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diff --git a/27224-8.txt b/27224-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e20b7ae --- /dev/null +++ b/27224-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2107 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Writing of the Short Story, by +Lewis Worthington Smith + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Writing of the Short Story + +Author: Lewis Worthington Smith + +Release Date: November 10, 2008 [EBook #27224] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY *** + + + + +Produced by Jacqueline Jeremy and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + THE WRITING OF THE + SHORT STORY + + BY + + LEWIS WORTHINGTON SMITH, A.M. + + DRAKE UNIVERSITY, DES MOINES, IOWA + + D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS + BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO + + + COPYRIGHT, 1902, + BY D. C. HEATH & CO. + + + + + IT IS A PLEASURE TO BE PERMITTED TO ASSOCIATE + WITH THIS LITTLE BOOK THE NAME OF MY FRIEND + PROFESSOR L. A. SHERMAN + OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA. + + + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS + + +In the author's classes the three stories in the volume entitled "Three +Hundred Dollars" are first studied because of their simplicity, and +these are followed by parts of "The Bonnie Brier Bush," and then by the +stories from Bret Harte. Mrs. Phelps Ward's "Loveliness" is especially +valuable for illustrating methods and devices for making a simple theme +dramatically interesting. Students are required to mark stories with the +symbols and discuss them with reference to the principles of which this +little book is an exposition, but no recitation on the book itself is +required. Perhaps one-third of the time in the class-room is spent in +discussion of the short themes written by the class, and when convenient +these are placed on the board before the class for that purpose. In the +theme work following the suggested subjects the effort is made to +confine instruction and practice to one thing at a time, but at the +conclusion of the work of the term each member of the class is required +to hand in a complete original story. + + + + +THE WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY + +NARRATIVE FORMS + + +=1. Elements of the Story.=--This little volume is meant to be a +discussion of but one of the various forms that literature takes, and it +will be first in order to see what are the elements that go to the +making of a narrative having literary quality. A story may be true or +false, but we shall here be concerned primarily with fiction, and with +fiction of no great length. In writing of this sort the first essential +is that something shall happen; a story without a succession of +incidents of some kind is inconceivable. We may then settle upon +_incident_ as a first element. As a mere matter of possibility a story +may be written without any interest other than that of incident, but a +story dealing with men will not have much interest for thoughtful +readers unless it also includes some showing of _character_. Further, as +the lives of all men and women are more or less conditioned by their +surroundings and circumstance, any story will require more or less +_description_. Incidents are of but little moment, character showing may +have but slight interest, description is purposeless, unless the +happenings of the story develop in the characters _feelings_ toward +which we assume some attitude of sympathy or opposition. Including this +fourth element of the story, we shall then have _incident_, +_description_, _character_, _mood_, as the first elements of the +narrative form. + +=2. A Succession of Incidents Required.=--A series of unconnected +happenings may be interesting merely from the unexpectedness--or the +hurry and movement of the events, but ordinarily a story gains greatly +in its appeal to the reader through having its separate incidents +developed in some sort of organic unity. The handling of incidents for a +definite effect gives what we call plot. A plot should work steadily +forward to the end or dénouement, and should yet conceal that end in +order that interest may be maintained to the close. Evidently a writer +who from the first has in mind the outcome of his story will subordinate +the separate incidents to that main purpose and so in that controlling +motive give unity to the whole plot. Further, the interest in the plot +will be put on a higher plane, if in the transition from incident to +incident there is seen, not chance simply, but some relation of cause +and effect. When the unfolding of the plot is thus orderly in its +development, the reader feels his kindling interest going forward to the +outcome with a keener relish because of the quickening of thought, as +well as of emotion, in piecing together the details that arouse a glow +of satisfaction. + +=3. The Character Interest.=--We can hardly have any vital interest in a +story apart from an interest in the characters. It is because things +happen to them, because we are glad of their good fortune or +apprehensive of evil for them, that the incidents in their succession +gain importance in our emotions. We are concerned with things that +affect our lives, and secondarily with things that affect the lives of +others, since what touches the fortunes of others is but a part of that +complex web of destiny and environment in which our own lives are +enmeshed. In the story it is not so true as in the drama that, for the +going out of our sympathies toward the hero or the heroine, there should +be other contrasting characters; but a story gains color and movement +from having a variety of individualities. Especially if the story is one +of action, definite sympathies are heightened when they are accompanied +by emotional antagonisms. In "The Master of Ballantrae," we come to take +sides with Henry Durrie almost wholly through having found his rival, +the Master, so black a monster. Such establishment of a common bond of +interest between us and the character with whom our sympathies are to be +engaged is a most effective means of holding us to a personal +involvement in the development of the plot. There must not be too many +characters shown, the relations between them must not be too various or +too complexly conflicting, but where the interplay of feeling and +clashing motives is not too hard to grasp, a variety of characters gives +life and warmth of human interest to a story. + +=4. Uses of Description.=--Inasmuch as there are other interests in our +lives than those which are established by our relations with our +fellows, interests connected with the material world about us, any +narrative will probably have occasion to include some description. It +may be necessary merely as an aid to our understanding of some of the +details upon which the plot turns, it may help us to realize the +personalities of the characters, and it is often useful in creating +background and atmosphere, giving us some of the feelings of those with +whom the story deals as they look upon the beauty, or the gray dullness, +of the changing panorama of their lives. Stevenson's description of the +"old sea-dog" in "Treasure Island" is an excellent illustration of the +effectiveness of a few lines of description in making us know something +very definite in the man. + + "I remember him as if it were yesterday, as he came plodding to + the inn door, his sea-chest following behind him in a + handbarrow, a tall, strong, heavy, nut-brown man; his hands + ragged and scarred, with black, broken nails, and the saber cut + across one cheek, a lurid white." + +=5.= Rossetti in "The Bride's Prelude," a story in verse, after merely +glancing at the opening of the tale, devotes eight stanzas to +description introduced for the purpose of background and atmosphere. Two +of them are given here. + + "Within the window's heaped recess + The light was counterchanged + In blent reflexes manifold + From perfume caskets of wrought gold + And gems the bride's hair could not hold + + "All thrust together: and with these + A slim-curved lute, which now, + At Amelotte's sudden passing there, + Was swept in some wise unaware, + And shook to music the close air." + +This helps us to enter into the life and spirit of the time and place, +to conceive imaginatively the likings, the desires, the passions, the +purposes, and the powers that shall be potent in the story. + +=6. Kinds of Description.=--Description is primarily of two kinds, that +which is to give accurate information, and that which is to produce a +definite impression not necessarily involving exactness of imagery. The +first of these forms is useful simply in the way of explanation, serving +the first purpose indicated in paragraph four. The second is useful for +other purposes than that of exposition, often appealing incidentally to +our sense of the beautiful, and requiring always nice literary skill in +its management. It should be borne in mind always that literary +description must not usurp the office of representations of the material +in the plastic arts. It should not be employed as an end in itself, but +only as subsidiary to other ends. + +=7. Various Moods as Incidents.=--The moods in the characters of a story +and their changes are connected with the incidents of the story, since +they are in part happenings, and with the characters, since they reveal +character. Apart from direct statement of them, we understand the moods +of the actors in the little drama which we are made to imagine is being +played before us from the things they say, from the things they do, and +from gestures, attitudes, movements, which the author visualizes for us. +If these moods are not made clear to us or we cannot see that they are +natural, definite reactions from previous happenings in accord with +character, we do not have a sense of organic unity in the narrative. We +become confused in trying to establish the dependence of incident and +feeling upon something preceding, and our interest flags. Everything +that happens in a well-told story gives us feelings which we look to +find in those whom the happenings affect in the tale, feelings which +should call forth some sort of responsive action for our satisfaction. +Clearly, if the characters are cold, if we cannot find in them moods of +the kind and intensity that to us seem warranted, the story will be a +disappointment. + + + + +LITERARY DIVISIONS AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES + + +=8. The Conceptual and Emotional.=--Theoretically all writing is divided +easily into two classes, conceptual and emotional, the literature of +thought and the literature of feeling. In the actual attempt to classify +written composition on this basis, however, no sharp distinction can be +maintained. Even matters of fact, certainly such matters of fact as we +care to write about, are of more or less moment to us; we cannot deal +with them in a wholly unemotional way. In our daily lives we are +continually reaching conclusions that differ from the conclusions +reached by others about the same matters of fact, and are trying to make +these matters of fact have the same value for others that they have for +us. This is true of our business life as well as of our social and home +life. It always will be so. It is doubtless true that if our knowledge +of matters of fact embraced a knowledge of the universe, and if the +experience of each of us were just like that of his fellow and included +all possible experience, we might reach identical conclusions. This is +not true and never can be true. It is in effect true of a small portion +of the things about which we think,--the addition of one to two makes +three for every one,--but outside of these things, writing need not be +and seldom is purely conceptual. + +=9. Subject-matter.=--Various as are the things about which we write and +manifold as are our interests in them, they may be classified for our +purposes under four heads: Matters of Fact, Experience, Beauty, Truth. +Again, we shall find difficulty in separating each of these from each of +the others. Some of our experiences have certainly been revelations of +matters of fact; without our experiences, we should hardly have acquired +any real sense of the beautiful; save for them we could not have known +anything of truth. No accurate definition of these things carefully +distinguishing between them can be attempted here. It may be assumed +that what is meant by matters of fact will be understood without +definition. As we read the story in great measure for the purpose of +enlarging our experience, this part of our possible literary material is +worth considering further. In the child we are able to detect very early +a growing curiosity. That curiosity does not disappear when the child +has grown from boy to man; he is still asking questions of the universe, +still trying to piece the fragments of his knowledge into a law-ordered +and will-ordered whole. What he knows has been the product of +experience, what he may yet know further must be the product of +experience. This experience may not all be personal, but even that which +he gets at second hand is so far useful in helping him toward that +understanding of the universe for which he hopes. He never will reach +that understanding, all his experience will make but a fraction of +things to be known matters of fact to him; and yet a deathless interest +in the scarcely recognized belief that the facts and forces of which he +has known have some unifying principle makes his emotions quicken at +every new experience that may have possible significance. + +=10. Appeal of Experience, Beauty, and Truth.=--It will be evident, +then, that experience which somehow makes the impression of superior +importance may be presented inorganically and yet gain an interested +hearing. The method of creating this impression, whether through the +appearance of conviction in the writer or by various literary devices, +need not detain us here. We shall be concerned merely with noting that +the possible relation of the particular to the general, of this +experience to the whole of experience, makes it a thing of moment. In +just what way experience develops in us the sense of the beautiful, just +what it is in anything that makes us distinguish beauty in it, cannot +now be determined. It will be enough for us to know that literature +makes a large appeal to a sense of the beautiful in us, a sense not +fortuitous and irrational, though varying, but normal and almost +universal, dependent upon natural laws of development. Truth is also +difficult of definition, but we may understand that when out of +experience, as through a process of reasoning, we have reached a +conclusion that is something more than a matter of fact, a conclusion +touching our emotions and having vital spiritual interest to us, the +experience, whether our own directly or at second hand, has brought us +to a truth. Truth is, perhaps, that matter of fact of universal +intelligence that transcends the matter of fact of the finite mind. + +=11. Literary Principles and Qualities.=--There are some fundamental +principles of literary presentation which we may briefly review here. +All our study of science, and in a less obvious fashion, of all the +physical, social, and artistic world about us, is more or less an +attempt to classify, simplify, and unify facts whose relations we do not +see at a glance. We must observe and learn the facts first, but they +will be of no great utility to us as unrelated items of knowledge. The +need of establishing some sort of law and order in our understanding of +the mass of phenomena of which we must take cognizance is so insistent +that we early acquire the habit of attempting to hold in mind any new +fact through its relation to some other fact or facts. In other words, +we can retain the knowledge we acquire only by making one fact do duty +for a great many other facts included in it. Our writing must not +violate what is at once a necessity and a pleasure of the mind. Unity, +simplicity, coherence, harmony, or congruity, must all be sought as +essential qualities of any writing. We must also indicate our sense of +the relative values of the things with which we deal by a proper +selection of details for presentation, a careful subordination of the +less important to the more important through the proportion of space and +attention given to each, and through other devices for securing +emphasis. Let us keep in mind value, selection, subordination, +proportion, emphasis, as a second group of terms for principles involved +in writing. We may also wish to give our subject further elements of +appeal through what may be suggested beyond the telling, through the +melody and rhythm of the words, or through a quickening of the sense of +the beautiful. Suggestion, melody, rhythm, beauty, are to be included, +then, in a third group of qualities that may contribute to the +effectiveness of what we write. + +=12. Conceptual Writing.=--Of the literary qualities that have just been +discussed, only the first group is perhaps essential to what has been +designated as conceptual writing. Here we may place expository writing +on subjects wholly matter of fact, mathematical discussions, scientific +treatises largely, though not necessarily, and other writing of like +character. As unity is the quality of importance here, we may well +consider the units of discourse. Our first unit is that of the whole +composition, the second that of the paragraph, and the third that of the +sentence. Which of these is the prime unit, as the dollar is the prime +unit of our medium of exchange, may not be evident at once; but if we +examine the writing of clear thinkers carefully, without attempting to +settle the matter in any doctrinaire fashion, we shall find that the +paragraph, and not the sentence, is the more unified whole. I turn to +Cardinal Newman, and in the middle of a paragraph find the sentence, +"This should be carefully observed," a sentence meaningless when taken +from the context. As a part of the paragraph it has a function, but it +is certainly as a unit of detail and not as a prime unit. A writer like +Carlyle makes these lesser units more important, but they are still +subordinate to their use in the paragraph. In all our writing we shall +do much for the unity, simplicity, and coherence of our work by seeing +to it that our paragraphs are properly arranged and that each fulfills +this function of a prime unit in the composition. + +=13. The Sense of Value.=--When, in addition to statement of mere +matters of fact, an author wishes to impress his readers with his own +sense of the importance and the value of what he has to say, or of some +special phase of his subject, he will employ the principles of the +second group spoken of in a preceding paragraph. They cannot be ignored, +indeed, in explanation of the simplest matters of fact, but a writer who +means to convince and persuade will make more use of them. His +personality will express itself in the selection of details and in the +emphasis he places upon one detail or another. Among the literary forms +which, besides being conceptual, are also concerned with persuasion, we +find the oration, the essay, a great deal of business correspondence, +and much of what we read in magazines and newspapers. + +=14. Writing having Artistic Quality.=--When in addition to expressing +matters of fact or truth, appealing perhaps to experience, we wish to +arouse some sense of the beautiful and the artistic, we shall give our +writing some or all of the qualities of the third group. Evidently, +writing of this sort is in many respects the most difficult, since the +writer must have regard for unity and the related principles, as well as +for the qualities which peculiarly distinguish it. Experience, beauty, +and truth are all available as subject-matter, and all the principles +governing literary composition are concerned. Here we shall find the +poem, the drama, the oration in some of its forms, most essays of the +better sort, the greater part of good critical writing, literary +description, and all narrative forms except the matter-of-fact +historical writing of unliterary scholars. + +=15. Two Things Requisite in Writing.=--It is to be borne in mind that +the foregoing classifications are by no means absolute. Gardiner in his +"Forms of Prose Literature" says very truly that the "essential +elements, not only of literature, but of all the fine arts, are: first, +an organic unity of conception; and second, the pervasive personality of +the artist." It is true that much of our writing does not aspire to +literary character, but in very little of our writing of any sort can we +afford to neglect the first of these elements, and in very little of it +do we care to leave the second out of account. Even in exposition of the +simpler sort we may give to our writing the distinction of a more +luminous style and the stronger appeal of a warmer personal interest, if +we shape it into organic unity and make evident in it "the pervasive +personality of the artist." + + + + +THE STORY IN PARTICULAR + + +=16. The Art of the Story.=--However abstract the thinking of civilized +man may become, "all our intelligence," to quote Ladd's "Outlines of +Physiological Psychology," "is intelligence about something or other, +... resting on a basis of sensations and volitions." Difficult as it is +and difficult as are the problems involved in its construction, the +story is from some points of view the most elementary of literary forms. +It is concerned directly with matters of sensation and volition. If it +is to play upon our emotions, it must revive sensations and volitions, +make us in some degree part of the action. Experience is at once its +warp and woof, but while it gives us new experiences, it must, in +connection with them, revive old ones and so become tangible and real +for us. + +Of the memories that have come to us through the senses of sight, +hearing, touch, smell, and taste, those that are visual are probably the +most clearly defined and persistent for most people. The sensation of +hearing doubtless comes next, and then those of touch, smell, and taste. +A name will suffice to make us see the face of an absent friend; a few +words, or the sight of a music roll, is enough to make us hear a +favorite melody; a line or two on a printed page brings back to us the +scent of the hayfield or the heavy odor of hyacinths in a conservatory. +We must remember, too, that this may be in each case, not simply a +bringing back of the idea of the things, but a reviving of the +sensations themselves. The seat of sensation is after all the brain. +Originally we experience sensation through some excitation of the end +organs of sense, the ear, the nerves of touch, the retina; but these +sensations become associated with verbal images in the mind, and finally +the excitation of the verbal images results also in the revival of the +original sensation. There is perhaps no one of us who has not seen +wholly imaginary moving shadows or flashing lights in the dark. Such +cases are not good illustrations of the point, possibly, but most of us +can at will hear a connected succession of notes with which we have +familiarized ourselves. In my own recent experience there occurred a +very clear and wholly unexpected subjective sense of smell when reading +of an experiment with frogs which recalled the distinctive odor of slimy +water. Mr. James Sully, in "Illusions," says, "Stories are told of +portrait painters who could summon visual images of their sitters with a +vividness equal to that of reality, and serving all the purposes of +their art." The same writer says again, and this is peculiarly +significant, that "the physiologist Gruithuisen had a dream in which the +principal feature was a violet flame, and which left behind it, _after +waking_ for an appreciable duration, a complementary image of a yellow +spot." Here a purely subjective impression had been reproduced in the +nerves of sense. + +=17. The Place of Sensation in Writing.=--The thing that it seems +important to dwell upon here is that subjective sensations do go out +from the brain and stimulate in a very real fashion the sensations that +are naturally excited by external stimuli localizing themselves in the +end organs of sense. As these sensations, while not the all of emotion, +are largely involved in emotion as its more poignant element, and as +emotion is a first requisite in the appeal of a story, it is evident +that the writer of stories will do well to acquire the art of reviving +sensations. Further, as in the quickening of sensations our ideas +become more tangible and real, writers who employ other literary forms +will find that their style gains clarity and distinction by a like +appeal to sensation when possible. Just how successful story-writers +make appeal to sensation, revive experience, give new experience, and +touch the sense of the beautiful is to be taken up more definitely in +the following pages. We can understand, of course, that subjective +sensations are not as strong as those which we experience directly, but +on the other hand they may be more varied, they may crowd in upon us +more rapidly, they may be more congruously chosen for a definite effect +than in our actual life. The total effect may then be no less +pronounced. In discovering how this is brought about we shall find the +art of the short story. + + + + +SPECIAL STUDY OF THE STORY + + +=18. Symbols for Visualization.=--On analyzing a story for the purpose +of discovering the elements of which it is composed, and the kind and +degree of appeal which they have for us, we shall find it convenient to +employ a few symbols for the purpose of labeling our findings for +discussion in the class room. Some of the directions which we make will +be based upon differences in the way in which the things presented are +effective in our minds, others upon differences in the things presented, +themselves. First we shall work with symbols of description and +visualization, of which for convenience we may distinguish four sorts +shading one into the other, not clearly defined, and yet worth +discussing, that we may cultivate a sharper sense of qualities of +effectiveness in visualization. For these four sorts of visualization we +may employ the symbols, _V__1, _V__2, _V__3, _VB__3. For the first of +these the symbol _V__1 is not very satisfactory, since we will employ it +for simple description which presents rather the idea of the thing than +a mental picture, but it will perhaps be simpler to use it than to use a +symbol for the word description. Having in mind the idea of a thing, we +may by mental effort, if the idea is defined with sufficient clearness, +call up the image of the object. _V__2 is the symbol for a visualization +through a suggestion which the mind, by reason of the interest kindled, +fills out to something more than the mere idea, more or less definite +imagery resulting. In the _V__3 form, we are, as it were, compelled to +see the image without mental effort, so swiftly and surely do the verbal +memory images reëstablish old sensations or combine with old sensations +to the formation of new. In the fourth form, we will add the _B_ +(Beauty) when the image which we see is such as to appeal pleasurably to +the ćsthetic sense. That there should be perfect agreement in the use of +any one of these symbols in any particular case is, of course, not to be +expected. Our individual experiences have been so different and the +associations of sensation are so varied that the character and intensity +of any visualization must differ in each individual. This, of course, is +one of the things that complicate the problem of literary composition +and make study of these things of particular importance. + +=19. Audition and Other Sensations.=--As the problem of audition is of +less moment than that of visualization, we will make but the one +distinction between such presentation of sound as calls up the idea of +the sound only, _a__1 and such as produces in us the sense of the sound +itself, _a__2, premising that any one who chooses may make the three +divisions preceding. + +Appeals to the other senses as occurring less often, we may group +together under the symbol _S_, using 1 with this, as with _a_, when it +comes to us in the conceptual way, and 2 when it comes as an excitant of +sensation. + +=20. Instances of Visualization.=--Before we go farther, it will be well +to examine briefly an example or two of literary description. + + "The rim of the sun was burning the hilltops, and already _V__2 + the vanguard of his strength stemming the morning mists, + when I and my companion first trod the dust of a small _V__2 + town which stood in our path. It still lay very hard and + white, however, and sharply edged to its girdle of olive _V__1 + and mulberry trees drenched in dew, a compactly folded + town well fortified by strong walls and many towers, with + the mist upon it and softly over it like a veil. For it _V__2 + lay well under the shade of the hills awaiting the sun's + coming. In the streets, though they were by no means _V__1 + asleep, but, contrariwise, busy with the traffic of men _S__2 + and pack mules, there was a shrewd bite as of night air; _V__2 + looking up we could perceive how faint the blue of the + sky was, and the cloud-flaw how rosy yet with the flush + of Aurora's beauty-sleep. Therefore we were glad to get + into the market place, filled with people and set around + with goodly brick buildings, and to feel the light and _S__2 + warmth steal about our limbs." + + --MAURICE HEWLETT, "Earthwork out of Tuscany." + +Here we shall first use the symbol _V__2, because the image presented is +one that appeals at once to experience, experience too that has not been +dimmed by frequence. The instant when the _rim_ of the sun comes up +bright and red is the instant when our expectation is most kindled +toward the glory of the dawn and of the day which it foretokens. "The +vanguard of his strength" in the next clause suggests the purely +fanciful. This mixture of the concrete and the abstract does not go back +to sensation, a thing worth noting and so the visualization is +destroyed. The dependent clause brings up a new visualization, a _V__2, +in the "dust of a small town." The second sentence is _V__1, until the +close when it becomes _V__2 through the quickening of memories that have +been emotional. The vagueness of a village hidden in the mist has +appealed to our imagination in the assurance of a something unknown. The +next sentence is _V__1, and so also is the next until in "the shrewd +bite as of night air" we get an _S__2. The _V__2 of the faint blue of +the sky is destroyed, as in the first sentence, by the merely +intellectual playing of fancy in "Aurora's beauty-sleep." The next +sentence gives us an _S__2 in the closing clause, for which the two +preceding have been a preparation. + + "Solemn and vast at all times, in spite of pettiness in the near + details, the impression becomes more solemn and vast towards + evening. The sun goes down, a swollen orange, as it were, into + the sea. A blue-clad peasant rides home, with a harrow smoking + behind him among the dry clods." + +In this from Robert Louis Stevenson the last sentence brings the +description to a _V__3; the smoking harrow is suggestive of so much more +than the cloud of dust that has not yet settled to the earth in the +stillness of the approaching twilight when the work of the day is done. + +=21. Motor Effects of Visualization.=--There is another way in which +things seen touch sensation. Look at a picture of the Laocoön for a +moment. Fix your eyes upon the contortions of the limbs, see the agony +of the face, note the fangs of the serpent ready to embed themselves in +the flesh. While fastening these fearful details in your mind have you +not felt some of the horror of it, and has not that feeling shown a +tendency to innervate some of the muscles, has not your face shown some +of the suffering which you have been studying, and have you not felt a +tendency toward the muscular movements of one writhing in agony? +Certainly, such motor impulses do result from certain kinds of +visualization, and it need hardly be said that they are peculiarly +effective in making us really alive with the emotion which inheres in +the movement or the attitude which we see. If the gestures of a speaker +are to be effective, they must seem natural to us; that is, they must be +such as we would make if we were in that fashion attempting to express a +similar emotion. Otherwise the motor suggestions of the words and the +motor suggestion of the gestures may inhibit or neutralize each other, +or at least produce a feeling of confusion. Halleck, in his "Education +of the Central Nervous System," says, "All states of consciousness +contain a motor element." When a visualization or an audition, as that +of a sharp command, seems to have motor effects, we may add to the +symbols of kind and degree of sensation the symbol _x_. + +=22. Inference in Literature.=--It was apparent in the visualization +quoted from Stevenson that some of the impressions which we get from +literature we get as inferences. Dust does not arise from a harrow so as +to have the appearance of smoke on a windy day, and therefore we know +that it is quiet. In the opening of a story some things must be +explained directly, and for such explanatory matter, matter from which +we infer nothing beyond the statement, we will employ the symbol _Exp._; +but for other presentation of matters of fact we will employ the symbol +_F__1. From facts as presented--and we will use the term in a +comprehensive sense--we may or may not draw inferences, and we will +distinguish facts from which no inference is drawn by the symbol _F__1, +and those from which inference is drawn by the symbol _F__2. An +inference may be preponderatingly intellectual or emotional; we may, +when desirable, add the symbol _a_ for one and _b_ for the other. An +inference we may call an "effect," and a fact as effect, whether the +effect be emotional or conceptual, is clearly more potent in a literary +way than a mere fact. + +=23. Effects of Incident and Mood.=--Allied to the fact as effect is the +incident which makes us know something more than the happening itself. +All incidents we may distinguish under the symbols _In__1, _In__2_a_, +_In__2_b_, the secondary symbols having the significance as with _F_ +above. Mood effects are, in general, more important, and it will be +worth while to distinguish three sorts, _m__1, an inference which we +draw regarding the mood of the writer, _m__2, a like inference which +becomes infectious, creating in us in some degree a like feeling, and +_m__3, an "effect" enabling us to draw an inference regarding the mood +of a character in the story. In addition to this we shall find direct +statement of mood, but that we shall mark with some of the preceding +symbols, generally _F__1, perhaps. We may understand further that the +mood effects are of both kind and degree. When the showing of mood is +such as to make us realize in it the intensity of strong emotion or +passion, we may indicate the heightening of the feeling by the addition +of the symbol _d_, using _k_ alone, or with _d_ to indicate that the +character of the mood is shown. + +=24. Methods of Characterization.=--In our everyday life we are +continually drawing inferences in regard to the characters of those +about us, and we do the same thing in a story. Some writers tell us as +clearly as they can the natures of the men and women they are revealing +to us, while others leave that almost wholly for us to conjecture. We +shall employ, then, two sets of symbols for character, one for direct +statement of character, and one for character effects. The realization +of character through direct statement may include presentation of +motives, ideas, passions, will, special phases of development. It may +come through report of the talk of others, or through statement of +opinion generally entertained. _c__1 we will use for direct statement of +character,--"John was a hard old miser,"--and we will add to this symbol +the symbol _a_ to indicate that this is only so far potent with us as to +make us know the writer's understanding of the character merely, _b_ to +indicate that we recognize the writer's feeling for the character but do +not share it, and _c_ to indicate that the writer's feeling for his +character affects us sympathetically to a like feeling. Another group of +symbols, _c__2, _c__3, and _c__4, we will use for character "effects," +for such knowledge of character as we gain by inference. _c__2 is a +symbol for a general inference regarding a group of people or a +community; _c__3 and _c__4 are symbols for inferences regarding the +individual, _c__3 indicating the recognition of type or class qualities, +_c__4, the recognition of more individual traits of character. The +distinction here is merely one of matter of fact, a distinction not +always to be made with sureness, since it is one of degree rather than +altogether one of kind. When the way in which a man is good or cheerful +or avaricious is differentiated for us from the way in which another man +is good or cheerful or avaricious, he is so far individualized. Class +characterization, _c__3, may be found along with individualization. The +extreme accentuation of one or a few characteristics to the disregard of +others gives the effect of individualization, but we shall understand +this as in fact type characterization, since our natures are so complex +that in almost no case can the conduct of any one be understood through +knowledge of a few dominant traits of character. Individualization gives +us intimacy of acquaintance; type or class characterization makes us see +merely the striking, peculiar, or controlling expressions of +personality. Guy Mannering in Scott's "Guy Mannering" is but a type of +the conventional soldier. Tito Milema in George Eliot's "Romola" +presents so many sides of a complex nature that we easily distinguish +him from all other characters in fiction whatever. + +=25. The Subjective and Objective.=--Writers, in their methods of +presentation, may be broadly divided into two classes, those who write +subjectively and those who write objectively. A subjective writer is one +whose own personality, point of view, feeling, is insistent in what he +writes. An objective writer, on the other hand, is one who leaves the +things of which he makes record to produce their own impression, the +writer himself remaining an almost impassive spectator, telling the +story with little or no comment. Chaucer, in the prologue to the +"Canterbury Tales," betrays his personal feeling for his characters +continually, and so is subjective. Shakespeare in his plays is +objective, presenting all sorts of men and women without show of his own +attitude toward them. + +=26. Interest of the Plot and its Purpose.=--We have seen that interest +in incident is a first interest in the story. This interest, we must +understand further, is not to be maintained by having things happen in a +matter regulated only by chance or the exigencies of the author's +invention at the moment. The unification of a story that results from +the subordination of minor incidents to a final outcome is an essential +necessity of the plot. The plot, indeed, is the arrangement of incidents +with reference to the dénouement. The development of the plot should be +such as to indicate an end toward which the succession of incidents is +tending, and yet such as to keep the reader in suspense with regard to +the nature of that end. There must be novelty in the happenings, and yet +the novelty must not be so great as to keep the reader confused or +strain belief. The permanent hold upon us of a piece of fiction is +enhanced if it embodies some central truth, illustrating the working out +of some law of life, or involved in the personal attitude of the writer +toward some problem of existence. Only dilettanteism and superficiality +forget that an artist, giving the form of beauty to his conceptions, is +trying to make them as significant to others as they are to him, and +that ćsthetic and ethical, or spiritual, significance are inextricably +interwoven. It will, of course, be the care of the artist to see that +any didactic purpose is not obtrusive. + + _F_2b_ 1. A tray of glasses was placed on the table with great + solemnity by the "wricht," who made no sign and invited + none. 2. You might have supposed that the circumstance + _F_2b_ had escaped the notice of the company, so abstracted and + unconscious was their manner, had it not been that two + graven images a minute later are standing by the table. + + _m_3k_ 3. "Ye 'ill taste, Tammas," with settled melancholy. + + _m_3k_ 4. "Na, na; I've nae incleenation the day; it's an awful + _F_2a_ dispensation, this, Jeems. 5. She wuld be barely saxty." + + _m_3k_ 6. "Ay, ay, but we maun keep up the body sae lang as we're + here, Tammas." + + _c_2/c_4_ 7. "Weel, puttin' it that way, a'm not sayin' but yir + _m__2 richt," yielding unwillingly to the force of circumstance. + + _c_4/m_3_ 8. "We're here the day and there the morn, Tammas. 9. She + _m__3 was a fine wumman--Mistress Stirton--a weel-livin' wumman: + this will be a blend, a'm thinkin'." + + _c_4/m_3_ 10. "She slippit aff sudden in the end; a'm judgin' it's + _m__3 frae the Muirtown grocer; but a body canna discreeminate + on a day like this." + + 11. It was George Howe's funeral that broke the custom and + _F_2b_ closed the "service." 12. When I came into the garden + where the neighbors were gathered, the "wricht" was + Exp.+_m_2_ removing his tray and not a glass had been touched. 13. + Then I guessed that Drumtochty had a sense of the fitness + of things and was stirred to its depths. + + 14. "Ye saw the wricht carry in his tray," said Drumsheigh + as he went home from the kirkyard. + + _m_3d_ 15. "Weel, yon's the last sicht o't ye' ill get or a'm no + _m_3k_ Drumsheigh. 16. I've nae objection masel' to a neighbor + tastin' at a funeral, a' the more if he's come from the + upper end o' the pairish, and ye ken I dinna hold wi' thae + _m_3d_ teetotal fouk. 17. A'm ower auld in the horn to change noo. + _m_3/F_2b_ 18. But there's times and seasons, as the Gude Buik says, + and it wud hae been an awfu' like business tae luik at a + gless in Marget's Garden, and puir Domsie standing in ahent + the brier bush as if he cud never lift his heid again." + +=27. Interpretative Application of the Symbols.=--A little discussion of +the foregoing from a "A Scholar's Funeral" in the "Bonnie Brier Bush" +may serve to make some of these things clearer. The fact that the +"wricht" is silent here in the first sentence makes us know that this is +the usual custom and that these people have an underlying sense of +decorum. Sentence two has the same effect in their abstraction, and this +is emphasized again in the "two graven images." The third sentence is a +mood "effect" of kind, since we recognize the conventionally sobered +feeling without the "settled melancholy." This is true again in sentence +four, and in five we have a "fact as effect," drawing the inference that +they are a long-lived race in Drumtochty. From the yielding to an +invitation so framed as to put aside the semblance of yielding to +inclination, we get a knowledge of character which seems to us +individual, but which is used by the author to indicate a local +community characteristic. The author's mood of amused observation is +evident here, too, in his unbelieving acquiescence in Tammas's point of +view. In sentences eight and nine we come to know Jeems in a more +individual way, through the mingling in him of moods of conventional +solemnity and everyday discussion. This is repeated in sentence ten. In +sentence twelve we draw an emotional inference concerning the degree of +their feeling from the fact that "not a glass had been touched." This is +told in the explanatory way in thirteen with the addition of a +suggestion of the author's sympathetic understanding and appreciation. +Knowing Drumsheigh's reserve, from things that have gone before this in +the story, we feel that only strong emotion could have called out +sentence fifteen; and the apologetic tone of sixteen and seventeen +indicates rather mood than such heightened feeling. Sentence eighteen +returns to the mood of fifteen and sixteen, and through the fact of +Domsie's standing "ahent the brier bush" reveals both Domsie's mood and +Drumsheigh's own in our knowledge of its emotional appeal to him. + +=28. Different Forms of the Story.=--It is to be understood that certain +types of the short story are not included in this study as not being +available for detailed work. Stories in which the interest is almost +wholly dependent upon the succession of incidents can profitably be +studied only with relation to the plot. Generally in such cases the +things that make the story effective will be readily apparent, and they +can be brought out by a few questions. To give variety and interest to +the work the teacher will occasionally find it desirable to call +attention to stories in current periodicals, requiring the class to +bring in analyses of them showing structure of the plot, methods of +managing the reader's sympathies, fundamental motive of the story, the +treatment of character and methods of presenting it, and such other +things as seem most of moment in the story in question. When library +facilities permit, it will be found worth while to make some comparison +of the short story as it is now written in America with the short +stories of fifty years ago and of the present day in England and France. +No classification of stories is attempted here, since such +classification is of no particular moment to the writer of stories. + + + + +A FEW CAUTIONS + + +=29.= The suggestions that follow are phrased to cover the matter of +visualization, but they touch upon general principles which are of wider +application. It has seemed more convenient at this point to give them +this specific treatment. + +=30. Author's Purpose should be Concealed.=--An attempt to bring about a +visualization or any other artistic effect in the mind of the reader is +foredoomed to failure when in any way the writer's purpose too evidently +betrays itself as such. Too much in the way of direct statement or +predication is one indication of such purpose, and is therefore more or +less ineffectual. For effective visualization some sort of preparation +of the mood or sympathies of the reader is generally required. This, +however, should be concealed, being accomplished through suggestion, as +is the visualization itself. + +=31. Unity in Visualization.=--A visualization should be so managed as +to bring the whole picture, or nearly all of it, into the mind at once. +It is partly because it does not do this that the method by details is +not generally effective. A string of incomplete images passing through +the mind, each one taking the place of the preceding and effacing it, is +not artistically satisfying. It is possible to retain such separate +images and at the end bring them together in a complete picture, but +this will require effort on the part of the reader; and it is +fundamentally important in all writing to reduce the conscious attention +and effort of the reader to the lowest point. Only extreme literary art +can so nullify this effort in effect as to make description by detail +pleasurable, if of any length. Description by detail is, perhaps, more +admissible in writing having a meditative tone than in any other, +except, of course, technical description. + +=32. Fine Writing.=--Fine writing is especially to be avoided in +visualization, since the tone of artificiality is immediately +destructive of the reader's confidence in the sincerity of the writer. +It betrays the author's purpose of producing an effect. The appearance +of truth free from any semblance of over-statement is a first requisite. + +=33.= In any visualization harmony of detail is of prime importance. +Even in describing something actually seen it will sometimes be +necessary to leave out items really present, but not of a kind to +contribute to the general effect. The saying that "Truth is stranger +than fiction" should read that fiction may not be as strange as truth. +Harmony of mood is important, as well as harmony of detail, in the thing +described. If the picture is a quiet one, exclamatory excitement on the +part of the writer, however affecting the scene may be supposed to be, +will prevent its becoming real to the reader. These things are, then, to +be borne in mind with regard to the elements of a visualization: the +details presented must be so far true to common knowledge and +experience as to gain ready belief, they must have unity in fact and in +effect, and they must also be sufficiently individual to appeal to the +mind with something of the sense of novelty. + + + + +REFERENCE TABLE OF SYMBOLS + + + Exp. = Explanatory matter. + + _F_1_ = Statement of fact from which no inference is drawn. + + _F_2_ = Statement of fact from which an inference is drawn. + + _F_2a_ = Statement of fact with inference mainly logical. + + _F_2b_ = Statement of fact with inference mainly emotional. + + _In._ = Statement of incident, secondary symbols as with _F_. + + _As_1_ = Anticipatory suggestion, a foretelling of something to + happen, leaving the reader in doubt as to how it is to + be brought about. + + _As_2_ = Anticipatory suggestion, a foreshowing of something + definite to happen, exciting the reader's curiosity to + know what it is and how it is to be brought about. + + _As_3_ = Anticipatory suggestion, a foreshadowing of something + to be expected in the way of character development and + consequent happening. + + _V_1_ = Description in which the mere idea of the thing + described is presented. + + _V_2_ = A kindling hint by which the mind is enabled to piece + together a visualization of the object. + + _V_3_ = Visualization of so vivid a kind as to possess the mind + completely. This becomes + + _Vb_3_ when it pleasurably affects the sensibilities. + + _A_1_ = Audition in the way of simple idea of the thing to be + heard. + + _A_2_ = Audition as a reviving of the sense of sound. + + _S_1_ = Sensation, the mere presentation of the idea of an + appeal to one of the other senses. + + _S_2_ = Sensation, a subjective reviving of the sensation + itself. + + _x_ used to indicate that a subjective excitation of some one + of the senses has motor effects, as in the shiver at the + thought of a file upon the teeth. + + _m_1_ = Mood "effect," from which we learn the feeling of the + writer without experiencing it ourselves. + + _m_2_ = Mood "effect" from which we sympathetically experience + the feeling of the writer. + + _m_3_ = Mood "effect," a revelation of the feeling of a + character in the story. + + _c_1_ = Direct statement of character. + + _c_1a_ = Direct statement of character that does not reveal the + author's attitude toward the character. + + _c_1b_ = Direct statement in which we are made aware of the + author's attitude toward the character, but are not + affected by it. + + _c_1c_ = Direct statement of character sympathetically + influencing us to the author's attitude toward the + character. + + _c_2_ = Character "effect," characterization of a group or + community of people. + + _c_3_ = Character "effect," class or type characterization of + the individual. + + _c_4_ = Character "effect" in the way of individualization. + + _d_ = Degree, added to symbol for mood effect to indicate + intensity of the feeling. + + _k_ = Kind, used to indicate that the inference concerns itself + with character and not intensity. + + _/_ = A symbol employed (see section 26) to indicate that one + inference is drawn as an ultimate conclusion from + another more immediate inference. + + + + +SUBJECTS FOR DAILY THEMES + + +Subjects for visualization and the reviving of other sensations. + +1. A sunset sky. 2. A group in the park. 3. A spring freshet. 4. The man +at the threshing machine. 5. The city across the river: night. 6. +Moonlight among the hills. 7. A city street. 8. The college campus. 9. +Eleanor's rose garden. 10. The witch of Endor (1 Sam. xxviii: 6-25). 11. +Mt. Pelée in eruption. 12. The woods at night. 13. David playing before +Saul. 14. A ferny water course among the trees. 15. A bluebird in the +orchard. 16. The violinist. 17. In time of apple blossoms. 18. The scent +of new-mown hay. 19. Barbara at the piano. 20. The first watermelon. 21. +Sailing with the wind. 22. Dawn in the mountains. 23. The wind among the +pines. 24. The blacksmith and the forge. + +Subjects for presentation of mood. + +1. Uncle Dick hears the news. 2. Balboa catches sight of the Pacific. 3. +Silas explains himself. 4. Napoleon looking back at Moscow. 5. +Congressman Norris is refused the floor of the convention. 6. Johnnie is +told that he may go to the circus. 7. Ethan Allen at Ticonderoga. 8. +Bamba, king of an island in the south seas, sees the first ship of the +white man. 9. Alfred meets a Hallowe'en obstacle. + +Subjects for visualization and presentation of facts as "effects." + +1. A deserted house. 2. In the second-hand store. 3. The railroad wreck. +4. The beggar at the door. 5. Representative Dongan reads a letter from +"The Corners." 6. A woman at the station. 7. Mrs. Humphrey's kitchen. 8. +The trail of war. + +Subjects for character studies. + +1. The village oracle. 2. The landlord of the Lion Inn. 3. The old +stage-driver. 4. The conductor. 5. An old-fashioned music-master. 6. A +pirate captain. 7. A country beau. 8. Deacon Bradley. 9. The school +bully. 10. The female suffragist. 11. One of the four hundred. 12. A +disciple of Mrs. Eddy. 13. "The man with the hoe." 14. The scissors +grinder. 15. Captain Doty of the police. 16. A candidate for office. + + + + +THE COMPLETE STORY + + +The invention of situations and plots can hardly be a matter of +class-room instruction. If stories come to one, it is well. Study of the +detailed means of making them living for the reader will then be worth +while. The student should be encouraged to invent plots of his own, but +as a simplification of this difficulty, to the end that some exercise in +the writing of a complete story may be had, plots of some successful +published stories are here given with suggestions regarding methods of +treatment. + + +I + + Scene, a saloon where both men and women are drinking. One of + them, a girl, thinks she sees at the window the face of Christ + with his tender eyes. She leaves and will not permit the others + to go with her. + + At a little distance she comes upon the stranger waiting for + her. He tells her that when she wakes it will be to a new life + and she will be his, bidding her go to a house he points out and + remain for the night. She obeys, and the man passes into the + shadow. + + Introductory sentence in the original, giving the atmosphere of + the story: "This was the story the mystic told." Concluding + sentence in the original, connecting it with our sense of + unfathomable mysteries: "And this the listener gravely asked, + 'One was chosen, the others left. Were the others less in need + of grace?'" + + Divisions of the story. 1. Visualizing description of the saloon + and of the street outside through which the stranger passes. + + 2. Appearance of the face at the pane and its effect on the + young girl (_m_3_ "effect"). This is the difficult part of the + story, and the reader can be made to believe in it only through + sympathy with the girl's feeling. + + 3. The talk of her companions and her answers (_m_3_). + + 4. Her search for the stranger in the night (_m_3_). + + 5. His talk to her when she finds him. + +This story in the original contains a little less than two thousand +words. It will be seen at once that unless handled in such fashion as to +appeal vividly to the imagination, a story with this for its theme will +seem weak and unreal. It must be made as suggestive as possible or it +will fail. It preaches, but it must avoid the air of preaching. Consider +carefully how you would present the stranger--whether first at the +window or before--so as to affect the reader with a sense of something +more than human in him. + + +II + + Scene of the story is the prairie desert of the West in time of + drouth. A party of men, including two who are not yet through + their work in an eastern college, are riding in search of water, + having had none for two days. Water is found, but shortly + afterwards one of the two young men is missing. The talk of the + others reveals the absent one's unselfishness and friendly + devotion to his chum. Soon he is seen riding up excitedly and + beckoning. The others follow him to a rough eminence, where he + stops and listens, imploring them to tell him whether they can + hear a voice calling. When they hear it too, he is assured that + he has not lost his reason from the thirst, and together they + begin a search which results in their discerning a cavern in the + side of an embankment where a man lies on a couch moaning for + water. As they try to enter, he warns them away with the cry of + "smallpox." + + The story is told to a group of friends gathered together of an + evening, and the narrator draws from among his books a copy of + Shakespeare found in the cavern by one of the men, bearing on + its fly leaf, in addition to the owner's name, the word + _Brasenose_, the name of one of the colleges at Oxford. The + pathos of the story is in this last touch, an Oxford student + dying so loathsome a death in a strange and desert land, and + dying so heroically. + + Divisions of the story. 1. Visualization of the desert and the + men. The scent of water. Drinking from the muddied stream. + + 2. One of the young men starts off alone in a delirium of pain + (_m_3_). He returns suffering from the fear that he has lost his + reason (_m_3_). + + 3. The discovery of the cave (_V_3_ and _F_2b_). The delirious + talk of the sick man. His sudden joy in the unexpected presence + of human beings (_V_3_ and _m_3_). His final "G'way! G'way! + Smallpox!" + + 4. The narrator of the story shows the copy of Shakespeare and + the inscription on the fly leaf. + +The story in the original contains about three thousand words. It is +important that the suffering of the men be developed at some length in a +convincing fashion. It serves as a preparation for the more terrible +suffering of the one man who moans for water as he tears the foul +smallpox sores. This should be presented in as visualizing a way as +possible and with as full showing of mood as may be. The conclusion in +division 4 must be altogether different in tone from the preceding. +Narrator and listeners are in a world of ease and comfort, and their +interest in the story is an interest in something pathetically remote. + + + + +SITUATIONS TO BE DEVELOPED INTO PLOTS + +(Adapted from published stories not original) + + +1. Rome in the early centuries after Christ. Three persons are involved, +one man and two women, one of whom has just pledged troth to the man. +The man and the other woman are devotees of a mystic faith, whose priest +residing in a dark cavern in the hills calls now one, now another +devotee to pass through the "void" to eternal fellowship with God. + +2. Oklahoma at the time of the opening of the strip for settlement. A +man and his wife and two children come from Kansas to find land in the +strip on the day of the run. They have failed in Kansas and are almost +out of money. The husband, who is to make the run for the strip on +horseback when the signal guns are fired, falls sick. + +3. A lumber camp. In addition to the men, a man and his wife who cook +and take care of the camp, and a half-witted chore boy. The chore boy +tries to take care of the men and keep them from drinking. A number of +the men go off to a neighboring town for a spree, and the chore boy goes +with them. + +4. Some place in the region of the mountain whites of the Carolinas and +Tennessee. A beautiful girl with a tinge of negro blood that does not +show in nature, intellectual endowment, or appearance. A mountain white +to whom she is betrothed. A young man from the North visiting the family +with whom she is staying is attracted by her. The contrast of the life +of the mountain whites to which her betrothal if fulfilled dooms her, +and that of the world of taste and culture which her nature demands. + + + + +QUESTIONS ON "A DOCTOR OF THE OLD SCHOOL," FROM THE "BONNIE BRIER BUSH" + + +I + +1. _a._ What has been accomplished in your sympathies by this? 2. _b._ +Has this been through direct statement of things calling for your +sympathies, or through "effects"? _c._ Is the method cumulative and +gradual, or direct and insistent? _d._ Would you say that the method +here is objective or subjective? _e._ What symbols do you find that you +have employed largely, and for what purpose have the devices for which +two of these stand been employed? _f._ Would you say that the author +puts much or little meaning into his words? Is the style diffuse and +thin, or does it accomplish much with few words? Indicate a paragraph or +page that justifies your conclusion and say how. _g._ Are the inferences +which you are made to draw logical or emotional, and do they seem to you +delicate and subtle or simple and direct? Indicate some of them in +confirmation of your conclusion. + + +II + +1. _a._ Do you see any change in the method of presenting MacLure here? +_b._ How is it an advance in the development of the story or not? _c._ +Was Part I. preparation for this or not, and if so, how? _d._ Does this +have a definite climax and dénouement, and if so, where? + + +III + +1. _a._ How does this make an advance upon the preceding in the +revelation of MacLure? _b._ Does it in any way get nearer to elemental +human feeling? _c._ Does it anywhere appeal directly to sensation? _d._ +Do you find in this any feeling for the mystery of existence? Does it +seem to be an integral part of the story, coming from its essential +emotion and free from obtrusive moralizing, or not? _e._ Is there any +increase in intensity of feeling in this or not, and if so, how is it +indicated in the symbols you have employed? _f._ Has MacLure now been +presented to us with full showing of his distinguishing characteristics +or not? and do we find in him a vital human nature? + + +IV + +1. _a._ Do you think a death-bed scene a good subject for literary +presentation or not? Why? _b._ Would you call it a difficult thing to +present or not? _c._ Do you find anything objectionable here? _d._ Has +the interest of the whole story depended upon incident or upon showing +of character? _e._ Does this Part IV. serve in any particular way to +round out our knowledge of MacLure, and if so, in what way? _f._ What is +the especially appealing thing in the portrait of MacLure? And what in +the fortune and circumstance of his life? _g._ Does this appeal touch in +any fashion upon our sense of a something inscrutable governing our +lives? _h._ Which of the different sorts of subject-matter (see section +9) seem to you to be the more largely employed here? So far as it is +concerned with experience, is it a reviving of what we have experienced +or an addition to our knowledge of life? Is there in it a truth that you +could formulate into a law of life, or is the truth so much a matter of +emotion as merely to touch the sensibilities and so give us a wider +vision? + + + + +QUESTIONS ON "LOVELINESS," BY ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS-WARD + +(_Atlantic Monthly_, August, 1899) + + +1. _a._ Do you detect in this story any purpose beyond that of +recounting a series of happenings? If so, what? _b._ If you were to +write the story, would you think it prospectively a difficult thing to +arouse interest in a dog? _c._ Has that been done here or not? _d._ If +so, what are some of the author's devices and how successfully employed? + +2. _a._ What is the artistic purpose of the first two paragraphs? Why +does the author delay so long in telling us that she is writing of a +dog? _b._ Does she let her own feeling for the girl and dog appear or +not? If so, is it obtrusive or not? Effective or not, as your markings +indicate? _c._ Are there any incidents in the story that a reader might +for any reason be unwilling to accept? _d._ If so, how is the handling +such as to disguise the difficulty or not, as the case may be? + +3. _a._ What devices are employed to make us interested in Adah? _b._ +Are we made to feel that her dependence upon the dog is natural and +deserving of sympathy or not, and if so, how? _c._ Are the incidents so +managed as to maintain interest in the expectation of the dénouement or +not? _d._ Does the story seem to have sufficient unity of purpose and +plan or not? + +4. _a._ What symbols do you notice that you have employed most largely? +_b._ Is the story written in the way of direct statement or of +suggestion? _c._ For what frequent purpose would you say that the writer +employs _F_2_? _M_3_? _M_2_? _d._ Can you say in what the art of the +story especially consists? _e._ What would you probably have thought of +the story were its art less delicate and sure? + + + + +GENERAL OUTLINE QUESTIONS FOR STUDY OF STORIES IN CURRENT MAGAZINES, +ETC. + + +1. _a._ Upon what is the interest of the story especially dependent? +_b._ Are the incidents presented rapidly and coherently, or slowly and +disconnectedly? _c._ Is there a clearly defined plot or not? _d._ Does +the plot have a climax of entanglement, or does it fail in developing +this feature of the story interest? + +2. _a._ How is character presented? _b._ Are the characters well chosen +for their reactions among themselves? _c._ Are the things they do and +say continually consistent or not? _d._ Are they sufficiently +individualized to escape the appearance of the conventional and to hold +interest? + +3. _a._ Does the story state facts and happenings merely, or does it get +hold of vital sensations and revive them? _b._ If so, in what ways does +it seem to do that? _c._ In general does it seem to you subjective or +objective in method? + +4. _a._ How much of the interest of the story is in the development of +the plot and how much in the stirring of vital sensations, including +sympathetic moods? _b._ Does the development of the story center about +any idea or attitude toward life? _c._ What excellences and what faults +do you find in the story? + + + + +SOME STORIES AVAILABLE FOR STUDY + + +"Five Hundred Dollars," "The Village Convict," and "Eli," all in a +volume under the title of the first, Heman White Chaplin, Little, Brown +& Co., $1.00. + +"Loveliness," Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward, _Atlantic Monthly_, August, +1899. + +"The Flail of Time," Helen Choate Prince, _Atlantic Monthly_, August, +1899. + +"A Christmas Carol," Dickens, Cassel's National Library, 10 cents. + +"Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush," Ian MacLaren, David C. Cook, Elgin and +Chicago, paper, 5 cents. + +"The Luck of Roaring Camp," "Tennessee's Partner," Bret Harte, Houghton, +Mifflin & Co., $1.00, _Overland Monthly_, September, 1902. + +"Bonaventure" (Chapters XVI-XVIII), George W. Cable, copyrighted, but +obtainable in a cheap reprint. + +"The Game and the Nation," Owen Wister, _Harper's Monthly_, May, 1900. + +Nettleton's "Specimens of the Short Story," Henry Holt & Co., 50 cents. + + + + +BOOKS THAT MAY PROFITABLY BE CONSULTED + + +"Education of the Central Nervous System," R. P. Halleck, The Macmillan +Co. + +"The Philosophy of the Short Story," Brander Matthews, Longmans, Green & +Co. + +"The Short Story," Yale Studies in English, Henry Holt & Co. + +"Forms of Prose Literature," J. H. Gardiner, Chas. Scribner's Sons. + +"Working Principles of Rhetoric," J. F. Genung, Ginn & Co. + +"Outline of Psychology," E. B. Titchener, The Macmillan Co. + +"Short Story Writing," C. R. Barrett, Baker & Taylor Co., $ 1.00. + +Chapter XII, "A Study of Prose Fiction," Bliss Perry, Houghton, Mifflin +& Co. + + + * * * * * + + + + +ENGLISH LITERATURE. + +_The Arden Shakespeare._ + + The Greater Plays in their literary aspect. One play in each + volume, with Introduction, Notes, Essay on Metre, and Glossary. + Based on the Globe text. From 144 to 224 pages. Cloth. Price, 25 + cents a volume. + +This edition presents the greater plays in their literary aspect, and +not merely as material for the study of philology or grammar. Verbal and +textual criticism has been included only so far as may serve to help the +student in his appreciation of the poetry. + +Questions of date and literary history have been fully dealt with in the +Introductions, but the larger space has been devoted to the +interpretative rather than to the matter-of-fact order of scholarship. +Ćsthetic judgments are never final, but the editors have attempted to +suggest points of view from which the analysis of dramatic motive and +dramatic character may be profitably undertaken. + +In the Notes likewise, though it is hoped that unfamiliar expressions +and allusions have been adequately explained, it has been thought more +important to consider the dramatic value of each scene, and the part +that it plays in relation to the whole. + +Each volume has a Glossary, an Essay upon Metre, and an Index. +Appendices are added upon points of interest that could not be treated +in the Introduction or the Notes. The text is based on that of the Globe +edition. The following plays are ready:-- + + HAMLET.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A. + + MACBETH.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A., Oxford. + + JULIUS CĆSAR.--Edited by Arthur D. Innes, M.A., Oxford. + + THE MERCHANT OF VENICE.--Edited by H. L. Withers, B.A., Oxford. + + TWELFTH NIGHT.--Edited by Arthur D. Innes, M.A., Oxford. + + AS YOU LIKE IT.--Edited by J. C. Smith, M.A., Edinburgh. + + A MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A. + + CYMBELINE.--Edited by A. J. Wyatt, M.A., Cambridge. + + THE TEMPEST.--Edited by F. S. Boas, M.A., Oxford. + + KING JOHN.--Edited by G. C. Moore Smith, M.A., Cambridge. + + RICHARD II.--Edited by C. H. Herford, L.H.D., Cambridge. + + RICHARD III.--Edited by George Macdonald, M.A., Oxford. + + HENRY V.--Edited by G. C. Moore Smith, M.A., Cambridge. + + HENRY VIII.--Edited by D. Nichol Smith, M.A., Edinburgh. + + CORIOLANUS.--Edited by Edmund K. Chambers, B.A., Oxford. + + MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING.--Edited by J. C. Smith, M.A., Oxford. + + KING LEAR.--Edited by D. Nichol Smith, M.A., Edinburgh. + + + + +_Introduction to Shakespeare._ + + By HIRAM CORSON, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English + Literature in Cornell University. Cloth. 400 pages. Introduction + price, $1.00. + +This work indicates some lines of Shakespearean thought which serve +to introduce to the study of the plays as plays. The introductory +chapter is followed by chapters on: The Shakespeare-Bacon +controversy,--The Authenticity of the First Folio,--The Chronology +of the Plays,--Shakespeare's Verse,--The Latin and Anglo-Saxon +Elements of Shakespeare's English. The larger portion of the book is +devoted to commentaries and critical chapters upon Romeo and Juliet, +King John, Much Ado about Nothing, Hamlet, Macbeth, and Anthony and +Cleopatra. These aim to present the points of view demanded for a +proper appreciation of Shakespeare's general attitude toward things, +and his resultant dramatic art, rather than the textual study of the +plays. + + + + +_Introduction to Browning._ + + By HIRAM CORSON, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English + Literature in Cornell University. Cloth. 348 pages. Introduction + price, $1.00. + +This volume affords aid and guidance to the study of Robert Browning's +poetry, which, being the most complexly subjective of all English +poetry, is, for that reason alone, the most difficult. The exposition +presented in the Introduction, of the constitution and skillful +management of the dramatic monologue and the Arguments given to the +several poems included in this volume, will, it is hoped, reduce, if not +altogether remove, the difficulties of this kind. In the same section of +the Introduction certain peculiarities of the poet's diction are +presented and illustrated. + +The following is the Table of Contents:-- + + I. The Spiritual Ebb and Flow exhibited in English Poetry from + Chaucer to Tennyson and Browning. II. The Idea of Personality + and of Art, as an intermediate agency of Personality, as + embodied in Browning's Poetry. (Read before the Browning Society + of London in 1882.) III. Browning's Obscurity. IV. Browning's + Verse. V. Arguments of the Poems. VI. Poems. (Under this head + are thirty-three representative poems, the Arguments of which + are given in the preceding section.) + + + + +A Source Book of Greek History + + By FREDERICK MORROW FLING, Professor of Ancient History, + University of Nebraska. Cloth. xiv + 370 pages. Illustrated. + Introduction price, $1.00. + +This book serves several purposes. It (1) supplies illustrative +material, drawn from the best Greek sources, that may be used to +supplement the school narrative; (2) by means of searching questions, it +furnishes opportunity for more intensive study of certain periods; (3) +by supplying data upon the writer of source, and at times, more than one +source upon the same topic, it makes possible the study of simple +problems in the value of evidence; (4) extracts are of sufficient length +so that the pupil may be given some idea of Greek literature, as far as +that is possible through the use of translations; (5) the illustrations +not only supplement the written sources on the life of the Greeks, but +have been selected with a view to impressing upon the minds of students +the great value of the artistic work of the Greeks. + + + + +A Source Book of Roman History + + By DANA C. MUNRO, University of Wisconsin. Cloth. Illustrated, + x + 258 pages. Introduction price, $1.00. + +The series of extracts from original sources contained in this book +cover the following topics: Sources and credibility of early Roman +history; religion; the army; monarchical institutions; the constitution +of the republic; early laws and history; the conquest of the +Mediterranean; the Punic wars; results of foreign wars; misrule of the +optimates; the last century of the republic; the early empire; +Christianity and Stoicism; Roman life and society--slavery, education, +manners, customs, amusements; provinces and provincial administration, +etc. References to supplementary sources are prefixed to each chapter. + + + + +A Day in Ancient Rome + + A revision of Lohr's _Aus dem alten Rom_, by EDGAR S. SHUMWAY, + recently Professor of Latin in Rutgers College. Cloth. 96 pages. + Fifty-nine illustrations (seventeen full page). Retail price, 75 + cents. Paper, 30 cents. + +This attractive little book gives a picture of the famous old city as +compared with the new. Availing himself of the latest excavations and of +recent photographs, the author pictures graphically persons and places +of classic fame as though vividly present. + + + + +Studies in General History + + (1000 B.C. to 1880 A.D.) By MARY D. SHELDON, formerly Professor + of History in Wellesley College, and Assistant Professor in + Leland Stanford Jr. University. Half leather, xvi + 556 pages. + Introduction price, $1.60. + +This book gives a collection of historic material, which may be dealt +with first-hand, as the pupil deals with the actual substance in +chemistry, and with the living plant in botany. Work of this kind +stimulates the student's historic sense and judgment. _It is especially +adapted to help students and teachers who do not have access to large +libraries; it contains within itself all that is absolutely necessary +for the work required._ The material given consists of maps, pictures, +lists of important events, men, works, and deeds, tables of political +organizations, and extracts from original sources, including +constitutions, creeds, laws, chronicles, and poems. It is accompanied by +questions in the nature of problems, the answers to which must be worked +out by the pupil himself from the given data. It is a book to be +studied, not read. + + + + +Greek and Roman History + + Or, _Studies in General History_, from 1000 B.C. to 476 A.D. By + MARY SHELDON BARNES, formerly Professor of History in Wellesley + College, and in Leland Stanford Jr. University. Cloth, xiii + + 255 pages. Introduction price, $1.00. + +This book contains the portion of Sheldon's _Studies in General History_ +which relates to Greece and Rome, including a small amount of prefatory +ancient history. This portion meets the needs of students preparing for +college, of schools in which ancient history takes the place of general +history, and of students who have used an ordinary manual and wish to +make a spirited and helpful review. + + + + +Teacher's Manual to General History + + By MARY SHELDON BARNES. Cloth. 172 pages. Retail price, 85 + cents. + +The student's edition of the _Studies in General History_ contains +material and problems for independent study. The _Teacher's Manual_ +contains the answers to these problems, embodied in tabulations, and a +running commentary of text, which will furnish suggestions for +discussions and summaries. + + + + +Aids to the Teaching of General History + + A pamphlet of 30 pages, by MARY SHELDON BARNES. Retail price, 10 + cents. Also bound with the _Teacher's Manual_. + + + + +_English Etymology._ + + A select glossary, serving as an introduction to the history of + the English Language. By FRIEDRICH KLUGE, Professor at the + University of Freiburg, Germany, and author of _Etymologisches + Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache_, and FREDERICK LUTZ, Professor + at Albion College, Mich. Cloth. 242 pages. Introduction price, + 60 cents. + +The purpose of this work is to serve as an introduction to the study of +the historical development of the English language. The scope of the +book is sufficient to give the student an insight into the main +linguistic phenomena. While the method of discussion is concise, care +has been taken to include all words the history of which bears on the +development of the language at large. The authors have, in the first +place, traced back to the older periods loanwords of Scandinavian, +French and Latin origin, and such genuine English words as may afford +matter for investigation. In this way there has been provided a "basis +for every historical grammar of English." + + + + +_A History of English Critical Terms._ + + By J. W. BRAY. Cloth. 352 pages. Retail price, $1.00. + +In literary criticism, and in the discussion of art, there are more than +a hundred important terms whose history determines their present use and +meaning. There are also several hundred others terms occasionally used +in explaining the larger terms or their synonyms. All these terms are +here arranged in alphabetical order. The history of the more important +terms is presented in full. Under each is given: (1) Its grouping (by +synonyms). (2) The historical limits of its use. (3) A brief statement +of its meanings. (4) An explanation of its changes of meaning. (5) +Representative quotations. + +About one hundred and fifty critics are represented in the quotations, +the work thus covering the entire field of English criticism. + +The vocabulary of criticism is preceded by an Introduction, which gives +a philosophical discussion of critical terms under three heads: (1) What +is a Critical term? (2) General Historical Movements and Tendencies in +Critical Terms. (3) Method of Dealing with the Separate Critical Terms. + + The Outlook, _New York_: The book is not simply a collection of + information; it is both a contribution to the history of + criticism and a text-book for its study. + + + + +English Literature + + =The Arden Shakespeare.= The plays in their literary aspect, + each with introduction, interpretative notes, glossary, and + essay on metre. 25 cts. + + =Bronson's History of American Literature.= 384 pages. 80 cents. + + =Burke's American Orations.= (A. J. GEORGE.) Five complete + selections. 50 cts. + + =Burns's Select Poems.= (A. 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HEATH & CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Writing of the Short Story, by +Lewis Worthington Smith + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WRITING OF THE SHORT STORY *** + +***** This file should be named 27224-8.txt or 27224-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/7/2/2/27224/ + +Produced by Jacqueline Jeremy and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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