory
+images re&euml;stablish old sensations or combine with old
+sensations to the formation of new. In the fourth form,
+we will add the <em>B</em> (Beauty) when the image which we see
+is such as to appeal pleasurably to the &aelig;sthetic sense.
+That there should be perfect agreement in the use of any
+one of these symbols in any particular case is, of course,
+not to be expected. Our individual experiences have been
+so different and the associations of sensation are so varied
+that the character and intensity of any visualization must
+differ in each individual. This, of course, is one of the
+things that complicate the problem of literary composition
+and make study of these things of particular importance.</p>
+
+<p><strong>19. Audition and Other Sensations.</strong>&mdash;As the problem of
+audition is of less moment than that of visualization, we
+will make but the one distinction between such presentation
+of sound as calls up the idea of the sound only, <em>a</em><sub>1</sub> and
+such as produces in us the sense of the sound itself, <em>a</em><sub>2</sub>,
+premising that any one who chooses may make the three
+divisions preceding.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Appeals to the other senses as occurring less often, we
+may group together under the symbol <em>S</em>, using 1 with this,
+as with <em>a</em>, when it comes to us in the conceptual way, and
+2 when it comes as an excitant of sensation.</p>
+
+<p><strong>20. Instances of Visualization.</strong>&mdash;Before we go farther,
+it will be well to examine briefly an example or two of
+literary description.</p>
+
+<div class="line">
+<p><span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>2</sub></span>"The rim of the sun was burning the hilltops, and already the
+vanguard of his strength stemming the morning mists, when I and
+<span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>2</sub></span>my companion first trod the dust of a small town which stood in
+our path. It still lay very hard and white, however, and sharply
+<span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>1</sub></span>edged to its girdle of olive and mulberry trees drenched in dew, a
+compactly folded town well fortified by strong walls and many
+<span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>2</sub></span>towers, with the mist upon it and softly over it like a veil. For it
+<span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>1</sub></span>lay well under the shade of the hills awaiting the sun's coming.
+In the streets, though they were by no means asleep, but, contrariwise,
+<span class="linenum"><em>S</em><sub>2</sub></span>busy with the traffic of men and pack mules, there was a
+<span class="linenum"><em>V</em><sub>2</sub></span>shrewd bite as of night air; looking up we could perceive how faint
+the blue of the sky was, and the cloud-flaw how rosy yet with the
+flush of Aurora's beauty-sleep. Therefore we were glad to get into
+the market place, filled with people and set around with goodly
+<span class="linenum"><em>S</em><sub>2</sub></span>brick buildings, and to feel the light and warmth steal about our
+limbs."</p>
+<p class="right">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Maurice Hewlett</span>, "Earthwork out of Tuscany."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here we shall first use the symbol <em>V</em><sub>2</sub>, because the image
+presented is one that appeals at once to experience, experience
+too that has not been dimmed by frequence. The
+instant when the <em>rim</em> of the sun comes up bright and red
+is the instant when our expectation is most kindled toward
+the glory of the dawn and of the day which it foretokens.
+"The vanguard of his strength" in the next clause suggests
+the purely fanciful. This mixture of the concrete and the
+abstract does not go back to sensation, a thing worth noting
+and so the visualization is destroyed. The dependent clause<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+brings up a new visualization, a <em>V</em><sub>2</sub>, in the "dust of a small
+town." The second sentence is <em>V</em><sub>1</sub>, until the close when it
+becomes <em>V</em><sub>2</sub> through the quickening of memories that have
+been emotional. The vagueness of a village hidden in the
+mist has appealed to our imagination in the assurance of a
+something unknown. The next sentence is <em>V</em><sub>1</sub>, and so
+also is the next until in "the shrewd bite as of night
+air" we get an <em>S</em><sub>2</sub>. The <em>V</em><sub>2</sub> of the faint blue of the sky is
+destroyed, as in the first sentence, by the merely intellectual
+playing of fancy in "Aurora's beauty-sleep." The next
+sentence gives us an <em>S</em><sub>2</sub> in the closing clause, for which the
+two preceding have been a preparation.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Solemn and vast at all times, in spite of pettiness in the near details,
+the impression becomes more solemn and vast towards evening. The
+sun goes down, a swollen orange, as it were, into the sea. A blue-clad
+peasant rides home, with a harrow smoking behind him among the dry
+clods."</p></div>
+
+<p>In this from Robert Louis Stevenson the last sentence
+brings the description to a <em>V</em><sub>3</sub>; the smoking harrow is suggestive
+of so much more than the cloud of dust that has
+not yet settled to the earth in the stillness of the approaching
+twilight when the work of the day is done.</p>
+
+<p><strong>21. Motor Effects of Visualization.</strong>&mdash;There is another
+way in which things seen touch sensation. Look at a
+picture of the Laoco&ouml;n for a moment. Fix your eyes upon
+the contortions of the limbs, see the agony of the face, note
+the fangs of the serpent ready to embed themselves in the
+flesh. While fastening these fearful details in your mind
+have you not felt some of the horror of it, and has not that
+feeling shown a tendency to innervate some of the muscles,
+has not your face shown some of the suffering which you
+have been studying, and have you not felt a tendency<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+toward the muscular movements of one writhing in agony?
+Certainly, such motor impulses do result from certain kinds
+of visualization, and it need hardly be said that they are
+peculiarly effective in making us really alive with the emotion
+which inheres in the movement or the attitude which
+we see. If the gestures of a speaker are to be effective,
+they must seem natural to us; that is, they must be such as
+we would make if we were in that fashion attempting to
+express a similar emotion. Otherwise the motor suggestions
+of the words and the motor suggestion of the gestures
+may inhibit or neutralize each other, or at least produce a
+feeling of confusion. Halleck, in his "Education of the
+Central Nervous System," says, "All states of consciousness
+contain a motor element." When a visualization or an
+audition, as that of a sharp command, seems to have motor
+effects, we may add to the symbols of kind and degree of
+sensation the symbol <em>x</em>.</p>
+
+<p><strong>22. Inference in Literature.</strong>&mdash;It was apparent in the
+visualization quoted from Stevenson that some of the
+impressions which we get from literature we get as inferences.
+Dust does not arise from a harrow so as to have
+the appearance of smoke on a windy day, and therefore we
+know that it is quiet. In the opening of a story some
+things must be explained directly, and for such explanatory
+matter, matter from which we infer nothing beyond the
+statement, we will employ the symbol <em>Exp.</em>; but for other
+presentation of matters of fact we will employ the symbol
+<em>F</em><sub>1</sub>. From facts as presented&mdash;and we will use the term
+in a comprehensive sense&mdash;we may or may not draw inferences,
+and we will distinguish facts from which no inference
+is drawn by the symbol <em>F</em><sub>1</sub>, and those from which inference
+is drawn by the symbol <em>F</em><sub>2</sub>. An inference may be preponderatingly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+intellectual or emotional; we may, when desirable,
+add the symbol <em>a</em> for one and <em>b</em> for the other. An inference
+we may call an "effect," and a fact as effect, whether
+the effect be emotional or conceptual, is clearly more potent
+in a literary way than a mere fact.</p>
+
+<p><strong>23. Effects of Incident and Mood.</strong>&mdash;Allied to the fact
+as effect is the incident which makes us know something
+more than the happening itself. All incidents we may
+distinguish under the symbols <em>In</em><sub>1</sub>, <em>In</em><sub>2</sub><em>a</em>, <em>In</em><sub>2</sub><em>b</em>, the secondary
+symbols having the significance as with <em>F</em> above. Mood
+effects are, in general, more important, and it will be worth
+while to distinguish three sorts, <em>m</em><sub>1</sub>, an inference which we
+draw regarding the mood of the writer, <em>m</em><sub>2</sub>, a like inference
+which becomes infectious, creating in us in some degree a
+like feeling, and <em>m</em><sub>3</sub>, an "effect" enabling us to draw an
+inference regarding the mood of a character in the story.
+In addition to this we shall find direct statement of mood,
+but that we shall mark with some of the preceding symbols,
+generally <em>F</em><sub>1</sub>, perhaps. We may understand further that
+the mood effects are of both kind and degree. When the
+showing of mood is such as to make us realize in it the
+intensity of strong emotion or passion, we may indicate
+the heightening of the feeling by the addition of the symbol
+<em>d</em>, using <em>k</em> alone, or with <em>d</em> to indicate that the character of
+the mood is shown.</p>
+
+<p><strong>24. Methods of Characterization.</strong>&mdash;In our everyday life
+we are continually drawing inferences in regard to the
+characters of those about us, and we do the same thing in
+a story. Some writers tell us as clearly as they can the
+natures of the men and women they are revealing to us,
+while others leave that almost wholly for us to conjecture.
+We shall employ, then, two sets of symbols for character,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+one for direct statement of character, and one for character
+effects. The realization of character through direct statement
+may include presentation of motives, ideas, passions,
+will, special phases of development. It may come through
+report of the talk of others, or through statement of opinion
+generally entertained. <em>c</em><sub>1</sub> we will use for direct statement
+of character,&mdash;"John was a hard old miser,"&mdash;and we
+will add to this symbol the symbol <em>a</em> to indicate that this is
+only so far potent with us as to make us know the writer's
+understanding of the character merely, <em>b</em> to indicate that
+we recognize the writer's feeling for the character but do
+not share it, and <em>c</em> to indicate that the writer's feeling for
+his character affects us sympathetically to a like feeling.
+Another group of symbols, <em>c</em><sub>2</sub>, <em>c</em><sub>3</sub>, and <em>c</em><sub>4</sub>, we will use for
+character "effects," for such knowledge of character as we
+gain by inference. <em>c</em><sub>2</sub> is a symbol for a general inference
+regarding a group of people or a community; <em>c</em><sub>3</sub> and <em>c</em><sub>4</sub> are
+symbols for inferences regarding the individual, <em>c</em><sub>3</sub> indicating
+the recognition of type or class qualities, <em>c</em><sub>4</sub>, the
+recognition of more individual traits of character. The
+distinction here is merely one of matter of fact, a distinction
+not always to be made with sureness, since it is one of
+degree rather than altogether one of kind. When the way
+in which a man is good or cheerful or avaricious is differentiated
+for us from the way in which another man is good
+or cheerful or avaricious, he is so far individualized. Class
+characterization, <em>c</em><sub>3</sub>, may be found along with individualization.
+The extreme accentuation of one or a few characteristics
+to the disregard of others gives the effect of
+individualization, but we shall understand this as in fact
+type characterization, since our natures are so complex that
+in almost no case can the conduct of any one be understood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+through knowledge of a few dominant traits of character.
+Individualization gives us intimacy of acquaintance; type
+or class characterization makes us see merely the striking,
+peculiar, or controlling expressions of personality. Guy
+Mannering in Scott's "Guy Mannering" is but a type of the
+conventional soldier. Tito Milema in George Eliot's
+"Romola" presents so many sides of a complex nature that
+we easily distinguish him from all other characters in fiction
+whatever.</p>
+
+<p><strong>25. The Subjective and Objective.</strong>&mdash;Writers, in their
+methods of presentation, may be broadly divided into two
+classes, those who write subjectively and those who write
+objectively. A subjective writer is one whose own personality,
+point of view, feeling, is insistent in what he
+writes. An objective writer, on the other hand, is one who
+leaves the things of which he makes record to produce
+their own impression, the writer himself remaining an
+almost impassive spectator, telling the story with little or
+no comment. Chaucer, in the prologue to the "Canterbury
+Tales," betrays his personal feeling for his characters continually,
+and so is subjective. Shakespeare in his plays is
+objective, presenting all sorts of men and women without
+show of his own attitude toward them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plot" id="plot"></a><strong>26. Interest of the Plot and its Purpose.</strong>&mdash;We have seen
+that interest in incident is a first interest in the story. This
+interest, we must understand further, is not to be maintained
+by having things happen in a matter regulated only
+by chance or the exigencies of the author's invention at the
+moment. The unification of a story that results from the
+subordination of minor incidents to a final outcome is an
+essential necessity of the plot. The plot, indeed, is the
+arrangement of incidents with reference to the d&eacute;nouement.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+The development of the plot should be such as to
+indicate an end toward which the succession of incidents
+is tending, and yet such as to keep the reader in suspense
+with regard to the nature of that end. There must be
+novelty in the happenings, and yet the novelty must not
+be so great as to keep the reader confused or strain belief.
+The permanent hold upon us of a piece of fiction is
+enhanced if it embodies some central truth, illustrating the
+working out of some law of life, or involved in the personal
+attitude of the writer toward some problem of existence.
+Only dilettanteism and superficiality forget that an artist,
+giving the form of beauty to his conceptions, is trying to
+make them as significant to others as they are to him, and
+that &aelig;sthetic and ethical, or spiritual, significance are
+inextricably interwoven. It will, of course, be the care of
+the artist to see that any didactic purpose is not obtrusive.</p>
+
+<div class="line">
+<p><span class="linenum2"><em>F<sub>2</sub>b</em></span> 1. A tray of glasses was placed on the table with great
+solemnity by the "wricht," who made no sign and invited
+none.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 2. You might have supposed that the circumstance had
+<em>F<sub>2</sub>b</em>   escaped the notice of the company, so abstracted and unconscious
+was their manner, had it not been that two graven
+images a minute later are standing by the table.</p>
+
+<p><span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>k</em></span>      3. "Ye 'ill taste, Tammas," with settled melancholy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>k</em></span>      4. "Na, na; I've nae incleenation the day; it's an awful
+         dispensation, this, Jeems.  5. She wuld be barely saxty."<span class="linenum2"><em>F<sub>2</sub>a</em></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>k</em></span>      6. "Ay, ay, but we maun keep up the body sae lang as
+we're here, Tammas."</p>
+
+<p><span class="linenum2"><em>c<sub>2</sub>/c<sub>4</sub></em></span>      7. "Weel, puttin' it that way, a'm not sayin' but yir
+      richt," yielding unwillingly to the force of circumstance.<span class="linenum2"><em>m</em><sub>2</sub></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="linenum2"><em>c<sub>4</sub>/m<sub>3</sub></em></span>      8. "We're here the day and there the morn, Tammas.
+      9. She was a fine wumman&mdash;Mistress Stirton&mdash;a weel-livin'<span class="linenum2"><em>m</em><sub>3</sub></span>
+wumman: this will be a blend, a'm thinkin'."</p>
+
+<p><span class="linenum2"><em>c<sub>4</sub>/m<sub>3</sub></em></span>      10. "She slippit aff sudden in the end; a'm judgin' it's
+       frae the Muirtown grocer; <span class="linenum2"><em>m</em><sub>3</sub></span>but a body canna discreeminate
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>on a day like this."</p>
+
+<p>11. It was George Howe's funeral that broke the custom
+and closed the "service."
+<span class="linenum2"><em>F<sub>2</sub>b</em></span>      12. When I came into the garden
+where the neighbors were gathered, the "wricht" was
+removing his tray and not a glass had been touched.
+<span class="linenum2">Exp.+<em>m<sub>2</sub></em></span>      13. Then I guessed that Drumtochty had a sense of the fitness
+of things and was stirred to its depths.</p>
+
+<p>14. "Ye saw the wricht carry in his tray," said Drumsheigh
+as he went home from the kirkyard.</p>
+
+<p><span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>d</em></span>      15. "Weel, yon's the last sicht o't ye' ill get or a'm no
+ Drumsheigh.  16. I've nae objection masel' to a neighbor<span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>k</em></span>
+tastin' at a funeral, a' the more if he's come from the upper
+end o' the pairish, and ye ken I dinna hold wi' thae teetotal
+<span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>d</em></span> fouk.     17. A'm ower auld in the horn to change noo.
+<span class="linenum2"><em>m<sub>3</sub>/F<sub>2</sub>b</em></span>      18. But there's times and seasons, as the Gude Buik says,
+and it wud hae been an awfu' like business tae luik at a
+gless in Marget's Garden, and puir Domsie standing in
+ahent the brier bush as if he cud never lift his heid again."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>27. Interpretative Application of the Symbols.</strong>&mdash;A little
+discussion of the foregoing from a "A Scholar's Funeral"
+in the "Bonnie Brier Bush" may serve to make some of
+these things clearer. The fact that the "wricht" is silent
+here in the first sentence makes us know that this is the
+usual custom and that these people have an underlying
+sense of decorum. Sentence two has the same effect in
+their abstraction, and this is emphasized again in the "two
+graven images." The third sentence is a mood "effect"
+of kind, since we recognize the conventionally sobered
+feeling without the "settled melancholy." This is true
+again in sentence four, and in five we have a "fact as
+effect," drawing the inference that they are a long-lived
+race in Drumtochty. From the yielding to an invitation
+so framed as to put aside the semblance of yielding to
+inclination, we get a knowledge of character which seems
+to us individual, but which is used by the author to indicate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+a local community characteristic. The author's mood of
+amused observation is evident here, too, in his unbelieving
+acquiescence in Tammas's point of view. In sentences eight
+and nine we come to know Jeems in a more individual way,
+through the mingling in him of moods of conventional
+solemnity and everyday discussion. This is repeated in
+sentence ten. In sentence twelve we draw an emotional
+inference concerning the degree of their feeling from the
+fact that "not a glass had been touched." This is told
+in the explanatory way in thirteen with the addition of a
+suggestion of the author's sympathetic understanding and
+appreciation. Knowing Drumsheigh's reserve, from things
+that have gone before this in the story, we feel that only
+strong emotion could have called out sentence fifteen; and
+the apologetic tone of sixteen and seventeen indicates rather
+mood than such heightened feeling. Sentence eighteen
+returns to the mood of fifteen and sixteen, and through the
+fact of Domsie's standing "ahent the brier bush" reveals
+both Domsie's mood and Drumsheigh's own in our knowledge
+of its emotional appeal to him.</p>
+
+<p><strong>28. Different Forms of the Story.</strong>&mdash;It is to be understood
+that certain types of the short story are not included
+in this study as not being available for detailed work.
+Stories in which the interest is almost wholly dependent
+upon the succession of incidents can profitably be studied
+only with relation to the plot. Generally in such cases the
+things that make the story effective will be readily apparent,
+and they can be brought out by a few questions. To give
+variety and interest to the work the teacher will occasionally
+find it desirable to call attention to stories in current
+periodicals, requiring the class to bring in analyses of them
+showing structure of the plot, methods of managing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+reader's sympathies, fundamental motive of the story, the
+treatment of character and methods of presenting it, and
+such other things as seem most of moment in the story
+in question. When library facilities permit, it will be
+found worth while to make some comparison of the short
+story as it is now written in America with the short stories
+of fifty years ago and of the present day in England and
+France. No classification of stories is attempted here,
+since such classification is of no particular moment to the
+writer of stories.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">A Few Cautions</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>29.</strong> The suggestions that follow are phrased to cover
+the matter of visualization, but they touch upon general
+principles which are of wider application. It has seemed
+more convenient at this point to give them this specific
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p><strong>30. Author's Purpose should be Concealed.</strong>&mdash;An attempt
+to bring about a visualization or any other artistic effect in
+the mind of the reader is foredoomed to failure when in
+any way the writer's purpose too evidently betrays itself
+as such. Too much in the way of direct statement or
+predication is one indication of such purpose, and is therefore
+more or less ineffectual. For effective visualization
+some sort of preparation of the mood or sympathies of the
+reader is generally required. This, however, should be
+concealed, being accomplished through suggestion, as is
+the visualization itself.</p>
+
+<p><strong>31. Unity in Visualization.</strong>&mdash;A visualization should be
+so managed as to bring the whole picture, or nearly all of
+it, into the mind at once. It is partly because it does not
+do this that the method by details is not generally effective.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+A string of incomplete images passing through the mind,
+each one taking the place of the preceding and effacing it,
+is not artistically satisfying. It is possible to retain such
+separate images and at the end bring them together in a
+complete picture, but this will require effort on the part of
+the reader; and it is fundamentally important in all writing
+to reduce the conscious attention and effort of the reader
+to the lowest point. Only extreme literary art can so
+nullify this effort in effect as to make description by detail
+pleasurable, if of any length. Description by detail is,
+perhaps, more admissible in writing having a meditative
+tone than in any other, except, of course, technical
+description.</p>
+
+<p><strong>32. Fine Writing.</strong>&mdash;Fine writing is especially to be
+avoided in visualization, since the tone of artificiality is
+immediately destructive of the reader's confidence in the
+sincerity of the writer. It betrays the author's purpose of
+producing an effect. The appearance of truth free from
+any semblance of over-statement is a first requisite.</p>
+
+<p><strong>33.</strong> In any visualization harmony of detail is of prime
+importance. Even in describing something actually seen
+it will sometimes be necessary to leave out items really
+present, but not of a kind to contribute to the general
+effect. The saying that "Truth is stranger than fiction"
+should read that fiction may not be as strange as truth.
+Harmony of mood is important, as well as harmony of
+detail, in the thing described. If the picture is a quiet one,
+exclamatory excitement on the part of the writer, however
+affecting the scene may be supposed to be, will prevent its
+becoming real to the reader. These things are, then, to be
+borne in mind with regard to the elements of a visualization:
+the details presented must be so far true to common<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+knowledge and experience as to gain ready belief, they
+must have unity in fact and in effect, and they must also
+be sufficiently individual to appeal to the mind with something
+of the sense of novelty.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Reference Table of Symbols</span></h2>
+
+
+<table summary="Symbols">
+<tr>
+<td>Exp.</td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Explanatory matter.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>F<sub>1</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Statement of fact from which no inference is drawn.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>F<sub>2</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Statement of fact from which an inference is drawn.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>F<sub>2</sub>a</em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Statement of fact with inference mainly logical.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>F<sub>2</sub>b</em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Statement of fact with inference mainly emotional.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>In.</em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Statement of incident, secondary symbols as with <em>F</em>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>As<sub>1</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Anticipatory suggestion, a foretelling of something to happen,
+leaving the reader in doubt as to how it is to be brought about.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>As<sub>2</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Anticipatory suggestion, a foreshowing of something definite
+to happen, exciting the reader's curiosity to know what it is and
+how it is to be brought about.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>As<sub>3</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Anticipatory suggestion, a foreshadowing of something to be
+expected in the way of character development and consequent
+happening.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>V<sub>1</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Description in which the mere idea of the thing described is
+presented.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>V<sub>2</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>A kindling hint by which the mind is enabled to piece together
+a visualization of the object.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>V<sub>3</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Visualization of so vivid a kind as to possess the mind completely.
+This becomes</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>Vb<sub>3</sub></em></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>when it pleasurably affects the sensibilities.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>A<sub>1</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Audition in the way of simple idea of the thing to be heard.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>A<sub>2</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Audition as a reviving of the sense of sound.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>S<sub>1</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Sensation, the mere presentation of the idea of an appeal to one
+of the other senses.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>S<sub>2</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Sensation, a subjective reviving of the sensation itself.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>x</em></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>used to indicate that a subjective excitation of some one of the
+senses has motor effects, as in the shiver at the thought of a
+file upon the teeth.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>m<sub>1</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Mood "effect," from which we learn the feeling of the writer
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>without experiencing it ourselves.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>m<sub>2</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Mood "effect" from which we sympathetically experience the
+feeling of the writer.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>m<sub>3</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Mood "effect," a revelation of the feeling of a character in the
+story.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>c<sub>1</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Direct statement of character.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>c<sub>1a</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Direct statement of character that does not reveal the author's
+attitude toward the character.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>c<sub>1b</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Direct statement in which we are made aware of the author's
+attitude toward the character, but are not affected by it.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>c<sub>1c</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Direct statement of character sympathetically influencing us to
+the author's attitude toward the character.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>c<sub>2</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Character "effect," characterization of a group or community of
+people.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>c<sub>3</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Character "effect," class or type characterization of the individual.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>c<sub>4</sub></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Character "effect" in the way of individualization.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>d</em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Degree, added to symbol for mood effect to indicate intensity of
+the feeling.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em>k</em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>Kind, used to indicate that the inference concerns itself with
+character and not intensity.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td><em><big>/</big></em></td>
+<td>=</td>
+<td>A symbol employed (<a href="#plot">see section 26</a>) to indicate that one inference
+is drawn as an ultimate conclusion from another more
+immediate inference.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Subjects for Daily Themes</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Subjects for visualization and the reviving of other sensations.</p>
+
+<p>1. A sunset sky. 2. A group in the park. 3. A spring freshet.
+4. The man at the threshing machine. 5. The city across the river:
+night. 6. Moonlight among the hills. 7. A city street. 8. The
+college campus. 9. Eleanor's rose garden. 10. The witch of Endor
+(1 Sam. xxviii: 6-25). 11. Mt. Pel&eacute;e in eruption. 12. The woods at
+night. 13. David playing before Saul. 14. A ferny water course
+among the trees. 15. A bluebird in the orchard. 16. The violinist.
+17. In time of apple blossoms. 18. The scent of new-mown hay.
+19. Barbara at the piano. 20. The first watermelon. 21. Sailing with
+the wind. 22. Dawn in the mountains. 23. The wind among the
+pines. 24. The blacksmith and the forge.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Subjects for presentation of mood.</p>
+
+<p>1. Uncle Dick hears the news. 2. Balboa catches sight of the
+Pacific. 3. Silas explains himself. 4. Napoleon looking back at Moscow.
+5. Congressman Norris is refused the floor of the convention.
+6. Johnnie is told that he may go to the circus. 7. Ethan Allen at
+Ticonderoga. 8. Bamba, king of an island in the south seas, sees the
+first ship of the white man. 9. Alfred meets a Hallowe'en obstacle.</p>
+
+<p>Subjects for visualization and presentation of facts as "effects."</p>
+
+<p>1. A deserted house. 2. In the second-hand store. 3. The railroad
+wreck. 4. The beggar at the door. 5. Representative Dongan reads
+a letter from "The Corners." 6. A woman at the station. 7. Mrs.
+Humphrey's kitchen. 8. The trail of war.</p>
+
+<p>Subjects for character studies.</p>
+
+<p>1. The village oracle. 2. The landlord of the Lion Inn. 3. The
+old stage-driver. 4. The conductor. 5. An old-fashioned music-master.
+6. A pirate captain. 7. A country beau. 8. Deacon
+Bradley. 9. The school bully. 10. The female suffragist. 11. One
+of the four hundred. 12. A disciple of Mrs. Eddy. 13. "The man
+with the hoe." 14. The scissors grinder. 15. Captain Doty of the
+police. 16. A candidate for office.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">The Complete Story</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The invention of situations and plots can hardly be a
+matter of class-room instruction. If stories come to one, it
+is well. Study of the detailed means of making them
+living for the reader will then be worth while. The student
+should be encouraged to invent plots of his own, but
+as a simplification of this difficulty, to the end that some
+exercise in the writing of a complete story may be had,
+plots of some successful published stories are here given
+with suggestions regarding methods of treatment.</p>
+
+
+<h3>I</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Scene, a saloon where both men and women are drinking. One
+of them, a girl, thinks she sees at the window the face of Christ with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+his tender eyes. She leaves and will not permit the others to go with
+her.</p>
+
+<p>At a little distance she comes upon the stranger waiting for her. He
+tells her that when she wakes it will be to a new life and she will be his,
+bidding her go to a house he points out and remain for the night. She
+obeys, and the man passes into the shadow.</p>
+
+<p>Introductory sentence in the original, giving the atmosphere of the
+story: "This was the story the mystic told." Concluding sentence in
+the original, connecting it with our sense of unfathomable mysteries:
+"And this the listener gravely asked, 'One was chosen, the others left.
+Were the others less in need of grace?'"</p>
+
+<p>Divisions of the story. 1. Visualizing description of the saloon and
+of the street outside through which the stranger passes.</p>
+
+<p>2. Appearance of the face at the pane and its effect on the young
+girl (<em>m<sub>3</sub></em> "effect"). This is the difficult part of the story, and the
+reader can be made to believe in it only through sympathy with the
+girl's feeling.</p>
+
+<p>3. The talk of her companions and her answers (<em>m<sub>3</sub></em>).</p>
+
+<p>4. Her search for the stranger in the night (<em>m<sub>3</sub></em>).</p>
+
+<p>5. His talk to her when she finds him.</p></div>
+
+<p>This story in the original contains a little less than
+two thousand words. It will be seen at once that unless
+handled in such fashion as to appeal vividly to the imagination,
+a story with this for its theme will seem weak and
+unreal. It must be made as suggestive as possible or it
+will fail. It preaches, but it must avoid the air of preaching.
+Consider carefully how you would present the stranger&mdash;whether
+first at the window or before&mdash;so as to affect the
+reader with a sense of something more than human in him.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Scene of the story is the prairie desert of the West in time of drouth.
+A party of men, including two who are not yet through their work in an
+eastern college, are riding in search of water, having had none for two
+days. Water is found, but shortly afterwards one of the two young men
+is missing. The talk of the others reveals the absent one's unselfishness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+and friendly devotion to his chum. Soon he is seen riding up
+excitedly and beckoning. The others follow him to a rough eminence,
+where he stops and listens, imploring them to tell him whether they
+can hear a voice calling. When they hear it too, he is assured that he
+has not lost his reason from the thirst, and together they begin a search
+which results in their discerning a cavern in the side of an embankment
+where a man lies on a couch moaning for water. As they try to enter,
+he warns them away with the cry of "smallpox."</p>
+
+<p>The story is told to a group of friends gathered together of an evening,
+and the narrator draws from among his books a copy of Shakespeare
+found in the cavern by one of the men, bearing on its fly leaf, in
+addition to the owner's name, the word <em>Brasenose</em>, the name of one of
+the colleges at Oxford. The pathos of the story is in this last touch,
+an Oxford student dying so loathsome a death in a strange and desert
+land, and dying so heroically.</p>
+
+<p>Divisions of the story. 1. Visualization of the desert and the men.
+The scent of water. Drinking from the muddied stream.</p>
+
+<p>2. One of the young men starts off alone in a delirium of pain (<em>m<sub>3</sub></em>).
+He returns suffering from the fear that he has lost his reason (<em>m<sub>3</sub></em>).</p>
+
+<p>3. The discovery of the cave (<em>V<sub>3</sub></em> and <em>F<sub>2b</sub></em>). The delirious talk of
+the sick man. His sudden joy in the unexpected presence of human
+beings (<em>V<sub>3</sub></em> and <em>m<sub>3</sub></em>). His final "G'way! G'way! Smallpox!"</p>
+
+<p>4. The narrator of the story shows the copy of Shakespeare and the
+inscription on the fly leaf.</p></div>
+
+<p>The story in the original contains about three thousand
+words. It is important that the suffering of the men be
+developed at some length in a convincing fashion. It
+serves as a preparation for the more terrible suffering of
+the one man who moans for water as he tears the foul
+smallpox sores. This should be presented in as visualizing
+a way as possible and with as full showing of mood as
+may be. The conclusion in division 4 must be altogether
+different in tone from the preceding. Narrator and listeners
+are in a world of ease and comfort, and their interest
+in the story is an interest in something pathetically remote.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Situations to be Developed into Plots</span></h2>
+
+<p class="center">(Adapted from published stories not original)</p>
+
+
+<p>1. Rome in the early centuries after Christ. Three persons are
+involved, one man and two women, one of whom has just pledged troth
+to the man. The man and the other woman are devotees of a mystic
+faith, whose priest residing in a dark cavern in the hills calls now one,
+now another devotee to pass through the "void" to eternal fellowship
+with God.</p>
+
+<p>2. Oklahoma at the time of the opening of the strip for settlement.
+A man and his wife and two children come from Kansas to find land
+in the strip on the day of the run. They have failed in Kansas and are
+almost out of money. The husband, who is to make the run for the
+strip on horseback when the signal guns are fired, falls sick.</p>
+
+<p>3. A lumber camp. In addition to the men, a man and his wife who
+cook and take care of the camp, and a half-witted chore boy. The
+chore boy tries to take care of the men and keep them from drinking.
+A number of the men go off to a neighboring town for a spree, and the
+chore boy goes with them.</p>
+
+<p>4. Some place in the region of the mountain whites of the Carolinas
+and Tennessee. A beautiful girl with a tinge of negro blood that does
+not show in nature, intellectual endowment, or appearance. A mountain
+white to whom she is betrothed. A young man from the North visiting
+the family with whom she is staying is attracted by her. The contrast
+of the life of the mountain whites to which her betrothal if fulfilled
+dooms her, and that of the world of taste and culture which her nature
+demands.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Questions on "A Doctor of the Old School," from the
+"Bonnie Brier Bush"</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3>I</h3>
+
+<p>1. <em>a.</em> What has been accomplished in your sympathies by this?
+2. <em>b.</em> Has this been through direct statement of things calling for your
+sympathies, or through "effects"? <em>c.</em> Is the method cumulative and
+gradual, or direct and insistent? <em>d.</em> Would you say that the method
+here is objective or subjective? <em>e.</em> What symbols do you find that you
+have employed largely, and for what purpose have the devices for which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+two of these stand been employed? <em>f.</em> Would you say that the author
+puts much or little meaning into his words? Is the style diffuse and
+thin, or does it accomplish much with few words? Indicate a paragraph
+or page that justifies your conclusion and say how. <em>g.</em> Are the
+inferences which you are made to draw logical or emotional, and do
+they seem to you delicate and subtle or simple and direct? Indicate
+some of them in confirmation of your conclusion.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II</h3>
+
+<p>1. <em>a.</em> Do you see any change in the method of presenting MacLure
+here? <em>b.</em> How is it an advance in the development of the story or
+not? <em>c.</em> Was Part I. preparation for this or not, and if so, how?
+<em>d.</em> Does this have a definite climax and d&eacute;nouement, and if so, where?</p>
+
+
+<h3>III</h3>
+
+<p>1. <em>a.</em> How does this make an advance upon the preceding in the
+revelation of MacLure? <em>b.</em> Does it in any way get nearer to elemental
+human feeling? <em>c.</em> Does it anywhere appeal directly to sensation?
+<em>d.</em> Do you find in this any feeling for the mystery of existence? Does
+it seem to be an integral part of the story, coming from its essential
+emotion and free from obtrusive moralizing, or not? <em>e.</em> Is there any
+increase in intensity of feeling in this or not, and if so, how is it indicated
+in the symbols you have employed? <em>f.</em> Has MacLure now been
+presented to us with full showing of his distinguishing characteristics
+or not? and do we find in him a vital human nature?</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV</h3>
+
+<p>1. <em>a.</em> Do you think a death-bed scene a good subject for literary
+presentation or not? Why? <em>b.</em> Would you call it a difficult thing to
+present or not? <em>c.</em> Do you find anything objectionable here? <em>d.</em> Has
+the interest of the whole story depended upon incident or upon showing
+of character? <em>e.</em> Does this Part IV. serve in any particular way to
+round out our knowledge of MacLure, and if so, in what way? <em>f.</em> What
+is the especially appealing thing in the portrait of MacLure? And what
+in the fortune and circumstance of his life? <em>g.</em> Does this appeal touch
+in any fashion upon our sense of a something inscrutable governing our
+lives? <em>h.</em> Which of the different sorts of subject-matter (<a href="#subject">see section 9</a>)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+seem to you to be the more largely employed here? So far as it is concerned
+with experience, is it a reviving of what we have experienced or
+an addition to our knowledge of life? Is there in it a truth that you
+could formulate into a law of life, or is the truth so much a matter of
+emotion as merely to touch the sensibilities and so give us a wider vision?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Questions on "Loveliness," by Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward</span></h2>
+
+<p class="center">(<em>Atlantic Monthly</em>, August, 1899)</p>
+
+
+<p>1. <em>a.</em> Do you detect in this story any purpose beyond that of recounting
+a series of happenings? If so, what? <em>b.</em> If you were to write the
+story, would you think it prospectively a difficult thing to arouse interest
+in a dog? <em>c.</em> Has that been done here or not? <em>d.</em> If so, what are
+some of the author's devices and how successfully employed?</p>
+
+<p>2. <em>a.</em> What is the artistic purpose of the first two paragraphs? Why
+does the author delay so long in telling us that she is writing of a dog?
+<em>b.</em> Does she let her own feeling for the girl and dog appear or not?
+If so, is it obtrusive or not? Effective or not, as your markings indicate?
+<em>c.</em> Are there any incidents in the story that a reader might for
+any reason be unwilling to accept? <em>d.</em> If so, how is the handling such
+as to disguise the difficulty or not, as the case may be?</p>
+
+<p>3. <em>a.</em> What devices are employed to make us interested in Adah?
+<em>b.</em> Are we made to feel that her dependence upon the dog is natural and
+deserving of sympathy or not, and if so, how? <em>c.</em> Are the incidents so
+managed as to maintain interest in the expectation of the d&eacute;nouement
+or not? <em>d.</em> Does the story seem to have sufficient unity of purpose and
+plan or not?</p>
+
+<p>4. <em>a.</em> What symbols do you notice that you have employed most
+largely? <em>b.</em> Is the story written in the way of direct statement or of
+suggestion? <em>c.</em> For what frequent purpose would you say that the
+writer employs <em>F<sub>2</sub></em>? <em>M<sub>3</sub></em>? <em>M<sub>2</sub></em>? <em>d.</em> Can you say in what the art of
+the story especially consists? <em>e.</em> What would you probably have
+thought of the story were its art less delicate and sure?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">General Outline Questions for Study of Stories in
+Current Magazines, etc.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>1. <em>a.</em> Upon what is the interest of the story especially dependent?
+<em>b.</em> Are the incidents presented rapidly and coherently, or slowly and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+disconnectedly? <em>c.</em> Is there a clearly defined plot or not? <em>d.</em> Does
+the plot have a climax of entanglement, or does it fail in developing
+this feature of the story interest?</p>
+
+<p>2. <em>a.</em> How is character presented? <em>b.</em> Are the characters well
+chosen for their reactions among themselves? <em>c.</em> Are the things they
+do and say continually consistent or not? <em>d.</em> Are they sufficiently
+individualized to escape the appearance of the conventional and to hold
+interest?</p>
+
+<p>3. <em>a.</em> Does the story state facts and happenings merely, or does it
+get hold of vital sensations and revive them? <em>b.</em> If so, in what ways
+does it seem to do that? <em>c.</em> In general does it seem to you subjective
+or objective in method?</p>
+
+<p>4. <em>a.</em> How much of the interest of the story is in the development
+of the plot and how much in the stirring of vital sensations, including
+sympathetic moods? <em>b.</em> Does the development of the story center
+about any idea or attitude toward life? <em>c.</em> What excellences and
+what faults do you find in the story?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Some Stories Available for Study</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>"Five Hundred Dollars," "The Village Convict," and "Eli," all in a
+volume under the title of the first, Heman White Chaplin, Little, Brown
+&amp; Co., $1.00.</p>
+
+<p>"Loveliness," Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward, <em>Atlantic Monthly</em>,
+August, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>"The Flail of Time," Helen Choate Prince, <em>Atlantic Monthly</em>,
+August, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>"A Christmas Carol," Dickens, Cassel's National Library, 10 cents.</p>
+
+<p>"Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush," Ian MacLaren, David C. Cook, Elgin
+and Chicago, paper, 5 cents.</p>
+
+<p>"The Luck of Roaring Camp," "Tennessee's Partner," Bret Harte,
+Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., $1.00, <em>Overland Monthly</em>, September, 1902.</p>
+
+<p>"Bonaventure" (Chapters XVI-XVIII), George W. Cable, copyrighted,
+but obtainable in a cheap reprint.</p>
+
+<p>"The Game and the Nation," Owen Wister, <em>Harper's Monthly</em>,
+May, 1900.</p>
+
+<p>Nettleton's "Specimens of the Short Story," Henry Holt &amp; Co.,
+50 cents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Books that may Profitably be Consulted</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>"Education of the Central Nervous System," R. P. Halleck, The
+Macmillan Co.</p>
+
+<p>"The Philosophy of the Short Story," Brander Matthews, Longmans,
+Green &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>"The Short Story," Yale Studies in English, Henry Holt &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>"Forms of Prose Literature," J. H. Gardiner, Chas. Scribner's Sons.</p>
+
+<p>"Working Principles of Rhetoric," J. F. Genung, Ginn &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>"Outline of Psychology," E. B. Titchener, The Macmillan Co.</p>
+
+<p>"Short Story Writing," C. R. Barrett, Baker &amp; Taylor Co., $ 1.00.</p>
+
+<p>Chapter XII, "A Study of Prose Fiction," Bliss Perry, Houghton,
+Mifflin &amp; Co.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2>ENGLISH LITERATURE.</h2>
+
+<h3 class="books"><em>The Arden Shakespeare.</em></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">The Greater Plays in their literary aspect. One play in each volume, with Introduction,
+Notes, Essay on Metre, and Glossary. Based on the Globe text.
+From 144 to 224 pages. Cloth. Price, 25 cents a volume.</p></div>
+
+<p>This edition presents the greater plays in their literary aspect, and
+not merely as material for the study of philology or grammar.
+Verbal and textual criticism has been included only so far as may
+serve to help the student in his appreciation of the poetry.</p>
+
+<p>Questions of date and literary history have been fully dealt with in
+the Introductions, but the larger space has been devoted to the interpretative
+rather than to the matter-of-fact order of scholarship. &AElig;sthetic
+judgments are never final, but the editors have attempted to
+suggest points of view from which the analysis of dramatic motive
+and dramatic character may be profitably undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>In the Notes likewise, though it is hoped that unfamiliar expressions
+and allusions have been adequately explained, it has been
+thought more important to consider the dramatic value of each scene,
+and the part that it plays in relation to the whole.</p>
+
+<p>Each volume has a Glossary, an Essay upon Metre, and an Index.
+Appendices are added upon points of interest that could not be
+treated in the Introduction or the Notes. The text is based on
+that of the Globe edition. The following plays are ready:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><span class="smcap">Hamlet.</span>&mdash;Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Macbeth.</span>&mdash;Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A., Oxford.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Julius C&aelig;sar.</span>&mdash;Edited by Arthur D. Innes, M.A., Oxford.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Merchant of Venice.</span>&mdash;Edited by H. L. Withers, B.A., Oxford.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Twelfth Night.</span>&mdash;Edited by Arthur D. Innes, M.A., Oxford.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">As You Like It.</span>&mdash;Edited by J. C. Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Midsummer Night's Dream.</span>&mdash;Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cymbeline.</span>&mdash;Edited by A. J. Wyatt, M.A., Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tempest.</span>&mdash;Edited by F. S. Boas, M.A., Oxford.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">King John.</span>&mdash;Edited by G. C. Moore Smith, M.A., Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Richard II.</span>&mdash;Edited by C. H. Herford, L.H.D., Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Richard III.</span>&mdash;Edited by George Macdonald, M.A., Oxford.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Henry V.</span>&mdash;Edited by G. C. Moore Smith, M.A., Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Henry VIII.</span>&mdash;Edited by D. Nichol Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Coriolanus.</span>&mdash;Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A., Oxford.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Much Ado About Nothing.</span>&mdash;Edited by J. C. Smith, M.A., Oxford.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">King Lear.</span>&mdash;Edited by D. Nichol Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3 class="books"><em>Introduction to Shakespeare.</em></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">Hiram Corson</span>, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in
+Cornell University. Cloth. 400 pages. Introduction price, $1.00.</p></div>
+
+<p>This work indicates some lines of Shakespearean thought which
+serve to introduce to the study of the plays as plays. The introductory
+chapter is followed by chapters on: The Shakespeare-Bacon
+controversy,&mdash;The Authenticity of the First Folio,&mdash;The Chronology
+of the Plays,&mdash;Shakespeare's Verse,&mdash;The Latin and Anglo-Saxon
+Elements of Shakespeare's English. The larger portion of
+the book is devoted to commentaries and critical chapters upon
+Romeo and Juliet, King John, Much Ado about Nothing, Hamlet,
+Macbeth, and Anthony and Cleopatra. These aim to present the
+points of view demanded for a proper appreciation of Shakespeare's
+general attitude toward things, and his resultant dramatic art, rather
+than the textual study of the plays.</p>
+<h3 class="books"><em>Introduction to Browning.</em></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">Hiram Corson</span>, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in
+Cornell University. Cloth. 348 pages. Introduction price, $1.00.</p></div>
+
+<p>This volume affords aid and guidance to the study of Robert
+Browning's poetry, which, being the most complexly subjective
+of all English poetry, is, for that reason alone, the most difficult.
+The exposition presented in the Introduction, of the constitution and
+skillful management of the dramatic monologue and the Arguments
+given to the several poems included in this volume, will, it is hoped,
+reduce, if not altogether remove, the difficulties of this kind. In the
+same section of the Introduction certain peculiarities of the poet's
+diction are presented and illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>The following is the Table of Contents:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><small>I. The Spiritual Ebb and Flow exhibited in English Poetry from Chaucer
+to Tennyson and Browning. II. The Idea of Personality and of Art, as an
+intermediate agency of Personality, as embodied in Browning's Poetry. (Read
+before the Browning Society of London in 1882.) III. Browning's Obscurity.
+IV. Browning's Verse. V. Arguments of the Poems. VI. Poems. (Under
+this head are thirty-three representative poems, the Arguments of which are
+given in the preceding section.)</small></p></div>
+
+<h3 class="books">A Source Book of Greek History</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">Frederick Morrow Fling</span>, Professor of Ancient History, University of
+Nebraska. Cloth. xiv + 370 pages. Illustrated. Introduction price, $1.00.</p></div>
+
+<p>This book serves several purposes. It (1) supplies illustrative
+material, drawn from the best Greek sources, that may be used to
+supplement the school narrative; (2) by means of searching questions,
+it furnishes opportunity for more intensive study of certain periods;
+(3) by supplying data upon the writer of source, and at times, more
+than one source upon the same topic, it makes possible the study of
+simple problems in the value of evidence; (4) extracts are of sufficient
+length so that the pupil may be given some idea of Greek literature, as
+far as that is possible through the use of translations; (5) the illustrations
+not only supplement the written sources on the life of the Greeks,
+but have been selected with a view to impressing upon the minds of
+students the great value of the artistic work of the Greeks.</p>
+
+<h3 class="books">A Source Book of Roman History</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">Dana C. Munro</span>, University of Wisconsin. Cloth. Illustrated, x + 258
+pages. Introduction price, $1.00.</p></div>
+
+<p>The series of extracts from original sources contained in this book
+cover the following topics: Sources and credibility of early Roman
+history; religion; the army; monarchical institutions; the constitution
+of the republic; early laws and history; the conquest of the Mediterranean;
+the Punic wars; results of foreign wars; misrule of the optimates;
+the last century of the republic; the early empire; Christianity
+and Stoicism; Roman life and society&mdash;slavery, education, manners,
+customs, amusements; provinces and provincial administration, etc.
+References to supplementary sources are prefixed to each chapter.</p>
+
+<h3 class="books">A Day in Ancient Rome</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">A revision of Lohr's <em>Aus dem alten Rom</em>, by <span class="smcap">Edgar S. Shumway</span>, recently
+Professor of Latin in Rutgers College. Cloth. 96 pages. Fifty-nine illustrations
+(seventeen full page). Retail price, 75 cents. Paper, 30 cents.</p></div>
+
+<p>This attractive little book gives a picture of the famous old city as
+compared with the new. Availing himself of the latest excavations
+and of recent photographs, the author pictures graphically persons
+and places of classic fame as though vividly present.</p>
+
+<h3 class="books">Studies in General History</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">(1000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> to 1880 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>) By <span class="smcap">Mary D. Sheldon</span>, formerly Professor of
+History in Wellesley College, and Assistant Professor in Leland Stanford Jr.
+University. Half leather, xvi + 556 pages. Introduction price, $1.60.</p></div>
+
+<p>This book gives a collection of historic material, which may be dealt
+with first-hand, as the pupil deals with the actual substance in chemistry,
+and with the living plant in botany. Work of this kind stimulates
+the student's historic sense and judgment. <em>It is especially adapted to
+help students and teachers who do not have access to large libraries;
+it contains within itself all that is absolutely necessary for the work
+required.</em> The material given consists of maps, pictures, lists of important
+events, men, works, and deeds, tables of political organizations, and
+extracts from original sources, including constitutions, creeds, laws,
+chronicles, and poems. It is accompanied by questions in the nature
+of problems, the answers to which must be worked out by the pupil
+himself from the given data. It is a book to be studied, not read.</p>
+
+<h3 class="books">Greek and Roman History</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">Or, <em>Studies in General History</em>, from 1000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> to 476 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> By <span class="smcap">Mary Sheldon
+Barnes</span>, formerly Professor of History in Wellesley College, and in Leland
+Stanford Jr. University. Cloth, xiii + 255 pages. Introduction price, $1.00.</p></div>
+
+<p>This book contains the portion of Sheldon's <em>Studies in General
+History</em> which relates to Greece and Rome, including a small
+amount of prefatory ancient history. This portion meets the needs of
+students preparing for college, of schools in which ancient history takes
+the place of general history, and of students who have used an ordinary
+manual and wish to make a spirited and helpful review.</p>
+
+<h3 class="books">Teacher's Manual to General History</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">Mary Sheldon Barnes</span>. Cloth. 172 pages. Retail price, 85 cents.</p></div>
+
+<p>The student's edition of the <em>Studies in General History</em> contains
+material and problems for independent study. The <em>Teacher's
+Manual</em> contains the answers to these problems, embodied in tabulations,
+and a running commentary of text, which will furnish suggestions
+for discussions and summaries.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3 class="books">Aids to the Teaching of General History</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">A pamphlet of 30 pages, by <span class="smcap">Mary Sheldon Barnes</span>. Retail price, 10 cents.
+Also bound with the <em>Teacher's Manual</em>.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3 class="books"><em>English Etymology.</em></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">A select glossary, serving as an introduction to the history of the English
+Language. By <span class="smcap">Friedrich Kluge</span>, Professor at the University of Freiburg,
+Germany, and author of <em>Etymologisches W&ouml;rterbuch der deutschen Sprache</em>,
+and <span class="smcap">Frederick Lutz</span>, Professor at Albion College, Mich. Cloth. 242 pages.
+Introduction price, 60 cents.</p></div>
+
+<p>The purpose of this work is to serve as an introduction to the study
+of the historical development of the English language. The scope
+of the book is sufficient to give the student an insight into the main linguistic
+phenomena. While the method of discussion is concise, care
+has been taken to include all words the history of which bears on the
+development of the language at large. The authors have, in the first
+place, traced back to the older periods loanwords of Scandinavian,
+French and Latin origin, and such genuine English words as may afford
+matter for investigation. In this way there has been provided a
+"basis for every historical grammar of English."</p>
+
+<h3 class="books"><em>A History of English Critical Terms.</em></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noi">By <span class="smcap">J. W. Bray</span>. Cloth. 352 pages. Retail price, $1.00.</p></div>
+
+<p>In literary criticism, and in the discussion of art, there are more than
+a hundred important terms whose history determines their present
+use and meaning. There are also several hundred others terms
+occasionally used in explaining the larger terms or their synonyms.
+All these terms are here arranged in alphabetical order. The history
+of the more important terms is presented in full. Under each is
+given: (1) Its grouping (by synonyms). (2) The historical limits
+of its use. (3) A brief statement of its meanings. (4) An explanation
+of its changes of meaning. (5) Representative quotations.</p>
+
+<p>About one hundred and fifty critics are represented in the quotations,
+the work thus covering the entire field of English criticism.</p>
+
+<p>The vocabulary of criticism is preceded by an Introduction, which
+gives a philosophical discussion of critical terms under three heads:
+(1) What is a Critical term? (2) General Historical Movements
+and Tendencies in Critical Terms. (3) Method of Dealing with the
+Separate Critical Terms.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><strong>The Outlook</strong>, <em>New York</em>: The book
+is not simply a collection of information;
+it is both a contribution to the history of
+criticism and a text-book for its study.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>English Literature</h3>
+
+<hr class="hr3" />
+
+<div class="block2">
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>The Arden Shakespeare.</strong> The plays in their literary aspect, each with introduction, interpretative notes, glossary, and essay on metre. 25 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Bronson's History of American Literature.</strong> 384 pages. 80 cents.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Burke's American Orations.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) Five complete selections. 50 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Burns's Select Poems.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) 118 poems chronologically arranged, with introduction,
+notes, and glossary. Illustrated. 75 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Coleridge's Principles of Criticism.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) From the <em>Biographia Literaria</em>.
+With portrait. 60 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Cook's Judith.</strong> With introduction, translation, and glossary. Cloth. 170 pages. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Cook's The Bible and English Prose Style.</strong> 40 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Corson's Introduction to Browning.</strong> A guide to the study of Browning's poetry. Also
+has 33 poems with notes. With portrait of Browning. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Corson's Introduction to the Study of Shakespeare.</strong> A critical study of Shakespeare's
+art, with comments on nine plays. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Crawshaw's The Making Of English Literature.</strong> An interpretative and historical guide
+for students. Map and illustrations. 484 pages. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Davidson's Prolegomena to Tennyson's In Memoriam.</strong> A critical analysis, with an index
+of the poem. 50 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>De Quincey's Confessions of an Opium Eater.</strong> (<span class="smcap">G. A. Wauchope.</span>) 50 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Hall's Beowulf.</strong> A metrical translation. 75 cts. Student's edition, 30 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Hawthorne and Lemmon's American Literature.</strong> Contains sketches, characterizations,
+and selections. Illustrated with portraits. $1.12.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Hodgkin's Nineteenth Century Authors.</strong> Gives aids for library study of 26 authors.
+Price, 5 cts. each, or $3.00 per hundred. Complete in cloth. 60 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Howes's Primer of English Literature.</strong> Illustrated. 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Meiklejohn's History of English Language and Literature.</strong> Revised. 60 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Milton's Select Poems.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. P. Walker.</span>) Illustrated. 488 pages. 50 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Moulton's Four Years of Novel-Reading.</strong> A reader's guide. 50 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Moulton's Literary Study of the Bible.</strong> An account of the leading forms of literature
+represented, without reference to theological matters. $2.00.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Plumptre's Translation of Aeschylus.</strong> With biography and appendix. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Plumptre's Translation of Dante.</strong> Five vols. Illustrated. Student's edition, 50 cts. per
+vol. Library edition, $4.00 per set.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Plumptre's Translation of Sophocles.</strong> With biography and appendix. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Shelley's Prometheus Unbound.</strong> (<span class="smcap">Vida D. Scudder.</span>) 60 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Simonds's Introduction to the Study of English Fiction.</strong> With illustrative selections.
+80 cts. <em>Briefer edition</em>, without illustrative selections. Boards. 30 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Simonds's Sir Thomas Wyatt and His Poems.</strong> With critical analysis. 50 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Webster's Speeches.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) Nine select speeches with notes. 75 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Whitcomb's The Study of a Novel.</strong> 251 pages. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Wordsworth's Prefaces and Essays on Poetry.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) 50 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Wordsworth's Prelude.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) Annotated. 75 cts.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><strong>Selections from Wordsworth.</strong> (<span class="smcap">A. J. George.</span>) 168 poems chosen with a view to illustrate
+the growth of the poet's mind and art. 75 cts.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><em>See also our list of books in Higher English and English Classics.</em></p>
+
+<h4>D. C. HEATH &amp; CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago</h4>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Writing of the Short Story, by 
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,2107 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Writing of the Short Story, by 
+Lewis Worthington Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Writing of the Short Story
+
+Author: Lewis Worthington Smith
+
+Release Date: November 10, 2008 [EBook #27224]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jacqueline Jeremy and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    THE WRITING OF THE
+    SHORT STORY
+
+    BY
+
+    LEWIS WORTHINGTON SMITH, A.M.
+
+    DRAKE UNIVERSITY, DES MOINES, IOWA
+
+    D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS
+    BOSTON  NEW YORK  CHICAGO
+
+
+    COPYRIGHT, 1902,
+    BY D. C. HEATH & CO.
+
+
+
+
+    IT IS A PLEASURE TO BE PERMITTED TO ASSOCIATE
+     WITH THIS LITTLE BOOK THE NAME OF MY FRIEND
+               PROFESSOR L. A. SHERMAN
+            OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA.
+
+
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS
+
+
+In the author's classes the three stories in the volume entitled "Three
+Hundred Dollars" are first studied because of their simplicity, and
+these are followed by parts of "The Bonnie Brier Bush," and then by the
+stories from Bret Harte. Mrs. Phelps Ward's "Loveliness" is especially
+valuable for illustrating methods and devices for making a simple theme
+dramatically interesting. Students are required to mark stories with the
+symbols and discuss them with reference to the principles of which this
+little book is an exposition, but no recitation on the book itself is
+required. Perhaps one-third of the time in the class-room is spent in
+discussion of the short themes written by the class, and when convenient
+these are placed on the board before the class for that purpose. In the
+theme work following the suggested subjects the effort is made to
+confine instruction and practice to one thing at a time, but at the
+conclusion of the work of the term each member of the class is required
+to hand in a complete original story.
+
+
+
+
+THE WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY
+
+NARRATIVE FORMS
+
+
+=1. Elements of the Story.=--This little volume is meant to be a
+discussion of but one of the various forms that literature takes, and it
+will be first in order to see what are the elements that go to the
+making of a narrative having literary quality. A story may be true or
+false, but we shall here be concerned primarily with fiction, and with
+fiction of no great length. In writing of this sort the first essential
+is that something shall happen; a story without a succession of
+incidents of some kind is inconceivable. We may then settle upon
+_incident_ as a first element. As a mere matter of possibility a story
+may be written without any interest other than that of incident, but a
+story dealing with men will not have much interest for thoughtful
+readers unless it also includes some showing of _character_. Further, as
+the lives of all men and women are more or less conditioned by their
+surroundings and circumstance, any story will require more or less
+_description_. Incidents are of but little moment, character showing may
+have but slight interest, description is purposeless, unless the
+happenings of the story develop in the characters _feelings_ toward
+which we assume some attitude of sympathy or opposition. Including this
+fourth element of the story, we shall then have _incident_,
+_description_, _character_, _mood_, as the first elements of the
+narrative form.
+
+=2. A Succession of Incidents Required.=--A series of unconnected
+happenings may be interesting merely from the unexpectedness--or the
+hurry and movement of the events, but ordinarily a story gains greatly
+in its appeal to the reader through having its separate incidents
+developed in some sort of organic unity. The handling of incidents for a
+definite effect gives what we call plot. A plot should work steadily
+forward to the end or denouement, and should yet conceal that end in
+order that interest may be maintained to the close. Evidently a writer
+who from the first has in mind the outcome of his story will subordinate
+the separate incidents to that main purpose and so in that controlling
+motive give unity to the whole plot. Further, the interest in the plot
+will be put on a higher plane, if in the transition from incident to
+incident there is seen, not chance simply, but some relation of cause
+and effect. When the unfolding of the plot is thus orderly in its
+development, the reader feels his kindling interest going forward to the
+outcome with a keener relish because of the quickening of thought, as
+well as of emotion, in piecing together the details that arouse a glow
+of satisfaction.
+
+=3. The Character Interest.=--We can hardly have any vital interest in a
+story apart from an interest in the characters. It is because things
+happen to them, because we are glad of their good fortune or
+apprehensive of evil for them, that the incidents in their succession
+gain importance in our emotions. We are concerned with things that
+affect our lives, and secondarily with things that affect the lives of
+others, since what touches the fortunes of others is but a part of that
+complex web of destiny and environment in which our own lives are
+enmeshed. In the story it is not so true as in the drama that, for the
+going out of our sympathies toward the hero or the heroine, there should
+be other contrasting characters; but a story gains color and movement
+from having a variety of individualities. Especially if the story is one
+of action, definite sympathies are heightened when they are accompanied
+by emotional antagonisms. In "The Master of Ballantrae," we come to take
+sides with Henry Durrie almost wholly through having found his rival,
+the Master, so black a monster. Such establishment of a common bond of
+interest between us and the character with whom our sympathies are to be
+engaged is a most effective means of holding us to a personal
+involvement in the development of the plot. There must not be too many
+characters shown, the relations between them must not be too various or
+too complexly conflicting, but where the interplay of feeling and
+clashing motives is not too hard to grasp, a variety of characters gives
+life and warmth of human interest to a story.
+
+=4. Uses of Description.=--Inasmuch as there are other interests in our
+lives than those which are established by our relations with our
+fellows, interests connected with the material world about us, any
+narrative will probably have occasion to include some description. It
+may be necessary merely as an aid to our understanding of some of the
+details upon which the plot turns, it may help us to realize the
+personalities of the characters, and it is often useful in creating
+background and atmosphere, giving us some of the feelings of those with
+whom the story deals as they look upon the beauty, or the gray dullness,
+of the changing panorama of their lives. Stevenson's description of the
+"old sea-dog" in "Treasure Island" is an excellent illustration of the
+effectiveness of a few lines of description in making us know something
+very definite in the man.
+
+    "I remember him as if it were yesterday, as he came plodding to
+    the inn door, his sea-chest following behind him in a
+    handbarrow, a tall, strong, heavy, nut-brown man; his hands
+    ragged and scarred, with black, broken nails, and the saber cut
+    across one cheek, a lurid white."
+
+=5.= Rossetti in "The Bride's Prelude," a story in verse, after merely
+glancing at the opening of the tale, devotes eight stanzas to
+description introduced for the purpose of background and atmosphere. Two
+of them are given here.
+
+    "Within the window's heaped recess
+       The light was counterchanged
+     In blent reflexes manifold
+     From perfume caskets of wrought gold
+     And gems the bride's hair could not hold
+
+    "All thrust together: and with these
+       A slim-curved lute, which now,
+     At Amelotte's sudden passing there,
+     Was swept in some wise unaware,
+     And shook to music the close air."
+
+This helps us to enter into the life and spirit of the time and place,
+to conceive imaginatively the likings, the desires, the passions, the
+purposes, and the powers that shall be potent in the story.
+
+=6. Kinds of Description.=--Description is primarily of two kinds, that
+which is to give accurate information, and that which is to produce a
+definite impression not necessarily involving exactness of imagery. The
+first of these forms is useful simply in the way of explanation, serving
+the first purpose indicated in paragraph four. The second is useful for
+other purposes than that of exposition, often appealing incidentally to
+our sense of the beautiful, and requiring always nice literary skill in
+its management. It should be borne in mind always that literary
+description must not usurp the office of representations of the material
+in the plastic arts. It should not be employed as an end in itself, but
+only as subsidiary to other ends.
+
+=7. Various Moods as Incidents.=--The moods in the characters of a story
+and their changes are connected with the incidents of the story, since
+they are in part happenings, and with the characters, since they reveal
+character. Apart from direct statement of them, we understand the moods
+of the actors in the little drama which we are made to imagine is being
+played before us from the things they say, from the things they do, and
+from gestures, attitudes, movements, which the author visualizes for us.
+If these moods are not made clear to us or we cannot see that they are
+natural, definite reactions from previous happenings in accord with
+character, we do not have a sense of organic unity in the narrative. We
+become confused in trying to establish the dependence of incident and
+feeling upon something preceding, and our interest flags. Everything
+that happens in a well-told story gives us feelings which we look to
+find in those whom the happenings affect in the tale, feelings which
+should call forth some sort of responsive action for our satisfaction.
+Clearly, if the characters are cold, if we cannot find in them moods of
+the kind and intensity that to us seem warranted, the story will be a
+disappointment.
+
+
+
+
+LITERARY DIVISIONS AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES
+
+
+=8. The Conceptual and Emotional.=--Theoretically all writing is divided
+easily into two classes, conceptual and emotional, the literature of
+thought and the literature of feeling. In the actual attempt to classify
+written composition on this basis, however, no sharp distinction can be
+maintained. Even matters of fact, certainly such matters of fact as we
+care to write about, are of more or less moment to us; we cannot deal
+with them in a wholly unemotional way. In our daily lives we are
+continually reaching conclusions that differ from the conclusions
+reached by others about the same matters of fact, and are trying to make
+these matters of fact have the same value for others that they have for
+us. This is true of our business life as well as of our social and home
+life. It always will be so. It is doubtless true that if our knowledge
+of matters of fact embraced a knowledge of the universe, and if the
+experience of each of us were just like that of his fellow and included
+all possible experience, we might reach identical conclusions. This is
+not true and never can be true. It is in effect true of a small portion
+of the things about which we think,--the addition of one to two makes
+three for every one,--but outside of these things, writing need not be
+and seldom is purely conceptual.
+
+=9. Subject-matter.=--Various as are the things about which we write and
+manifold as are our interests in them, they may be classified for our
+purposes under four heads: Matters of Fact, Experience, Beauty, Truth.
+Again, we shall find difficulty in separating each of these from each of
+the others. Some of our experiences have certainly been revelations of
+matters of fact; without our experiences, we should hardly have acquired
+any real sense of the beautiful; save for them we could not have known
+anything of truth. No accurate definition of these things carefully
+distinguishing between them can be attempted here. It may be assumed
+that what is meant by matters of fact will be understood without
+definition. As we read the story in great measure for the purpose of
+enlarging our experience, this part of our possible literary material is
+worth considering further. In the child we are able to detect very early
+a growing curiosity. That curiosity does not disappear when the child
+has grown from boy to man; he is still asking questions of the universe,
+still trying to piece the fragments of his knowledge into a law-ordered
+and will-ordered whole. What he knows has been the product of
+experience, what he may yet know further must be the product of
+experience. This experience may not all be personal, but even that which
+he gets at second hand is so far useful in helping him toward that
+understanding of the universe for which he hopes. He never will reach
+that understanding, all his experience will make but a fraction of
+things to be known matters of fact to him; and yet a deathless interest
+in the scarcely recognized belief that the facts and forces of which he
+has known have some unifying principle makes his emotions quicken at
+every new experience that may have possible significance.
+
+=10. Appeal of Experience, Beauty, and Truth.=--It will be evident,
+then, that experience which somehow makes the impression of superior
+importance may be presented inorganically and yet gain an interested
+hearing. The method of creating this impression, whether through the
+appearance of conviction in the writer or by various literary devices,
+need not detain us here. We shall be concerned merely with noting that
+the possible relation of the particular to the general, of this
+experience to the whole of experience, makes it a thing of moment. In
+just what way experience develops in us the sense of the beautiful, just
+what it is in anything that makes us distinguish beauty in it, cannot
+now be determined. It will be enough for us to know that literature
+makes a large appeal to a sense of the beautiful in us, a sense not
+fortuitous and irrational, though varying, but normal and almost
+universal, dependent upon natural laws of development. Truth is also
+difficult of definition, but we may understand that when out of
+experience, as through a process of reasoning, we have reached a
+conclusion that is something more than a matter of fact, a conclusion
+touching our emotions and having vital spiritual interest to us, the
+experience, whether our own directly or at second hand, has brought us
+to a truth. Truth is, perhaps, that matter of fact of universal
+intelligence that transcends the matter of fact of the finite mind.
+
+=11. Literary Principles and Qualities.=--There are some fundamental
+principles of literary presentation which we may briefly review here.
+All our study of science, and in a less obvious fashion, of all the
+physical, social, and artistic world about us, is more or less an
+attempt to classify, simplify, and unify facts whose relations we do not
+see at a glance. We must observe and learn the facts first, but they
+will be of no great utility to us as unrelated items of knowledge. The
+need of establishing some sort of law and order in our understanding of
+the mass of phenomena of which we must take cognizance is so insistent
+that we early acquire the habit of attempting to hold in mind any new
+fact through its relation to some other fact or facts. In other words,
+we can retain the knowledge we acquire only by making one fact do duty
+for a great many other facts included in it. Our writing must not
+violate what is at once a necessity and a pleasure of the mind. Unity,
+simplicity, coherence, harmony, or congruity, must all be sought as
+essential qualities of any writing. We must also indicate our sense of
+the relative values of the things with which we deal by a proper
+selection of details for presentation, a careful subordination of the
+less important to the more important through the proportion of space and
+attention given to each, and through other devices for securing
+emphasis. Let us keep in mind value, selection, subordination,
+proportion, emphasis, as a second group of terms for principles involved
+in writing. We may also wish to give our subject further elements of
+appeal through what may be suggested beyond the telling, through the
+melody and rhythm of the words, or through a quickening of the sense of
+the beautiful. Suggestion, melody, rhythm, beauty, are to be included,
+then, in a third group of qualities that may contribute to the
+effectiveness of what we write.
+
+=12. Conceptual Writing.=--Of the literary qualities that have just been
+discussed, only the first group is perhaps essential to what has been
+designated as conceptual writing. Here we may place expository writing
+on subjects wholly matter of fact, mathematical discussions, scientific
+treatises largely, though not necessarily, and other writing of like
+character. As unity is the quality of importance here, we may well
+consider the units of discourse. Our first unit is that of the whole
+composition, the second that of the paragraph, and the third that of the
+sentence. Which of these is the prime unit, as the dollar is the prime
+unit of our medium of exchange, may not be evident at once; but if we
+examine the writing of clear thinkers carefully, without attempting to
+settle the matter in any doctrinaire fashion, we shall find that the
+paragraph, and not the sentence, is the more unified whole. I turn to
+Cardinal Newman, and in the middle of a paragraph find the sentence,
+"This should be carefully observed," a sentence meaningless when taken
+from the context. As a part of the paragraph it has a function, but it
+is certainly as a unit of detail and not as a prime unit. A writer like
+Carlyle makes these lesser units more important, but they are still
+subordinate to their use in the paragraph. In all our writing we shall
+do much for the unity, simplicity, and coherence of our work by seeing
+to it that our paragraphs are properly arranged and that each fulfills
+this function of a prime unit in the composition.
+
+=13. The Sense of Value.=--When, in addition to statement of mere
+matters of fact, an author wishes to impress his readers with his own
+sense of the importance and the value of what he has to say, or of some
+special phase of his subject, he will employ the principles of the
+second group spoken of in a preceding paragraph. They cannot be ignored,
+indeed, in explanation of the simplest matters of fact, but a writer who
+means to convince and persuade will make more use of them. His
+personality will express itself in the selection of details and in the
+emphasis he places upon one detail or another. Among the literary forms
+which, besides being conceptual, are also concerned with persuasion, we
+find the oration, the essay, a great deal of business correspondence,
+and much of what we read in magazines and newspapers.
+
+=14. Writing having Artistic Quality.=--When in addition to expressing
+matters of fact or truth, appealing perhaps to experience, we wish to
+arouse some sense of the beautiful and the artistic, we shall give our
+writing some or all of the qualities of the third group. Evidently,
+writing of this sort is in many respects the most difficult, since the
+writer must have regard for unity and the related principles, as well as
+for the qualities which peculiarly distinguish it. Experience, beauty,
+and truth are all available as subject-matter, and all the principles
+governing literary composition are concerned. Here we shall find the
+poem, the drama, the oration in some of its forms, most essays of the
+better sort, the greater part of good critical writing, literary
+description, and all narrative forms except the matter-of-fact
+historical writing of unliterary scholars.
+
+=15. Two Things Requisite in Writing.=--It is to be borne in mind that
+the foregoing classifications are by no means absolute. Gardiner in his
+"Forms of Prose Literature" says very truly that the "essential
+elements, not only of literature, but of all the fine arts, are: first,
+an organic unity of conception; and second, the pervasive personality of
+the artist." It is true that much of our writing does not aspire to
+literary character, but in very little of our writing of any sort can we
+afford to neglect the first of these elements, and in very little of it
+do we care to leave the second out of account. Even in exposition of the
+simpler sort we may give to our writing the distinction of a more
+luminous style and the stronger appeal of a warmer personal interest, if
+we shape it into organic unity and make evident in it "the pervasive
+personality of the artist."
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY IN PARTICULAR
+
+
+=16. The Art of the Story.=--However abstract the thinking of civilized
+man may become, "all our intelligence," to quote Ladd's "Outlines of
+Physiological Psychology," "is intelligence about something or other,
+... resting on a basis of sensations and volitions." Difficult as it is
+and difficult as are the problems involved in its construction, the
+story is from some points of view the most elementary of literary forms.
+It is concerned directly with matters of sensation and volition. If it
+is to play upon our emotions, it must revive sensations and volitions,
+make us in some degree part of the action. Experience is at once its
+warp and woof, but while it gives us new experiences, it must, in
+connection with them, revive old ones and so become tangible and real
+for us.
+
+Of the memories that have come to us through the senses of sight,
+hearing, touch, smell, and taste, those that are visual are probably the
+most clearly defined and persistent for most people. The sensation of
+hearing doubtless comes next, and then those of touch, smell, and taste.
+A name will suffice to make us see the face of an absent friend; a few
+words, or the sight of a music roll, is enough to make us hear a
+favorite melody; a line or two on a printed page brings back to us the
+scent of the hayfield or the heavy odor of hyacinths in a conservatory.
+We must remember, too, that this may be in each case, not simply a
+bringing back of the idea of the things, but a reviving of the
+sensations themselves. The seat of sensation is after all the brain.
+Originally we experience sensation through some excitation of the end
+organs of sense, the ear, the nerves of touch, the retina; but these
+sensations become associated with verbal images in the mind, and finally
+the excitation of the verbal images results also in the revival of the
+original sensation. There is perhaps no one of us who has not seen
+wholly imaginary moving shadows or flashing lights in the dark. Such
+cases are not good illustrations of the point, possibly, but most of us
+can at will hear a connected succession of notes with which we have
+familiarized ourselves. In my own recent experience there occurred a
+very clear and wholly unexpected subjective sense of smell when reading
+of an experiment with frogs which recalled the distinctive odor of slimy
+water. Mr. James Sully, in "Illusions," says, "Stories are told of
+portrait painters who could summon visual images of their sitters with a
+vividness equal to that of reality, and serving all the purposes of
+their art." The same writer says again, and this is peculiarly
+significant, that "the physiologist Gruithuisen had a dream in which the
+principal feature was a violet flame, and which left behind it, _after
+waking_ for an appreciable duration, a complementary image of a yellow
+spot." Here a purely subjective impression had been reproduced in the
+nerves of sense.
+
+=17. The Place of Sensation in Writing.=--The thing that it seems
+important to dwell upon here is that subjective sensations do go out
+from the brain and stimulate in a very real fashion the sensations that
+are naturally excited by external stimuli localizing themselves in the
+end organs of sense. As these sensations, while not the all of emotion,
+are largely involved in emotion as its more poignant element, and as
+emotion is a first requisite in the appeal of a story, it is evident
+that the writer of stories will do well to acquire the art of reviving
+sensations. Further, as in the quickening of sensations our ideas
+become more tangible and real, writers who employ other literary forms
+will find that their style gains clarity and distinction by a like
+appeal to sensation when possible. Just how successful story-writers
+make appeal to sensation, revive experience, give new experience, and
+touch the sense of the beautiful is to be taken up more definitely in
+the following pages. We can understand, of course, that subjective
+sensations are not as strong as those which we experience directly, but
+on the other hand they may be more varied, they may crowd in upon us
+more rapidly, they may be more congruously chosen for a definite effect
+than in our actual life. The total effect may then be no less
+pronounced. In discovering how this is brought about we shall find the
+art of the short story.
+
+
+
+
+SPECIAL STUDY OF THE STORY
+
+
+=18. Symbols for Visualization.=--On analyzing a story for the purpose
+of discovering the elements of which it is composed, and the kind and
+degree of appeal which they have for us, we shall find it convenient to
+employ a few symbols for the purpose of labeling our findings for
+discussion in the class room. Some of the directions which we make will
+be based upon differences in the way in which the things presented are
+effective in our minds, others upon differences in the things presented,
+themselves. First we shall work with symbols of description and
+visualization, of which for convenience we may distinguish four sorts
+shading one into the other, not clearly defined, and yet worth
+discussing, that we may cultivate a sharper sense of qualities of
+effectiveness in visualization. For these four sorts of visualization we
+may employ the symbols, _V__1, _V__2, _V__3, _VB__3. For the first of
+these the symbol _V__1 is not very satisfactory, since we will employ it
+for simple description which presents rather the idea of the thing than
+a mental picture, but it will perhaps be simpler to use it than to use a
+symbol for the word description. Having in mind the idea of a thing, we
+may by mental effort, if the idea is defined with sufficient clearness,
+call up the image of the object. _V__2 is the symbol for a visualization
+through a suggestion which the mind, by reason of the interest kindled,
+fills out to something more than the mere idea, more or less definite
+imagery resulting. In the _V__3 form, we are, as it were, compelled to
+see the image without mental effort, so swiftly and surely do the verbal
+memory images reestablish old sensations or combine with old sensations
+to the formation of new. In the fourth form, we will add the _B_
+(Beauty) when the image which we see is such as to appeal pleasurably to
+the aesthetic sense. That there should be perfect agreement in the use of
+any one of these symbols in any particular case is, of course, not to be
+expected. Our individual experiences have been so different and the
+associations of sensation are so varied that the character and intensity
+of any visualization must differ in each individual. This, of course, is
+one of the things that complicate the problem of literary composition
+and make study of these things of particular importance.
+
+=19. Audition and Other Sensations.=--As the problem of audition is of
+less moment than that of visualization, we will make but the one
+distinction between such presentation of sound as calls up the idea of
+the sound only, _a__1 and such as produces in us the sense of the sound
+itself, _a__2, premising that any one who chooses may make the three
+divisions preceding.
+
+Appeals to the other senses as occurring less often, we may group
+together under the symbol _S_, using 1 with this, as with _a_, when it
+comes to us in the conceptual way, and 2 when it comes as an excitant of
+sensation.
+
+=20. Instances of Visualization.=--Before we go farther, it will be well
+to examine briefly an example or two of literary description.
+
+    "The rim of the sun was burning the hilltops, and already      _V__2
+    the vanguard of his strength stemming the morning mists,
+    when I and my companion first trod the dust of a small         _V__2
+    town which stood in our path. It still lay very hard and
+    white, however, and sharply edged to its girdle of olive       _V__1
+    and mulberry trees drenched in dew, a compactly folded
+    town well fortified by strong walls and many towers, with
+    the mist upon it and softly over it like a veil. For it        _V__2
+    lay well under the shade of the hills awaiting the sun's
+    coming. In the streets, though they were by no means           _V__1
+    asleep, but, contrariwise, busy with the traffic of men        _S__2
+    and pack mules, there was a shrewd bite as of night air;       _V__2
+    looking up we could perceive how faint the blue of the
+    sky was, and the cloud-flaw how rosy yet with the flush
+    of Aurora's beauty-sleep. Therefore we were glad to get
+    into the market place, filled with people and set around
+    with goodly brick buildings, and to feel the light and         _S__2
+    warmth steal about our limbs."
+
+               --MAURICE HEWLETT, "Earthwork out of Tuscany."
+
+Here we shall first use the symbol _V__2, because the image presented is
+one that appeals at once to experience, experience too that has not been
+dimmed by frequence. The instant when the _rim_ of the sun comes up
+bright and red is the instant when our expectation is most kindled
+toward the glory of the dawn and of the day which it foretokens. "The
+vanguard of his strength" in the next clause suggests the purely
+fanciful. This mixture of the concrete and the abstract does not go back
+to sensation, a thing worth noting and so the visualization is
+destroyed. The dependent clause brings up a new visualization, a _V__2,
+in the "dust of a small town." The second sentence is _V__1, until the
+close when it becomes _V__2 through the quickening of memories that have
+been emotional. The vagueness of a village hidden in the mist has
+appealed to our imagination in the assurance of a something unknown. The
+next sentence is _V__1, and so also is the next until in "the shrewd
+bite as of night air" we get an _S__2. The _V__2 of the faint blue of
+the sky is destroyed, as in the first sentence, by the merely
+intellectual playing of fancy in "Aurora's beauty-sleep." The next
+sentence gives us an _S__2 in the closing clause, for which the two
+preceding have been a preparation.
+
+    "Solemn and vast at all times, in spite of pettiness in the near
+    details, the impression becomes more solemn and vast towards
+    evening. The sun goes down, a swollen orange, as it were, into
+    the sea. A blue-clad peasant rides home, with a harrow smoking
+    behind him among the dry clods."
+
+In this from Robert Louis Stevenson the last sentence brings the
+description to a _V__3; the smoking harrow is suggestive of so much more
+than the cloud of dust that has not yet settled to the earth in the
+stillness of the approaching twilight when the work of the day is done.
+
+=21. Motor Effects of Visualization.=--There is another way in which
+things seen touch sensation. Look at a picture of the Laocoon for a
+moment. Fix your eyes upon the contortions of the limbs, see the agony
+of the face, note the fangs of the serpent ready to embed themselves in
+the flesh. While fastening these fearful details in your mind have you
+not felt some of the horror of it, and has not that feeling shown a
+tendency to innervate some of the muscles, has not your face shown some
+of the suffering which you have been studying, and have you not felt a
+tendency toward the muscular movements of one writhing in agony?
+Certainly, such motor impulses do result from certain kinds of
+visualization, and it need hardly be said that they are peculiarly
+effective in making us really alive with the emotion which inheres in
+the movement or the attitude which we see. If the gestures of a speaker
+are to be effective, they must seem natural to us; that is, they must be
+such as we would make if we were in that fashion attempting to express a
+similar emotion. Otherwise the motor suggestions of the words and the
+motor suggestion of the gestures may inhibit or neutralize each other,
+or at least produce a feeling of confusion. Halleck, in his "Education
+of the Central Nervous System," says, "All states of consciousness
+contain a motor element." When a visualization or an audition, as that
+of a sharp command, seems to have motor effects, we may add to the
+symbols of kind and degree of sensation the symbol _x_.
+
+=22. Inference in Literature.=--It was apparent in the visualization
+quoted from Stevenson that some of the impressions which we get from
+literature we get as inferences. Dust does not arise from a harrow so as
+to have the appearance of smoke on a windy day, and therefore we know
+that it is quiet. In the opening of a story some things must be
+explained directly, and for such explanatory matter, matter from which
+we infer nothing beyond the statement, we will employ the symbol _Exp._;
+but for other presentation of matters of fact we will employ the symbol
+_F__1. From facts as presented--and we will use the term in a
+comprehensive sense--we may or may not draw inferences, and we will
+distinguish facts from which no inference is drawn by the symbol _F__1,
+and those from which inference is drawn by the symbol _F__2. An
+inference may be preponderatingly intellectual or emotional; we may,
+when desirable, add the symbol _a_ for one and _b_ for the other. An
+inference we may call an "effect," and a fact as effect, whether the
+effect be emotional or conceptual, is clearly more potent in a literary
+way than a mere fact.
+
+=23. Effects of Incident and Mood.=--Allied to the fact as effect is the
+incident which makes us know something more than the happening itself.
+All incidents we may distinguish under the symbols _In__1, _In__2_a_,
+_In__2_b_, the secondary symbols having the significance as with _F_
+above. Mood effects are, in general, more important, and it will be
+worth while to distinguish three sorts, _m__1, an inference which we
+draw regarding the mood of the writer, _m__2, a like inference which
+becomes infectious, creating in us in some degree a like feeling, and
+_m__3, an "effect" enabling us to draw an inference regarding the mood
+of a character in the story. In addition to this we shall find direct
+statement of mood, but that we shall mark with some of the preceding
+symbols, generally _F__1, perhaps. We may understand further that the
+mood effects are of both kind and degree. When the showing of mood is
+such as to make us realize in it the intensity of strong emotion or
+passion, we may indicate the heightening of the feeling by the addition
+of the symbol _d_, using _k_ alone, or with _d_ to indicate that the
+character of the mood is shown.
+
+=24. Methods of Characterization.=--In our everyday life we are
+continually drawing inferences in regard to the characters of those
+about us, and we do the same thing in a story. Some writers tell us as
+clearly as they can the natures of the men and women they are revealing
+to us, while others leave that almost wholly for us to conjecture. We
+shall employ, then, two sets of symbols for character, one for direct
+statement of character, and one for character effects. The realization
+of character through direct statement may include presentation of
+motives, ideas, passions, will, special phases of development. It may
+come through report of the talk of others, or through statement of
+opinion generally entertained. _c__1 we will use for direct statement of
+character,--"John was a hard old miser,"--and we will add to this symbol
+the symbol _a_ to indicate that this is only so far potent with us as to
+make us know the writer's understanding of the character merely, _b_ to
+indicate that we recognize the writer's feeling for the character but do
+not share it, and _c_ to indicate that the writer's feeling for his
+character affects us sympathetically to a like feeling. Another group of
+symbols, _c__2, _c__3, and _c__4, we will use for character "effects,"
+for such knowledge of character as we gain by inference. _c__2 is a
+symbol for a general inference regarding a group of people or a
+community; _c__3 and _c__4 are symbols for inferences regarding the
+individual, _c__3 indicating the recognition of type or class qualities,
+_c__4, the recognition of more individual traits of character. The
+distinction here is merely one of matter of fact, a distinction not
+always to be made with sureness, since it is one of degree rather than
+altogether one of kind. When the way in which a man is good or cheerful
+or avaricious is differentiated for us from the way in which another man
+is good or cheerful or avaricious, he is so far individualized. Class
+characterization, _c__3, may be found along with individualization. The
+extreme accentuation of one or a few characteristics to the disregard of
+others gives the effect of individualization, but we shall understand
+this as in fact type characterization, since our natures are so complex
+that in almost no case can the conduct of any one be understood through
+knowledge of a few dominant traits of character. Individualization gives
+us intimacy of acquaintance; type or class characterization makes us see
+merely the striking, peculiar, or controlling expressions of
+personality. Guy Mannering in Scott's "Guy Mannering" is but a type of
+the conventional soldier. Tito Milema in George Eliot's "Romola"
+presents so many sides of a complex nature that we easily distinguish
+him from all other characters in fiction whatever.
+
+=25. The Subjective and Objective.=--Writers, in their methods of
+presentation, may be broadly divided into two classes, those who write
+subjectively and those who write objectively. A subjective writer is one
+whose own personality, point of view, feeling, is insistent in what he
+writes. An objective writer, on the other hand, is one who leaves the
+things of which he makes record to produce their own impression, the
+writer himself remaining an almost impassive spectator, telling the
+story with little or no comment. Chaucer, in the prologue to the
+"Canterbury Tales," betrays his personal feeling for his characters
+continually, and so is subjective. Shakespeare in his plays is
+objective, presenting all sorts of men and women without show of his own
+attitude toward them.
+
+=26. Interest of the Plot and its Purpose.=--We have seen that interest
+in incident is a first interest in the story. This interest, we must
+understand further, is not to be maintained by having things happen in a
+matter regulated only by chance or the exigencies of the author's
+invention at the moment. The unification of a story that results from
+the subordination of minor incidents to a final outcome is an essential
+necessity of the plot. The plot, indeed, is the arrangement of incidents
+with reference to the denouement. The development of the plot should be
+such as to indicate an end toward which the succession of incidents is
+tending, and yet such as to keep the reader in suspense with regard to
+the nature of that end. There must be novelty in the happenings, and yet
+the novelty must not be so great as to keep the reader confused or
+strain belief. The permanent hold upon us of a piece of fiction is
+enhanced if it embodies some central truth, illustrating the working out
+of some law of life, or involved in the personal attitude of the writer
+toward some problem of existence. Only dilettanteism and superficiality
+forget that an artist, giving the form of beauty to his conceptions, is
+trying to make them as significant to others as they are to him, and
+that aesthetic and ethical, or spiritual, significance are inextricably
+interwoven. It will, of course, be the care of the artist to see that
+any didactic purpose is not obtrusive.
+
+  _F_2b_     1. A tray of glasses was placed on the table with great
+             solemnity by the "wricht," who made no sign and invited
+             none. 2. You might have supposed that the circumstance
+ _F_2b_      had escaped the notice of the company, so abstracted and
+             unconscious was their manner, had it not been that two
+             graven images a minute later are standing by the table.
+
+  _m_3k_     3. "Ye 'ill taste, Tammas," with settled melancholy.
+
+  _m_3k_     4. "Na, na; I've nae incleenation the day; it's an awful
+  _F_2a_     dispensation, this, Jeems. 5. She wuld be barely saxty."
+
+  _m_3k_     6. "Ay, ay, but we maun keep up the body sae lang as we're
+             here, Tammas."
+
+  _c_2/c_4_  7. "Weel, puttin' it that way, a'm not sayin' but yir
+  _m__2      richt," yielding unwillingly to the force of circumstance.
+
+  _c_4/m_3_  8. "We're here the day and there the morn, Tammas. 9. She
+  _m__3      was a fine wumman--Mistress Stirton--a weel-livin' wumman:
+             this will be a blend, a'm thinkin'."
+
+  _c_4/m_3_  10. "She slippit aff sudden in the end; a'm judgin' it's
+  _m__3      frae the Muirtown grocer; but a body canna discreeminate
+             on a day like this."
+
+             11. It was George Howe's funeral that broke the custom and
+  _F_2b_     closed the "service." 12. When I came into the garden
+             where the neighbors were gathered, the "wricht" was
+  Exp.+_m_2_ removing his tray and not a glass had been touched. 13.
+             Then I guessed that Drumtochty had a sense of the fitness
+             of things and was stirred to its depths.
+
+             14. "Ye saw the wricht carry in his tray," said Drumsheigh
+             as he went home from the kirkyard.
+
+  _m_3d_     15. "Weel, yon's the last sicht o't ye' ill get or a'm no
+  _m_3k_     Drumsheigh. 16. I've nae objection masel' to a neighbor
+             tastin' at a funeral, a' the more if he's come from the
+             upper end o' the pairish, and ye ken I dinna hold wi' thae
+  _m_3d_     teetotal fouk. 17. A'm ower auld in the horn to change noo.
+  _m_3/F_2b_ 18. But there's times and seasons, as the Gude Buik says,
+             and it wud hae been an awfu' like business tae luik at a
+             gless in Marget's Garden, and puir Domsie standing in ahent
+             the brier bush as if he cud never lift his heid again."
+
+=27. Interpretative Application of the Symbols.=--A little discussion of
+the foregoing from a "A Scholar's Funeral" in the "Bonnie Brier Bush"
+may serve to make some of these things clearer. The fact that the
+"wricht" is silent here in the first sentence makes us know that this is
+the usual custom and that these people have an underlying sense of
+decorum. Sentence two has the same effect in their abstraction, and this
+is emphasized again in the "two graven images." The third sentence is a
+mood "effect" of kind, since we recognize the conventionally sobered
+feeling without the "settled melancholy." This is true again in sentence
+four, and in five we have a "fact as effect," drawing the inference that
+they are a long-lived race in Drumtochty. From the yielding to an
+invitation so framed as to put aside the semblance of yielding to
+inclination, we get a knowledge of character which seems to us
+individual, but which is used by the author to indicate a local
+community characteristic. The author's mood of amused observation is
+evident here, too, in his unbelieving acquiescence in Tammas's point of
+view. In sentences eight and nine we come to know Jeems in a more
+individual way, through the mingling in him of moods of conventional
+solemnity and everyday discussion. This is repeated in sentence ten. In
+sentence twelve we draw an emotional inference concerning the degree of
+their feeling from the fact that "not a glass had been touched." This is
+told in the explanatory way in thirteen with the addition of a
+suggestion of the author's sympathetic understanding and appreciation.
+Knowing Drumsheigh's reserve, from things that have gone before this in
+the story, we feel that only strong emotion could have called out
+sentence fifteen; and the apologetic tone of sixteen and seventeen
+indicates rather mood than such heightened feeling. Sentence eighteen
+returns to the mood of fifteen and sixteen, and through the fact of
+Domsie's standing "ahent the brier bush" reveals both Domsie's mood and
+Drumsheigh's own in our knowledge of its emotional appeal to him.
+
+=28. Different Forms of the Story.=--It is to be understood that certain
+types of the short story are not included in this study as not being
+available for detailed work. Stories in which the interest is almost
+wholly dependent upon the succession of incidents can profitably be
+studied only with relation to the plot. Generally in such cases the
+things that make the story effective will be readily apparent, and they
+can be brought out by a few questions. To give variety and interest to
+the work the teacher will occasionally find it desirable to call
+attention to stories in current periodicals, requiring the class to
+bring in analyses of them showing structure of the plot, methods of
+managing the reader's sympathies, fundamental motive of the story, the
+treatment of character and methods of presenting it, and such other
+things as seem most of moment in the story in question. When library
+facilities permit, it will be found worth while to make some comparison
+of the short story as it is now written in America with the short
+stories of fifty years ago and of the present day in England and France.
+No classification of stories is attempted here, since such
+classification is of no particular moment to the writer of stories.
+
+
+
+
+A FEW CAUTIONS
+
+
+=29.= The suggestions that follow are phrased to cover the matter of
+visualization, but they touch upon general principles which are of wider
+application. It has seemed more convenient at this point to give them
+this specific treatment.
+
+=30. Author's Purpose should be Concealed.=--An attempt to bring about a
+visualization or any other artistic effect in the mind of the reader is
+foredoomed to failure when in any way the writer's purpose too evidently
+betrays itself as such. Too much in the way of direct statement or
+predication is one indication of such purpose, and is therefore more or
+less ineffectual. For effective visualization some sort of preparation
+of the mood or sympathies of the reader is generally required. This,
+however, should be concealed, being accomplished through suggestion, as
+is the visualization itself.
+
+=31. Unity in Visualization.=--A visualization should be so managed as
+to bring the whole picture, or nearly all of it, into the mind at once.
+It is partly because it does not do this that the method by details is
+not generally effective. A string of incomplete images passing through
+the mind, each one taking the place of the preceding and effacing it, is
+not artistically satisfying. It is possible to retain such separate
+images and at the end bring them together in a complete picture, but
+this will require effort on the part of the reader; and it is
+fundamentally important in all writing to reduce the conscious attention
+and effort of the reader to the lowest point. Only extreme literary art
+can so nullify this effort in effect as to make description by detail
+pleasurable, if of any length. Description by detail is, perhaps, more
+admissible in writing having a meditative tone than in any other,
+except, of course, technical description.
+
+=32. Fine Writing.=--Fine writing is especially to be avoided in
+visualization, since the tone of artificiality is immediately
+destructive of the reader's confidence in the sincerity of the writer.
+It betrays the author's purpose of producing an effect. The appearance
+of truth free from any semblance of over-statement is a first requisite.
+
+=33.= In any visualization harmony of detail is of prime importance.
+Even in describing something actually seen it will sometimes be
+necessary to leave out items really present, but not of a kind to
+contribute to the general effect. The saying that "Truth is stranger
+than fiction" should read that fiction may not be as strange as truth.
+Harmony of mood is important, as well as harmony of detail, in the thing
+described. If the picture is a quiet one, exclamatory excitement on the
+part of the writer, however affecting the scene may be supposed to be,
+will prevent its becoming real to the reader. These things are, then, to
+be borne in mind with regard to the elements of a visualization: the
+details presented must be so far true to common knowledge and
+experience as to gain ready belief, they must have unity in fact and in
+effect, and they must also be sufficiently individual to appeal to the
+mind with something of the sense of novelty.
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCE TABLE OF SYMBOLS
+
+
+    Exp.   = Explanatory matter.
+
+    _F_1_  = Statement of fact from which no inference is drawn.
+
+    _F_2_  = Statement of fact from which an inference is drawn.
+
+    _F_2a_ = Statement of fact with inference mainly logical.
+
+    _F_2b_ = Statement of fact with inference mainly emotional.
+
+    _In._  = Statement of incident, secondary symbols as with _F_.
+
+    _As_1_ = Anticipatory suggestion, a foretelling of something to
+               happen, leaving the reader in doubt as to how it is to
+               be brought about.
+
+    _As_2_ = Anticipatory suggestion, a foreshowing of something
+               definite to happen, exciting the reader's curiosity to
+               know what it is and how it is to be brought about.
+
+    _As_3_ = Anticipatory suggestion, a foreshadowing of something
+               to be expected in the way of character development and
+               consequent happening.
+
+    _V_1_  = Description in which the mere idea of the thing
+               described is presented.
+
+    _V_2_  = A kindling hint by which the mind is enabled to piece
+               together a visualization of the object.
+
+    _V_3_  = Visualization of so vivid a kind as to possess the mind
+               completely. This becomes
+
+    _Vb_3_   when it pleasurably affects the sensibilities.
+
+    _A_1_  = Audition in the way of simple idea of the thing to be
+               heard.
+
+    _A_2_  = Audition as a reviving of the sense of sound.
+
+    _S_1_  = Sensation, the mere presentation of the idea of an
+               appeal to one of the other senses.
+
+    _S_2_  = Sensation, a subjective reviving of the sensation
+               itself.
+
+    _x_      used to indicate that a subjective excitation of some one
+               of the senses has motor effects, as in the shiver at the
+               thought of a file upon the teeth.
+
+    _m_1_  = Mood "effect," from which we learn the feeling of the
+               writer without experiencing it ourselves.
+
+    _m_2_  = Mood "effect" from which we sympathetically experience
+               the feeling of the writer.
+
+    _m_3_  = Mood "effect," a revelation of the feeling of a
+               character in the story.
+
+    _c_1_  = Direct statement of character.
+
+    _c_1a_ = Direct statement of character that does not reveal the
+               author's attitude toward the character.
+
+    _c_1b_ = Direct statement in which we are made aware of the
+               author's attitude toward the character, but are not
+               affected by it.
+
+    _c_1c_ = Direct statement of character sympathetically
+               influencing us to the author's attitude toward the
+               character.
+
+    _c_2_  = Character "effect," characterization of a group or
+               community of people.
+
+    _c_3_  = Character "effect," class or type characterization of
+               the individual.
+
+    _c_4_  = Character "effect" in the way of individualization.
+
+    _d_    = Degree, added to symbol for mood effect to indicate
+               intensity of the feeling.
+
+    _k_    = Kind, used to indicate that the inference concerns itself
+               with character and not intensity.
+
+    _/_    = A symbol employed (see section 26) to indicate that one
+               inference is drawn as an ultimate conclusion from
+               another more immediate inference.
+
+
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR DAILY THEMES
+
+
+Subjects for visualization and the reviving of other sensations.
+
+1. A sunset sky. 2. A group in the park. 3. A spring freshet. 4. The man
+at the threshing machine. 5. The city across the river: night. 6.
+Moonlight among the hills. 7. A city street. 8. The college campus. 9.
+Eleanor's rose garden. 10. The witch of Endor (1 Sam. xxviii: 6-25). 11.
+Mt. Pelee in eruption. 12. The woods at night. 13. David playing before
+Saul. 14. A ferny water course among the trees. 15. A bluebird in the
+orchard. 16. The violinist. 17. In time of apple blossoms. 18. The scent
+of new-mown hay. 19. Barbara at the piano. 20. The first watermelon. 21.
+Sailing with the wind. 22. Dawn in the mountains. 23. The wind among the
+pines. 24. The blacksmith and the forge.
+
+Subjects for presentation of mood.
+
+1. Uncle Dick hears the news. 2. Balboa catches sight of the Pacific. 3.
+Silas explains himself. 4. Napoleon looking back at Moscow. 5.
+Congressman Norris is refused the floor of the convention. 6. Johnnie is
+told that he may go to the circus. 7. Ethan Allen at Ticonderoga. 8.
+Bamba, king of an island in the south seas, sees the first ship of the
+white man. 9. Alfred meets a Hallowe'en obstacle.
+
+Subjects for visualization and presentation of facts as "effects."
+
+1. A deserted house. 2. In the second-hand store. 3. The railroad wreck.
+4. The beggar at the door. 5. Representative Dongan reads a letter from
+"The Corners." 6. A woman at the station. 7. Mrs. Humphrey's kitchen. 8.
+The trail of war.
+
+Subjects for character studies.
+
+1. The village oracle. 2. The landlord of the Lion Inn. 3. The old
+stage-driver. 4. The conductor. 5. An old-fashioned music-master. 6. A
+pirate captain. 7. A country beau. 8. Deacon Bradley. 9. The school
+bully. 10. The female suffragist. 11. One of the four hundred. 12. A
+disciple of Mrs. Eddy. 13. "The man with the hoe." 14. The scissors
+grinder. 15. Captain Doty of the police. 16. A candidate for office.
+
+
+
+
+THE COMPLETE STORY
+
+
+The invention of situations and plots can hardly be a matter of
+class-room instruction. If stories come to one, it is well. Study of the
+detailed means of making them living for the reader will then be worth
+while. The student should be encouraged to invent plots of his own, but
+as a simplification of this difficulty, to the end that some exercise in
+the writing of a complete story may be had, plots of some successful
+published stories are here given with suggestions regarding methods of
+treatment.
+
+
+I
+
+    Scene, a saloon where both men and women are drinking. One of
+    them, a girl, thinks she sees at the window the face of Christ
+    with his tender eyes. She leaves and will not permit the others
+    to go with her.
+
+    At a little distance she comes upon the stranger waiting for
+    her. He tells her that when she wakes it will be to a new life
+    and she will be his, bidding her go to a house he points out and
+    remain for the night. She obeys, and the man passes into the
+    shadow.
+
+    Introductory sentence in the original, giving the atmosphere of
+    the story: "This was the story the mystic told." Concluding
+    sentence in the original, connecting it with our sense of
+    unfathomable mysteries: "And this the listener gravely asked,
+    'One was chosen, the others left. Were the others less in need
+    of grace?'"
+
+    Divisions of the story. 1. Visualizing description of the saloon
+    and of the street outside through which the stranger passes.
+
+    2. Appearance of the face at the pane and its effect on the
+    young girl (_m_3_ "effect"). This is the difficult part of the
+    story, and the reader can be made to believe in it only through
+    sympathy with the girl's feeling.
+
+    3. The talk of her companions and her answers (_m_3_).
+
+    4. Her search for the stranger in the night (_m_3_).
+
+    5. His talk to her when she finds him.
+
+This story in the original contains a little less than two thousand
+words. It will be seen at once that unless handled in such fashion as to
+appeal vividly to the imagination, a story with this for its theme will
+seem weak and unreal. It must be made as suggestive as possible or it
+will fail. It preaches, but it must avoid the air of preaching. Consider
+carefully how you would present the stranger--whether first at the
+window or before--so as to affect the reader with a sense of something
+more than human in him.
+
+
+II
+
+    Scene of the story is the prairie desert of the West in time of
+    drouth. A party of men, including two who are not yet through
+    their work in an eastern college, are riding in search of water,
+    having had none for two days. Water is found, but shortly
+    afterwards one of the two young men is missing. The talk of the
+    others reveals the absent one's unselfishness and friendly
+    devotion to his chum. Soon he is seen riding up excitedly and
+    beckoning. The others follow him to a rough eminence, where he
+    stops and listens, imploring them to tell him whether they can
+    hear a voice calling. When they hear it too, he is assured that
+    he has not lost his reason from the thirst, and together they
+    begin a search which results in their discerning a cavern in the
+    side of an embankment where a man lies on a couch moaning for
+    water. As they try to enter, he warns them away with the cry of
+    "smallpox."
+
+    The story is told to a group of friends gathered together of an
+    evening, and the narrator draws from among his books a copy of
+    Shakespeare found in the cavern by one of the men, bearing on
+    its fly leaf, in addition to the owner's name, the word
+    _Brasenose_, the name of one of the colleges at Oxford. The
+    pathos of the story is in this last touch, an Oxford student
+    dying so loathsome a death in a strange and desert land, and
+    dying so heroically.
+
+    Divisions of the story. 1. Visualization of the desert and the
+    men. The scent of water. Drinking from the muddied stream.
+
+    2. One of the young men starts off alone in a delirium of pain
+    (_m_3_). He returns suffering from the fear that he has lost his
+    reason (_m_3_).
+
+    3. The discovery of the cave (_V_3_ and _F_2b_). The delirious
+    talk of the sick man. His sudden joy in the unexpected presence
+    of human beings (_V_3_ and _m_3_). His final "G'way! G'way!
+    Smallpox!"
+
+    4. The narrator of the story shows the copy of Shakespeare and
+    the inscription on the fly leaf.
+
+The story in the original contains about three thousand words. It is
+important that the suffering of the men be developed at some length in a
+convincing fashion. It serves as a preparation for the more terrible
+suffering of the one man who moans for water as he tears the foul
+smallpox sores. This should be presented in as visualizing a way as
+possible and with as full showing of mood as may be. The conclusion in
+division 4 must be altogether different in tone from the preceding.
+Narrator and listeners are in a world of ease and comfort, and their
+interest in the story is an interest in something pathetically remote.
+
+
+
+
+SITUATIONS TO BE DEVELOPED INTO PLOTS
+
+(Adapted from published stories not original)
+
+
+1. Rome in the early centuries after Christ. Three persons are involved,
+one man and two women, one of whom has just pledged troth to the man.
+The man and the other woman are devotees of a mystic faith, whose priest
+residing in a dark cavern in the hills calls now one, now another
+devotee to pass through the "void" to eternal fellowship with God.
+
+2. Oklahoma at the time of the opening of the strip for settlement. A
+man and his wife and two children come from Kansas to find land in the
+strip on the day of the run. They have failed in Kansas and are almost
+out of money. The husband, who is to make the run for the strip on
+horseback when the signal guns are fired, falls sick.
+
+3. A lumber camp. In addition to the men, a man and his wife who cook
+and take care of the camp, and a half-witted chore boy. The chore boy
+tries to take care of the men and keep them from drinking. A number of
+the men go off to a neighboring town for a spree, and the chore boy goes
+with them.
+
+4. Some place in the region of the mountain whites of the Carolinas and
+Tennessee. A beautiful girl with a tinge of negro blood that does not
+show in nature, intellectual endowment, or appearance. A mountain white
+to whom she is betrothed. A young man from the North visiting the family
+with whom she is staying is attracted by her. The contrast of the life
+of the mountain whites to which her betrothal if fulfilled dooms her,
+and that of the world of taste and culture which her nature demands.
+
+
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON "A DOCTOR OF THE OLD SCHOOL," FROM THE "BONNIE BRIER BUSH"
+
+
+I
+
+1. _a._ What has been accomplished in your sympathies by this? 2. _b._
+Has this been through direct statement of things calling for your
+sympathies, or through "effects"? _c._ Is the method cumulative and
+gradual, or direct and insistent? _d._ Would you say that the method
+here is objective or subjective? _e._ What symbols do you find that you
+have employed largely, and for what purpose have the devices for which
+two of these stand been employed? _f._ Would you say that the author
+puts much or little meaning into his words? Is the style diffuse and
+thin, or does it accomplish much with few words? Indicate a paragraph or
+page that justifies your conclusion and say how. _g._ Are the inferences
+which you are made to draw logical or emotional, and do they seem to you
+delicate and subtle or simple and direct? Indicate some of them in
+confirmation of your conclusion.
+
+
+II
+
+1. _a._ Do you see any change in the method of presenting MacLure here?
+_b._ How is it an advance in the development of the story or not? _c._
+Was Part I. preparation for this or not, and if so, how? _d._ Does this
+have a definite climax and denouement, and if so, where?
+
+
+III
+
+1. _a._ How does this make an advance upon the preceding in the
+revelation of MacLure? _b._ Does it in any way get nearer to elemental
+human feeling? _c._ Does it anywhere appeal directly to sensation? _d._
+Do you find in this any feeling for the mystery of existence? Does it
+seem to be an integral part of the story, coming from its essential
+emotion and free from obtrusive moralizing, or not? _e._ Is there any
+increase in intensity of feeling in this or not, and if so, how is it
+indicated in the symbols you have employed? _f._ Has MacLure now been
+presented to us with full showing of his distinguishing characteristics
+or not? and do we find in him a vital human nature?
+
+
+IV
+
+1. _a._ Do you think a death-bed scene a good subject for literary
+presentation or not? Why? _b._ Would you call it a difficult thing to
+present or not? _c._ Do you find anything objectionable here? _d._ Has
+the interest of the whole story depended upon incident or upon showing
+of character? _e._ Does this Part IV. serve in any particular way to
+round out our knowledge of MacLure, and if so, in what way? _f._ What is
+the especially appealing thing in the portrait of MacLure? And what in
+the fortune and circumstance of his life? _g._ Does this appeal touch in
+any fashion upon our sense of a something inscrutable governing our
+lives? _h._ Which of the different sorts of subject-matter (see section
+9) seem to you to be the more largely employed here? So far as it is
+concerned with experience, is it a reviving of what we have experienced
+or an addition to our knowledge of life? Is there in it a truth that you
+could formulate into a law of life, or is the truth so much a matter of
+emotion as merely to touch the sensibilities and so give us a wider
+vision?
+
+
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON "LOVELINESS," BY ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS-WARD
+
+(_Atlantic Monthly_, August, 1899)
+
+
+1. _a._ Do you detect in this story any purpose beyond that of
+recounting a series of happenings? If so, what? _b._ If you were to
+write the story, would you think it prospectively a difficult thing to
+arouse interest in a dog? _c._ Has that been done here or not? _d._ If
+so, what are some of the author's devices and how successfully employed?
+
+2. _a._ What is the artistic purpose of the first two paragraphs? Why
+does the author delay so long in telling us that she is writing of a
+dog? _b._ Does she let her own feeling for the girl and dog appear or
+not? If so, is it obtrusive or not? Effective or not, as your markings
+indicate? _c._ Are there any incidents in the story that a reader might
+for any reason be unwilling to accept? _d._ If so, how is the handling
+such as to disguise the difficulty or not, as the case may be?
+
+3. _a._ What devices are employed to make us interested in Adah? _b._
+Are we made to feel that her dependence upon the dog is natural and
+deserving of sympathy or not, and if so, how? _c._ Are the incidents so
+managed as to maintain interest in the expectation of the denouement or
+not? _d._ Does the story seem to have sufficient unity of purpose and
+plan or not?
+
+4. _a._ What symbols do you notice that you have employed most largely?
+_b._ Is the story written in the way of direct statement or of
+suggestion? _c._ For what frequent purpose would you say that the writer
+employs _F_2_? _M_3_? _M_2_? _d._ Can you say in what the art of the
+story especially consists? _e._ What would you probably have thought of
+the story were its art less delicate and sure?
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL OUTLINE QUESTIONS FOR STUDY OF STORIES IN CURRENT MAGAZINES,
+ETC.
+
+
+1. _a._ Upon what is the interest of the story especially dependent?
+_b._ Are the incidents presented rapidly and coherently, or slowly and
+disconnectedly? _c._ Is there a clearly defined plot or not? _d._ Does
+the plot have a climax of entanglement, or does it fail in developing
+this feature of the story interest?
+
+2. _a._ How is character presented? _b._ Are the characters well chosen
+for their reactions among themselves? _c._ Are the things they do and
+say continually consistent or not? _d._ Are they sufficiently
+individualized to escape the appearance of the conventional and to hold
+interest?
+
+3. _a._ Does the story state facts and happenings merely, or does it get
+hold of vital sensations and revive them? _b._ If so, in what ways does
+it seem to do that? _c._ In general does it seem to you subjective or
+objective in method?
+
+4. _a._ How much of the interest of the story is in the development of
+the plot and how much in the stirring of vital sensations, including
+sympathetic moods? _b._ Does the development of the story center about
+any idea or attitude toward life? _c._ What excellences and what faults
+do you find in the story?
+
+
+
+
+SOME STORIES AVAILABLE FOR STUDY
+
+
+"Five Hundred Dollars," "The Village Convict," and "Eli," all in a
+volume under the title of the first, Heman White Chaplin, Little, Brown
+& Co., $1.00.
+
+"Loveliness," Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward, _Atlantic Monthly_, August,
+1899.
+
+"The Flail of Time," Helen Choate Prince, _Atlantic Monthly_, August,
+1899.
+
+"A Christmas Carol," Dickens, Cassel's National Library, 10 cents.
+
+"Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush," Ian MacLaren, David C. Cook, Elgin and
+Chicago, paper, 5 cents.
+
+"The Luck of Roaring Camp," "Tennessee's Partner," Bret Harte, Houghton,
+Mifflin & Co., $1.00, _Overland Monthly_, September, 1902.
+
+"Bonaventure" (Chapters XVI-XVIII), George W. Cable, copyrighted, but
+obtainable in a cheap reprint.
+
+"The Game and the Nation," Owen Wister, _Harper's Monthly_, May, 1900.
+
+Nettleton's "Specimens of the Short Story," Henry Holt & Co., 50 cents.
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS THAT MAY PROFITABLY BE CONSULTED
+
+
+"Education of the Central Nervous System," R. P. Halleck, The Macmillan
+Co.
+
+"The Philosophy of the Short Story," Brander Matthews, Longmans, Green &
+Co.
+
+"The Short Story," Yale Studies in English, Henry Holt & Co.
+
+"Forms of Prose Literature," J. H. Gardiner, Chas. Scribner's Sons.
+
+"Working Principles of Rhetoric," J. F. Genung, Ginn & Co.
+
+"Outline of Psychology," E. B. Titchener, The Macmillan Co.
+
+"Short Story Writing," C. R. Barrett, Baker & Taylor Co., $ 1.00.
+
+Chapter XII, "A Study of Prose Fiction," Bliss Perry, Houghton, Mifflin
+& Co.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH LITERATURE.
+
+_The Arden Shakespeare._
+
+    The Greater Plays in their literary aspect. One play in each
+    volume, with Introduction, Notes, Essay on Metre, and Glossary.
+    Based on the Globe text. From 144 to 224 pages. Cloth. Price, 25
+    cents a volume.
+
+This edition presents the greater plays in their literary aspect, and
+not merely as material for the study of philology or grammar. Verbal and
+textual criticism has been included only so far as may serve to help the
+student in his appreciation of the poetry.
+
+Questions of date and literary history have been fully dealt with in
+the Introductions, but the larger space has been devoted to the
+interpretative rather than to the matter-of-fact order of scholarship.
+Aesthetic judgments are never final, but the editors have attempted to
+suggest points of view from which the analysis of dramatic motive and
+dramatic character may be profitably undertaken.
+
+In the Notes likewise, though it is hoped that unfamiliar expressions
+and allusions have been adequately explained, it has been thought more
+important to consider the dramatic value of each scene, and the part
+that it plays in relation to the whole.
+
+Each volume has a Glossary, an Essay upon Metre, and an Index.
+Appendices are added upon points of interest that could not be treated
+in the Introduction or the Notes. The text is based on that of the Globe
+edition. The following plays are ready:--
+
+    HAMLET.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A.
+
+    MACBETH.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A., Oxford.
+
+    JULIUS CAESAR.--Edited by Arthur D. Innes, M.A., Oxford.
+
+    THE MERCHANT OF VENICE.--Edited by H. L. Withers, B.A., Oxford.
+
+    TWELFTH NIGHT.--Edited by Arthur D. Innes, M.A., Oxford.
+
+    AS YOU LIKE IT.--Edited by J. C. Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.
+
+    A MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A.
+
+    CYMBELINE.--Edited by A. J. Wyatt, M.A., Cambridge.
+
+    THE TEMPEST.--Edited by F. S. Boas, M.A., Oxford.
+
+    KING JOHN.--Edited by G. C. Moore Smith, M.A., Cambridge.
+
+    RICHARD II.--Edited by C. H. Herford, L.H.D., Cambridge.
+
+    RICHARD III.--Edited by George Macdonald, M.A., Oxford.
+
+    HENRY V.--Edited by G. C. Moore Smith, M.A., Cambridge.
+
+    HENRY VIII.--Edited by D. Nichol Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.
+
+    CORIOLANUS.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A., Oxford.
+
+    MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING.--Edited by J. C. Smith, M.A., Oxford.
+
+    KING LEAR.--Edited by D. Nichol Smith, M.A., Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+_Introduction to Shakespeare._
+
+    By HIRAM CORSON, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English
+    Literature in Cornell University. Cloth. 400 pages. Introduction
+    price, $1.00.
+
+This work indicates some lines of Shakespearean thought which serve
+to introduce to the study of the plays as plays. The introductory
+chapter is followed by chapters on: The Shakespeare-Bacon
+controversy,--The Authenticity of the First Folio,--The Chronology
+of the Plays,--Shakespeare's Verse,--The Latin and Anglo-Saxon
+Elements of Shakespeare's English. The larger portion of the book is
+devoted to commentaries and critical chapters upon Romeo and Juliet,
+King John, Much Ado about Nothing, Hamlet, Macbeth, and Anthony and
+Cleopatra. These aim to present the points of view demanded for a
+proper appreciation of Shakespeare's general attitude toward things,
+and his resultant dramatic art, rather than the textual study of the
+plays.
+
+
+
+
+_Introduction to Browning._
+
+    By HIRAM CORSON, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English
+    Literature in Cornell University. Cloth. 348 pages. Introduction
+    price, $1.00.
+
+This volume affords aid and guidance to the study of Robert Browning's
+poetry, which, being the most complexly subjective of all English
+poetry, is, for that reason alone, the most difficult. The exposition
+presented in the Introduction, of the constitution and skillful
+management of the dramatic monologue and the Arguments given to the
+several poems included in this volume, will, it is hoped, reduce, if not
+altogether remove, the difficulties of this kind. In the same section of
+the Introduction certain peculiarities of the poet's diction are
+presented and illustrated.
+
+The following is the Table of Contents:--
+
+    I. The Spiritual Ebb and Flow exhibited in English Poetry from
+    Chaucer to Tennyson and Browning. II. The Idea of Personality
+    and of Art, as an intermediate agency of Personality, as
+    embodied in Browning's Poetry. (Read before the Browning Society
+    of London in 1882.) III. Browning's Obscurity. IV. Browning's
+    Verse. V. Arguments of the Poems. VI. Poems. (Under this head
+    are thirty-three representative poems, the Arguments of which
+    are given in the preceding section.)
+
+
+
+
+A Source Book of Greek History
+
+    By FREDERICK MORROW FLING, Professor of Ancient History,
+    University of Nebraska. Cloth. xiv + 370 pages. Illustrated.
+    Introduction price, $1.00.
+
+This book serves several purposes. It (1) supplies illustrative
+material, drawn from the best Greek sources, that may be used to
+supplement the school narrative; (2) by means of searching questions, it
+furnishes opportunity for more intensive study of certain periods; (3)
+by supplying data upon the writer of source, and at times, more than one
+source upon the same topic, it makes possible the study of simple
+problems in the value of evidence; (4) extracts are of sufficient length
+so that the pupil may be given some idea of Greek literature, as far as
+that is possible through the use of translations; (5) the illustrations
+not only supplement the written sources on the life of the Greeks, but
+have been selected with a view to impressing upon the minds of students
+the great value of the artistic work of the Greeks.
+
+
+
+
+A Source Book of Roman History
+
+    By DANA C. MUNRO, University of Wisconsin. Cloth. Illustrated,
+    x + 258 pages. Introduction price, $1.00.
+
+The series of extracts from original sources contained in this book
+cover the following topics: Sources and credibility of early Roman
+history; religion; the army; monarchical institutions; the constitution
+of the republic; early laws and history; the conquest of the
+Mediterranean; the Punic wars; results of foreign wars; misrule of the
+optimates; the last century of the republic; the early empire;
+Christianity and Stoicism; Roman life and society--slavery, education,
+manners, customs, amusements; provinces and provincial administration,
+etc. References to supplementary sources are prefixed to each chapter.
+
+
+
+
+A Day in Ancient Rome
+
+    A revision of Lohr's _Aus dem alten Rom_, by EDGAR S. SHUMWAY,
+    recently Professor of Latin in Rutgers College. Cloth. 96 pages.
+    Fifty-nine illustrations (seventeen full page). Retail price, 75
+    cents. Paper, 30 cents.
+
+This attractive little book gives a picture of the famous old city as
+compared with the new. Availing himself of the latest excavations and of
+recent photographs, the author pictures graphically persons and places
+of classic fame as though vividly present.
+
+
+
+
+Studies in General History
+
+    (1000 B.C. to 1880 A.D.) By MARY D. SHELDON, formerly Professor
+    of History in Wellesley College, and Assistant Professor in
+    Leland Stanford Jr. University. Half leather, xvi + 556 pages.
+    Introduction price, $1.60.
+
+This book gives a collection of historic material, which may be dealt
+with first-hand, as the pupil deals with the actual substance in
+chemistry, and with the living plant in botany. Work of this kind
+stimulates the student's historic sense and judgment. _It is especially
+adapted to help students and teachers who do not have access to large
+libraries; it contains within itself all that is absolutely necessary
+for the work required._ The material given consists of maps, pictures,
+lists of important events, men, works, and deeds, tables of political
+organizations, and extracts from original sources, including
+constitutions, creeds, laws, chronicles, and poems. It is accompanied by
+questions in the nature of problems, the answers to which must be worked
+out by the pupil himself from the given data. It is a book to be
+studied, not read.
+
+
+
+
+Greek and Roman History
+
+    Or, _Studies in General History_, from 1000 B.C. to 476 A.D. By
+    MARY SHELDON BARNES, formerly Professor of History in Wellesley
+    College, and in Leland Stanford Jr. University. Cloth, xiii +
+    255 pages. Introduction price, $1.00.
+
+This book contains the portion of Sheldon's _Studies in General History_
+which relates to Greece and Rome, including a small amount of prefatory
+ancient history. This portion meets the needs of students preparing for
+college, of schools in which ancient history takes the place of general
+history, and of students who have used an ordinary manual and wish to
+make a spirited and helpful review.
+
+
+
+
+Teacher's Manual to General History
+
+    By MARY SHELDON BARNES. Cloth. 172 pages. Retail price, 85
+    cents.
+
+The student's edition of the _Studies in General History_ contains
+material and problems for independent study. The _Teacher's Manual_
+contains the answers to these problems, embodied in tabulations, and a
+running commentary of text, which will furnish suggestions for
+discussions and summaries.
+
+
+
+
+Aids to the Teaching of General History
+
+    A pamphlet of 30 pages, by MARY SHELDON BARNES. Retail price, 10
+    cents. Also bound with the _Teacher's Manual_.
+
+
+
+
+_English Etymology._
+
+    A select glossary, serving as an introduction to the history of
+    the English Language. By FRIEDRICH KLUGE, Professor at the
+    University of Freiburg, Germany, and author of _Etymologisches
+    Worterbuch der deutschen Sprache_, and FREDERICK LUTZ, Professor
+    at Albion College, Mich. Cloth. 242 pages. Introduction price,
+    60 cents.
+
+The purpose of this work is to serve as an introduction to the study of
+the historical development of the English language. The scope of the
+book is sufficient to give the student an insight into the main
+linguistic phenomena. While the method of discussion is concise, care
+has been taken to include all words the history of which bears on the
+development of the language at large. The authors have, in the first
+place, traced back to the older periods loanwords of Scandinavian,
+French and Latin origin, and such genuine English words as may afford
+matter for investigation. In this way there has been provided a "basis
+for every historical grammar of English."
+
+
+
+
+_A History of English Critical Terms._
+
+    By J. W. BRAY. Cloth. 352 pages. Retail price, $1.00.
+
+In literary criticism, and in the discussion of art, there are more than
+a hundred important terms whose history determines their present use and
+meaning. There are also several hundred others terms occasionally used
+in explaining the larger terms or their synonyms. All these terms are
+here arranged in alphabetical order. The history of the more important
+terms is presented in full. Under each is given: (1) Its grouping (by
+synonyms). (2) The historical limits of its use. (3) A brief statement
+of its meanings. (4) An explanation of its changes of meaning. (5)
+Representative quotations.
+
+About one hundred and fifty critics are represented in the quotations,
+the work thus covering the entire field of English criticism.
+
+The vocabulary of criticism is preceded by an Introduction, which gives
+a philosophical discussion of critical terms under three heads: (1) What
+is a Critical term? (2) General Historical Movements and Tendencies in
+Critical Terms. (3) Method of Dealing with the Separate Critical Terms.
+
+    The Outlook, _New York_: The book is not simply a collection of
+    information; it is both a contribution to the history of
+    criticism and a text-book for its study.
+
+
+
+
+English Literature
+
+    =The Arden Shakespeare.= The plays in their literary aspect,
+        each with introduction, interpretative notes, glossary, and
+        essay on metre. 25 cts.
+
+    =Bronson's History of American Literature.= 384 pages. 80 cents.
+
+    =Burke's American Orations.= (A. J. GEORGE.) Five complete
+        selections. 50 cts.
+
+    =Burns's Select Poems.= (A. J. GEORGE.) 118 poems
+        chronologically arranged, with introduction, notes, and
+        glossary. Illustrated. 75 cts.
+
+    =Coleridge's Principles of Criticism.= (A. J. GEORGE.) From the
+        _Biographia Literaria_. With portrait. 60 cts.
+
+    =Cook's Judith.= With introduction, translation, and glossary.
+        Cloth. 170 pages. $1.00.
+
+    =Cook's The Bible and English Prose Style.= 40 cts.
+
+    =Corson's Introduction to Browning.= A guide to the study of
+        Browning's poetry. Also has 33 poems with notes. With
+        portrait of Browning. $1.00.
+
+    =Corson's Introduction to the Study of Shakespeare.= A critical
+        study of Shakespeare's art, with comments on nine plays.
+        $1.00.
+
+    =Crawshaw's The Making Of English Literature.= An interpretative
+        and historical guide for students. Map and illustrations.
+        484 pages. $1.25.
+
+    =Davidson's Prolegomena to Tennyson's In Memoriam.= A critical
+        analysis, with an index of the poem. 50 cts.
+
+    =De Quincey's Confessions of an Opium Eater.= (G. A. WAUCHOPE.)
+        50 cts.
+
+    =Hall's Beowulf.= A metrical translation. 75 cts. Student's
+        edition, 30 cts.
+
+    =Hawthorne and Lemmon's American Literature.= Contains sketches,
+        characterizations, and selections. Illustrated with
+        portraits. $1.12.
+
+    =Hodgkin's Nineteenth Century Authors.= Gives aids for library
+        study of 26 authors. Price, 5 cts. each, or $3.00 per
+        hundred. Complete in cloth. 60 cts.
+
+    =Howes's Primer of English Literature.= Illustrated. 50 cents.
+
+    =Meiklejohn's History of English Language and Literature.=
+        Revised. 60 cts.
+
+    =Milton's Select Poems.= (A. P. WALKER.) Illustrated. 488 pages.
+        50 cts.
+
+    =Moulton's Four Years of Novel-Reading.= A reader's guide.
+        50 cts.
+
+    =Moulton's Literary Study of the Bible.= An account of the
+        leading forms of literature represented, without reference
+        to theological matters. $2.00.
+
+    =Plumptre's Translation of Aeschylus.= With biography and
+        appendix. $1.00.
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+    =Plumptre's Translation of Dante.= Five vols. Illustrated.
+        Student's edition, 50 cts. per vol. Library edition, $4.00
+        per set.
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+        appendix. $1.00.
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+    =Shelley's Prometheus Unbound.= (VIDA D. SCUDDER.) 60 cts.
+
+    =Simonds's Introduction to the Study of English Fiction.= With
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+
+    =Simonds's Sir Thomas Wyatt and His Poems.= With critical
+        analysis. 50 cts.
+
+    =Webster's Speeches.= (A. J. GEORGE.) Nine select speeches with
+        notes. 75 cts.
+
+    =Whitcomb's The Study of a Novel.= 251 pages. $1.25.
+
+    =Wordsworth's Prefaces and Essays on Poetry.= (A. J. GEORGE.) 50
+        cts.
+
+    =Wordsworth's Prelude.= (A. J. GEORGE.) Annotated. 75 cts.
+
+    =Selections from Wordsworth.= (A. J. GEORGE.) 168 poems chosen
+        with a view to illustrate the growth of the poet's mind and
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+
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Writing of the Short Story, by 
+Lewis Worthington Smith
+
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