diff options
Diffstat (limited to '26880-h/26880-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 26880-h/26880-h.htm | 4225 |
1 files changed, 4225 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/26880-h/26880-h.htm b/26880-h/26880-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dd9e7c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/26880-h/26880-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4225 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Bronze Age In Ireland, by George Coffey. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + + .indent {margin-left: 2em;} + + .notes {background-color: #dfdbdb; color: #000; padding: .5em; + margin-left: 30%; margin-right: 30%; text-align: center;} + + h1,h2,h3,h5 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .ralign {position: absolute; right: 30%;} + .content1 {margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 30%; } + .content2 {margin-left: 25%; + margin-right: 30%; } + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .box { width: 700px; + margin: 0 auto; + text-align: center; + padding: 1em; + border-style: none; } + + .pagenum { visibility: hidden; + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + a { text-decoration: none; } + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Bronze Age in Ireland, by George Coffey + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Bronze Age in Ireland + +Author: George Coffey + +Release Date: October 11, 2008 [EBook #26880] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Anne Storer and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<p class="notes">Transcriber’s Note:<br /> +The term “halberd” and “halbert” have both +been used on numerous occasions. “Halbert” is a variant of “Halberd” +and has been left as printed in the original text.</p> + +<div class="box"> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h2>THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND</h2> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h1>THE BRONZE AGE</h1> +<h2>IN IRELAND</h2> + +<p> </p> + +<h5>BY</h5> +<h3>GEORGE COFFEY</h3> + +<p style="font-size: smaller;" class="center">MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY<br /> +HONORARY FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF IRELAND<br /> +KEEPER OF IRISH ANTIQUITIES IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM<br /> +AND PROFESSOR R.H.A. DUBLIN</p> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><em>WITH ELEVEN PLATES AND EIGHTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS</em></p> + +<p> </p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 14em;"> +HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO., <span class="smcap">Limited,</span><br /> +104 GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN<br /> +SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO.,<br /> +LONDON<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6em;">1913</span></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Printed at the</strong></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/img004.jpg" width="150" height="125" alt="Dublin University Press" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>By Ponsonby and Gibbs.</strong></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>In this book on the Bronze Age in Ireland I have collected and +collated all my work on the period. Much of it I have already +published in the “Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy” +and elsewhere. I have long felt the need of a book on the +Bronze Age in Ireland, as hitherto none has appeared dealing +adequately with the archæology of that period in this country.</p> + +<p>Within the last few years it has been recognized that the +Bronze-Age civilization in Europe did not consist of a series +of isolated communities, each developing its own type of objects +and decorations, but that there was a community of ideas and +forms extending from Mycenæ all over the European continent.</p> + +<p>I have described the various forms of Bronze-Age implements +of peace and of war found in Ireland, and have shown +how they are connected with similar types on the continent +of Europe. M. J. Déchelette, of the Roanne Museum, one of +the first authorities on the Bronze Age, agrees with me +in ascribing a Mycenæan origin to certain forms of Bronze-Age +implements.</p> + +<p>How this Mycenæan influence penetrated to Ireland is a +matter on which there is some difference of opinion, and +possibly new discoveries may throw additional light on the +problem. As I have shown both in this and in former works, +the most probable route seems to be that of the Danube and +the Elbe, and thence by way of Scandinavia to Ireland. It is +to be hoped that now—with a concentrating of Irish interests +on Irish affairs a new impetus will be given to the study +of the history of our country, and that many workers may +be found in the fields of archæology and of all subjects +connected with our past.</p> + +<p>In my “Guide to the Celtic Antiquities of the Christian +Period” I have given the history of Irish art in the Christian +period; in “New Grange (Brugh na Boine) and other Incised +Tumuli in Ireland, the influence of Crete and the Ægean +in the extreme west of Europe in early times,” I have given +as much as is known of the pre-Christian period up to the +Bronze Age; and in this, my latest work, which has been +much interrupted by illness, I have endeavoured to complete +the history of ancient art in Ireland.</p> + +<p>I have to thank the Councils of the Royal Irish Academy +and of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland for the loan +of a number of blocks. In other cases drawings have been made +direct from objects in the National Museum by Miss E. Barnes.</p> + +<p>The plates are from photographs taken by the photographer +of the National Museum.</p> + +<p>In offering this book to the public I must express my +gratitude to Mr. E. C. R. Armstrong, to whom I am indebted +for his unvarying kindness and sympathy, and for much +valuable assistance both in the matter and form of the work.</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"> +GEORGE COFFEY.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +</div> + + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<p class="ralign"><span class="smcap">page</span></p> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_1"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> I,</a> <span class='ralign'>1</span></p> +<p class="content2">Introduction; Chronology of the Irish Bronze Age.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_6"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> II,</a> <span class='ralign'>6</span></p> +<p class="content2">Transitional Copper Period; Localities where native copper +is found in Ireland; Finds of copper celts; Moulds for +casting flat celts; List of localities where Irish copper celts +have been found; Halberds; Localities where found; +Types; Analyses; Continental examples; Probable derivation +of Irish halberds from Spain.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#III"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> III,</a> <span class='ralign'>23</span></p> +<p class="content2">First and later periods of the Bronze Age; Evolution of the +bronze celt; Ornamentation of bronze celts; Palstave with +double loops; Anvil and hammers; Spear-heads; Evolution +from the knife-dagger; Type derived from the rapier; +Leaf-shaped spear-heads; Spear-heads with apertures in the +blade; Moulds for casting spear-heads; Ferules for spear-butts.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_46"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> IV,</a> <span class='ralign'>46</span></p> +<p class="content2">Irish gold: Account of Irish gold deposits; Lunulæ: +General description of; Distribution.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_56"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> V,</a> <span class='ralign'>56</span></p> +<p class="content2">Daggers and rapiers; Evolution of the dagger and rapier +blade; Handles of daggers and rapiers.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_62"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> VI,</a> <span class='ralign'>62</span></p> +<p class="content2">Gold gorgets; Gold sun-disks; Gold balls; Clare find; +Penannular rings and ring-money; Ring-money.</p> + + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_71"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> VII,</a> <span class='ralign'>71</span></p> +<p class="content2">Leaf-shaped swords; Division of types; Absence of moulds +for casting; Bronze chapes; Winged chapes; Shields; +Circular bronze shields; Shield of wood; Leather Shield.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_78"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> VIII,</a> <span class='ralign'>78</span></p> +<p class="content2">Torcs; Twisted torcs; Distribution of torcs; Ribbon torcs; +Plain torcs.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#IX"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> IX,</a> <span class='ralign'>80</span></p> +<p class="content2">Bronze-age finds; List of well-authenticated Irish finds.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_88"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> X,</a> <span class='ralign'>88</span></p> +<p class="content2">Bronze trumpets; Types and derivation of Irish trumpets; +Sickles; Discussion of types; Importance of, with regard to +date of agriculture; Disk-headed pins.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_94"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> XI,</a> <span class='ralign'>94</span></p> +<p class="content2">Bronze-age pottery; Food-vessels; Derivation of, from +Neolithic type; Cinerary urns; Incense cups.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_101"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> XII,</a> <span class='ralign'>101</span></p> +<p class="content2">Bronze-age ornamentation in Ireland; Discussion of the +ornamentation at New Grange; M. Déchelette’s views as to +its origin compared with those of the author.</p> + +<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_105"><span class="smcap">Index</span>,</a> <span class='ralign'>105</span></p> + + +<div class="box"> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr> <td align='right'>Fig.</td> <td align='left'></td> <td align='right'>Page</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig1">1.</a></td> <td align='left'>Copper Halbert, Birr find,</td> <td align='right'>7</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig2">2.</a></td> <td align='left'>Copper celts, Birr find,</td> <td align='right'>8</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig3">3.</a></td> <td align='left'>Copper knife and awls found at Knocknague,</td> <td align='right'>9</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig4">4.</a></td> <td align='left'>Copper celts,</td> <td align='right'>10</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig5">5.</a></td> <td align='left'>Copper celts from Cappeen, Co. Cork,</td> <td align='right'>11</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig6">6.</a></td> <td align='left'>Stone mould for casting celts,</td> <td align='right'>12</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig7">7.</a></td> <td align='left'>Halbert blades,</td> <td align='right'>13</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig8">8.</a></td> <td align='left'>Halbert blades,</td> <td align='right'>14</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig9">9.</a></td> <td align='left'>Halbert blades,</td> <td align='right'>15</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig10">10.</a></td> <td align='left'>Halbert blades,</td> <td align='right'>16</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig11">11.</a></td> <td align='left'>Halberts from North Germany and Sweden,</td> <td align='right'>18</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig12">12.</a></td> <td align='left'>Halberts from South and East Spain,</td> <td align='right'>19</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig13">13.</a></td> <td align='left'>Rock markings, Maritime Alps,</td> <td align='right'>20</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig14">14.</a></td> <td align='left'>Stone pick from the Bann,</td> <td align='right'>21</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig14">15.</a></td> <td align='left'>Deer-horn pick,</td> <td align='right'>21</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig16">16.</a></td> <td align='left'>Ornamented bronze celts,</td> <td align='right'>24</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate1">Plate I,</a> Irish bronze celts in the order of their development,</td> <td align='right'>24</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig17">17.</a></td> <td align='left'>Ornamented bronze celts,</td> <td align='right'>25</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig18">18.</a></td> <td align='left'>Ornamented bronze celts,</td> <td align='right'>26</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig19">19.</a></td> <td align='left'>Winged celt,</td> <td align='right'>27</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig19">20.</a></td> <td align='left'>Winged celt,</td> <td align='right'>27</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig19">21.</a></td> <td align='left'>Palstave with double loops,</td> <td align='right'>27</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig22">22.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze anvil,</td> <td align='right'>28</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig23">23.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze hammers,</td> <td align='right'>28</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig24">24.</a></td> <td align='left'>Dagger and spear-heads,</td> <td align='right'>29</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig25">25.</a></td> <td align='left'>Spear-heads,</td> <td align='right'>30</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig26">26.</a></td> <td align='left'>Spear-heads,</td> <td align='right'>31</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig26">27.</a></td> <td align='left'>Rapier and spear-head,</td> <td align='right'>31</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig28">28.</a></td> <td align='left'>Leaf-shaped spear-heads,</td> <td align='right'>32</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig29">29.</a></td> <td align='left'>Ornamented socket of spear-head,</td> <td align='right'>32</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig30">30.</a></td> <td align='left'>Leaf-shaped spear-heads found at the Ford, Belturbet,</td> <td align='right'>33</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig31">31.</a></td> <td align='left'>Spear-heads with loops joining the blade,</td> <td align='right'>34</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig31">32.</a></td> <td align='left'>Spear-heads,</td> <td align='right'>34</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig33">33.</a></td> <td align='left'>Ornamental spear-heads, with openings in the blade,</td> <td align='right'>35</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig33">34.</a></td> <td align='left'>Portion of spear-head, with studs at the base of the wings,</td> <td align='right'>35</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig35">35.</a></td> <td align='left'>Spear-heads with openings in the blades,</td> <td align='right'>36</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig36">36.</a></td> <td align='left'>Spear-heads with ornamental loops in the blades,</td> <td align='right'>37</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig36">37.</a></td> <td align='left'>Spear-head found at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh,</td> <td align='right'>37</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig38">38.</a></td> <td align='left'>Half of mould for casting a socketed spear-head, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,</td> <td align='right'>38</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig39">39.</a></td> <td align='left'>Half of mould for casting a spear-head and dagger, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,</td> <td align='right'>39</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig40">40.</a></td> <td align='left'>Mould for casting a spear-head and knife, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,</td> <td align='right'>40</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig41">41.</a></td> <td align='left'>Moulds for casting primitive spear-heads found in Co. Tyrone,</td> <td align='right'>41</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig42">42.</a></td> <td align='left'>Moulds for casting primitive spear-heads found in Co. Tyrone,</td> <td align='right'>42</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig43">43.</a></td> <td align='left'>Half of mould for casting spear-head and dagger, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,</td> <td align='right'>43</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig44">44.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze spear-ferules,</td> <td align='right'>44</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig44">45.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze spear-ferule with La Tène ornament,</td> <td align='right'>44</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig46">46.</a></td> <td align='left'>Gold lunula found at Trenta, Carrigans, Co. Donegal,</td> <td align='right'>47</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig47">47.</a></td> <td align='left'>Gold lunula found in Co. Galway,</td> <td align='right'>48</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig48">48.</a></td> <td align='left'>Gold lunula,</td> <td align='right'>49</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig49">49.</a></td> <td align='left'>Gold lunula found at Killarney,</td> <td align='right'>50</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig50">50.</a></td> <td align='left'>Oak case for lunula found at Newtown, Co. Cavan,</td> <td align='right'>51</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig51">51.</a></td> <td align='left'>Gold lunula found at Valognes, Manche,</td> <td align='right'>51</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig52">52.</a></td> <td align='left'>Gold lunula found in Co. Londonderry,</td> <td align='right'>52</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig53">53.</a></td> <td align='left'>Gold lunula found at Athlone,</td> <td align='right'>54</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig54">54.</a></td> <td align='left'>Map showing the distribution of gold lunulæ in Ireland and Europe,</td> <td align='right'>55</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig55">55.</a></td> <td align='left'>Stone celt, bronze dagger with gold band, and urn, found in Topped Mountain<br /> Cairn, Co. Fermanagh,</td> <td align='right'>56</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig56">56.</a></td> <td align='left'>Dagger and rapier blades,</td> <td align='right'>57</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig57">57.</a></td> <td align='left'>Dagger with horn handle found at Ballymoney, Co. Antrim,</td> <td align='right'>59</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig57">58.</a></td> <td align='left'>Rapier found in Upper Lough Erne,</td> <td align='right'>59</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig57">59.</a></td> <td align='left'>Rapier found at Lissane, Co. Derry,</td> <td align='right'>59</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig60">60.</a></td> <td align='left'>Rapiers and daggers found in Ireland,</td> <td align='right'>61</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig61">61.</a></td> <td align='left'>Gold gorget found in Ireland, formerly in the possession of the Earl of Charleville,</td> <td align='right'>62</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate2">Plate II,</a> Irish gold gorgets,</td> <td align='right'>62</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate3">Plate III,</a> gold sun-disks,</td> <td align='right'>64</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate4">Plate IV,</a> portion of the great Clare find,</td> <td align='right'>66</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig62">62.</a></td> <td align='left'>Gold fibulæ and other objects found together at Coachford, Co. Cork,</td> <td align='right'>67</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate5">Plate V,</a> gold fibulæ,</td> <td align='right'>68</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig63">63.</a></td> <td align='left'>Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin, showing Europeans holding manillas,</td> <td align='right'>68</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig64">64.</a></td> <td align='left'>Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin, showing natives holding manillas,</td> <td align='right'>69</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate6">Plate VI,</a> gold ring-money,</td> <td align='right'>70</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig65">65.</a></td> <td align='left'>Leaf-shaped bronze swords found with a spear-head at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh,</td> <td align='right'>72</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig66">66.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze chapes,</td> <td align='right'>73</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig67">67.</a></td> <td align='left'>Winged chapes,</td> <td align='right'>73</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig68">68.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze shield found at Lough Gur, Co. Limerick,</td> <td align='right'>74</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig69">69.</a></td> <td align='left'>Alder-wood shield found in Co. Leitrim,</td> <td align='right'>75</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig70">70.</a></td> <td align='left'>Front and back of leather shield, found at Clonbrin, Co. Longford,</td> <td align='right'>76</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate7">Plate VII,</a> gold torcs from Tara and elsewhere,</td> <td align='right'>78</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate8">Plate VIII,</a> gold torcs,</td> <td align='right'>78</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate9">Plate IX,</a> gold torcs from Clonmacnois and Broighter,</td> <td align='right'>80</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig71">71.</a></td> <td align='left'>Two late Bronze-Age finds,</td> <td align='right'>83</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig72">72.</a></td> <td align='left'>Late Bronze-Age horse-hair fabrics from Armoy, Co. Antrim,</td> <td align='right'>84</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig73">73.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze implements, Co. Tipperary,</td> <td align='right'>85</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig74">74.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze implements found at Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary,</td> <td align='right'>86</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate10">Plate X,</a> bronze trumpets,</td> <td align='right'>88</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig75">75.</a></td> <td align='left'>Mould for casting a sickle, found at Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,</td> <td align='right'>89</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig76">76.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze sickles,</td> <td align='right'>90</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig77">77.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze sickles,</td> <td align='right'>91</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig78">78.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze disk,</td> <td align='right'>92</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig79">79.</a></td> <td align='left'>Bronze button,</td> <td align='right'>92</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig80">80.</a></td> <td align='left'>Incense cup,</td> <td align='right'>94</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig81">81.</a></td> <td align='left'>Cinerary urn,</td> <td align='right'>94</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig82">82.</a></td> <td align='left'>Food-vessel with cover, Danesfort, Co. Kilkenny,</td> <td align='right'>95</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig83">83.</a></td> <td align='left'>Cinerary urn, Carballybeg, Co. Waterford,</td> <td align='right'>96</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'></td> <td align='left'><a href="#plate11">Plate XI,</a> food-vessels in the order of their development,</td> <td align='right'>96</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig84">84.</a></td> <td align='left'>Model of cinerary urn from Greenhills, Co. Dublin,</td> <td align='right'>97</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='right'><a href="#fig85">85.</a></td> <td align='left'>Cinerary urn, Cookstown, Co. Tyrone,</td> <td align='right'>98</td> </tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h1>THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND</h1> + +<p class="center">———————</p> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Introduction</strong></span></p> + + +<p>This book deals with the Bronze Age principally from the +point of view of the implements and weapons in use in Ireland +during that period. It is unnecessary to state that the +materials for writing anything like a full account of the +civilization or political organization during the Bronze Age do +not exist; and even the ethnological affinities of the dominant +race that inhabited Ireland during this period are doubtful. +All that can be said is that there was apparently no gap +between the end of the Neolithic Period and the transitional +Copper to Bronze Period. Stone weapons continued in use side +by side with those of copper and bronze; and the form of the +former was sometimes actually influenced by those of the +latter.</p> + +<p>There has been so little scientific excavation in Ireland that +the question as to the early burial-customs is surrounded with +difficulty; such evidence as there is points to cremation having +been practised early, as was also the case in Great Britain. +Instances show that the two rites of inhumation and cremation +were practised side by side.</p> + +<p>In the cairn excavated on Belmore Mountain, County +Fermanagh, both burnt and unburnt interments were found +with pottery and other objects of early Bronze-Age +type.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +At a recent excavation near Naas, County Kildare, a burnt +interment was discovered in a cist, the remains being associated +with a wrist-bracer and remains of +pottery.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +In the fine series +of cairns on Carrowkeel Mountain, County Sligo, burnt and +unburnt interments were found associated with pottery, bone +implements, and stone +beads.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> +At Annaghkeen, County +Galway, a cremated burial was discovered in a cist associated +with pottery and a small bronze knife-dagger and +awl.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>The Hon. John Abercromby gives a list of food-vessels found +with cremated burials in Ireland, and to these must be added a +food-vessel of early type found in 1912 in a quarry at Crumlin, +County Dublin. It must, however, be left for future excavations +to decide many questions to which at present no answer, +or only a doubtful one, can be given. This, however, is +certain—Ireland during the Bronze Age was not isolated, but +stood in direct communication with the Continent. Ægean and +Scandinavian influences can be detected in the great tumuli of +the New Grange +group<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>; +and Iberian influence is discernible in +some of the later types of bronze implements. Ireland, as will +be shown in the chapters dealing directly with the gold objects, +was, during the Bronze Age, a kind of western El Dorado, +owing to her great richness in gold; Irish gold ornaments have +been found both on the Continent and in Scandinavia; while +Scandinavian amber has been found in Ireland. As will be +seen on p. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, the Bronze-Age people were acquainted with +the art of weaving; and fine ornaments of horse-hair were +sometimes used. The art of making pottery by hand was +carried to a high degree of excellence. Shaving must have been +fairly common, judging by the number of bronze razors found. +We shall find evidence further on in this work to show that +corn was probably grown and agriculture fairly advanced.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +The great tumuli at New Grange and the lesser ones at +Carrowkeel show that the art of building was well developed, +and that the religious ideals of the people had attained a certain +fixed form. What the actual dwellings occupied by the people +were we cannot say; but it is probable that many of the +promontory-forts and some at least of the larger cashels and +ring-forts date back to this period. There remain, however, +many questions which, as we have said, must be kept over for +future investigations.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>The Chronology of the Irish Bronze Age</strong></span></p> + +<p>Some discussion as to the absolute chronology of the Bronze +Age in Ireland will, no doubt, be expected, though any attempts +to give actual dates can only be approximate; the succession +of types is really of considerably more importance than the +actual date, as such a succession enables objects, finds, and +interments to be arranged in a progressive series, and shows the +general trend of advance and culture. The doyen of prehistoric +archæology, Dr. Oscar Montelius, of Stockholm, has been the +pioneer of the study of the prehistoric chronology of Europe, +his chronology of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia having been +published as far back as 1885. Since then he has published +the results of his studies of the Bronze-Age chronologies of +Greece and Italy, and of France, Belgium, South Germany, and +Switzerland. More recently (1908) he has put forward the +chronology of the British Islands in a notable memoir published +in Archæologia. It may be mentioned that Dr. Montelius +visited Ireland some years ago, and speaks with the greater +authority as having personally examined the actual Irish +evidence.</p> + +<p>In this memoir Dr. Montelius divides the Bronze Age of +Great Britain and Ireland into five periods, and includes in his +first period the transitional time when copper was in use +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +(Copper Period), which he places at from the middle of +the third to the beginning of the second millennium <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> Now, +though the division of the Irish Bronze Age into five periods +may be accepted, we should hardly care to place the first period +as early as Dr. Montelius suggests; and without going into the +question of the time at which the period commenced, we might +take the period of its ending at from about 2000-1800 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> +In this period would be included the flat copper celts of early +form, copied from the stone celts of the preceding Neolithic +Period, some few small, flat knife-daggers of copper, and the +earliest of the halberds. Stone implements, no doubt, remained +largely in use; and the very finely decorated hammer-axes +probably belong to this period.</p> + +<p>It is possible that gold—which, on account of its colour and +appearance on the surface of the ground, must have been one +of the metals first noticed and made use of in prehistoric +times—was used for making ornaments at this period, or +possibly, as Prof. Gowland suggests, may have been hammered +into ornaments even during the preceding Neolithic +Age.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> +There is, however, no gold object in the National Collection +which we should care to place so early.</p> + +<p>The second division of the Bronze Age (the first period +of the true Bronze Age) would fall between 1800 and 1500 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>; +and in it would be included, as the principal types, the flat +bronze celts—including those with the edge much wider than the +blade—flanged celts, small bronze daggers, the later halberds, +jet buttons with conical perforations, and the early types of jet +necklaces, and probably the gold lunulæ.</p> + +<p>The third period might be placed at from 1500 to 1250 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, +and the principal types falling within it are flanged celts +with stop-ridges, tanged spear-heads, and larger dagger-blades, +sometimes with bronze handles.</p> + +<p>The fourth period, which was long, and during which a +considerable development takes place, might be placed at from +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +1280 to 900 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> This period includes the later type of celts +with increased stop-ridge and flanges (palstaves), and some of +the earlier forms of socketed celts, long rapiers, the earlier +type of leaf-shaped swords, and the looped and leaf-shaped +spear-heads, gold torcs, and possibly some of the bronze fibulæ, +and sickles without sockets; the disk-headed pins and bronze +razors may be placed either at the end of this time or the +beginning of the next period. In this period must also be +placed the building of the great tumuli of the New Grange +group.</p> + +<p>The fifth division—also a long one—would go from 900 to +about 350 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, at which time iron weapons were probably +coming into general use in Ireland. In this period would fall +the socketed celts, including the latest type, which takes a +form not uncommon among iron or steel axes, the later bronze +swords with notches below the blades, bronze sword-chapes, the +socketed sickles, probably some of the more highly ornamented +bronze spears with apertures in the blades, the bronze trumpets, +the gold fibulæ, and gold gorgets. It must be remembered that +the Continental Hallstatt period is not at present well represented +in Great Britain and Ireland, and though, under +Hallstatt influence, certain Continental Iron-Age types such as +bronze caldrons, trumpets, round shields, &c., found their way +into Ireland, we cannot as yet definitely separate this period +from the end of the Bronze Age.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Transitional Copper Period</strong></span></p> + + +<p>In Ireland the metal first used was copper. Native copper +is plentiful in Ireland, and has been chiefly obtained from the +Counties of Wicklow, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and +Galway. In Waterford stone implements have been found in +copper mines in ancient workings, showing copper was mined +for at an early +period.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> +The time during which copper was in +use was probably relatively only a short one, much shorter than +the Neolithic Period or than the true Bronze Age. The +evidence for this period is the large number of flat copper celts +which have been found in the north and south, and east and +west, of the country. The earliest copper celts resemble in +form the stone celts from which they are derived, and were +cast in open moulds on one side only, and then hammered flat +on the other. Moulds for casting celts in this way have been +found in Ireland. It is also extremely interesting to notice +that some stone celts betray the influence of metal types by +their form. It may be well here to meet an objection that has +been raised against a special use of copper in Ireland. It has +been urged that the large number of flat copper celts may have +been due to a scarcity of tin, and that as copper cannot be cast +in closed moulds, casters who could cast advanced forms of +bronze celts were obliged to return to the primitive form +necessary for casting in an open mould. Copper ores are, +however, very rarely found in a pure state, and the small +impurities of antimony, arsenic, &c., combine in the smelting +with the copper, and lend a hardness and ductibility which +would enable it to be cast in closed +moulds.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> +The analyses of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +Irish copper celts agree among themselves, and substantially +with those from other countries, the small +quantities of tin, antimony, arsenic, &c., +which are found being due to impurities +in the ore. The celts may be taken to be +of copper, and not of poor +bronze.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> +The earliest copper celts resemble the stone +celts from which they are derived; some +of them are small. A development takes +place throughout the series, the celts +becoming larger and the edges thinner +as they approach the bronze forms. No +trace of a stop-ridge is ever found on +copper celts.</p> + +<p><a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a></p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 109px;"> +<img src="images/img019.jpg" width="109" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 1.—Copper Halberd, Birr find.</span> +</div> + +<p>The principal finds are as follows:—</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;"> +1. Three copper celts, three copper awls, and a copper knife found, +in 1874, in a bog at Knocknague, Kilbannon, County Galway. Purchased +from the finder, Michael Rafferty, by the Royal Irish +Academy. (Fig. <a href="#fig3">3</a>.)</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;"> +2. Three copper celts, a fragment of a fourth (butt-end), a copper +halberd, and a short blade of copper of somewhat similar form, +found in 1892, near Birr, King’s County, formerly in the collection +of Mr. Robert Day, of Cork. (Fig. <a href="#fig2">2</a>.)</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;"> +3. Three copper celts found in 1868, when ploughing at Cullinagh, +near Beaufort, Killarney, County Kerry. (Day Collection.)</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;"> +4. Two large and well-formed copper celts found together +in street excavations in Suffolk Street, Dublin, in +May, 1857. (Ray Collection.) (Fig. <a href="#fig4">4</a>, nos. 1 and 7.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig2" id="fig2"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;"> +<img src="images/img020.jpg" width="344" height="400" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 2.—Birr find.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;"> +5. Two copper celts found together at Clontoo, near +Kenmare, County Kerry, in 1906. (Fig. <a href="#fig4">4</a>, nos. 2 and 3.)</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;"> +6. Six copper celts found together at Cappeen, County +Cork.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +The distribution, analyses, types, and finds show that the +copper celts represent a period when copper was in common +use throughout Ireland and before bronze was generally +known. The celts from the Ray Collection mentioned above +show that the fully developed celt was in use during this +period, while the “Birr find” with the halberd shows that +the halberd was also known and in use during the full copper +period.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig3" id="fig3"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 232px;"> +<img src="images/img021.jpg" width="232" height="300" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 3.—Copper Knife and Awls found at Knocknague.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Moulds for casting flat celts, copper and bronze, have been +found in the following places in Ireland:—Carrickfergus; +Ballymena; Loughgall, County Antrim; Ballynahinch, County +Down; and Lough Scur Crannog, County +Leitrim.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> + +<p>Copper celts have been found practically over the whole +country; and the following is a list of those in the National +Collection, of which the localities are known, and, as well as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +these, there are about eighty for which the provenance has +not been exactly recorded:—</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>List of Copper Celts found in Ireland.</strong></span></p> + +<p class="indent">Antrim, Craigbally, 1 (1897: 111).</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig4" id="fig4"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;"> +<img src="images/img022.jpg" width="463" height="400" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 4.—Copper Celts.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="indent">Cavan, 1 (R. 1685).</p> + +<p class="indent">Cork, Cappeen (6); County Cork, 1 (1881: 136).</p> + +<p class="indent">Donegal, Letterkenny, 1 (1897: 114).</p> + +<p class="indent">Dublin, Suffolk Street, 1857: 2 large copper celts. (Ray Collection.)</p> + +<p style="margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;">Galway, Knocknague, Kilbannon, three copper celts, a copper +knife, and three copper awls. County Galway, 1. (R. 1660) (Fig. <a href="#fig3">3</a>.)</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;">Kerry, Beaufort, Killarney, three copper celts found together +in 1868 when ploughing at Cullinagh. (Day Collection.) +Clontoo, near Kenmare, two copper celts found +together in 1906.</p> + +<p class="indent">Londonderry, in the River Bann, near Coleraine, 1. (W. 3.).</p> + +<p class="indent">Louth, 1. (R. 362).</p> + +<p class="indent">Mayo, Killala, 1 (W. 4.).</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig5" id="fig5"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;"> +<img src="images/img023.jpg" width="428" height="400" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 5.—Copper celts from Cappeen, Co. Cork.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="indent">Meath, Dunshaughlin, 1 (172, W.).</p> + +<p class="indent">Tipperary, Dundrum, 1 (1881: 133).</p> + +<p class="indent">Tyrone, Mountfield, 1 (112: 1897).</p> + +<p class="indent">Waterford, Tramore, 1 (W. 10.).</p> + + +<p>The localities of the following copper celts in other collections +are known:—</p> + +<p class="indent">Antrim, 3 (Knowles Collection.)</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">Cork, 5 (Day Collection, about 4. Evans Collection, 1.)</p> + +<p class="indent">Fermanagh, 2 (Day Collection, 1. Evans Collection, 1.)</p> + +<p class="indent">Kerry, 3 (Day Collection.)</p> + +<p class="indent">Kilkenny, 1 (Day Collection.)</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig6" id="fig6"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/img024.jpg" width="300" height="221" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 6.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="indent">King’s County, 8 (Birr three, and five others found in +the King’s County. Day Collection.)</p> + +<p class="indent">Limerick, 2 (Day Collection.)</p> + +<p class="indent">Sligo, 2 (Sir John Leslie’s Collection.)</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Halberds</strong></span></p> + +<p>As already stated the Birr find shows that the halberd was +in use during the full Copper Period; and, though to judge by +the form of the celts, we may place it at the end of the period, yet +more primitive types are known, and we may therefore presume +the halberd goes well back into the Copper Period.</p> + +<p>The National Collection at Dublin contains forty-nine +specimens of these broad coppery blades. In a few cases there +may possibly be a doubt as to whether they should be classified +as halberds or primitive daggers. The localities of the majority +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +are not known further than that they have been found in +Ireland; but from the known localities they seem, like the +copper celts, to have been found in all parts of the island; +and local distinctions of type, if they existed, are not now +possible.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig7" id="fig7"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;"> +<img src="images/img025.jpg" width="470" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 7.—Halberd blades.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Of the forty-nine mentioned, twenty have localities as +follows:—Antrim 1, Cavan 3, Roscommon 2, Galway 8, Meath +1, King’s County 1, Queen’s County 1, Clare 1, Limerick 1, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +Cork 1. Seven of those from Galway represent a single find, +which gives that county an undue proportion.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig8" id="fig8"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;"> +<img src="images/img026.jpg" width="336" height="550" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 8.—Halberd blades.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +<span class="smcap"><strong>Types</strong></span></p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig9" id="fig9"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;"> +<img src="images/img027.jpg" width="428" height="550" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 9.—Halberd blades.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + +<p><a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 460px;"> +<img src="images/img028.jpg" width="460" height="550" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 10.—Halberd blades.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>What may be considered as the developed or normal type of +the Irish halberd blade is slightly but distinctly curved, so that +they have been called “scythe-shaped.” They vary from about +9 inches to 15 or 16 inches in length, and from about 3 to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +4 inches in breadth at the widest part; with few exceptions +they have three rivets with large heads. The various sizes are +well represented in a find of seven of these blades obtained in +1888 when making the railway near Hollywood, County Galway. +They were described as having been found about 2½ feet under +the surface of a shallow bog “stuck in a bunch in the ground, +with points down. No other relics appeared near them.” We +do not think it is any use attempting to place the halberds in a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +series of development; and no progression can be claimed for +their forms other than that there appears to be a movement of +development from the smaller straight blades to the larger and +curved blades. In one or two cases the mid rib has been +brought to a slight roof-ridge; and a fine example in the late +Sir John Evans’ collection shows a well-marked bead down the +mid rib (“Bronze Implements,” fig. 331); but in most cases +the mid rib is quite plain with a rounded curve in section.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Analyses</strong></span></p> + +<p>Analyses of the halberd blades show that the metal of which +they are composed does not differ much from that of the copper +celts. A recent analysis of five specimens is appended which +shows that the blades are practically of pure copper. This is +interesting, as it removes the doubt expressed by Sir John Evans +in “Bronze Implements,” p. 265, that “many of these blades +have the appearance of being made of copper; but the absence +of tin in their composition has not been proved.”</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr> <td align='center'> </td> <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='center'>Copper.</td> <td align='center'>Tin.</td> + <td align='center'>Antimony.</td> <td align='center'>Arsenic.</td> + <td align='center'>Lead.</td> <td align='center'>Silver.</td> + <td align='center'>Iron.</td> <td align='center'>Bismuth,<br />Nickel,<br />Zinc.</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>King’s Co.<br /> Day Coll., No. 25,</td> + <td align='center'>99.02</td> <td align='center'>0.22</td> + <td align='center'>Nil</td> <td align='center'>Nil</td> + <td align='center'>0.19</td> <td align='center'>0.26</td> + <td align='center'>0.04</td> <td align='center'>Nil</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td align='center'>2</td> <td align='left'>Antrim,<br /> 1903, 235, No. 9,</td> + <td align='center'>97.31</td> <td align='center'>0.31</td> + <td align='center'>0.14</td> <td align='center'>0.18</td> + <td align='center'>Nil</td> <td align='center'>Nil</td> + <td align='center'>Nil</td> <td align='center'>Nil</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td align='center'>3</td> <td align='left'>Galway,<br /> W. 241, No. 19,</td> + <td align='center'>98.06</td> <td align='center'>0.22</td> + <td align='center'>Nil</td> <td align='center'>Nil</td> + <td align='center'>0.58</td> <td align='center'>Nil</td> + <td align='center'>0.17</td> <td align='center'>Nil</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td align='center'>4</td> <td align='left'>Cork,<br /> R. 459, No. 7,</td> + <td align='center'>98.30</td> <td align='center'>0.30</td> + <td align='center'>0.27</td> <td align='center'>0.37</td> + <td align='center'>Nil</td> <td align='center'>Nil</td> + <td align='center'>Nil</td> <td align='center'>Nil</td> </tr> + +<tr> <td align='center'>5</td> <td align='left'> W. 248, No. 28,</td> + <td align='center'>97.24</td> <td align='center'>0.18</td> + <td align='center'>Nil</td> <td align='center'>1.54</td> + <td align='center'>Nil</td> <td align='center'>0.25</td> + <td align='center'>Nil</td> <td align='center'>Nil</td> </tr> +</table></div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/img030.jpg" width="550" height="460" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 11.—Halberds from North Germany and Sweden after Montelius.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The manner in which the halberd blades were attached to +their shafts is explained by the bronze halberds with bronze +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +shafts—the blade and upper part of the shaft often in one +piece—from North Germany and from Sweden. These halberds +are referred to an early stage of the Bronze Age; but they are +of bronze, and, in casting and other features, show a considerable +advance on a primitive type; the large imitation rivets cast in +the head of the shaft no doubt represent an earlier form in which +the shaft was of wood and the rivets real. Ten bronze halberd +blades were found together near Stendal in Prussian Saxony, +but without handles, four of which are figured by Montelius in +“Die Chronologie der ältesten Bronzezeit,” figs. 115-118. An +analysis of one of the blades gave 15 per cent. of tin and of a +rivet 4·5 per cent. of tin. From the straight mark across the +blades, and some bronze tubular pieces for the handles, there +seems no doubt that they were intended for straight wooden<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +handles, and thus represent the earlier type. The blades are +about 12¼ inches in length. It is important to note that the +rivets are of two kinds: some are large and stout like the usual +Irish form; and some have metal washers, like the solitary +example found in Ireland (fig. <a href="#fig7">7</a>), and which has caused some +authorities to consider the Irish halberd blades somewhat later +than we should care to place them. In general appearance these +halberd blades from Stendal are closer to the Irish halberds than +any of the others which have been found on the Continent, but +do not include the curved or scythe-shaped form common to +Ireland. Copper halberds, with remains of transverse wooden +shafts, have been found by the brothers Siret on the south-east +of Spain. In this case they go back to the very beginning of +the bronze age in this district. The form of the blades is, however, +in most cases <strong>T</strong>-shaped, and different from the Irish +examples (fig. <a href="#fig12">12</a>). Halberds attached to their shafts are +also shown on the prehistoric rock-markings in the “Italian +Maritime Alps,” published by Mr. C. Bicknell. The actual +blades, however, that can be classified with any certainty as +halberds are very rare in the North and Middle Italian districts, +though some of the copper and early bronze triangular dagger +forms may have been occasionally mounted as halberds. It is +possible, however, that the decoration of certain halberds found +in Germany may have been influenced by that of the Italian +dagger.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img031.jpg" width="500" height="179" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 12.—Halberts from South-east Spain.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +The halberd blade can be distinguished from the broad +dagger by the shape of the handle, which is curved or indented +in the case of the dagger, but straight across in the case of the +halberd. There is, however, another point. The hindmost +rivets, both in the case of the blades with four rivets and those +with three only, are shorter than those in front of them. The +shortness of the end-rivets and slope of the heads imply that +the handle was rounded off behind the blade, as would be the +case with a transverse shaft. So there appears no room to +doubt the manner in which the long scythe-shaped blades were +mounted on handles, though some uncertainty was formerly +expressed on the subject. The Irish halberd-blades were +evidently mounted at right angles to the shaft in the same +way as most of the Continental blades, as can be seen from the +straight-across marks of the handle, which can be traced on +several examples.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img032.jpg" width="500" height="251" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 13.—Rock Markings, Maritime Alps.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>From the analyses of copper halberds, it will be seen that +the tin varies from ·18 to ·31 per cent. We may therefore +conclude that the copper halberds are simply coarse or unrefined +copper from similar ores to the copper celts; and that the +copper implements found in Ireland may contain up to about +·5 per cent. of tin. An increasing percentage of tin was not +found in any of the copper celts, or, contrary to expectation, +in the copper halberds; but, judging from the widespread +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +use of copper implements in Ireland, from which it may +be inferred that copper remained in use for a considerable +time, it seems probable that bronze was introduced as an alloy +of a known percentage of tin. As relatively few analyses of +Irish bronze implements have been made, it is not possible at +present to come to any fixed conclusions on the subject of the +introduction of bronze into Ireland.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig14" id="fig14"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img033.jpg" width="500" height="358" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fig. 14.—Stone Pick from the Bann.</span> <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Fig. 15.—Deer Horn Pick.</span></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Also, in the case of the halberds, the great rarity of any +specimens of bronze blades which can be classified as halberds +indicates that the form of implement practically ceased to be +used when bronze came into use in Ireland. As the copper +celts show a gradual transition from stone to metal forms, it +seems reasonable to look for the prototypes of the copper +halberd among the stone implements of the preceding period. +In the Bann Valley many flint wedges or picks have been +found, which may, perhaps, have influenced the copper +halberds; and if a stone pick-like instrument was in use in +Neolithic times, it may explain to some extent the prevalence +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +of the metal halberd in Ireland in the copper period. When +the blades were made larger, the curved form would come into +existence, being suggested by the deer-horn picks already in use. +Copper came into use in Ireland, we may suppose, in no sudden +or violent manner. On the contrary, the transition from stone +was probably of some duration. The use of copper made its way +up through Europe, spreading from the lands of the eastern +Mediterranean along the old trade routes of Neolithic times, +influenced by the search for new deposits of ore. Though at +first implements of copper, and even, perhaps, the metal, might +be carried a considerable distance, an early use of the local ores +seems to explain the case better.</p> + +<p>Whether this new knowledge of metal, coming from the +eastern Mediterranean, first crept round by way of Spain, or +struck across the Continent to the north and west of Europe, +and so to Ireland, we cannot at present definitely say; the line of +march, as indicated by the halberds, which are strangely deficient +both in the south and the north of France, seems to point to north +Germany and Scandinavia, by way of the rich ore-fields of +middle Europe. But the archæology of the Peninsula for this +early period is at present too uncertain to speak with confidence. +There are indications, even in Neolithic times, which, perhaps, +point to Spain; but, again, there are relations which indicate a +considerable correspondence with Brittany and the North of +France in the early Bronze Age. The late Dr. Much (“Die +Kupferzeit,” p. 131) compared the Irish halberds with the +Spanish and German examples, and came to the conclusion that +the Irish halberds were later than the Spanish and earlier than +the German. This view is supported by the form of the Irish +halberds, which are more primitive in type than the German +examples.</p> + +<p>Any conclusion as to the probable date when the halberds +were in use in Ireland can only be arrived at in an indirect and +approximate manner. We are, on the whole, inclined to think +it is probable that the Irish halberds were influenced by the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +Spanish examples; and Herr Hubert Schmidt, who has worked +out in much detail a scheme of chronology for this period, +based upon the Egyptian dating of Professor Eduard Meyer, +places the finds from El Argar at from 2500 to 2360 +<span class="smcap">b.c.</span><a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> +Allowing, therefore, some margin on the later side, we should +probably be fairly safe in placing the period when the halberds +were in use in Ireland at the end of the third and beginning of +the second millennium <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> We must remember that the whole +of the Irish Bronze Age has to be fitted in after the copper +period; and if we are to allow sufficient room for the several +periods and their approximate correspondence with the periods of +the Continental chronology, it is not easy to see how this dating +can be much reduced. It may be noted that Montelius in his +recent scheme of Bronze Age chronology for the British Islands, +treats the halberds as bronze, and places them in his second period +(first period of the true Bronze Age) dated from the beginning +of the second millennium to the seventeenth century +<span class="smcap">b.c.</span><a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>First and Later Periods of the Bronze Age</strong></span></p> + + +<p>Even during the copper period an evolution can be traced in +the celt. The cutting-edge has been expanded; and the thickest +part of the celt has been moved up from just above the cutting-edge +to the centre. Until, however, we get into the Bronze Age, +there has been no trace of a stop-ridge. When we get into the +true Bronze Age, we find a complete and probably fairly rapid +evolution of type from the flat celt to the final socketed form. +Analyses of Irish celts on a large scale have not been made; +but such analyses as have been done do not indicate an experimental +stage of small additions of tin, but rather show that the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +bronze from the first contained a fairly large proportion of +tin. Where the tin came from is at present uncertain. The +illustrations will make the evolution of the celt clear. The +first step was the broadening of the cutting-edge, and moving +the thickest part up to the centre of the blade; the next step +was hammering the sides to make flanges to grip the handle +more securely; a stop-ridge was then added to prevent the +handle slipping down over the blade; and the latter forms are +reached by increasing the flanges and broadening the stop-ridge; +in its last forms the wings are increased at the expense of the +stop-ridge; and the final socketed form is reached by leaving +out the centre division between the wings. Figure <a href="#fig19">20</a> may be +noticed, as it is very similar to certain Continental forms.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig16" id="fig16"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img036.jpg" width="500" height="448" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 16.—Ornamented Bronze Celts.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p><a name="plate1" id="plate1"></a></p> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate I.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;"> +<img src="images/img037.jpg" width="470" height="800" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Irish bronze celts in the order of their development.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</em></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Some of the earlier flat bronze celts may have been hafted +like the stone celts, by merely fixing the smaller end into a +stick with a thick head; but this method must soon have +been abandoned, as after a certain number of blows had been +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +delivered, the axe-head would be forced back into the shaft. A +more practical method was to place the head in a handle having +a forked head, and the origin of the stop-ridge was to prevent +the two sides coming down too low on to the blade. The side +flanges and palstave-form developed naturally from this. +The manner of hafting the socketed celts is well shown by +a handled socketed celt found at Edenderry, King’s Co., and +formerly in the Murray collection. This object is now in the +Ethnological and Archæological Museum at Cambridge; and +it is to be regretted that so rare and important a find should +have left the country.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig17" id="fig17"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img039.jpg" width="500" height="424" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 17.—Ornamented Bronze Celts.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Some of the flat bronze celts are very finely decorated +with incised chevrons, triangles, cross-hatchings, and other +Bronze-Age linear ornament. One example has a kind of +herring-bone pattern, somewhat resembling the well-known leaf-marking +at New Grange. Some examples show a kind of cable-pattern +on the side flanges; and the size of a few specimens is +remarkable. A flat celt, with a remarkable ornamentation from +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +the Greenwell collection found near Connor, County Antrim, is +figured by Sir John Evans, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 64. It has a border of +chevrons along the edge of the side; and this is carried across +the celt in the centre and at the commencement of the cutting-edge. +This border is joined by a similar centre band of ornament.</p> + +<p>Several of the Irish palstaves have a shield-shaped ornament +below the stop-ridge. The socketed celts are, as a rule, unornamented; +but there are a few which have been found in Ireland +which are ornamented with ribs ending in pellets.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig18" id="fig18"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img040.jpg" width="500" height="395" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 18.—Ornamented Bronze Celts.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The question is often asked as to whether the bronze celts +were used as weapons or tools; and the probability is that they +were used as either as occasion demanded. The celts do not +show any marked difference of type which would enable us to +differentiate a weapon from a tool, as is possible in the later +iron axes of the Norman and Danish period when we can distinguish +a heavy axe and a lighter keen blade. The Bayeux +tapestry shows the two types in use, the heavy type being used +to fell trees and the lighter for fighting.</p> + +<p>There is one palstave, with double loops, in the National +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +Collection; and another was found in Ireland at Ballincollig, +County Cork, and is in the Evans collection. These double-looped +palstaves are of much interest, as the type is characteristic +of the Iberian peninsula. A few have been found in the +west of France, and some in the south-west of England, but +on the route which one would expect to have been followed +if they are due to intercourse with Spain. These probably +belong to the Middle Bronze Age, though they have not as +yet been found associated with objects which would give much +information as to their date.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img041.jpg" width="500" height="427" alt="image" title="" /></div> +<p><span style="margin-left: 6em;"><strong>Fig. 19.—Winged Celt.</strong></span> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><strong>Fig. 20.—Winged Celt.</strong></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 24em; margin-top: -3em;"><strong>Fig. 21.—Palstave with Double-loops.</strong></span></p> + + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Anvil and Hammers</strong></span></p> + +<p>Among objects that may undoubtedly be classed as tools +are the small bronze anvil (fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>), and the bronze socketed +hammers (fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/img042a.jpg" width="171" height="400" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 22.—Bronze Anvil.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +The anvil appears to be the only specimen which has been +found in the British Islands, though examples are not uncommon +in France. It resembles the small anvils used by +jewellers, and it is interesting to note that, as M. Déchelette +points out, these small bronze +anvils correspond to those mentioned +by Homer, which were also portable and used by +goldsmiths.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> +Socketed bronze hammers resembling +the Irish examples are +fairly common in England and on +the Continent. One well-known Irish specimen was found in +the Douris hoard and is figured in Evans’s “Bronze Implements,” +p. 179. Of the specimens illustrated, the largest was found at +Abbeyshrule, Co. Longford, the exact locality of the others, +further than that they were found in Ireland, is not known.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 252px;"> +<img src="images/img042b.jpg" width="252" height="350" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 23.—Bronze Hammers.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +<span class="smcap"><strong>Spear-Heads</strong></span></p> + +<p>Even as early as the Copper Period small weak knife-daggers +were in use, and these continued into the Bronze Age, becoming +the parent of the spear-head as well as of the rapier and sword. +The spear-head was evolved by decreasing the width of the +base of the dagger-blade, and adding a narrow tang with a peg-hole +to fix into the shaft. The addition of a ferule was the next step; +and the omission of the tang, and amalgamation of the ferule +with the blade, gave rise to the socketed spear-head.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;"> +<img src="images/img043.jpg" width="436" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 24.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;"> +<img src="images/img044.jpg" width="381" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 25.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +The Irish spear-heads may be divided into two well-defined +groups, looped and riveted; and it will be found that +the separation of the types extends farther than the mode +of attachment. The form of the blade of each class is +quite distinct. Taking the looped spear-heads first, we can +follow the development of the spear-head from the dagger-blade. +The adaptation is shown in fig. <a href="#fig24">24</a> (the centre spear-head), +which is, in fact, a dagger-blade placed on a socket. +The socket does not enter the blade, but is stopped at the +shoulders. The <strong>V</strong>-shaped base of the blade is derived from the +dagger, and disappears as the true character of the spear form is +developed. A feature of special interest is the survival of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +rivet-heads of the dagger in the form of ornamental bosses at the +base of the blade. The rivet-holes appear to have been drilled, +and not formed in casting. No examples of this form of spear-head +have been found in England; and but one is recorded from +the Isle of Man and two from Scotland. In the last example +(in fig. <a href="#fig24">24</a>), the imitative rivets are reduced to a single boss, +and completely disappear in the next stage (fig. <a href="#fig25">25</a>).</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig26" id="fig26"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 471px;"> +<img src="images/img045.jpg" width="471" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Fig. 26.</span> +<span style="margin-left: 8em;">Fig. 27.</span></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>In the subsequent figures we see the blade developed at +the expense of the socket; and the transition to the fully +developed spear-head begins. The derivation of this form of +spear-head from the so-called Arreton Down type of tanged +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +blade is now admitted. Though tanged spear-heads of the +Arreton Down type are fairly represented in Irish finds, no +socket has been so far recovered with any of them; +but an early form of nondescript tanged blade +with a socket was found at Lough Ruadh bog +near Tullamore, King’s County, in 1910, and +shows the socket was known in Ireland.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 478px;"> +<img src="images/img046a.jpg" width="478" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 28.—Leaf-shaped Spear-heads.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a></p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 122px; margin-top: -2em;"> +<img src="images/img046b.jpg" width="122" height="250" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 29.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Another very early type of spear-head, nearly +all the known examples of which were found in +Ireland, was derived by mounting the rapier on +a socket (fig. <a href="#fig26">27</a>). There are six of these spear-heads +in the collection of the Royal Irish +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +Academy, and one in the collection of the Royal Society of +Antiquaries of Ireland. One of these spear-heads, found at +Taplow on the Thames, has gold studs at the base of the blade +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +which, no doubt, represent the rivets. The derivation of the +spear-head by gradually rounding off the corners of the blade +can be easily followed.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig30" id="fig30"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 254px;"> +<img src="images/img047.jpg" width="254" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 30.—Leaf-shaped spear-heads found together at the +Ford, Belturbet, Co. Cavan.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig31" id="fig31"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img048.jpg" width="500" height="576" alt="image" title="" /> +<span style="margin-left: 6em;"><strong>Fig. 31.</strong></span> +<span style="margin-left: 12.5em;"><strong>Fig. 32.</strong></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>We will now turn to the spear-heads with rivet-holes in the +sockets, but without loops or openings in the blades (figs. <a href="#fig28">28</a> and <a href="#fig30">30</a>). +These spear-heads are almost invariably leaf-shaped +and devoid of ribs. The pins or rivets used to attach this class +to the shaft were probably of wood, horn, or bone. Two +examples formerly in Mr. Day’s collection have rivets of bronze, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +and others with bronze rivets have been found in England. The +leaf-shaped spear-head is associated by form with the leaf-shaped +sword; the looped type with the older type of weapons, +the dagger and rapier forms. The records of the finds are very +incomplete; but the association of leaf-shaped spears and +swords to the exclusion of the looped form is sufficiently marked +to be noted as an additional piece of evidence.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<img src="images/img049.jpg" width="425" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +</div> +<p style="margin-left: 7em;"><strong>Fig. 33.—Ornamental Spear-heads<br /> +with openings in the blade.</strong></p> +<p style="margin-left: 23em; margin-top: -3em;"><strong>Fig. 34.—Portion of Spear-head<br /> +with studs at the base of the wings.</strong></p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig35" id="fig35"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img050.jpg" width="500" height="488" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 35.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>There are in the Academy’s collection a number of spear-heads +with rivet-holes in the sockets and ornamental side-apertures +(figs. <a href="#fig33">33</a> and <a href="#fig33">34</a>). These spear-heads are very highly decorated, +and form an attractive class. They may be derived from the +spear-heads in which the loops are joined to the base of the +blade (fig. <a href="#fig31">31</a>), and in which, by a process of evolution, the loop +has been incorporated as part of the wing, or they may also have +been influenced by the early type of tanged spear-heads from +the Greek islands, in which the openings in the blade were +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +functional, being used for binding the head into a split shaft. +These ornamental spear-heads belong, as a type, to the British +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +Islands, where the socketed spear-head itself appears to have +been evolved. Several of these spear-heads have, as well as +the wings, small holes in the blades, the purpose of which +is not clear. They are very finely cast; and even in Ireland, +where Bronze-Age casting reached its highest point, these are +amongst its best products.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;"> +<img src="images/img051.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +</div> +<p style="margin-left: 10em;"><strong>Fig. 36.—Spear-heads with<br /> +ornamental openings in the<br /> +blades.</strong></p> +<p style="margin-left: 23em; margin-top: -4em;"><strong>Fig. 37.—Spear-head found<br /> +at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh.</strong></p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig38" id="fig38"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/img052.jpg" width="300" height="382" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 38.—Half of mould for casting a socketed spear-head, +Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Another very rare type of spear-head, in which the loops +are formed by the extension of the small ribs on each side of +the mid rib, must be mentioned. These spear-heads are very +seldom met with. We only know of the existence of four, +of which one is in the Greenwell collection, two in the +collection of the Royal Irish Academy, and one in the +Municipal Museum at Belfast. The Academy was fortunate +enough to secure a very fine specimen in 1912. It was +found with two leaf-shaped bronze swords at Tempo, County +Fermanagh,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> +and measures 15½ inches long (fig. <a href="#fig36">37</a>). +Judging from the associated swords, this spear-head may be +dated about the ninth century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p> + + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +<span class="smcap"><strong>Moulds</strong></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;"> +<img src="images/img053.jpg" width="321" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 39.—Half of mould for casting a spear-head and dagger, +Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The most important moulds for casting spear-heads found in +Ireland are a series for casting early tanged spear-heads which +were found about thirty years ago at Omagh, County Tyrone, +and are now in the possession of Mr. M. J. Sullivan. These +moulds are of the greatest importance in the history of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +development of the bronze spear-head, as they show the evolution +of the tanged blade to the socketed form, and also that +the tanged and socketed forms were in contemporary use in +Ireland. The form of the moulds for the socketed spear-heads +shows them to be at the very commencement of this type; and +it was probable that the tanged type was rapidly superseded by +the improved socketed form.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig40" id="fig40"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img054.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 40.—Mould for casting spear-head and knife,<br /> +Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>These moulds are made of sandstone; and the illustrations +will show them sufficiently. For a full description see the +Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, +vol. xxxvii, 1907, p. 181.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig41" id="fig41"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;"> +<img src="images/img055.jpg" width="332" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="smcap"><strong>Fig. 41.—Moulds for Primitive Spear-heads +found in the County Tyrone.</strong></span><br /> +<strong>(Reproduced from the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries.)</strong> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig42" id="fig42"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"> +<img src="images/img056.jpg" width="330" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="smcap"><strong>Fig. 42.—Moulds for Primitive Spear-heads found in the +County Tyrone.</strong></span> +<strong>(Reproduced from the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.)</strong> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Another very important find of moulds was made in +1910 at Killymeddy, near Ballymoney, County Antrim. This +find included two complete moulds and a half mould for casting +looped socketed spear-heads. Of the other moulds for casting +spear-heads found in Ireland, nearly all are for the looped type; +and the few that have been found for casting the leaf-shaped +type are small and indeterminate in character. It is most +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +probable that, with the introduction of the leaf-shaped spear-heads, +moulds of clay or sand were introduced; and these have +naturally perished. Fragments of a clay mould for casting +a spear-head and a sword were found at Whitepark Bay, and +portions of clay moulds for spear-heads have been found in +Brittany, the Lake of Bienne, and other places. The discoveries +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +of moulds enforce the distinction of type between the looped +and leaf-shaped spear-heads, and the moulds from Killymeddy +(figs. <a href="#fig38">38-40</a> and <a href="#fig43">43</a>) may probably be placed at the end of the +period when stone moulds were in use, and assigned to about +1500-1200 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig43" id="fig43"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;"> +<img src="images/img057.jpg" width="329" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 43.—Half of mould for casting spear-head and dagger, Killymeddy, +Co. Antrim.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Spear-ferules</strong></span></p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;"> +<img src="images/img058.jpg" width="428" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +</div> +<p style="margin-left: 11em;"><strong>Fig. 44.—Bronze spear ferules.</strong></p> +<p style="margin-left: 28em; margin-top: -2em;"><strong>Fig. 45.—Bronze spear<br /> ferule +with La Tène<br /> ornament.</strong></p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>From time to time objects of bronze have been found in +Ireland of a curious shape, somewhat like the handle of a door; +and their use was considered uncertain; it is, however, clear that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +they were the ferules of spears; and in some cases the remains +of the wooden shafts have been found inside them. The finding, +moreover, of one in the Lisnacroghera Crannog with the whole +of the shaft, measuring 8 feet in length, attached to it, places +the matter beyond +dispute.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> +It also shows that these objects +were in use down to the early Iron Age, as most of +the objects of the Lisnacroghera find belong to the La Tène +period.</p> + +<p>Other ferules assume a long and graceful shape, and one is +decorated with La Tène motives (fig. <a href="#fig44">45</a>).</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Irish Gold</strong></span></p> + + +<p>Ireland’s extreme richness in gold during the Bronze Age +made her a kind of El Dorado of the western world. The +gold was, no doubt, obtained from County Wicklow, where gold +was worked down to the end of the eighteenth century, nuggets +of 22, 18, 9, and 7 oz. being recorded. One exceptionally +large nugget weighing 22 oz., found in 1795 at Croghan +Kinshela, Co. Wicklow, was presented to King George III; +and its discovery caused a rush to the workings. As well +as Wicklow there are six other counties where gold has been +found. The very large number of gold ornaments that have +been found in Ireland is therefore not surprising. The ancient +literature of Ireland contains many references to gold ornaments +and payments of gold by weight. It is interesting to note +that the tradition preserved in the Book of Leinster, a <span class="smcap">ms.</span> +of the twelfth century, refers the first smelting of gold in +Ireland to a district in which gold has been found in considerable +quantities in modern times. The Leinstermen, it is stated, +were called “Lagenians of the gold,” because it was in their +country that gold was first discovered in Erin. It is further +stated that gold was first smelted for Tighearnmas, one of the +earliest of the Milesian kings, in the forests standing on the +east side of the River Liffey, by Iuchadan, a native of that +district.</p> + +<p>After the discovery of native gold in Ballinvally stream at +Croghan in 1796, the Government undertook mining operations; +and in three years collected 944 ounces worth, at the price of +the day, £3,675. Since the workings were abandoned by the +Government, the district has been worked at intervals by +companies, and at other times by the peasants; the total output +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +since 1795 is estimated at a value of £30,000. The knowledge +of the Irish gold deposits must have been a very considerable +factor in the foreign relations of the island in the Bronze +Age.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Lunulæ</strong></span></p> + +<p>The earliest of the Irish gold ornaments are the flat gold +collars known as lunulæ. These have been found fairly evenly +distributed over the country, and in astonishing numbers.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"> +<img src="images/img061.jpg" width="333" height="350" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 46.—Gold Lunula found at Trenta, Carrigans, Co. Donegal.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The circumstances under which the lunulæ have been +found have not often been recorded. The collection of the Royal +Irish Academy in the National Museum, Dublin, contains no less +than thirty-seven examples. Several of these have been found +and recorded during the past three or four years. As a rule +the lunulæ are engraved on one face only with finely cut or +scored well-recognized Bronze Age ornament, consisting of bands +of lines, cross-hatchings, chevrons, triangles, and lozenges.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +The centres of the lunulæ are plain, the exact reason of +which is not quite apparent. The ornament is gathered to the +end of the lunula and spaced out by bands. Two lunulæ found +together at Padstow, Cornwall, are said to have been found with +a bronze celt of early type. The find is preserved in the Truro +Museum, and is of the utmost importance as an indication of +the early Bronze-Age date of the lunulæ. It is, we believe, the +only instance of lunulæ being found with associated objects.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig47" id="fig47"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/img062.jpg" width="400" height="388" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 47.—Gold Lunula found in Co. Galway.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Figures <a href="#fig46">46-49</a> and <a href="#fig51">51-53</a> illustrate the various types of +ornament; it will be noticed that some of the smaller examples +are quite plain.</p> + +<p>One lunula was found in an oak case at Newtown, Crossdoney, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +Co. Cavan. The case has greatly shrunk since it was found, as +when first discovered it measured 10 inches by 8 inches (fig. <a href="#fig50">50</a>).</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig48" id="fig48"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 374px;"> +<img src="images/img063.jpg" width="374" height="400" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 48.—Gold Lunula, locality not recorded.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The two expanded pieces at the ends are always turned at +right angles to the plane of the lunula, and serve to clasp the +back of the neck, and may have been secured by a tie. It need +not, however, be pointed out that they are quite out of place +in a head-ornament; indeed, the geometrical shape of a lunula is +contrary to such a theory, and quite different from recognized +diadems or head-ornaments.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig49" id="fig49"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 394px;"> +<img src="images/img064.jpg" width="394" height="400" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 49.—Gold Lunula found at Killarney.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +One example found at Volognes has a chain and sort of +buckle attached at the ends. It has since been melted down, +but a drawing of it has been preserved (fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>). The chain +seems to have been ancient—at least it is stated to have been +on it, as shown, when found; but, however ancient it may +be, it is evident that it was more recently attached than +the original make of the ornament. It is, however, of interest +as indicating at some time a chain-tie to secure the ends of +the ornament.</p> + +<p>The accompanying list of finds shows how numerous the +lunulæ are in Ireland and how rarely they have been found +outside this island. The map shows their distribution (fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a>).</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig50" id="fig50"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img065a.jpg" width="500" height="377" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 50.—Oak case for Lunula found at Newtown, Co. Cavan.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"> +<img src="images/img065b.jpg" width="333" height="300" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 51.—Gold Lunula found at Valognes, Manche.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +Two have been found in the West Baltic at Zealand and +Funen. They have otherwise hardly penetrated beyond +Brittany. One has recently (1912) been found at Hanover, +and another some time ago at Fauvillers, Luxembourg. This +failure to penetrate far beyond the coasts of England and +Brittany may point to early raids; but the copper and tin of +Cornwall, as well as the tin deposits of Brittany and the +general trade with Brittany, may indicate the early seeking of +the Irish gold deposits. We may take as a provisional date for +the lunulæ, 1200 to 1000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig52" id="fig52"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/img066.jpg" width="400" height="399" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 52.—Gold Lunula found in Co. Londonderry.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +Lunulæ now existing or known to have formerly existed:—</p> + + +<p class="center"><strong>IRELAND</strong> (62 at least).</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary=""> + + +<tr> <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;"><strong>County.</strong></td> <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;"> <strong>No.</strong></td> <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;"> <strong>Reference.</strong></td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Donegal,</td> <td align='center'>2</td> <td align='left'>R.I.A. 1889: 20 (1). Trenta, Carrigans. R.I.A. 1909: 6 (1). Naran.</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Londonderry,</td> <td align='center'>2</td> <td align='left'>R.I.A. W. 12 (1). R.I.A. (loan 1907: 7) (1).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Antrim,</td> <td align='center'>3</td> <td align='left'>Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iv, p. 295.</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Down,</td> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>Castlereagh, Ulster Journal of Archæology, vol. ix, p. 46.</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Tyrone,</td> <td align='center'>3</td> <td align='left'>Trillick, R.I.A. 1884: 495 (1). Carrickmore, + R.I.A. 1900: 50 (1). Tartaraghan, Ulster + Journal of Archæology, vol. ix, p. 47 (at Cecil, + Augher) (1).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Mayo,</td> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>R.I.A. 1909.</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Sligo,</td> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>Windele’s Miscellanea, p. 206.</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Fermanagh,</td> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>Enniskillen (Day Coll.).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Monaghan,</td> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>Ballybay (Day Coll.).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Galway,</td> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>R.I.A. W. 10 (Sirr Coll.).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Roscommon,</td> <td align='center'>2</td> <td align='left'>Athlone, R.I.A. W. 5, and 1893: 4.</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Cavan,</td> <td align='center'>3</td> <td align='left'>Newtown, R.I.A. 1884: 494 (1). Bailieborough + (British Museum) (1). Lisanover, Bawnboy. + 1910: 45 (1).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Westmeath,</td> <td align='center'>2</td> <td align='left'>Ross, R.I.A. 1896: 15 (1). Mullingar, 1884: 7 (1).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Kildare,</td> <td align='center'>4</td> <td align='left'>Dunfierth, R.I.A. W. 4, 8, 9, and 15.</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Clare,</td> <td align='center'>2</td> <td align='left'>Porsoon Callan, R.I.A. 1877: 52 (1). Proc. + R.I.A., vol. viii, p. 83 (1).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Tipperary,</td> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>Glengall (British Museum).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Kerry,</td> <td align='center'>5</td> <td align='left'>Banmore, R.I.A. R., 1755, 1756, 1757 (3): + R.I.A., Killarney, W. 2 (1). Mangerton (Brit. + Mus.) (1).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Cork</td> <td align='center'>2</td> <td align='left'>Ballycotton (Brit. Mus.) (1), and one or perhaps + two in Mr. Cliborn’s scrap-book in R.I.A.</td> </tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In addition to the foregoing there are 16 in the collection of +the R.I.A. and 5 in the British Museum, and about 6 in private +collections, which are known to have been found in Ireland, but +of which the localities have not been recorded.</p> + + +<p class="center"><strong>ENGLAND</strong> (4).</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary=""> + +<tr> <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Cornwall,</td> <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">4</td> <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Penzance (1), Padstow (2), Lesnewth (1) (Arch. + Journ., vol. xxii, 276).</td> </tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="center"><strong>WALES</strong> (1).</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary=""> + +<tr> <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Carnavonshire,</td> <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">1</td> <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Llanllyfni (British Museum).</td> </tr> +</table></div> + + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +<strong>SCOTLAND</strong> (4).</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary=""> + +<tr> <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Lanarkshire,</td> <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">2</td> <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Southside near Coulter (Anderson, vol. i, p. 223).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Dumfriesshire,</td> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>Auchentaggart (Anderson, vol. i, p. 222).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Elginshire,</td> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>Fochabers (Cat. Nat. Mus., Scot., p. 210).</td> </tr> +</table></div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig53" id="fig53"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/img068.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 53.—Gold Lunula found at Athlone.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><strong>FRANCE</strong> (6).</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary=""> + +<tr> <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Côtes du Nord,</td> <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">1</td> <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Saint-Potan (Reinach, Revue Celtique, 1900, p. 95).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Manche,</td> <td align='center'>3</td> <td align='left'>Tourlaville (1), Valognes (1) (Reinach, R. C., 1900, p. 95).<br /> + Montebourg (1) (Cong. Arch. de France, 1905, p. 301).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Vendée,</td> <td align='center'>2</td> <td align='left'>Bourneau (1), Nesmy (1) (Reinach, R. C., 1900, p. 95).</td> </tr> +</table></div> + + +<p class="center"><strong>BELGIUM</strong> (1).</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary=""> + +<tr> <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Luxemburg,</td> <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">1</td> <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Fauvillers (Cong. Arch. de France, 1905, p. 302).</td> </tr> +</table></div> + + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +<strong>DENMARK</strong> (2).</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary=""> + +<tr> <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Zealand,</td> <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">1</td> <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Grevinge (A. f. Anth. xix, 9).</td> </tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Funen,</td> <td align='center'>1</td> <td align='left'>Skogshöierup (A. f. Anth. xix, 9).</td> </tr> +</table></div> + + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig54" id="fig54"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/img069.jpg" width="600" height="549" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 54.—Map showing the Distribution of Lunulæ in Ireland +and Europe.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><strong>GERMANY</strong> (1).</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary=""> + +<tr> <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Hanover,</td> <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">1</td> <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Schulenburg (Leine) Springe (1911).</td> </tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Daggers and Rapiers</strong></span></p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig55" id="fig55"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img070.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 55.—Stone celt, Bronze dagger with gold band, and Urn found +in Topped Mountain Cairn, Co. Fermanagh.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>As has been mentioned, as well as being parent to the spear-head, +the small weak knife-dagger frequently found in early +Bronze-Age burials also developed into the true dagger-blade, +and in course of time into the sword. Bronze daggers have +often been found in Ireland; there are about forty in the +National Collection. Among the most interesting finds of +these early daggers may be mentioned that discovered in +1897 at an interment at Topped Mountain Cairn, County +Fermanagh. This dagger measures 5⅝ inches, and is covered +with a beautiful blue patina. It is decorated with raised lines +on each side of the blade, and has two small rivets. It was +discovered in a cist in the cairn lying at the right side of the +skull of an uncremated body, and in the same place was a small +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +band of gold which appears to have been half of a band of that +metal which was probably round the handle of the dagger +(fig. <a href="#fig55">55</a>). Another interesting find is the small bronze dagger +discovered with urns and cremated bones in a cist at Annaghkeen +Cairn, County Galway, in 1908.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig56" id="fig56"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> +<img src="images/img071.jpg" width="415" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 56.—Dagger and Rapier blades.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>In course of time the length of the dagger-blade was +increased; and later examples are wonderful specimens of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +casting. The earlier daggers were either attached to the handle +by rivets, or else notches were left in the base of the blade for +the attachment. The manner of hafting them is quite clear, as +a few hafted examples have been found. Some had bronze +handles cast separately (fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a>); others had handles of horn or +wood (fig. <a href="#fig57">57</a>); but the hilts for the most part were made of +some perishable substance, and they have consequently not been +recovered. The scolloped mark left by the hilt is often quite +plainly to be seen on the blade. In later times the handle was +sometimes cast in one piece with the blade; but the division +between the handle and the blade is always quite clearly +marked. The decoration of the later dagger-blades takes the +form of a number of triangles at the base of the blade, and the +extreme similarity in decoration between the Italian and the +early northern and western daggers has led Montelius to +consider the latter as derived from the former; and this is +enforced in the case of the Irish examples by the series of small +hatched-triangles which have been found at the base of two +well-known Irish examples (fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a>).</p> + +<p>The rapiers were evolved quite naturally by lengthening the +dagger-blade; and this form was probably influenced also, as +will be mentioned later, by contemporary weapons in use in the +Mediterranean lands.</p> + +<p>The longest rapier ever found in Western Europe is the +splendid weapon found at Lissane, Co. Derry, in 1867, which +measures 30¼ inches in length (fig. <a href="#fig57">59</a>). Another very remarkable +Irish example is the short rapier found in Upper +Lough Erne, and obtained by Mr. Thomas Plunkett, <span class="smcap">m.r.i.a.</span>, +from the finder. This weapon is a wonderfully fine piece of +casting. It measures 16¾ inches in length (fig. <a href="#fig57">58</a>).</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig57" id="fig57"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;"> +<img src="images/img073.jpg" width="323" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +</div> + +<p style="margin-left: 5em;"><strong>Fig. 57.—Dagger with<br /> +horn handle found at<br /> +Ballymoney, Co. Antrim.</strong></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 16.5em; margin-top: -4.3em;"><strong>Fig. 58.—Rapier found<br /> +in Upper Lough Erne.</strong></p> + +<p style="margin-left: 29em; margin-top: -3.1em;"><strong>Fig. 59.—Rapier found at<br /> +Lissane, Co. Derry.</strong></p> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig60" id="fig60"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;"> +<img src="images/img074.jpg" width="352" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 60.—Rapiers and Daggers found in Ireland.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The rapiers belong to the middle and later portions of the +Bronze Age. This type of weapon is common in France, and +is described by M. Déchelette as widely spread in the British +Islands and the north of France, and as having been introduced +from there into South Germany and the region of the Middle +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +Rhine.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> +The rapiers of advanced type he places in the third +division of the Bronze Age, as they have been found in Bronze-Age +tumuli of that period, as at Staadorf, Haut Palatinat +(1600-1300 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>). Montelius places the rapiers in his fourth +period dated at the end of the fifteenth to the middle of the twelfth century +<span class="smcap">b.c.</span>,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> +so that his dating of these objects +practically coincides with that of M. Déchelette. It is now well +recognized that the swords of the Ægean-Mycenæan area were +developed on parallel lines to those of Western Europe. We find +that the long rapiers or thrusting swords are developed from +the tanged Cypriote dagger, and that the true sword is a later +evolution from the rapier. It is hardly to be doubted that some +of the western forms of daggers and rapiers were influenced +by Mycenæan types; and the discovery in Sicily of rapiers +of Mycenæan type with pottery dated as recent Minoan III, +establishes a direct bond between the Ægean and Western +Europe.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Gold Gorgets</strong></span></p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig61" id="fig61"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/img076.jpg" width="400" height="387" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 61.—Gold Gorget found in Ireland, formerly in the possession of the +Earl of Charleville. From Vetusta Monumenta, Vol. v, Pl. xxviii.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="plate2" id="plate2"></a></p> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate II.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/img077.jpg" width="550" height="451" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Irish Gold Gorgets.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</em></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Among the most striking of the gold ornaments in the +National Collection are the five gold gorgets or neck-collars, +with the ends decorated with ornamented disks. These are +very elaborately decorated, and of great massiveness. Two +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +others mentioned as having been found in Ireland, one of which +was formerly in the possession of the Earl of Charleville, were +figured in “Vetusta Monumenta.” Vallancey states that another +was found in the County Longford. A few disks have also been +found which may have been portions of these gorgets. The +neck-portion of the gorgets is arranged in three rows of +raised ridges, and these are ornamented with rows of small +bosses, the depressions of the ridges being occupied with +a narrow rope-shaped fillet. In some cases the ridges are left +plain. The small disks at the terminals of the collar are +remarkable; they measure about 2⅞ or 3 inches in diameter, +and are decorated with a centre and side bosses, surrounded +with concentric circles. They much resemble in miniature the +round shields or bucklers of the late Bronze Age, but they also +show some resemblance to the so-called sun-disks which have +been found in Ireland, and which will be described later on. +Unfortunately the gorgets have in no case been found with any +accompanying objects which would assist in dating them, and +in fact in only two cases have details as to their finding been +preserved, one found at Ardcroney, near Nenagh, County +Tipperary, the other at Tony Hill, Croom, County Limerick. +Their ornamentation, however, would seem to place them in +the Hallstatt period, first Iron Age, which may be dated at +about 700-600 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> Their form and ornamentation may be compared +with that of the splendid gold collar from Cintra, Lisbon, now in the British +Museum,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> +and also with the triple bronze +collars common in Scandinavia and north Germany, all of +which are referred to the Hallstatt period. This period is at +present not well represented in Ireland or the British Isles; +and it is doubtful whether iron came into general use in Ireland +till about the third century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p> + +<p>One point of much interest must be noticed. In one of the +gorgets shown in <a href="#plate2">Plate II</a>, where the disk is attached to the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +gorget, above the line where the end of the plate passes into the +boss, three perpendicular and two cross-stitches can be seen. +Some of these sewings are made by means of slight square wire, +but in others the fastenings are composed of fine woollen thread, +round which is twisted spirally a thin, flat strip of gold. These +strips are one of the oldest specimens of woollen cordage now in +existence in Ireland.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Gold Sun-disks</strong></span></p> + +<p>We have already referred to the flat disks of gold, a number +of which have been found in Ireland. There are four in the +British Museum, and no less than fifteen in the National +Collection at Dublin. In four cases they have been found in +pairs—one pair at Ballina, County Mayo, another pair at +Tydavnet, County Monaghan, a third at Cloyne, Co. Cork, and +the fourth at Castle Martyr, Co. Cork. Some of these disks are +ornamented with concentric circles; others have a cruciform +ornament which resembles the four-spoked chariot-wheel, and +is a well-known sun symbol. When these objects were first +discovered, their origin and use were quite unknown; and +Mr. Reginald A. Smith, of the British Museum, was the first +to point out their resemblance to the gold disk, decorated with +spirals, affixed to a bronze sun-chariot, found in Trundholm +Moss, Zealand, in 1902. The bronze chariot consisted of a +bronze disk mounted on wheels and drawn by a horse, the gold +disk being affixed to the bronze one. The ornamentation of +the Irish disks is somewhat different, as the spiral does not +appear, its place being taken by the concentric circle. The +Trundholm sun-chariot is dated by Prof. Sophus Muller at +before 1000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> The Trundholm disk is admittedly connected +with sun-worship, as is also the cruciform ornament on the +Irish disks. The spoked-wheel is a well-known solar symbol; +and similar designs have been found on the bases of some +Irish food-vessels, and may also be compared with some of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +markings at +Dowth.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> +The prevalence of sun-worship in the +Bronze Age need not be further gone into here; but the gold +disks are of great interest, as furnishing another point of +contact between Ireland and Scandinavia in the Bronze Age. +The finding of Irish gold lunulæ in Denmark, and the +occurrence of Scandinavian amber in Irish finds of the Bronze-Age, +have already been mentioned.</p> + +<p> </p> +<a name="plate3" id="plate3"></a> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate III.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 545px;"> +<img src="images/img081.jpg" width="545" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Gold sun-disks.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</em></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Gold Balls</strong></span></p> + +<p>We may also mention the large hollow golden balls of which +seven are in the National collection, one in the possession of +Mr. H. J. B. Clements, and another in the British Museum. +Eleven of these golden balls were found in 1834 at +Carrick-on-Shannon.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> +There has been much conjecture as to the use these +balls were put to, and it has been suggested that as their large +size would render them inconvenient as personal ornaments, +they were probably used to decorate a horse. If so they may +have been attached to the bridle like the large balls shown on +the horses’ bridles in the bronze scabbard from Hallstatt, dated +La Tène I. See Déchelette, “Manuel d’Archéologie,” vol. ii, +p. 770. The Golden Peytrell found at Mold, Flintshire, may be +instanced to show that gold was sometimes used to decorate +horses; and if the gold balls were really used for this purpose, +we may well endorse what the author of the “British Museum +Bronze-Age Guide” says when he writes: “A discovery of this +kind demonstrates in a striking manner the abundance of gold +at the end of our Bronze +period.”<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Clare Find</strong></span></p> + +<p>Another type of neck-ornaments are the thin gold gorgets +with funnel-shaped ends, many of which were found in the +great Clare find. These gorgets are quite plain, except for a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +little ornamentation at the extreme ends near the funnel-shaped +extremities. There are five of these objects in the +National Collection, and all were found together in the celebrated +Clare find. This find—the largest collective one of gold objects +ever made in Western Europe—was discovered in making a +railway-cutting for the Limerick and Ennis Railway in 1854. +A gang of labourers were digging near an old hawthorn-bush, +a little distance to the south of the railway bridge in Moghaun +north, on the west side of the line of the great fort, and opposite +the lough, when they undermined a kind of cist. The fall of +one of the containing-stones disclosed a mass of gold ornaments—gorgets, +bracelets of all sizes with cup-shaped ends, +and a few ingots of gold. The find, from a numerical point of +view, far surpassed anything ever made, but none of the objects +were highly ornamented or of a special type.</p> + +<p>The fact of this immense number of gold ornaments being +hidden in a cist in this way has given rise to many conjectures; +but in the absence of any other explanation, it may be suggested +that the objects had been collected together, and hidden +purposely, with the idea of returning and regaining possession +of them later. The value of the find has been estimated at at +least £3,000. Unfortunately, most of the objects were sold to +jewellers and melted down, but a large number were exhibited +at the Archæological Institute by Dr. Todd and Lord Talbot +de Malahide in 1854, and casts of these were taken, and a set is +now in the National Collection. There are also a small number of +the originals in the Royal Irish Academy’s collection (<a href="#plate4">Plate IV</a>). +Otherwise such objects of the find as escaped the melting-pot +were scattered, and have found their way into different museums +and private collections. As has been mentioned, the objects of +this find did not show any remarkable types, and for the most +part consisted of very thin bracelets and penannular rings +with cup-shaped ends. It is probable that, as well as being +ornaments, they served as a kind of currency.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="plate4" id="plate4"></a></p> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate IV.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/img085.jpg" width="600" height="483" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Portion of the great Clare find.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</em></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +<span class="smcap"><strong>Penannular Rings and Ring-Money</strong></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig62" id="fig62"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;"> +<img src="images/img087.jpg" width="384" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 62.—Gold fibulæ, and other objects found together +at Coachford, Co. Cork.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig63" id="fig63"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 376px;"> +<img src="images/img088.jpg" width="376" height="450" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 63.—Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin, showing Europeans +holding manillas (after Read and Dalton, <em>Antiquities of the City of Benin</em>).</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The large number of penannular rings with cup-shaped ends +which have been found from time to time in the island, brings +us on to the general question of the so-called Irish fibulæ. +In Ireland penannular rings with cup-shaped ends of copper or +bronze are very rare, only about half a dozen being known, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +while fibulæ of gold are exceedingly common. The Coachford +find, in which amber beads, gold fibulæ, and a copper or bronze +fibula were all found together, shows that the objects were +contemporary; and as this find may be placed at the end of the +Bronze Age, it shows that these objects were in use at that period +(fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a>). On the other hand, it is likely that their use began +earlier and continued for a long period. These objects when +made of gold are of two shapes—in the one case the expanded +cups are large and flat and the connecting bar is bow-shaped, +and is striated. These have been conjectured to have been used +as brooches for fastening a garment; and their form was +probably influenced by the Scandinavian spectacle-brooches, +the bows of the latter having, in some cases, the same decoration. +Except for the striations on the connecting link, the Irish +so-called mamillary fibulæ are almost always plain; but +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +Vallancey has figured two examples, one of which is engraved +with triangular, and the other with lozenge, ornaments. There +is also the well-known example in Trinity College, Dublin, in +which the surfaces of the cups are completely covered with +concentric circle ornament, the inside rims of the cups being +decorated with hatched triangles, and the neckings of what may +be called the handle, with chevron and herring-bone pattern, +while along the back of the handle is an ornament of lozenges. +In the second type these objects assume the shape of a bracelet; +and the expanded ends are sometimes cup-shaped and sometimes +plain. From the extreme similarity between the shape +of these, whether in gold or bronze, to the so-called African +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +manillas, it has been conjectured the Irish examples, like the +African, may have been used as a medium of exchange; and on +the whole it seems probable that such was the case, the dividing +line between what were used for ornaments and what may have +been used for exchange not being at all easily defined (figs. <a href="#fig63">63</a> +and <a href="#fig64">64</a>).</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="plate5" id="plate5"></a></p> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate V.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/img089.jpg" width="600" height="478" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Gold Fibulæ.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</em></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig64" id="fig64"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"> +<img src="images/img091.jpg" width="388" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 64.—Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin, showing natives holding +manillas (after Read and Dalton, <em>Antiquities of the City of Benin</em>).</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Ring-Money</strong></span></p> + +<p>The question of a medium of exchange leads us to mention +the very small gold penannular rings, the largest being about +an inch in diameter, frequently found in Ireland, which are +known as ‘ring-money.’ There are fifty-six in the National +Collection; and a find made near Belfast of a socketed bronze +celt in association with some of these objects shows they were +in use during the late Bronze +Age.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> +Attention has been called +to the similarity of these Irish gold rings to the penannular +copper rings plated with gold often found in early Japanese +burials.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> + +<p>Many attempts have been made to equate the weights of +a series of these rings with some known standard; and in his +valuable work “The Origin of Currency and Weight Standards,” +Professor Ridgeway devotes several pages of his Appendix C +to a discussion of the subject, and gives a table of the weights +arrived at by grouping the rings in multiples of 18.</p> + +<p>While there can be no reasonable doubt that these objects +were used as a medium of exchange, we are not inclined, in the +absence of literary evidence, to go any further into the question +of what standard they may represent. Some of these rings are +evidently forgeries of ancient times, as they are composed of +bronze rings covered with a thin plate of gold. The rings as +a rule are plain; but some are ornamented with small strips of +darker metal let into the gold, and two examples are twisted +like small torcs.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="plate6" id="plate6"></a></p> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate VI.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 485px;"> +<img src="images/img093.jpg" width="485" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Gold Ring-Money.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</em></span> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Leaf-shaped Swords</strong></span></p> + + +<p>A number of leaf-shaped bronze swords have been found in +Ireland. They may be roughly divided into two types, those +with notches just below the blade and above the handle, and those +that are plain. The latter are the earlier, and belong to the late +Bronze Age; the former correspond to the Continental swords +of the Hallstatt period. The leaf-shaped type was the typical +Bronze-Age sword of western and northern Europe. It was +developed from the dagger, and, like it, was a thrusting +rather than a cutting weapon. The handle is cast in one piece +with the blade, and has rivet-holes, and in some cases a slit for +the attachment of the hilt, which was no doubt formed of bone or +horn plates. The pommel was probably globular, and formed of +lead or some heavy material. A bronze sword of this type was +found in a house on the Akropolis at Mycenæ by Schliemann, and +it can be dated at about 1200 +<span class="smcap">b.c.</span><a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> +The discovery of this sword +may be explained either as the result of a raid, or as showing +that invaders from the north had reached Greece as early as +this date. A leaf-shaped sword has been noticed on one of the +clay tablets dated as late Minoan II, and in one of the stone slabs +from over the fifth shaft grave at Mycenæ, which represents a +figure in a chariot attacking a man on foot, the latter is armed +with a leaf-shaped +sword.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> +In any case it gives us a date for +the period when these swords were in common use in western +Europe. The type with notches below the blade has a +tendency to become straighter at the sides, and to lose its +leaf-shaped form. The use of the notches is not apparent, but +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +it has been thought that the scabbards at +that time were made of wood and were +liable to shrink from exposure to weather, +and that this may have prevented the +sword from being thrust home, so that +the edge was cut off by the notches slightly +below the handle to avoid cutting the +hand. The handle end of this latter type +very frequently assumes a form like a +fish’s tail. These swords develop into the +iron swords of the Hallstatt period, of +which so far only one Irish example +has been found. A bronze sword of the +notched type formed part of the Dowris +hoard, and is figured in the “British +Museum Bronze-Age Guide,” plate ii. +Two remarkably fine specimens of this +type were found in 1912 with a socketed +spear-head at Tempo, County Fermanagh.</p> + +<p><a name="fig65" id="fig65"></a></p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 106px;"> +<img src="images/img096.jpg" width="106" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 65.—Leaf-shaped bronze swords, +found with a spear-head at Tempo, +Co. Fermanagh.</span> +</div> + +<p>No moulds for casting leaf-shaped +swords of either type have been found +in Ireland; and it is therefore probable +that at the time they were in use sand-casting +had replaced casting from stone +moulds. The scabbards of the leaf-shaped +swords were made of wood or leather, +protected by a ferule or chape of bronze, +which was fastened to it by rivets; the +point of the weapon does not seem to have +reached the end of the sheath. There +are several examples of bronze chapes +in the Royal Irish Academy’s collection, +and they display a considerable variety +of design. Some are long and tubular in +shape (fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a>), while others are of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +winged or boat-shaped type which is found on the Continent +(fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a>). Others again are of a small and simple type. The +rivet-holes for the attachment of the sheaths can be seen in +nearly all the Irish specimens. The casting of these objects +shows a good deal of skill, as the metal is very thin. The +winged variety are probably the latest, as they have been found +with iron swords of Hallstatt type on the Continent.</p> + +<p><a name="fig66" id="fig66"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/img097a.jpg" width="350" height="239" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 66.—Bronze chapes.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig67" id="fig67"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/img097b.jpg" width="350" height="239" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 67.—Winged chapes.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +<span class="smcap"><strong>Shields</strong></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig68" id="fig68"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;"> +<img src="images/img098.jpg" width="274" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 68.—Bronze shield, found at Lough Gur, Co. Limerick.</span> +</div> + +<p>Two circular shields or bucklers of bronze have been found +in Ireland. There is only one in the National Collection, the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +fine shield discovered at Lough Gur, County Limerick. There +is, however, a small shield of bronze ornamented with large +bosses in the British Museum which was found at Athenry, County +Galway.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> +These bronze shields have never been found +in the British Islands with any objects which would give any +definite clue to their date; but they are generally referred +to the late Bronze Age. They belong to a common type, being +decorated with numerous bands of small bosses separated by +concentric circles. They appear to have been hammered out.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig69" id="fig69"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;"> +<img src="images/img099.jpg" width="286" height="350" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 69.—Alder-wood shield, found in<br /> Co. Leitrim.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig70" id="fig70"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;"> +<img src="images/img100.jpg" width="289" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 70.—Front and back of leather shield, found at Clonbrin, Co. Longford.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>There are two other shields of great interest in the National +Collection. One is the remarkable alder-wood shield found +10 feet deep in a bog in 1863 at Annadale, County Leitrim. +This shield is oval in shape, and has a central boss and +seven raised ribs. It will be noticed that the ribs show an +indentation at one side; but too much emphasis must not be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +placed on this, as the shield shrank a good deal after its +removal from the bog, and the alteration may be due to this. +This shield has a handle at the back. It is interesting to note +that ‘sciath,’ one of the Irish words for ‘shield,’ denotes ‘alder.’ +The next is the leather shield found in 1908 at Clonbrin, +County Longford, and presented to the Royal Irish Academy’s +collection by Colonel W. H. King-Harman. This truly remarkable +shield, the only one of its kind in Europe, is made of a +solid piece of leather nearly ¼ of an inch thick, and measures +20½ inches in length by 19½ inches across. It has an oblong +centre boss pressed out of the leather and covered with an +ornamental cap of fine leather laced on to it. The boss is +encircled by three ribs, the inner one being gapped, and the two +others having a curious re-entrant angle. The shield has twenty-four +small round bosses on it which resemble those on the +bronze shields. There is a leather handle which was laced on +to the back. This shield appears to be complete as it stands, +as there is no sign of any wooden supports at the back, nor is +it easy to see how such supports could have been attached to +it. According to Polybius round shields of bulls’ hide were used +by the Roman equites in the early days of Roman history.</p> + +<p>The round shield of the late Bronze Age was succeeded by +the oval shield which may be taken as partly transitional to +the oblong shield of Southern Europe and also of the late Celtic +type found in Britain. The date, therefore, of this Irish +leather shield is probably to be placed in the Early Iron period.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Torcs</strong></span></p> + + +<p>There are twenty-four golden torcs of various types in the +National Collection and one of bronze; but the Irish provenance +of the latter is doubtful.</p> + +<p>The best known are the two magnificent gold torcs found in +the side of one of the raths at Tara, and these belong to a type +that has been found in England and France, of which the +best known examples are those found at Yeovil, +Somerset,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> +and Grunty Fen, +Cambridge.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> +A torc of this type was also +found by Schliemann in the royal treasury in the second city +of Troy. This find has led to a good deal of speculative +opinions varying as to whether the model of the torc was +imported into Ireland from the south, or whether the Irish gold +could have reached the Mediterranean in pre-Mycenæan +times.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> +Torcs of this type were made by folding two thin ribbons of +gold along the middle at a right angle; they were then attached +with some kind of resinous flux, apex to apex, and twisted +together. In some cases, instead of two folded ribbons a flat +one and two halves of another were used, after being fastened +together, the twisting being done in the same way. In some of +the Irish examples the body of the torc is plain, or was grooved +to simulate the appearance of the twisted torc. A peculiar +feature of these torcs is the large hooks with which they +are provided. It must be noted that whereas twisted torcs +of bronze are fairly common in England and France there is +only one bronze torc in the Irish National Collection, and, as +mentioned above, the provenance of this is doubtful. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +dating of these twisted torcs is a matter of difficulty, as there +are only two instances of their having been found in association +with bronze objects, one in the case of the Grunty Fen torc +which was discovered with three bronze palstaves, and another +found at Fresné la Mère, near Falaise, Normandy, which was +found with a bronze razor and other objects of bronze. Such +evidence as exists, therefore, would place them in the late +Bronze Age, probably somewhere about 1000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, but certain +varieties of torcs, as we shall see, continued in use as late as the +first century. The area of distribution of gold torcs of the Tara +type in Ireland, England and France is very limited, none having +been found in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Holland, or Spain and +Portugal.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> +It has been suggested that the gold +of which all these torcs were composed came from the Wicklow +Mountains,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> +and in view of the extreme wealth of Ireland in +gold, as evinced by the number of gold ornaments which are +still constantly found, this may be considered probable.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="plate7" id="plate7"></a></p> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate VII.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/img103.jpg" width="600" height="328" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Gold Torcs from Tara and elsewhere.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</em></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="plate8" id="plate8"></a></p> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate VIII.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/img105.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Gold Torcs.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</em></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Among the other types of gold torcs are two splendid +examples, one of which appears to have been prepared for +twisting and left unfinished, while the other is in a complete +state (<a href="#plate8">Plate VIII</a>).</p> + +<p>Small torcs made by twisting a plain ribbon are fairly +common, and some of these are so small that they must have +been used as bracelets.</p> + +<p>In later times the torc was the distinguishing ornament of +the Celt, and there are many allusions to torcs in classical +writers. In 223 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, when Flaminius Nepos gained his victory +over the Gauls on the Addua, it is related that instead of the +Gauls dedicating, as they had intended, a torc made from the +Roman spoils to their god of war, the Romans erected a Roman +trophy to Jupiter made from Gaulish torcs.</p> + +<p>The name of the Torquati, a family of the Manlia Gens, was +derived from their ancestor, T. Manlius, who, having slain a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +gigantic Gaul in <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 361, took the torc from the dead body, +and placed it round his neck.</p> + +<p>The famous statue of the Dying Gaul preserved in the +Capitol at Rome shows a torc on the warrior’s neck. This is +one of a series of statues set up by the Greeks of Pergamos to +celebrate their struggle with, and first victory over, the Gauls +of Asia Minor, with whom they came in contact from about +240 to 160 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> The twisted torc appears to have been replaced +in Ireland about the second century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> by the plain torc, +which was probably introduced from Gaul. The fine gold torc +from Clonmacnois (<a href="#plate9">Plate IX</a>), with La Tène decoration, is a +good example of these torcs, and is almost identical with one +from the Marne district now preserved in the St. Germain +Museum. Probably the finest La Tène torc in existence is that +found in the celebrated Broighter find, which is richly decorated +with La Tène ornament (<a href="#plate9">Plate IX</a>, the inner torc).</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Bronze-Age Finds</strong></span></p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="plate9" id="plate9"></a></p> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate IX.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/img109.jpg" width="400" height="423" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Gold Torcs from Clonmacnois and Broighter.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</em></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>One of the greatest difficulties to be contended with in any +attempt to arrive at a working chronology for the Prehistoric +Period in Ireland is that, though Ireland had a rich Bronze +Age, as attested by the magnificent collection of objects preserved +in the National Collection, yet in very few cases have +any of these objects been found in association. Excavation +carried on under scientific supervision was practically unknown +in Ireland until quite recent years, and though, no +doubt, hoards of associated objects have been discovered +in the country, yet trustworthy particulars as to their finding +have hardly ever been preserved, and the objects themselves +have generally been scattered. Under these circumstances it +seemed useful to gather together in the present chapter an +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +account of the finds—unfortunately very few—in which +associated objects have been discovered, and of which there +is indisputable evidence of their association:—</p> + +<p>1. Find of a socketed celt, a gouge, a pin, a razor (the last +in a simple leather case), a portion of a woollen garment, an +ornament of horse-hair, like a tassel, and some pieces of wood. +These objects were found in a bog in the townland of Cromaghs, +parish of Armoy, Co. Antrim, in May, 1904, when cutting +turf<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> +(Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a>, nos. 1-5).</p> + +<p>2. A find of late Bronze-Age objects discovered in a bog in +the townland of Lahardoun, Tulla, Co. Clare, in May, 1861. +The find contained the following objects:—two small socketed +celts, a disk-headed pin, a plain bronze ring, and a bronze +fibula<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> +(Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a>, nos. 6-10).</p> + +<p>3. Find at Mountrivers, Rylane, Coachford, Co. Cork. +This find was made in May, 1907, and contained the following +objects:—two socketed bronze celts, two gold fibulæ, one +fibula of copper or bronze, and eleven amber +beads<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> +(fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a>).</p> + +<p>4. Find at Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary, made in May, 1906, +The find consisted of a bronze socketed celt, a socketed sickle, +two chisels, and a +gouge<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> +(fig. <a href="#fig74">74</a>).</p> + +<p>5. Find of moulds for casting primitive spear-heads. This +find was made near Omagh, Co. Tyrone, about 1882, and +consisted of seven blocks of sandstone for casting tanged and socketed +spear-heads.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> +(See page <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.)</p> + +<p>6. Find of moulds made in December, 1910, at Killymeddy, +Ballymoney, Co. Antrim. The find contained two complete +moulds for casting looped socketed spear-heads, and half a mould +for a looped socketed spear-head, a mould for one side of a long +dagger-blade, a large mould for casting one side of a leaf-shaped +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +knife, two halves of a mould for casting a sickle, eight +fragments of moulds, two sharpening stones, and a stone for +hammering or smoothing +objects.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> (See page <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.)</p> + +<p>7. Find made at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh. This find was +made in 1912, and consisted of two leaf-shaped bronze swords +with notches below the blades, and a very fine socketed +spear-head<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> +(figs. <a href="#fig65">65</a> and <a href="#fig36">37</a>).</p> + +<p>8. Two leaf-shaped spear-heads found together at the Ford, +Belturbet, Co. +Cavan<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> (fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a>).</p> + +<p>9. Large hoard found at Dowris, King’s Co., about 1825. +A small portion of this hoard, consisting of two bronze +trumpets, seven crotals, five socketed spear-heads, and a +socketed gouge, are preserved in the Royal Irish Academy’s +collection in the National Museum. There are other portions +of this hoard in the British Museum and at Birr +Castle.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> + +<p>10. Bronze socketed celt, large bronze ring, two smaller +rings with lateral-shaped trumpet projections, and a small +flat ring all found together near Glenstal, Co. Limerick, about +1901.</p> + +<p>11. Large find of objects, formerly in St. Columba’s College +Collection, all stated to have been found together, in 1830, in a +bog at Derryhall, County Antrim. The find comprises fourteen +disk-headed bronze pins of late Bronze-Age type, and two bronze +pins, with cup-shaped heads, a bronze dagger and two bronze +knives (one of the latter being socketed), a socketed celt, nine +bronze rings, a bronze ring with side perforations and a double +ring, a bronze fibula with three beads; also two late brooches, +and two late pins, which are said to have proved part of this +find, but whose association with the remaining objects is very +doubtful.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig71" id="fig71"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;"> +<img src="images/img113.jpg" width="385" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 71.—Two Late Bronze-Age Finds.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig72" id="fig72"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;"> +<img src="images/img114.jpg" width="414" height="600" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 72.—Late Bronze-Age horse-hair Fabrics from Armoy, Co. Antrim.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>12. Bronze fibula, and twenty-two bronze rings, found +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +together, about 1876, at Broca, Rochford Bridge, County +Westmeath.</p> + +<p>13. Socketed bronze celt, bronze fibula, bronze ring, and +disk-headed Bronze-Age pin. All found together at Lapoudin, +Tulla, County Clare.</p> + +<p>14. Three large, seventeen small, eight double bronze rings, +and one fragment, probably all found together.</p> + +<p>15. Bronze fibula, bronze gouge, and three rings, found +together, but locality unrecorded.</p> + +<p>16. Six copper celts found together at Cappeen, County +Cork.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><a name="fig73" id="fig73"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/img115.jpg" width="300" height="218" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 73.—Bronze Implements, Co. Tipperary.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>17. Seven halberds found together at Hillswood, County +Galway.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p> + +<p>18. Two bronze rings, a small leaf-shaped spear-head, a +socketed celt, and a small gold bulla, said to have been +found together in Kinnegoe bog, County Armagh, in 1840. +St. Columba’s College Collection.</p> + +<p>19. Three bronze trumpets, one in two parts, found in a bog +in the barony of Moyarta, County Clare.</p> + +<p>20. Six bronze trumpets, one in two parts, found in a bog +close to Chute Hall, in the townland of Clogher, Clemin, three +miles from Tralee, County Kerry.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +21. Two trumpets, one in two parts, probably found together +in a bog at Carrick O’Gunnell, County Limerick. (These are +probably two of those described by Mr. R. Ousley, in the +Trans. R.I.A., 1788.)</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig74" id="fig74"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;"> +<img src="images/img116.jpg" width="261" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 74.—Bronze Implements found at Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +22. Three trumpets found at Carraconway, near Cloughouter Castle, County +Cavan.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + +<p>23. Two trumpets found at Macroom, County Cork.</p> + +<p>24. Four trumpets found in the bog of Drumabest, +Kilraughts, County Antrim, in +1840.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> + +<p>25. Two trumpets found in County Cork. (Londesborough +collection.)</p> + +<p>26. Two trumpets and a part of a third found together, but +locality unknown.</p> + +<p>27. Two trumpets probably found together, from Trinity +College, Dublin, collection.</p> + +<p>28. A socketed bronze celt and gold ring-money found together near +Belfast.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> + +<p>29. Four gold lunulæ, found together at Dunfierth, Carbury, County +Kildare.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> + +<p>30. A large spear-head, a round bronze shield, with a central +boss for the hand, and two circles of smaller bosses, found in a +mound or rath, at Athenry, County +Galway.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> + +<p>With the exception of Nos. 4, 5, 27, and 30, the above-mentioned +finds are preserved in the Royal Irish Academy’s +collection, in the National Museum, Dublin.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Bronze Trumpets</strong></span></p> + + +<p>Numerous trumpets of cast bronze have been found in +Ireland, both in the south and the north. They are rare in +Britain. Two or more trumpets have often been found together; +eight were found at Dungannon, County Tyrone, in 1713, and +thirteen or fourteen near Cork in 1750. The Irish trumpets +may be divided into three types—(1) in the shape of a horn, +open at both ends, having the mouth-piece and trumpet cast in +one piece; (2) of similar shape, but closed at the narrow end, +with an aperture for the mouth at the side near the closed +end; (3) also horn-shaped, but with a long straight tube +attached to the narrow end of the carved portion, the upper +end of the tube having four rivet-holes, to which another tube +or mouth-piece may have been fixed. There are references in +classical authorities to the trumpets used by the Celts. +Polybius, describing the defeat of the Celts by the Romans +at the battle of Telemon, <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 225, speaks of the innumerable +horns and trumpets of the Celts (Gaesatæ, Insubres, Taurisci, +and Boii).</p> + +<p>Dr. F. Behn, of the Mainz Museum, has recently written an +account of the music in the Roman army, in which he has +brought together much information about the early bronze +trumpets; and he includes a short description of the Irish +type.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> +The Irish trumpets, which are furnished with the straight +tubular piece, much resemble the Roman lituus; and, as a +whole, the Irish type is very closely allied to the lituus and +carnyx, the difference between the lituus and carnyx being +that the expanded end of the carnyx takes the form of +some fantastic animal’s head. Trumpets have been found +in the Dowris hoard, with socketed spear-heads, and other +objects of the late Bronze Age, and they must be dated to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +that period; on this account the Etruscan lituus can +hardly have been derived from Irish trumpets; so that it is +probable that the Irish trumpets, like those of Gaul, were +derived from the south.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="plate10" id="plate10"></a></p> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate X.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img119.jpg" width="500" height="530" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Bronze Trumpets.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</em></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig75" id="fig75"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"> +<img src="images/img121.jpg" width="393" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 75.—Mould for casting a sickle, found at<br /> Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +<span class="smcap"><strong>Sickles</strong></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig76" id="fig76"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"> +<img src="images/img122.jpg" width="388" height="500" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 76.—Bronze sickles.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Socketed bronze sickles have been found fairly frequently +in different parts of Ireland. Those in the National Collection +have generally been referred to the late Bronze Age. These +sickles are all very small, and it has been thought that +the Irish, like the Gauls, cut only the ear of the corn, and +burnt the stalk. A recent find of moulds in County Antrim +contained a mould for casting a sickle without a socket like +the Continental examples, and shows that this type was also +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +known in Ireland in the later Bronze Age (fig. <a href="#fig75">75</a>). The bronze +sickles have an important bearing on the question of agriculture +in Ireland. An opinion has recently been expressed that corn was +not introduced into England until the Roman invasion, and was +introduced into Ireland even later than +this.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> +However, there are instances of ears of corn being found within the walls of +food-vessels of early Bronze Age date in Scotland; and it is +probable that corn was also grown in Ireland during the Bronze +Age. There is evidence that the ox was domesticated during +this period. The excellence of the metal-casting and the high +degree of skill shown in casting implements and weapons during +the Bronze Age lead us to believe that the civilization, and with +the civilization the art of agriculture and material comfort, +had reached a fairly high level.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig77" id="fig77"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"> +<img src="images/img123.jpg" width="380" height="400" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 77.—Bronze sickles.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +<span class="smcap"><strong>Disk-Headed Pins</strong></span></p> + +<p><a name="fig78" id="fig78"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/img124b.jpg" width="400" height="196" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 78.—Bronze disk.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig79" id="fig79"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/img124a.jpg" width="300" height="173" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 79.—Bronze button.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>In the late period of the Irish Bronze Age, bronze pins with +disk-shaped heads having a conical projection in the centre are +fairly common. The disk-heads in many instances are ornamented +with concentric circles and other simple kinds of +decoration. They are bent at right angles to the pin, though +in some cases the pin comes straight from the head. The pins +are very long, some measuring as much as 12 inches. In the +very interesting find at Armoy, County Antrim (p. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>), it will +be remembered that one of these pins was found together with +a woollen garment, and there is no doubt they were used to +fasten the dress. The fact of a razor being one of the objects +of this find indicates that the pins were used by men, though +no doubt they may also have been worn by women. The use of +such long pins seems to point to the wearing of some kind of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +cloak-like garment probably fastened in the front; and the +ornamental heads of the pins indicate that they were worn in a +conspicuous place.</p> + +<p>As well as the pins a few bronze buttons have been found +consisting of disks with the same conical projection, but having +the pin replaced by a small bar at the back. One remarkable +example in the National Collection measures 4¾ inches in +diameter (fig. <a href="#fig78">78</a>). This object was probably either attached to +a leathern belt or possibly may have been a portion of a horse’s +furniture. The smaller buttons have been found on the +Continent, and are fairly numerous in the Continental lake-dwellings +or finds of the late Bronze Age.</p> + +<p>One is tempted to see in the Irish examples a derivation of +the button from the pin.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Bronze-Age Pottery</strong></span></p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig80" id="fig80"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 290px;"> +<img src="images/img126a.jpg" width="290" height="200" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 80.—Incense cup.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig81" id="fig81"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/img126b.jpg" width="400" height="415" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 81.—Cinerary urn.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig82" id="fig82"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/img127.jpg" width="400" height="428" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 82.—Food-vessel with cover, Danesfort, Co. Kilkenny.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>In Ireland the pottery of the Bronze Age is principally +represented by the type of vessel known as a food-vessel. We +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +may commence with these, as there has only been one undoubted +find of beakers made: this consisted of the remains of three +vessels found together at Moytura, County Sligo, and preserved +in the National Collection. A beaker is stated to have been found +at Mount Stewart, County Cavan; but the vessel is not extant, +and the evidence as to its discovery is not perfectly satisfactory. +The Irish food-vessel is derived directly from the round-bottomed +vessel of Neolithic times. Some of these round-bottomed bowls +have been found with Neolithic remains at Portstewart, County +Down, and there is one in the National Collection described as +found in a cavern associated with stone implements beside the +moat of Dunagore, near the town of Antrim. The development +from the Neolithic bowl can be clearly traced in the Irish +series. The earliest are flat, almost saucer-shaped bowls, which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +are generally covered all over with ornament, and often have a +cruciform pattern on the base which has been thought to +indicate that the vessels were turned mouth downwards when +not in use.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig83" id="fig83"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/img128.jpg" width="400" height="395" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 83.—Cinerary urn, Carballybeg, Co. Waterford.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>These bowls have a very pleasing effect; and, as Dr. +Abercromby says: “The small native women, sometimes under +five feet high, who made these little vessels, had certainly a fine +sense of form and a delicate perception of the beauty of curved +forms. The care and precision with which the ornament was +effected, and the richness of the effect produced by simple means, may excite our +admiration.”<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="plate11" id="plate11"></a></p> +<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate XI.</strong></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/img129.jpg" width="600" height="507" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Food-vessels in the order of their development.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</em></span> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig84" id="fig84"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/img131.jpg" width="500" height="569" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 84.—Model of cinerary urn, showing its position in cist over burnt bones and +small vessel, Greenhills, Co. Dublin.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>In the next stage a slight indentation about the centre of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +the vessel can be noticed, the ornament being arranged on +either side above and below this; next two small ridges develop +out of this, which are at first close together, but are afterwards +placed further apart, and in the later stages the vessel becomes +considerably higher, the base assuming the form of a cone, +and the upper portion having an everted lip. Some of these +latter vessels have a number of small ribs encircling them. +<a href="#plate11">Plate XI</a> shows a series of food-vessels placed in the order of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +their evolution. The decoration can be well seen. It consists +for the most part of chevron, herring-bone, and other linear +ornament, but wavy lines can be seen in some examples. In +some rare cases the food-vessels were provided with lids +(fig. <a href="#fig82">82</a>). All of these vessels were made by hand; and +though the baking of the pottery varies, it was evidently +done over a fire.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><a name="fig85" id="fig85"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;"> +<img src="images/img132.jpg" width="297" height="400" alt="image" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 85.—Cinerary urn, Cookstown,<br /> Co. Tyrone.</span> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The food-vessels, which are found both with unburnt and +burnt interments, continued in use during the greater part of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +the Bronze Age, and the name food-vessel is hardly appropriate +in Ireland, as in many cases these vessels have been found +containing cremated bones, having apparently served the +purpose of cinerary urns.</p> + +<p>The so-called cinerary urns are large vessels which have +been usually discovered containing human bones; they have +often been found inverted over cremated remains. They can +be conveniently divided into several types, of which the type +with the overhanging rim may be mentioned first. In this +type the vessel consists of two portions, a lower flower-pot-like +cone, on which is placed a larger truncated cone, which forms +the overhanging rim. This type is widely distributed in +England, and in Ireland has been found in the Counties of +Antrim, Down, and Tyrone. The cordoned or hooped type is +developed from the preceding type by replacing the overhanging +rim by a moulding, both types being contemporary. In +the encrusted type the urn, which is of the flower-pot shape, +is decorated with strips of clay in the form of chevrons and +bosses, the ornamentation assuming a rope-like form. Urns of +this type have been found at Greenhills, Tallaght, County +Dublin; Gortnain, Broomhedge, County Antrim; Tullyweggin, +Cookstown, County Tyrone; Closkett, Drumgooland, and +Glanville, Newry, County Down.</p> + +<p>Very small vessels, of usually about 2 to 2½ inches in height, +are often found in interments associated with the large cinerary +urns, and occasionally, when the latter are inverted, are found +inside them. The exact use of these small vessels, which +are called “incense-cups” or “pygmy-cups,” is a matter of +speculation; several theories have been advanced to explain the +purpose of placing them in graves, but none of them are altogether +satisfactory.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> + +<p>Like the other vessels, they can be divided into different +types, of which some are peculiar to England, and even there +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +confined to certain counties. In Ireland several of these small +cups have perforated walls, while some have handles. One +remarkable specimen found at Knocknacoura, Co. Carlow, is +covered all over with ornament.</p> + +<p>In the fine cist discovered at Greenhills, County Dublin, +and now set up in the National Museum, a very remarkable +little cup was found inside the large inverted cinerary urn +(fig. <a href="#fig84">84</a>). The form of this small cup appears to be originally +derived from a metal prototype, and exactly resembles +pottery-vessels of Iron-Age date found in the cemetery at +Marne.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Bronze-age Ornamentation in Ireland</strong></span></p> + + +<p>The ornament of the Bronze Age in Ireland consists of +chevrons, hatched triangles, lozenges, etc., combined with some +wavy patterns, and later in some instances with the spirals introduced from +Scandinavia,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> +where this motive had penetrated +early from the Ægean along the amber route. This early +type of ornament can be seen on some of the bronze celts, +and also on the pottery, notably the food-vessels, which +are often most tastefully decorated. The ornamentation, +however, can be most fully studied on the inscribed stones in +the great monuments of the New Grange group. These monuments, +perhaps the most remarkable in Western Europe, have +justly aroused the interest of generations of archæologists, and +many interpretations have been placed upon their decoration. +Having dealt so fully with this subject in a recent book, “New +Grange and other Incised Tumuli in Ireland,” 1912, it is not +proposed to go into the question again, but there are one or +two points that may be noticed.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable feature about the ornamentation at +New Grange is the occurrence of the spiral motive; and it is +the presence of this distinctive motive which has led to so +much speculation.</p> + +<p>It may be stated at once that the general view at present +held by those who have studied the question is that the spiral +was introduced, and that in the case of Ireland it was +derived from Scandinavia.</p> + +<p>The similarity between New Grange and the tholos tombs +of the mainland of Greece is so striking that it is at least +likely that the former may have been derived from the latter.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +In examining the monument of New Grange, the author +had been led by long study, and the comparison with motives +common in the Ægean at about the same period, to explain +the ornamentation, notably in the cases of the large stones +illustrated in the book, p. 75, as derived from combinations of +ornaments commonly found on Ægean pottery, these motives +being themselves connected with the symbolism of sun-worship. +In the case of other markings, it was considered these were +possibly derived from the decoration of certain objects of +Scandinavian origin. In an article in <em>L’Anthropologie</em>, vol. xxiii, +p. 29, dealing with the subject, M. J. Déchelette has put +forward other views with regard to the markings at New +Grange. M. Déchelette sees in the markings at New Grange a +degenerated copy of the female idols of neolithic times, carvings +of which in a more or less rudimentary form have been found in +the Iberian peninsula, Italy, France, England, and Scandinavia. +It may be mentioned that from the occurrence of carvings +of this idol on sepulchral monuments it is to be connected +with funeral rites. M. Déchelette supports his contentions with +a wealth of illustrations drawn from the tattooed idols of +Greece, Portugal, and Aveyron, the engraved chalk cylinder +from Madrid, the incised lines from Almizaraque, the sculptures +from the artificial grottos of Marne, the vase fragments of +Charantaise, the chalk drum from Folkton Wold (Yorkshire), +and the engravings from the dolmens of Locmariaquer.</p> + +<p>On p. 43 M. Déchelette gives a scheme of the evolution of +the pattern of the idol, starting from fairly well-defined eyes, +eyebrows, and nose, with chevron marks imitating tattooing. +The face becomes stylized by the substitution of a mere arched +line for the eyebrows, and concentric circles for the eyes, the +tattooing marks becoming a conventional pattern of regular +chevrons. In the Irish examples the spiral replaces the +concentric circles for the eyes, and the pattern below is further +enriched by lozenges, and finally we arrive at a form in which +the spiral has an eyebrow above and a single lozenge below, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +and this form M. Déchelette compares to the engravings on the +slabs at New Grange. The shield-like figure on the roofing +stone of the right recess at New Grange is compared by +M. Déchelette to the engravings on the dolmen of Pierres-Plates +at Locmariaquer, which also appear to be a stylized form +of the idol.</p> + +<p>M. Déchelette compares the very remarkable boundary-stone +at Dowth, with the engraving of suns on it, to the +vases from Millares, province d’Almérie, which are ornamented +with raised circles, these in their turn being derived from a +degenerate form of the idol.</p> + +<p>M. Déchelette applies the same explanation to the scribings +at Gavir’inis, the spiral ornamentation of which is to be +regarded as derived from Ireland.</p> + +<p>This very brilliant and original interpretation of the +scribings at New Grange seems to fit the case exceedingly +well, and M. Déchelette’s theory may be regarded as a very +probable one for the origin of the markings, but it must +be remembered that there is some difficulty caused by the +fact that the similarity in plan between New Grange and the +tholos tombs, as has been pointed out, is too great to be +neglected. Now if New Grange is derived from this source, it +cannot well be placed earlier than 1000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> The idol, on the +other hand, is neolithic in date, and must have survived a +considerable time to have influenced the Irish carvings. It +must also be borne in mind that no other forms of this idol +have been met with in Ireland.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 95%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>A</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Abercromby, Hon. John, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br /> + +Amber found in Ireland, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> + +Annadale, Co. Leitrim, wooden shield found at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> + +Annaghkeen, Co. Galway, burial at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> + +Anvil and hammers, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> + +Armoy, Co. Antrim, find made at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> + +Athenry, Co. Galway, bronze objects found at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>B</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Bann, River, Co. Antrim, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> + +Beakers found in Ireland, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> + +Belfast, find of gold ring-money and bronze celt at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> + +Belmore Mountain, Co. Fermanagh, interment at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.<br /> + +Belturbet, bronze spear-heads found at, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> + +Birr, King’s Co., celts found at, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> + +Broighter find, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> + +Bronze Age in Ireland, chronology of, <a href="#Page_3">3-5</a>;<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">1st period of, <a href="#Page_23">23-27</a>;</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">finds of, <a href="#Page_80">80-87</a>;</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">ornamentation, characteristic of, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>.</span><br /> + +Bronze celts, evolution of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">hafting of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">ornamentation of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span></p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>C</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Cappeen, Co. Cork, copper celts found at, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> + +Carraconway, Co. Cavan, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> + +Carrick O’Gunnell, Co. Limerick, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> + +Carrowkeel, Co. Sligo, interments at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.<br /> + +Chapes of bronze for swords, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> + +Chute Hall, Co. Kerry, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> + +Cinerary urns, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> + +Clare find of gold ornaments, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> + +Clements, Mr. H. J. B., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> + +Clonbrin, Co. Longford, leather shield found at, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> + +Clonmacnois, gold torc found at, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> + +Clontoo, Co. Kerry, copper celts found at, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br /> + +Coachford, Co. Cork, objects found at, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> + +Copper, counties in which obtained, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> + +Copper celts, list of counties in which these have been found, <a href="#Page_10">10-12</a>.<br /> + +Copper Period in Ireland, <a href="#Page_6">6-23</a>.<br /> + +Cork, Co., trumpets found in, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> + +Crumlin, Co. Dublin, urn found at, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br /> + +Cullinagh, Co. Kerry, celts found at, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>D</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Daggers and Rapiers, <a href="#Page_56">56-61</a>.<br /> + +Déchelette, M. J., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> + +Disk-headed pins, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br /> + +Dowris hoard, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> + +Drumabest, Co. Antrim, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> + +Dublin, copper celts found in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br /> + +Dunfierth, Co. Kildare, gold lunulæ found at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>F</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Finds of copper celts, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10-12</a>.<br /> + +Finds of Bronze-Age implements and weapons, <a href="#Page_80">80-87</a>.<br /> + +Food-vessels, description of, <a href="#Page_95">95-99</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>G</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Glenstal, Co. Limerick, find of bronze objects at, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> + +Gold balls found at Carrick-on-Shannon, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> + +Gorgets, gold, <a href="#Page_62">62-64</a>.<br /> + +Gowland, Prof. W., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>H</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Halberds, <a href="#Page_12">12-23</a>;<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">analyses of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br /> + +Hallstatt Period in Ireland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> + +Hillswood, Co. Galway, halberds found at, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>I</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Incense cups, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> + +Irish gold deposits, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> + +Iron sword of Hallstatt type found in Ireland, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>K</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary, bronze implements found at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> + +Killymeddy, Co. Antrim, find of moulds at, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> + +Kinnegoe bog, Co. Armagh, bronze objects found at, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> + +Knocknague, Co. Galway, celts found at, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>L</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Lahardoun, Tulla, Co. Clare, find of bronze objects at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> + +Leaf-shaped swords, <a href="#Page_71">71-73</a>.<br /> + +Lisnacroghera crannog, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> + +Lissane, Co. Derry, rapier found at, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> + +Lough Gur, Co. Limerick, bronze shield found at, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br /> + +Lunulæ, gold, <a href="#Page_47">47-55</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>M</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Macroom, Co. Cork, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> + +Manillas, African, similarity to Irish gold fibulæ, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br /> + +Montelius, Dr. Oscar, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> + +Moulds for casting spear-heads, <a href="#Page_39">39-44</a>;<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">absence of, for casting leaf-shaped swords, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">for casting flat celts, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</span><br /> + +Mountrivers, Coachford, Co. Cork, find at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> + +Moyarta, Co. Clare, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> + +Much, Dr., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> + +Muller, Prof. S., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> + +Mycenæ, leaf-shaped swords found at, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>N</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Naas, Co. Kildare, excavation at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.<br /> + +Neolithic pottery found in Ireland, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> + +New Grange, <a href="#Page_3">3-5</a>;<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">ornamentation at, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>.</span></p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>O</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Omagh, Co. Tyrone, moulds found at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>P</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Padstow, Cornwall, gold lunulæ found at, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.<br /> + +Palstaves with double loops, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> + +Penannular rings and ring-money, <a href="#Page_67">67-70</a>.<br /> + +Polybius quoted, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> + +Pottery of the Bronze Age, <a href="#Page_94">94-100</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>R</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Ridgeway, Prof. W., <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br /> + +Ring-money, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>S</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Schmidt, Herr Hubert, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> + +Shields, bronze, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">wood, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">leather, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> + +Sickles, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">mould for casting, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br /> + +Smith, Mr. R. A., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> + +Spain, halberds from, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> + +Spear-heads, <a href="#Page_29">29-38</a>;<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">spear-ferules, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> + +St. Columba’s College, collection, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> + +Sullivan, Mr. M. J., <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> + +Sun-disks, gold, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>T</strong></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Tempo, Co. Fermanagh, swords found at, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> + +Topped mountain cairn, find of objects made at, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> + +Torcs, <a href="#Page_78">78-80</a>.<br /> + +Trumpets, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">finds of, in Ireland, <a href="#Page_85">85-87</a>.</span></p> + + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>W</strong></p> + +<p>Wicklow, gold obtained from, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 95%;" /> + +</div> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xx, p. 659.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, p. 351.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxix, p. 311.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Journal Galway Archæological and Historical Society, vol. v, p. 159.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> “New Grange and other Incised Tumuli in Ireland,” p. 62.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Journal Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. xlii, p. 259.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Sir R. Kane, Industrial Resources of Ireland. Second edition, +1845, p. 189.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> See analysis of a socketed celt of an alloy of copper and +antimony found at Elbing, West Prussia, Journal Anthropological +Institute, vol. xxxvi, p. 21.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See paper “Irish Copper Celts,” Journal Anthropological Institute, +vol. xxxi, p. 265, where the question is fully dealt with.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Crawford, “Early Bronze-Age Settlements in Britain,” Journal Royal +Geographical Society, 1912, p. 217.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Prehistorische Zeitschrift, vol. i, 1909, p. 138.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Archæologia, vol. lxi, p. 162, and pl. xi, fig. 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Déchelette, Manuel d’Archéologie Préhistorique, vol. ii, p. 277.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, sec. c, p. 91.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Journal Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, vol. xvi, p. 395.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> “Manuel d’Archéologie,” vol. ii, p. 208.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> “Archæologia,” vol. lxi, p. 162, and pl. xv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> “Manuel d’Archéologie,” vol. ii, p. 214.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> “British Museum Bronze-Age Guide,” p. 148.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> “New Grange and other Incised Tumuli,” p. 59, fig. 39.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 450.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> “British Museum Bronze-Age Guide,” p. 150.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Archæologia, lxi, p. 153.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See Munro, “Pre-historic Japan,” p. 435, fig. 276.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Naue, “Die Vorrömischen Schwerter,” pp. 12 and 20.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See Burrowes, “Discoveries in Crete,” p. 183.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> “British Museum Bronze-Age Guide,” p. 30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Proceedings Somerset Archæological and Natural History Society, +vol. lv, 1909, pt. ii, pp. 66-84.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Cambridge Antiquarian Society’s Communications, vol. xii, p. 96.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Déchelette, “Manuel d’Archéologie,” vol. ii, p. 355, note.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Congrès Archéologique Français, Beauvais, 1905, p. 294.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Proc. Soc. Antiquaries of London, second series, vol. xxiv, p. 42.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvi, Sec. C, p. 119.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvi, Sec. C, 124.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 85.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, +vol. xxxvii, p. 86.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, +vol. xxxvii, p. 181.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 83.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 91.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 93.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> “British Museum Bronze-Age Guide,” p. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvii, Sec. C, p. 97.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Wilde’s Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy’s Collection, p. 626.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> <em>Ibid.</em></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Archæologia, vol. lxi, p. 153.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> “Wilde’s Catalogue of Gold Antiquities,” p. 18.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Horae Ferales. pl. xi, fig. <a href="#fig1">1</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Die Musik im römischen Heere “Mainzer Zeitschrift,” 1912, p. 36.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxxi (Clare Island Survey, Part 5).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Abercromby, “Bronze-Age Pottery,” vol. i, p. 121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Abercromby, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See Abercromby, <em>op. cit.</em>, vol. ii, p. 24, who discusses +these small vessels at length.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> See Hoernes, “Jahrbuch für Altertnmskunde,” Band vi, p. 163.</p></div> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Bronze Age in Ireland, by George Coffey + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND *** + +***** This file should be named 26880-h.htm or 26880-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/8/8/26880/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Anne Storer and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> |